work_2dswptoquvd2jftzgzujgszcz4	----	384 384..386 References 1 Mulder R, Newton-Howes G, Coid JW. The futility of risk prediction in psychiatry. Br J Psychiatry 2016; 209: 271–2. 2 Chan MKY, Bhatti H, Meader N, Stockton S, Evans J, O’Connor RC, et al. Predicting suicide following self-harm: systematic review of risk factors and risk scales. Br J Psychiatry 2016; 209: 277–83. 3 Quinlivan L, Cooper J, Meehan D, Longson D, Potokar J, Hulme T et al. Predictive accuracy of risk scales following self-harm: multicentre, prospective cohort study. Br J Psychiatry 2017; 210: 429–36. 4 Carter G, Milner A, McGill K, Pirkis J, Kapur N, Spittal MJ. Predicting suicidal behaviours using clinical instruments: systematic review and meta-analysis of positive predictive values for risk scales. Br J Psychiatry 2017; 210: 387–95. 5 Sackett DL, Haynes RB. The architecture of diagnostic research. BMJ 2002; 324: 539–41. 6 National Institute of Health and Care Excellence. Self-Harm. The NICE Guideline on Longer-term management. National Clinical Guideline Number 133. British Psychological Society & Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2011. 7 Bolton JM, Gunnell D, Turecki G. Suicide risk assessment and intervention in people with mental illness. BMJ 2015; 351: h4978. 8 Horrocks J, Hughes J, Martin C, House A, Owens D. Patient Experiences of Hospital Care Following Self-harm – A Qualitative Study. University of Leeds, 2005. 9 Taylor TL, Hawton K, Fortune S, Kapur N. Attitudes towards clinical services among people who self-harm: systematic review. Br J Psychiatry 2009; 194: 104–10. 10 Palmer L, Blackwell H, Strevens P. Service Users’ Experiences of Emergency Services Following Self-Harm: A National Survey of 509 Patients. CCQI, Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2007. 11 Owens C, Hansford L, Sharkey S, Ford T. Needs and fears of young people presenting at accident and emergency department following an act of self-harm: secondary analysis of qualitative data. Br J Psychiatry 2016; 208: 286–91. 12 Hunter C, Chantler K, Kapur N, Cooper J. Service user perspectives on psychosocial assessment following self-harm and its impact on further help-seeking: a qualitative study. J Affect Disord 2013; 145: 315–23. 13 Cooper J, Steeg S, Bennewith O, Lowe M, Gunnell D, House A, et al. Are hospital services for self-harm getting better? An observational study examining management, service provision and temporal trends in England. BMJ Open 2013; 3: e003444. 386 Owens & Kelley The Counterfeiters by André Gide Alistair Stewart Sexuality (homo and hetero), youth and age, seduction, corruption, religion, respectability and hypocrisy, uncertain parentage, masturbation, innocence and cynicism, adultery, mental illness, art, appearance and reality, suicide, partying and self-discovery – André Gide packed all this into The Counterfeiters, his novel of 1925, set among the Parisian bourgeoisie of the early 20th century. One innocent caught up in this tangled and dangerous web is a vulnerable, troubled and lovable boy of 13 called Boris. His mother is a highly strung travelling singer; his father the man with whom she eloped, but who is now dead; he is pined for by a grandfather, an ailing, unhappy man who has never seen him. Boris has been entrusted to the care of a Polish psychoanalyst, Mme Sophroniska, who is trying to release him from a state of regressed and erratic behaviour accompanied by a private language. She in turn describes her daughter Bronja, with whom Boris has formed an intense bond, as his ‘real doctor’. The character of Sophroniska is based on the Polish psychoanalyst Eugenia Sokolnicka, pupil of Jung and analysand of Freud in Vienna, and then, more successfully, of Ferenczi in Budapest. A complex personality, she became a key figure in the introduction of Freud’s methods into France and a pioneer of child psychoanalysis. She was known to André Gide and treated him, although he only attended for six sessions; possibly he was only seeking material for his writings. He certainly drew for Boris’s story on some superficial details of Sokolnicka’s account, published in 1920, of her analysis of a 10-year-old boy with an obsessional neurosis. And although the cases of the real and the fictional child are quite different, there are clear echoes in Sophroniska’s approach of Sokolnicka’s careful, undogmatic and practical method, and her emphasis on the importance of basic sex education, as reflected in her paper, which incidentally is not difficult to find. Sophroniska is described by Edouard, a somewhat ambiguous and morally complacent author, who meets her and Boris and Bronja at a resort in the Swiss Alps. She gently teases him about his artistic pretensions, and explains her own procedure as follows: ‘My role is to allow things to emerge, and above all not to suggest anything. This requires extraordinary patience’. Her elucidation and formulation of Boris’s troubles, her treatment of him, and what subsequently happens to Boris and Bronja, form an important strand in the novel and are central to its denouement. The title alludes to a case of circulating forged money, but also clearly has a wider resonance. As often in life, young people suffer because of the selfish, hypocritical or thoughtless behaviour of their elders; certain more cynical and malevolent individuals induce impressionable children and adolescents to do their dirty work, while keeping their own hands clean. At the same time Gide is unsentimental about how cruel children can be. It is one thing to cure a child of a neurosis, quite another to protect them from the dangers of the outside world. The British Journal of Psychiatry (2017) 210, 386. doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.117.198143 psychiatry in literature Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:04, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core 
work_2gaqalzzvvaotfriqd5p6gfzci	----	"We Know Where We Will Be Taking Indonesian Art", 1948 "We Know Where We Will Be Taking Indonesian Art", 1948 Sindudarsono Sudjojono, Brigitta Isabella Southeast of Now: Directions in Contemporary and Modern Art in Asia, Volume 1, Number 2, October 2017, pp. 159-164 (Article) Published by NUS Press Pte Ltd DOI: For additional information about this article [ Access provided at 6 Apr 2021 02:36 GMT from Carnegie Mellon University ] https://doi.org/10.1353/sen.2017.0017 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/673254 https://doi.org/10.1353/sen.2017.0017 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/673254 © Brigitta Isabella 159 S. Sudjojono, “We Know Where We Will Be Taking Indonesian Art”, 1948 Translation by Brigitta Isabella The text was first published in Revolusioner magazine and later republished as Kami Tahu Kemana Seni Lukis Indonesia Akan Kami Bawa, Penerbit Indonesia Sekarang, Yogyakarta, 1946 As Indonesians, we admit that the art we make here nowadays has a western style. Nevertheless, to say that it is not an Indonesian style is not accurate. First, long before Raden Saleh, we had a history of painting. Even though this was not similar to how we paint today, this was because our painting correlated with our way of life and worldview at that time. Second, even if we briefly renounce the old way, it does not mean we only follow or copy. It is because we believe the truth in the theories of Da Vinci, Dürer, Cézanne and others. Realism does not belong only to the West. Realism belongs to all of us, to every human being. It is not about being incidentally born as westerners like Da Vinci, Dürer or Cézanne. Any child of God, whether he is in Bethlehem (Christ), in Mecca (Muhammad), in China (Lao Tzu, Confucius, Li Tai Po) or in India (Buddha), in Egypt (Echnaton), in the United States (Louis Armstrong, a Negro) or in Europe (Socrates, Berlage, Cézanne), is not entitled to contain and monopolise his theory if it contains truth and is beneficial to the world. A Dutch writer said in Uitzicht Magazine, “Undoubtedly, without Kokoschka, Klee, Munch, Chagall et al., it would be impossible for us to see the kinds of paintings as seen in both exhibitions in Java.” They still assume that Indonesian people would not be able to embody impressionist painting, realism, expressionism, cubism or surrealism if people Southeast of Now Vol. 1 No. 2 (October 2017), pp. 159– 64 160 Southeast of Now: Directions in Contemporary and Modern Art in Asia like Kokoschka, Klee, Munch, Chagall, Utrillo and others did not exist. We could build Borobudur, which, if it is compared to Hunpe bedden or de Amsterdamse Beurs, would be akin to comparing a prophet and a heiden. Thus, it is not an exaggeration if we say, “If Europe and the Netherlands are completely destroyed it will be us who will continue the civilisation and the art of the world.” Asians should not be too proud because Muhammad, Christ, Buddha, Einstein and Marx were eastern people. On the other hand, western people should not be arrogant if we use their art theories. As we analyse and observe carefully, Europeans must remember that they never had the art of painting before. The oldest art of painting in the world is not from Europe, but Egypt. Also, Europeans should not feel superior that they have Pythagoras, a mathematician who learned from Egyptian professors before he became a master and opened his own academy. In addition, the Dutch do not need to be conceited and claim that the Theosophical Society is Mrs Blavatsky’s idea, thus it is a westerner’s idea. Leadbeater concedes that they were actually inspired by an ascetic from the East. Greek art, which is glorified as majestic western art, is not sterile from eastern influence. It was only within 100 years that Greece can escape from non-Greek influence. Uitzicht also said, “Typically, Easterners tend to make technical skills their greatest concern.” The writer might be able to see, but clearly he cannot understand what exactly art is and what the art of painting is. Theories can be read, but understanding art is more difficult. It requires the knowledge of brush strokes. Hence, understanding brush strokes needs practice and experience. Still, practice is not enough, for one should possess an active and genuinely deli- cate sense, which is formed over time. When I read a writer’s sentences, they show that he only utilises his knowledge as a measurement tool. No artist could honestly say that the use of “not-so-Eastern” techniques such as perspective or anatomy, impressionism, cubism or surrealism would prevent eastern content from emerging. The “eastern” sense in a painting lies not only in the techniques used but, more significantly, in its subject matter and its artistic soul. Uitzicht said, “It is such a shame to see many sources were ignored when Impressionism started in Europe …” What a pity! This westerner clearly does not understand why Impressionism was born. It seems that he is only familiar with Angelo, David, Zuloaga, de László and Sargent. Impressionism was born not because of Constable, Jongkind, Manet and other impressionist painters. This is not to put aside their roles in the establish- ment of impressionism. But it was born as a consequence of the birth of a new ideology, one that needed to be born and to strike away Europeans’ obsolete S. Sudjojono, “We Know Where We Will Be Taking Indonesian Art”, 1948 161 and incorrect way of thinking and way of life. Our European colleagues, whom by chance were born and lived on a continent to the west of the Bosporus in the beginning of the 19th century, used to hum the slogan: “Be gone beauty and … deformation.” It is not because they do not understand beauty or tech- nique, but it is compelled by a calculation, an act of eradicating materialism and the egoistic way of life, in favour of a simple yet straight life, as well as to care for others. People should stop loving a man like David, in terms of his character and art, for David and his friends are symbolic of an egoistic and materialistic community. The writer should not complain about the decline of painting since Johan Jongkind, Manet, Cézanne and Picasso emerged. In fact, he should be gladdened by the arrival of a new genre, as it indicates a new start, and the beginning of a more proper art. Of Uitzicht’s writer, I ask the following questions: 1. Could expressionism have been born without impressionism? 2. Could Paul Klee, Kandinsky and Picasso have realised their painting philo- sophies consciously, if impressionism never become a belief and received any recognition? I know the writer cannot answer those questions, but if he did, it would be as if he were defending something impossible, like a woman who could still remain a virgin even after giving birth. Let us see another explanation. Would Picasso be blamed for his path, for he could walk and talk freely, leaving his chamber, wandering around until he got lost in “hell”? Do people recognise that only by walking this path could he be transformed from a wooden toy into a speaking creature? This “leap” is seen as a deviation. Yet, people do not know that this deviation had taken him to hell before he was led to the eternal heaven, and then resurrected from “dead” material to a conscious and reflexive being who believes in God. The writer disagrees with Vincent being baptised as a culture saint. We also think it is improper to praise him and position him as a god of the cultural journey without any further thought. We are not an uncivilised society, and we are not so stupid as to say that all of his paintings were extraordinary, even though he was Vincent. Besides, we do not want to imitate him, him who suffered from syphilis and depression, just because he was the founder of expressionism. It is better for us to befriend Vincent, who was courageous enough to sacrifice his body and soul for a great aspiration, instead of being like this Uitzicht’s writer who stupidly said, “It is rare for a man to have a 162 Southeast of Now: Directions in Contemporary and Modern Art in Asia flaming heart [like Vincent].” Is he brave enough to say that Christ does not have a flaming heart? Is he brave enough to say that the Buddha too does not have a flaming heart? How about Muhammad? Ramakrishna? Lao Tzu? Li Tai Po? Gandhi? Wali Songo? Don’t they all have a flaming heart? None of these people are westerners. Wali Songo is not Dutch, meneer ! A few lines later he said, “What the western artists have had over the eastern civilisation from the beginning is their proficiency in the mastery of complex forms, which makes these cultures culminate to their peak.” Has the writer seen any old Chinese paintings? What do you think about these works, Sir? Don’t you see that they have produced such detailed and intricate works? They may be even more powerful than Permeke or Kokoschka. And from this point, we learn that impressionism was not born in Europe but in China, in the East. Yes. You might argue that this might be true but that it was unconsciously done. Good! Did Vincent con- sciously mention that his work should be recognised as an expressive work? No. But you, the Dutch, still consider that he was the one who started it, not the Germans nor the French. At the end of his essay, the writer proposed two possibilities: first: An art that is led by the aristocracy. Second: The art of gemeenschap [collectivity] (communism). However, it is evident that the writer is more inclined towards art that is favoured by the aristocracy. He said that if the aristocrats do not play a strong role [in cultural leadership] “true civilisation will die a slow death and art will wither into a new form of pragmatism or move in other directions”. This Dutch writer might be denying the truth of the scientific Marxist theory. Lenin, as a number one communist and Marxist, once said to his communist comrades, “We have not yet achieved our objective. What we have achieved now in Russia is only a phase that we must undergo.” What Lenin wanted to convey is that it is not enough for people to only be able to read, write, or ride a tank or a car. Communism as an ideology is also made up of moral, spiritual and artistic solutions. Communism does not reside solely in the material realm. It moves towards a realm of plasticity that exceeds our three-dimensionality. The proof: Russia leads the world of cinema with their movies, as well as in literature with young poets who are not as shallow as da Costa. On Shakespeare’s 350th anniversary in Russia, 800 theatres performed Shakespeare’s plays for weeks. Radios, magazines and newspapers simulta- neously published news to respect and learn about this great man. On the contrary, there was only a regular notification ad about this event in London. Moreover, the people of Moscow today demonstrate great understanding of and respect for Renoir’s paintings. S. Sudjojono, “We Know Where We Will Be Taking Indonesian Art”, 1948 163 Communism is always against the aristocracy, whether in politics, econo- mics, society, or the arts. Yet in his essay, this Dutch writer seemed to be praising the aristocracy, and he views communism with some hesitancy. Why? Beware my comrades in the Communist Party of Holland! One of the reasons why he bears with communism is because he is a coward. He does not dare to decisively choose a party. If tomorrow the Communist Party wins, he will use his sentences as evidence and say, “See, I told you so!” We have been acquainted with several types of governance recently, so we know what kind of person this man is. Now let us return to our subject. I apologise for digressing. We admit that new movement in the art world indeed creates the possibility for people to cause an unintended excessiveness. Is there any -ism or even religion that is not excessive? Every -ism and religion has its excesses, or will do so sooner or later. There is nothing wrong with this movement. But where is the problem of European painting, such that it has to undergo a constant change and frequently decline? It is getting on top by the goodwill of Cézanne et al., but it turns out to be a source of pleasure for those who work without dedication, just to satisfy their ego and to be out of “God’s sight”. The first mistake in Europe lies in its lack of moral education, both in general terms and amongst those in the arts. Huizinga, the author of In de schaduwen van morgen [In the Shadows of Tomorrow] admits this. That is why we are not surprised if the efforts of European geniuses always fall through. The freedom that they propounded in the democratic age has decayed into an egocentric freedom. Independence and the love of truth hailed by Cézanne et al. have transformed into a negative independence and have become: “I want to be different than others.” Due to a lack of knowledge, individuals’ freedom has separated them from society. This is not just a European problem. It is the problem of how our society is structured on the whole. It is an international problem indeed. About the future of Indonesian art, we as Indonesians are quite capable of deciding for ourselves. Since the Dutch colonial era, in the era of PERSAGI [Persatuan Ahli Gambar Indonesia, the Indonesian Picture-makers’ Association], we already know where we will be taking our Indonesian art. If the Dutch writer in Uitzicht wishes to interfere with this matter, we do not need them to meddle in our affairs. They have never really proven to be competent in this matter for the past 350 years. 164 Southeast of Now: Directions in Contemporary and Modern Art in Asia We will not blame our European colleagues for their mistakes. We will honour them, for they have worked sincerely, even sacrificing their lives for a great aspiration. We will use their works as a landmark, like a shipwreck in the ocean, of our people’s struggle in this world and in our revolution in Indonesia, not only to enable artists to become artistic, but also to make the whole society become artistic, to become artistically conscious as Indonesia was before [in the past]. We will accomplish our revolution not only through the intellect but also through artistic means. BIOGRAPHY Brigitta Isabella graduated from the Department of Philosophy, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta in 2012 and continued her studies in critical methodology at King’s College, London. Since 2011, she has taken part in a research collective based in Yogyakarta called KUNCI Cultural Studies Center. The collective, established in 1999, has been deeply preoccupied with critical knowledge production and sharing through means of media publication, cross-disciplinary encounters, research-action, artistic interventions and vernacular education within and across community spaces. Sindudarsono Sudjojono (Kisaran, Sumatera, Indonesia, 1913–86) was an Indonesian artist, writer and activist, and is widely regarded as formative in the development of discourses of modernity in Indonesia. He was active in Jakarta’s Keimin Bunka Shidoso, a Japanese-sponsored cultural centre during the Japanese occupation in Indonesia. Later, he was one of the founders of PERSAGI (Association of Indonesia Drawing Specialists, 1938) and SIM (Young Indonesian Artists, 1946). Kami Tahu Kemana Seni Lukis Indonesia Akan Kami Bawa was written as a response to Dutch art critic, J. Hopman, who commented that an Indonesian art had yet to emerge. Southeast of Now Vol. 1 No. 2 (October 2017), pp. 159–64 
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work_2jnjdbkc65ahhag3ow63k5sms4	----	In Practice - Wiley Online Library Skip to Main Content Working off-campus? Learn about our remote access options Carnegie Mellon University Carnegie Mellon University Search withinThis Journal All BVA Journals Wiley Online Library Search term Advanced Search Citation Search Search term Advanced Search Citation Search Search term Advanced Search Citation Search Login / Register Journals Veterinary Record In Practice Veterinary Record Case Reports Veterinary Record Open Visit BVA Journal list menu Journal Articles Actions Tools Follow journal In Practice Impact factor:0.375 2019 Journal Citation Reports (Clarivate Analytics): 121/141 (Veterinary Sciences) Online ISSN:2042-7689 © British Veterinary Association LATEST ISSUE  >Volume 43, Issue 2 March 2021 Navigation Bar Menu Home Home About Overview About BVA Contact Editorial Board Editorial Team Advertise Permissions Browse Early View Current Issue All Issues Contribute Author Guidelines Submit a Manuscript Open Access For Referees Careers Follow journal Alert RSS Feeds Most recent (RSS) Most cited (RSS) In Practice is published 10 times a year and provides continuing educational material for veterinary practitioners. It includes clinical articles, written by experts in their field and covering all species, providing a regular update on clinical developments, and articles on veterinary practice management. All articles are peer-reviewed. Articles Most Recent free access Issue Information Pages:&nbsp57-58 First Published: &nbsp5 March 2021 No abstract is available for this article. PDF Request permissions full access Dealing with ovine pregnancy toxaemia Laura Honey Pages:&nbsp59-59 First Published: &nbsp5 March 2021 No abstract is available for this article. Full text PDF Request permissions full access Approach to the acutely dyspnoeic cat Kieran Borgeat Matthew Pack Pages:&nbsp60-70 First Published: &nbsp5 March 2021 Abstract Full text PDF References Request permissions full access Extracorporeal therapies in veterinary medicine: what is currently performed in the UK? Tom Greensmith Simon Cook Pages:&nbsp71-76 First Published: &nbsp5 March 2021 Abstract Full text PDF References Request permissions free access Advances in managing pregnancy toxaemia in sheep JP Crilly Clare Phythian Mike Evans Pages:&nbsp79-94 First Published: &nbsp5 March 2021 Abstract Full text PDF References Request permissions more > Recent issues IssueVolume 43, Issue 2Pages: 57-120 March 2021 IssueVolume 43, Issue 1Pages: 1-56 January/February 2021 IssueVolume 42, Issue 10Pages: 539-592 December 2020 IssueVolume 42, Issue 9Pages: 475-536 November 2020 Latest Content More news > Tools Submit an article Get Content alerts Subscribe to this journal Tweets by BVA Stay Connected Facebook Twitter Instagram YouTube Related Titles LATEST ISSUE  >Volume 188, Issue 6 20 March–3 April 2021 LATEST ISSUE  >Volume 8, Issue 4 October 2020 LATEST ISSUE  >Volume 8, Issue 1 December 2021 Copyright © 2021 British Veterinary Association British Veterinary Association is registered in England No 206456 at 7 Mansfield Street, London, W1G 9NQ. VAT registration number GB 232 7441 80 Copyright © 2021 British Veterinary Association Additional links About Wiley Online Library Privacy Policy Terms of Use Cookies Accessibility Help & Support Contact Us DMCA & Reporting Piracy Opportunities Subscription Agents Advertisers & Corporate Partners Connect with Wiley The Wiley Network Wiley Press Room Copyright © 1999-2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved Log in to Wiley Online Library Email or Customer ID Password Forgot password? BVA members log in here Log in with BVA     NEW USER > INSTITUTIONAL LOGIN > Change Password Old Password New Password Too Short Weak Medium Strong Very Strong Too Long Password Changed Successfully Your password has been changed Create a new account Email or Customer ID Returning user Forgot your password? Enter your email address below. Email or Customer ID Please check your email for instructions on resetting your password. If you do not receive an email within 10 minutes, your email address may not be registered, and you may need to create a new Wiley Online Library account. Request Username Can't sign in? Forgot your username? Enter your email address below and we will send you your username Email or Customer ID Close If the address matches an existing account you will receive an email with instructions to retrieve your username 
work_2shbbc4yzna3nl6rg6ztv3s67e	----	Innovative Uses of Technology for Content Development and Classroom Use Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 93 ( 2013 ) 2224 – 2226 1877-0428 © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and peer review under responsibility of Prof. Dr. Ferhan Odabaşı doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.10.193 ScienceDirect 3rd World Conference on Learning, Teaching and Educational Leadership (WCLTA-2012) Innovative uses of technology for content development and classroom use T.K.Subramaniam * Sri Sairam Engineering College,Sai Leo Nagar,West Tambaram,Chennai 600044,India. Abstract To innovate in education is to create something new which deviates from long established traditional practices; in this case to impart learning at different levels. With the advent of modern instruments such as computers, liquid crystal displays, overhead projectors, slide projectors etc., classroom teaching has seen a phenomenal change towards a better understanding of the course content of various university syllabi. Internet facilities have, to a great extent, given access to the literature related to any topic under the sun, thus enhancing knowledge. A stagnant and unproductive economy may be turned into a productive economy with the help of the above mentioned modern equipment. Scientists, engineers and technocrats are continuously trying to find a viable solution to enrich and empower citizens of the world. One such marvel helping in this process is the computer. Universities have a responsibility to focus on the employability of candidates rather than teach them outdated syllabi. The processes of learning and teaching should facilitate feedback opportunities. In bringing about a change in the educational pattern in this world of ours, care should be taken that the younger generation of students do not spend their time on internet education for hours together, ruining at an early age the physiological functions of their eyes, backbone, wrists, neck etc. Reading books must be made compulsory at all levels of learning. The computer should serve as a supplementary tool or a device, technologically driven, giving new information for the benefit of mankind. © 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and peer review under the responsibility of Prof. Dr. Ferhan Odabaşı Keywords: Internet facility,unproductive economy,modern gadgets,horizontal assessment 1. Introduction To innovate in education is to create something new which deviates from long established traditional practices, imparting learning at different levels. With the advent of modern instruments such as computers, liquid crystal displays, overhead projectors, slide projectors etc, classroom teaching has seen a phenomenal change *. Prof.Dr.T.K.Subramaniam; Tel: +919-176-631-893 E-mail: subramaniam.phy@sairam.edu.in Available online at www.sciencedirect.com © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and peer review under responsibility of Prof. Dr. Ferhan Odabaşı Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ 2225 T.K. Subramaniam / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 93 ( 2013 ) 2224 – 2226 towards a better understanding of course content in various University syllabi. Internet facilities have, to a great extent, given access to the literature related to any topic under the sun, thus enhancing knowledge. Computers can help to identify how techniques have been applied and developed in the manufacture of various products through history and can also help to assess the effects of this technology...’ Similarly, the course content of a University syllabus is made relevant to society by the choice of proper and relevant topics. Unemployed graduates can be turned into employable candidates by updating their knowledge domains through e-learning and blended learning methods. Using these strategies, the world is likely to get rid of poverty slowly, but steadily. A stagnant and unproductive economy may be turned into a productive economy with the help of the above mentioned modern approaches. The younger generation of students probably worries about the increase in world population. Resources are dwindling, and their apprehension is justified because everybody must be provided for. Scientists, engineers and technocrats are continuously trying to find a viable solution to enrich and empower citizens of the world. One such marvel helping in this process is the computer. 1.1 The role of computers today Modern day knowledge and skills quickly become obsolete. Whilst preparing and assessing educational materials (syllabi), it is important to remember that we must be concerned with students’ learning rather than with teachers’ teaching. A student has to acquire the adaptability to meet future situations and changes rather than merely acquire factual knowledge The role of computers in education need not be overemphasized here. Some of the important qualities found in computer education are: 1) Computers are good for educational activities that require significant interaction, for example, games, simulations, animations, etc. 2) Computers are ideal for providing individual and self-paced instruction. 3) The instructional material can be customized to cater for students of diverse backgrounds and abilities. 4) They are suited for teaching students problem-solving and decision-making skills. 5) Computer-aided learning should be a supplementary tool to classroom teaching. 1.11. Emerging challenges today Many students aspire towards higher education these days. Learning opportunities therefore should become life-long due to rapidly changing job scenarios; employment profiles require candidates to update their knowledge to maintain their competitiveness in the job market. Universities face challenges from alternative providers of education, in particular, e-learning through online education. Universities therefore have a responsibility to focus on the employability of candidates rather than teach them outdated syllabi. If a student’s degree does not lead to a good job, disillusionment is likely. A university system of education is regarded by society as able to take up challenging tasks in designing a curriculum relevant to modern day needs. Universities should be bastions of knowledge and wisdom and should help the nation to march forward towards prosperity. The internet and its related technologies are major driving forces behind the growth of e-learning. Its mobility, ease of access and ability to deliver media-rich content is making learning very attractive. All learning is individual and is achieved through interaction with personal change; learning can be seen as an outcome of this change. The process of learning should produce a change in us, that is, allow us to learn something that we did not know before or teach us to do something we could not do before. Rather than a vertical grading, on the contrary, learning should be assessed horizontally; students’ strengths and weaknesses should be identified without engaging in pass/fail or marking exercises. The processes of learning and teaching should facilitate feedback opportunities. Education systems, whether at school or college level, should provide wholesome education to encourage the younger generation to develop harmonious personalities. A strong leadership quality 2226 T.K. Subramaniam / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 93 ( 2013 ) 2224 – 2226 is lacking in today’s education. Anyone who has taken up the responsibility to lead a team can be successful only by being sufficiently independent and powerful in his or her own right. The first target is to build one’s education and skills. Knowledge is a tangible asset and quite often the most important tool in one’s work. Knowledge cannot be taken away from anyone. To lead is to engage in continuing education. One should work for the things one believes in (Abdul Kalam, 2012). 1.1.1 Ethical dimensions and innovation 2. Conclusion In bringing about a change in the educational pattern in this world of ours, care should be taken that the younger generation of students do not spend their time on internet education for hours together, ruining at an early age the physiological functions of their eyes, backbone, wrists, neck etc. Reading books must be made compulsory at all levels of learning. The computer should serve as a supplementary tool or a device, technologically driven, giving new information for the benefit of mankind. Needless to say, computers and internet facilities should not be misused by the younger generation. Supervision and guidance by parents at home and teachers in the work place become a must for all young and impressionable minds. These young students should have the courage to think differently; the courage to invent; the courage to travel on unexplored paths; and the courage to successfully combat problems. They should not to be carried away by the enormity of information available on the internet, but should choose carefully only that information which is relevant to them. Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank Prof. Dr. C.V. Jayakumar, Principal and the college management for the encouragement to participate in international conferences and to present a paper. References Abdul Kalam, A.P.J. (2012). Turning Points. NewDelhi, India: Harper Collins Publishers. Abdul Kalam, A.P.J. (2008). Wings of fire. Universities Press (India) Private Limited. 
work_2upkfhmomjeu5bxxutdrdbovki	----	BJGP Back pages-Master[1] British Journal of General Practice, November 2009 877 Viewpoint Much of the detail of what I learned at medical school I have subsequently forgotten. I suspect this is not a unique observation. The useful stuff is gradually synthesised, reinforced and one day applied to the patient in front of you. The rest falls away with time. However, there is another more subtle yet powerful influence that remains to this day. One of the biggest influences on my career has been and continues to be, the role model. Often, it must be said, these experiences were negative — the surgeon who swore and threw implements around the theatre or the punctilious consultant who deliberately tried to catch out students. Yet a few were positive and these left a lasting impression with me. On rare occasions, these were the people who made you go home at night thinking ‘this is the kind of thing I want to do’ or perhaps ‘this is the kind of person I want to be’. There is some evidence that such encounters may affect others career intentions too.1,2 Medical education is at the mercy of the same trends, idiosyncrasies, and fashions as any other academic activity. Nevertheless, in general practice at least, the role of mentorship as the cornerstone of teaching and learning remains unchanged over several generations. Students may now have e-portfolios and PDPs to worry about but much of their learning is still the result of sitting in with a doctor or a nurse; watching, listening, practising and debating with each clinical encounter. Much of this learning is never written down and is part of the ‘hidden curriculum’ that may either challenge or affirm students’ attitudes, prejudices, and perceptions. For me, role models aren’t necessarily people. They could be a type of job, the way a group works together or even the wider environment where work takes place. Any of these could inspire or deter a trainee on a particular path. The diversity of general practice is perhaps one of its greatest strengths. Whereas the Role models, radicals, and reactionaries experience of a student in a hospital may be relatively homogenous, general practices and the communities of which they are a part, are comprised of very different kinds of people responding to different problems in different ways. We are used to being self-aware in considering how we appear to patients and staff — the communication skills we deploy and the ‘games we play’. But consider for a moment how we may seem to students watching our every move as an impressionable observer. Do they see someone who is preoccupied with targets, data collection and impenetrable funding streams? Do they see someone who is emotionally neutral? Or tired? Or angry? Or cynical? Or perhaps they see someone who is inquisitive? Or compassionate? Or perhaps even serene? Do they see someone who still retains some of the passion that they took with them to medical school? One wonders just how radical or confrontational the student experience in general practice is today. The delivery of care, the medical workforce, and medical training have all become increasingly micromanaged. Does this mean that students are less likely to be challenged to question what may now be accepted norms? As a profession, do we have an obligation to produce a cohort of graduates who can passively fit in with the values of modern service provision or one that should question and challenge those values? It is inevitable that the experience of studying medicine in a leafy college town is different from studying in a metropolis. Yet there may be other role models out there in the community that students could learn from. We should consider how imaginative we can be in terms of the people, places, and situations that we direct students towards. This should include exposure to the neglected, chaotic, and the disenfranchised among our society as well as to those sectors which are easier to engage with.3 Perhaps above all, we should recall the enthusiasm and passion that we had at the outset and which we hopefully still retain despite the mortgage and the politics. We should remember what it was like to watch others at work and remember that one day they will be sitting in the other seat with someone watching them. And we should look forward too. There is always the potential to be inspired by someone or something which is one step ahead of you on your own journey. Keith Taylor Author’s Note A student’s viewpoint follows on page 878 (DOI: 10.3399/bjgp09X473024). REFERENCES 1. Sinclair HK, Ritchie LD, Lee AJ. A future career in general practice? A longitudinal study of medical students and pre-registration house officers. Eur J Gen Pract 2006; 12(3): 120–127. 2. Howe A, Ives G. Does community-based experience alter career preference? New evidence from a prospective longitudinal cohort study of undergraduate medical students. Med Educ 2001; 35: 391–397. 3. Littlewood S, Ypinazar V, Margolis SA, et al. Early practical experience and the social responsiveness of clinical education: systematic review. BMJ 2005; 331: 387–391. DOI: 10.3399/bjgp09X473015 
work_333ofhe7bjepxk46n7ue43twxe	----	EDITOR’S COMMENTARY The making of an embryologist, then and now! David F. Albertini Published online: 20 March 2014 # Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014 In the not-so-distant past, embryology was a discipline prac- ticed by a cadre of 20th century biologists fascinated with the transformation of a single egg cell into a complete organism. This fascination with morphogenesis–“morphing” as we refer to it today–constituted the very foundations of embryology because transitions in form could be observed and recorded in real time for organisms whose development could be studied ex vivo. And once empowered with the ability to elicit the onset of development by timed fertilization, the traditional discipline as we knew it was off and running towards the molecular genetic era of the 1980s when it became known as developmental biology. From its descriptive roots, encour- aged by the introduction of electron microscopy and time- lapse cinematography, to the decidedly experimental character that embryology assumed into the 1980s, the field was dom- inated by non-mammalian subjects of study like amphibians, avians, insects, and marine invertebrates–all very visible and plentiful organisms that satisfied Krogh’s principle! It was not until the mid-20th century that mammalian embryology ma- tured as an experimental discipline and interestingly, was presaged by some 15 years by our first glimpses into the earliest stages of human development as a result of the famous “egg hunts” of Hertig and Rock. As it happens, the change in name from embryology to developmental biology coincides temporally with the dawning of human ARTs. Human gametes and embryos were becoming the stuff of the “full-monty”, and the race was on to characterize and manipulate all resulting zygotes to the benefit of patients awaiting the good news that a pregnancy followed embryo transfer. The task lines that are presently drawn be- tween embryologist and clinician were not nearly as clear cut 20–25 years ago when some countries first realized the im- portance of formalized and specialized training for what would become the next generation of embryologists. As they have in many an instance, the UK paved the way for meeting this imperative when the Association of Clinical Embryolo- gists (ACE) was formed in Birmingham, England, in May of 1993. With the momentum in place from passage of the Human Fertilization and Embryo Act, and having the staunch support from Bob Edwards and Anne McLaren, ACE brought to the UK system a formalized curriculum for post- baccalaureates that encompasses 1 year each of didactic and practical training including basic research experience. I first came to appreciate the role of ACE in training embryologists when I attended their meeting this past January and had a chance to evaluate the platform and poster presentations con- stituting their research projects–impressive indeed! And to see the camaraderie and esprit de corps enliven the closing ban- quet when 20 or so 20-somethings took hold of their well- earned diplomas made impressionable the substance and form that these young people would be carrying into the IVF clinic. The road to becoming a clinical embryologist in other countries follows many different paths and fortunately has been the subject of scrutiny by major organizations such as the ASRM and ESHRE. In the US, the American College of Embryology was founded in 2009 and besides recognizing individuals as the “Embryologist-of-the-month”, a number of programs are offered at cost for which a diploma is earned in specialized practices such as ICSI. While understandably rigorous for all who venture into the “now” world of embry- ology that is human ARTs, meeting local or national standards Capsule The international growth of human ARTs has spawned a generation of clinical specialists whose duties include the daily management of human embryos and gametes. How ART embryologists are trained and certified varies widely between countries and generally reflects attitudes that have been historically shaped by the principles and practices of reproductive medicine adopted for a given society. Ironically, new technology in human ARTs may turn out to be old stuff in the annals of human embryology! D. F. Albertini (*) University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas, KS, USA e-mail: dalbertini@kumc.edu J Assist Reprod Genet (2014) 31:383–384 DOI 10.1007/s10815-014-0219-y will likely continue to be under the purview of organizations or governments who assume full responsibility for assuring safety and efficacy. What about clinicians in training? Should the demarcation between clinical and laboratory duties remain encrypted in daily practice or is some degree of training in embryology beneficial to the educational experience of future REIs? This is exactly the question posed by Dr. Scott and his team in our lead article this month (“Embryology training for Re- productive Endocrine fellows in the clinical human embryol- ogy laboratory, DOI10.1007/s10815-014-0189-0”). Confronting the broad knowledge and experience base ex- pected of RE fellows, the “experiment” implemented in this study first queried whether competency could be acquired by fellows working with staff embryologists and andrologists in many of the standard procedures undertaken in the laboratory. As you will read, this was not only achieved with high marks for the fellows engaged in this experiment, but added momen- tum and direction for the pursuit of original research at least for those fellows finding themselves in practices encouraging an academic identity. Lest some readers find this issue an academic exercise in the training of the next generation of clinician scientists, there is much more on the menu in this month’s issue of JARG for both the seasoned and budding embryologists of today. As promised last month, and as featured on our cover this month, JARG is keen on following the trials and tribulations of time-lapse microscopy as an emergent technology in hu- man ARTs. No less than 3 articles are brought to the attention of our readership exemplifying the kinds of insights time- lapse imaging is bringing to our understanding of early human development. A recurrent theme through these studies reca- pitulates on the matter of how fast or slow events take place in the days following fertilization. In the study by Iwata and colleagues, the onset and progression of compaction are highlighted as new and inviting criteria for a given embryo’s ultimate fate, and the paper by Cauffman and colleagues takes one step backward in identifying subtle components of blas- tomere shape that could have some predictive value. Illustrat- ing that over and above having potential for predicting em- bryo quality comes an intriguing study from the Joergensen group revealing the value of time-lapse imaging as a basic research tool. Their work documents distinct and unusual behaviors during cleavage of diploid or triploid embryos in the context of whether embryos were produced by ICSI or IVF. Readers should bear in mind that each of these papers are published with online access to the original movie sequences so your own judgments can be rendered as to how significant the observations are to your own practice, or edification for that matter. As JARG continues to grow, and its purview ma- tures, we hope to bring our audience closer to the leading edge of advances in human ARTs. Excuse the “embryocentric” nature of this issue but as will continue to become apparent, providing a perspective on the current and future directions for reproductive medicine will at times require us to look back on processes in terms of developmental origins and history. Retreating into the annals of reproductive medicine will remind many that the Hertig and Rock collection assembled in the 1940s stands solid today as educational tools defin- ing a generation of embryologists. It is on the shoulders of embryologists today that the future practice of ARTs will depend. 384 J Assist Reprod Genet (2014) 31:383–384 The making of an embryologist, then and now! 
work_24lqing5rzbrvbwgs6rkymim2q	----	The Political Scar of Epidemics NBER WORKING PAPER SERIES THE POLITICAL SCAR OF EPIDEMICS Cevat Giray Aksoy Barry Eichengreen Orkun Saka Working Paper 27401 http://www.nber.org/papers/w27401 NATIONAL BUREAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH 1050 Massachusetts Avenue Cambridge, MA 02138 June 2020 We thank Nicolás Ajzenman, Chris Anderson (discussant), Belinda Archibong, Sascha Becker, Damien Bol, Ralph De Haas, Anna Getmansky (discussant), Luigi Guiso, Beata Javorcik, André Sapir, Konstantin Sonin, Dan Treisman, and webinar participants at the Bank of Finland, Comparative Economics Webinar series, EBRD, LSE and University of Sussex for helpful comments. We are also grateful to Kimiya Akhyani for providing very useful research assistance. Views presented are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the EBRD. All interpretations, errors, and omissions are our own. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research. NBER working papers are circulated for discussion and comment purposes. They have not been peer-reviewed or been subject to the review by the NBER Board of Directors that accompanies official NBER publications. © 2020 by Cevat Giray Aksoy, Barry Eichengreen, and Orkun Saka. All rights reserved. Short sections of text, not to exceed two paragraphs, may be quoted without explicit permission provided that full credit, including © notice, is given to the source. The Political Scar of Epidemics Cevat Giray Aksoy, Barry Eichengreen, and Orkun Saka NBER Working Paper No. 27401 June 2020, Revised in October 2020 JEL No. I1,N0,Z28 ABSTRACT What political legacy can we expect from the Coronavirus pandemic? Drawing evidence from past epidemics, we find that epidemic exposure in an individual’s “impressionable years” (ages 18 to 25) has a persistent negative effect on confidence in political institutions and leaders, but not in other institutions or individuals. We find similar negative effects on confidence in public health systems however, suggesting that the loss of confidence in political institutions and leaders is associated with healthcare-related policies. In line with this argument, our results are mostly driven by individuals who experienced epidemics under weak governments with less capacity to act against the epidemic, disappointing their citizens. We provide evidence of this mechanism by showing that weak governments took longer to introduce policy interventions in response to the COVID-19 outbreak. These results imply that the Coronavirus may leave behind a long-lasting political scar on the current young generation (“Generation Z”). Cevat Giray Aksoy European Bank for Reconstruction and Development Broadgate, 1 Exchange Square London EC2A 2JN United Kingdom aksoyc@ebrd.com Barry Eichengreen Department of Economics University of California, Berkeley 549 Evans Hall 3880 Berkeley, CA 94720-3880 and NBER eichengr@econ.Berkeley.edu Orkun Saka University of Sussex Business School Falmer, Brighton BN1 9RH United Kingdom and LSE o.saka@sussex.ac.uk 2 “Let me be blunt, too many countries are headed in the wrong direction. The virus remains public enemy number one, but the actions of many governments and people do not reflect this. The only aim of the virus is to find people to infect. Mixed messages from leaders are undermining the most critical ingredient of any response: trust.” (Tedros Adha nom Ghebreyesus, Director-General's opening remarks a t the media briefing on COVID-19 - 13 July 2020, World Health Orga nization) 1. Introduction Epidemics are stress tests for governments. Public officials and institutions face the challenge of assembling information and mounting effective interventions against a rapidly spreading and potentially fatal disease. They must communicate that information, describe their policies and convince the public of their trustworthiness. Fukuyama (2020) argues that the keys to success in dealing with COVID -19 are “whether citizens trust their leaders, and whether th ose leaders preside over a competent and effective state.” By way of example, Rothstein (2020) ascribes the greater success at containing the COVID-19 in Nordic countries compared to Italy to greater trust in government. Trust in government is not a given, however. Specifically, there is reason to ask how epidemic exposure itself will affect such trust. On the one hand, there is the “rally ‘round the flag hypothesis.” Trust in and support for political institutions and leaders tend to rise in the wake of actual and potential disasters (Mueller 1970, Baum 2002).2 On the other hand, trust in government may decline because public institutions and those charged with their operation fail to prevent or contain the pandemic. And in both cases the persistence of the effect is unclear. In this paper, we provide evidence on the effects of epidemics on trust in government.3 We use data on trust and confidence in governments, elections, and 2 For exa mple, Chanley (2002) shows that in the da ys a fter the 11 September 2001 a tta cks, public trust in the U.S. government rose to levels not seen since the 1960s. 3 There is limited evidence on other politica l impacts of epidemics a nd containment efforts. Ca mpante et a l. (2020) find that heightened concern about Ebola led to lower vote r turnout in the 3 national leaders from the 2006-2018 Gallup World Polls (GWP) fielded in nearly 140 countries annually.4 These are three related aspects of political trust. Questions about confidence in government elicit opinions about the political institutions and officials comprising government broadly defined. Questions about national leaders (leaders at the time of the poll, which is not necessarily the same as the time of epidemic exposure) elicit opinions about the head of state or government, namely the individual with the most influence over and most clearly associated with the actions taken by government. Questions concerning confidence in elections elicit views of the integrity and efficacy of the process by which those leaders are chosen. In practice, we obtain very similar results for all three dependent variables. We also use the average and the first principal component of these variables as a way of identifying their common element and again obtain very similar results. We link individual responses to the incidence of epidemics since 1970 as tabulated in the EM-DAT International Disasters Database. Building on work suggesting that attitudes and behavior are durably molded in what psychologists refer to as the “impressionable” late-adolescent and early-adult years (e.g. Krosnick and Alwin 1989, Giuliano and Spilimbergo 2014), we show that exposure to epidemics at this specific stage in the life course durably shapes confidence in government, elections and national leaders. United Sta tes but no evidence of a n anti-incumbent effect. Amat et a l. (2020) show that following the COVID-19 outbreak in Spa in, citizens expressed a stronger preference for technocratic governance and strong lea dership. Bol et a l. (2020) surveyed citizens of 15 European countries and found tha t the imposition of lockdown wa s a ssociated with a 2 percent increase in trust in government. Another body of research examines the impact of trust in government on epidemics a nd containment efforts. Marlow et a l. (2007) show that trust in government is a predictor of flu va ccine a cceptance by mothers in the United States. Using survey evidence from Liberia during the Ebola epidemic, Bla ir et a l. (2017) report that respondents who expressed low trust in government were less likely to ta ke precautions in their homes or a bide by government-mandated social dista ncing. 4 We group the terms confidence, trust, a nd approval under the general heading of trust. Confidence is the belief tha t certain future outcomes will obta in. Trust is vesting confidence in specific institutions or individuals for delivering those outcomes. App roval is a function of trust and other fa ctors, such as, in the present context, success in containing epidemics. Checkland, Marshall, and Ha rrison (2004) a nd Smith (2005), a lso working in a public health context, a rgue that confidence is something that is entrusted in systems (what we refer to here a s institutions), whereas trust is vested in individua ls (in the present context, lea ders). A further discussion of the rela tionship between trust a nd confidence is Ada ms (2005). 4 The effects are substantial: an individual with the highest exposure to an epidemic (relative to zero exposure) is 5.1 percentage points less likely to have confidence in the national government; 7.2 percentage points less likely to have confidence in the honesty of elections;5 and 6.2 percentage points less likely to approve of the performance of the national leader.6 These effects represent the average treatment values for the remainder of life. They decay only gradually and persist for two decades. These adverse effects are unique to political institutions and cannot be detected in the same individuals’ confidence in military, banks or media. Nor is the loss of political trust paralled by the loss of in-group or out-group trust in the same society. There is no evidence of a generalized decline in trust, in other words; our findings pertain specifically to trust in political institutions and leaders. Throughout, we control for other potentially confounding shocks that were experienced by individuals at the time of the epidemic. These include economic shocks (the growth and stability of the economy, inflation, GDP per capita and so on) and social and political shocks (internal conflict, external conflict, corruption scandals, democratic accountability, revolutions, assasinations, purges, riots, anti- government demonstrations and so on). We further incorporate fixed effects (country, year, age, cohort and country by year). We use the approach of Oster (2019) to establish that our results are unlikely to be driven by omitted variables.7 The effects we identify are specific to communicable diseases, such as viruses, that spread contagiously and where a timely and effective policy response is needed for containment. For non-communicable diseases, we do not see the same impact of impressionable-year outbreaks on subsequent views of the trustworthiness of 5 Rea ders may recall some discussion of how confidence in the presidential primary election in Wisconsin in 2020 might be a ffected by it occurring in the midst of COVID-19. Among the mechanisms highlighted in this deba te is the possibility tha t ma il-in ba lloting a nd other complications will slow the vote count a nd “invite a distrust of the election process” (Ad Hoc Committee for 2020 Election Fa irness a nd Legitimacy 2020). 6 The respective a verages of these three variables in our sample are 51 percent, 50 percent, a nd 50 percent. 7 The estimates suggest that for our results to be spuriously generated, the degree of selection on unobservables relative to observables needed to be 12 to 25 times (depending on the outcome) a s important for the outcomes as the included control variables. This is unlikely, since we control directly for va rious determinants of past a nd current political trust. 5 governments and leaders. This suggests that our finding of significant and persistent impacts reflects the success or failure of governmental authorities and agencies in putting in place timely and effective measures against contagion. We document that individuals exposed to epidemics in their impressionable years are less likely to have confidence in the public health system and the safety and efficacy of vaccination. The former is indicative of trust in the overall health policies of the government, while the latter reflects attitudes toward pharmaceutical interventions. These findings again suggest that the perceived adequacy of health- related government interventions during epidemics is important for trust in government generally. The magnitude and persistence of the effect depends on the strength of the government at the time of the epidemic. When individuals experience epidemics under weak governments, the negative impact on trust is larger and more persistent. This is consistent with the idea that such governments are less capable of effectively responding to epidemics, hence leading to a long-term fall in political trust. We substantiate this conjecture by considering this same conditioning factor, government strength, in the context of COVID-19. We show that government strength is associated with statistically significant improvements in policy response time. Finally, we show that our results are driven by the reaction to epidemic exposure in democracies. In democracies, residents sharply and persistently revise downward their political trust in the event of impressionable -year epidemic exposure. The same is not true, however, in autocracies. Evidently, citizens expect democratic governments to be responsive to their health concerns, and where the public -sector response is not sufficient to head off the epidemic they revise their views in unfavorable ways.8 In autocracies, in contrast, there may not exist a comparable 8 Consistent with this, Economist (2020) discusses tha t democracies typically respond more effectively to epidemics; our results suggest that when they disappoint this expectation, they are more severely punished. Below we a ddress a nd dismiss the a lternative interpretation that respondents in a utocracies a re more relucta nt to volunteer a la ck of trust or confidence in government. 6 expectation of responsiveness and hence little impact on political trust. In addition, democratic regimes may find consistent messaging more difficult. Because such regimes are open, they may allow for a cacophony of conflicting official views (Associated Press, 2020). This may result in a larger impact on trust when things go wrong. Our data cover some 750,000 respondents in 142 countries, which speaks to the generality of the findings. Our treatment variable, exposure to epidemics, is more plausibly exogenous than the man-made shocks employed in previous literature. Note that it is commonplace in the law to regard epidemics and pandemics as “Acts of God” and to invoke escape clauses in contracts. The number of people affected by a virus in different countries may still depend on country characteristic s. But there is also a random component in natural infection and mortality rates across different epidemics, which changes from virus to virus and thus brings randomness to our setting. Ebola was more deadly but less contagious, for example, than COVID-19. To be sure, trust in government may affect the severity of an epidemic (as we note in our opening paragraph). But as we show below, our findings are robust to using as the key explanatory variable a zero/one indicator for the occurance of an epidemic rather than its intensity. Section 2 reviews kindred literatures. Sections 3 through 5 describe our data, empirical strategy, and model. Section 6 presents the baseline results, while Section 7 reports a battery of robustness checks. Sections 8 and 9 then offer evidence on mechanisms and political behavior, respectively, after which Section 10 concludes. 2. Literature Our analysis connects up to several literatures. First, there is work in economics on the determinants and correlates of trust.9 Contributions here (e.g. Greif 1989, 9 In a ddition, there is work in politica l science and psychology. Levi and Stoker (2000) survey work in politica l science on how trust is conceptualized. They a rgue that trust is both rela tional and conditional. By rela tional, they mean that it involves a n individual making herself vulnerable to a nother individual, group, or institution (such a s government) that has the ca pacity to do her harm or to betray her. By conditional, they mean that trust is pla ced in specific individuals a nd institutions 7 Alesina and La Ferrara 2000, Nunn and Wantchekon, 2011) tend to focus on trust in other individuals (in-group and out-group trust) rather than trust in political institutions and leaders. Exceptions are Becker et al. (2016), Algan et al. (2017), and Dustmann et al. (2017).10 Becker et al. (2016) show that the historical presence of high-quality institutions (in regions previously governed by the Habsburg Empire) is associated with greater trust in government agencies today. 11 Algan et al. (2017) study the implications of the Great Recession for general trust and political attitudes (as well as for voting for anti-establishment parties), using regional data for Europe. They show that crisis-driven economic insecurity tends to be associated with lack of political trust. Dustmann et al. (2017) use data from the European Social Survey to identify economic and social characteristics associated with lack of trust in national parliaments and the European Parliament. They find that positive economic outcomes are important for trust in national parliaments, but that voters look to other competences when evaluating the trustworthiness of the European Parliament. Another literature analyzes how past experience shapes attitudes and behaviors. Malmandier and Nagel (2011) show that stock market returns experienced by an individual affect his or her subsequent financial risk-taking. Krosnick and Alwin over specific domains. Citizens may entrust their lives to their government during wa rtime or in a public hea lth emergency, for exa mple, but not otherwise. Work in psychology proceeds a long simila r lines. Thus, Ma yer et a l. (1995) also distinguish three dimensions of trustwo rthiness, which they denote a bility, benevolence, a nd integrity. By a bility, they mean the perceived technical competence of the trustee in a particular domain of interest. Perceptions of ability, therefore, consist, a s they put it, “of a subjective evaluation of the various skills a nd capabilities that may be needed for the trustee to a ctually a ccomplish what it is being trusted to do.” Benevolence derives from the extent to which the trustor believes the trustee is prepared to expend effort to protect the trustor. Integrity refers to the perception that the trustee follows a set of internalized values a cceptable to the trustor. All three a spects may be relevant to the problem at hand. 10 Other recent papers also analyze approval of leaders and governments, but they consider different independent variables. Margalit (2011) shows that job losses from import competition depressed the vote share of the incumbent president in 2004 a nd 2008 in the United States. Aksoy et al. (2018) show tha t tra de shocks affect political a pproval of governments a nd lea ders, Guriev et al. (2019) show that an increase in broadband mobile internet access reduces government approval, a nd Guriev a nd Treisman (2019) find that approval of lea ders is higher in non -democracies when media and internet a re restricted covertly, but approval ra tings fall when citizens observe censorship. 11 Specifica lly, they consider trust in the courts a nd police (one of which we a lso consider below). 8 (1989) and Osborne et al. (2011) show that partisanship and party affiliation are affected by past experience and, once formed, remain stable for long periods. Third, there is the literature, already noted, on the importance of the “impressionable years” in durably shaping attitudes and values. A seminal study pointing to the importance of this stage of the lifecycle is the repeated survey of women who attended Bennington College between 1935 and 1939 (Newcomb 1943, Newcomb, Koenig, Flacks and Warwick 1967), among whom beliefs and values formed then remained stable for long periods. An early statement of the resulting hypothesis is Dawson and Prewitt (1969); Krosnick and Alwin (1989), among others, then pinpoint the impressionable years as running from ages 18 to 25.12 When rationalizing the importance of the impressionable years, some scholars draw on Mannheim’s concept of the “fresh encounter,” suggesting that views are durably formed when late adolescents and early adults first encounter new ideas or events. Others invoke Erikson (1968) to suggest that individuals at this age are open to new influences because they are at the stage of life when they are forming their sense of self and identity. Still others suggest that attitudes are pliable at this stage of the lifecycle because views have not yet been hardened by confirmatory information (Converse, 1976). Spear (2000) links the literature on the impressionable years to work in neurology describing neurochemical and anatomical differences between the adolescent and adult brain, suggesting that these neurochemical and anatomical changes are associated with durable attitude formation. Niemi and Sobieszek (1977, p.221 et seq) suggest that only in the late adolescent years have young people 12 Some contributions to this litera ture suggest tha t a ttitudes toward, including trust in, other individuals a re instilled by parents at a very early age (see e.g. Erikson 1950; 1968), but that attitudes towa rd institutions, such a s the political institutions we a nalyze here, a re instilled by one’s peers, typica lly a t the juncture where adolescent lea ves the parental household. As we expla in below, we a lso checked whether epidemic exposure at a younger age had a significant effect on attitudes toward politica l institutions (in general it did not). This is not to deny that the family is a lso an important source of political idea s (the litera ture on political socialization surveyed by Niemi a nd Sobieszek, 1977, suggests that it in fa ct is), but to cla im that extra-familia l experience is a lso important. 9 developed “the cognitive capacity to deal with political ideas” and that the same can be said to some extent of individuals in their university years (p.222). In terms of applications, Giuliano and Spilimbergo (2014) establish that experiencing a recession between the ages of 18 and 25 has a significant impact on political preferences and beliefs about the economy. Using survey data from Chile, Etchegaray et al. (2018) show that individuals in their impressionable years in periods of political repression have a greater tendency to withhold their opinions, compared to those who grew up in less repressive times. Farzanegan and Gholipour (2019) find that Iranians experiencing the Iran-Iraq War in their impressionable years are more likely to prioritize a strong defense. Akbulut-Yuksel, Okoye, and Yuksel (2018) show that Germans in their impressionable years during the Nazi expulsion of Jews are less interested in politics later in adulthood, compared to the less exposed. Finally, we should mention two recent papers. Aasve et al. (2020), who use the approach of Algan et al. (2017) to study the impact of the 1918 -19 Spanish flu pandemic on social trust. Analyzing the General Social Survey for the United States, they find that individuals whose families emigrated to the Unite d States from a country with many Spanish flu victims display less trust in other people.13 Fetzer et al. (2020) use an experimental research design to establish that individuals’ 13 The nega tive impact on trust resembles our findings, a lthough their focus is trust in other people a s opposed to trust in politica l institutions a nd leaders. Aa sve et a l. (2020) have only one epidemic occurring a t one point in time and an unusually small sample (36 observations at country-year level). Historica l data on excess mortality are less a ccurate than modern data and the fact that the 1918-19 Spa nish Flu coincides with the end of the World Wa r I complicates the ca usal inference. Furthermore, a s discussed below, we fa il to detect a ny corresponding drop in trust towards out- group or in-group individuals in our setting. 10 beliefs about pandemic risk factors are associated with Covid-19 are causally related to their economic anxieties. 3. Data Our principal data sources are 2006-2018 Gallup World Polls (GWP) and the EM- DAT International Disasters Database. GWP are nationally representative surveys fielded each year starting in 2006 in about 150 countries, with responses from approximately 1,000 individuals in each country. Our full sample (depending on outcome variable) includes around 750,000 respondents in 142 countries.14 The outcome variables come from questions asked of all Gallup respondents about their confidence in the national government, their confidence in the honesty of elections, and their evaluation of the job performance of the incumbent leader:15 (i) “In (this country), do you have confidence in each of the following, or not: … How about the national government?” (ii) “In (this country), do you have confidence in each of the following, or not: … How about the honesty of elections?” (iii) “Do you approve or disapprove of the job performance of the leadership of this country?” 16 A visual summary of these variables is in Appendix Figure B.1-B.3. GWP provides information on respondents’ age, gender, educational attainment, marital status, religion, urban/rural residence, labor market status, and income. Controlling for employment status and income allows us to measure the impact of past epidemics on confidence in political institutions and leaders free of any direct effect on material well-being. 14 We drop observations for Na gorno-Karabakh, Northern Cyprus, Somalila nd, a nd Puerto Rico, as they a re not international recognised independent states. 15 We do not observe the respondent’s, lea der’s or government’s position on the left or right of the politica l spectrum. The politica l coloration of the government or lea der could in principle be incorporated into our setting. 16 These questions a re pa rt of the Ga llup “na tional institutions index.” If a respondent a sks for cla rifica tion or interpretation of the question, Ga llup surveyors are trained to answer “However you interpret the question,” or “It is wha tever the question means to you.” If a respondent a sks whether there is a more neutral response option than “yes” or “no,” surveyors a re trained to a sk whether “there is one tha t you lea n more towards.” 11 We also examine responses to three additional GWP questions: whether respondents have confidence in the military; confidence in financial institutions or banks; and confidence in media freedom. This helps to determine whether what we are capturing is the impact of epidemic exposure on trust and confidence in political institutions and political leaders specifically, as distinct from any impact on trust in society, its institutions, and its leaders generally. Data on the worldwide epidemic occurrence and its effects are drawn from the EM- DAT International Disasters Database from 1970 to the present. 17 These data are compiled from UN agencies, non-governmental organizations, insurance companies, research institutes, press agencies, and other sources. The database includes epidemics (viral, bacterial, parasitic, fungal, and prion) meeting one or more of the following criteria: • 10 or more deaths; • 100 or more individuals affected; • Declaration of a state of emergency; • Calls for international assistance. Our dataset includes 47 different types of epidemics and pandemics since 1970. This includes large outbreaks of Cholera, Ebola, and H1N1 and also more limited epidemics. Averaged across available years, H1N1, Ebola, Dysentery, Measles, Meningitis, Cholera, Yellow Fever, Diarrhoeal Syndromes, Marburg Virus, and Pneumonia were the top 10 diseases causing epidemic mortality worldwide. Many of these epidemics and pandemics affected multiple countries. 18 137 countries experienced at least one epidemic since 1970. This includes 51 countries in Africa, 40 in Asia, 22 in the Americas, 19 in Europe, and 5 in Oceania. 17 EM-DAT wa s esta blished in 1973 a s a non-profit within the School of Public Hea lth of the Ca tholic University of Louvain; it subsequently became a collaborating center of the World Health Orga niza tion. It a lso ga thers historical information on epidemics tha t took place before it was founded; however, those data a re patchy a nd bia sed towards well-recorded epidemics. Hence we only focus on epidemic cases that EM-DAT “live” collected a fter it wa s founded in ea rly 1970s. 18 Note tha t the EM-DAT International Disa sters Da tabase does not include da ta on non- communicable diseases. We employ separate data on non-communicable diseases below. 12 The most epidemic-prone countries in the dataset are Niger (25), Nigeria (25), Congo (22), Cameroon (21), Mozambique (20), Sudan (20), Uganda (20) and India (19). Advanced countries in our sample all experienced 5 or fewer epidemics.19 Each epidemic is tagged with the country where it took place. When an epidemic affects several countries, the database contains separate entries for each country. EM-DAT provides information on the start and end date of the epidemic, the number of deaths and the number of individuals affected, where the number of individuals affected is how many require assistance with basic survival needs such as food, water, shelter, sanitation, and immediate medical treatment during the period of emergency. Figure 1 provides a visual summary. We aggregate all epidemic-related information in this database at the county -year level and merge it with Gallup World Polls. In robustness checks, we employ a panel dataset on diseases from Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) and a dataset on recent epidemics from Ma et al. (2020). To explore underlying mechanisms, we use data from the Wellcome Global Monitor, Google Trends, the European Center for Disease Prevention Control, the Johns Hopkins Coronavirus Resource Center, and the Oxford COVID- 19 Government Response Tracker.20 Table 1 shows descriptive statistics for the outcome variables, country characteristics, and individual characteristics. Averaging across all country -years, nearly 50 percent of respondents say they have confidence in elections, have confidence in the national government, or approve of the performance of the leader.21 19 We do not provide the full country-year-epidemic list due to spa ce constraints. Interested rea ders can find the full list of epidemic cases used in our pa per online: https://www.dropbox.com/sh/cwe5n1ie8f4zmbl/AAAD9JdVnjXvQciAYX9ID7WOa?dl=0 20 See Appendix A for a dditional details on these data sources a nd our construction of variables. 21 There of course is very considerable heterogeneity within a nd a cross countries. For comparison, 72 percent respondents had confidence in the military, while only 60 and 54 percent had confidence https://www.dropbox.com/sh/cwe5n1ie8f4zmbl/AAAD9JdVnjXvQciAYX9ID7WOa?dl=0 13 4. Empirical Model To assess the effect of past epidemic exposure on confidence in government, elections and political leaders, we estimate the following specification: Yi, c, t, a, b = β1Exposure to epidemic (18-25)icb + β2Xi + β3Number of people affectedct-1 + β4Cc + β5Tt + β6Aa + β7Bb + β8Cc*Age + εict (1) where Yictab is a dummy variable for whether or not respondent i of age a and birthyear b in country c at time t approves or has confidence in an aspect of their country’s political institutions or leadership. Responses to all three questions are coded as dummy variables, with one representing a positive answer and zero otherwise. We estimate linear probability models for ease of interpretation. To measure the Exposure to epidemic (18-25), we calculate for each respondent the number of persons affected by an epidemic as a share of the population, averaged over the 8 years when the respondent was aged 18 to 25, consistent with the “impressionable years” hypothesis.22 Number of people affected controls for whether or not the individual is also ex posed to an epidemic contemporaneously. This is also calculated as the number of individuals affected by an epidemic as a share of the population in the country of residence in the year immediately prior to the interview.23 in ba nks a nd fina ncia l institutions a nd in the media , respectively. We use responses to these questions in pla cebo tests discussed below. 22 The effect of a n epidemic on younger cohorts may a lso depend on the nature of the virus (i.e., how letha l it is to the young). Unfortunately, EM -DAT does not contain information on the ages of the a ffected or of those who died. In addition, our treatment variable cannot differentiate between individuals who are themselves infected a nd individuals who may react to the infection of others. Thus, we ca n only ca lculate the average treatment effect a cross all types of epidemics operating through a combination of these channels. 23 This va ria ble is la gged to ensure that the independent variable is rea lized before the dependent va ria ble, since Gallup World Polls may interview individuals at any point in the year (not necessarily a t its end). 14 The vector of individual controls Xi includes indicator variables for urban residence and the presence of children in the household (any child under 15), and dummy variables for gender, marital status, employment status, religion, educational attainment, and within-country-year income deciles. We control for income before taxes in both log and log squared form.24 It is possible that prior epidemic exposure affects an individual’s responses partly by affecting his or her subsequent income. But we can rule out that prior exposure affects an individual’s responses solely by affecting his or her subsequent income by controlling for household income separately. A sense of the relative importance of this and other channels can be gained by comparing specifications with and without this income variable.25 We include fixed effects at the levels of country (Cc), year (Tt), and age (Aa). The country dummies control for time-invariant variation in the outcome variable caused by factors that vary cross-nationally. Year dummies capture the impact of global shocks that affect all countries simultaneously. Age dummies control for the variation in the outcome variable caused by factors that are heterogeneous across (but homogenous within) age groups. We also include country-specific age trends (Cc*Age) and cohort fixed-effects (Bb). A fully saturated specification includes also country-year fixed effects, which account for possible omitted country features that may change with time (such as GDP per capita, population, political regime, etc.). 26 We cluster standard errors by country and use sample weights provided by Gallup to make the data representative 24 These individual respondent controls a re important, since epidemics ma y ha ve a n effect depending on gender (Archibong a nd Anna n, 2017) a nd a va riety of other socioeconomic cha racteristics. Note tha t the income measure includes a ll wa ges a nd salaries, rem ittances from fa mily members living elsewhere, a nd a ll other income sources. Ga llup converts local income to International Dolla rs using the World Ba nk’s individual consumption PPP conversion factor. This ma kes income estimates comparable a cross countries. 25 In la ter pa rts of our a nalysis, we a lso control for the past GDP growth during a n individual’s impressionable years, which should in principle ta ke into a ccount any epidemic -induced change in income at the country and cohort level. We thank an anonymous referee for this suggestion. 26 This forces us to drop contemporaneous epidemic exposure, because it is perfectly correlated with the country-year effects. 15 at the country level. Finally, we limit our sample to individuals born in the same country in which they were interviewed by Gallup. 27 5. Threats to Identification One can imagine several potential threats to identification. First, estimates could be driven by factors that are specific to each cohort, since our treatment categorizes individuals in each country by year of birth. Some cohorts could have cohort- specific attitudes toward political institutions and leaders or be more or less trusting than others in general. Individuals born in the late 1940s and early 1950s, for example, may vest less trust in political institutions and leaders because they experienced the widespread protests against political repression in the late 1960s, their impressionable years. We therefore include dummies for year of birth so as to compare the individuals only within the same birth cohort. 28 Second, independent of the cohort effects, individuals may exhibit differential behavior across the life cycle. They may become more (or less) trusting as they age, for example. Political views and ideologies may change from more liberal when young to more conservative when older (Niemi and Sobieszek 1977). Age-specific factors may also matter if different generations were exposed to epidemics with different probabilities; given advances in science and improvements in national healthcare systems, one might anticipate that epidemics are less likely to be experienced by younger generations. We therefore include a full set of age-group dummies, which eliminates any influence on our outcome variables of purely age- related and generational effects. 27 We ca nnot guarantee that these individuals spent all of their impressionable years in their country of birth, but a ny measurement error a rising from this concern only stacks the cards a gainst us by lowering the precision of our estima tes. Furthermore, to th e extent that la rge epidemics push individuals to migra te to other countries not a ffected by the sa me epidemic, we may have a survivorship bias in our sa mple that leads us to underestimate the true effect of a past epidemic experience. 28 Including these dummies bia ses our estima tes downward if epidemics a re correla ted across countries a nd a ffect them simultaneously. In this ca se, a ny common effect of a n epidemic on a specific cohort will be subsumed by these cohort-specific dummies, a nd our trea tment will pick up the va riation in pa st epidemics only when they were staggered a cross countries. 16 Generational trends in political attitudes could be heterogeneous across countries. Some national cultures may be more flexible and open to change in individual values and beliefs, leading to larger differences across generations. We therefore include country-specific linear age trends. Third, any relevant omitted variable that varies across countries and years can bias estimates even when conventional country and year fixed effects are included separately. This issue arises when we observe individuals’ attitudes toward national political institutions and leaders. Because the identity of those leaders and the structure of those institutions may change over time, it can be difficult to separate these shifts in identity and structure from the treatment (i.e., the epidemic). For instance, even when approval of a leader declines following an epidemic, we may not capture this effect if the epidemic simultaneously triggers a change in the identity of the leader, bringing in someone for whom approval levels are higher. We address this by including dummies for each county-year pair. This eliminates all heterogeneity in our outcome variables tracable to country-specific time-varying factors, such as changes in the government or leader. Thus, the treatment only compares individuals within the same country and survey year, ensuring that these individuals face the same political institutions and leaders. This strategy also mitigates concerns that the results are driven by other structural differences between countries that are repeatedly exposed to epidemics and those that are not. Fourth, in any study of the impact of past experience on current outcomes, the underlying assumption is that the effect is durable and persistent. This is the essence of the “impressionable years” hypothesis. To the extent that this is not the case because the effect has a relatively short half -life, our empirical strategy will be biased towards failing to reject the null hypothesis of no effect. We explore this by tracing the impact of past epidemic exposure across different age groups and show that the effect persists at least for two decades while decaying gradually as individuals age. Hence, the full-sample estimates represent the average treatment effect across the whole life cycle after the impressionable years. 17 Fifth, although we fully saturate our specifications with fixed effects, there could still be other past exposures correlated with epidemics. To address this concern, we control for various past economic, political and social factors in the country in question in the individual’s impressionable years. Including these controls for other past conditions has no impact on the stability of our coefficients of interest. In addition, we use the methodology developed by Oster (2019). The results suggest that our findings are unlikely to be driven by unobserved variation. 6. Results Tables 2-4 report estimates of Equation (1). The dependent variables are a dummy indicating that the respondent has confidence in the national government (Table 2), a dummy indicating that the respondent approves of the performance of the leadership of his or her country (Table 3), and a dummy indicating that the respondent has confidence in the honesty of elections (Table 4). In all three tables, Column 1 reports estimates with country, year, and age group fixed effects. Column 2 adds the logarithm of individual income and its square, demographic characteristics, within country-year income decile fixed effects, and labor market controls. Column 3 adds country-specific age trends, while column 4 adds cohort fixed effects. Column 5 fully saturates the specification with country*year fixed- effects, non-parametrically controlling for all potentially omitted variables that can vary across countries and years. Column 1 of Table 2 shows a negative and statistically significant relationship between exposure to an epidemic in the individual’s impressionable years and current confidence in the national government. In contrast, the measure of contemporaneous epidemics is positive but statistically imprecise. Columns 2 to 4 show that the estimated effects change little as controls are added and that country- specific age-trends seem to be necessary for precisely identifying the effect of past epidemics in our setting. 18 Column 5 restricts all variation to within country -year observations and reports conservative estimates that are smaller in magnitude but still significant at 1 percent level.29 In our preferred model (Column 4), an individual with the highest exposure (0.032, that is, the number of people affected by an epidemic as a share of the population in individual’s impressionable years) relative to individuals with no exposure has on average 5.1 percentage points (-1.592*0.032) less confidence in the national government after his or her impressionable years.30 Given that the mean level of this outcome variable is 50 percent, the effect is sizable. Tables 3 and 4 report results for approval of the performance of the leader and confidence in the honesty of elections. The results on impressionable-year epidemic exposure have the same sign, statistical significance, and magnitude (a 6.2 percentage point decrease in approval of the political leader and a 7.2 percentage point decrease in the honesty of elections, where the mean outcome level is 50 percent). How persistent are the effects? We investigate persistence by estimating our baseline specification on the subsample of individuals closest to their impressionable years (that is, ages 26 to 35) and then repeatedly rolling the age window forward in a series of separate estimations. This permits us to observe how the coefficients change as we increase the distance between the age range in which impressionable individuals had exposure to epidemics and the age at which they are surveyed. If the effects are 29 It ma kes sense that the point estimates shrink when we only compare individuals within the same country and point in time. It is likely tha t both treatment and control groups in this setting must have experienced the same epidemics but only in different parts of their life cycle (impressionable vs non- impressionable yea rs). Hence, to the extent tha t epidemics ca rry nega tive effects for other experience windows, we a re only estimating the differential impact on individuals who were in their impressionable years during these epidemics, thus reducing the size of our point estimates. 30 Beca use epidemics a re rare events a nd our main independent varia ble of interest, Exposure to epidemic (18-25), is skewed to the right, it ma y not be a ppropriate to use its sta ndard deviation or mea n for understanding the effect size. 19 persistent, then the estimated coefficient should not change substantially as distance increases between the time of exposure and time of observation. Figure 2, based on Column 4 of Tables 2-4, shows the effect of epidemic exposure on the outcome variables. The effects on the base subsample (i.e., 26 -35) are more than three times larger than the point estimates for the full sample, confirming that the age groups closest to the experience window (i.e., 18-25) are disproportionately affected (compared to other age groups).31 For this base sample, the median time distance between the past experience window (median age: 21.5 years) and the subsample (median age: 30.5 years) is 9 years, hence documenting the effect of past epidemics in the medium term. When the model is re-estimated on successively older subsamples, the magnitude of the impact remains stable for the first six estimations following the base sample before decaying gradually. It nearly vanishes when estimated on the subsample of individuals aged 36 to 45, when the median distance between the experience window and the subsample is 19 years. On this basis, we conclude that epidemic experience during the impressionable years has persistent effects on political trust that can remain evident for two decades of adult life.32 Role of country characteristics We consider the baseline specification (Column 4 of Table 2) for various country subsamples. Each cell of Table 5 reports a separate regression. Each column shows the coefficient estimates for our main variable of interest: average epidemic exposure during the impressionable years. We report the baseline estimates for our main outcome variables in the top row. 31 We exa mine this specific point further below, where we compare impressionable year epidemic exposure with exposure when individuals a re younger a nd older than 18-25 (see Appendix Figure B.4). 32 We formally test the decay in the effect of epidemic exposure on political trust by interacting our ma in treatment variable with respondents’ a ge. Appendix Table B.1 confirms the earlier figures a nd shows that the negative effect of impressionable-period epidemic exposure is mitiga ted in later a ges. 20 The negative impact of epidemic exposure on confidence in the government and its leader is larger in low-income countries, although the difference across groups is not always statistically significant. This pattern is in line with evidence from Gómez et al. (2020), who find that people in the low-income countries see their governments more untrustworthy and unreliable in the context of public reactions to the COVID-19 pandemic. The negative impact of an epidemic also tends to be larger in countries with democratic political systems; the difference in coefficients for democracies and non-democracies is consistently significant at standard confidence levels. 33 An interpretation is that respondents expect democratically-elected governments to be responsive to their needs and are especially disappointed when such governments do not respond in ways that prevent or contain an epidemic. In contrast, the effect of prior epidemic exposure is insignificantly diff erent from zero in non- democracies, where there may be no similar presumption of responsiveness. In addition, democratic regimes may have more difficulty with consistent messaging. Because such regimes are open, they may allow for a cacophony of conflicting official views, resulting in a larger impact on confidence and trust. Either way, our results are driven by respondents in democratic regimes. 34 These results go some way toward addressing the issue of external validity in the context of COVID-19. The effects we report here are not limited to low-income countries, autocratic governments, or fragile democracies – the kind of regimes that are popularly associated with prominent epidemics such as Ebola. This suggests 33 We cla ssify political regimes ba sed on the most recent Polity5 dataset. Countries with Polity scores 5 a nd above are cla ssified as democracies. 34 This finding could a lso be expla ined by preference falsification, a phenomenon in which individuals’ responses to public surveys might be a ffected by social desira bility or implicit a uthoritaria n pressures (Kura n, 1987). Such bia ses could na turally a rise m ore often in non- democratic countries where survey participants feel the urge to hide their true beliefs, reducing the heterogeneity a cross respondents within the sa me country a nd time point. In a n unreported robustness check, we dropped ten per cent of the highest-ranking observations (in terms of approval of the leader) at the country-year level in our sample assuming that preference falsification -if exists- would be preva lent especially on these observations. We obta in simila r results implying that preference fa lsification by itself is unlikely to expla in the difference between democracies and a utocracies. 21 that our results may also have broader applicability to global pandemics such as COVID. 7. Robustness In this section we report further analyses establishing the robustness of our findings. Are the results driven by other past experience? The literature suggests that economic conditions (Hetherington and Rudolph, 2008), social conflict (De Juan and Pierskalla, 2016), and corruption (Anderson and Tverdova, 2003) also affect political trust. Appendix Tables B.2 and B.3 therefore consider whether our results are driven by other omitted economic , social and political exposures that individuals may have experienced in their impressionable years. In Appendix Table B.2 we include measures from the ICRG data set, which captures 12 aspects of national economic and political conditions.35 In particular, we include the following 12 indices to account for past economic, political, and social conditions: government strength, socio economic conditions, investment profile, internal conflict, external conflict, corruption, military presence in politics, 35 These a re (1) government strength - a n a ssessment both of the government’s a bility to carry out its decla red programs and its a bility to stay in of fice; (2) socioeconomic conditions - a n assessment of the socioeconomic pressures in a society that could constrain government action or fuel social dissa tisfaction; (3) investment profile - a n a ssessment of factors a ffecting risks to investment not ca ptured by other politica l, economic a nd fina ncial risk components; (4) interna l conflict - an a ssessment of political violence in the country a nd its a ctual or potential impact on governance; (5) external conflict - a n a ssessment of the risk to the incumbent government from foreign a ction, including both non-violent external pressure a nd violent external pressure; (6) corruption - an a ssessment of corruption in the politica l system; (7) milita ry in politics – a n a ssessment of the milita ry’s involvement in politics, even a t a peripheral level; (8) religious tensions – a n assessment of whether a single religious group seeks to repla ce civil la w by religious la w a nd to exclude other religions from the political a nd/or social process; (9) la w a nd order – a n a ssessment of the strength a nd impartiality of the legal system and popular observance of the la w; (10) ethnic tensions - an a ssessment of the degree of tension within a country attributable to ra cial, na tional, or linguistic divisions; (11) democratic accountability - a measure of how responsive government is to the people; a nd (12) bureaucracy quality – a n assessment of whether bureaucracy has the strength a nd expertise to govern without drastic changes in policy or interruptions in government services. 22 religious tensions, law and order, ethnic tensions, democratic accountability and bureaucracy quality. In Appendix Table B.3, we control for GDP growth, GDP per capita, inflation rate, political regime (Polity2 scores), assassinations, general strikes, terrorism/guerrilla warfare, purges, riots, revolutions, and anti-government demonstrations during the individual’s impressionable years. For all non-economic variables (excluding Polity2), we use the CNTS dataset in order to capture as many aspects of political conflict as possible. In both tables, we calculate the average values for each one of these dimensions during the impressionable ye ars of each individual. Including these past experiences as controls makes for smaller samples, since ICRG and CNTS cover only some of the countries and years in our main sample. None of these additional controls has much impact on the coefficients for past epidemics. Both the point estimates and statistical significance remain stable.36 Note that we cannot directly control for pre-epidemic levels of social and political trust due to lack of data availability.37 However, we do control for various factors that can explain both social and economic trust, therefore it is unlikely that our results can be explained by omitted variables bias or re verse causality. Nevertheless, we follow the method proposed by Oster (2019) to shed light on the importance of unobservables in Appendix Table B.8, where Panel A is based on the models with past exposure controls as in Table B.2 and Panel B is based on the models with past exposure controls as in Table B.3. 36 In a ddition Appendix Tables B.4 and B.5 show that we get simila r results if we were to control for the pre-existing values in the past (i.e., a ges 10-17) instead of impressionable years (i.e., ages 18-25) in order to make sure that the past controls themselves a re not influenced by the epidemic in the sa me experience window. Furthermore, our results remain qualitatively unchanged in Appendix Tables B.6 and B.7 a fter controlling for both impressionable-year experiences a nd country*year fixed effects a t the same time (à la Model 5 in Tables 2-3-4). 37 By interpola ting the corresponding va lues a cross a ll historica l wa ves of the World Va lues Surveys, we ha ve created a country panel da taset on various social a nd political trust va riables for the purpose of using them to control for pre-epidemic levels of trust in a country. However, due to poor country-year coverage in the old editions of the WVS, the size of our main Gallup sample falls by 95 percent to a bout 35,000 respondents. We, therefore, do not report the results a s we lack sta tistical power due to very sample size in these a nalyses. 23 We first reprint the baseline estimates for our main outcomes in the top row for comparison purposes. The second row of each panel then presents the estimation bounds where we define Rmax upper bound as 1.3 times the R-squared in specifications that control for observables following Oster (2019). The bottom row presents Oster’s delta, which indicates the degree of selection on unobservables relative to observables that would be needed to fully explain our results by omitted variable bias. The results in Appendix Table B.8 show very limited movement in the coefficients. The high delta values (between 12 and 24 depending on the outcome) are reassuring: given the wide range of controls we include in our models, it seems implausible that unobserved factors are 12 to 24 times more important than the observables included in our preferred specification. 38 Are the results unique to political institutions and leaders? It is important to establish that the relationship between epidemic exposure and subsequent views of political institutions and leaders is not simply part of a broader reassessment of social institutions and social trust (both in-group and out-group). If exposure to past epidemics worsens attitudes toward all national institutions and reduces social trust generally, it would be misleading to interpret the findings in Tables 2-4 as the effect of the epidemic exposure specifically on trust in political institutions and leaders narrowly defined. We therefore estimate similar models for outcomes related to views of other institutions. In Appendix Table B.9, outcome variables equal one if the individual has confidence in the military (column 1), in banks and financial institutions (column 2), and in media freedom (column 3); has relatives or friends to count on – a proxy for in-group trust (column 4); and has helped a stranger in the past month – a proxy for out-group trust (column 5). The first three variables represent the confidence in non-political insitutions in the same country, while the last two 38 The rule of thumb to be able to a rgue that unobservables cannot fully explain the treatment effect is for Oster’s delta to be over the value of one. 24 capture the potential change in individuals’ trust towards their in-group or out- group peers.39 There are no meaningful relationships between past epidemic exposure and any of these variables, consistent with our hypothesis that loss of trust by individuals with epidemic experience is specific to political institutions and leaders, and not a reflection of the general loss of trust in society and its institutions.40 Are the results driven by non-comparable samples? Not all Gallup respondents answered all three questions. Thus, the results could conceivably be biased by heterogenous, non-comparable samples across the three response variables. We therefore also consider only individuals who answered all three questions. We construct a new variable (“political trust”) that measures the average response of an individual across the three outcomes. We also construct a dependent variable that is the first principal component of these three variables. The results, reported in Appendix Tables B.10-B.11, confirm that our findings are robust across overlapping samples and alternative measures of political trust. 41 Are the results unique to impressionable years? One could argue that our treatment effect can be influenced by the potential differential response in individuals who may have experienced the same epidemics 39 As Ga llup does not ha ve direct questions on generalized (social) trust, we refer to these two va ria bles a s the closest proxies to measure the in-group a nd out-group trust. Alternatively, using a mea sure of individual donations or the civic enga gement index in Ga llup generates very similar results. 40 We understand that one could be concerned with media freedom in countries with low political trust a nd its potentially negative relationship with individuals’ confidence in media. However the media is not a political institution strictly defined, even though it ca n be influenced by politics. We ha ve no priors a bout how individuals might change their opinions a bout the media in the midst of a hea lth crisis. One could easily argue that individuals’ confidence in media may rise instead of falling if it functions well a s a tra nsmitter of life-saving information during the epidemic. Our results show tha t there is not much change in the long-term confidence in media, consistent with this - a priori - a mbiguous direction of the rela tionship. 41 In Appendix Table B.12, we a lso compare our 3 main outcome variables a s well a s 4 placebo outcomes (except the one on confidence in media which has a very small coverage in Ga llup) over the exa ct same group of individuals who have responded to a ll 7 questions. Aga in, we find that the loss of politica l trust a fter past epidemic exposure is unmatched by any of the alternative outcomes. 25 not during their impressionable-years but in other close experience windows before or after. Since these individuals will be categorised as counterfactuals in our setting, their potential differential response may drive our estimates upwards or downwards. In order to check this possibility, we re-estimate our specification with a focus on these alternative windows. Appendix Figure B.4 shows the effect of exposure in successive eight-year age windows (analogous to the eight-year window of ages 18 to 25).42 The analysis again considers our two composite dependent variables: the average of the three outcome variables and the first principal component of the responses. In both cases, the negative effect is only evident when epidemic exposure occurs in the individual’s impressionable years.43 This alleviates the concern in our setting that a counterfactual individual who experiences the same epidemic a little earlier or later than the impressionable age window may produce a differential response compared to an individual who has not experienced any epidemics at any of these windows.44 Are the results robust to alternative data for epidemics? We also analyze the recent large-scale epidemics reported in Ma et al. (2020), which constructs a country panel dataset starting in the early 2000s. This list of countries affected by post-2000 epidemics includes, at some point, almost all the countries in the world. For instance, H1N1 in 2009 alone infected more than 200 countries. Several aspects of this dataset make it less than ideal for our purposes. One is its 42 We repea t the a nalysis only for the first four windows a fter birth to make sure we ha ve age -wise comparable samples a cross separate estimations. It is important to keep in mind that as we check the la ter experience windows, respondents’ age at the time of the survey has to restricted to those older tha n the corresponding experience window. 43 We a ga in find the sa me for the three individual response variables. Results are availa ble upon request. Additionally, we checked the alternative experience windows rolling them by one year from 10-17 a ges to 18-25. We find tha t the effects increase in older-a ge windows a nd rea ch their ma ximum during a ges 16-23 before declining. 44 This interpretation is especially valid for the base-sample estimates (i.e., a ges 26-35) in Figure 2. In this subsample, only possible past experience windows a re from a ges 2 to 25 and hence, given the la ck of response in ea rlier a ge windows, it ca n be a rgued tha t our trea tment captures the hypothetical difference between an individual who experienced epidemics in their impressionable yea rs a nd another who never experienced a ny epidemics a t a ll. 26 short time span, which allows us to consider only individuals young enough to be in their impressionable years between 2000 and 2018.45 Another is that the dataset does not contain country-specific intensity measures and thus only can be used in dichotomous form. As will be clear later, epidemic intensity matters, in that only large epidemics in EMDAT dataset have a significant impact on political trust. At the same time, this list of recent epidemics buttresses our assumption of the exogeneity of our treatment variable, since the occurrence/start of an epidemic (as opposed to its intensity) is likely to be uncorrelated with country or cohort characteristics.46 In Appendix Table B.13, where we utilize this dataset, exposure to an epidemic (18-25) takes a value of 1 if the respondent experienced SARS, H1N1, MERS, Ebola, or Zika in his or her impressionable years. The results for confidence in elections and approval of the leader (as well as average and principal component proxies for political trust) are robust to the use of these alternative data. In line with our earlier results, the adverse impact of past epidemics is only evident in democratic countries. These results thus provide further evidence that the causal direction of the relationship runs from past epidemic experience to political trust later in life. Do countries with and without a pandemic display similar pre-trends? As mentioned earlier, Ma et al. (2020) provide a comprehensive dataset of pandemic events in this century. By creating an event-study setting around the dates on which a pandemic was declared by the WHO for a specific country, we can investigate whether countries experiencing pandemics exhibit the same pre -trends as other countries. We can also analyse how quickly the overall level of political trust changes after a pandemic. 45 This a lso means that we must drop all observations in Ga llup before 2008 -9 to ensure that the first impressionable-years cycle (2000-2007) is ca lculated before we apply this variable onto individuals. 46 As we show below, there is no evidence of a differential pre-trend in politica l trust between countries that were recently hit by an epidemic a nd those that were not. 27 To do this, we estimate the following model: Yi, c, t, a, b = β1LaggedPandemicict + β2Xi + β3Cc + β4Tt + β5Aa + β6Bb + β7Cc*Age + εict (2) LaggedPandemic is a dummy taking on a value of 1 if the WHO announced a pandemic for the country c in the year immediately preceding survey year t and 0 otherwise. This variable is lagged by one year to ensure that all respondents in the country experienced the pandemic (since Gallup surveys could be undertaken at any point of a year).47 Appendix Table B.14 shows that political trust starts declining immediately. In Figure B.5, we re-estimate the model changing the timing of the variable of interest. This helps to visualise the short-term response and also to check if the countries that were struck by a pandemic and those that were not shared similar trends in terms of their political trust levels before the pandemic hit the former.48 Countries with and without a pandemic share a common trend in the pre -event window; the divergence starts only after the pandemic hits. This supports the exogeneity assumption we made in a previous section in which we employed the occurence (rather than intensity) of recent epidemics as a shock to individuals’ impressionable years. Whereas there is no pre-trend prior to an epidemic infecting a country for the first time, the approval of the leader declines by more than 6 percentage points two years after. This aggregagre effect is large. It is comparable to the lifetime effect that we found for impressiomable-year exposures. 47 Here we do not include the pa st epidemic exposure variable a s we would like to ca pture the response of the whole population, ra ther only th ose for whom we ca n calculate the past experience window. 48 We conservatively restrict the event window a round the pandemic to plus/minus 2 years. This is beca use different pandemic events in Ma et al. (2020) may hit the same country in a matter of couple of yea rs, which complicates the identification in la rger event windows. 28 Is the response specific to communicable diseases? Poor public-policy responses to communicable diseases may have a powerful negative effect on trust in political institutions because those diseases can spread contagiously, making that policy response especially urgent. In contrast, non- communicable diseases may develop over longer periods and be driven by individual decisions and characteristics, such as lifestyles and demographics, instead of or in addition to government policy. Hence non-communicable diseases may not have equally powerful long-term effects on trust in political institutions. If they do, such effects should be smaller. Since the EM-DAT International Disasters Database does not include data on non- communicable diseases, we use data from IHME for the period 1990 to 2016.49 The communicable and non-communicable disease measures are population-adjusted and expressed in terms of Disability Adjusted Life Years Lost (DALYs). 50 As explained by Roser and Ritchie (2020), DALYs are a standardized metric allowing for direct comparison and summing of the burden of different diseases. We present results in Appendix Table B.15 for all countries in Column 1, for democratic countries in Column 2, and for non -democratic countries in Column 3. The top panel shows results for the outcome variable “ confidence in the national government,” the middle panel for “approval of the leader,” and the bottom panel for the “confidence in honesty of elections.” Each column in each panel is a separate regression in which we simultaneously include both types of past exposure (exposure to communicable and non-communicable diseases, respectively). There is a significant negative impact, as before, on confidence in the government and in elections of past exposure to communicable diseases. In contrast, we find no 49 Simila r to the previous exercise, this dataset is more limited than the EMDAT data that spans a much longer time period from the 1970s. 50 Communicable disea ses include dia rrhea, lower respira tory disease, other common infectious disea ses, malaria & neglected tropical disea ses, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis. Non -communicable disea ses include cardiovascular diseases, cancers, respiratory disease, diabetes, blood and endocrine disea ses, mental a nd substance use disorders, liver disea ses, digestive disea ses, musculoskeletal disorders, a nd neurological disorders. 29 statistically significant association between trust in these political institutions and exposure to non-communicable diseases during the impressionable years. The results thus confirm that the association we document is unique to communicable diseases. It remains the case, as before, that the full sample results are driven by respondents in democratic countries. Are large epidemics different? The effects we identify are larger for more severe epidemics. In Appendix Table B.16, we re-estimate our baseline model where, instead of the continuous variable reported in the top row, use indicators for the top 0.5 percent of exposures to epidemics, the top 1 percent, the top 2 percent, and the top 5 percent , each in a separate estimation. An epidemic exposure in the top 0.5, 1, or 2 percent of exposures causes a significant fall in an individual’s confidence in elections, the national government, and its leader.51 Moreover, the magnitude of the effect linearly increases with more intense experiences, which leads us to undertake the next analysis. Are the results driven by the intensive or extensive margin? In Appendix Table B.18, we distinguish the intensive and extensive margins of the treatment. For the extensive margin, we mean whether the effect is due to any level of epidemic exposure. To capture this, we construct a binary variable based on whether the number of persons affected by epidemics during the individual’s impressionable years is positive or zero. For the intens ive margin, we limit the sample to individuals with positive epidemic exposure in their impressionable 51 Rea ders may wonder how many democracies are included among the top 2 per cent of most severe epidemics. It turns out that there a re more democracies than autocracies in this limited sa mple. Democratic ca ses include Ja pan (1978), Botswana (1988), Ba ngla desh (1991), Peru (1991), Mozambique (1992), Pa raguay (2006) a nd Haiti (2010). In Appendix Table B.17, we estimate an intera cted model a nd find that the loss of political trust is la rger in those experience windows during which the epidemic-stricken country wa s relatively more democratic. 30 years. Approximately 55 percent of respondents in our surveys have no exposure to epidemics when impressionable and hence are dropped. Table B.18 shows that the treatment works via the intensive margin. It is not simply being exposed to an epidemic that generates the effect; rather, conditional on being exposed, the severity of the epidemic drives the results. When individuals with no epidemic exposure are excluded from the sample, the estimated effects of past exposure are, if anything, larger than in the full sample. Falsification We undertake two falsification exercises. Appendix Table B.19 focuses on the GWP subsample of individuals aged 30 or above who migrated to the country of interview in the previous 5 years. These individuals did not spend their impressionable years in the country of the interview. For falsification purposes, we assume that they did so (as opposed to spending those years in their country of origin). Second, Appendix Table B.20 assigns all individuals in the full sample to a random country for the calculation of their experience during impressionable years while keeping all else the same as in Tables 2-3-4. In both cases, we find no effect of these “made-up” and “randomly-assigned” treatments on political trust. Multiple hypothesis testing We also conducted multiple hypothesis testing by employing a randomization inference technique recently suggested by Young (2019). This helps to establish the robustness of our results both for individual treatment coefficients in separate estimations and also for the null that our treatment does not have any effect across any of the outcome variables (i.e., treatment is irrelevant), taking into account the multiplicity of the hypothesis testing procedure. The method builds on repeatedly randomizing the treatment variable in each estimation and comparing the pool of randomized estimates to the estimates derived via the true treatment variable. The 31 results presented in Appendix Table B.21 show that our findings remain robust both for the individual coefficients and the joint tests of treatment significance. Excluding potential “bad controls” One might worry that some of the individual characteristics (such as household income) are themselves affected by epidemic related economic shocks. We checked for potential “bad controls” (Angrist and Pischke, 2008) by excluding these individual characterisitics. Doing so does not substantively change the point estimates for our variables of interest (see Appendix Table B.22).52 Robustness to Alternative Treatment Definitions One might be concerned that large population may increase the intensity of the epidemic as well as the intensity of the epidemic affecting the population counts (through both mortality and immigration). We, therefore, checked the robustness of our results using population unadjusted treatment variable: the number of individuals affected by an epidemic averaged over the 8 years when the individual was aged 18 to 25. The results presented in Appendix Table B.23 show that our results are robust to this alternative definition. Ruling Out Influential Observations We rule out the importance of influential observations by plotting the coefficients of our preferred specifications as one year is omitted at a time. Appendix Figure B.6 shows that our coefficient estimates are quite stable even as a specific survey year is eliminated from our main sample in each iteration. We repeat a similar analysis with Appendix Figure B.7 in which we drop one random country at a time in each estimation for 15 consecutive trials (for illustration purposes) and again find that our estimates are not driven by a ny single country.53 52 We therefore keep these controls in our ba seline specification to a void omitted variable bia s. 53 Results a re similar for dropping any country within our sample and available upon request. We ha ve also undertaken a dfbeta a nalysis (unreported here) on all three main outcome variables and confirmed that the highest absolute dfbeta value among a ll observations in our sa mple is 0.04 and 32 8. Evidence on Mechanisms Weak, unstable governments with limited legislative strength, limited unity, and limited popular support presumably are less able to mount effective responses to epidemics. If they are prone to disappointing their constituents, we would expect the effects we identify to be strongest when the government in office at the time of exposure is weak and unstable, other things equal.54 To explore this hypothesis, we use ICRG data on government strength. These data are widely used in economics (see, for example, Knack and Keefer, 1997; Chong and Gradstein, 2007; Asiedu and Lien, 2011), political science and sociology (see, for example, Evans and Rauch, 1999; Grundler and Potrafke, 2019; Souva et al., 2008). They measure, for the period since 1984, the unity of the government, its legislative strength, and its popular support.55 We expect weak governments to perform poorly in epidemics, and conjecture that individuals will downgrade their confidence in government and trust in its leaders more severely as a result. We first calculate the average score for government strength in the individual’s impressionable years. We then construct an indicator that takes the value of 1 for this past experience if the observation is in the bottom half/tercile/quartile of impressionable-year government strength index scores across all respondents.56 We include this measure of impressionable-year government strength by itself in thus much smaller tha n the sta ndard threshold of 1.00 further a lleviating the concerns about influential outliers. 54 There is va st litera ture in political science on how fragmented and weak governments (such as multiparty coalitions) are “plagued” by a gency pro blems that may distort the policymaking process (Ma rtin a nd Va nberg, 2005). An economic example of this phenomenon has been shown on coa lition governments leading to excessive public spending due to reduced electoral a ccountability on the pa rt of the government parties (Vela sco, 2000; Bawn a nd Rosenbluth, 2006). Mia n et al. (2014) illustra te that governments become more polarized a nd weaker in the a ftermath of financial crises, which is likely to produce a deadlock in the parliament and decrease the chances of major fina ncial reform. 55 Wherea s in the ICRG da taset this index is la belled government sta bility, we refer to it as government strength, since we think this is a better name for what is essentially the implementation ca pacity of the incumbent government. 56 It is crucia l to include this variable categorically ra ther than in a continuous form to make sure tha t it is unlikely to respond to changes in the pandemic experience. 33 addition to interacting it with impressionable-year epidemic exposure to distinguish epidemic-specific and general effects. This leads to the following specification: Yi, c, t, a, b = β10Exposure to epidemicicb x Government strength icb + β9Government strength icb + β0 + β1Xict + β2Exposure to epidemicicb + β3Number of people affectedct-1 + β4Cc + β5Tt + β6Aa + β7Bb + β8Cc*Age + εict (3) The effect of exposure to an epidemic in Table 6 is more than twice as large if the epidemic is experienced under a weak government. The point estimates on the weak government dummy are small in magnitude and mostly statistically insignificant. This suggests that we are identifying not a “weak government effect” per se but rather the interaction with the effect of epidemic exposure in the presence of a weak government. Figures 3-5 show further evidence of the importance of government strength at the time of the epidemic. We again restrict the observations to the 26-35 age range and re-estimate the Equation (3) when rolling the age window forward. In each figure, the top panel shows the estimates for the total effect on individuals experiencing epidemics under weak governments, while the bottom panel shows the corresponding estimates for individuals experiencing epidemics under strong governments. For all outcomes, the negative impact on trust is larger and more persistent for respondents who experienced epidemics under weak governments. Again, this is consistent with the notion that these individuals became and remained more disenchanted with their country’s political institutions and leaders, insofar as those 34 institutions and leaders failed to adequately respond to the country -wide public- health emergency.57 Health policy at the time of the epidemic Governments’ pharmaceutical interventions, in particular their vaccination policies, have played an important role in the prevention of contagious disease. 58 Using data from GWP and the Wellcome Global Monitor, we therefore analyze whether attitudes regarding the health system and vaccination are affected by exposure to an epidemic. In the top panel of Table 7, the outcome is a dummy variable indicating that the respondent has confidence in the national healthcare system (via GWP).59 In the second panel, it is a dummy indicating that the respondent agrees or strongly agrees that “vaccines are effective.” In the third panel, it is a dummy indicating the respondent agrees or strongly agrees that “vaccines are safe.” In the fourth panel, it is a dummy indicating the respondents’ “children received a vaccine” that was supposed to prevent them from getting childhood diseases such as polio, measles, or mumps. In the final panel, it is whether the respondent agrees or strongly agrees that “vaccines are important for children to have.” The specification is otherwise as in Column 4 of Table 2. The results show that here too opinions are affected negatively by impressionable- year epidemic exposure. These results suggest that the same experience causing individuals to lose confidence in society’s capacity specifically to deliver adequate health outcomes also causes them to lose confidence in the political system and its 57 An a dditional implication of Tables 3-6 is tha t even individuals experiencing epidemics under strong governments display less politica l trust in the a ftermath. This finding is consistent with a model of lea rning where citizens may ex-ante over-trust their government (independent of whether it is wea k or strong) a nd where epidemics serve a s stress tests tha t ca n reveal new (nega tive) information a bout the government, thus correcting the initia l optimism. That our findings are genera lly stronger for less-educated people (see Ta ble 5) supports such a n interpretation. 58 The U.S. Centers for Disea se Control a nd Prevention lists va ccination as one of the “Ten Great Public Hea lth Achievements in the 20th Century” because of its impact on morbidity a nd mortality (Ba rra za et a l., 2018). 59 The exa ct wording of the question is a s follows: “In this country, do you have confidence in each of the following, or not? How a bout healthcare or medical systems?” 35 leaders more generally. In line with previous findings, Table 7 then shows that the negative impact of epidemic exposure is larger in countries with democratic political systems.60 Again consistent with earlier findings, Table 8 shows that individuals exposed to an epidemic in their impressionable years have more negative perceptions of health- related government policies if the epidemic was experienced under a weak government. Note that the sample is smaller since we use the Wellcome Global Monitor (2018) and ICRG covers only part of the countries and years in in our main sample. Despite much smaller sample size, 12 of the 15 interactions here are significant at the 95% confidence level. Evidence from COVID-19 Given the absence of internationally comparable data on policy interventions in response to past epidemics, we examine the association of government strength with policy interventions in the context of COVID-19. To do so, we investigate the relationship between government strength, measured as before, and the number of days between the date of first confirmed case and the date of the first COVID-19 policy (i.e. non-pharmaceutical intervention: school closure, workplace closure, public event cancellation, public transport closure, or restrictions on within-country movement) on a large sample of countries. We also provide case studies detailing the link between government strength and policy interventions for France, South Korea and the United Kingdom in Appendix C. Our sample consists of 78 countries that adopted non-pharmaceutical interventions between January 1, 2020 and March 31, 2020. We estimate OLS models, controlling for average Google search volume one week before the policy intervention to account for the possibility that public attention to COVID -19 60 These results a re in line with Legido-Quigley et a l. (2020), who argue that the integration of specific services like va ccination into the health system a s a whole a mplifies the capacity to a bsorb a nd adapt to health crises. 36 accelerates the non-pharmaceutical response. We also control for (log) cumulative own country cases one week before the policy, (log) cumulative own country deaths one week before the policy, (log) GDP per capita, (log) urbanization rate, (log) total population, (log) share of the population age 65 and above, Polity2 score, and a dummy variable indicating whether a country experienced an epidemic since 2000. Table 9 reports the results for the full sample in Column 1, for countries with above-median Polity2 scores in Column 2, and for countries with below-median Polity2 scores in Column 3.61 Although we make no causal claims, we find that government strength is associated with a statistically significant improvement in policy response time: a one standard deviation (0.765) increase in government strength reduces policy response time by three days. 62 This is a hint of why exposure to epidemic leads to major negative revisions of confidence in governments and trust in political leaders when governments are weak. According to Column 2, a one standard deviation (0.765) increase in government strength reduces the policy response time by four days in more democratic countries (those with above-median Polity2 scores). In contrast, there is little evidence that government strength reduces the policy response time in countries with below- median Polity2 scores. It is sometimes suggested that more democratic countries, where it is necessary to build a political and social coalition in support of restrictive policies, found it more difficult to respond quickly to the outbreak of COVID -19, compared to less democratic countries where “pseudo-democratic” leaders can move unilaterally to limit traditional political and civil rights and short-circuit democratic processes.63 Evidently, government weakness is mostly a problem in democratic societies, since this is there where it translates into a greater delay and less timely intervention. 61 We ca nnot split the sa mple into democracies vs. non -democracies because we ha ve only 10 countries in the non-democracy sample. This is why we instead split the sample b y below and above the median polity score. 62 Three da ys ca n make a substantial difference in the context of COVID-19, given the infection’s high ra te of reproduction when no non-pharmaceutical intervention is put in pla ce. 63 See for exa mple the discussion in Dia mond (2020). 37 9. Evidence on Political Behavior Even if epidemic exposure in one’s impressionable years affects self-reported trust in government, elections, and political leadership, it is not obvious that it also alters actual behavior. For example, one might expect that less confidence in elections leads individuals to vote less and take more political action through non -electoral means, (by participating taking place in demonstrations, participating in boycotts and signing petitions, for example).64 GWP lacks information data on such behavior. We therefore turn to the World Values Survey (WVS) and the European Social Survey (ESS). We use all available waves of the WVS covering the period 1981 -2014, as administered in more than 80 countries, where we focus on the democracies. We also consider annual waves of the ESS for the period 2002-2018 in over 30 countries. The WVS and ESS give us as many as 103,000 and 171,000 responses, respectively, depending on the question. We estimate our baseline model (Column 4 of Table 2) on several outcome variables related to individuals’ political behaviour Some of the results, in Appendix Table B.24, are consistent with the preceding conjecture.65 ESS respondents with epidemic exposure in their impressionable years are significantly less likely to have voted in recent national elections. Both WVS and ESS respondents are significantly more likely to have attended or taken part in lawful/peaceful public demonstrations. WWS respondents are significantly more likely to have joined boycotts and signed a petition. These are the type the 64 Ea rly evidence in the context of the recent COVID-19 crisis suggests that the young generation in US is more likely to sympathise with the George Floyd protests a nd more critical of the way US government is ha ndling the health crisis (Pew Research Center, 2020). 65 Note that we are not describing the self -reported behavior of the same individuals who, we showed a bove, self-reported less confidence and trust in elections, the national government, a nd the national lea der (where one might worry, there could be selective misreporting to minimize cognitive dissona nce). Rather, we a re analyzing completely different data sets where respondents are asked a bout a ctual political behavior a nd a ctions. This fa ct makes these additional findings especially striking. 38 responses one would expect from individuals rendered less confident in elections and other conventional governmental institutions.66 10. Conclusion In this paper we have shown that experiencing an epidemic can negatively affect an individual’s confidence in political institutions and trust in political leaders, with negative implications for this collective capacity. This negative effect is statistically significant, large and persistent. Its largest and most enduring impact is on the attitudes of individuals who are in their impressionable late-adolescent and early- adult years when an epidemic breaks out. It is limited to infectious or communicable diseases, where a government's success or failure in responding is especially important. It is the largest in settings where there already exist doubts about the strength and effectiveness of government. We also find that epidemic exposure in one’s impressionable years matters mainly for residents of democratic countries. Residents in democracies sharply revise downward their confidence and trust in political institutions and leaders following significant exposure, whereas the same is not true in autocracies. It may be that citizens expect democratic governments to be responsive to their concerns and that where the public-sector response is not adequate, they revise their attitudes unfavorably. In autocracies, there may not exist a comparable expectation of responsiveness. In addition, democratic regimes may find consistent messaging more difficult. Because such regimes are open, they may allow for a cacophony of conflicting official views, resulting in a larger impact on conf idence and trust. 66 Other results a re insignificant. There is no difference in the likelihood of never voting in national elections a mong WVS respondents a s a function of impressionable year epidemic exposure. Nor is there a ny difference among WWS respondents in the likelihood of having joined unofficial strikes or occupying buildings or fa ctories. Our a nalysis of these variables is necessarily ba sed on smaller sa mples, which may account for the contrast. However, the majority of the results where we have la rger sa mples a re consistent with the idea tha t not just self -reported trust but a ctual political beha vior are a ffected by epidemic exposure in the expected manner. 39 The implications are disturbing. Imagine that more trust in government is important for effective containment, but that failure of containment harms trust in government.67 One can envisage a scenario where low levels of trust allow an epidemic to spread, and where the spread of the epidemic reduces trust in government still further, hindering the ability of the authorities to contain future epidemics and address other social problems. As Schmitt (2020) puts it, “lack of trust in government can be a circular, self -reinforcing phenomenon: Poor performance leads to deeper distrust, in turn leaving government in the hands of those with the least respect for it.” 67 A releva nt study by Ajzenman et al. (2020) examines how political lea der’s words and actions a ffect people’s behaviour in the context of COVID-19 pa ndemic. The a uthors show tha t after Bra zil’s president publicly a nd emphatically dismissed the risks a ssociated with the COVID-19 virus a nd advises against isola tion, social distancing by residents in pro-government localities fall rela tive to pla ces in which pro-government sentiment is wea ker. 40 References Aasve, A., G. Alfani, F. Gaondolfi and M. Le Moglie (2020), “Epidemics and Trust: The Case of the Spanish Flu,” unpublished manuscript, Bocconi University. 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(2019), “Channeling fisher: Randomization tests and the statistical insignificance of seemingly significant experimental re sults,” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 134(2): 557-598. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/07/09/younger-adults-differ-from-older-ones-in-perceptions-of-news-about-covid-19-george-floyd-protests/ https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/07/09/younger-adults-differ-from-older-ones-in-perceptions-of-news-about-covid-19-george-floyd-protests/ https://ourworldindata.org/burden-of-disease https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/trust-is-the-key-to-fighting-the-pandemic/ https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/trust-is-the-key-to-fighting-the-pandemic/ 46 Figure 1: Average Number of People (per million) Affected by Epidemics, 1970-2017 Notes: This figure shows the number of people a ffected by epidemics (per million), a veraged a cross a ll a vailable years. Source: EM-DAT International Disa ster Da tabase, 1970-2017, UN Popula tion Da tabase, 1970-2017, a nd a uthors’ ca lculations. 47 Figure 2: Effects of Epidemics in Impressionable Years over Subsamples with Rolling Age-Windows Note: This figure shows the persistency of the effects on three main outcome variables by restricting the observations to the respondents who a re in the 26-35 a ge range a t the time of the survey (Base sa mple) and then repeatedly rolling this age window forward by one year for ea ch separate estimation. The specification is Column 4 of Table 2 and only the estimated coefficient on Exposure to epidemic (18-25) is plotted. Confidence intervals a re a t 95% significa nce level. Source: Gallup World Polls, 2006-2018 and EM-DAT International Disa ster Da tabase, 1970-2017. 48 Figure 3: Effects of Epidemics on Confidence in Government over Subsamples with Rolling Age-windows (separately under weak and strong governments) Note: This figure shows the persistency of the effects on three main outcome varia bles by restricting the observations to the respondents who a re in the 26 -35 age ra nge a t the time of the survey (Base sa mple) a nd then repeatedly rolling this a ge window forwa rd by one yea r for ea ch separate estima tion. The specification is Equation 3/Table 6. The lower panel only plots the coefficient on Exposure to epidemic (18-25) whereas the upper panel plots the sum of the coefficients on Exposure to epidemic (18-25) a nd its intera ction with bottom qua rtile government strength dummy. Confidence intervals a re a t 95% significa nce level. Source: Ga llup World Polls, 2006-2018 a nd EM-DAT International Disa ster Da tabase, 1970-2017. 49 Figure 4: Effects of Epidemics on Approval of the Leader Over Subsamples with Rolling Age-Windows (separately under weak and strong governments) Note: This figure shows the persistency of the effects on three main outcome varia bles by restricting the observations to the respondents who a re in the 26-35 age ra nge a t the time of the survey (Base sa mple) a nd then repeatedly rolling this a ge window forwa rd by one yea r for ea ch separate estima tion. The specification is Equation 3/Table 6. The lower panel only plots the coefficient on Exposure to epidemic (18-25) whereas the upper panel plots the sum of the coefficients on Exposure to epidemic (18-25) a nd its intera ction with bottom qua rtile government strength dummy. Confidence intervals a re a t 95% significa nce level. Source: Ga llup World Polls, 2006-2018 a nd EM-DAT International Disa ster Da tabase, 1970-2017. 50 Figure 5: Effects of Epidemics on Confidence in Elections over Subsamples with Rolling Age-Windows (separately under weak and strong governments) Note: This figure shows the persistency of the effects on three main outcome varia bles by restricting the observations to the respondents who a re in the 26 -35 age ra nge a t the time of the survey (Base sa mple) a nd then repeatedly rolling this a ge window forwa rd by one yea r for ea ch separate estima tion. The specification is Equation 3/Table 6. The lower panel only plots the coefficient on Exposure to epidemic (18-25) whereas the upper panel plots the sum of the coefficients on Exposure to epidemic (18-25) a nd its intera ction with bottom qua rtile government strength dummy. Confidence intervals a re a t 95% significa nce level. Source: Ga llup World Polls, 2006-2018 a nd EM-DAT International Disa ster Da tabase, 1970-2017. 51 Table 1: Sample Characteristics (1) Va ria bles Mea n (Standard deviation) Main dependent variables Confidence in national government 0.50 (0.50) – N: 760099 Confidence in honestly of elections 0.51(0.49) – N: 736679 Approval of the lea der 0.51 (0.49) – N: 719742 Ha ve confidence in the health system 0.62 (0.49) – N: 98283 Placebo outcomes Ha ve confidence in the milita ry 0.72 (0.45) – N: 730156 Ha ve confidence in the banks 0.59 (0.49) – N: 809972 Ha ve confidence in the media 0.54 (0.50) – N: 190167 Individual-level characteristics Age 41.58 (10.41) Ma le 0.47 (0.49) Tertia ry education 0.18 (0.38) Secondary education 0.50 (0.50) Ma rried 0.63 (0.48) Urba n 0.40 (0.49) Christia n 0.57 (0.49) Muslim 0.20 (0.40) Country-level characteristics Exposure to epidemic 0.002 (0.0015) Government strength 7.33 (1.26) Notes: Mea ns (sta ndard devia tions). This ta ble provides individual a nd a ggrega te level va ria bles a veraged a cross the 13 years (2006-2018) used in the a nalysis. The sa mple sizes for some variables a re different either due to missing data or because they were not asked in every yea r. 52 Table 2: The Impact of Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) on Confidence in National Government (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Outcome ➔ Ha ve confidence in na tional government Ha ve confidence in na tional government Ha ve confidence in na tional government Ha ve confidence in na tional government Ha ve confidence in na tional government Exposure to epidemic (18-25) -1.073* -0.924 -1.614*** -1.592*** -0.508** (0.594) (0.576) (0.265) (0.262) (0.219) The number of people affected t-1 0.548 0.739 0.733 0.740 -- (3.478) (3.484) (3.457) (3.452) Country fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yea r fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Age group fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Individual income No Yes Yes Yes Yes Demogra phic characteristics No Yes Yes Yes Yes Income decile fixed effects No Yes Yes Yes Yes La bor market controls No Yes Yes Yes Yes Country*Age trends No No Yes Yes Yes Cohort fixed effects No No No Yes Yes Country*Year fixed effects No No No No Yes Observa tions 760099 760099 760099 760099 760099 R2 0.138 0.144 0.145 0.145 0.182 Mea n of outcome 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 Notes: * significa nt at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant a t 1%. Outcome is a dummy variable indicating that the respondent has confidence in “national government”. Exposure to epidemic (18-25) defined as the a verage per ca pita number of people a ffected by an epidemic when the respondent wa s in their impressionable years (18-25 years). The number of people affected refers to people requiring immediate assistance during a period of emergency (tha t is, requiring ba sic survival needs such as food, wa ter, shelter, sa nitation, a nd immediate medical a ssistance). Demographic characteristics include: a male dummy, a dummy for ea ch age group, dummy variables for marital sta tus (single, married), educational a ttainment (tertiary education, secondary education), religion dummies (Christia n, Muslim, and other religions), employment status (full-time employed, part-time employed, unemployed), a dummy variable for living in a n urban area a nd presence of children in the household (a ny child under 15). Income decile fixed-effects a re constructed by grouping individuals into deciles ba sed on their income rela tive to other individuals within the same country a nd year. Individual income includes a ll wa ges a nd salarie s in the household, remittances from fa mily members living elsewhere, and all other sources before taxes. Gallup converts local income to International Dolla rs using the World Bank’s individual consumption PPP conversion factor, which makes it comparable a cross a ll countries. Results use the Ga llup sa mpling weights a nd robust standard errors are clustered a t the country level. Source: Ga llup World Polls, 2006-2018 and EM-DAT International Disa ster Da tabase, 1970-2017. 53 Table 3: The Impact of Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) on Approval of the Leader (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Outcome ➔ Approval of the lea der Approval of the lea der Approval of the lea der Approval of the lea der Approval of the lea der Exposure to epidemic (18-25) -1.521*** -1.501*** -1.916*** -1.957*** -0.583*** (0.380) (0.369) (0.326) (0.330) (0.118) The number of people affected t-1 0.201 0.184 0.141 0.120 -- (2.696) (2.735) (2.710) (2.712) Country fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yea r fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Age group fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Individual income No Yes Yes Yes Yes Demogra phic characteristics No Yes Yes Yes Yes Income decile fixed effects No Yes Yes Yes Yes La bor market controls No Yes Yes Yes Yes Country*Age trends No No Yes Yes Yes Cohort fixed effects No No No Yes Yes Country*Year fixed effects No No No No Yes Observa tions 719742 719742 719742 719742 719742 R2 0.127 0.132 0.133 0.133 0.182 Mea n of outcome 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 Notes: * significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%. Outcome is a dummy variable indicating that the res pondent approves “the job performance of the lea der”. Exposure to epidemic (18-25) defined as the a verage per ca pita number of people a ffected by a n epidemic when the respondent wa s in their impressionable years (18-25 years). The number of people affected refers to people requiring immediate assistance during a period of emergency (that is, requiring ba sic survival needs such a s food, wa ter, shelter, sa nitation, a nd immediate medical a ssistance). Demographic characteristics include: a male dummy, a dummy for ea ch a ge group, dummy variables for marital sta tus (single, ma rried), educational a ttainment (tertiary education, seconda ry education), religion dummies (Christia n, Muslim, and other religions), employment status (full-time employed, part-time employed, unemployed), a dummy variable for living in a n urban area a nd presence of children in the household (any child under 15). Income d ecile fixed-effects are constructed by grouping individuals into deciles based on their income relative to other individuals within the same country and year. Individual income includes a ll wa ges and sa laries in t he household, remittances from family members living elsewhere, and all other sources before taxes. Gallup converts local income to International Dolla rs using the World Bank’s individual consumption PPP conversion factor, which makes it comparable across a ll countries. Results use the Gallup sampling weights a nd robust standard errors are clustered at the country level. Source: Ga llup World Polls, 2006 -2018 and EM-DAT International Disa ster Database, 1970-2017. 54 Table 4: The Impact of Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) on Confidence in Elections (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Outcome ➔ Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) -1.643** -1.481* -2.226*** -2.258*** -1.181*** (0.794) (0.811) (0.341) (0.339) (0.273) The number of people affected t-1 -3.734* -3.582 -3.645* -3.625* -- (2.203) (2.187) (2.195) (2.182) Country fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yea r fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Age group fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Individual income No Yes Yes Yes Yes Demogra phic characteristics No Yes Yes Yes Yes Income decile fixed effects No Yes Yes Yes Yes La bor market controls No Yes Yes Yes Yes Country*Age trends No No Yes Yes Yes Cohort fixed effects No No No Yes Yes Country*Year fixed effects No No No No Yes Observa tions 736679 736679 736679 736679 736679 R2 0.137 0.144 0.146 0.146 0.178 Mea n of outcome 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 Notes: * significa nt at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%. Outcome is a dummy variable indicating that the res pondent has confidence in “honesty of elections”. Exposure to epidemic (18-25) defined a s the a verage per ca pita number of people a ffected by an epidemic when the respondent wa s in their impressionable years (18-25 years). The number of people affected refers to people requiring immediate assistance during a period of emergency (that is, requiring ba sic survival needs such as food, wa ter, shelter, sa nitation, a nd immediate medical a ssistance). Demographic characteristics include: a male dummy, a dummy for ea ch age group, dummy variables for marital sta tus (single, married), educational a ttainment (tertiary education, seconda ry education), religion dummies (Christia n, Muslim, and other religions), employment status (full-time employed, part-time employed, unemployed), a dummy variable for living in a n urban area a nd presence of children in the household (a ny child under 15). Income decile fixed-effects a re constructed by grouping individuals into deciles ba sed on their income rela tive to other individuals within the same country a nd year. Individual income includes a ll wa ges a nd salaries in t he household, remittances from fa mily members living elsewhere, and all other sources before taxes. Gallup converts local income to International Dolla rs using the World Ba nk’s individual consumption PPP conversion factor, which makes it comparable across a ll countries. Results use the Ga llup sa mpling weights a nd robust standard errors are clustered a t the country level. Source: Ga llup World Polls, 2006-2018 and EM-DAT International Disa ster Da tabase, 1970-2017. 55 Table 5: Heterogeneity (1) (2) (3) Coefficient on Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) (sta ndard error) Coefficient on Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) (sta ndard error) Coefficient on Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) (sta ndard error) Outcome ➔ Ha ve confidence in na tional government Approval of the lea der Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Full sa mple -1.592*** (0.262) -1.957*** (0.330) -2.258*** (0.339) Ma les -1.153** (0.470) -1.351** (0.528) -2.014*** (0.379) Fema les -2.042*** (0.416) A -2.516*** (0.545) A -2.551*** (0.413) Low-income countries -11.181 (7.577) -20.701* (11.546) -11.753*** (4.145) High-income countries -1.212*** (0.262) -1.503*** (0.260) A -1.773*** (0.343) A Less tha n degree level -1.657*** (0.285) -1.753*** (0.295) -2.249*** (0.330) Degree level education 0.658 (1.242) A -5.120*** (1.328) A -1.071 (0.816) A Rura l -1.518*** (0.268) -1.377*** (0.265) -1.967*** (0.357) Urba n -3.015*** (0.781)A -6.195*** (1.452) A -4.049*** (0.893) A Low-income HH -0.226 (0.341) -0.112 (0.339) -2.527*** (0.485) Middle-income HH -3.015*** (0.781) -3.140*** (1.008) -2.207** (0.869) High-income HH -0.854* (0.457) -3.572*** (0.455) -1.559*** (0.389) Democratic countries -1.884*** (0.249) -1.587*** (0.301) -2.514*** (0.287) Non-democratic countries 3.097 (2.497) A 2.061 (2.529) A 0.880 (3.480) A Notes: * significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%. Specification is Column 4 of Table 2. See notes to Table 2. A indicates statistically significant difference in each pair of means at p<.05. Results use the Ga llup sampling weights and robust standard errors a re clustered at the country level. Source: Gallup World Polls, 2006-2018 and EM-DAT International Disa ster Da tabase, 1970-2017. 56 Table 6: The Role of Government Strength (1) (2) (3) Outcome ➔ Ha ve confidence in na tional government Approval of the lea der Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Exposure to epidemic (18-25)*MedianGov.Strength -4.033*** -1.092 -2.987*** (0.876) (0.849) (0.618) Exposure to epidemic (18-25) -0.235 -3.018*** -1.901** (1.038) (1.044) (0.833) Media nGov.Strength 0.014* 0.015* -0.000 (0.008) (0.009) (0.007) Exposure to epidemic (18-25)*BottomTercileGov.Strength -3.919*** -2.230*** -4.863*** (0.719) (0.629) (0.559) Exposure to epidemic (18-25) -1.048 -2.514*** -1.183* (0.808) (0.693) (0.698) BottomTercileGov.Strength 0.013* 0.023*** 0.002 (0.008) (0.008) (0.007) Exposure to epidemic (18-25)*BottomQuartileGov.Strength -3.578*** -2.027*** -4.643*** (0.748) (0.542) (0.521) Exposure to epidemic (18-25) -1.289 -2.657*** -1.373* (0.889) (0.640) (0.800) BottomQuartileGov.Strength -0.000 0.010 -0.002 (0.008) (0.010) (0.008) Observa tions 422523 394323 412051 R2 0.136 0.115 0.136 Notes: * significa nt a t 10%; ** significant a t 5%; *** significa nt a t 1%. The specification is Equation 3. See Ta bles 2-3-4 for va riable definitions. Results reported in each column a nd panel come from separate models. Results use the Ga llup sampling weights a nd robust standard errors are clustered at the country level. Source: Ga llup World Polls, 2006-2018, EM-DAT International Disa ster Database, 1970-2017, a nd the International Country Risk Guide. 57 Table 7: Impact of Exposure (Ages 18-25) on Attitudes towards Healthcare (1) (2) (3) Full-sa mple Democratic countries Non-democratic counties Outcome ➔ Confidence in healthcare Confidence in healthcare Confidence in healthcare Exposure to epidemic (18-25) -6.760*** (1.270) -6.543*** (1.649) -5.964 (4.084) Observa tions R2 95732 0.092 72793 0.098 22939 0.172 Outcome ➔ Va ccines are effective Va ccines are effective Va ccines are effective Exposure to epidemic (18-25) -1.178** (0.564) -1.699*** (0.554) -0.596 (0.470) Observa tions R2 81930 0.092 52638 0.072 25258 0.139 Outcome ➔ Va ccines are sa fe Va ccines are sa fe Va ccines are sa fe Exposure to epidemic (18-25) -1.685 (1.039) -2.703*** (0.672) -0.618* (0.341) Observa tions R2 81847 0.142 52612 0.117 25195 0.202 Outcome ➔ Children received a va ccine Children received a va ccine Children received a va ccine Exposure to epidemic (18-25) -0.339 (0.847) -1.432*** (0.417) 0.941 (0.650) Observa tions R2 67125 0.049 42415 0.056 21477 0.038 Outcome ➔ Va ccines are important for children to have Va ccines are important for children to have Va ccines are important for children to have Exposure to epidemic (18-25) -0.525 (0.566) -1.037* (0.549) -0.009 (0.295) Observa tions R2 83666 0.091 53623 0.084 25928 0.110 Notes: * significa nt a t 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%. Outcome is a dummy variable indicating tha t: the respondent a grees or strongly a grees that “vaccines a re effective” in the top panel; the respondent agrees or strongly a grees that “vaccines are safe” in the second panel; the respondent reports that their “children received a va ccine” that was supposed to prevent them from getting childhood diseases such as (such a s polio, measles or mumps),” in the third panel; the respondent agrees o r strongly a grees that “vaccines a re important for children to ha ve” in the bottom panel. Exposure to epidemic (18 -25) defined as the average per capita number of people affected by a n epidemic when the respondent was in their impressionable years (18-25 years). The number of people affected refers to people requiring immediate a ssistance during a period of emergency (that is, requiring ba sic survival needs such a s food, wa ter, shelter, sanitation, a nd immediate medical a ssistance). Each specification inclu des country-fixed effects, year-fixed effects, demographic (a ma le dummy, a dummy for ea ch a ge group, dummy va riables for educational a ttainment (tertiary education, secondary education), religion dummies (Christian, Muslim, a nd other religions), a nd la bor market (full-time employed, pa rt-time employed, unemployed) characteristics, within-country income-deciles, dummy varia bles for living in a n urban area a nd presence of children in the household (a ny child under 15). Results use the Ga llup sampling weights a nd robust standard errors a re clustered at the country level. Source: the Wellcome Global Monitor, 2018 and EM-DAT International Disa ster Database, 1970-2017, a nd Polity5. 58 Table 8: The Role of Government Strength and Attitudes toward Healthcare and Vaccination (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Outcome ➔ Ha ve confidence in hea lthcare Va ccines are effective Va ccines are sa fe Children received a va ccine Va ccines are important for children to ha ve Exposure to epidemic (18-25)*MedianGov.Strength -16.783 0.862 -3.554** -3.253*** -3.084*** (29.181) (0.981) (1.772) (0.610) (0.777) Exposure to epidemic (18-25) 1.071 -3.112*** -2.033 0.855 0.806 (35.099) (0.824) (1.843) (0.810) (0.777) Media nGov.Strength 0.023** -0.013* -0.011 -0.005 -0.003 (0.011) (0.007) (0.009) (0.004) (0.005) Exposure to epidemic (18-25)*BottomTerc.Gov.Strength -19.117 -1.815** -5.386*** -1.526*** -2.337*** (27.583) (0.762) (1.585) (0.405) (0.797) Exposure to epidemic (18-25) -3.716 -0.921 -1.090 -0.577 0.056 (26.485) (1.046) (1.510) (0.586) (0.585) BottomTercileGov.Strength 0.001 -0.004 -0.006 -0.005 -0.007 (0.009) (0.007) (0.008) (0.005) (0.006) Exposure to epidemic (18-25)*BottomQuar.Gov.Strength -49.140** -2.142*** -5.987*** -1.926*** -2.058** (23.329) (0.723) (2.099) (0.529) (1.024) Exposure to epidemic (18-25) 8.549 -1.057 -0.776 -0.350 -0.179 (20.633) (0.740) (1.722) (0.703) (0.776) BottomQuartileGov.Strength 0.004 0.005 -0.002 -0.001 -0.002 (0.010) (0.007) (0.008) (0.005) (0.005) Observa tions 49517 49799 49779 38702 50791 R2 0.110 0.078 0.133 0.048 0.091 Notes: * significa nt at 10%; ** significant a t 5%; *** significant a t 1%. The specification is Equation 3. See Table 7 for variable definitions. Results reported in each column and panel come from separate models. Results use the sampling weights and robust standard errors are clustered at the country level. Source: EM-DAT International Disa ster Da tabase, 1970- 2017, the Wellcome Global Monitor, 2018, and International Country Risk Guide. 59 Table 9: Government Strength and Policy Response Time to COVID-19 (1) (2) (3) Sa mple ➔ Full-sa mple Above Median Polity Score Below Media n Polity Score Government strength -3.611** (1.731) -5.357** A (2.560) -.0837 (2.077) [-2.764] [-4.231] [-0.062] Continent fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Country characteristics Yes Yes Yes Avera ge Google search volume one week before the policy Yes Yes Yes (log) cumulative own country cases one week before the policy Yes Yes Yes (log) cumulative own country deaths one week before the policy Yes Yes Yes Observa tions 78 39 39 Notes: * significa nt a t 10%; ** significant a t 5%; *** significant a t 1%. OLS regressions. Outcome variable is the number of days between the date of the first confirmed case and the date of the first COVID-19 policy (i.e. non-pharmaceutical intervention: school closure, workplace closure, public event ca ncella tion, public tra nsport closure, or restrictions on within -country movement) in the own country. Government strength is a n a ssessment of both the government’s ability to carry out its declared programs and its a bility to stay in office. It ra nges between 12 (maximum score) a nd 0 (minimum scor e) with higher scores indica ting better quality. Country characteristics include (log) GDP per ca pita, (log) urba nization ra te, (log) tota l popula tion, (log) share of population age 65 a nd a bove, Polity Score, a nd a dummy variable indicating whether a country experienced any epidemic since 2000. We a dd 1 to every country observation and then apply a logarithmic transformation. Bracket s report point estimates for one standard deviation (0.765) increase in government strength index. Robust standard errors are clustered at the country level. A indicates statistically significant differences between the pair estimates. The sa mple consists of 78 countries that ever-adopted non-pharmaceutical policy between 1/1/2020 and 31/03/2012. Source: EM-DAT, European Centre for Disea se Prevention Control, Google, Polity V, Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tra cker, the International Country Risk Guide, World Ba nk. 60 Appendix A: Additional Data and Sources International Country Risk Guide Our data on institutional quality are from the International Country Risk Guide (ICRG). This measures 12 political and social attributes for approximately 140 countries from 1984 to the present. We focus on government strength, which is an assessment both of the government’s ability to carry out its declared programs and its ability to stay in office.68 Specifically, the index score is the sum of three subcomponents: (i) Government Unity; (ii) Legislative Strength; and (iii) Popular Support. In the original ICRG dataset, this measure is called as government stability. Throughout the paper, we refer to government stability as government strength as it captures the policy-making strength of the incumbent government. Scores for government strength range from a maximum of 12 and a minimum of 0. Wellcome Global Monitor The Wellcome Global Monitor (WGM) is a nationally representative survey fielded in some 160 countries in 2018. It is a global survey of how people think and feel about key health and science challenges, including attitudes towards vaccines and trust in doctors, nurses and scientists. WGM also provides information on respondents’ demographic and labor market characteristics. We use the Wellcome Global Monitor (WGM) to explore the mechanisms underlying our findings, and specifically whether these run through attitudes and feeling about the public health response to epidemics. Google Trends We use Google Trends data on searches to measure public attention paid to the COVID-19 pandemic. More specifically, we collected data on the volume of Google searches for “corona; korona; Wuhan virus; COVID; COVID -19,” translating these search terms into the official language of each country. We 68 Other institutional qua lity index measures cover democratic a ccountability, socioeconomic conditions, investment profile, internal conflict, external conflict, corruption, milita ry in politics, religious tensions, la w a nd order, ethnic tensions, and bureaucracy quality. 61 assemble these data on a daily basis at the country level for the period from January 1 through March 31, 2020. Observations are scaled from 0 (lowest attention) to 100 (highest attention). We exclude 21 countries where the internet is classified as “not free” according to Freedom House (2019). COVID-19 Related Cases and Deaths We obtain daily data on the coronavirus related cases and deaths by country from the European Center for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) and the Johns Hopkins Coronavirus Resource Center (JHCRC). There are minor reporting differences between the two sources. We use both datasets and create our measures of cases and deaths using the maximum value re ported in either dataset. Government Policy Responses We rely on the Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tracker (OxCGRT) for information on public policy responses to the outbreak ( Hale et al., 2020). Specifically, we use the information on the following responses: (i) closing of schools and universities; (ii) workplace closures; (iii) public event cancellations; (iv) closing of public transport; (v) restrictions on internal movement. We again gather these data for the period between January 1, and March 31, 2020. Communicable and Non-communicable Diseases We distinguish communicable diseases (diarrhea, lower respiratory, other common infectious diseases, malaria and neglected tropical d iseases, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, other communicable diseases) from non -communicable diseases (cardiovascular diseases, cancers, respiratory disease, diabetes, blood and endocrine diseases, mental and substance use disorders, liver diseases, digestive diseases, musculoskeletal disorders, neurological disorders, other non- communicable diseases) using data from the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation. These data are at the country-level data and cover the period 1990- 2016. These measures are population -adjusted and expressed in Disability Adjusted Life Years Lost (DALYs), which is a standardized metric allowing for direct comparison and summing of burdens of different diseases (Roser and Ritchie, 62 2020). Conceptually, one DALY is the equivalent of one year in good health lost to premature mortality or disability (Murray et al. 2015). Country Characteristics Data on GDP per capita and urbanization rate come from the World Bank. We obtain the data on the total population and population by age from the Uni ted Nations. Data on political regime characteristics are from the Polity5 Series , with scores ranging from -10 to +10. We define 5 and above democracies. Political Behaviour We use the World Values Survey (WVS) and the European Social Survey (ESS) to measure political behavior. We use all available waves of the World Values Survey from 1981 to 2014. The dataset covers more than 80 countries and we use 6 variables to capture political behavior. In particular, questions aim to capture some forms of political action that people can take and asked as follows: please indicate whether you have done any of these things, whether you might do it or would never under any circumstances do it: (i) attending lawful/peaceful demonstrations; (ii) the respondent signing petition; (iii) joining in boycotts; (v) occupying buildings or factories; (vi) joining unofficial strikes. We code “have done” and “might do” as 1 and zero otherwise. We also use the question on whether the respondent vot ed in recent parliament elections. Additional data on political behavior come from the 2002 -2018 European Social Surveys. These surveys are fielded biannually in over 30 European countries. The key outcome variables we use come from questions asked to all ESS respondents: (i) during the last 12 months, have you taken part in a lawful public demonstration?; (ii) did you vote in the last national election? We code “yes” as 1 and zero otherwise. 63 The Cross-National Time-Series (CNTS) Data We use the following variables from CNTS data to control for individuals’ past domestic political experiences. The variable definitions are as follows: (i) Assassinations: any politically motivated murder or atte mpted murder of a high government official or politician; (ii) General Strikes: any strike of 1,000 or more industrial or service workers that involves more than one employer and that is aimed at national government policies or authority; (iii) Terrorism/Guerrilla Warfare: any armed activity, sabotage, or bombings carried on by independent bands of citizens or irregular forces and aimed at the overthrow of the present regime. A country is also considered to have terrorism/guerrilla war when sporadic bombing, sabotage, or terrorism occurs; (iv) Purges: any systematic elimination by jailing or execution of political opposition within the ranks of the regime or the opposition; (v) Riots: any violent demonstration or clash of more than 100 citizens involving the use of physical force; (vi) Revolutions: any illegal or forced change in the top government elite, any attempt at such a change, or any successful or unsuccessful armed rebellion whose aim is independence from the central government; (vii) Anti-government Demonstrations: any peaceful public gathering of at least 100 people for the primary purpose of displaying or voicing their opposition to government policies or authority, excluding demonstrations of a distinctly anti-foreign nature. 64 Appendix B: Additional Evidence and Analysis Appendix Figure B.1: Share of Respondents Who Have Confidence in Honesty of Elections Notes: This figure shows the share of respondents who have confidence in honesty of elections, a veraged a cross all a vaila ble years. Source: Ga llup World Polls, 2006 -2018. Appendix Figure B.2: Share of Respondents Who Have Confidence in National Government Notes: This figure shows the share of respondents who have confidence in na tional government, a veraged a cross all a vaila ble years. Source: Ga llup World Polls, 2006 -2018. 65 Appendix Figure B.3: Share of Respondents Who Approve the Performance of the Leader Notes: This figure shows the share of respondents who a pprove the performance of the lea der, a veraged a cross all a vaila ble years. Source: Ga llup World Polls, 2006 -2018. 66 Appendix Figure B.4: Effects of Epidemics in Alternative Treatment Years Panel A: Dependent variable is the average of all three outcome variables Panel B: Dependent variable is the 1 st principal component of responses Notes: This figure shows the trea tment effect for various a ge bands. Tha t is, we ca lcula te for each individual the number of people affected by an epidemic a s a share of the population, a veraged over the 8 years when the individual wa s 2-9 years old, 10-17 years old, 18-25 years old, a nd 26-33 years old. Each point estimate comes from four separate models. Specification is Column 5 of Table 2. Confidence intervals a re at 95% significance level. Results use the Gallup sampling weights a nd robust standard errors are clustered at the country level. Source: Ga llup World Polls, 2006-2018 a nd EM-DAT International Disa ster Da tabase, 1970-2017. 67 Appendix Figure B.5: Short-term Effect of Epidemics on Political Trust Note: Epidemic year corresponds to the year in which World Health Organisation (WHO) declared one of the following pandemic/epidemic outbreaks for the country in which Gallup respondent resides: SARS, H1N1, MERS, Ebola, or Zika. Specification is the same as in Equation 2. Confidence intervals are at 90% significance level. Results use the Gallup sampling weights and robust standard errors are clustered at the country level. Source: Gallup World Polls, 2006-2018 and Ma et al., 2020. 68 Appendix Figure B.6: Robustness to Dropping One Year at a Time Note: This figure shows the point estimates on Exposure to epidemic (18-25) variable on three main outcome variables while dropping one sample year at a time. The specificatio n is Column 4 of Tables 2, 3 and 4. Only the estimated coefficient on Exposure to epidemic (18-25) is plotted. Confidence intervals are at 95% significance level. Source: Gallup World Polls, 2006-2018 and EM-DAT International Disaster Database, 1970-2017. 69 Appendix Figure B.7: Robustness to Dropping One Country at a Time Note: This figure shows the point estimates on Exposure to epidemic (18-25) variable on three main outcome variables while randomly dropping one sample country at a time. The specification is Column 4 of Tables 2, 3 and 4. Only the estimated coefficient on Exposure to epidemic (18-25) is plotted. Confidence intervals are at 95% significance level. Source: Gallup World Polls, 2006-2018 and EM-DAT International Disaster Database, 1970-2017. 70 Appendix Table B.1: Persistency of the Effect (1) (2) (3) Outcome variable ➔ Ha ve confidence in na tional government Approval of the Leader Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) -19.683*** (4.340) -18.251* (10.260) -17.498** (7.159) Exposure to Epidemic (18-25)*Age 0.464*** (0.104) 0.418* (0.250) 0.391** (0.167) The number of people affected t-1 0.649 (3.432) 0.039 (2.698) -3.693* (2.174) Country fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yea r fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Age group fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Individual income Yes Yes Yes Demogra phic characteristics Yes Yes Yes Income decile fixed effects Yes Yes Yes La bor market controls Yes Yes Yes Country*Age trends Yes Yes Yes Cohort fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Observations R2 760099 0.145 719742 0.133 736679 0.146 Notes: * significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%. Outcome is a dummy variable indicating that the res pondent has confidence in “honesty of elections”. Exposure to epidemic (18-25) defined as the average per capita number of people affected by an epidemic when the respondent was in their impressionable years (18-25 years). The number of people affected refers to people requiring immediate assistance during a period of emergency (that is, requiring basic survival needs such as food, water, shelter, sanitation, and immediate medical assistance). Demographic characteristics include: a male dummy, a dummy for each age group, dummy variables for marital status (single, married), educational attainment (tertiary education, secondary education), religion dummies (Christian, Muslim, and other religions), employment status (full-time employed, part-time employed, unemployed), a dummy variable for living in an urban area and presence of children in the household (any child under 15). Income decile fixed-effects are constructed by grouping individuals into deciles based on their income relative to other individuals within the same country and year. Individual income includes all wages and salaries in the household, remittances from family members living elsewhere, and all other sources before taxes. Gallup converts local income to International Dollars using the World Bank’s individual consumption PPP conversion factor, which makes it comparable across all countries. Results use the Gallup sampling weights and robust standard errors are clustered at the country level. Source: Gallup World Polls, 2006-2018 and EM-DAT International Disaster Database, 1970-2017. 71 Appendix Table B.2: Robustness to Controlling for Other Economic and Political Shocks (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Outcome ➔ Have confidence in national government Have confidence in national government Approval of the leader Approval of the leader Have confidence in honesty of elections Have confidence in honesty of elections Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) -3.589*** -3.417*** -3.926*** -3.944*** -4.373*** -4.219*** (0.585) (0.787) (0.487) (0.746) (0.636) (0.0849) The number of people affected t-1 0.847 0.876 0.872 0.698 -3.308* -3.354* (3.183) (3.019) (2.419) (2.218) (1.851) (1.701) Government strength (18-25) -- -0.001 -- -0.012* -- 0.006 (0.005) (0.007) (0.005) Socioeconomic conditions (18-25) -- -0.018*** -- -0.007 -- -0.018*** (0.006) (0.007) (0.006) Investment profile (18-25) -- 0.007 -- 0.010* -- 0.002 (0.006) (0.006) (0.006) Internal conflict (18-25) -- -0.007 -- -0.013** -- -0.002 (0.005) (0.006) (0.005) External conflict (18-25) -- 0.002 -- -0.001 -- 0.006 (0.005) (0.006) (0.004) Corruption (18-25) -- -0.009 -- -0.010 -- -0.005 (0.010) (0.010) (0.009) Military in politics (18-25) -- 0.021** -- 0.019* -- 0.010 (0.009) (0.011) (0.009) Religious tensions (18-25) -- -0.003 -- -0.005 -- -0.003 (0.011) (0.014) (0.010) Law and order (18-25) -- 0.030** -- 0.045** -- 0.041*** (0.015) (0.017) (0.014) Ethnic tensions (18-25) -- 0.011 -- 0.013 -- 0.005 (0.008) (0.010) (0.007) Democratic accountability (18-25) -- -0.005 -- -0.009 -- -0.016** (0.007) (0.010) (0.006) Bureaucracy quality (18-25) -- -0.017 -- -0.024 -- -0.022 (0.016) (0.021) (0.014) Observations R2 422523 0.136 422523 0.137 408564 0.139 408564 0.140 412051 0.137 412051 0.137 Notes: * significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%. Specification is Column 4 of Table 2. See notes to Table 2. Results use the Gallup sampling weights and robust standard errors are clustered at the country level. Source: Gallup World Polls, 2006-2018, EM-DAT International Disaster Database, 1984-2017, and ICRG 1984-2017. 72 Appendix Table B.3: Robustness to Controlling for Other Economic and Political Shocks (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Outcome ➔ Have confidence in national government Have confidence in national government Approval of the leader Approval of the leader Have confidence in honesty of elections Have confidence in honesty of elections Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) -1.879*** -1.743*** -2.274*** -2.204*** -2.519*** -2.185*** (0.502) (0.632) (0.515) (0.576) (0.348) (0.544) The number of people affected t-1 3.118** 3.077** 1.634 1.478 -1.900** -1.825** (1.374) (1.381) (1.540) (1.505) (0.800) (0.811) Assassinations (18-25) -- 0.006 -- 0.008* -- 0.002 (0.005) (0.004) (0.005) General Strikes (18-25) -- 0.010 -- 0.012 -- 0.005 (0.007) (0.009) (0.007) Terror./Guerrilla Warfare (18-25) -- -0.023* -- -0.015 -- -0.024** (0.012) (0.020) (0.011) Purges (18-25) -- 0.021 -- 0.035* -- 0.019 (0.015) (0.018) (0.015) Riots (18-25) -- -0.003 -- -0.000 -- -0.001 (0.004) (0.006) (0.003) Revolutions (18-25) -- 0.014 -- -0.006 -- 0.019* (0.013) (0.014) (0.011) Anti-gov. Demons. (18-25) -- -0.002 -- -0.001 -- -0.001 (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) GDP Growth (18-25) -- 0.001 -- 0.002 -- 0.001 (0.002) (0.002) (0.001) GDP Per Ca pita (18-25) -- -0.000 -- 0.000* -- -0.000 (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) Infla tion (18-25) -- 0.000 -- 0.000 -- 0.000 (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) Polity (18-25) -- -0.001 -- -0.001 -- 0.001 (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) Observations R2 429204 0.134 429204 0.134 398284 0.123 398284 0.123 415441 0.159 415441 0.159 Notes: * significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%. Specification is Column 4 of Table 2. See notes to Table 2. Results use the Gallup sampling weights and robust standard errors are clustered at the country level. Source: Gallup World Polls, 2006-2018, EM-DAT International Disaster Database, 1970-2017, and CNTS 1970-2017. 73 Appendix Table B.4: Robustness to Controlling for Other Economic and Political Shocks (Ages 10-17) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Outcome ➔ Have confidence in national government Have confidence in national government Approval of the leader Approval of the leader Have confidence in honesty of elections Have confidence in honesty of elections Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) -3.478*** -2.205* -5.000*** -3.627*** -4.496*** -3.839*** (1.182) (1.153) (0.813) (1.040) (1.132) (1.002) The number of people affected t-1 0.795 1.060 0.426 0.315 -3.149* -3.017** (3.111) (2.672) (2.351) (1.957) (1.667) (1.258) Government strength (10-17) -- 0.002 -- -0.017** -- 0.010 (0.007) (0.008) -0.007 Socioeconomic conditions (10-17) -- -0.010 -- 0.006 -- -0.011 (0.009) (0.012) -0.008 Investment profile (10-17) -- -0.005 -- -0.002 -- -0.012 (0.009) (0.012) -0.008 Internal conflict (10-17) -- -0.003 -- -0.003 -- -0.011* (0.007) (0.007) -0.006 External conflict (10-17) -- -0.008 -- -0.019*** -- -0.002 (0.006) (0.007) -0.006 Corruption (10-17) -- -0.009 -- -0.015 -- -0.015 (0.015) (0.015) -0.015 Military in politics (10-17) -- 0.035* -- 0.034* -- 0.016 (0.014) (0.017) -0.012 Religious tensions (10-17) -- -0.036** -- -0.051** -- -0.034** (0.017) (0.020) -0.015 Law and order (10-17) -- 0.037** -- 0.059*** -- 0.049*** (0.019) (0.022) -0.016 Ethnic tensions (10-17) -- 0.015 -- 0.033** -- 0.012 (0.011) (0.016) -0.012 Democratic accountability (10-17) -- 0.001 -- -0.007 -- 0.004 (0.013) (0.016) -0.012 Bureaucracy quality (10-17) -- -0.036* -- -0.048** -- -0.03 (0.019) (0.024) -0.019 Observations R2 274953 0.135 274953 0.137 257901 0.113 257901 0.116 268600 0.135 268600 0.137 Notes: * significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%. Specification is Column 4 of Table 2. See notes to Table 2. Results use the Gallup sampling weights and robust standard errors are clustered at the country level. Source: Gallup World Polls, 2006-2018, EM-DAT International Disaster Database, 1984-2017, and ICRG 1984-2017. 74 Appendix Table B.5: Robustness to Controlling for Other Economic and Political Shocks (Ages 10-17) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Outcome ➔ Have confidence in national government Have confidence in national government Approval of the leader Approval of the leader Have confidence in honesty of elections Have confidence in honesty of elections Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) -1.622*** -1.639*** -2.465*** -2.811*** -2.657*** -2.748*** (0.349) (0.537) (0.419) (0.596) (0.277) (0.430) The number of people affected t-1 3.236** 3.230*** 1.501 1.378 -2.348*** -2.277*** (1.254) (1.197) (1.279) (1.205) (0.647) (0.645) Assassinations (10-17) -- 0.006 -- 0.016 -- 0.012** (0.010) (0.013) (0.005) General Strikes (10-17) -- 0.028** -- 0.047*** -- 0.022** (0.013) (0.012) (0.010) Terror./Guerrilla Warfare (10-17) -- -0.042* -- -0.061** -- -0.004 (0.025) (0.027) (0.022) Purges (10-17) -- 0.012 -- 0.010 -- 0.02 (0.022) (0.021) (0.019) Riots (10-17) -- -0.001 -- -0.014 -- -0.005 (0.006) (0.008) (0.005) Revolutions (10-17) -- -0.054*** -- -0.039* -- -0.037** (0.019) (0.022) (0.015) Anti-gov. Demons. (10-17) -- -0.005 -- 0.003 -- 0.001 (0.007) (0.005) (0.005) GDP Growth (10-17) -- 0.003 -- 0.004 -- 0.004* (0.002) (0.003) (0.002) GDP Per Ca pita (10-17) -- -0.000 -- 0.000 -- -0.000 (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) Infla tion (10-17) -- 0.000 -- 0.000 -- 0.000 (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) Polity (10-17) -- -0.001 -- -0.004 -- -0.003 (0.002) (0.003) (0.002) Observations R2 315587 0.126 315587 0.127 293751 0.116 293751 0.117 306094 0.158 306094 0.159 Notes: * significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%. Specification is Column 4 of Table 2. See notes to Table 2. Results use the Gallup sampling weights and robust standard errors are clustered at the country level. Source: Gallup World Polls, 2006-2018, EM-DAT International Disaster Database, 1970-2017, and CNTS 1970-2017. 75 Appendix Table B.6: Robustness to Controlling for Other Economic and Political Shocks and Country*Year Fixed Effects (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Outcome ➔ Have confidence in national government Have confidence in national government Approval of the leader Approval of the leader Have confidence in honesty of elections Have confidence in honesty of elections Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) -0.613** -0.577** -0.502** -0.529** -1.269*** -1.293*** (0.253) (0.286) (0.197) (0.259) (0.191) (0.192) Government strength (18-25) -- 0.002 -- 0.006*** -- 0.002 (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) Socioeconomic conditions (18-25) -- -0.002 -- -0.001 -- -0.003 (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) Investment profile (18-25) -- 0.002 -- 0.002 -- 0.001 (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) Internal conflict (18-25) -- -0.002 -- -0.001 -- 0.003 (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) External conflict (18-25) -- 0.001 -- 0.002 -- 0.002 (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) Corruption (18-25) -- -0.005* -- -0.003 -- -0.003 (0.003) (0.003) (0.003) Military in politics (18-25) -- -0.002 -- -0.000 -- 0.002 (0.003) (0.003) (0.003) Religious tensions (18-25) -- 0.002 -- 0.007** -- -0.003 (0.003) (0.003) (0.004) Law and order (18-25) -- 0.003 -- -0.004 -- 0.006 (0.004) (0.004) (0.004) Ethnic tensions (18-25) -- 0.002 -- 0.000 -- -0.002 (0.003) (0.002) (0.003) Democratic accountability (18-25) -- -0.002 -- 0.001 -- -0.009*** (0.002) (0.003) (0.003) Bureaucracy quality (18-25) -- 0.009 -- 0.011* -- 0.009* (0.006) (0.006) (0.005) Observations R2 422523 0.174 422523 0.174 408564 0.166 408564 0.166 412051 0.170 412051 0.170 Notes: * significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%. Specification is Column 5 of Table 2 country*year fixed effects. See notes to Table 2. Results use the Gallup sampling weights and robust standard errors are clustered at the country level. Sour ce: Gallup World Polls, 2006-2018, EM-DAT International Disaster Database, 1984-2017, and ICRG 1984-2017. 76 Appendix Table B.7: Robustness to Controlling for Other Economic and Political Shocks and Country*Year Fixed Effects (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Outcome ➔ Have confidence in national government Have confidence in national government Approval of the leader Approval of the leader Have confidence in honesty of elections Have confidence in honesty of elections Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) -0.630*** -0.607*** -0.765*** -0.623*** -1.346*** -1.198*** (0.184) (0.217) (0.158) (0.200) (0.159) (0.205) Assassinations (18-25) -- -0.001 -- 0.000 -- -0.004 (0.003) (0.002) (0.003) General Strikes (18-25) -- 0.002 -- -0.000 -- -0.003 (0.004) (0.005) (0.004) Terror./Guerrilla Warfare (18-25) -- -0.002 -- -0.006 -- -0.015*** (0.006) (0.004) (0.005) Purges (18-25) -- 0.025* -- 0.025 -- 0.007 (0.013) (0.018) (0.016) Riots (18-25) -- -0.003 -- 0.000 -- -0.001 (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) Revolutions (18-25) -- 0.016** -- 0.009 -- 0.021*** (0.007) (0.007) (0.007) Anti-gov. Demons. (18-25) -- 0.001 -- -0.001 -- 0.001 (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) GDP Growth (18-25) -- 0.000 -- 0.001** -- 0.000 (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) GDP Per Ca pita (18-25) -- -0.000 -- 0.000** -- 0.000 (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) Infla tion (18-25) -- 0.000 -- 0.000 -- 0.000 (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) Polity (18-25) -- -0.001 -- 0.000 -- 0.001 (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) Observations R2 429204 0.134 429204 0.170 398284 0.171 398284 0.171 415441 0.192 415441 0.192 Notes: * significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%. Specification is Column 5 of Table 2. See notes to Table 2. Results use the Gallup sampling weights and robust standard errors are clustered at the country level. Source: Gallup World Polls, 2006-2018, EM-DAT International Disaster Database, 1970-2017, and CNTS 1970-2017. 77 Appendix Table B.8: Robustness to Omitted Variables Bias (1) (2) (3) Outcome variable ➔ Ha ve confidence in na tional government Approval of the Leader Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Panel A: Estimation model: Columns 2, 4 and 6 of Appendix Table B.2, which controls for various past economic and political shocks Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) -3.417*** (0.787) -3.944*** (0.746) -4.219*** (0.849) Bounds on the treatment effect (δ=1, Rmax=1.3*R) (-3.417, -3.844) (-3.944, -4.120) (-4.219, -4.635) Trea tment effect excludes 0 Yes Yes Yes Delta (Rmax=1.3*R) 11.60 24.24 19.02 Panel B: Estimation model: Columns 2, 4 and 6 of Appendix Table B.3, which controls for various past economic and political shocks Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) -1.743*** (0.632) -2.204*** (0.576) -2.185*** (0.544) Bounds on the treatment effect (δ=1, Rmax=1.3*R) (-1.743, -1.943) (-2.204, -2.317) (-2.185, -2.556) Trea tment effect excludes 0 Yes Yes Yes Delta (Rmax=1.3*R) 12.72 21.34 12.34 Notes: * significa nt a t 10%; ** significant a t 5%; *** significant a t 1%. Bounds on the Exposure to Epidemic (18 -25) effect are ca lculated using Stata code psa calc, which calculates estimates of treatment effects a nd relative degree of selection in linea r models a s proposed in Oster (2019). Delta, δ, ca lculates a n estimate of the proportional degree of selection given a maximum value of the R -squared. Rmax specifies the maximum R-squared which would result if a ll unobservables were included in the regressio n. We define Rmax upper bound as 1.3 times the R -squared from the main specification tha t controls for a ll observables. Oster’s delta indicates the degree of selection on unobservables relative to observables t hat would be needed to fully expla in our results by omitted variable bias. Results use the Gallup sampling weights and robust standard errors a re clustered a t the country level. Source: Ga llup World Polls, 2006-2018 and EM-DAT International Disa ster Database, 1970-2017. 78 Appendix Table B.9: Placebo Outcomes (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Outcome ➔ Have confidence in the military Have confidence in banks Have confidence in media Have relatives or friends to count on Have helped to a stranger Exposure to epidemic (18-25) -0.542 0.147 -0.652 0.290 0.021 (0.442) (0.193) (0.610) (0.851) (0.281) The number of people affected t-1 2.210 0.118 -10.208** -1.134** -1.390 (3.284) (2.038) (4.817) (0.456) (1.796) Country fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yea r fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Age group fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Individual income Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Demogra phic characteristics Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Income decile fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes La bor market controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Country*Age trends Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Observa tions 730156 809972 190167 902066 889981 R2 0.141 0.136 0.104 0.122 0.074 Notes: * significa nt at 10%; ** significant a t 5%; *** significant a t 1%. Outcome is a dummy varia ble indicating tha t the respondent ha s confidence in “milita ry”; “ba nks a nd fina ncial institutions”; “media freedom”. The specification is Column 4 of Table 2. See notes to Table 2. Results use the Gallup sampling weights and robust standard errors are clustered at the country level. Source: Ga llup World Polls, 2006-2018 a nd EM-DAT International Disaster Da ta base, 1970-2017. 79 Appendix Table B.10: The Impact of Exposure to Epidemic (Ages 18-25) on the Average of All Three Outcome Variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Outcome ➔ Avera ge of a ll three outcome variables Avera ge of a ll three outcome variables Avera ge of a ll three outcome variables Avera ge of a ll three outcome variables Avera ge of a ll three outcome variables Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) -1.365** -1.248** -1.855*** -1.867*** -0.705*** (0.565) (0.539) (0.264) (0.264) (0.155) The number of people affected t-1 -0.854 -0.779 -0.801 -0.803 -- (3.086) (3.065) (3.056) (3.051) Country fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yea r fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Age group fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Individual income No Yes Yes Yes Yes Demogra phic characteristics No Yes Yes Yes Yes Income decile fixed effects No Yes Yes Yes Yes La bor market controls No Yes Yes Yes Yes Country*Age trends No No Yes Yes Yes Cohort fixed effects No No No Yes Yes Country*Year fixed effects No No No No Yes Observa tions 636156 636156 636156 636156 636156 R2 0.169 0.178 0.180 0.180 0.230 Notes: * significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%. Outcome is a n average of all three main dependent variables: “honesty of elections”; “confidence in national government”; “approval of the leader”. Exposure to epidemic (18-25) defined a s the average per ca pita number of people a ffected by an epidemic when the respondent was in their impressionable years (18-25 years). The number of people affected refers to people requiring immediate assistance during a period of emergency (that is, requiring basic survival needs such a s food, wa ter, shelter, sanitation, a nd immediate medical a ssistance). Demographic cha racteristics include: a male dummy, a dummy for ea ch age group, dummy variables for marital sta tus (single, ma rried), educational a ttainment (tertiary education, secondary education), religion dummies (Christia n, Muslim, a nd other religions), employment sta tus (full-time employed, pa rt-time employed, unemployed), a dummy variable for living in a n urban area and presence of children in the household (a ny child under 15). Inc ome decile fixed-effects are constructed by grouping individuals into deciles based on their income relative to other in dividuals within the same country and year. Individual income includes a ll wa ges a nd salaries in the household, remittances from family members living elsewhere, a nd a ll other sources before ta xes . Ga llup converts local income to International Dolla rs using the World Bank’s individual consumption PPP conversion factor, which makes it comparable a cross all countries. Results use the Ga llup sa mpling weights and robust standard errors are clustered a t the country level. Source: Gallup World Polls, 2006 -2018 and EM-DAT International Disaster Da ta base, 1970-2017. 80 Appendix Table B.11: The Impact of Exposure to Epidemic (Ages 18-25) on the 1st Principal Component of Responses (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Outcome ➔ the 1st Principa l Component of Responses the 1st Principa l Component of Responses the 1st Principa l Component of Responses the 1st Principa l Component of Responses the 1st Principa l Component of Responses Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) -4.672** -4.269** -6.361*** -6.400*** -2.378*** (1.932) (1.841) (0.914) (0.913) (0.531) The number of people affected t-1 -2.619 -2.353 -2.424 -2.431 -- (10.804) (10.730) (10.694) (10.677) Country fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yea r fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Age group fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Individual income No Yes Yes Yes Yes Demogra phic characteristics No Yes Yes Yes Yes Income decile fixed effects No Yes Yes Yes Yes La bor market controls No Yes Yes Yes Yes Country*Age trends No No Yes Yes Yes Cohort fixed effects No No No Yes Yes Country*Year fixed effects No No No No Yes Observa tions 636156 636156 636156 636156 636156 R2 0.169 0.178 0.180 0.180 0.230 Notes: * significa nt at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%. Outcome is the 1st Principa l Component of responses to the main dependent variables: “honesty of elections”; “confidence in na tional government”; “approval of the lea der”. Exposure to epidemic (18-25) defined a s the a verage per ca pita number of people affected by an epidemic when the respondent wa s in their impressionable years (18-25 years). The number of people affected refers to people requiring immediate a ssistance during a period of emergency (that is, requiring ba sic survival needs such a s food, wa ter, shelter, sa ni tation, a nd immediate medical a ssista nce). Demographic characteristics include: a male dummy, a dummy f or ea ch a ge group, dummy variables for marital status (single, married), educational a ttainment (tertiary education, secondary education), religion dummies (Christian, Muslim, a nd other religions), employment s tatus (full-time employed, part- time employed, unemployed), a dummy variable for living in a n urban a rea a nd presence of children in the household (a ny child under 15). Income decile fixed- effects a re constructed by grouping individuals into deciles based on their income rela tive to other individuals within the sa me country a nd year. Individual income includes all wa ges a nd sa laries in the household, remittances from family members living elsewhere, a nd a ll other sour ces before taxes. Ga llup converts loca l income to International Dolla rs using the World Bank’s individual consumption PPP conversion factor, which makes it comparable a cross a ll countries. Results use the Ga llup sampling weights a nd robust standard errors a re clustered at the country level. Source: Ga llup World P olls, 2006-2018 and EM-DAT International Disa ster Da tabase, 1970-2017. 81 Appendix Table B.12: Robustness to Using Comparable Samples (i.e. sample of individuals who have responded to all 7 questions) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Outcome ➔ Have confidence in national government Approval of the Leader Have confidence in honesty of elections Have confidence in the military Have confidence in the banks Have relatives or friends to count on Have helped to a stranger The number of people affected (18-25) -0.570** -0.420*** -1.282*** -0.374 0.598** 0.454 -0.095 (0.242) (0.112) (0.224) (0.291) (0.249) (0.577) (0.239) Observa tions 558299 558299 558299 558299 558299 558299 558299 Country fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yea r fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Age group fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Individual income Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Demogra phic characteristics Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Income decile fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes La bor market controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Country*Age trends Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Country*Year fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Notes: * significa nt a t 10%; ** significant a t 5%; *** significant at 1%. Results use the Ga llup sampling weights a nd robust standard errors a re clustered at the country level. Source: Gallup World Polls, 2006-2018 and EM-DAT International Disa ster Da tabase, 1970-2017. 82 Appendix Table B.13: Robustness to Alternative Epidemic Exposure Measure - Exposure to SARS, H1N1, MERS, Ebola, or Zika (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Coefficient on Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) (sta ndard error) Coefficient on Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) (sta ndard error) Coefficient on Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) (sta ndard error) Coefficient on Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) (sta ndard error) Coefficient on Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) (sta ndard error) Outcome ➔ Ha ve confidence in na tional government Approval of the lea der Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Avera ge of a ll three outcome variables the 1st Principa l Component of Responses Sa mple: Democratic countries -0.022 (0.020) -0.044*A (0.024) -0.041**A (0.017) -0.038** (0.019) -0.132**A (0.066) Observa tions R2 106530 0.137 102838 0.108 103551 0.135 94695 0.171 94695 0.171 Sa mple: Non-democratic countries 0.029 (0.021) 0.029* (0.016) 0.022 (0.022) 0.030* (0.016) 0.104* (0.056) Observa tions R2 47796 0.187 44273 0.183 45566 0.192 37849 0.254 37849 0.253 Notes: * significa nt a t 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant a t 1%. Exposure to epidemic (18 -25) takes a value of 1 if the respondent experienced SARS, H1N1, MERS, Ebola , or Zika when the respondent was in their impressionable years (18-25 years). Specification is Column 4 of Table 2. See notes to Table 2. Results use the Gallup sampling weights and robust standard errors are clustered at the country level. A indica tes statistically significant difference in ea ch pair of means a t p<.05. Source: Ga llup World Polls, 2006-2018 a nd Ma et a l., 2020. 83 Appendix Table B.14: Contemporaneous Effects of Pandemic on Political Trust (1) (2) (3) Outcome ➔ Ha ve confidence in na tional government Approval of the lea der Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections La gged pandemic -0.028* -0.037** -0.015 (0.016) (0.018) (0.018) Country fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yea r fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Age group fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Individual income Yes Yes Yes Demogra phic characteristics Yes Yes Yes Income decile fixed effects Yes Yes Yes La bor market controls Yes Yes Yes Country*Age trends Yes Yes Yes Cohort fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Country*Year fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Observa tions R2 987864 0.142 931469 0.131 950827 0.147 Notes: * significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%. Specification is Equation 2. Results use the Gallup sampling weights a nd robust standard errors a re clustered at the country level. Source: Gallup World Polls, 2006-2018 a nd Ma et a l., 2020. 84 Appendix Table B.15: Impact of Communicable and Non-Communicable Diseases on the Political Trust (1) (2) (3) Sa mple ➔ Full-sa mple Democratic countries Non-democratic counties Outcome ➔ Ha ve confidence in na tional government Ha ve confidence in na tional government Ha ve confidence in na tional government Exposure to communicable dis. (18-25) -0.368** (0.152) -0.426** (0.213) -0.054 (0.209) Exposure to non-communicable dis. (18-25) 0.175 (0.303) 0.132 (0.407) 0.037 (0.373) Observa tions R2 389882 0.157 267544 0.125 109651 0.182 Outcome ➔ Approval of the lea der Approval of the lea der Approval of the lea der Exposure to communicable dis. (18-25) -0.111 (0.179) -0.152 (0.263) -0.043 (0.252) Exposure to non-communicable dis. (18-25) 0.123 (0.336) 0.125 (0.545) 0.184 (0.369) Observa tions R2 370749 0.140 256154 0.099 100751 0.177 Outcome ➔ Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Exposure to communicable dis. (18-25) -0.515*** (0.176) -0.533** (0.243) -0.032 (0.207) Exposure to non-communicable dis. (18-25) 0.553* (0.305) 0.525 (0.379) 0.191 (0.373) Observa tions R2 377838 0.147 259328 0.130 106387 0.194 Notes: * significa nt at 10%; ** significant a t 5%; *** significant at 1%. Exposure to communicable diseases (18-25) ta kes a value of 1 if the respondent experienced communicable diseases (dia rrhea, lower respira tory, other common infectious diseases, malaria & neglected tropical diseases, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, other communicable diseases). Exposure to non-communicable diseases (18-25) ta kes a value of 1 if the respondent experienced non-communicable disea ses (ca rdiovascular diseases, ca ncers, respira tory disease, dia betes, blood a nd endocrine diseases, mental and substance use disorders, liver diseases, digestive diseases, musculoskeletal disorders, neurological disorders, other non- communicable diseases). Both measures a re population-adjusted a nd expressed in terms of Disability Adjusted Life Years Lost (DALYs), which is a sta ndardized metric a llowing for direct comparison a nd summing of burdens of different diseases. Conceptually, one DALY is the equivalent of one year in good health lost due to premature mortality or disa bility. Specification is Column 4 of Table 2. See notes to Table 2. Results use the Gallup sampling weights and robust standard errors are clustered at the country level. A indica tes statistically significant difference in each pair of means a t p<.05. Source: Gallup World Polls, 2006-2018 a nd Institute for Health Metrics a nd Evaluation, 1990 -2016 85 Appendix Table B.16: The Impact of Exposure to Epidemic (Ages 18-25) on Political Trust by Exposure Thresholds (1) (2) (3) Coefficient on Dummy Va riable (sta ndard error) Coefficient on Dummy Va riable (sta ndard error) Coefficient on Dummy Va riable (sta ndard error) Outcome ➔ Ha ve confidence in na tional government Approval of the lea der Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Ba seline - Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) -1.592*** (0.262) -1.957*** (0.330) -2.258*** (0.339) Top 0.5 per cent (exposure to epidemic, 18-25) -0.144*** (0.041) -0.131*** (0.038) -0.147*** (0.054) Top 1 per cent (exposure to epidemic, 18-25) -0.097** (0.038) -0.084** (0.040) -0.112*** (0.034) Top 2 per cent (exposure to epidemic, 18-25) -0.054** (0.024) -0.051** (0.023) -0.061*** (0.023) Top 5 per cent (exposure to epidemic, 18-25) 0.001 (0.016) -0.007 (0.021) -0.014 (0.014) Notes: * significa nt a t 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%. Specification is Column 4 of Table 2. Results reported in ea ch panel come from sepa rate models. Threshold dummies in ea ch row a re defined based on the continuous treatment variable (Exposure to Epidemic, 18-25). See notes to Ta ble 2. Results use the Gallup sampling weights and robust standard errors are clustered at the country level. Source: Ga llup World Polls, 2006-2018 and EM-DAT International Disa ster Database, 1970-2017. 86 Table B.17: The Role of Democracy at the Time of the Epidemic (1) (2) (3) Outcome ➔ Ha ve confidence in na tional government Approval of the lea der Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Exposure to epidemic (18-25) * Democracy (18-25) -4.199** -3.624 -3.379** (1.685) (3.143) (1.592) Exposure to epidemic (18-25) -1.504*** -2.112*** -2.110*** (0.420) (0.419) (0.406) Democracy (18-25) 0.007 -0.003 0.015 (0.010) (0.011) (0.010) Observa tions 523072 489155 504686 R2 0.140 0.127 0.154 Notes: * significa nt a t 10%; ** significant a t 5%; *** significa nt a t 1%. The specification is Equation 3. See Ta bles 2 -3-4 for va riable definitions. Results reported in each column come from separate models. Results use the Gallup sa mpling weights a nd robust standard errors are clustered at the country level. Source: Ga llup World Polls, 2006-2018, EM-DAT International Disa ster Da tabase, 1970-2017, a nd the Polity5 dataset. 87 Appendix Table B.18: Impact of Exposure to Epidemics (Ages 18-25) on Political Trust – Intensive and Extensive Margins (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Intensive margin Intensive margin Intensive margin Extensive margin Extensive margin Extensive margin Outcome ➔ Ha ve confidence in na tional government Approval of the lea der Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Ha ve confidence in na tional government Approval of the lea der Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) -2.779*** -3.241*** -3.329*** -0.001 -0.009*** 0.001 (0.519) (0.735) (0.505) (0.003) (0.003) (0.003) The number of people affected t-1 -0.004 -0.450 -3.463 0.773 0.138 -3.574 (4.959) (4.043) (2.779) (3.457) (2.718) (2.182) Observa tions R2 351733 0.138 340226 0.119 342209 0.133 760099 0.145 719742 0.133 736679 0.146 Notes: * significa nt a t 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant a t 1%. For intensive margin, the sa mple is restricted to respondents with a ny epidemic experience in their impressionable years, a nd models a re re-estimated a s in Column 4 of Ta ble 2 . For extensive margin, Exposure to Epidemic (18-25) is re- defined a s a dummy taking the value of 1 when the continuous version is positive a nd zero otherwise ; a nd models a re re-estimated over the full sa mple as in Column 4 of Table 2. See notes to Table 2. Results use the Gallup sampling weights and robust standard errors are clustered at the country level. Source: Gallup World Polls, 2006-2018 and EM-DAT International Disa ster Da tabase, 1970-2017. 88 Appendix Table B.19: Impact of “Made-up” Exposure on Immigrants’ Political Trust (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Outcome ➔ Ha ve confidence in na tional government Approval of the lea der Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Avera ge of a ll three outcome variables the 1st Principa l Component of Responses Exposure to epidemic (18-25) -0.919 -5.915 -0.205 -1.475 -5.229 (2.100) (3.601) (2.639) (1.688) (5.994) The number of people affected t-1 -10.238 -13.867 -13.788 -6.929 -24.679 (15.302) (15.535) (16.258) (11.686) (41.658) Observa tions 4639 4306 4118 3611 3611 R2 0.229 0.229 0.282 0.322 0.321 Notes: * significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%. Specification is Column 4 of Table 2. Exposure to epidemic (18-25) defined as the average per ca pita number of people a ffected by an epidemic when the respondent wa s in their impressionable years (18 -25 years). The number of people affected refers to people requiring immediate a ssistance during a period of emergency (that is, requiring ba sic survival needs such a s food, wa ter, she lter, sa nitation, a nd immediate medical a ssista nce). Demographic characteristics include: a male dummy, a dummy for each a ge group, dummy variables for marital statu s (single, married), educational a ttainment (tertia ry education, secondary education), religion dummies (Christ ia n, Muslim, a nd other religions), employment status (full-time employed, pa rt-time employed, unemployed), a dummy variable for living in a n urban a rea a nd presence of children in the household (a ny child under 15). Income decile fixed-effects a re constructed by grouping individuals into deciles ba sed on their income rela tive to other individuals within the same country and year. Indiv idual income includes a ll wa ges and salaries in the household, remittances from family members living elsewhere, a nd all oth er sources before taxes. Gallup converts local income to International Dolla rs using the World Ba nk’s individual consumption PPP conversion factor, which makes it comparable a cross all countries. Results use the Ga llup s ampling weights and robust standard errors a re clustered at the country level. Source: Ga llup World Polls, 2006 -2018 a nd EM-DAT International Disa ster Da tabase, 1970-2017. 89 Appendix Table B.20: Impact of “Randomly-Assigned” Exposure on Political Trust (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Outcome ➔ Ha ve confidence in na tional government Approval of the lea der Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Avera ge of a ll three outcome variables the 1st Principa l Component of Responses Exposure to epidemic (18-25) 0.210 -0.250 -0.238 -0.040 -0.109 (0.390) (0.488) (0.439) (0.389) (1.348) The number of people affected t-1 0.734 0.320 -3.609* -0.625 -1.802 (3.450) (2.660) (2.157) (2.996) (10.483) Observa tions 668022 632661 647417 559274 559274 R2 0.146 0.133 0.145 0.180 0.180 Notes: * significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%. Specification is Column 4 of Table 2. Exposure to epidemic (18-25) defined as the average per ca pita number of people a ffected by an epidemic when the respondent wa s in their impressionable years (18 -25 years). The number of people affected refers to people requiring immediate a ssistance during a period of emergency (that is, requiring ba sic survival needs such a s food, wa ter, she lter, sa nitation, a nd immediate medical a ssista nce). Demographic characteristics include: a male dummy, a dummy for each a ge group, dummy variables for marital statu s (single, married), educational a ttainment (tertia ry education, secondary education), religion dummies (Christ ia n, Muslim, a nd other religions), employment status (full-time employed, pa rt-time employed, unemployed), a dummy variable for living in a n urban a rea a nd presence of children in the household (a ny child under 15). Income decile fixed-effects a re constructed by grouping individuals into deciles ba sed on their income rela tive to other individuals within the same country and year. Indiv idual income includes a ll wa ges and salaries in the household, remittances from family members living elsewhere, a nd all oth er sources before taxes. Gallup converts local income to International Dolla rs using the World Ba nk’s individual consumption PPP conversion factor, which makes it comparable a cross all countries. Results use the Ga llup s ampling weights and robust standard errors a re clustered at the country level. Source: Ga llup World Polls, 2006 -2018 a nd EM-DAT International Disa ster Da tabase, 1970-2017. 90 Appendix Table B.21: Multiple Hypothesis Testing (1) (2) (3) Outcome ➔ Ha ve confidence in na tional government Approval of the lea der Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Exposure to epidemic (18-25) -1.592*** -1.957*** -2.258*** (0.262) (0.330) (0.339) The number of people affected t-1 0.740 0.120 -3.625* (3.452) (2.712) (2.182) Country fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yea r fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Age group fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Individual income Yes Yes Yes Demogra phic characteristics Yes Yes Yes Income decile fixed effects Yes Yes Yes La bor market controls Yes Yes Yes Country*Age trends Yes Yes Yes Cohort fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Observa tions 760099 719742 736679 R2 0.145 0.133 0.146 Mea n of outcome 0.50 0.51 0.51 Ra ndomization-c p-values 0.020** 0.007*** 0.007*** Ra ndomization-t p-values 0.006*** 0.007*** 0.007*** Ra ndomization-c p-values (joint test of treatment significance) 0.008*** Ra ndomization-t p-values (joint test of treatment significance) N/A Ra ndomization-c p-values (Westfall-Young multiple testing of treatment significance) 0.013** Ra ndomization-t p-values (Westfall-Young multiple testing of treatment significance) 0.003*** Notes: * significa nt a t 10%; ** significant a t 5%; *** significa nt a t 1%. Randomization-t technique does not produce p-values for the joint test of trea tment significance. Results a re derived from 100 iterations. Specification is Column 4 of Ta bles 2 -3-4. Results use the Ga llup sa mpling weights a nd robust standard errors a re clustered at the country level. Source: Ga llup World Polls, 2006-2018 a nd EM-DAT International Disa ster Da tabase, 1970-2017 91 Appendix Table B.22: Robustness to Excluding Potentially Bad Controls (1) (2) (3) (4) Outcome ➔ Ha ve confidence in na tional government Ha ve confidence in na tional government Ha ve confidence in na tional government Ha ve confidence in na tional government Exposure to epidemic (18-25) -1.073* -1.733*** -1.728*** -0.506** (0.594) (0.262) (0.258) (0.223) The number of people affected t-1 0.548 0.576 0.581 -- (3.478) (3.453) (3.450) Observa tions 760099 760099 760099 760099 Outcome ➔ Approval of the Leader Approval of the Leader Approval of the Leader Approval of the Leader Exposure to epidemic (18-25) -1.521*** -1.933*** -1.991*** -0.580*** (0.380) (0.313) (0.316) (0.123) The number of people affected t-1 0.201 0.177 0.151 -- (2.696) (2.675) (2.679) Observa tions 719742 719742 719742 719742 Outcome ➔ Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Exposure to epidemic (18-25) -1.643** -2.322*** -2.367*** -1.117*** (0.794) (0.362) (0.355) (0.255) The number of people affected t-1 -3.734* -3.775* -3.754* -- (2.203) (2.211) (2.198) Observa tions 736679 736679 736679 736679 Country fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yea r fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Age group fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Country*Age trends No Yes Yes Yes Cohort fixed effects No No Yes Yes Country*Year fixed effects No No No Yes Notes: * significa nt at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%. Results use the Ga llup sampling weights a nd robust standard errors a re clustered at the country level. Source: Ga llup World Polls, 2006 -2018 and EM-DAT International Disa ster Database, 1970-2017. 92 Appendix Table B.23: Robustness to Alternative Treatment (i.e., Population Unadjusted Number of Affected People) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Outcome ➔ Ha ve confidence in the government Approval of the Leader Ha ve confidence in honesty of elections Avera ge of a ll three outcome variables the 1st Principa l Component of Responses Exposure to epidemic (18-25) -0.081*** -0.100** -0.090*** -0.091*** -0.313*** (0.029) (0.043) (0.014) (0.030) (0.105) The number of people affected t-1 0.139** 0.223*** 0.035 0.136*** 0.479*** (0.060) (0.068) (0.039) (0.048) (0.170) Country fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yea r fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Age group fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Individual income Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Demogra phic characteristics Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Income decile fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes La bor market controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Country*Age trends Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Observa tions 770836 731758 746610 644795 644795 R2 0.149 0.135 0.146 0.184 0.184 Notes: * significa nt at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant a t 1%. Results use the Gallup sampling weights a nd robust standard errors a re clustered at the country level. Source: Gallup World Polls, 2006-2018 and EM-DAT International Disa ster Da tabase, 1970-2017. 93 Appendix Table B.24: Evidence on Political Behaviour (1) (2) (3) (4) Outcome is ➔ WWS - Attending la wful/peaceful demonstrations WWS – Never voted in na tional elections ESS - Ta ken part in a la wful public demonstration ESS - Voted in recent na tional elections Exposure to epidemic (18-25) 16.412* (9.736) 5.488 (7.014) 53.041** (12.811) -134.497** (59.276) The number of people affected t-1 -14.926 (19.588) -0.005 (0.011) 10.109 (127.553) -270.948** (116.562) Observa tions 103681 32448 171889 128836 R2 0.127 0.101 0.051 0.110 Outcome is ➔ WWS - Signed a petition WWS - Joined in boycotts WWS – Occupied buildings or fa ctories WWS - Joined unofficial strikes Exposure to epidemic (18-25) 18.944** (7.811) 19.322** (9.176) -2.481 (5.330) -4.982 (8.972) The number of people affected t-1 -16.000 (25.386) -1.362 (18.196) -7.416 (13.027) 21.980 (15.969) Observa tions 103851 101088 39440 71851 R2 0.226 0.198 0.081 0.132 Notes: * significa nt a t 10%; ** significant a t 5%; *** significant a t 1%.. Exposure to epidemic (18-25) defined as the average per capita number of people a ffected by an epidemic when the respondent wa s in their impressionable years (18 -25 years). The number of people a ffected refers to people requiring immediate a ssistance during a period of emergency (that is, requiring ba sic survival needs such as food, wa ter, shelter, sa nitation, a nd immediate med ical a ssista nce). Demographic characteristics include: a male dummy, a dummy for ea ch a ge group, dummy variables for marital sta tu s (single, ma rried), educational a ttainment (tertiary education, secondary education), religion dummies (Christian, Muslim, a nd other religions), employment status (full-time employed, part-time employed, unemployed), a dummy varia ble for living in a n urban area and presence of children in the household (any child under 15). Income decile fixed-effects are constructed by grouping individuals into deciles based on their income rela tive to other individuals within the s ame country a nd year. Results use the sampling weights and robust standard errors a re clustered a t the country -wave level. Source: World Va lues Survey (WVS), 1981- 2014; European Social Survey (ESS), 2002-2018); and EM-DAT International Disa ster Da tabase, 1970-2017. 94 Appendix C: Case Studies on the Association of Government Strength with Policy Interventions in the Context of COVID-19 Appendix Figures C.1-C.3 show COVID-19 related developments in South Korea, France, and the United Kingdom. We choose these countries because they followed very different trajectories in terms of public attention, policy interventions, and the spread of the virus. South Korea, France, and the United Kingdom are broadly similar in terms of their GDP per capita, urbanization, and population age structure (median age in all three countries is roughly 41). But they differ in terms of government strength: the ICRG score is 8.25 for Sou th Korea, 7.5 for France, and 6 for the United Kingdom.69 The figures show the number of confirmed COVID-19 cases and deaths, public attention to COVID-19 as measured by Google Trends, and the date of the first non -pharmaceutical intervention (school closure, workplace closure, public event cancellation, public transport closure, or restrictions on within-country movement in the own country). We also report the number of days between the date of the first confirmed case and the date of the first COVID- 19 non-pharmaceutical intervention. In South Korea, public attention rose rapidly after the first domestic case. The government responded within 11 days of the first case with domestic interventions aimed at curbing the epidemic. In France and the UK, in contrast, public attention remained low for several weeks after the first reported case. In France, domestic restrictions were imposed only after 36 days, while the UK government waited 45 days before imposing the first restrictions. These slow reactions were associated with rapid growth in confirmed cases and deaths in both countries. Simple comparisons among countries are complicated by the existence of other influences, such as past exposure to epidemics.70 Still, these comparisons are suggestive of the idea that government strength is positively associated with the speed of response to the outbreak. 69 The rela tively low score for the UK may come a s a surprise to readers but it is worth noting that: (i) it registered a significa nt fall since the Brexit Referendum (8.46 wa s the 2015 score); (ii) ICRG’s government strength score include points for government unity, legisla tive strength a nd popular support. That the UK ha s had minority and coa lition governments may therefore a ccount for its ra nking. Recent anecdotal evidence a lso reflects the low government strength score of the UK. For exa mple, As the Economist wrote in June, 2020: “The painful conclusion is that Britain has the wrong sort of government for a pandemic—and, in Boris Johnson, the wrong sort of prime minister. Bea ting the coronavirus calls for a ttention to detail, consistency a nd implementation, but they a re not his forte.” See: https://www.economist.com/leaders/2020/06/18/britain-has-the-wrong-government-for-the-covid-crisis 70 Thus, it ha s been suggested that Asian countries responded quickly because of their past experience with Avian flu. 95 Appendix Figure C.1: COVID-19 Related Developments in South Korea ICRG Government Strength score: 8.25 Note: This figure shows daily measures of public a ttention to COVID-19 measured a s the share of Google searchers (left axis) a nd the number of COVID-19 cases and deaths (right a xis), a s well a s the dates of the first ca se, first death, and first policy in South Korea. Source: Google Trends (1/1/2020-31/3/2010), JHCRC (1/1/2020-31/3/2010), a nd ICRG (2018). 96 Appendix Figure C.2: COVID-19 Related Developments in France ICRG Government Strength score: 7.5 Note: This figure shows da ily measures of public a ttention to COVID-19 measured as the share of Google searchers (left a xis) and the number of COVID-19 cases and deaths (right a xis), a s well a s the da tes of the first case, first death, and first policy in Fra nce. Source: Google Trends (1/1/2020-31/3/2010), JHCRC (1/1/2020-31/3/2010), a nd ICRG (2018). 97 Appendix Figure C.3: COVID-19 Related Developments in the United Kingdom ICRG Government Strength score: 6 Note: This figure shows daily measures of public a ttention to COVID-19 measured as the share of Google searchers (left axis) a nd the number of COVID-19 cases a nd deaths (right a xis), a s well a s the da tes of the first case, first death, a nd first policy in the United Kingdom . Source: Google Trends (1/1/2020-31/3/2010), JHCRC (1/1/2020-31/3/2010), a nd ICRG (2018). 
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work_35tdszo5tfbp7d563wugu7do2y	----	Book reviews Book reviews Mania-An Evolving Concept. Edited by Robert H Belmaker, HM van Praag. (Pp 393; £18-95.) Lancaster: MTP Press Ltd. 1981. The aim of this book, according to the forthright statement with which it opens, is "to be a 23-chapter comprehensive textbook on manic illness". How well does it achieve these avowed objectives? There is no problem with the first: 23 chapters are indeed listed in the table of contents, and duly appear in sequence within the book itself. There is, however, much less certainty about it being com- prehensive. For example, it provides only the most sketchy advice concerning treatment, scant mention is made of recent observations on the changes in neuro- endocrine activity which occur during the course of a manic illness, and there is little on the range of rating scales available for assessing the severity of a manic illness in a given patient before and after treat- ment. Despite these shortcomings this book has a number of very good sections. The two reviews on the genetics of mania by Fischer, and by Gershon and Rieder are excellent; the chapter on biochemical theories by Post are thoughtful and thought-provoking, as is that on the possible role of cholinergic mechanisms in the pathogenesis of mania by Janowsky and Davis. The extremely long chapter by Robbins and Sahakian on animal models is exhaustive, everything that needed to be said on this topic is said. I also enjoyed Carpenter and Stephen's chapter on diagnosis, finding their warning against overdiagnosing mania at the expense of schizophrenia a timely one; the pendulum of diagnostic fashion has possibly swung too far in that direction. In addition to these more weighty topics there is an evocative anthology of self-descriptions by patients of what it is like to be manic; a chapter on the relationship of creativity to cyclothymia, and a final chapter devoted to describing the strange career of a seventeenth-century manic-depressive rabbinical scholar. In summary, I consider this book to be excellent in parts, but wanting in others; it can be recommended as a most useful source book in the fields of genetics, biochemistry and animal models of mania. TREVOR SILVERSTONE Essentials of Neurosurgery. Robert R Smith. (Pp 321; £17-95.) London: Harper and Row. 1980. As the Preface informs us, this book is written primarily for medical students in response to their repeated requests for a textbook ofrecent vintage, dealing with the fundamentals of the surgery of the nervous system. Not so long ago such a venture for undergraduates would have been frowned upon, neurosurgery being considered an inappropriate study for impressionable students. Even neurology, if it were taught at all, seldom had a specialist instructor to explain its mysteries. Now that the general physician and the general surgeon have all but departed from the teaching scene, their place taken by individual organ specialists, there seems no longer any reason why the interests of the nervous system should not be promoted by its own practitioners. The author of this work is Professor of Neurosurgery at the Univer- sity of Mississippi. The volume provides a balanced and comprehensive review of the present-day work and concerns of the neurosurgical specialist, albeit with some transatlantic bias. Introductory contributions deal with the importance of history taking and the basic techniques of neurological examina- tion, and outline the various specialist examinations. The care of the critically ill neurosurgical patient is considered in detail. Thereafter each chapter covers the usual subjects-trauma, infection, cerebral haemorrhage and ischaemic disorder, cerebral tumour, cord compression, disc degeneration and intractable pain. The problems of the paediatric patient and the technique of examination of the newly born receive special attention. Each chapter begins with a review of relevant anatomy and physiology, and proceeds from symptoms and signs to diagnosis and possibilities of treatment. Differential diagnosis is given extended treatment, equal emphasis being given to medical and surgical alternatives. The possibilities and limitations of surgical measures are explained and considerable effort made to present a balanced view. Details of surgical procedures are laregly passed over, or, to use the author's term, de-emphasized. The only chapter to contain some surgical detail is that on head injury, and the facts are thQse that should not be unfamiliar to anyone having care of the head injured. The Glasgow coma scale is explained and recommended for assessing level of consciousness. The head injury instruction 959 sheet which is given to the patient or his attendants on his discharge from hospital or when hospital admission is not considered essential, has much to recom- ment it. Not all the chapters are written with equal conviction, but for a single author work the content is comprehensive. The style is clear and the text easy to follow; the choice of illustrations and particularly the line diagrams, is very good. The references at the end of each chapter are up to date. A study of the major disorders of the nervous system, some of which such as stroke illness or dementia are of increasing importance in our aging society will equip the embryo doctor for work in many different fields. The neurological patient, properly surveyed, offers an unrivalled experience in the skills of history taking and of clinical assessment. For students before or after qualification, this book provides an excellent foundation for further study of the nervous system, and particularly of those disorders which may have some surgical solution. JJ MACCABE Long-term Effects of Neuroleptics. Edited by F Cattabeni, G Racagni, PF Spano, E Costa. (Pp 660; $78.88.) New York: Raven Press. 1980. This large and expensive book is described as "Advances in Biochemical Psycho- pharmacology, Volume 24", but it is actually the proceedings of yet another symposium, held in Monte Carlo in 1979. It contains no less than 81 papers, dealing with the effects of long term neuroleptic administration on dopaminergic neurons, dopamine receptors, neurotransmitter in- teraction, behaviour and neuroendocrine function. There is also a section on clinical studies. Some of the findings, already available in scientific journals, are impor- tant or at least interesting. Others are trivial in the extreme and could be used as ammunition by anyone opposed to animal experiments. The book is beauti- fully produced but the very variable quality of its contents makes it hard to recommend it. JL GIBBONS Disorders of the Cerebellum. By Sid Gilman, James R Bloedel and Richard Lechtenberg. (Pp 393; $50.00, £25-00. Philadelphia: FA Davis Co. 1981. The Contemporary Neurology Series al- P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / J N e u ro l N e u ro su rg P sych ia try: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /jn n p .4 4 .1 0 .9 5 9 -a o n 1 O cto b e r 1 9 8 1 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ 
work_36pyh2zqz5bm7k67ipzn6se7pq	----	392 Recensioni e Schede dal tentativo di coniugare l' attenzione per istituzioni politiche formali di derivazione occidentale con Ie «distorsioni» portate alloro funziona- mento da pratiche neopatrimoniali, anch'esse riconosciute come rego- larita, e dun que a tutti gli effetti parte integrante dell' eredita istituzio- nale. Tali pratiche, tuttavia, sarebbero comuni alIa totalita dei casi presi in esame, e non spiegano pertanto Ie variazioni negli esiti delle transi- zioni, illuminandone piuttosto alcuni tratti costanti. II titolo dellavoro indica la cautela adottata dagli AA. circa Ie possibilita di consolidamen- to dei nuovi regimi e la coscienza del permanere di aspetti neopatrimo- niali nella forma di big men democracies: formali 0 inform ali, Ie istitu- zioni «contano», e proprio per questo pongono dei chiari limiti aIle prospettive di piena democratizzazione di diversi paesi africani. [Giovanni Carbone] PAOLO CERI (a cura di), Politica e sondaggi, Torino, Rosemberg & Sellier, 1997, pp. 304, L. 35.000, Isbn 88-7011-714-6. «Richiesti, considerati, deprecati»: l'A. riassume cosi la natura contraddittoria degli atteggiamenti nutriti dalla maggior parte delle persone nei confronti dei sondaggi d'opinione su argomenti politici. La rilevanza dei sondaggi per il sistema politico italiano, specie in oc- casione delle consultazioni elettorali, solleva diversi interrogativi atti- nenti al funzionamento della democrazia e alIa percezione della quali- ta della ricerca sociale. Qual ela qualita dei sondaggi, intesa come ca- pacita di riflettere fedelmente gli stati dell' opinione pubblica? Quali sono gli effetti della diffusione dei risultati dei sondaggi sugli orienta- menti di voto, sul comportamento degli attori politici e sugli atteggia- menti generali dei cittadini in ambito politico? Si tenta di rispondere a tali quesiti nelle due parti che compongono il volume: la prima si sofferma «sulla logica e tecnica dei sondaggi politici»; la seconda «sul- l'uso dei sondaggi politici». Nel saggio piu corposo del volume, Al- berto Marradi offre alcune riflessioni, gia pubblicate in passato rna sempre pertinenti e penetranti, sulla confusione dei concetti di casua- lita e rappresentativita e sulle implicazioni che ne derivano per la ge- neralizzabilita dei risultati di un sondaggio. Egli enuclea, inoltre, un quarto tipo di voto da affiancare alla consolidata tripartizione apparte- nenza / opinione / scambio: il «voto di impressione», determinato da «motivazioni non-razionali e di brevissimo periodo». Renato Mannhe- imer presenta alcuni indicatori della capacita previsiva dei sondaggi in Italia in occasione delle elezioni politiche nel periodo 1987-96 e giun- ge alla conclusione che essa e «spesso piu accurata di quanto normal- mente molti suppongano». Nega, pero, che il fine cognitivo dei son- daggi sia la previsione di comportamenti; se quest'obiettivo appare in- vece preminente, cio e dovuto alIa carente «cultura dei sondaggi» vi- h tt p s: // d o i.o rg /1 0. 10 17 /S 00 48 84 02 00 02 60 58 D o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . C ar n eg ie M el lo n U n iv er si ty , o n 0 6 A p r 20 21 a t 01 :3 6: 06 , s u b je ct t o t h e C am b ri d g e C o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0048840200026058 https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms Recensioni e Schede 393 gente in Italia. Albino Claudio Bosio prende in esame Ie distorsioni determinate da problemi di mancata copertura, mancato contatto, in- capacita di rispondere e rifiuto di partecipare a un sondaggio. In par- ticolare, egli passa in rassegna Ie caratteristiche sociali che contribui- scono alla non -risposta, i motivi che ne stanno causando l' espansione e l' esiguita dei mezzi a disposizione dei ricercatori per contrastarla. Paolo Natale pone in evidenza alcune fondamentali distinzioni fra tee- niche di rilevazione diverse (sondaggi pre-elettorali, post-elettorali, exit polls, proiezioni), che talvolta vengono trattate come se fossero identiche, e alcuni tipi di distorsione delle stime cui danno luogo. Nella seconda parte del volume Stefano Draghi tratta la pubblicazione dei sondaggi come profezie e ne esamina Ie possibili conseguenze sul comportamento di voto (effetti underdog e bandwagon). Marina Villa illustra come la divulgazione dei sondaggi politici venga regolamentata in Francia. Annapaola Cova ripercorre la storia dei sondaggi politici e degli exit polls negli Usa e in Gran Bretagna. Roberto Weber descrive quattro casi di «uomini e sondaggi», ovvero Ie diverse motivazioni che possono animare i politici che decidono di commissionare un'indagine campionaria presso l' elettorato. Alberto Leiss e Letizia Paolozzi de- scrivono 1'uso dei sondaggi da parte della stampa italiana. Gianni Sta- tera da conto della fruizione dei sondaggi come manifestazione di «politica-spettacolo», Infine, nel denso saggio conclusivo Ceri identifi- ca alcune funzioni politicamente salienti dei sondaggi (legittimazione delle issues} formazione dell' agenda politica, costruzione del consenso) e Ie loro conseguenze potenzialmente nocive per la democrazia. Nel volume erelativamente scarna la tematizzazione del ruolo dei mezzi di informazione, che a volte compaiono come attori passivi e indifferen- ziati, ed eforse eccessiva la reiterata evocazione dello spauracchio del- la «sondomania» 0 «sondocrazia». Nel complesso, tuttavia, i contribu- ti, ancorche disomogenei fra loro, costituiscono un quadro esauriente e illuminante del fenomeno dei sondaggi politici in Italia. [Giancarlo Gasperonii PIERGIORGIO CORBEITA e ARTURO M.L. PARISI (a cura di), Cava- lieri e [anti. Proposte e proponenti nelle elezioni del 1994 e del 1996, Bologna, 11 Mulino, 1997, pp. 422, L. 50.000. PIERGIORGIO CORBETIA e ARTURO M.L. PARISI (a cura di), A do- manda risponde. II cambiamento del voto degli italiani nelle elezio- ni del 1994 e del 1996, Bologna, 11 Mulino, 1997, pp. 410, L. 45.000. Questi due volumi sono il frutto di una approfondita analisi del- le elezioni italiane del 1994 e del 1996 condotta dal «Comitato per h tt p s: // d o i.o rg /1 0. 10 17 /S 00 48 84 02 00 02 60 58 D o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . C ar n eg ie M el lo n U n iv er si ty , o n 0 6 A p r 20 21 a t 01 :3 6: 06 , s u b je ct t o t h e C am b ri d g e C o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0048840200026058 https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms 
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work_37mr6a5wfzcm3d65kz5unnxsv4	----	Dunk that cola INDIA EDITOR’S CHOICE Dunk that cola Anita Jain India editor, BMJ Mumbai The “God” takes guard for the last time this week, and cricket will never be the same again. As India gets ready to bid adieu to its “Little Master” Sachin Tendulkar, the emotional outpouring reinforces the impression that cricketers make on the minds of young and older people alike. Commercial endorsements by cricketers are a tricky terrain to navigate. Earlier this year, teams in the Indian Premier League were pulled up for promotion of alcohol brands in contravention of national advertising rules (doi:10.1136/bmj.f3303). As Monika Arora, senior director of HRIDAY (Health Related Information Dissemination Amongst Youth) explains, “. . . associating alcohol with cricket in any form would promote alcohol use among Indians, especially [young people] who are at an impressionable age. Such direct advertising also sends out a message that alcohol use is an acceptable societal norm as famous cricketers are seen to be endorsing that alcohol brand.” I wonder what might be said about promotion of soft drinks by cricketers though. Easily one of the largest sponsors for cricket in the country, the soft drinks industry has grown unchecked. In the latest BMJ poll on regulation of India’s soft drinks industry, an overwhelming majority concur: not enough is being done. Ruling on a petition to regulate misleading advertising of soft drinks, particularly those targeted at children, the Supreme Court directed the Food and Safety Standards Authority of India to ensure greater enforcement of regulations in the larger interest of “protection of human life and health” (doi:10.1136/bmj. f6519). Indeed, in an article that grabbed attention worldwide, Aseem Malhotra calls for us to train the guns on sugar in foods and beverages as it quickly emerges as an independent risk factor for the metabolic syndrome (doi:10.1136/bmj.f6340). For too long, he argues, saturated fat has been vilified for its role in cardiovascular diseases, leading to unnecessary treatment and unsubstantiated dietary advice. There was cause for a mini-celebration at the BMJ as this was one of two scholarly articles from the BMJ in the Altmetric High Five list of newsworthy papers for October across publishers. Speaking of saturated fat, palm oil has grown to be the dominant cooking oil consumed by low and middle income populations. Exploring the role of food taxes on consumption and health, Sanjay Basu and colleagues use mathematical modelling and find that a 20% tax on palm oil purchases in India would substantially reduce cardiovascular deaths over a 10 year period if it were not replaced by other oils (doi:10.1136/bmj.f6048). Given that the success of palm oil lies in its relatively low price, a tax would likely exacerbate food insecurity, however. In a linked editorial (doi:10.1136/bmj.f6065), Bhavani Shankar and Corina Hawkes draw attention to the popularity of palm oil among manufacturers of processed foods as well. While taxation may alter consumption by this industry, they suggest one must be wary of a switch to another source of unhealthy fats—trans fats. Indeed, the US Food and Drug Administration recently determined that partially hydrogenated oils, the primary source of artificial trans fats in processed foods, may not be safe. Once finalised, new guidelines will make it more difficult for manufacturers to include trans fats in processed foods (doi:10. 1136/bmj.f6749). As you sit back and watch Tendulkar blazing (fingers crossed) in his last match, I encourage you to chuck the cola and crisps, and go for a plate of fruit instead (doi:10.1136/bmj.f5001). Follow Anita Jain on Twitter @ajain247 Cite this as: BMJ 2013;347:f6838 © BMJ Publishing Group Ltd 2013 ajain@bmj.com For personal use only: See rights and reprints http://www.bmj.com/permissions Subscribe: http://www.bmj.com/subscribe BMJ 2013;347:f6838 doi: 10.1136/bmj.f6838 (Published 14 November 2013) Page 1 of 1 Editor's Choice EDITOR'S CHOICE o n 5 A p ril 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .b m j.co m / B M J: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /b m j.f6 8 3 8 o n 1 4 N o ve m b e r 2 0 1 3 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://www.bmj.com/permissions http://www.bmj.com/subscribe http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1136/bmj.f6838&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2013-11-14 http://www.bmj.com/ 
work_3ejdiiqgr5ehjgj3oiettvozoi	----	452 452..454 Correspondence Innovative and effective approaches to crisis services As a patient, I was recently under the care of a London crisis intervention team. The compassion of the individual staff members was negated by systemic flaws in the way the service was delivered. The experience was very unsettling. Different staff would arrive twice daily at my home because shift patterns would not allow the same workers to see me regularly. Consequently, a constructive, consistent relationship with members of the crisis team was not possible. A stream of strangers entered my small, cramped flat, and the crisis team actually became part of my mental trauma. The problem with the crisis team as an institution is that it is about cost-cutting rather than caring. It felt like a mere sticking plaster on a huge mental wound. While cost-cutting remains the ethos, patients are bound to suffer. The loss of in-patient beds is putting pressure on community services that they cannot sustain. Cost-cutting may masquerade as streamlined efficiency and effectiveness, but it is really a way to hobble and cripple psychiatric provision. Good treatment cannot be delivered without flexibility and variety, both community-based and hospital-based. The crisis team concept is an ineffective half-way (and half-baked!) house between community and hospital. Declaration of interest The author is a psychiatric patient. The name and address of the London trust and the name and address of the patient have been withheld for confidentiality reasons. To contact the author, please email pb@rcpsych.ac.uk doi: 10.1192/pb.34.10.452 British television viewers, cover your ears! While watching a well-known, popular soap on the BBC recently, I was disgusted to hear one of the characters with recently diagnosed bipolar affective disorder being referred to by another character as a ‘mentalist’. Both entertainment and news media seem to model negative reactions to the mentally ill, including fear, rejection, derision and ridicule. The consequences of negative media images for people who have a mental illness are profound. They impair self-esteem, help-seeking behaviours, medication adher- ence and overall recovery. 1 The Royal College of Psychiatrists, healthcare professionals working in mental health and mental health charities such as Mind and Rethink work hard to challenge the stigma and negative attitudes towards mental illness. How disappointing therefore that the scriptwriters of this soap, a programme watched by millions of viewers, see fit to contradict these efforts by using such a derogatory term to describe someone with bipolar affective disorder. Negative media reports have been shown to contribute to negative attitudes towards people with mental illness. 2 As adults, we have the presence of mind and sound judgement to recognise that the use of the term ‘mentalist’ is both socially unacceptable and insulting. But the minds of the younger generation are more impressionable. We do not want children thinking it is all right to describe someone with mental illness as ‘a mentalist’ because they have heard the term used on the television and come to believe it must be acceptable to use in everyday life. The writers of television programmes watched by both young and old alike have an important role to play in ‘shaping the minds’ of the youngsters of today. They should seek to show mental illness in a positive rather than negative light and thus help to eradicate rather than contribute to its stigmatisation. 1 Stuart H. Media portrayal of mental illness and its treatments: what effect does it have on people with mental illness? CNS Drugs 2006; 20: 99-106. 2 Thornton JAA, Wahl OF. Impact of a newspaper article on attitudes towards mental illness. J Community Psychol 2008; 24: 17-25. Declan L. Hyland, Foundation year 2 doctor, Aintree University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, email: declan.hyland@nhs.net doi:10.1192/pb.34.10.452a Psychiatry, religion and spirituality: a way forward Recent correspondence in The Psychiatrist suggests that there are conflicting, or perhaps polarised, opinions about the role of spirituality and religion in UK psychiatric practice. In their latest contribution to the debate, Cook et al 1 state that ‘it is important not to rely only on impressions derived from clinical experience but also to refer to evidence-based research and reviews. If we cannot eliminate bias in our interpretation of these findings, we can at least minimise it.’ We agree. However, although rhetoric and the selective inter- pretation of evidence are an intrinsic part of scientific discourse, spirituality and religion cause particular problems. Most professionals have deep-seated views that are unlikely to be affected by evidence, no matter how compelling. For example, whereas Koenig’s review of the literature 2 suggests ‘modest positive effects of religious faith’, we prefer Richard Sloan’s review 3 of similar literature, the conclusions of which can be paraphrased thus: efforts to integrate religion into medical practice are based on bad science, bad medicine and bad religion. We find Sloan more convincing than Koenig, but we note that Sloan’s conclusions resonate with our pre-existing attitudes and beliefs. We have previously argued that psychiatry should only attempt to resolve problems that cannot be dealt with effectively by other means. Although mental health professionals have demonstrable skills in the relief of suffering caused by mental disorders, there is no evidence that we have any answers to problems of human happiness. There are other, non-clinical, routes to happiness. Thus, we agree with Sloan et al, 4 who have argued that even if the evidence shows that religious faith promotes well-being, it is still inappropriate for clinicians to actively promote religion or to unnecessarily interfere in spiritual matters. These ideas are more closely related to modern medical values than to science. In any case there is no reliable evidence with regard to the consequences of integrating spirituality/ COLUMNS 452 
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work_3f2ymnzvf5d6xnjdlvjrl5e3bu	----	Crossing - Disputatio - Volume 1 KARL HEFTY Crossing: The INPR Journal, Disputatio I (2020) 54-72 54 Crossing: The INPR Journal Vol. 1 (2020): 54-72 DOI: 10.21428/8766eb43.04f59a55 Is There a Body without Flesh? Karl Hefty Saint Paul University khefty@ustpaul.ca In this paper I investigate the theme of sense and nonsense as it pertains to the phenomenological problem of “flesh.” My remarks here also respond to the two- fold, intellectual invitation Emmanuel Falque has extended to philosophy to embark into theological territory and to engage without polemic or fear in a combat amoureux over the things that matter—the things themselves. Struggle can be loving only if the work itself is motivated by a love, and a love of what we can still dare to call truth. It is in this same spirit, which I recognize and esteem in Falque, that I wish to address here the question of body and flesh that is central to his work, as it is for many others. I will raise two main sets of questions that have been the subject of historical debate, and Falque knows them well, because they are also his questions: 1) How should we describe and understand the relationship of flesh [Leib] to body [Körper] and body to flesh? Can we give legitimate status to the materiality of the corporeal condition while maintaining the phenomenological privilege of flesh and life? Or, alternatively, should we deny the privilege of flesh in favor of a more moderate “balance” of flesh and body, and so rescue material embodiment from the oblivion to which a naive priority of flesh would consign it? 2) By extension, how should we describe and understand the relationship of flesh and body, in their phenomenality, to the theological reality of the Incarnation of the Word?1 How is the passage into theology effected in phenomenology when it is a question of body and flesh? 1 Falque has also raised the important question of “Incorporation,” but since “Incarnation” retains the historical and conceptual primacy in theological dogma, I will limit my remarks to it here. Is There a Body without Flesh? Crossing: The INPR Journal, Disputatio I (2020) 54-72 55 In a way that has not yet been acknowledged adequately, these questions bear on the relationship of phenomenology and the sciences, which also deal with “bodies,” perhaps exclusively and with greater rigor than phenomenology. What do we gain from recognizing this bearing? It is explicitly against what he perceives to be rampant Western materialism and its unilateral science that Michel Henry frames the phenomenology of life. It is also in the name of material, embodied reality that Falque objects to Henry’s approach. For reasons I will spell out in detail, and while I recognize his theological hesitations and share his theological commitments, I think Falque’s objections misconstrue Henry’s position. We have good reason to doubt that the phenomenality of incarnation, in either its philosophical or theological senses, can be adequately described by a phenomenology in which perception is ultimate. §1. The Myth of Experience Is there a body without flesh? The question seems as rhetorical as the inverse one Falque poses to Henry. We already know Henry’s answer: A body cannot appear, and thus be, unless it is first given to flesh. This rule applies whether I am dealing with a material body in the world or with the corps propre, my own body.2 In the one case as in the other, a body cannot appear unless it is first given to sensibility, and nothing is given to the senses I call mine unless it affects me. Apart from this affective instance, without a flesh that is impressional, I have no way of saying whether I am dealing with the front of a thing or its backside, its blue hue or hardness, girth or speed, or with its disappearance, because I know nothing about it. I can offer no description, phenomenological or otherwise. Of what would it be the description? I have no access to a thing unless it is given to me in experience, or in imagination, as composed of what is so given.3 Unless I can be affected, unless I am 2 For the classical analyses, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Phenomenology of Perception, trans. Colin Smith (London and New York: Routledge, 2002) / Phénoménologie de la perception (Paris: Éditions Gallimard, 1945), I, §§ 3-4, and II, §1. 3 “For even when painters try to create sirens and satyrs with the most extraordinary bodies, they cannot give them natures which are new in all respects; they simply jumble up the limbs of different animals. Or if perhaps they manage to think up something so new that nothing remotely similar has ever been seen before—something which is therefore completely fictitious and unreal—at least the colours used in the composition must be real.” René Descartes, First Meditation, Philosophical Writings of Descartes, Vol II, trans. John Cottingham, et al (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 13–14, Oeuvres de Descartes, ed. Ch. Adam and P. Tannery (Paris: Vrin, 1996), [hereafter AT] VII, 20, 2-8. KARL HEFTY Crossing: The INPR Journal, Disputatio I (2020) 54-72 56 endowed with flesh, nothing like a body can appear and I am simply not entitled to speak of a body, not even as an idea.4 Why then ask whether there is a body without flesh if such a possibility for these decisive reasons is unintelligible? Can any further precision show the question to be worth the annoyance of posing and the labor of investigating? What is a body and what is flesh? According to the standard definition, a body in general is a material thing bearing sensible or intelligible properties—the categories of Aristotle (time, change, motion, quality, size, place, etc.), or the sensible qualities of Galileo or Descartes (extension, figure, etc.), the pure forms of intuition of Kant (space and time), or the properties of sub-atomic physics (spin, location, charge, mass, etc.). Even in the latter cases, where the properties of a body are not known through the senses, but through instruments of measurement that have been designed to detect and record what the senses cannot, senses nevertheless must intervene to “read” such instruments. The physicist that denies that our senses tell us the truth of the universe must consult the senses in some way in order to arrive at that conclusion.5 The question can nevertheless be answered affirmatively. Yes, there is a body without flesh. The universe is populated with bodies of this sort, which are what they are independently of any appeal to flesh for their appearance. First, for the strict reason that they do not appear to flesh and do not affect it directly. In itself, flesh knows nothing about them. Second, because they are what they are, and will be what 4 In her famous “Letter to Dr. Findlay,” Jan. 13, 1932, the blind and deaf Helen Keller describes her sight from atop the Empire State Building: “Frankly, I was so entranced ‘seeing’ that I did not think about the sight” (my emphasis). She is not appealing to the vivid imagination of one who dreams, but to the feeling of seeing, in the absence of anything visible. One can compare the claim, of course, to many texts from Descartes: “It is the soul which sees, and not the eye” Philosophical Writings of Descartes, Vol I, trans. John Cottingham, et al (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981) p. 174, AT VI, 141, 5-6.); “the ‘I’ who imagines is the same ‘I’. For even if, as I have supposed, none of the objects of imagination are real, the power of imagination is something which really exists and is part of my thinking. Lastly, it is also the same ‘I’ who has sensory perceptions, or is aware of bodily things as it were through the senses. For example, I am now seeing light, hearing a noise, feeling heat. But I am asleep, so all this is false. Yet I certainly seem to see, to hear, and to be warmed. This cannot be false…” What is called ‘having a sensory perception’ is strictly just this, and in this restricted sense of the term it is simply thinking.” (Second Meditation, Writings, Vol. II, op. cit., p. 19, AT VII, II, 29, 6- 15); and, finally, we may be misled “regarding the perceptions which refer to certain parts of our body. But we cannot be misled in the same way regarding the passions, in that they are so close and so internal to our soul that it cannot possibly feel them unless they are truly as it feels them to be…” (Passions of the Soul, 26, Writings I, 338, my emphasis) and still others—For the key analysis of these texts see Michel Henry, Genealogy of Psychoanalysis, trans. Douglas Brick (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993) / Généalogie de la psychanalyse (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1985), ch. 1. 5 The point will seem trivial, and with respect to the insight the physicist seeks, it is. But the study of physics happens in a lifeworld, and not only in a world. Is There a Body without Flesh? Crossing: The INPR Journal, Disputatio I (2020) 54-72 57 they will be, whatever we may wish to assert about flesh, or even if we wish to ignore flesh, and what is given to it, altogether. It is not even obvious that someone must observe the Large Hadron Collider, since programs can be designed for that purpose, and register the events in question with more subtlety and precision than the “naked eye.” If we were smart enough, we would program those computers also to interpret the data better than we can, find errors in our assumptions, mistakes in our models, and so on. From this perspective, not only is there a body without flesh, perhaps an infinite number of them; in addition, if we are to arrive at the truth of the bodies that populate the universe, we must ignore flesh altogether. Including our own? Nothing prohibits the positive sciences from applying the same methods to the human body they apply to the cosmos. Whether we are dealing with cell biology, genetics, neuroscience, or the other cognitive sciences, no reference to flesh is required, and it is not obvious how any discussion of flesh, in Henry’s sense, can be included in either the assumptions, methods, or results of these fields. It is true that some forms of cognitive research on so-called “live” subjects do involve prompting the subject of research to “think about” or “imagine” an object, and so forth. Through a process of trial and error, it is possible to correlate material events in the brain with reported experiences, so that eventually consciousness would be, as Daniel Dennett says, “explained.”6 What seems to be, and is called, an experience of something, is in fact, caused or occasioned by material episodes of which we are entirely unaware. Edit the episode (or what codes for it), edit the experience. Even if some are uncomfortable with the idea of dismissing human experience as entirely illusory, the scientific position is clear: the material, bodily event is phenomenal; the experience of sensing and of sensed, scientifically speaking at least, is epiphenomenal, or worse, illusory. If such a conclusion seems difficult to accept, resolving it goes beyond the purview of science. Let politicians, therapists, pharmaceutical companies, social workers, school teachers, and prison guards deal with the consequences. Science must tell us only what is true. We must dare, precisely not to think anymore, but to experiment.7 It is no longer the philosopher who dethrones the gods of the mythmakers, but the scientist; and in the universe of science, only one god is worthy of the name. Evidence. But the etymology of the word is no longer its meaning. If e-videre means to come from seeing, here in question is not seeing, nor even what is seen, at least if that must involve and depend upon sensibility. Rather, a certain way of determining and “explaining” the material world, including what we do see, that is the arche and 6 Daniel C. Dennett, Consciousness Explained (Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1991). 7 Sapere aude, originally from Horace, “Letter to Lolius,” Epistulae, 1, 2, 40, when taken up by Kant, in his Sept. 30, 1784 Letter to Zöllner, “Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?” becomes an injunction: “Have courage to use your own understanding.” Immanuel Kant, Practical Philosophy, trans. Mary J. Gregor (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 11-22. KARL HEFTY Crossing: The INPR Journal, Disputatio I (2020) 54-72 58 telos of science, the limits of its veritas and its realitas. Is the ambition of science anything but to establish once and for all a correct explanatory account of the universe in all its dimensions on the basis of an exact understanding of the causal relationships that govern its constituent parts? In any case, we are up against a problem. We have in phenomenology a reference to flesh and to the sensing body as a necessary condition of experience and definition of reality, and the exclusion of any such reference in the natural sciences, as a condition of any experimentation and also as a definition of reality. How should one respond intellectually or practically to this apparently-unresolvable dilemma cutting the history of reason in two? On the one hand, the world of our experience, with all its sensible delight—our ambitions, aims, and hopes, fears and regrets, joys and sorrows, love and hate—this world of meaning, of sense, of value. On the other, the empirically-observable, material world of bodies visible to us, or detectable in dimensions far beyond what we can see—this material world, the better understanding of which continues to benefit humanity in myriad ways. An objection arises: Where is the dilemma? If the visible universe is an element, and a marvelous element, of the world of experience, as of creation, then no rational person ought to resist the desire to understand the mechanisms by which it operates. Can one really suppose it to be a world of inert bodies in which no meaning, no sense, can be found? The apparent contradiction between sense and nonsense—here, the world of meaning and the world of senseless bodies— covers over another one that is more difficult. We are up against two incompatible definitions of the real. If so- called “first-person” experience cannot be reduced, and what is observed in the third- person can never be raised to the level of experiencing itself, for what kind of correlation can we hope? §2. Embodied Mind: Thinking Matter The opposition just posited—between the world of meaning, on the one hand, and the world of senseless, inert bodies, on the other—is it artificial or contrived? Far from being a contradiction needing resolution, are these worlds not already, originally and always, conjoined, as Merleau-Ponty has taught us? Flesh is a body that is part—a body-part—of this great body that is the universe (we leave aside the question of whether another, or an infinite number of others, is possible). Flesh, the living, sensing body, is a constituent part of the universe, even if it has raised itself— but why “raised”?—to the level of self-awareness. Admitting the worldly nature of flesh does not require us to nullify or diminish the realm of meaning, the so-called “space” of reasons. “Meaning is not a mysterious gift from outside nature,” John Is There a Body without Flesh? Crossing: The INPR Journal, Disputatio I (2020) 54-72 59 McDowell reminds us; to think so would commit us to a “rampant platonism.”8 Cognition, and the mind as such, is “embodied.” In its acts of knowing it need neither be absorbed by nor separated from what it knows, but is or at least can be “simply present and available.”9 In significant continuity with Merleau-Ponty’s work, a growing field of research now seeks to demonstrate the thesis that the fleshly body is a worldly body, and to do so while respecting the prerogatives of both phenomenology and science.10 To take one notable example, Evan Thompson in Mind in Life aims to integrate phenomenology and cognitive science in an “enactive” approach that promises to describe and explain at once: “Starting from a recognition of the transcendental and hence ineliminable status of experience, the aim would be to search for morphodynamical principles that can both integrate the orders of matter, life, and mind, and account for the originality of each order.”11 Once a dynamic morphology of sufficient complexity is recognized—made possible by new topologies, differential geometry, etc.—it is possible to “map,” and then to demonstrate, dynamic and isomorphic relations that arise between physiological systems and perceptual forms. The effort to achieve such a demonstration, Thompson thinks, would have been embraced by Merleau-Ponty, had a morphology of sufficient richness and complexity been available to him. From this perspective, the remove at which classical phenomenology stands vis-à-vis science, emblematic of Husserl’s Krisis (to say nothing of Heidegger’s position), is not a matter of principle, but only a contingent, conceptual constraint, bounded as it was by the limits of the sciences then- available.12 In any case, if Husserl thinks it is the task of phenomenology to assign 8 John McDowell, Mind and World (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994, 2nd ed. 1996), p. 88. 9 Eleanor Rosch, “Introduction to the Revised Edition,” The Embodied Mind, eds Francisco J. Varela, Evan Thompson, and Eleanor Rosch (Boston: MIT Press, 1991, rev. ed. 2016), p. xl. In her 2016 introduction, in the context of prospective remarks on the future of “enaction,” Rosch herself admits, “Where science, as it is done now with its mechanistic and materialist assumptions, meets experience, Buddhism, or anything else, the science simply takes over like a colonial ruler. This is body imperialism…” p. lii. 10 In addition to Rosch, Varela, and Thompson, among others, see also Shaun Gallagher and Dan Zahavi, The Phenomenological Mind (Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2012). 11 Evan Thompson, Mind in Life: Biology, Phenomenology, and the Sciences of Mind (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007, 2010), p. 87. One will notice these as analogs of the classical Aristotelian framework, certain vestiges of which one can find, in some sense, still in Augustine. 12 For Thompson, the notion of phenomenal form must be broadened and enriched by biology, physics, and mathematics in order to achieve the desired adequate description-explanation. Merleau- Ponty’s statement that “a physiological analysis of perception would be purely and simply impossible” does not count as an objection to such an approach, Thompson contends, provided that Merleau- Ponty’s understanding of physiological analysis is limited to a lower-order, neuronal level. If, on the KARL HEFTY Crossing: The INPR Journal, Disputatio I (2020) 54-72 60 the sciences their ultimate meaning, it cannot accomplish this task unless a genuine connection arises between phenomenology and the sciences it purports to ground. Otherwise, phenomenology amounts to little more than a series of one-sided assertions and pronouncements about the world of experience, which the world of science can safely ignore. But if the results of the sciences can be altered by taking into account phenomenological insight, as advocates of this approach have shown, then the sciences cannot afford to ignore it. How should we account for this development phenomenologically? How is it possible that a phenomenological analysis according to the strict phenomenological reduction of what is given in intuition, far from providing the antidote to materialism, naturalism, or reductionism, is now enriched by it, to the point of morphing into a “naturalized phenomenology”?13 We should not fail to notice that protagonists of the enactive approach refuse “objectivism” quite explicitly, and insist on the irreducible, transcendental character of “experience” as the condition for the possibility of the appearance of any object. In addition, and this point is perhaps more important, we are not dealing with a conflation of methods or perspectives, since the engagement with science goes hand in hand with and is predicated upon the insistence on the importance and irreducibility of the phenomenological perspective. One might reasonably consider such an approach to offer a kind of concrete synthesis of mind and world, rather than the a priori one Kant sought. If the world of experience is irreducible to the world of science and yet integrated with it, is that not what we ought to expect and indicative of a certain correctness? Or, alternatively, in order to effect such an integration of phenomenology and science, has the concept of experience, necessarily, become a concept of scientific experience alone? Or, yet again, are we dealing with a Malebranchean parallelism that is simply harder to detect because the lines now overlap, or intertwine, to use Merleau-Ponty’s word? What is involved in the reduction of experience to scientific experience (that is, the experience of the scientist) and what are its consequences? I will offer three objections, which will lead us into a more refined and direct contrary, it is expanded to include what Thompson calls a “higher-level, morphodynamic level of explanation,” then a physiological analysis of perception is entirely conceivable. Thompson, Mind in Life, p. 85. Thompson does not deny that the approach he recommends can alter the notion of the phenomenal domain; the possibility of such an alteration is built into it: the enrichment of form “can circulate back to modify and reshape” what counts as a phenomenon. Ibid. p. 86. Nevertheless, when it comes time to harmonize the so-called “enactive” approach with, for example, the claims of Merleau-Ponty or Husserl, it is not clear that the phenomenological perspective has been preserved without distortion. 13 See, in particular, Jean Petitot et al, Naturalizing Phenomenology: Issues in Contemporary Phenomenology and Cognitive Science (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000). Is There a Body without Flesh? Crossing: The INPR Journal, Disputatio I (2020) 54-72 61 engagement with the question of flesh and its relation to the body before opening onto a theological question. First, properly speaking, I do not and cannot have an experience of my neurons as objects. It is true that I can connect my own scull, let us call it le crâne propre, to a brain scanner, and vary my thinking as I watch correlating parts of my brain light up on a screen. On the basis of such correlations between my thought and my body, can I ever claim to have an (original) experience of my neurons as sensible or intellectual objects? It would be a reflective experience, and nothing would keep me from learning something perceptually about my body in this way. But what I observe on the screen is not my body and can never be, at least if by body we mean the original, subjective body in its original givenness to itself, its auto-affection, or pre-reflective awareness. Second, if what I observe is not my body, but only a visual representation, can we say that the correlation has proved successful, that we have evidence for it? Even if one embraces the brilliant level of engagement of phenomenology with science, even if one were to achieve the perfect accord of carnal affectivity with the perception of the body, the problem of principle remains: these are two irreducible orders of givenness, of phenomenality. A fundamental practical problem also remains: Imagine a real-time projection of every dynamic alteration of the organic body flashed on a optic lens, available to the concrete perception of my eye—visible. Is it even possible to perceive, organically, the immense complex that is the organic body, all in one view? A third and parallel objection can also be raised. The possibility of such a perception is highly-specific, and more often than not, prohibitively expensive. What is given in it goes well beyond what is given in the range of perceptual experience available to anyone. If the notion of what is phenomenal—and, even more, its phenomenality— however broadened and enriched, is available only to one who has already entered into the scientific perspective, and if such a perspective excludes in principle the subject that perceives, feels, or enjoys, then such an approach can indeed admit perception, feeling, or enjoyment, but only on the condition that they become what they are not, which is to say, reports of a perception, feeling, or enjoyment. The problem is not that such reports can be mistaken, which in any case might prove relevant for the experiment, but rather that, in the phenomenality of such a report, the original phenomenon is torn from its original givenness, apart from the world, in order to disclose it in a visibility that is foreign to it. Yes, the scientist engrossed practically in an experiment, or theoretically in the effort to design or modify a model for what is observed experimentally, also perceives—that is, sees through forms, however rarified they may be. But experience has here been reduced to scientific experience. It can be extended to the universal—taken as universal experience—only by a decision. KARL HEFTY Crossing: The INPR Journal, Disputatio I (2020) 54-72 62 If many suspect the world of science and with it virtual reality, automation, and so- called artificial intelligence have encroached too far, it is because the lifeworld as living has been colonized by technology.14 That is why those who adopt it, who prefer to experience the world or themselves as mediated by technology, risk losing knowledge of the world or themselves apart from it. “The information age will be the age of idiots,” claims Henry in 1987.15 The orgasm-feigning robot that will cater to your every wish, or discipline you as programmed, perhaps when you least expect it—or can it learn that you expect that?—is indeed a body without flesh. “Life is but a motion of the limbs… why may we not say , that all Automata… have an artificiall life?”16 §3. Touching Flesh: Sensing Nonsense In light of Michel Henry’s phenomenology of life and its critique of scientism, such a decision stands out in all clarity, but in order to admit it must we follow his characterization of flesh as originally auto-impressional? For Henry, the reality of flesh is invisible, irreducibly and in principle. In its original givenness, where it is given to itself as auto-impressional and the only place its givenness is original, it does not and cannot appear in the exteriority of world. Nor can flesh be extended to the world in the manner of Merleau-Ponty’s touching-touched, sensing-sensed, feeling- felt chiasm.17 Endowed with a power the world forever lacks, the hand that is touched, when it is a question of one’s own body, can become the hand that touches. That is correct. But the in-principle reversibility of touching and touched that characterizes the living body does not extend to the material world. No coffee cup “touches” the hand that holds it, nor has a stone ever picked up the hand that throws it.18 The ontological duplicity that distinguishes phenomenologically the body of flesh from the worldly body seems unassailable. 14 The claim that all my experience is only a simulation, and that, in any case, I have no way of proving it is not, depends for its compelling force on the concept of reality that is contained in the idea of a simulation, the concept of reality as represented. It is difficult to see how a notion of flesh, the reality of which is first or exclusively in the sensed-body, has any power against such arguments. 15 Michel Henry, Barbarism, trans. Scott Davidson (London: Continuum, 2012) p. 51 / La barbarie (Paris : PUF 1987, 2nd ed. Quadrige, 2004), p. 93. 16 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 9. 17 Henry’s refutation of this position appears at Incarnation : A Philosophy of Flesh, trans. Karl Hefty (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2015) / Incarnation : une philosophie de la chair (Paris : Seuil, 2000), §21. The original arguments arise in Maurice Merleau-Ponty, The Visibile and the Invisible, trans. Alphonso Lingis (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1968) / Le visibile et l’invisible (Paris: Éditions Gallimard, 1964), §4; cf. Phenomenology of perception, op. cit., I, 2, p. 106ff. 18 Martin Heidegger, Sein und Zeit (Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 19th ed. 2006), H 55; cf. Henry, Incarnation, III, §47, p. 242ff / p. 345ff. Is There a Body without Flesh? Crossing: The INPR Journal, Disputatio I (2020) 54-72 63 But have we lost the body in its worldly reality in the process? Emmanuel Falque thinks so.19 In his view, Henry’s thesis concerning auto-affection, and originary flesh as auto-impressionality, fails to account for anything like the body, or the embodied condition as we actually experience it, in “flesh and bone,” as he says: “[N]othing indicates, beyond his masterful descriptive analyses, that there is a genuine access to the body through the flesh. Put otherwise, everything happens as if the flesh, that is to say the experience of our own life, becomes so invasive here that we would come to forget that it is possessed and even experienced, at least materially and visibly, in and through a body.”20 For Falque, the flesh that is ours is not only seeing but also visible. It can indeed be seen and touched. This visibility is not simply one way of access to flesh, and to flesh that is ours, but the first way of access.21 We experience and possess flesh also through our body; and there is no flesh, for us, that we cannot also see or touch. 19 Emmanuel Falque, “Is There a Flesh Without Body? A Debate with Michel Henry,” trans. Scott Davidson, Journal of French and Francophone Philosophy, Vol XXIV, No 1 (2016), pp. 139–66 / “Y a-t-il une chair sans corps,” Transversalités, Janvier-Mars, 2002: 44 – 75, republished in Philippe Capelle, ed., Phénoménologie et christianisme chez Michel Henry (Paris: Cerf, 2004), 95–133 ; this objection to Henry also appears Le Combat amoureux (Paris: Hermann, 2014) / The Loving Struggle (London & New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2018), Ch. 5. The Transversalités edition is cited here. For some subsequent development, see also Emmanuel Falque, The Metamorphosis of Finitude (New York: Fordham University Press, 2012), pp. 16ff & 136ff. Falque does acknowledge a minimal presence of a “verbal indicator” of a “body of flesh [Leibkörper]” in Incarnation, and offers what we find to be a more moderate claim later: “it is not, properly speaking, the case that there is a flesh without body but simply that any passage from the flesh to the body whatsoever remains unexplained in Incarnation, since everything is already constituted on the basis of an originary flesh (the auto-impression), which explains the intentionality of the flesh (feeling), but not the thickness of the body (the felt).” Ibid. p. 162 / p. 72 (trans. modified). 20 Emmanuel Falque, “Is There a Flesh Without Body? pp. 139–40 / “Y a-t-il une chair sans corps,” p. 44. In fact, for Henry, “access” to the body through the flesh is both impressional and practical. Henry will not equate the experience of flesh with the experience of life, however. 21 Falque claims that, “initially,” we are an “organic and thingly lives before being an affective pathos.” In addition, “All ‘pleasure’ as well as all ‘suffering’ takes place initially through the body, without being reduced to the lived experience of its originary flesh in its simple pathos” (Ibid. p. 159 / p. 68, my emphasis). Falque here seems to be appealing to the sensed body, and to sense as intentional, in the manner of Scheler. Henry’s critique of this position, to which Falque does not respond directly, can be found in The Essence of Manifestation, IV, §§ 54 and 64. One might still wonder: What scientific description of a pure organic body can account, phenomenologically, for what it is in itself? Simply by reference to what takes place visibly? The completion of biology in its full development, one might say. Then we would have a correct account of the full set of relations, for example, that unite the microbiome of the bowels to the neurology of the brain, and we would be able to describe and characterize these relations accurately, because we perceive them. On the basis of such a correct perception of the organic body, a doctor can recommend to a patient to avoid certain items in the diet, in order to ensure better brain function, and so on. But how can what is perceived in this way be called our initial or first experience of the body? To take another example, the infant that spits up her KARL HEFTY Crossing: The INPR Journal, Disputatio I (2020) 54-72 64 Falque and Henry thus offer two quite distinct conceptions of flesh that seem incompatible. For Falque, Henry’s flesh “disincorporates,” “absorbs,” and ultimately “destroys” the body, and with it all the “thickness” of what is felt.22 After all, “it is also necessary to recognize the weight of our own body (and its kilos, we dare to say!) without which this pain [of a steep climb, for example] would never be experienced” (157).23 What phenomenological reality would such a pain have, if not for the fact of the body’s quite material weight, which does not simply explain or measure the pain at a causal level, as the reference to kilos might suggest, but is also involved in the very fact and event of it? Falque certainly must have the phenomenality of weight in mind, precisely its heaviness, and not only the relative scientific measure of a primary quality. On the other hand, there is no question that in Henry’s approach only an auto- impressional flesh can experience its own heaviness or lightness. I feel the weight of another not perceptually, by seeing it, but only and at most when the other (the other’s weight) is quite strictly bearing down upon me. But even in this case, I do not feel the weight of the other, properly speaking—that is, its heaviness for the other, which remains strictly invisible (an object not of sensibility, but impressionality). Its impressional status does not make it inhuman. Quite the contrary. For Henry, the heaviness or lightness of flesh can be felt only because it is capable of feeling itself, and a worldly body—the strict concept we all have in mind when we speak of a worldly body—is not so capable, even if it can be assigned a weight value. For Falque, mother’s milk and soils diapers day after day surely gives all the signs of being alive in a quite organic way. In the horizon of the world’s exteriority, she is organic in this sense before any obvious signs of joy or anxiety, which do indeed come at a later stage of development. But if her body were not subjective, auto-impressional flesh, why the signs of facial relief? Must we not say she is relieved, rather than just that her pure organic body is relieved? 22 Ibid. p. 163 / p. 73. 23 I am not persuaded by Falque’s general objections, because I do not think he has adequately accounted for Henry’s position. The charge that Henry falls prey to dualism glosses over the rejection of soul-body dualism that is explicit in the text, begs the question of the thesis at issue (the duplicity of appearing), and sits uneasily with the charge of monism later applied to Henry. The charge that Henry resurrects a tired form of de-mythologization does not stick either. Henry’s reading of the Fathers is anything but Bultmann’s. In any case, if Greek thinking were so compatible with Christian faith, why would it be so unthinkable for God to be born in flesh like ours, as it was to the Greek mind? Why the debates or councils? We can call this enculturation, but we must not do so at the expense of admitting what remains distinctively Christian in it. The charge that Henry rejects the “model” of the visible is also somewhat question-begging, since we are here dealing with a phenomenology of the invisible. Nevertheless, these are not the charges Falque wishes to defend vigorously. And these objections do not prevent Falque from recognizing phenomenological descriptions of great value in Henry. The most compelling, and in my view correct, claims Falque makes are in the sections of the paper that describe what Falque takes to be original in Henry, but these are the very parts of Henry’s work Falque embraces. Is There a Body without Flesh? Crossing: The INPR Journal, Disputatio I (2020) 54-72 65 heaviness or lightness can be felt only by a flesh that also weighs something, and thus also bears the properties of a worldly body. Otherwise, how can we say that is its own heaviness? I think such a question motivates Falque’s objections. The phenomenology of incorporation, and not only of incarnation, has its own legitimacy, but seems impossible if the phenomenological distinction of flesh is not first admitted. Of course, we can question whether kilos, to use one of Falque’s examples, is an essential characteristic of the body, or only of its relation to the earth. The physicist will speak of gravity, but not flesh, and nothing keeps gravity from serving as a total principle of explanation in a so-called “unified theory.” In Henry’s perspective, I do not experience the “weight” of my body, which strictly speaking is an abstract measure. Rather, I experience, as a resisting continuum, the resistance of the body I am; and I experience fatigue in my effort to overcome it. A worldly body, from this angle, experiences no such resistance or fatigue, but friction and entropy. Moreover, the fatigue of my flesh is not fatigue at a distance, but my own proper exhaustion. If the weight of my flesh is felt, it is felt because my flesh feels it in itself, not because it senses it at a distance, as a sensed body. I can always form the intention of the object “weight,” assign it to my body, which I also see, and appeal to my perception of the weight and the body to gather these two distinct objects together in a unity. But no fatigue is felt in such a perception, since fatigue is affective. I feel the fatigue, before I have a perception of it, and whether or not the thought of it ever crosses my mind. That is why, for Henry, the flesh is auto- impressional, without any reference to the sensed body. In my own view, though I do not pretend to have fully demonstrated it here, I think Henry’s position is necessary if Falque is to have what he wants, which is the body in its visible, material, incorporated reality—and to have this together with flesh—in a way that also supports a genuinely theological conception of incarnation and incorporation. Moreover, I think Falque gets a deeper version of what he wants if he embraces Henry’s perspective, for only what transpires in flesh can account phenomenologically for what we “observe” in the living body, not only the phenomena of birth and growth in the mundane sense, but also of distress, sorrow or joy, which do not register visibly in the body at random, but account phenomenologically for, indeed explain, what so registers (the lines of distress in a face, tears of joy upon seeing a loved one, etc.). §4. Eyes of Faith: Flesh of the Theological These questions as far as they go remain phenomenological and do not depend upon articles of faith. Nevertheless, Falque correctly detects in Henry’s Incarnation a liaison between Part II and Part III, between the phenomenology of flesh stricto sensu, and Incarnation in “the Christian sense.” Here, Falque advances a second KARL HEFTY Crossing: The INPR Journal, Disputatio I (2020) 54-72 66 principle objection and a positive claim: “[N]othing ensures, at least in reading Michel Henry’s work, that the divine incarnation in a flesh pure and simple [Inkarnation] also expresses the becoming human of God [Menschwerdung]… Only a theology of the body or of the purely organic, rather than a unilateral phenomenology of the flesh, will be able to produce the identification, frequently avoided by Michel Henry, between the carnal incarnation of God and his historical and corporeal humanization in the figure of the incarnate Word.”24 Falque seems to suspect that Henry subsumes “Incarnation in the Christian Sense” under a general and also inadequate phenomenology of incarnation.25 Far from providing an account of incarnation in the Christian sense, Henry’s phenomenology of life glosses over it and renders it equivalent to the fleshly condition of anyone. At best, Revelation becomes a mere moment of phenomenology, rather than the absolute Transcendent.26 What is worse, it can hardly be called “incarnate” or even “human,” since it is fundamentally dis-incorporated. Flesh without body, in this precise sense, is finally a gnostic flesh, as a-corporal as a-cosmic. It is neither Christian nor human. “A monadism and a modalism of the Henryan flesh would thus become all the more dis-incorporated as the body would be destroyed and absorbed into it.”27 In response to this precise objection, let us consider more closely a text that Falque cites in support of these claims and that seems to invite the charge of Spinozism. Henry describes the living person [vivant] as “no more than a mode of it [auto- 24 Ibid. pp. 140 – 1 / p. 145 (my emphasis). Henry in no way denies that the body is also an object, and also organic. It is a question, rather, of describing adequately the body’s phenomenality in its entirety, which Henry thinks is not possible if we seek to account for flesh in terms of the organic body or in terms of the objective body alone. Falque seems primarily worried that Henry’s flesh is too unilateral. It seems as if Falque wants a single notion of phenomenality that accounts for both sensing flesh and sensed body, but wants to get there starting from the body alone. Though I cannot address the issue here, it is for me unclear what a theological concept of incarnation (or incorporation) would be, that would be adequately describable as the Word assuming a purely organic matter. As we know from Maximus the Confessor, and so many others, human salvation is affected in the Christ, not because the Word assumes a purely organic matter, which has no freedom or agency, but also because of his obedience, in his human will, to the divine will. Such obedience is not possible unless the flesh is also subjective, capable of a will that can exert or not exert force in the limbs of the body it is, whether to accept ignominy and death, or to resist it, for example. 25 Forget the “theological turn of French phenomenology.” Falque detects in Henry’s final section that is supposed to treat “Incarnation in the Christian Sense” a near-total “avoidance of the theological.” Or, if he does not succeed in totally avoiding it, at least “a probable attempt to avoid the theological” (Ibid. pp. 149, 147 / pp. 56, 52). I find these claims unfounded. Nowhere in Henry’s oeuvre does he evince the least fear of theology, or any attempt to avoid it. He is and remains a phenomenologist, and his theologically-motivated critics ought not gloss over this fact, or take it as a demerit. 26 Ibid. p. 150 / p. 56. 27 Ibid. pp. 162 – 3 / pp. 72 – 3. Is There a Body without Flesh? Crossing: The INPR Journal, Disputatio I (2020) 54-72 67 impressionality]. In other words, it is something that has no consistency by itself, but only as a manifestation, modification, or peripeteia of a reality that is other than it.”28 Read one way (as Falque reads it), this passage seems to deny the integrity of creation, and to assert a strange, if not to say false, relation with an a-cosmic, unworldly, dis-incorporated reality. One cannot even say it is a relation of dependence, which would already imply a consistency of its own, but rather a relation that merely, as Spinoza might say, expresses the absolute. If Henry means what Falque thinks he means here, Falque would be right to reject it. But I think Henry is saying something else entirely, and a better understanding of it will also shed light on Falque’s other objections. I read Henry’s phrase, “has no consistency by itself,” with Augustine rather than Spinoza in mind. If Henry means that apart from Life and, in a deeper sense, apart from God’s own life given in Christ, human living dis-integrates, and lacks unity or consistency, then Henry’s claim is impeccably phenomenologically and theologically precise. Neither here nor elsewhere does Henry turn finite flesh into a dis- incorporate epiphenomenon lacking all reality. Nor does he claim it is only a “mode” of absolute life in the manner of Spinoza. Henry is claiming, instead, at least three things: 1) Finite flesh is not autonomous absolutely. The pretense to be itself on its own, by its own power, is illusory.29 It cannot give itself its own law if it cannot give itself its own life. 2) Flesh can be a site in which life manifests itself, or alternatively can be a site where life is denatured. Whether one or the other eventuality ensues is, in part, a function of the kind of relation flesh maintains with the life that gives it to itself. 3) Infinite Life, strictly speaking—insofar as it brings itself about in itself [se porte soi-même en soi]—is, with respect to finite life, an alterity, “a reality that is other than it.” Here we have a fundamental distinction between finite and infinite flesh, an alterity not reducible to the alterity of the finite other. It expresses in phenomenological terms what the creature-creator distinction expresses theologically. As fundamental as it is, however, that distinction does not destroy the fundamental relation that is creation. But Falque does not see this distinction in Henry, or does not find it strong enough: “There is a distance in the relation of the human to God… that is not identical to the distance of sin.”30 For Henry, once again, finite life cannot “bring itself about in itself.” The power to give life, even life to itself—a power at infinite remove from any human power—it forever lacks. I am not “my own” life and will never be. Is this not, in fact, the orthodox concept of creation? God is Life and the 28 Ibid. p. 162 / p. 72, citing Henry, Incarnation, III, §35, p. 178 / p. 255 (my emphasis). 29 For Henry, the statement of Christ to Pilate (Jn. 19:11)—“You would have no power over me…”—is an absolute claim, applying not only to the political power of the first-century provincial prefect, but also to all power at his disposal, the brute force of a soldier, for example, and any power like it. 30 Ibid. p. 160 / p. 69. KARL HEFTY Crossing: The INPR Journal, Disputatio I (2020) 54-72 68 giver of life, and all the living bear a relation to God by virtue of their living condition.31 It is not simply creation that Falque finds missing, but also an orthodox concept of incarnation. Somewhat surprisingly, he suspects that Henry denies that the Son of God has taken on the human condition in every way but sin. Where Henry writes that the “one who took on flesh in Christ was not an ordinary man but the Word of God” (160 / 69, Falque’s emphasis, citing Incarnation, 231 / 331), Falque interprets Henry as denying that Jesus was born in human likeness, just like any of us, with a carnal body of visible matter. But here again nothing prohibits us from reading this differently. The one who has taken on human likeness in the man Jesus is not just anyone, is not you or me, but rather the One who is in himself the Word. Of course Jesus is a man like any other, but he is not only a man like any other, since he is in his person the very Word of God. Falque wants to compliment an emphasis on the “exemplary” with an emphasis on “the ordinary life and common fleshly humanity of the Son of God.”32 In addition to an adequate conception of the humanity of Jesus, it is also the uniqueness or singularity of the incarnation that Falque wishes to safeguard. Now citing “the philosopher” Merleau-Ponty: “the Incarnation changes everything.”33 And Falque is right. Incarnation in the Christian sense does change everything. But Falque thinks incarnation in Henry’s sense, like the astral flesh of Marcion, or the angelic flesh of Jakob Böhme, cannot “change” anything, strictly speaking. How could it if the auto-impressional flesh it involves is forever a-temporal, invisible, dis- incorporated, and thus entirely unlike the temporal, visible, bodily appearance of the Word made flesh, which in the words of John, “we have heard… we have seen with our eyes… we have looked at and touched with our hands”?34 If we are to affirm these words, as we do, must we not side with Falque against Henry on this point? The theology Falque wishes to preserve is not in question here, but only the phenomenology, and thus the conditions under which (the way) the revelation of God in Christ comes to manifestation. How does the affirmation that the Word was made flesh in a flesh like ours go together phenomenologically with the theological singularity of the Word made 31 “The God who made the world and everything in it… does not live in shrines made by man, nor is he served by human hands, as though he needed anything, since he himself gives to all men life and breath and everything.” Ac. 17:24-25. 32 Emmanuel Falque, The Metamorphosis of Finitude, op. cit., p. 19. 33 Which continues: “Since the incarnation, God has been externalized [a été dans l’extérieur].” Maurice Merleau-Ponty, “Faith and Good Faith,” in Sense and Non-sense, tr. Hubert L. Dreyfus and Patricia Alley Dreyfus (Evanston: Northwestern University Press 1964), 174-5/ Sens et non-sens (Paris: Les Éditions Nagel, 4th ed, 1945), p. 310. 34 1 Jn. 1:1 (NRSV). Is There a Body without Flesh? Crossing: The INPR Journal, Disputatio I (2020) 54-72 69 flesh, indeed its primacy? For as we have seen, it is not just any incarnation in question, in your flesh or mine, but the incarnation of the One who is the Word. To be more precise, how must we describe, following Nicholas of Cusa but this time phenomenologically, the co-incidence of the following two apparently-irreconcilable opposites: The man Jesus is both seen and heard, and rejected as God by many?35 Can a phenomenology that starts with visible body tout court do it? We should avoid any hasty appeal to faith to explain the difference between acceptance and rejection. Falque’s intuitions are correct: it is not only the eyes of faith that see God in Jesus, but the sensible eyes of the body, and also the intellectual “eyes” of those who contemplate him. But by insisting that the one who sees Jesus—i.e. sees him “bodily”—does indeed perceive God in the flesh, has Falque left any room for those who wish to deny it, as many did and still do? After all, they do not reject what they see, a man in space and time, visible like any other. Nor is it a different man, but the same one his followers also see. What they reject is that this appearing man is God. (In this precise respect Falque claims about the priority of the body are correct. In the order of historical time, they see Jesus first, before some come to believe he is the Christ.) But can the humanity of precisely the Word made flesh be recognized as such by appealing first or exclusively to the visibility of it, where the meaning of “flesh” is blended with, and finally phenomenal as, the visible body? How then could we come to terms with the invisibility of the Father? In the Johannine text, Jesus says: “No one can come to me unless drawn by the Father who sent me… Everyone who has heard and learned from the Father comes to me. Not that anyone has seen the Father except the one who is from God; he has seen the Father.”36 By refusing the phenomenological privilege of invisible, auto-impressional flesh, not just the experience of flesh or life, but flesh as it undergoes experiencing itself—is Falque committed to an exclusivism of the sensed?37 Not necessarily. He does not refuse the fact of an invisible dimension of flesh, but refuses it priority, and refuses to sever its (visible) bond with the irreducibly visible, the “spread body.” He refuses the notion that flesh is invisible alone, sensing alone, touching alone, in favor 35 “The infinite form is received only in a finite way; consequently, every creature is, as it were, a finite infinity or a created god, so that it exists in the way in which this could best be.” De docta ignorantia 1440, II, 2, 104, in Nicholas of Cusa: Selected Spiritual Writings trans. H. Lawrence Bond (Mahway, NY: Paulist Press, 1997), p. 134. A form of this aporia has been described by Jean-Luc Marion, “The Aporia of the Concept of Revelation: The Epistemological Interpretation,” Givenness and Revelation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), pp. 8-29. 36 Jn. 6:44-46. 37 Falque frequently renders Henry as suggesting an experience of life, but Henry instead understands life as experiencing undergoing itself, not as an object of experience, where experiencing as such would be taken for granted as given. KARL HEFTY Crossing: The INPR Journal, Disputatio I (2020) 54-72 70 of a view that it is also, and at the same time, visible, sensed, and touched—which is to say, is also body. Of course, at one level, Falque’s claims are entirely legitimate. This “thing” I call my flesh “is” also this “thing” I call my body. The distinctions Henry and others make between the subjective body, the living body, the organic body, the objective body, and so on, these are phenomenological declinations of the body as such. The body, as such, “is” their unity. But only in flesh and as flesh is that unity self-given. It is not given in its original phenomenality either in perception or in sensibility. If we wish to follow Merleau-Ponty’s path, as Falque does, either we must remain in an ontic register that denies the fundamental, original, phenomenological irreducibility of visible and invisible, world and life, and finally flesh and Life, or we must enter into theological territory and with eyes of faith recognize these twos as ones. One can offer a kind of phenomenology from faith, as Emmanuel Falque does so well, but one can also wonder whether, because this is a phenomenology of faith and from the perspective of faith, it is theology more from “from above” than “from below,” despite everything. “Eyes of faith” here means, minimally, hearing the Words of Christ and believing, and maximally, participating fully in sacramental life. If we remain in the realm of sense perception and confine our understanding of these realities to the sheer ontic unities of flesh and body, body and world, flesh and world, we seem committed to a theologically- and phenomenologically-questionable materialism. If, instead, we understand seeing as seeing in the light of faith, we must admit that it is faith that gives the incarnate unity in question, Word and flesh, and Word made flesh. In the order of perception, it is faith and not sensibility, or better faith with sensibility, that gives the unity in question. The one who denies that Jesus is Lord also sees Jesus, or could do so. In seeing Jesus they also see the Lord, and deny him. But they do not deny what they see, Jesus. Without the duplicity of appearing, one has either a kind of ontic phenomenality, so to speak, or faith. But then he phenomenality of faith, properly speaking, would seem to remain out of reach, since the sensible has already, of itself, been so fully loaded with faith. It is a way of thinking the unity of faith and phenomenological reason, but perhaps one that risks compromising something of both. The theologian must still bear the burden of describing phenomenologically what life means, and what it means for that Word to give its life for the world, for you and for me, what it means to live with it and in it and from it, to “participate” in precisely that Life and no other, and to be made able to do so. I am not confident all this can be done on the basis of the phenomenality of the world alone. Of course, I understand “world” here in Henry’s sense and not that of Merleau-Ponty, and an objection to the position I am sketching here might find in that fact a point of dispute. The charges of Gnosticism and Spinozism, in any case, are misapplied and ultimately unhelpful, at least when it comes to what clearly becomes the trajectory of Henry’s Is There a Body without Flesh? Crossing: The INPR Journal, Disputatio I (2020) 54-72 71 final writings on Christianity. Like Kierkegaard says life must be lived, Henry’s writings on Christianity must be read forward, but can only be understood backward. Life does not save me from the world, nor do I need saving from it. It simply gives itself otherwise and differently than what the world gives and how the world gives. The givenness of the world (as much as of the body and its bones) is and remains a givenness, but never a self-givenness. This is a phenomenological claim, not a soteriological one. The two should not be confused. But the decision to limit one’s understanding or definition of reality to the unilateral exteriority of the world may indeed have soteriological implications. We may never come to terms with what faith means, what faith is about—to say nothing of creation, which is not a mere concept but also reality itself—if we remain so limited. * * * A word remains to be said about the engagement of phenomenology with science and its place in these reflections. That area of study has its own merit, legitimacy, and interest. The protagonists of such research deserve enormous praise, with two small qualifications. First, the effort to correlate first- and third-person perspectives risks slipping to a kind of scientism if only those correlations ground the phenomenality and phenomenological legitimacy of experiencing undergoing itself in flesh. The phenomena arising in flesh are proper to flesh. The varying worldly vestiges of it, including its practical action, illuminate only what a world can be (including the world of science). They do not give or illuminate or justify what is given in flesh in itself, which has its own phenomenological integrity. Secondly, and for a related reason, science will never prove God (and here we mean “science” and not “reason”). Nor will it ever prove, for example, that Jesus is Lord. “If they do not listen to Moses and the prophets, neither will they be convinced even if someone rises from the dead.”38 None of this can count in any way as a failure of science, but only as a difference from phenomenology, and in another way, a difference from faith. Falque’s phenomenology of flesh and bone is clearly distinct from Henry’s phenomenology of life, and the distinctions between them merit further investigation. I share the same theological commitments as Falque, and I hold in high regard the profound spirit of his theological vision. These objections are only about phenomenology, and in a secondary way about how phenomenology relates to Christian faith, tactically speaking. I suspect that ultimately Falque’s objections to Henry presuppose that one has already refused Henry’s basic theses concerning phenomenality and the duplicity of appearing. But new questions can also now be 38 Lk. 16:31. KARL HEFTY Crossing: The INPR Journal, Disputatio I (2020) 54-72 72 posed, this time to Falque: Does the phenomenological priority of the body to the flesh assume a theological acceptation of the body as sacramental, and thus as theologically meaningful, as significant? If so, should we not understand this to be a sacramental phenomenology? And if that is the case, does it presuppose and depend upon the eyes of faith, or even sacramental experience, for its phenomenality? In my view, the further development of the phenomenology of life may also go in a sacramental direction. Henry himself invites it, and it is not clear that a rapprochement between their positions could not be found there.39 In any case, one cannot avoid being struck by the subtle moments Falque expresses thanks for the reprieve that arrives when Henry admits a kind of “transcendent” life. But Falque does not put much stock in it. Why? Because admitting it, he thinks, would make of Henry’s work a total contradiction and destroy its most important theses. But I think Falque and with him almost all readers of Henry have missed something very important. The phenomenology of life Henry finds in Christianity is not reducible to his own. Henry discovers in Christianity a depth (of life) that offers more than his own phenomenology on its own can provide, a depth which later involves a reproach that overturns the entire affective economy and the world of ethics it presupposes. If we must turn to Words of Christ to see its contours and extent, nothing prohibits us from reading Henry’s final text, in part, as a response to Falque’s objections. If that is in any way the fruit of a combat amoureux, for this we can also thank Emmanuel Falque. 39 See, in particular, Words of Christ (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2012) p. 124 / Paroles du Christ (Paris: Seuil, 2002), p. 155; cf. “Archi-christologie,” in Phénoménologie de la vie, Tome IV : sur l’éthique et la religion (Paris : Presses Universitaires de France, 2004), p. 113 ff. 
work_3fjo3vuopzc2jfmqzcutcqfnbi	----	Journal of Art Historiography Number 20 June 2019 Opened eyes on Australian exhibition history Review of: Australian Art Exhibitions: Opening our Eyes by Joanna Mendelssohn, Catherine De Lorenzo, Alison Inglis and Catherine Speck, Melbourne, Thames & Hudson, 2018, 432 pages, 396 col. Plates, 63 b. & w. illus., $100.00 hdbk, ISBN 9780500501214 Richard Read As with any complex scholarly work, the level of comprehension of this prodigiously well-researched and consequently compendious history of twentieth- and twenty-first-century Australian exhibitions is likely to depend on the degree of readers’ involvement in the institutional history it covers. As an academic migrant to Australia from the early 1980s whose research focus has largely been tangential to Australian art, this reviewer has nevertheless had a slight acquaintance with some of the key players and events related in more than four-hundred pages of this text, splendidly illustrated by an equivalent number of often rare archival photographs that must themselves have cost enormous labour to collect, assemble and present. As a consequence, my fragmentary experience of the Australian art world at conferences and exhibitions has been enriched, clarified and reordered by the chronological warp and thematic weft of twelve chapters of sharply varying length respectively entitled 1) ‘Taking the initiative: State gallery directors in the 1950s & 1960s’; 2) ‘A national picture: the impact of Whitlam and the Australia Council’; 3) ‘Exhibitions re-defining the nature of art’ (60 pages); 4) ‘Blockbuster exhibitions and their consequences’ (34 pages); 5) ‘Re-examining Australia’s past: Colonialism and nationalism’ (34 pages); 6) ‘The centenary years and beyond’ (36 pages); 7) ‘Australian Modernism’ (36 pages); 8) ‘Modernism, feminism: what of the women’; 9) ‘The Aboriginal art revolution’ (44 pages); 10) ‘Exhibiting the present’ (38 pages); 11) ‘A new Australia’ and 12) ‘Different modes of engagement’. Having reviewed research supported over six years by large grants and assisted in collection by an army of curators, archivist and librarians, the four authors – all senior female academic art historians - came to a collective decision about the format the publication should take: ‘we realised just how valuable a focus on exhibitions would be to our colleagues in art museums and, more broadly, within the fields of curatorial and art historical studies.’1 This gives a clear enough indication of the volume’s priority of targeted constituencies for whom the trees are less likely to be lost in the leaves. In reviewing this volume, one of its most prominent subjects, the distinguished Australian director Ron Radford, frankly addressed the advantages that academics enjoy over curators in compiling a vast survey volume of this kind. While acknowledging the contribution of the gallery 1 Joanna Mendelssohn, Catherine De Lorenzo, Alison Inglis and Catherine Speck, Australian Art Exhibitions: Opening our Eyes, Melbourne: Thames & Hudson, 2018, 11. All subsequent references appear in main text. Richard Read Opened eyes on Australian exhibition history 2 workers who assisted the authors, he grants that, being less constrained by deadlines, academics are more able than curators to present ‘a balanced view of rival institutions, the more so because the authors are drawn from three different states’ (New South Wales, South Australia and Victoria).2 With a kindred generosity of spirit towards curators, the author extolled the merits of curatorial display and writing. Whether working with contemporary or older works of art, ‘skilled curators can alter perceptions’ and are thus able to become greater agents of social change: ‘Their methods for interrogation differ from those employed by art historians in that their selection, carefully displayed within the exhibition space, aligns the sensual and affective qualities of art within a wider narrative.’ (pp. 375- 376) In choosing a pragmatic, hands-on approach, – ‘We did not see our project as ideologically driven’ (p. 11) – they clearly intended to aid and abet the best of Australian directors’ and curators’ progressive social purposes by delineating the branching varieties of exhibition history and how they were fostered by governmental, corporate and philanthropic funding initiatives. In this way, the primary purpose of this new kind of art history seeks both to emulate and enable arts administrators by charting an institutional history of the collective awareness curators, and their co-workers, have generated in the public mind on which further social agency can act: Instead of giving special attention to individual artists and art works, this book presents an institutional model that foregrounds the role of art museums. It gives a grand narrative of the building of cultural capital through the knowledge and shared experiences of a generation whose exhibitions are the medium and the agency of communication that help shape the way we see ourselves. (p. 22) This suggests that although grand narratives are usually regarded with suspicion in contemporary academic discourse, this one is acceptable because it has been compiled by female authors emulating female artists who, as one title in the bibliography puts it, are ‘Drivers of … Alternative Historical Narratives in Australia.’3 While by no means bereft of methodological awareness (though more attention could have been paid to the dissemination through tertiary education of French theory, particularly Nicholas Bourriard’s theory of Relational Aesthetics, in the art discussed in the later chapters of the book), the quartet have avoided the higher theoretical reaches of institutional critique initiated by the Frankfurt School 2 Ron Radford, ‘Ron Radford reviews “Australian Art Exhibitions: Opening our eyes’', Australian Book Review, 40, January-February 2019, https://www.australianbookreview.com.au/abr-online/current-issue/237-january-february- 2019-no-408/5293-ron-radford-reviews-australian-art-exhibitions-opening-our-eyes-by- joanna-mendelssohn-et-al. 3 My reference is to Juliet Peers, ‘Women Artists as Drivers of Early Historical Activities and Alternative Narratives in Australia’, Journal of Art Historiography, 4, 2011, 1-18. Richard Read Opened eyes on Australian exhibition history 3 and recast in George Dickie’s institutional theory of art, 4 but have not shied away from correlating exhibition history with other drivers of state, national and international culture that comprise what Donald Preziosi, revising Paul O. Kristeller’s foundational essays on ‘The Modern System of the Arts’, has defined as the modern discourse on art, a field of dispersion wherein a series of intersecting institutions – academic art history, art criticism, museology, the art market, connoisseurship – maintain in play contrasting systems of evidence and proof, demonstration and explicating, analysis and contemplating, with respect to objects both semantically complete and differential.5 Setting out on a more motivated account of institutional exchange than this, the opening chapters of the grand narrative give top ranking to state gallery directors and government policymakers from the late 1940s onwards. Oxymoronic gallery titles such as the National Gallery of Victoria are explained as relics of the nation’s transition from state to federal organization. Directors’ negotiations produced a matrix of inter-state allegiances (and enmities) on which the funding mechanisms of the Australian Council for the Arts could operate when it was established under the Liberal Government of Harold Holt through the managerial creativity of the virtuoso public servant Dr H. C. ‘Nugget’ Coombs, who efficiently implemented a Keynesian merger of national economic and cultural policy that switched from a British to a Canadian model of the arts in which government instrumentality enabled the avant-garde (p. 42). Coombs brought another new broom to bear as an advisor to the new Gough Whitlam Labour Government in 1975 by radically restructuring the Australian Council of the Arts to greatly increase national access to greatly increased arts funding. Throughout the volume, the authors supplely interweave the fortunes of art institutions with the dictates of their paymasters by charting the fluctuations of arts policies under successive governments. The glossary of two hundred and sixteen abbreviations of Australian art institutions in the prefatory pages of the book, to which this reviewer needed fairly constant recourse, would alone give pause to readers who thought they knew the Australian world of art administration, particularly since the list includes many institutions located outside Australia. Apart from the intrinsic value of its subject, the volume fascinates as an exercise in collaborative scholarship between four instead of the more usual duo of co-writers. In less thoughtful hands it could have become a committee job, marred 4 See Max Horkheimer and Theodor W.; Adorno, Dialectic of Enlightenment Philosophical Fragments, ed. Gunzelin Schmid Noerr, trans. Edmund Jephcott, Stanford: Stanford University Press, and George Dickie, Art and the Aesthetic: an Institutional Analysis, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1974. 5 Donald Preziosi, ‘The Question of Art History’, Critical Inquiry, 18, 1992, 385. See also Paul O. Kristeller, “The Modern System of the Arts: a Study in the History of Aesthetics”, Journal of the History of Ideas 12: 4, 1951, 496-527; 13, no. 1, 1952, 17-46, and James I. Porter, ‘Is Art Modern? Kristeller’s “Modern System of the Arts” Reconsidered,’ British Journal of Aesthetics, 49: 1, 2009), 1-24. http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~randall/Readings%20W2/Horkheimer_Max_Adorno_Theodor_W_Dialectic_of_Enlightenment_Philosophical_Fragments.pdf http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~randall/Readings%20W2/Horkheimer_Max_Adorno_Theodor_W_Dialectic_of_Enlightenment_Philosophical_Fragments.pdf Richard Read Opened eyes on Australian exhibition history 4 by erratic linkages and awkward changes of tone, whereas each author’s academic specialization, whether in museology, three centuries of Australian art history, photography and Aboriginal anthropological history appear to cycle smoothly through the text with no voice left unblended, though for reasons to be given I agree to some degree with Sasha Grishin that the ‘strengths of the book lie more in individual case studies than in the overall picture.’6 The consensus fell on an uplifting narrative of increasing inclusivity in race, gender and class, of which arguably class receives less attention than the others in this familiar triad: ‘When we began to write, we described 21st century Australia as “a lively yet self-questioning multicultural society, vastly changed from its 19th century self as a culturally cringing former colony whose proudest export was its departing intelligentsia.’7 (p. 15). Optimism remains the prevailing impression of the grand narrative as museum and government policies ground an increasing number of touring exhibitions and regional galleries, widening representation of Impressionist, Modernist, Colonial, Feminist, Aboriginal and contemporary art, the introduction of balanced ethical critiques of all these movements, greater inclusion of artistic media beyond painting and sculpture, art produced by successive waves of immigrants, Vietnam veterans, AIDS suffers, victims of rape as well as art displayed outside galleries through community engagement and performance art whose medium is social participation rather than finished objects. All of these advances vastly expanded art audiences since the 1950s. Early hopes for a triumphal conclusion to this narrative were dashed, however, by the return of chauvinist attitudes in recent times under neo- Liberal government and corporate policies that have eroded social cohesion and diversity by drastic cuts (or lack of rises against inflation) in public spending on the arts and other related areas of the economy: In recent years there has been diminishing government support for the whole of the arts sector, which in terms of visual art exhibitions includes cuts to national, state and regional art museums, state and national libraries, and science and natural history museums. Curators, librarians and arts advocates are losing their jobs and some art schools and art libraries are threatened with closure. The evidence presented in our arguments points to the powerful effects of exhibitions on Australian life and the importance of maintaining centrality of funding for the cultural sector. (p. 377) To this grim picture of recent times might be added government interventions in the Culture Wars to promote Western civilization in museums and universities and 6 Sasha Grishin, review, ‘Best in Show: Australian Art Exhibitions: Opening Our Eyes’, Sydney Review of Books, 1 March 2019, https://sydneyreviewofbooks.com/australian-art-exhibitions- opening-our-eyes/. 7 Their most famous representatives are probably Germane Greer, Clive James, Peter Porter, and Geoffrey Robertson. See Bruce Bennett and Anne Pender, From a Distant Shore: Australian Writers in Britain 1820-2012, Melbourne, Monash University Publishing, 2013. The art critic Robert Hughes worked in America after Britain. Richard Read Opened eyes on Australian exhibition history 5 corporate policies at galleries that have thwarted the autonomy and specialist knowledge of curators in favour of incentives to scatter ‘gold dust’ over exhibitions in the constant quest to meet and surpass attendance quotas.8 While agreeing on their narrative, the authors readily admit to disagreements in ‘a process best described as a constant self-critical peer review, and we would be lying if we said it were easy. This has meant that every assumption has been held up to the scrutiny of four strong-willed women!’ (p. 12). It is possible to speculate on what some of these disagreements were. A plan to begin the sixty-year span of the book with The Field exhibition of American-inspired colour-field paintings with which the new National Gallery of Victoria was opened in 1968 was replaced by a different chronological span that took the starting date back to the Perth exhibition of The Art of Arnhem Land in 1957, the first state gallery exhibition of Aboriginal art. At stake here is whether the starter leads of cultural rejuvenation reflected in exhibition history are exophoric or endophoric; whether, that is to say, the cohesion of that culture’s many strands was triggered from outside its borders by the cultural stimulus of another dominant nation as at the Field (which in Bernard Smith’s view was an example of Australian catch-up art) - or whether cohesion was galvanized by recognition of an indigenous core so remote from the country’s received art history that it opened a void that was the destiny of Australian curators to fill by exacting a ‘shift in perception of Aboriginal art from periphery to centre and to being understood as belonging within Australian Art.’ (p. 244) The movement towards the centre is tracked in two dimensions: one from the exclusive exhibition of Aboriginal art from remote communities (thus preserving its exophoric exoticism) to the eventual inclusion of urban Aboriginal art; the other from ‘out of the ethnographic museum and into the art museum’ (p. 256), for in the art museum indigenous art was no longer stigmatized as ‘primitive’, or ‘othered’ by forensic anthropological study, and so could take its rightful place beside other manifestations of contemporary Australian art.9 Meanwhile successive waves of migration qualify the exophoric work of Vietnamese, Indonesian, Turkish, Afghanistani artists and those from many other countries for endophoric cohesion with Australian exhibitionary identity. What fits less smoothly with these rights of passage into the body corporate of Australian places of display, either from the core or from outside, are joint exhibitions of American and Australian landscape painting (p. 112) or joint exhibitions of First Peoples’ art that bear witness to shared dispossession and massacre in Australia and Canada (pp. 374-5), shows about simultaneous processes taking place in distant 8 As far as I am aware the recent critique of the creative economy’s responsibility for ‘gentrification and rising property prices, with exploitative working conditions and enhanced inequalities’ in European academic, activist and policy-making circles has not been taken up significantly in Australia. See Kate Oakley and Jonathan Ward, ‘Creative Economy, Critical Perspectives’, Cultural Trends, 27:5, 2008, 311. 9 For an incisive account of the strident cross-disciplinary tensions between anthropological and art historical interpretations of the Art of the Arnhem Land exhibition, see Catherine de Lorenzo, ‘The hang and art history’, Journal of Art Historiography, 13, December 2015, https://arthistoriography.files.wordpress.com/2015/11/de-lorenzo.pdf. Richard Read Opened eyes on Australian exhibition history 6 countries. Neither do biennials and triennials (especially the highly successful Asia- Pacific-Triennials staged at Queensland Art Gallery from 1990 onwards (pp. 334- 340)) fit neatly into the overall narrative, for although they may have been inspired by immigration, such exhibitions reach out to the rest of the world as part of a global phenomenon that is not unique to Australia. As Robert Leonard, the first curator of the Asia-Pacific-Triennials, is quoted as saying: ‘the APT was participating in a transformation in the wider art world that would soon make our Europe-American “cosmopolitanism” seem wishful, provincial, and out of date’ (p. 339). Perhaps this remark suggests a further reason for the author’s displacement of the American-inspired Field exhibition away from the beginning of the book’s chronological scope, despite its pride of place in the first chapter where its prominence is due to marking the opening of the new National Gallery of Victoria building rather than the ‘very narrow cultural spectrum’ of its largely Anglo- Australian participants (p. 330). Meanwhile the authors are eager to lay claim to Australians who have migrated to exhibit overseas. If national identity has been nebulized in recent academic discourse by the hyper-inclusive theoretical arguments of the ‘Stay, Go, or Come’ variety,10 then what becomes of Terry Smith’s advocacy in ‘The Provincialism Problem’ of 1974 of the regional artist’s right to build identity at home without oppression from a misperceived sense of subservience to a world art system centred in New York?11 Does handing the exhibitionary laurel mainly to ‘anywhere people’ risk further alienating the ‘somewhere people’ who compose half the population living out their lives close to their birthplaces and from whom the current surge of pro-nationalist popularism arises, even in ‘an Australia engaged with a range of diasporas’ (p. 339)?12 True, working-class reaction to the artistic intervention on the Minto housing estate is addressed, but it ends on a note of consternation (p. 378). This lavishly illustrated text by Thames & Hudson is such a new departure in Australian historiography and is of such unprecedented scale that it is easy to neglect its place amongst several recent exhibitionary histories of other countries, as well as Seize the Day: Exhibitions, Australia and the World (2008), which investigated the earlier history of Australian exhibitions.13 Like a portrait in an interior whose 10 The allusion is to an essay by Rex Butler and A. D. S, Donaldson, ‘Stay, Go, or Come: A History of Australian Art, 1920-40’, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Art, 9:1-2, 2008-9, 119-144. 11 Terry Smith, ‘The Provincialism Problem’, originally published in Artforum, 13: 1, September 1974), 54-9, reprinted in Journal of Art Historiography, 3, 2010, https://arthistoriography.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/smith-provincialism-problem- 1974.pdf. 12 In a political rather than an aesthetic context, these are arguments that David Goodhart applies to Britain and to a lesser extent North America in The Road to Somewhere: the Populist Revolt and the Future of Politics, London: C. Hurst & Co., 2017. For a critique, see Johnathan Freedland, ‘The Road to Somewhere by David Goodhart – a liberal’s rightwing turn on immigration’, Guardian, 27 March 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/books/2017/mar/22/the-road-to-somewhere-david-goodhart- populist-revolt-future-politics. 13 Seize the Day: Exhibitions, Australia and the World, ed. Kate Darian-Smith, Richard Gillespie, Caroline Jordan and Elizabeth Willis, Melbourne: Monash University Press, 2008. For a few Richard Read Opened eyes on Australian exhibition history 7 external walls are invisible, the narratives of Australian Art Exhibitions are enclosed by invisible walls of nationality except for cultural connections radiating out of and into Australia. How could it be otherwise, given the Australian subject of the volume and why should it be otherwise, given that the tacit activism of the book needs a clearly delineated geographical arena on which to direct communal curatorial effort? Yet in examining the language of ‘cohesion’, ‘core’ and ‘corporate body’ that I have used, and ‘centre’ and ‘self’ used by the authors (as in the earlier cited passage on a ‘self-questioning multicultural society, vastly changed from its 19th century self’ (p. 15)), the personification of national identity based on the divergence and convergence of cultural strands embodied in exhibitions seems to hark back to the twin conceptions of nationhood and psychology that underpinned earlier generations’ reification of the nation as a more or less immured personality intent on self-determination.14 That sits oddly with the rather anxious assertion that closes the penultimate chapter: ‘Australia does not have a homogenous culture.’ (p. 369) Contradictory personifications of complex entities are probably inevitable in a survey book of this scope, but it is interesting to consider how its narratives might have changed in a differently conceived study focused on parallel curatorial processes in other parts of the world, given that curators everywhere have long looked elsewhere to achieve ‘best practice’. I have already cited many instances in this volume, from ‘Nugget’ Coombs looking sideways at a Canadian arts policy to the joint First Peoples’ exhibitions, but perhaps the most salient example it gives is in chapter four on Blockbuster exhibitions, where the authors cite the catalogue of Australian Impressionism, an exhibition at the National Gallery of Victoria sponsored by the Australian International Cultural Foundation in 2007, where the director Gerald Vaughan and curator Terence Lane convincingly argued that the Melbourne artists had been a part of a wider international Impressionist movement simultaneously manifested in Europe, America and the British Empire in the last decades of the 19th century. While earlier writers had assumed an Antipodean exceptionalism in the way Australian artists painted, recent scholarship had shown that Impressionism was a worldwide movement. (p. 102) recent examples of other countries’ exhibition histories, in rough chronological order, see Brandon Taylor, Art for the Nation: Exhibitions and the London Public, 1747-2001, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1999; National Museums and Nation-building in European Museums 1750-2010: Mobilization and Legitimacy, Continuity and Change, ed. Peter Aronsson and Gabriella Elgenius, London: Routledge, 2014; Art Museums of Latin America: Structuring Representation, ed. Michele Greet and Gina McDaniel Tarver, London: Routledge, 2018; Sally Anne Duncan and Andrew McClellan, The Art of Curating: Paul J. Sachs and the Museum Course at Harvard, Los Angeles: The Getty Research Institute, 2018, and the series of books addressing the theme of ‘Making Art Global’ published by Afterall, London: https://www.afterall.org/books/exhibition.histories/. 14 For theories of nationhood based on psychology, see Glenda Sluga, The Nation, Psychology, and International Politics, 1870-1919, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. Richard Read Opened eyes on Australian exhibition history 8 The view of Australian impressionism as the country’s earliest confident expression of national consciousness here gives way in exhibition history to the realization that the new style participated in a global means of nation-making that had started elsewhere.15 On the other hand, in chapter seven, the emphasis falls, amongst alternative explanations, on how Australian exhibitions made international Modernism their own. Turning to chronology, this reviewer was at first disappointed that the early chapters had little to say about the long durée of Australian exhibition history. In his review of the book, ignoring the Aboriginal substitution in Perth, Sasha Grishin made a specific case for starting nine years earlier than The Field with the paintings of John Brack, Arthur Boyd and Charles Blackman and others at the Antipodean exhibition of 1959, which remains ‘one of the most controversial and best-known exhibitions in Australian art history.’16 My own hypothetical inclusions are more general and would again unfairly require a different book when this one has delivered so much. My sense of a lacking long durée was satisfied in some measure in chapter five, where a background of Australian collecting is given prior to descriptions of exhibitions from 1972 onwards that expanded representation of nineteenth-century sculpture, print-making, photography and other so-called decorative or minor arts. These exhibitions sharply reassessed Bernard Smith’s characterisation of Australian art as ‘an English tradition in minor key’ (quoted on p. 121). Not only is the expanded collectability of early art noted but also its meteoric rise in market value even as early art’s collusion in dispossession and genocide is increasingly admitted in catalogue essays. In these ways, late twentieth-century exhibitions illuminate the earlier history of art. In similar fashion one of the earliest in-depth evocations of existential exhibition experience in the book is that of Jonathan Jones, Wiradjuri and Gamilaroi people’s exhibition barrangal dyara (skin and bones), 2016, in Sydney’s Royal Botanic Gardens. It explores the issue of how the early collecting policies of European occupiers deprived Aboriginal artefacts of their original communal life in ceremonial rituals. It was, therefore, a kind of anti-exhibition that made visitors aware of pre-exhibitionary usages of indigenous artefacts. In doing so it folded out modern understanding into a remoter past. These methods of encapsulating object usages before the primary period of the book’s concern commendably formulate institutional equivalents to Michael Baxandall’s insight into artistic ‘influence’ as a causal force best thought of as working backwards rather than forwards in time, so that what counts is not what the earlier artist (in his example, Cézanne) did to the later, but what the later artist (Picasso) did to the earlier (in Picasso’s case, 15 At the time of writing the 10th Annual Anne d’Harnoncourt Court Symposium at the Philadelphia Museum of Art on 10-14 April 2019 is to be devoted to ‘Impressionism Around the World’ with a keynote lecture by T. J. Clark. Unfortunately, I am unable to trace for the purposes of counter-argument the unintentionally funny account commissioned by the Canadian government as commentary of its nation’s contribution to the South Kensington Empire exhibition in celebration of Queen Victoria’s Jubilee, 1887, in which John Hodges is supposed to have written that ‘Impressionism will bring Empire to its knees.’ 16 Sasha Grishin, ‘Best in Show: Australian Art Exhibitions: Opening Our Eyes’, n. p. Richard Read Opened eyes on Australian exhibition history 9 committing patricide on the forerunner).17 Yet I shall give two instances where a more conventional understanding of forwardly causative influence might have been illuminating. One concerns the early part of the twentieth century, the other the previous century. A visitor would have to come from a very different country from Australia to find the character of its exhibitions wholly unfamiliar. Its blockbuster shows inherit what Francis Haskell called the ‘Enduring Legacies’ of ‘Old Master’ retrospectives in seventeenth-century Italy and bourgeois salons in nineteenth- century France that culminated in such shows as the Rembrandt exhibition in Amsterdam in 1898. Their nationalistic frame of mind was perpetuated after the First World War in international loan exhibitions serving soft diplomacy.18 Yet qualifying Bernard Smith’s verdict on colonial Australia art as ‘a second-rate British emulation, derivative in theme, technique, inspiration and aspiration’ (quoted p. 134), the rollout of libraries, combined art galleries and museums and institutes of adult learning known as Mechanics’ Institutes took place in a sequence in which Australian foundations sometimes preceded those in Britain and the rest of the Commonwealth.19 When it came to the training of gallery curators in the nineteenth- and early twentieth-centuries, university art history courses based on their own or partner galleries became part of the process of urban professionalisation across Germany, Britain, America and Australia, a process that was often compared to the professionalisation of medicine. Thus, in a letter published in the Burlington Magazine in 1930, the British art critic Roger Fry used arguments designed to spark national competitiveness in supporting the establishment of the Courtauld Institute, London, in the year before it opened. Fry envisaged a top-down spread of art- historically trained curators from the capital to the provinces. Reflecting sardonically on the composition of governing bodies of regional galleries where community leaders were convinced that an understanding of art is ‘a heaven- descended gift which comes by the grace of God and not by study’ but as a ‘reward for their success in business activities,’ Fry hoped that the availability of curators with a university training would have ‘a marvellously sobering effect on these public-spirited, but over-inspired patrons’ and so instill in them something of the same hesitation in overriding the opinion of such a professional authority as they may now feel about neglecting the advice of their doctor. In the long run this might lead to our provincial galleries becoming centres of artistic influence comparable to the great provincial 17 Michael Baxandall, Patterns of Intention: On the Historical Explanation of Pictures, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1985, 58-59. 18 Francis Haskell, The Ephemeral Museum: Old Master Paintings and the Rise of the Art Exhibition, London and New Haven, Yale University Press, 2000. 19 See Bronwyn Lowden, Mechanics' Institutes, Schools of Arts, Athenaeums, etc.: An Australian Checklist. Donvale, Australia: Lowden Publishing Co..2007, 44–79. Hobart’s Mechanics’ Institute, established in 1827, followed on the heels of the first Mechanics’ Institute in England, which was in Liverpool four years earlier. Richard Read Opened eyes on Australian exhibition history 10 galleries of Germany and America. The difference that this would make in the cultural life of England is incalculable.20 How often these issues recur in the fractious history of Australian directors’ and curators’ battles with Boards of Trustees! Moreover, the foundation of the Courtauld took its place within a significant international sequence. The appointment of Paul J. Sachs to create the Museum Course for graduate students of museums studies through the Fogg Museum and Harvard University Fine Arts Department in 1921, which inaugurated the principle that museums should be clear, neutral spaces in which to display art, preceded by ten years the establishment of the Courtauld Institute with its extensive collection of mainly French Impressionist and Post-Impressionist paintings under its first director William George Constable. This preceded by fifteen years the appointment in 1946 of Joseph Burke (with a museum background) as the foundation Herald Professor at the University of Melbourne, where art history was established as a ‘training ground in Australia for expert staffing of galleries and art museums’ that worked closely with the National Gallery of Victoria, ‘so that both institutions became a nursery for generations of curators and directors as well as collectors and patrons of the arts.’21 (p. 30) It was not until 1968 that Bernard Smith was appointed the first Power Professor to teach art history and theory at the University of Sydney where he ‘actively promoted Fine Arts as a humanities subject that could lead to careers in the arts’ through the introduction of Honours studies in Museology and a postgraduate diploma in Museum Studies in 1971 and 1976 respectively (p. 236).22 It is interesting to speculate on differences as well as continuities in curatorial policy debates spawned by these training schemes in different countries. Bernard Smith followed the British model where ‘academic art history provided the intellectual foundations for applied art history in the museum’23 (p. 259) and rejected the American model of Sachs’ influential student Alfred H. Barr that largely prevailed in the acquisition of modernist works in Australian public galleries: ‘Whereas one documented art, the other dictated art history’, Jim Berryman has 20 Roger Fry, letter, ‘The Courtauld Institute,’ The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, 57: 333, December 1930, 318. 21 See also Jaynie Anderson, ‘Art History’s History in Melbourne: Franz Philipp in correspondence with Arthur Boyde (France Philipp Memorial Lecture 1988)’, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Art, 1: 2, 2000, 111-129, and ‘Interrogating Joe Burke and His Legacy: The Joseph Burke Lecture, 2005’, Melbourne Art Journal, 8, 2005, 89-99, repr. Journal of Art Historiography, 4, June 2011, https://arthistoriography.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/anderson- on-burke.pdf. 22 The authors are aware of other aspects of this larger international history. See Catherine Speck and Lisa Slade, ‘Art History and Exhibitions: Same or Different?’, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Art, 14: 2, 2014, 141-50. 23 Bernard Smith, ‘The Role of the Art Museum and Public Accountability’, 1988, quoted in Jim Berryman, ‘Documenting Art: Bernard Smith, Academic Art History and the Role of the Curator’, in The Legacies of Bernard Smith: Essays on Australian Art, History and Cultural Politics, ed. Jaynie Anderson, Christopher R. Marshall and Andrew Yip, Sydney: Power Publications and Art Gallery of New South Wales, 2016, 259. https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/individual/publication45183 Richard Read Opened eyes on Australian exhibition history 11 observed.24 Potent also in this volume are the kinds of issues that were regular topics of debate in Sachs’ Museum Course at Harvard, for example on whether museums should serve the community or the educated elites, and the related question of whether their concentration should be on historical collections or contemporary art. On the other hand, did ‘the period room dilemma’ loom so large in Australian museology as it did at the Harvard Museum Course? By this is meant the question of whether the reconstruction of a historical environment attractive to mass audiences should take precedence over focus on individual objects of greater interest to the specialist.25 Perhaps it has had resonance in Australia. Another consideration of enduring legacy, formative context or forwardly- causative influence devolves from the authors’ awareness of the dangers of writing about the culture of Australian states they have not lived in. Their concern reflects an old debate on the fair representation of separate states in grand narratives of Australian art history, and the authors do their best to compensate for their geographical disadvantages: As none of us live in Queensland, Western Australia, Tasmania or the Northern Territory we have been especially conscious of the need to explore exhibitions originating from those states. In the case of Western Australia, we have been almost entirely dependent on the recollections of those who curated exhibitions, media coverage and, most importantly, the exhibition catalogues that provide a priceless legacy of the reforms of the early 1970s. (p. 11) Perhaps this was another contributory factor in the decision to start the books’ chronological span (not its narrative) with The Art of Arnhem Land show in Western Australia’s capital Perth in 1957.26 On the whole, however, it seems fair to say that the author’s value judgements on Western Australian curatorial prowess are, with notable exceptions, fairly negative compared to the Eastern States. As a resident of Perth frequently inspired by exhibitions that pass unmentioned in the book, this reviewer is hardly an impartial commentator but has noticed some mistakes. The Western Australian artist Trevor Vickers who took part in the 24 Berryman, ‘Documenting art’, 267. 25 See Belinda Rathbone, ‘Museum Work & Museum Problems’, review of The Art of Curating: Paul J. Sachs and the Museum Course at Harvard, The New Criterion, 37: 4, 2018, 13. 26 Western Australia may also have been singled out for special consideration partly due to a symposium on ‘The Undiscovered: a National Focus on Western Australian Art’ at the University of Western Australia, 20 October 2014. Its organiser, Ted Snell, advertised the symposium in an article on ‘Western Australian art is excluded from the national conversation’, The Conversation, 17 October 2014, http://theconversation.com/western- australian-art-is-excluded-from-the-national-conversation-32498, in which he argued that Western Australian art is ‘marginalised – peripheral to the periphery – and dislocated from both Australian and world centres of art production’ compared to ‘the Sydney, Melbourne and – more recently Brisbane – axis.’ Catherine Speck, one of the authors of the volume under review, strongly argued from the audience of this symposium that Western Australians should take responsibility for promoting their own culture nationally and internationally. Richard Read Opened eyes on Australian exhibition history 12 Melbourne Field exhibition would be surprised to learn that he lives in Adelaide (p. 34). But suppose that the overall negative verdict on Western Australian curatorial achievement is justified on comparative grounds.27 Can it be explained by incremental long-term factors in smaller opportunities for the state in the nineteenth century? Compared to Colonel Light, whose highly organized party of immigrants already employed drawing equipment in their tents on first arrival on South Australian beaches, Western Australians lacked cultural confidence and capital. According to Lise Summers, the state was smaller in population, poorer and less autonomous than other states. Thus, when it came to participate in intercolonial and international exhibitions of kinds devoted more to the display of local materials and commercial products than fine arts, its administrators demonstrated ‘a reluctance to appear in a setting in which the colonists suspected they would be perceived as the “poor relations”’, while ‘the potential for invidious comparison caused Western Australians to choose their exhibitions carefully’. The authorities were also tardier in establishing museums, libraries and art galleries than some other states.28 Yet however retarding such incremental disadvantages may be, cultures can improve quickly, as the cultural developments in Brisbane following the World Expo of 1988 attest and several new precincts recently constructed in Perth. Stereotypes die hard, however, and if these authors have tried to avoid them, snobbish asides against regional arts organisers by academics who pride themselves on impeccable Leftist credentials can still be heard at certain AGMs in the larger Eastern States cities. To suggest a second hypothetic inclusion: curators, critics and art historians - secondary consecrators all – have powerful opportunities and responsibilities when imposing their taxonomies, but as works of art are batched and re-batched in collections and exhibitions, the compulsion to tell stories with works of art can reduce the polyvalent ambiguity of connection they may once have possessed in the studio. In what is now an old book of 1987, La Peinture dans la Peinture, Pierre Georgel and Anne-Marie Lecocq discovered a wealth of esoteric preoccupations that artists primarily transmitted to each other rather than to viewers over many generations. If a similar study were compiled for post-1950 Australian art, it is an open question to what extent it would resist or cut across the curatorial narratives recorded in this book. Far from discounting the political significance of class, gender and racial politics that absorb these pages, an artists’ history might approach social and political issues differently, perhaps sometimes more reductively,29 as well as 27 It certainly accords with the sorry opinion of Perth culture that Jeff Kennett, the characteristically controversial former Victorian Premier responsible for the revitalization of Melbourne’s culture industry, gave on a visit to Perth in 2007. See Pam Casellas, ‘Antiseptic Perth is devoid of life: Kennett’, West Australian, 9 March 2007, p. 3: ‘”Perth has a heart,” he told the lunchtime audience, “but does it have a heartbeat?”’ 28 See Lise Summers, ‘Hidden Treasure: Exhibiting Western Australia, 1860-90’, in Seize the Day, 05.2, 3, 9. 29 Consider the repetitive clichés of New York conceptual art shows that the anonymous critic of Cutlurebox complained about in 2000: ‘Consumerism is bad. Sexism is bad. Censorship is bad. Corporations do not have your interests in mind. Art collectors are rich, mean, corrupt people who commodify art and use it for their own ends.’ See Anon., ‘Hans Haacke: Art or Punditry?’, Culturebox, March 16, 2000, https://slate.com/news-and- politics/2000/03/hans-haacke-art-or-punditry.html and Richard Read, ‘Art and politics: a https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2000/03/hans-haacke-art-or-punditry.html https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2000/03/hans-haacke-art-or-punditry.html Richard Read Opened eyes on Australian exhibition history 13 ramifying interactions between artists’ imaginative worlds that would probably map unevenly over the social and political concerns of their times. Can the narrative tendencies of any exhibition history do justice to the more bizarre, anarchic, mysterious or deeper fantasy life of Australian visual imagination and might there not be an untold, rowdy history not only of competition between artists for prominence in group shows but of their resistance to the codifying institutional ‘hang’ itself, apart, that is, from art deliberately and oppositionally made for display outside home and gallery walls? Illustrated in the book are two works by the conceptual artist Peter Tyndall (pp. 62 and 304) that send up the entire apparatus of gallery viewing. Tyndall typically features an idealized, middle-class family from the world of advertising imagery who are shown revering a blank painting suspended on puppet strings in a gallery under the trademark title ‘A Person Looks at a Work of Art/someone looks at something’, but his art is only designated in the text with other works as ‘ironically postmodern’ (p. 305). One wonders whether it would have impaired the upbeat positivity of the book to have scrutinised the oppositional intentions of such cultural critique artists more extensively, together with the generous readiness of curators to exhibit them. More importantly, instead of exhibition history superseding conventional art history, perhaps it would have been better to historicize the tensions as well as the harmonies between all the discourses of art more rigorously. Another alternative study prompted this time by the copious illustrations in the book is the history of spectating rather than curating. Many photographs illustrate exhibition posters or single works of art, and amongst these are some containing passages of dense text thoughtfully magnified to a scale at which leisurely or specialist readers can construe them (for example on pp. 73-75, 89, 363, and just maybe 82-85). The majority of illustrations are historical photographs of exhibition displays of which some show spectators attired in the fashions of their day. Though in the nature of their provenance exhibition installation shots of empty galleries outnumber spectator-scenes three to one, I still counted fifty-eight of the latter. The former reveal much about the history of lighting, wall colours, partitioning, spacing and geometrical display over several decades, but as flattened segments of three-dimensional shows, they cannot be expected to convey much about the twists and turns of an exhibition’s linear ‘logic’ from end to end. Though the authors draw few conclusions from these photographs about overall changes in exhibition strategy over sixty years, at several points they are good at taking readers on verbal journeys through the existential experience of shows or community engagements, whether it is the aforementioned barrangal dyara show of 2016 in Sydney or the ‘process as outcome’ (p. 378) at the working class housing estate in Minto where artists posing as house decorators had uncertain encounters with residents in 2009. Exhibition itineraries are initially theorized according to Robert Storr’s principles of ‘exhibition syntax’: ‘Galleries are paragraphs, the walls and formal subdivisions of the floors are sentences, clusters of works are clauses and individual critic’s perspective on Agnes Martin and Liberate Tate,’ in TransCultural Exchanges 2018 International Conference on Opportunities in the Arts: Exploring New Horizons, ed. Mary Sherman and Ann Galligan, Delaware: Vernon Press, 2019, forthcoming. Richard Read Opened eyes on Australian exhibition history 14 works, in varying degrees, operate as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs’ (p. 16). Though most curators would have some kind of thumbnail principle in mind as they work, there is something chillingly reductive about this one-for-one application of Saussurean linguistics to control the sidereal movements of spectators and their eyes through galleries. It assumes too much compliance on the part of the spectator. Later though, after the advantages of exhibitions over text-based art history have been explained, the immersive and restless qualities of display are foregrounded to soften those prescriptions (p. 64). Australian Art Exhibitions stands in an ambivalent position between text-based art history and exhibitionary display, since the plethora of photographs seems partly intended to immerse the reader and allay the allegedly tyrannical linearity of art history. Although the effect of having to leave the text to search for relevance in the illustrations is often interesting, many photographs that include spectators are peculiarly mute because the subjective responses of spectators in them remain ineluctably private and inscrutable. Like photographs of other ephemeral activities like dance, their charm is enigmatic rather than instructive. The most eloquent counter-example in this regard is a photograph of crowds viewing Holman Hunt’s Light of the World at the Art Gallery of New South Wales in 1906 when the exposure time of cameras was still so long that curious blurs mark seemingly impulsive migrations of flocks of spectators, while excessive definition of certain single figures shows them standing their ground transfixed with an effect of eternal intensity by one exhibit or another (p. 7). Yet still we cannot know what drove or arrested them, and the effect is lost in the instantaneous capture of modern photographs except for one fascinating example of double-exposure that is peculiarly appropriate to the ghostly mournfulness of the exhibition theme: Ted Gott’s 1995 Sydney exhibition of Don’t Leave Me This Way: Art in the Age of AIDS (p. 311). The authors are almost certainly aware of contemporary studies that detail the cursory concentration span that most gallery-goers devote to single works of art and their labels,30 so it could have been the result of mischievous activism that the second photograph in the book, after one depicting children breaking the taboo of touch, features two spectators of whom one leans down to scrutinize the area below an oval chairback in E. Philip Fox’s Lamplight, c. 1911, in a Brisbane exhibition of 2011 (p. 4). Few art historians would miss the analogy between this photograph and the duo of bewigged connoisseurs of whom one kneels in rapturous concentration before an oval painting propped on chairs in Jean-Antoine Watteau’s eighteenth- century Shop Sign of Gersaint, at a time when prolonged aesthetic scrutiny of paintings was only just becoming fashionable. The choice of the Philip Fox spectators seems like an injunction to close-reading – and yet the sheer withholding of many of the photographs of spectating eludes the text’s grasp and suggests a different kind of enquiry in an age of surveillance when private lives have never been so insecure. I am thinking of a history of spectating that would be different from mapping the trajectories of understanding that curators intended visitors to take and would be even more difficult to write. This raises the issue of the cover photograph, a heart-warming image of 30 E.g.: Isaac Kaplan, ‘How Long Do You Need to Look at a Work of Art to Get It?’, Art Market, 25 January 2017, https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-long-work-art-it. Richard Read Opened eyes on Australian exhibition history 15 elderly indigenous women leaning into each other and holding hands as they sit mesmerized gazing upwards at the Dome Travelling Kungkarangkalpa, 2017, an Artwork Experience showing the Tjanpi sculptures Kungkarrangkalnga-ya Parrpakanu (Seven Sisters Are Flying) in the Songlines: Tracking the Seven Sisters exhibition at the National Museum of Australia 2017-8. Though it is never directly explained, this photograph clearly symbolises the import of the whole book’s plea for the joyous inclusion of minorities within exalted gallery spaces. I could not think of any other representative constituency of spectators I would prefer to replace them, and I do not doubt the generous motives in either photographing them or selecting their image for the cover, yet I confess to feelings of intense ambivalence towards the possibility that capturing their spontaneous enjoyment objectifies them as trophies on an industry hit list of ideal spectators. In his essay on ‘Orientalism and the Exhibitionary Order’, Timothy Mitchell wrote of the strangeness that Arab novelists experienced on visiting the nineteenth-century European ‘Object World’. There they discovered ‘not just exhibitions and representations of the world, but the world itself being ordered up as an endless exhibition.’ (p. 456) Their ‘stories would often evoke the peculiar experience of the West by describing an individual surrounded and stared at, like an object on exhibit’, taking in ‘his dress and appearance.’31 Where this cover image is concerned, the other side of the argument is no less important. Why should a cover that promotes the enjoyment of indigenous people inside a gallery be avoided when so many Aboriginals still feel such places are not meant for them? My point is that the photographs in this volume are like works of art many-levelled documents that raise many more issues than the text could ever hope to adequately address.32 If I have speculated on a number of alternative studies to the one under review, it is because this impressive and well-written work of scholarship will surely inspire many PhDs and books on related aspects of its history, perhaps including those published by overseas authors. As well as the prefatory list of abbreviations, the book is usefully equipped with three appendices on individual exhibitions, career paths in Australian art administration, and a selected bibliography. Despite the fifteen hundred entries in the index, it would have been useful to have page numbers for the list of exhibitions, for they are often difficult to find in the text. But the authors are to be congratulated on pulling off an extraordinarily difficult and worthwhile balancing act in which the wobbles are as thought-provoking as the resolutions. Emeritus Professor Richard Read is a Senior Honorary Research Fellow at the University of Western Australia. He wrote the first book on the British art critic Adrian Stokes and has published extensively on the relationship between literature 31Timothy Mitchell, ‘Orientalism and the Exhibitionary Order’, The Art of Art History: A Critical Anthology, ed. Donald Preziosi, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998, 456, 458. 32 For example, the photograph on p. 74 of the butch Australian actor Jack Thompson posed in a suave green jacket reverently gazing at the sheep shearers in William Roberts’ The Golden Fleece is ripe for a seminar on the semiotic evolution of the Australian larrikin. He had just opened the show. Richard Read Opened eyes on Australian exhibition history 16 and the visual arts and complex images in global contexts. His anthology on nineteenth-century American and Australian landscape painting co-edited with Kenneth Haltman will be published by University of Chicago Press in 2019. richard.read@uwa.edu.au This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial 4.0 International License mailto:richard.read@uwa.edu.au http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ 
work_3mjdxtky3vbkfcv4jr6tmtt3re	----	European journal of American studies , Reviews 2011-1 European journal of American studies Reviews 2011-1 Robert Lee, Modern American Counter Writing: Beats, Outriders, Ethnics. Polina Mackay Electronic version URL: http://journals.openedition.org/ejas/8850 ISSN: 1991-9336 Publisher European Association for American Studies Electronic reference Polina Mackay, « Robert Lee, Modern American Counter Writing: Beats, Outriders, Ethnics. », European journal of American studies [Online], Reviews 2011-1, document 1, Online since 05 January 2011, connection on 30 April 2019. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/ejas/8850 This text was automatically generated on 30 April 2019. Creative Commons License http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org/ejas/8850 Robert Lee, Modern American Counter Writing: Beats, Outriders, Ethnics. Polina Mackay REFERENCES New York & London: Routledge, 2010. Pp. 296. ISBN 10: 0-415-99811-5 (hbk). 1 One can argue that literary criticism is primarily concerned with categorization. In their first year of study, students on an English Literature BA are asked to think about genre – about the difference between poetry and prose – and about subgenres, ranging from epic poetry to the detective novel. Such taxonomies are very helpful because they enable us to assess individual bodies of work as well as to place texts within the context of an ongoing literary story. 2 What makes literature indispensable, however, is its constant questioning of boundaries, genres and canons. Gustave Flaubert’s critique of, as he perceived it, the Romantic escapism of early nineteenth-century works led to a literary experiment: his novel, Madame Bovary, written in third-person narrative from the point of view of an omniscient and detached narrator whose main aim was to tell the story objectively. Flaubert’s book constitutes one of the beginnings of realism, the style of fiction writing which is partly responsible for the success of the novel in the twentieth century. Claude Monet’s later mistrust of realistic representation produced some of the finest counter-examples, a tradition now termed as impressionism which, in turn, influenced writers like Ezra Pound, William Carlos Williams, H.D. and Virginia Woolf, the pillars of modernism. And so the story continues. 3 The tendency to counter norms is predominant in mid-to-late twentieth-century American arts, which sees the emergence of countercultural literature as a significant Robert Lee, Modern American Counter Writing: Beats, Outriders, Ethnics. European journal of American studies , Reviews 2011-1 | 2011 1 category in its own right. In this grouping one finds Jack Kerouac whose novels On the Road, Vanity of Duluoz and Lonesome Traveler, among others, follow Walt Whitman in their call to men to take to the open road, to open up to whatever life throws at them. In this type one also encounters Charles Bukowski, another American, whose central character in many of his novels and other writings is the anti-hero Henry Chinaski (Post Office, Factotum, Women, Ham on Rye, Barfly), a border-misanthropic misfit. The texts of the counterculture are filled with this kind of sardonic critique of conformity; for visual examples see the comics of Robert Crumb, the artist most associated with the American underground scene of the 1960s and 1970s. 4 A. Robert Lee’s latest book, Modern American Counter Writing: Beats, Outriders, Ethnics engages with these fundamental questions that should concern every scholar of literature: what are canons and how are they created? What makes a counter-canon and how is its significance measured within the context of literary history? Lee takes this line of enquiry much further by asking: what of the other canons within the counter-canons, of – to use Lee’s term – the ‘shadow canons’ within the counter-canons? For there are plenty of these too. To Kerouac’s ‘Duluoz Legend’ (the story of his life as it is told in his fiction), for instance, there are the narratives of his wives and lovers who have also published their accounts (Joan Haverty Kerouac’s Nobody’s Wife, Joyce Johnson’s Minor Characters). To Kerouac’s, Ginsberg’s and Burroughs’ Beat Generation of male camaraderie there are the Beat women who wrote as much as the men, who also read their works in poetry events and who had as much to contribute to American letters as these men. Lee’s study draws attention to these shadow canons, extending beyond the somewhat short story of the Beats to what the author calls ‘outrider’ writers and to others of non-white origin. 5 It is difficult to speak of canons at a time when the process of canonization is called into question at a time when, after hegemonic discourse underwent rigorous critique in the 1980s and 1990s, the counter-hegemonies now need to be rethought if this process of questioning is to have had any value. Easily one can get caught up in a never-ending cycle of challenging a canon with a counter-canon which is then theorized as a kind of canon in itself. 6 Lee avoids this trap by proposing something of true value to the scholar of literature: he suggests we turn to the work itself. Lee rightly does not spend too much time analyzing literary strategies, histories of textual compositions, or circumstances of publication of individual novels or poems. If he had this book would have read as episodic, as a narrowly focused camera angle on a single branch in a vast garden. Instead each chapter places the body of work under study within its chosen tradition but also within the wider context of counter writing. 7 The book is divided into three parts, each examining a significant body of non-canonical American literature. Part I is devoted to the Beats, exploring the literature of those who haven’t as yet received sustained critical attention: the women of the Beat Generation (with a focus on Diane di Prima, Joanne Kyger and Anne Waldman); black Beat Ted Joans; and Beat international writers Michael Horovitz, Andrei Voznesensky and Kazuko Shiraishi. Part II charts three writers who seem not to belong to any one counter-canon, thus the label ‘outriders’. Hunter S. Thompson, Joan Didion and Kathy Acker refuse to conform to the American dream, to any kind of set script, even to revolution as that would involve some form of organization. Part III is entitled ‘Ethnics’ and showcases work by non-white American authors who choose not to resort to clichés, such as ethnic Robert Lee, Modern American Counter Writing: Beats, Outriders, Ethnics. European journal of American studies , Reviews 2011-1 | 2011 2 victimhood, and instead set out to offer unique versions of America. Lee rightfully places in this category Gerald Vizenor, whose work the author concludes is ‘a display of local craft in the service of wholly larger imagining’ (246). 8 Lee’s argument in this book reminds me of John Carey’s in What Good Are the Arts? Like Carey, Lee shows that the power of literature lies in its ability to create and question, to build and discard, to nurture and counter, to finish and start again. In the hands of a gifted writer and scholar such as Lee, modern American counter writing shines on as we are reminded of what an absolute pleasure it is to read. AUTHOR POLINA MACKAY University of Nicosia Robert Lee, Modern American Counter Writing: Beats, Outriders, Ethnics. European journal of American studies , Reviews 2011-1 | 2011 3 Robert Lee, Modern American Counter Writing: Beats, Outriders, Ethnics. 
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work_3xgzjkq2w5bhtdqz3gcdkxjjci	----	Abstract: The American Society of Plastic Surgeons Conference Hashtag #PSTM17 Dramatically Increased Global Exposure of Academic Plastic Surgery | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.1097/01.GOX.0000547149.14585.cb Corpus ID: 53212105Abstract: The American Society of Plastic Surgeons Conference Hashtag #PSTM17 Dramatically Increased Global Exposure of Academic Plastic Surgery @article{Srinivasa2018AbstractTA, title={Abstract: The American Society of Plastic Surgeons Conference Hashtag #PSTM17 Dramatically Increased Global Exposure of Academic Plastic Surgery}, author={D. Srinivasa and M. Reghunathan and Arminder Kaura and M. Clemens and O. Branford}, journal={Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Global Open}, year={2018}, volume={6} } D. Srinivasa, M. Reghunathan, +2 authors O. Branford Published 2018 Medicine Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Global Open INTRODUCTION: Social media is a growing communication platform connecting millions of individuals worldwide. Twitter, one of the largest social media enterprises, is a public and easily accessible forum used by both healthcare professionals and non-healthcare professionals in daily communications regarding plastic surgery. We used Plastic Surgery, The Meeting 2017 (PSTM) as a model to analyze tweet demographics, content, and impressions to understand twitter impact on global exposure of plastic… Expand View via Publisher doi.org Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper Topics from this paper Hashtag Plastic Surgery Specialty Demography Social Media Related Papers Abstract Topics Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. Learn More → Resources DatasetsSupp.aiAPIOpen Corpus Organization About UsResearchPublishing PartnersData Partners   FAQContact Proudly built by AI2 with the help of our Collaborators Terms of Service•Privacy Policy The Allen Institute for AI By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our Privacy Policy, Terms of Service, and Dataset License ACCEPT & CONTINUE 
work_3ymeroqfxzfsvg7rf56c5ksbb4	----	Style classification and visualization of art painting’s genre using self-organizing maps Style classification and visualization of art painting’s genre using self‑organizing maps Sang‑Geol Lee and Eui‑Young Cha* Background In art history, the field of study that researches the history of art paintings, painting style has changed continuously according to the changes in time, and individual factors like changes in one’s psychological state, in particular, change the individual painting styles. Such styles have changed in different ways by Western and Oriental paintings, and they act as crucial determinants of deciding the author of a certain painting. Likewise, many factors affect the process of categorizing paintings, and these factors can be re-defined as features. Every painter has his or her own characteristics that are displayed in each painting. While art historians have analyzed and classified paintings based on the accumulated lit- erature research on aesthetics, there were limitations of interpreting the features that are not visually apparent, because their subjective opinions have been expressed. Therefore, there is a need to develop objective features to classify art paintings based on scientific methods [1, 2]. Recently, art paintings are photographed by digital cameras and are being utilized in diverse ways [3]. There is also diverse research on the characterization of art paintings that have applied the signal processing theory, image processing and machine learn- ing algorithms on digitalized art paintings [4–7]. Research related to extracting various Abstract With the spread of digitalization of art paintings, research on diverse scientific approaches on painted images has become active. In this paper, the method of clas‑ sifying painting styles by extracting various features from paintings is suggested. Global features are extracted using the color‑based statistical computation and composition‑ based local features of paintings are extracted through the segmentation of objects within the paintings to classify the styles of the paintings. Based on the extracted fea‑ tures, paintings are categorized by style using SOM, which are then analyzed through visualization using the map. We have proved the feasibility of the proposed method of categorizing paintings by style, and the objective features of paintings can contribute to the research on art history and aesthetics. Keywords: Art painting style, Image feature, Self‑organizing map, Watershed segmentation, Classification Open Access © 2016 Lee and Cha. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. R E S E A R C H Lee and Cha Hum. Cent. Comput. Inf. Sci. (2016) 6:7 DOI 10.1186/s13673‑016‑0063‑4 *Correspondence: eycha@pusan.ac.kr Dept. Electrical and Computer Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan, Korea http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1186/s13673-016-0063-4&domain=pdf Page 2 of 11Lee and Cha Hum. Cent. Comput. Inf. Sci. (2016) 6:7 features such as color, painter and time are carrying out brushstroke and texture of paintings to classify the paintings. Related works Brushstroke can be a great feature that displays the characteristics of a painter. Li. et al. [8] automatically extracted and analyzed the brushstrokes of van Gogh. Brushstroke was extracted through the combination of edge detection and clustering-based segmenta- tion, and diverse feature values were calculated from the extracted brushstrokes. Diverse feature values including number and orientation standard deviation for brushstrokes for brushstrokes in a neighborhood, size, length, broadness homogeneity and straight- ness have been calculated statistically, and his unique brushstroke style was provided as scientific evidence. There are also numerous researches on the art works of van Gogh through the analysis of his strongly rhythmic brushstrokes [9, 10]. Such analysis on brushstrokes, however, is limited for painters who are very unique like van Gogh. There is research on the classification of art painting by style. Lombardi [11] extracted the features by light, line and color and classified the art paintings by k-nearest neighbor. Visualization and analysis of classification performance were conducted through unsu- pervised learning, hierarchical clustering, self-organizing maps. Jafarpour et al. [12] pro- posed the stylistic analysis of paintings through dual-tree complex wavelet transforms and Hidden Markov Trees. Zujovic et al. [13] proposed the classification method for five genres: abstract expres- sionism, cubism, impressionism, pop art, and realism. Features of paintings are extracted using the edge map as the gray-level feature and histogram as color feature in HSV space. The classification performance was analyzed from the extracted features using KNN, ANN, SVM, and AdaBoost. Centinic and Grgic [14] proposed the painter recognition method. The painters were recognized through various classifiers including MLP and Random forest using informa- tion and color-based histogram as well as texture-based features using GLCM and DWT. Shamir et  al. [15] proposed the method of recognizing painters and schools of art centering on Impressionism, Expressionism, and Surrealism. Because the sizes of the paintings are diverse, the paintings have been resized to 600 pixels in the smaller size of vertical and horizontal and have been cropped to 600 × 600 to establish the dataset unlike conventional research. 11 types of features have been calculated from the image, and a total of 3658 image descriptors have been extracted. Useful informations have been selected from the extracted descriptors using the Fisher score and used as feature vectors. Li et  al. [16] proposed the aesthetic visual quality assessment method for paintings. A total of 40 global and local features were extracted by characteristics including color, brightness and composition. Since the aesthetic visual quality assessment work is highly subjective, the art works of famous painters are scored visually and then surveyed. Based on the average of the score, the paintings are labeled as “high-quality” or “low-quality.” Naive bayes and adaptive boosting have been used as classifiers to analyze the perfor- mance. There is also research on utilizing the painting recognition in the field of mobile augmented reality like [17]. Page 3 of 11Lee and Cha Hum. Cent. Comput. Inf. Sci. (2016) 6:7 As mentioned above, we were motivated by the research of extracting various features of paintings and analyzing them, and this paper classifies art works as expressionism, impressionism, post-impressionism, and surrealism by their style. The tool of visualizing and analyzing the classifications is then proposed. Paper structure The rest of the paper is organized as follows. "Feature extraction for art paintings" sec- tion describes the proposed feature extraction method, including color features and composition features. "Classification and visualization" section describes the classifica- tion and the visualization for styles of paintings. "Experiments" section analyzes experi- mental results of the proposed method. "Conclusions" section concludes the proposed approach and discusses about future works. Feature extraction for art paintings Each digital image of paintings is different in resolution and horizontal and vertical ratio. In order to extract feature values from paintings with different sizes, the process of normalizing the paintings in a certain size must be preceded. However, the problem of this lies in the possibility of the distortion of ratio and features like texture. There is also the problem of the definition of the photographed paintings according to the environ- ment. Clear pictures with high-definition provide more information and are appropriate to extract detailed texture features like brushstroke. However, as low-definition images have less high frequency components that can express the delicacy compared to high- definition images, they are relatively less appropriate to extract texture information as features. Therefore, we focus on extracting feature values that are independent from the definition and image resolution that differ from the environment where the paintings are photographed. Painters express their emotions in paintings using the basic elements of point, line, area and color. In this paper, the features of paintings are extracted after being divided into either color or composition. Color is considered as the global features for the shades that are used or preferred by the painters, while composition is the local features ana- lyzed and extracted from the segmentation of the paintings by region. Color features As the global features of paintings, color is important. When we look at paintings, we tend to look at the overall color first. Then, we look into the composition and detailed aspect of the paintings. Each painter has his or her favorite colors, and there are differ- ent color tones by painting style. In this paper, the color features are extracted through statistical computation of the overall pixel of the painting images. The painting images are generally inserted as RGB color model. Yet, the RGB color is a color model that is not intuitive as a visual recognition method. Therefore, we use the HSV color model that is intuitive to visual recognition when extracting the feature on the use of colors from paintings. The average of hue and saturation is calculated and used to extract the rough statis- tic characteristics of paintings. Hue shows which colors have been used, and saturation shows whether the paintings are light or dark according to the amount of white pigment. Page 4 of 11Lee and Cha Hum. Cent. Comput. Inf. Sci. (2016) 6:7 Average hue and average saturation feature can be calculated based on the below Eqs. 1 and 2. where M and N are the size of rows and columns of the image, and IH(m, n) and IS(m, n) are the hue value and saturation value at the pixel (m, n) respectively. The number of colors used mainly can express the colorfulness of paintings. While some painters prefer the combination of less hue, some prefer to express various colors using many types of hue. The types of hue used per painting style are calculated by Hue count, according to the following method. From the image of the HSV color model, bin is divided by the number of k for the hue component to calculate histogram hH(i). Then, hue count feature is extracted as shown in Eq. 3, and k = 20, c = 0.1 is used in this paper. where i is bin index, q is the largest value of histogram, and c is a constant(0 < c ≤ 1). Then the hue distribution feature is extracted in order to show the ratio dispersion of each hue component in the image. From the above hH(i), the value of bin is divided by the overall image pixel value and used as shown in Eq. 3. Composition features The color features depicted in "Color features" section show the overall visual char- acteristics of paintings. The composition of paintings can differ by style. By analyzing the structural elements of paintings, the composition of paintings can be characterized through each local feature. In order to extract the structural elements of paintings, the objects within the image must be distinguished. There are diverse segmentation meth- ods to distinguish the interested objects in image processing. In this paper, the segmen- tation method is used for images as follows in order to separate each painting. Assuming that the objects within the image will be expressed in similar colors, the dominant color is first extracted from the image. Dominant color is extracted through conducting the k-means clustering by HSV components. After the magnification by cluster to extract the location of the objects divided by color, the image is segmented by cluster using the morphology and connected component computation. Then the higher 50 % in size is selected and used as markers of watershed segmentation. The watershed segmentation is carried out through the marker developed for each cluster to finally seg- ment the objects in the painting image. Figure  1 shows the process of segmentation of color-based objects in paintings using the watershed algorithm proposed in this paper. Composition features consist of shape and color features by segment. In order to extract the shape feature, the variance and skewness for segment, the top three largest areas are calculated respectively. The following equations are used to extract the 12 dif- ferent shape features. (1)f1 = 1 MN ∑ n ∑ m IH(m, n) (2)f2 = 1 MN ∑ n ∑ m IS(m, n) (3)f3 = number of {i|hH(i) > c · q} (4)f3+i = hH(i), i = 1, 2, , 20 Page 5 of 11Lee and Cha Hum. Cent. Comput. Inf. Sci. (2016) 6:7 where j (j = 1, 2, 3) is the index of the largest three regions and (xk, yk) is the normalized coordinates of a pixel and (x, y) is the normalized coordinates of the center of mass in the corresponding region. For the extraction of color features, the average of each component of HSV for the seg- ment, the top five largest area, is calculated and used. The following equations are used to extract the 12 different color features of a segment. (5)f23+j = ∑ k∈Regionj xk area of Regionj (6)f26+j = ∑ k∈Regionj yk area of Regionj (7)f29+j = ∑ k∈Regionj [ (xk − x̄) 2 + (yk − ȳ) 2 ] area of Regionj (8)f32+j = ∑ k∈Regionj [ (xk − x̄) 3 + (yk − ȳ) 3 ] area of Regionj (9) f35+j = ∑ (m,n)∈Regionj IH(m, n) area of Regionj Fig. 1 Illustration of the proposed watershed segmentation method Page 6 of 11Lee and Cha Hum. Cent. Comput. Inf. Sci. (2016) 6:7 where j (j = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) is the index of the largest five regions. Table  1 shows the 50 features extracted from "Color features" and "Composition fea- tures" section. All feature values have a normalized value from 0 to 1 regardless of the image definition. The 50 feature values are created into vector, which are then used as input vectors to be explained in "Classification and visualization" section. Classification and visualization In this paper, the self-organizing map (SOM) proposed by Kohonen is used in order to classify the styles using the extracted features from "Feature extraction for art paint- ings" section. As the unsupervised learning method, in SOM, the input areas of learn- ing samples are represented in the map through the competitive learning process. The benefit of this method is its usefulness in visualizing the high-dimensional data into low- dimensional view. In this paper, such benefit of SOM is used to classify the paintings and connect them to the map for visual expression, and to be utilized in analyzing the cor- relation for each painting style. Figure 2 illustrates the process of training and classifying SOM using the feature val- ues extracted in "Feature extraction for art paintings" section. Normalized feature values between 0 and 1 are extracted from each learning data, which are developed into vector to be used as input vectors for SOM. SOM is trained using the developed input vectors. Once the learning process is completed, the best matching unit (BMU) for each input data is found and the class of each node is designated using the class number. At the same time, the painting image list connected to each node is saved. (10)f40+j = ∑ (m,n)∈Regionj IS(m, n) area of Regionj (11)f45+j = ∑ (m,n)∈Regionj IV (m, n) area of Regionj Table 1 The proposed features for painting image Category Feature Characteristics Meaning of feature Global f1 Color Average hue for the whole image f2 Color Average saturation for the whole image f3 Color Number of quantized hues f4–f23 Color Hue distribution Local f24–f26 Composition Horizontal coordinate of the mass center f27–f29 Composition Vertical coordinate of the mass center f30–f32 Composition Mass variance for the segment f33–f35 Composition Mass skewness for the segment f36–f40 Color Average hue for the segment f41–f45 Color Average saturation for the segment f46–f50 Brightness Average brightness for the segment Page 7 of 11Lee and Cha Hum. Cent. Comput. Inf. Sci. (2016) 6:7 Figure 3 shows the actual execution screen the developed visualization tool that uses SOM. Through learning and classification, each node of the map is connected to the painting image list. Selecting the node of the map segment in the upper left hand corner of the tool prints out painting images connected to the node selected in the upper right hand corner. The number shown in the mode of the map shows the class number of each node. In the lower left hand corner, the detailed information of the image list con- nected to each node is shown, and diverse information needed for analysis is printed in the lower right hand corner. Experiments Image dataset In order to conduct experiments on the four different painting styles of expressionism, impressionism, post-impressionism, and surrealism, representative painters of each style have been selected randomly. The images of their paintings were used as experiment data. In this paper, a total of 1633 pieces of artwork painted by 19 painters have been collected from [18]. The collected images are of different resolutions and are shown in Fig. 4. Table 2 shows the number of data by style and painter that have been collected for Fig. 2 Training and classification processes using SOM Fig. 3 Execution screen of the developed tool: a parameter settings window of SOM, b train results analysis screen Page 8 of 11Lee and Cha Hum. Cent. Comput. Inf. Sci. (2016) 6:7 Page 9 of 11Lee and Cha Hum. Cent. Comput. Inf. Sci. (2016) 6:7 (See figure on previous page.) Fig. 4 Collected image samples by painting style: a expressionism, b impressionism, c post‑impressionism, d surrealism samples Table 2 Number of data by style and painter Style Painter Number of images Expressionism Edvard Munch 40 Ernst Ludwig Kirchner 68 Franz Marc 52 Max Beckmann 20 Wassily Kandinsky 65 Impressionism Alfred Sisley 43 Claude Monet 196 Edgar Degas 100 Edouard Manet 106 Pierre‑Auguste Renoir 105 Post‑impressionism Georges Seurat 32 Paul Cezanne 102 Paul Gauguin 150 Paul Signac 24 Vincent van Gogh 346 Surrealism Joan Miro 94 Max Ernst 46 Rene Magritte 18 Salvador Dali 26 Table 3 Learning performance using train dataset by painting style combination Class pair Precision Expressionism/impressionism 0.95 Expressionism/post‑impressionism 0.91 Expressionism/surrealism 0.95 Impressionism/post‑impressionism 0.88 Impressionism/surrealism 0.94 Post‑impressionism/surrealism 0.93 the experiments. From the collected data, randomly selected 50 % for each painter was used for training, and the remaining 50 % was used for testing. Learning results For the input data, the best matching unit (BMU) is found, and the class number of the input data is voted. The class number is designated by the painting style of the input data. The class number with the most votes within each node is designated as the class number of the node. In this paper, the train performance is evaluated according to the data ratio that matches the class number of nodes after inputting the learning data. Binary classification method of pairing the four styles into two pairs was used in this paper. Table 3 shows the train performance of each experiment. Although there are dif- ferences depending on the class pair, the average of the train precision is about 0.93. Page 10 of 11Lee and Cha Hum. Cent. Comput. Inf. Sci. (2016) 6:7 Classification results analysis The classification performance is verified by inputting the test data in the learning map. Figure  5 shows that the paintings have been well classified by style, and Table  4 shows the classification performance for the test data. As shown in Fig. 5a, paintings of expres- sionism are clustered at the right-bottom on the map that is result for expressionism and post-impressionism. Likewise, as shown in Fig.  5b, paintings of expressionism are clustered at the top-center for the pair of expressionism and Impressionism. Of course, the location of each cluster may be changed according to the training result of the SOM. However, the visualization results can be seen that the art paintings with the similar fea- tures are clustered by similar locations on the map. Conclusions In this paper, we proposed the method of classifying paintings by style. Through the sta- tistic computation, the features of the paintings have expressed in objective figures of pixels. 50 features that show the global and local features have been extracted and the extracted feature values have been clustered using the unsupervised learning method. Experiments have verified that the paintings can be classified by style, and SOM was visualized to enable the analysis of the correlation of painting styles of the art pieces. Since painter limits the number of art pieces, there is the difficulty of establishing a vast amount of data. Therefore, different types of images digitalized in diverse envi- ronments should be collected to increase the learning performance by increasing the Table 4 Classification performance using painting style combination test dataset Class pair Precision Expressionism/impressionism 0.95 Expressionism/post‑impressionism 0.91 Expressionism/surrealism 0.93 Impressionism/post‑impressionism 0.85 Impressionism/surrealism 0.93 Post‑impressionism/surrealism 0.93 Fig. 5 Samples of classification by painting style through the dispersion on the map: a result of Expression‑ ism and Post‑Impressionism, b result of Expressionism and Impressionism Page 11 of 11Lee and Cha Hum. Cent. Comput. Inf. Sci. (2016) 6:7 amount of data. In the future, more features should be extracted, and the classifica- tion performance should be enhanced using the machine learning method. Through increased research, scientific features to classify the painting styles should be suggested, and this can be used as the base data for research on art history and aesthetics. This can also be the base research for a system that suggested paintings of similar style or paint- ings by the same author when a certain image is shown. Authors’ contributions SGL and EYC designed the study, developed the methodology, collected the data, performed the analysis, and wrote the manuscript together. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Received: 25 February 2016 Accepted: 21 March 2016 References 1. Barni M, Pelagotti A, Piva A (2005) Image processing for the analysis and conservation of paintings: opportunities and challenges. IEEE Signal Process Mag 22:141–144 2. Lyu S, Rockmore D, Farid H (2004) A digital technique for art authentication. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101(49):17006–17010 3. Barni M, Pelagotti A, Piva A (2005) Image processing for the analysis and conservation of paintings: opportunities and challenges. IEEE Signal Process Mag 22(5):141–144 4. Ivanova K, Stanchev P, Velikova E, Vanhoof K, Depaire B, Kannan R, Mitov I, Markov K (2012) Data engineering and management: second International Conference, ICDEM 2010, Tiruchirappalli, India, July 29–31, 2010. Revised selected papers, ch. Features for art painting classification based on vector quantization of MPEG‑7 descriptors. Springer, Berlin, pp 146–153 5. Rigau J, Feixas M, Sbert M (2008) “Informational dialogue with van gogh’s paintings”, in Proceedings of the fourth eurographics conference on computational aesthetics in graphics, visualization and imaging, computational aes‑ thetics’08. Eurographics Association, Aire‑la‑Ville 6. Saleh B, Elgammal A (2015) A unified framework for painting classification. IEEE International Conference on Data Mining Workshop (ICDMW ), p. 1254–1261 7. Vieira V, Fabbri R, Sbrissa D, da Fontoura Costa L, Travieso G (2015) A quantitative approach to painting styles. Phys A Stat Mech Appl 417:110–129 8. Li J, Yao L, Hendriks E, Wang JZ (2012) Rhythmic brushstrokes distinguish van Gogh from his contemporaries: find‑ ings via automated brushstroke extraction. IEEE Transact Pattern Anal Mach Intell 34(6):1159–1176 9. Berezhnoy I, Postma E, van den Herik J (2007) Computer analysis of Van Gogh’s complementary colours. Pattern Recognit Lett 28:703–709 10. Johnson CR, Hendriks E, Berezhnoy IJ, Brevdo E, Hughes SM, Daubechies I, Li J, Postma E, Wang JZ (2008) Image processing for artist identification. IEEE Signal Process Mag 25(4):37–48 11. Lombardi TE (2005) The classification of style in fine‑art painting. PhD thesis, Pace University, New York 12. Jafarpour S, Polatkan G, Brevdo E, Hughes S, Brasoveanu A, Daubechies I (2009) "Stylistic analysis of paintings using wavelets and machine learning," in signal processing conference, 17th European. pp. 1220–1224 13. Zujovic J, Gandy L, Friedman S, Pardo B, Pappas TN (2009) "Classifying paintings by artistic genre: an analysis of features and classifiers," multimedia signal processing, 2009. IEEE International Workshop on MMSP ’09, pp. 1–5 14. Cetinic E, Grgic S (2013) Automated painter recognition based on image feature extraction," in ELMAR, 2013 55th International Symposium, pp. 19–22 15. Shamir L, Macura T, Orlov N, Eckley DM, Goldberg IG (2010) Impressionism, expressionism, surrealism: automated recognition of painters and schools of art. Transact Appl Percept 7:8 16. Li C, Chen T (2009) Aesthetic visual quality assessment of paintings. IEEE J Sel Top Signal Process 3(2):236–252 17. Martinel N, Micheloni C, Foresti GL (2013) Robust painting recognition and registration for mobile augmented real‑ ity. IEEE Signal Process Lett 20(11):1022–1025 18. Kren E, Marx D Web gallery of art. http://www.wga.hu/index1.html http://www.wga.hu/index1.html Style classification and visualization of art painting’s genre using self-organizing maps Abstract Background Related works Paper structure Feature extraction for art paintings Color features Composition features Classification and visualization Experiments Image dataset Learning results Classification results analysis Conclusions Authors’ contributions References 
work_43ynzwgqyrembfrlrx4jjq36ty	----	452 452..454 Correspondence Innovative and effective approaches to crisis services As a patient, I was recently under the care of a London crisis intervention team. The compassion of the individual staff members was negated by systemic flaws in the way the service was delivered. The experience was very unsettling. Different staff would arrive twice daily at my home because shift patterns would not allow the same workers to see me regularly. Consequently, a constructive, consistent relationship with members of the crisis team was not possible. A stream of strangers entered my small, cramped flat, and the crisis team actually became part of my mental trauma. The problem with the crisis team as an institution is that it is about cost-cutting rather than caring. It felt like a mere sticking plaster on a huge mental wound. While cost-cutting remains the ethos, patients are bound to suffer. The loss of in-patient beds is putting pressure on community services that they cannot sustain. Cost-cutting may masquerade as streamlined efficiency and effectiveness, but it is really a way to hobble and cripple psychiatric provision. Good treatment cannot be delivered without flexibility and variety, both community-based and hospital-based. The crisis team concept is an ineffective half-way (and half-baked!) house between community and hospital. Declaration of interest The author is a psychiatric patient. The name and address of the London trust and the name and address of the patient have been withheld for confidentiality reasons. To contact the author, please email pb@rcpsych.ac.uk doi: 10.1192/pb.34.10.452 British television viewers, cover your ears! While watching a well-known, popular soap on the BBC recently, I was disgusted to hear one of the characters with recently diagnosed bipolar affective disorder being referred to by another character as a ‘mentalist’. Both entertainment and news media seem to model negative reactions to the mentally ill, including fear, rejection, derision and ridicule. The consequences of negative media images for people who have a mental illness are profound. They impair self-esteem, help-seeking behaviours, medication adher- ence and overall recovery. 1 The Royal College of Psychiatrists, healthcare professionals working in mental health and mental health charities such as Mind and Rethink work hard to challenge the stigma and negative attitudes towards mental illness. How disappointing therefore that the scriptwriters of this soap, a programme watched by millions of viewers, see fit to contradict these efforts by using such a derogatory term to describe someone with bipolar affective disorder. Negative media reports have been shown to contribute to negative attitudes towards people with mental illness. 2 As adults, we have the presence of mind and sound judgement to recognise that the use of the term ‘mentalist’ is both socially unacceptable and insulting. But the minds of the younger generation are more impressionable. We do not want children thinking it is all right to describe someone with mental illness as ‘a mentalist’ because they have heard the term used on the television and come to believe it must be acceptable to use in everyday life. The writers of television programmes watched by both young and old alike have an important role to play in ‘shaping the minds’ of the youngsters of today. They should seek to show mental illness in a positive rather than negative light and thus help to eradicate rather than contribute to its stigmatisation. 1 Stuart H. Media portrayal of mental illness and its treatments: what effect does it have on people with mental illness? CNS Drugs 2006; 20: 99-106. 2 Thornton JAA, Wahl OF. Impact of a newspaper article on attitudes towards mental illness. J Community Psychol 2008; 24: 17-25. Declan L. Hyland, Foundation year 2 doctor, Aintree University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, email: declan.hyland@nhs.net doi:10.1192/pb.34.10.452a Psychiatry, religion and spirituality: a way forward Recent correspondence in The Psychiatrist suggests that there are conflicting, or perhaps polarised, opinions about the role of spirituality and religion in UK psychiatric practice. In their latest contribution to the debate, Cook et al 1 state that ‘it is important not to rely only on impressions derived from clinical experience but also to refer to evidence-based research and reviews. If we cannot eliminate bias in our interpretation of these findings, we can at least minimise it.’ We agree. However, although rhetoric and the selective inter- pretation of evidence are an intrinsic part of scientific discourse, spirituality and religion cause particular problems. Most professionals have deep-seated views that are unlikely to be affected by evidence, no matter how compelling. For example, whereas Koenig’s review of the literature 2 suggests ‘modest positive effects of religious faith’, we prefer Richard Sloan’s review 3 of similar literature, the conclusions of which can be paraphrased thus: efforts to integrate religion into medical practice are based on bad science, bad medicine and bad religion. We find Sloan more convincing than Koenig, but we note that Sloan’s conclusions resonate with our pre-existing attitudes and beliefs. We have previously argued that psychiatry should only attempt to resolve problems that cannot be dealt with effectively by other means. Although mental health professionals have demonstrable skills in the relief of suffering caused by mental disorders, there is no evidence that we have any answers to problems of human happiness. There are other, non-clinical, routes to happiness. Thus, we agree with Sloan et al, 4 who have argued that even if the evidence shows that religious faith promotes well-being, it is still inappropriate for clinicians to actively promote religion or to unnecessarily interfere in spiritual matters. These ideas are more closely related to modern medical values than to science. In any case there is no reliable evidence with regard to the consequences of integrating spirituality/ COLUMNS 452 
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work_2ro5qnrhx5dqzpxd6ijbt7ufme	----	i THE INFLUENCE OF FRENCH IMPRESSIONISM ON CANADIAN PAINTING by MERVYN JOHN ARTHUR CROOKER B.A., U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1963 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n the Department of FINE ARTS We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to the r e q u i r e d standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA A p r i l , 1965 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make i t freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or by his representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Department of Fine Arts The University of British Columbia. Vancouver 8, Canada Date April, 1965 ABSTRACT F r e n c h Impressionism, the e a r l i e s t v i t a l and p r o g r e s s i v e modern a r t movement, was developed i n France between 1870 and 1890. I t was soon r e c o g n i z e d as r e v o l u t i o n a r y , and the number of i t s f o l l o w e r s grew as the s t y l e developed and became known. P a r i s , then the a r t c e n t e r of the w o r l d , a t t r a c t e d many s t u d e n t s , among whom were Canadian a r t i s t s . In!1878 W i l l i a m Brymner s a i l e d f o r Europe, to r e t u r n i n 1882, the year of the seventh I m p r e s s i o n i s t E x h i b i t i o n and the year t h a t J . M . B a r n s l e y and H o r a t i o Walker a r r i v e d i n P a r i s . Homer Watson, a l r e a d y an e s t a b l i s h e d a r t i s t , f i r s t t r a v e l l e d i n Europe i n 1887. A growing f a c i l i t y i n the use of c o l o r marked the e v o l u t i o n i n the a r t of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . The p a i n t e r s John C o n s t a b l e , and Eugene D e l a c r o i x , the s c i e n t i f i c c o l o r t e c h n i c i a n s M.E. C h e v r e u l , James M a x w e l l , Ogden Rood, and Robert H e n r i , opened up new f i e l d s of i n t e r e s t . The p r o g r e s s i o n from l a t e Baroque and e a r l y E n g l i s h landscapes to the F r e n c h experiments w i t h c o l o r , c u l m i n a t e d i n I m p r e s s i o n i s t landscapes f i l l e d w i t h sun and atmosphere. The major I m p r e s s i o n i s t masters P i s s a r r o , Monet, R e n o i r , and S i s l e y concerned themselves w i t h the v i s u a l e f f e c t s of l i g h t r e f l e c t i n g from the s u r f a c e s of o b j e c t s . Newly i n v e n t e d pigments s u p p l i e d t h e i r p a l e t t e s w i t h almost u n l i m i t e d c o l o r , which they a p p l i e d e m p i r i c a l l y , s e a r c h i n g f o r the most b r i l l i a n t e f f e c t The decade from 1880 to 1890 marked the p e r i o d when the e s t a b l i s h e d Canadian a r t i s t s came i n c o n t a c t w i t h French I m p r e s s i o n i s m . They r e t u r n e d home to t e a c h and to p a i n t , and became the P r e - I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t e r s i n i i i Canada. Their work exhibited an intermediary style corresponding to that of the Pre-Impressionist painters in Europe. A survey of the growing Impressionist tendencies in their art led to the first consistent Impressionist style of Maurice Cullen and Marc Suzor-Cote after 1895. By 1900 the influence of Impressionist color technique had reached a l l art forms. Impressionism was an historically established style which had fostered other newer art forms, and many artists in Canada painted "Impressionist" pictures. Impressionism continued to be seen in Canadian painting together with Post-Impressionism, Fauvism, Art Nouveau, Cubism, Expressionism, and finally Abstraction. The term Abstract Impressionism is applied to some recent paintings to indicate the presence of a style which freed art from formulas by introducing individuality, expression, and color, and then became almost a formula itself. v i ACKNOWLEDGMENT I w i s h to thank P r o f e s s o r B.C. B i n n i n g , Mr. W i l l i a m S. H a r t , and Mr. Ian McNairn f o r t h e i r i n t e r e s t , a s s i s t a n c e and encouragement throughout t h i s p r o j e c t . I am i n d e b t e d to the F i n e A r t s L i b r a r i a n s a t the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, Miss Melva Dwyer and s t a f f ; to the A r t I n s t i t u t e of Chicago f o r the use of t h e i r l i b r a r i e s ; to Mr. Brydon Smith a t the Toronto A r t G a l l e r y who a i d e d me i n f i n d i n g I m p r e s s i o n i s t works and a l l o w e d me f r e e a c c e s s to the p i c t u r e s , and to M i s s S y b i l l e P a n t a z z i , head L i b r a r i a n at La Grange. In M o n t r e a l the L i b r a r i a n and Mr. W i l l i a m Johnson; i n the N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y , Ottawa, Mr. R.H. Hubbard, Miss Dorothea C o a t e s , and Miss H a m i l t o n ; and i n Quebec M. Gerard M o r i s s e t , a i d e d my r e s e a r c h . F o r p e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w s w i t h Mr. R u s s e l l H a r p e r , Mr. A r t h u r L i s m e r , M i s s Grace Brymner, Mrs. Robert B. M c M i c h a e l , Mrs. Donald McKay, and Dr. F r e d e r i c k V a r l e y , I am most g r a t e f u l . My i l l u s t r a t i o n s chosen from more than f i v e hundred photographs c o l l e c t e d on my r e s e a r c h t r a v e l s a r e i n t i m a t e l y r e - l a t e d to the t e x t . i v CONTENTS Page CHAPTER I 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n The V a r i e d I n f l u e n c e s i n Canadian A r t CHAPTER II 5 F r e n c h Impressionism I t s Development, The I m p r e s s i o n i s t ' s T h e o r i e s , And Impressionism i n The U n i t e d S t a t e s of America CHAPTER III 34 P r e - I m p r e s s i o n i s m i n Canada Homer Watson H o r a t i o Walker James B a r n s l e y W i l l i a m Brymner CHAPTER IV 53 Canadian I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t e r s M a u r i c e C u l l e n A u r e l e S u z o r - C $ t e CHAPTER V 77 Other Canadian A r t i s t s P a i n t i n g I m p r e s s i o n i s t P i c t u r e s And I m p r e s s i o n i s m i n the Group of Seven BIOGRAPHIES 103 The P r e - I m p r e s s i o n i s t s and I m p r e s s i o n i s t s i n Canada APPENDIX 114 BIBLIOGRAPHY 154 V LIST OF FIGURES IN APPENDIX v i i FOREWORD " A r t does not grow w i d e r , i t r e c a p i t u l a t e s , f o r good f r u i t s grow e s p a l i e r f a s h i o n ; one hoards and then p r o j e c t s " . John Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m . At the t e r c e n t e n a r y c e l e b r a t i o n of the R o y a l S o c i e t y i n London, J u l y , 1964, S i r C y r i l Hinshelwood s a i d , " T h e r e a r e communities i n time as w e l l as i n s p a c e . The most o r i g i n a l minds f i n d t h e i r t r u e a f f i n i t i e s i n c o n t i n u i n g the sequence of t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s and t h e i r f u l f i l m e n t o n l y i n t h e i r s u c c e s s o r s " . INTRODUCTION The i n f l u e n c e of F r e n c h Impressionism on Canadian a r t r e l a t e s to the o r i g i n a l F r e n c h movement which was dominant i n France from 1870 to 1890. I m p r e s s i o n i s m , as s u c h , was v e r y s h o r t l i v e d , and the p r o f o u n d i n f l u e n c e t h i s s t y l e had on the a r t which f o l l o w e d o f f e r s a c h a l l e n g e to t r a c e the i n f l u e n c e of Impressionism on Canadian a r t . Canadian a r t s t u d e n t s , i n the main c o n s e r v a t i v e , v a l u e d t h e i r academic t r a i n i n g . The o f f i c i a l l y r e c o g n i z e d academic work was based on a t r a i n i n g i n t e c h n i q u e and c r a f t s m a n s h i p t h a t they r e v e r e d and t h i s was u n d e r s t a n d a b l y t h e i r t a r g e t of e x c e l l e n c e . In F r a n c e , the a r t i s t s who became I m p r e s s i o n i s t s began t h e i r a r t t r a i n i n g i n the academies but t h i s t r a i n i n g d i s s a t i s f i e d them and they broke away to f o l l o w t h e i r own i n c l i n a t i o n s . Canadians went to the academies i n France a t a time when the aims of I m p r e s s i o n i s m , developed o u t s i d e the academies by an a v a n t - garde few, were b e i n g f e l t by the academic s t u d e n t s . Canadians were not o n l y c o n f r o n t e d w i t h F r e n c h I m p r e s s i o n i s m , but w i t h the E n g l i s h s c h o o l of C o n s t a b l e and T u r n e r , the Dutch landscape s c h o o l , the F r e n c h B a r b i z o n landscape s c h o o l , the i n f l u e n c e of the American l u m i n i s t s and the American I m p r e s s i o n i s t s of P h i l a d e l p h i a . The i n f l u e n c e of these s c h o o l s was not o n l y to a f f e c t the c o u r s e of A r t i n Europe but was to spread to America and i n f l u e n c e Canadian a r t as w e l l . I t i s then not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t Canadian a r t i s t s combined w i t h t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of the Canadian s c e n e , elements t h a t may be t r a c e d to the many s t y l e s of p a i n t i n g c u r r e n t a t t h a t t i m e . I t may be t h a t many Canadian a r t i s t s never f u l l y understood I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g , and yet we f i n d them u s i n g the s u p e r f i c i a l a s p e c t s of Impressionism, mixed not o n l y w i t h an academic approach but a l s o w i t h o t h e r European t e c h n i q u e s . - 2 ~~ We find in their work a heightening and a lightening of the palette, a freer technique of applying paint in more obvious painterly ways, out- door subject matter, and the recording of special light effects. These were inheritances from Impressionist painters, but only a few Canadians painted totally Impressionist canvases. To fully understand this inheritance i t is necessary to look back to the many schools leading up to Impressionism in France. In Canada, the wilds of North America were not of interest as subjects to painters since i t was not a "lived-in", cleared, and tamed land as was a l l of Europe. The untamed rawness of the Canadian landscape was too intimate a reminder of unremitting toil to the early pioneers. Thus the love of rusticity here only slowly developed over the years and culminated in the Group of Seven. The French Impressionists were not concerned with painting to a formula as were the academicians; in fact quite the opposite. They were part of a growing school always seeking innovations, new subjects, and new techniques, which were not taken up by Canadians until they had be- come historically established. Revolutionary non-academic schools of painting were accepted in Canada only after they were accepted in Europe, and even then were imperfectly emulated. Painters from North America going to Europe would only know of these revolutionaries and their theories by talking to the artists, or by carefully studying their work. Even then, the aspects of Impressionism are so various that its complete understanding would be difficult. There never was an Impressionist formula. None of the Impressionists set down rules, which i f followed would produce Impressionism. • Each of the Impressionists had a different empirical approach for presenting the new - 3 - ideas which the group held in common. Therefore, "Canadian Impressionism" coming after French Impressionism exhibited only a few of the traits of the original French movement. Often these traits are superficial, and frequently relate only to the type of subject which the French Impression- ists most favored, and often entirely ignore the technical means used to achieve the "effect". In 1886, J.E. Hodgson, R.A., made the following observation in his report on the Colonial and Indian Exhibition held in London, "It has been rather a shock to me to observe evident traces of French influence - not the influence of the great French painters but the rank and f i l e of mediocrity."^ This statement refers to the influence of the French Impressionists on Canadian and other Colonial painters. It indicates as well the current official disfavor in which the French Impressionists were held, but perhaps most significant, i t is the first recorded acknowledg- ment of the appearance of French Impressionism in Canadian art. "By the turn of the century, the discoveries of the Impressionists had been brought back from Europe by students and younger painters, and had begun to seep in from other sources." "During the two decades before the first world war, Maurice Cullen, and Suzor-C&te began to explore the possibilities of the snowscape .... showing that Canada contained inexhaustible stores of subject matter, by applying the Impressionist palette to broad design and by painting from intimate contact with their surroundings."-^ In Canadian art we will often find a French Impressionist subject treated with a Barbizon technique, Barbizon subjects treated with Impressionist techniques and academic subjects treated with mixed tech- niques . Therefore the object of this Thesis will not be to present an unqualified "Canadian Impressionism" because there never was one. Instead i t will try to find many diverse manifestations of Impressionism and its effect on Canadian painting and i t will not hesitate to point out many isolated manifestations of French Impressionism in Canadian art which will not appear Impressionist in the all-over aspect. In the next chapter, I will try to trace the elements leading up to the Impressionist movement in France, and show some of the predominant techniques or practices that have become known as French Impressionism. When this is established i t will become possible to find many of these same elements in Canadian painting. CHAPTER II One o f the most obvious i n f l u e n c e s a f f e c t i n g Canadian p a i n t i n g was the growing i n t e r e s t i n Europe o f the non-academic landscape s c h o o l o f the B a r b i z o n s . The B a r b i z o n s c h o o l of p a i n t e r s had been founded i n 1836 by Theodore Rousseau, a t the v i l l a g e of C h a l l e y on the edge of the f o r e s t of F o n t a i n e b l e a u . P a i n t e r s l i k e Diaz de l a Pena, J u l e s Dupre, J e a n F r a n c o i s M i l l e t , Jean B a p t i s t e C o r o t , C h a r l e s F r a n c o i s Daubigny and C o n s t a n t Tryon j o i n e d Theodore Rousseau to get away from s t u d i o p a i n t i n g , to p a i n t landscapes out o f d o o r s , and to p a i n t scenes l i k e the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y Dutch m a s t e r s , M e i n d e r t Hobbema and Jacob van R u i s d a e l . These p a i n t e r s wished to make a s c i e n t i f i c study of the n a t u r a l e f f e c t s of s k y , w a t e r , weather, meadows and l i g h t . They used the same meadow a r e a s , the same a n i m a l s , oak t r e e s , cows and herdsmen as the Dutch s c h o o l but they looked w i t h t h e i r eyes and t r i e d to make a p o r t r a i t of a l a n d s c a p e . The o u t - o f - d o o r s was f a i t h f u l l y r e c o r d e d w i t h p u r p l e h i l l s and a p i n k s k y . Using a c h r o m a t i c p a l e t t e they t r i e d to r e p r o d u c e the a c t u a l c o l o r s s e e n , o f t e n m i x i n g the c o l o r on the canvas. Brush s t r o k e s were e v i d e n t and they sought l i g h t e f f e c t s . The sky was to reproduce exact m e t e r o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s . P l a n t s were to be b o t a n i c a l l y c o r r e c t and the animals exact z o o l o g i c a l specimens. They p a i n t e d s k y , water and l a n d c o m p o s i t i o n s w i t h no p e o p l e . These were p a s t o r a l scenes and i f p e o p l e were i n c l u d e d they were the peasant workers of the s o i l . In E n g l a n d , the H a r t f o r d H u n t i n g t o n w a t e r - c o l o r s c h o o l w i t h a r t i s t s Joseph T u r n e r , John Crome, John Cotman and John C o n s t a b l e was working i n the same manner. In America as i n no o t h e r c o u n t r y t h e r e . h a d been an i n h e r e n t l o v e of trompe l ' o e i l e f f e c t s , l o v e of d e t a i l e d s u p e r f i n e i l l u s i o n i s m , suggested by the camera and which appeared throughout North - 5 - - 6 - American art to be culminated in the work of William Harnett. In Canada Homer Watson and Horatio Walker were to follow. The Barbizons were not illusionistic even when they painted accurately visual effects observed out-of-doors. In their work there is a psychic distance between the actual scene and the artistic execution which leaves room for the appreciation of a distinct and painterly technique. Jean Francois Millet, 1814 - 1875, was a French peasant who became a celebrated Barbizon painter and who studied under Mauchell a former pupil of Jacques Louis David. It was in 1868 that Millet became famous, for his peasant subjects. "The quiet design of Millet's paintings accents his scrupulous truth of detail and contributes to the dignity with which he invests even the simplest rural t a s k s . T h e s e peasant subjects were to be copied by Vincent van Gogh, 1880 - 1883. Millet's subjects, The Sower, The Digger, and Old Man Grieving are typical. In his painting of The Potato Eaters ,1884, van Gogh used Barbizon color based on the color theory of Delacroix; where the pure complimentary colors were used with grays, made by mixing these same complimentary colors. Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot was educated in the neoclassic tradition. He did not belong to any school but was important in the development of modern art. His work can be divided into three stages. First his early work which followed nature and tried to present the actual rural scene. Secondly his middle period when his style changed dramatically and he began to use analogous colors. He told Pissarro to paint in the open air. To observe the lightest part of a scene and put that color down on the canvas. Then observe the darkest part and paint that area. Then use from three to five values of these colors mixed on the palette ready to compose - 7 - abstractly, with these values and gray.5 He liked to paint in an out- of-focus haze which dissolved the forms as the Impressionists were to do. He used white for highlights. People could be silhouetted against the darks but subordinated to the landscape. This device was used by the Impressionists. A few spots of yellow, red or pure blue were used for accent to a single color nuance. He painted what he saw, and used an empirical perspective space relationship. Another Barbizon painter who influenced the Impressionists was Johan-Barthold Jongkind who studied in The Hague and later in Paris. He was influenced by Corot and Bonington who were contemporaries of Eugene Delacroix. Jongkind's studio pictures were not too successful. His watercolors, however, done on the spot, caught the "most fleeting of sensations".^ He had that rapidity of execution and sureness of touch which the Impressionists in turn strove to attain. He painted nature as he found i t , as in the gray and pink charm of old Paris streets, factories or Dutch seafaring scenes. He had an intimate detailed knowledge of his subject and an acute ability to see. "I love this fellow Jongkind", Castagnary wrote, "He is an artist to his finger tips ... with him every- thing lies in the impression".? Jongkind tried to be faithful to his impressions and to represent what he knew of his subject under specific atmospheric conditions. Like Constable and Boudin he made atmospheric effects the real subject of his picture. In France, the Impressionist Camile Pissarro, after the great Exposition of 1855, went to Corot for advice and help. Corot said, "the first two things to study are form and values... color and execution give charm to the work".^ The young students disliked Thomas Couture's pre- occupation with idealization. He was at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts and - 8 - c o u l d i n f l u e n c e the young group, many of whom were s t u d e n t s from A m e r i c a . The younger a r t i s t s were t i r e d of s t u d i o p a i n t i n g and o f c o p y i n g the g r e a t masters i n the L o u v r e , as an end i n i t s e l f . Edmond Duranty p u b l i s h e d an a r t i c l e Notes sur l ' a r t , i n Re*alisme, J u l y 10, 1856, s t a t i n g , " G r e e k v i s i o n s , Roman v i s i o n s , m e d i e v a l v i s i o n s , v i s i o n s o f the s i x t e e n t h , s e v e n t e e n t h , e i g h t e e n t h , c e n t u r i e s , w i t h the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y f o r b i d d e n . The man o f a n t i q u i t y p a i n t e d what he saw. C r e a t e what you s e e . " ^ In 1855, the j u r y had r e f u s e d two of C o u r b e t ' s important canvasses so he e x h i b i t e d a t h i s own expense i n the P a v i l l i o n du Re'alisme, f i f t y p a i n t i n g s i n the f i r s t one-man show ever to be g i v e n i n P a r i s . H i s L ' A t e l i e r du P e i n t r e , A l l g g o r i e Re'ele, Determinant une Phase de Sept Annees de ma V i e A r t i s t i q u e , broke many academic r u l e s . There was a new format w i t h a r e a l i s t i c panoramic view of l o w - c l a s s p e o p l e . L o c a l c o l o r was used and the b r u s h s t r o k e s i n s e p a r a t e areas matched the t e x t u r e o f those a r e a s . Here was i n d i v i d u a l i s m t h a t was a n t i - a c a d e m i c . The I l l u s t r a t e d London News, S e p t . 1, 1855, p u b l i s h e d a wood e n g r a v i n g of the C e n t r a l H a l l o f the P a l a i s des Beaux-Arts a t the P a r i s W o r l d ' s F a i r . Here were e x h i b i t e d f o r the f i r s t time s i g n i f i c a n t works by l i v i n g p a i n t e r s from a l l over E u r o p e . D e l a c r o i x chose to e x h i b i t a T u r k i s h Bather among f o r t y o t h e r c a n v a s s e s . Corot showed o n l y s i x , w h i l e Daubigny, J o n g k i n d and M i l l e t were h a r d l y r e p r e s e n t e d . Landscapes were c o n s i d e r e d the lowest form o f a r t . The medals went to the f o l l o w e r s of I n g r e s , and Ingres a d v i s e d young Edgar Degas, (who had j u s t g i v e n up Law S c h o o l , to become a p a i n t e r , ) and who v i s i t e d the e x h i b i t i o n w i t h h i s f a t h e r , to "Draw l i n e s , young man, many l i n e s ; from memory or from n a t u r e ; i t i s i n t h i s way t h a t you w i l l be- come a good a r t i s t " . ^ Eugene Boudin was encouraged by M i l l e t and spent t h r e e y e a r s i n P a r i s - 9 - from 1850 - 1853. The p e r i o d of gray p a i n t i n g i n seascapes was o v e r , they began to p a i n t i n c o l o r . He r e t u r n e d to Le Havre to work w i t h J o n g k i n d . He l o v e d the s e a b r e e z e s , b i g c l o u d s and s i l v e r y beaches a l o n g the S e i n e . " I t i s now twenty years s i n c e I f i r s t began to seek t h a t d e l i c a c y , t h a t a l l - p e r v a d i n g charm of l i g h t . How f r e s h i t i s ; i t i s s o f t , f a d e d , s l i g h t l y r o s e - t i n t e d . The o b j e c t s d i s s o l v e . There i s n o t h i n g but c o l o r v a l u e s everywhere. The sea was s u p e r b , the sky s o f t and v e l v e t y ; i t l a t e r t u r n e d to y e l l o w ; i t became warm and then the s e t t i n g sun imbued e v e r y t h i n g w i t h b e a u t i f u l nuances o f b l u i s h - p u r p l e . ..7 L i k e C o n s t a b l e he d i s l i k e d the o l d smoky d i r t y c a n v a s s e s , and saw w i t h the eye o f an I m p r e s s i o n i s t . He d i d e v e r y t h i n g w i t h l i g h t n e s s and elegance w i t h exact t o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . He wrote "we must seek out the s i m p l e b e a u t i e s of n a t u r e " . - ^ He a d v i s e d Monet " S t u d y , l e a r n to see and p a i n t , draw, do l a n d s c a p e s . The ocean and the sky, a n i m a l s , p e o p l e and t r e e s - - j u s t as n a t u r e c r e a t e d t h e m — a r e so b e a u t i f u l i n t h e i r own s e t t i n g of l i g h t and a i r , j u s t as t h e y a r e . . . . A l l t h a t i s p a i n t e d d i r e c t l y , a t a g i v e n moment, has a f o r c e , power, and v i t a l i t y which can never be d u p l i - c a t e d i n the s t u d i o " . ^ In the n o i s y atmosphere of the c a f e s of P a r i s , young p a i n t e r s l i k e P i s s a r r o and Degas d i s c u s s e d t h e i r i d e a s w i t h F a n t i n l a T o u r , Gustave F l a u b e r t , p u p i l s of D e l a c r o i x , Couture and I n g r e s . In the c a f e Taranne, c r i t i c s and w r i t e r s , B a u d e l a i r e and Duranty, m e d i c a l s t u d e n t s l i k e Dr. Gachet, a l l from d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l s ; " r e a l i s t s " , " f a n t a s i s t s " , " I n g r i s t s " and " c o l o r i s t s " as they were c a l l e d , met and d i s c u s s e d a r t . ^ Many o f the young a r t i s t s l e f t P a r i s to p a i n t on t h e i r own. L a t e r i n the y e a r , P i s s a r r o was to have a landscape a c c e p t e d a t the S a l o n of 1859. P i e r r e C h a r l e s B a u d e l a i r e , i n h i s S a l o n of 1859, c h a p t e r " L e P u b l i c - 10 - Moderne et l a p h o t o g r a p h i e " Variete's C r i t i q u e s , P a r i s , s t a t e d , "From day to day a r t d i m i n i s h e s i t s s e l f - r e s p e c t , p r o s t r a t e s i t s e l f b e f o r e e x t e r i o r r e a l i t y and the a r t i s t becomes more and more i n c l i n e d to p a i n t not what he dreams but what he sees." 1 --' In the s p r i n g of 1874, a group of young p a i n t e r s i n P a r i s , d e f i e d the o f f i c i a l s a l o n and o r g a n i z e d an e x h i b i t i o n o f t h e i r own. These I m p r e s s i o n i s t s r e p r e s e n t e d a c o n t i n u a t i o n of the b a s i c t h e o r i e s of t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s , s i n c e g r e a t a r t i s t s of the past had c o n t r i b u t e d to the development o f I m p r e s s i o n i s t p r i n c i p l e s . F o r twenty y e a r s , I n g r e s , D e l a c r o i x , C o r o t and Courbet had dominated the scene and i t was men l i k e Monet, R e n o i r and P i s s a r r o who s e t out to i n c o r p o r a t e w i t h t h e i r own o l d e r b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s , new ways which l e d to I m p r e s s i o n i s m . These men were the p r e c u r s o r s of Modern P a i n t i n g . These were i n d i v i d u a l a r t i s t s and I m p r e s s i o n i s m was due to t h e i r v a r i e d and c o l l e c t i v e e f f o r t s . Boudin s a i d , " P e r f e c t i o n i s a c o l l e c t i v e work and w i t h o u t t h a t p e r s o n , t h i s one 16 would never have a c h i e v e d the p e r f e c t i o n he d i d " . In E n g l a n d , an important r o o t o f F r e n c h Impressionism had been d e v e l o p e d . John C o n s t a b l e was one of the f i r s t landscape p a i n t e r s i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y to p a i n t what he a c t u a l l y observed o u t - o f - d o o r s . H i s c o l l e a g u e s were s t i l l p a i n t i n g a c c o r d i n g to s e v e n t e e n t h and e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y formulas which r e s u l t e d i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y d a r k , brown and y e l l o w , s e p i a - c a s t works. They s a i d t h a t C o n s t a b l e ' s p a i n t i n g s were not p a i n t e d a c c o r d i n g to t r a d i t i o n , as t r e e s s h o u l d be the c o l o r o f an o l d v i o l i n . C o n s t a b l e defended h i s n a t u r a l i s t i c green t r e e s by p u t t i n g a v i o l i n i n a t r e e and a s k i n g h i s f r i e n d s i f the t r e e r e a l l y d i d match the v i o l i n . I t d i d n o t , and C o n s t a b l e became the i n v e n t o r of a new way o f c o l o r r e n d i t i o n which had not been used b e f o r e . - 11 - He was i n t r i g u e d with the luminous e f f e c t s achieved by seventeenth century masters and by the combination of golden-yellow sepia tones with blue, complementary c o l o r s . The baroque t r a d i t i o n which favored blue and gold combinations with white also achieved a l i v e l y , and powerfully r i c h e f f e c t . This led Constable to explore the e f f e c t s created by the action of complementary colors on one another taking blue and yellow as complementary and formulating other complementaries on t h i s foundation. As early as Leonardo Da V i n c i ' s remarkable s c i e n t i f i c a l l y correct observation of the world, i t had been discovered that the shadow of an object was tinged by a color complementary to the one of the object,''"'7 and Constable adopted t h i s phenomenon i n an attempt to paint more c o l o r - f u l and v i s u a l l y truer p i c t u r e s . Constable, l i k e Copley before him, went outside, observed nature, and sought the pure pigment color most c l o s e l y equivalent to the actual color of the object he was depicting. The technique he used to apply these newer, b r i g h t e r , pure colors was also new. His brushstrokes were small and calculated i n s i z e to match the actual pigmented brush. He presented on canvas the same value as he had chosen as correct on the brush. Thus the surface of h i s canvases be- came a mass of small brushstrokes, each helping to define the general form of the object and each presenting a purer color, nearer to nature than had been seen before. Constable also used what has become known as a "divided color*" technique, which was a d i r e c t influence on Delacroix and on the Impressionists. This consisted of h i s method for reproducing a b r i g h t natural e f f e c t by p l a c i n g brushstrokes of d i s t i n c t colors side by side. At a distance, these colors blended producing a more b r i l l i a n t color than a s i n g l e area of blended color. On green, f o r instance, he would modify a green by adding yellow to the green for a h i g h l i g h t , beside t h i s - 12 - he would p l a c e an o r d i n a r y pure green f o r a d i f f u s e d l i g h t , then add a b l u e to the green i n the shadow, thus p r o d u c i n g an analogous range o f g r e e n s , from y e l l o w green, through g r e e n , to b l u e g r e e n . T h i s r e q u i r e d a v e r y c a r e f u l e m p i r i c a l study of the v i s u a l e f f e c t s of c o l o r s j u x t a p o s e d on the canvas as seen from a d i s t a n c e to a c h i e v e a n a t u r a l e f f e c t . C o n s t a b l e ' s Haywain, a p i c t u r e t y p i c a l of h i s developed s t y l e and showing a l l of these remarkable c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , was e x h i b i t e d i n P a r i s i n 1824, where i t was seen by D e l a c r o i x . T h i s p i c t u r e was such a r e v e l a t i o n to him t h a t he s t u d i e d i t v e r y c a r e f u l l y f o r days and then proceeded to r e - p a i n t one o f h i s own p i c t u r e s to c o r r e s p o n d w i t h C o n s t a b l e ' s t e c h n i q u e and to t r y to a c h i e v e the same e f f e c t s of l i g h t and c o l o r . ^ D e l a c r o i x m o d i f i e d C o n s t a b l e ' s c o l o r t h e o r y and i n h i s j o u r n a l s r e c o r d s h i s own i d e a s about how he p a i n t e d a p i c t u r e to a c h i e v e the optimum c o l o r e f f e c t . H i s i d e a was to use t h r e e or f o u r pure l o c a l c o l o r s as main a c c e n t s i n h i s p i c t u r e . In the background he would use c h r o m a t i c g r e y s , made up of a m i x t u r e of the main pure c o l o r s of the major o b j e c t s i n the p i c t u r e . The main areas o f pure c o l o r i n the f o r e g r o u n d r e a c t e d w i t h the r e l a t e d greys of the background to c r e a t e a p l a y of c o l o r back and f o r t h i n the p i c t u r e , and t h i s gave a more l i v e l y e f f e c t than c o l o r a g a i n s t an u n r e l a t e d background. D e l a c r o i x j o u r n e y e d to N o r t h A f r i c a where the more d i r e c t sun and b r i l l i a n t c o l o r s brought out much s t r o n g e r complementaries i n the shadows, and r e s u l t e d i n a wider range of complementaries i n h i s p a l e t t e and a g e n e r a l l y g r e a t e r c o l o r f a c i l i t y on h i s p a r t . Today we f i n d i t h a r d to imagine the works of C o n s t a b l e or D e l a c r o i x as p a r t i c u l a r l y b r i g h t or r e v o l u t i o n a r y but i n t h e i r own time they p r e s e n t - ed a c o n t r a s t to " a c a d e m i c " work as taught i n the a c a d e m i e s } Where - 13 - academic work had to look like sculpture for figure compositions. It had to be historical, or morally allegorical. It had to show heroes at the height of their power doing great deeds to elevate the mind and approach the ideals of Greek art. The brushstrokes were to be blended to present a uniformly textured surface. This removed a l l trace of the painter's personality. The color was applied achromatically with highlights in white, and shadows in black. The light part of the picture was not to occupy more than one third of the picture format. Convention required a shading through grey, from light to dark areas, in order that light and dark were never juxtaposed and this avoided silhouette effects. The composition had to be laid out on a Renaissance grid system to make every part rationally controlled. The composition was usually symmetrically placed about an axis. Academic art was only concerned with figure representations in- volving l i f e size figures and landscape was an unimportant part of the picture, as a mere background. Landscape art, therefore, before the Barbizons of France, was only accepted as an art form in English water-colors, and indeed the Barbizons took much from the English water-color school. The Barbizons bridged the gap between the English landscape school and the French Impressionists. Diaz de la Peffa, the Barbizon painter, advised Renoir to discard earth colors and black, and to lighten his 1 9 palette. A brief resume of the tenets held by some of the French Impressionists will set the elements of Impressionism before us. These same elements appeared much later in Canadian painting. Impressionism in France was a non-academic bourgeois art which concentrated on land- - 14 - scapes presented with vibrant f u l l colors and apparent light. The fore- most concern, the depiction of visual light on painted canvas, was partly solved by the scientific color researches of the previous half century. Sir Isaac Newton in 1766 had passed a beam of sunlight through a prism and charted the spectral colors on a screen. These colors he spaced around to form a circle. He chose seven distinct hues red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet to agree with certain mystical notions about the seven notes of the diatonic scale in music, and the ori seven planets of classical tradition. In 1802 Young did his work on color theory. Hermann Helmholtz was writing extensively from 1856 to 1866 on the subject of Physiological Optics. The Young - Helmholtz theory stated that in optics any color may be matched visually by adding together various amounts of the three primary colors. It is interesting to note that the three primary colors to which this theory referred were red, green and violet. In 1856, James Clark Maxwell developed the color wheel, which illustrated the principle that the spectral colors equally spaced on a spinning top or wheel pro- duce white light. As early as 1839"̂-'- Chevreul stated that since light was the source of color, i t was necessary to examine the composition of light. His prismatic spectrum was made up of six colors. Three simple ones: red, blue and yellow, and three compound colors produced by mixing the simple ones giving green, violet and orange. Chevreul found that the juxta- position of two complementary colors heighten their intensity and that every object brightens i f placed against something dark and conversely, an object appears darker placed against something light. In 1839 his book on color theory was written, although i t was not published until - 15 - after 1875. His law of simultaneous contrasts especially interested painters. The Impressionists knew of these theories, but they preferred to use a variety of pure colors spread more or less evenly throughout their whole picture, so that by their optical mixture, the eye would form a vibrating, changing, and very brilliant impression of light. The Impressionists generally restricted their palette to pure hues of yellow, red and blue. Photographic reproductions later used these same three colors as the basis for their color prints. The Impressionists had to follow their own instinctive feeling for light. In translating the purity and brilliance of their vision they eliminated earth colors, burnt sienna and black from their palettes. Ingres in showing a blue dress would add white to the blue for a highlight giving a washed out effect^- plain blue for an area in indirect light, and would add black to the blue for the shadows using a mono- chromatic scale. Fragonard and Delacroix produced new luminosity by using different colors for half tones instead of adding black or white. Thus the Impressionists took over an already established formula. Edward Duranty, publisher of Realism wrote "They discovered that light robs tones of colorj that the purity of sunlight reflected from objects reimbues the objects with a luminous unity which blends the seven spectral rays of the prism into one colorless beam which is light. Intuitive step by intuitive step they succeeded in dissolving sunlight into individual rays, into its elements, and then in reinvesting i t with unity through the 23 harmony of the spectral colors which they applied to their canvasses." This perception led the Impressionists to a shift in emphasis, from the - 16 - i observation of the elements of light, to capturing the changing appearance of the subject under various light conditions; to the dissolution of form, in the creation of a world which was the reflection of a reflection. This approach became more and more limited as i t chose to confine itself to representing a fleeting instant. This was coming toward the objective of the scientific analysis of optical effects, which, when i t was finally achieved, distinguished the highly formulated work of the Neo Impressionists by Seurat, Signac, and Cross. Pierre Baudelaire's critique on the 1846 Salon puts forward the idea that color expresses harmony, melody and counterpoint and that color in art is analogous to melody in music.^ It is easy to exaggerate the influence of scientific formulas. These theories may have influenced the Impressionists but painters continued to use their eyes first, rather than learning any precise formulae. However, i t was the growing scientific interest in color that suggested this way of seeing and painting. The roots of Impressionism are found in many places. . Claude Lorraine's luminism, Honore Daumier's common people, John Constable's color, Gustave Courbet's realism, Eugene Delacroix's color, Jean Corot's landscapes, the Barbizon School painting out-of-doors at Fontainebleau, Johan Jongkind and Eugene Boudin at Le Havre, and Charles Daubigny's water, sky and low horizon canvasses. Edouard Manet, one of the precursors of French Impressionism, began a more modern way of painting. His works echoed the Spanish master-works by Velasquez and Goya, but they also were indebted to Japanese prints which were coming into vogue in Paris about 1870. He eliminated half tones and highlights and strengthened his colors. The effectiveness of his s i m p l i f i e d images depended upon the s e l e c t i o n o f a few elements. Manet s i m p l i f i e d the image w i t h o u t weakening i t . H i s o b j e c t i v e was to work out a way o f p a i n t i n g t h a t l o o k e d spontaneous. T h i s i n s t a n t a n e o u s e f f e c t was to appear so e x p e r t t h a t h i s work seemed to be the i m p r o v i s a t i o n o f a moment. T h i s appearance was v a l u e d and sought a f t e r by the men who were then b e g i n n i n g the I m p r e s s i o n i s t way of p a i n t i n g ; Claude Monet and C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o . The b o l d f l a t c o l o r areas of Manet were a g a i n s t the academic r u l e s . There was l i t t l e m i d d l e t o n e . The l i g h t s and darks were massed t o g e t h e r . There were s t r o n g v a l u e c o n t r a s t s and l i t t l e i n t e r m e d i a r y s h a d i n g . A s i l h o u e t t e appearance was the r e s u l t and h i s r e s t r i c t e d p a l e t t e was reduced to t h r e e pure c o l o r s . Manet i n t r o d u c e d p i c t u r e s t h a t were more important than the s u b j e c t s he d e p i c t e d ; where the c o l o r was new and d i f f e r e n t , and where f l a t a r e a s , w i t h no shadows were u s e d . The new concept t h a t a work of a r t may f i n d i t s r e a s o n f o r b e i n g i n i t s e l f , r a t h e r than i n what i t says o r i s about, was a d e p a r t u r e from the a n e c d o t a l i d e a t h a t dominated s a l o n p a i n t i n g i n 1863. In 1874 the f i r s t I m p r e s s i o n i s t showing was a t N a d a r ' s s t u d i o . Because of Claude M o n e t ' s canvas e n t i t l e d I m p r e s s i o n , S u n r i s e , the p a i n t e r s i n t h a t e x - 25 h i b i t i o n were c a l l e d I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , by the c r i t i c L. L e r o y , as a j o k e . But even the a r t i s t s r e c o g n i z e d the a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s of the term and c a l l e d themselves I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . Claude Monet was an e a r l y I m p r e s s i o n i s t and h i s seascapes are based on those o f J o n g k i n d and B o u d i n . J o n g k i n d and Boudin p a i n t e d a t Le H a v r e , which was M o n e t ' s home, and emulated Daubigny's water and sky themes. In Monet's e a r l i e s t work he uses a v e r y reduced p a l e t t e of b l u e and y e l l o w , - 18 - complementary c o l o r s , mixed w i t h w h i t e to form a l i g h t b r i g h t t i n t . The b r u s h s t r o k e changes from p a r t to p a r t of the p i c t u r e , i n d i c a t i n g d i f f e r e n t t e x t u r e s c o n t r a r y to the academic r u l e , t h a t b r u s h s t r o k e s be u n i f i e d throughout the whole p i c t u r e . Monet wanted the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the o b j e c t to be caught by the b r u s h s t r o k e . He was concerned w i t h the e f f e c t s o f s u n l i g h t when o b s e r v i n g r e f l e c t i o n s and r e f r a c t i o n s . " I t i s p r e c i s e l y these sudden gleams, the m a g i c a l l i g h t t h a t p l a y s on the s u r f a c e s of t h i n g s t h a t I am t r y i n g to c a p t u r e , l i g h t t h a t has the d o v e ' s b r e a s t hues of shot s i l k or the b l u e g l i n t s o f f l a m i n g p u n c h . " M.E. C h e v r e u l ' s simultaneous c o n t r a s t t h e o r y had p o s s i b l y i n d i c a t e d to Monet t h a t the o p t i c a l e f f e c t of showing white l i g h t , c o u l d be a c h i e v e d by j u x t a p o s i n g complementaries of the same v a l u e to produce luminous e f f e c t s . I t was as though l i g h t o r i g i n a t e d i n the p i c t u r e i t - s e l f . The immediate e f f e c t o f n a t u r e was taken by the I m p r e s s i o n i s t l a n d - scape s c h o o l from an a c t u a l v i s u a l s c e n e . T h e i r o u t l o o k r e f l e c t e d a H e r a c l i t i a n p h i l o s o p h y i n c l u d i n g the element of time i n a w o r l d of change, t r a n s i t i o n and f l u x . They t r i e d to c a p t u r e b o d i e s p r o d u c i n g l i g h t , f i r e s , and the sun. They t r i e d to c a p t u r e b o d i e s a b s o r b i n g l i g h t , the e a r t h , m i s t s and atmosphere. They t r i e d to c a p t u r e b o d i e s r e f l e c t i n g l i g h t , steam, w a t e r , c l o u d s and g l a s s . They took the c h a o t i c shapes of n a t u r e and r e c o r d e d the chance movements of men w i t h ' a n i n n o c e n t e y e ' , and w i t h no comment on the s c e n e . They were the f i r s t p a i n t e r s to t r a n s c r i b e the o p t i c a l image d i r e c t l y as you saw i t w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r i n g any superimposed o r d e r ; and p a i n t e d the a c t u a l scene o u t - o f - d o o r s . They chose s u b j e c t s not f o r t h e i r importance as s u b j e c t m a t t e r , but as a study to show the l i g h t e f f e c t s . The i n t e r e s t i n showing l i g h t - 19 - effects occurred after Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro, and Alfred Sisley went to England in 1870 and saw the work of Joseph Turner. On their return to France, Mallerme's literary interest in a subtle nuance in the use of words influenced the Impressionists to experiment with nuances in light dark, warm cool, complementary and rainbow pallettes pigments. At the time of the 1855 International Exhibition in Paris, Camille Pissarro arrived in Paris to study art. He was very impressed by the works of Ingres, Delacroix, Courbet, and Corot. Pissarro always acknow- ledged his debt to Corot and like Corot he painted a series of country roads. In 1859 he met Monet at the Academie Suisse. He was in Pontoise in 1866, and in Louveciennes in 1869. In 1870 he spent two years in London, England with Monet during the Franco-Prussian War. On his return from England he settled again in Pontoise, 1872 - 1884, where he was in close communication With Paul Clzanne, Armand Guillaumin and Victor Vignon. It was Pissarro who introduced Cezanne to the Impressionist technique and helped to clear away his former somber manner. In 1902 Gauguin wrote; "If you examine Pissarro"s art in its entirety, you find, despite its unevenness, not only an intense instinct for art which never contradicts itself, but also an art which is essentially intuitive in the best tradition. He copied everyone, you say? Why not? Everyone copied him, but denied him. He was one of my masters and I do not deny him."^ In his townscapes and country road-type scenes there are often strong perspective lines such as a road merging with a horizon and a composition which recalls Corot's works; but the principal element in his pictures is the light, soft and atmospheric which Pissarfohad mastered. Pissarro joined the Impressionists because of his great regard for Manet's work. He showed at every Impressionist exhibition from 1874 to - 20 - 1886. Theodore Duret, i n h i s account of the S a l o n of 1870 wrote " I n one a s p e c t of h i s work P i s s a r r o i s a r e a l i s t . He would never r e a r r a n g e n a t u r e to s u i t h i s c o m p o s i t i o n . F o r him, a landscape on canvas must be an exact r e p r o d u c t i o n o f a n a t u r a l s c e n e . " 2 ^ A f t e r the F r a n c o - P r u s s i a n War the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s reassembled i n P a r i s . Durand-Ruel moved to New Bond S t . i n P a r i s . In London, Daubigny had i n - t r o d u c e d Durand-Ruel to Monet and P i s s a r r o . These men were s t r e n g t h e n e d by h i s support even though they had been i g n o r e d i n London a r t c i r c l e s . They had been c a p t i v a t e d by the c o u n t r y s i d e and the suburbs of London and had p a i n t e d the e f f e c t s o f f o g , snow and s p r i n g s u n s h i n e . They v i s i t e d museums and saw o i l s and w a t e r c o l o r s by T u r n e r and C o n s t a b l e which were a new r e v e l a t i o n to them. I t was the landscape p a i n t e r s , the masters of l i g h t and f l e e t i n g i m p r e s s i o n s , which a f f e c t e d them most; Turner e s p e c i a l l y . The b r i l l i a n c e of h i s pure c o l o r s caught t h e i r eye. They a n a l y z e d h i s t e c h n i q u e . H i s snow and i c e scenes impressed them. S i g n a c , i n h i s "From D e l a c r o i x to Neo I m p r e s s i o n i s m " , wrote of T u r n e r : "They were a s t o n i s h e d a t h i s a b i l i t y to r e c r e a t e the whiteness of snow, something they themselves w i t h t h e i r broad b r u s h s t r o k e s had not been a b l e to a c h i e v e . And they r e a l i z e d t h a t t h i s w o n d e r f u l e f f e c t c o u l d not be a c h i e v e d w i t h a u n i f o r m w h i t e , but o n l y through numerous c l o s e l y a p p l i e d dots i n a v a r i e t y of c o l o r s w h i c h , seen from a d i s t a n c e , merged to g i v e the d e - s i r e d e f f e c t . " " ^ T u r n e r , e s p e c i a l l y i n h i s l a t e r works, p o r t r a y e d n a t u r e i n h e r most t u r b u l e n t moods w i t h r o l l i n g seas and f l y i n g s p r a y . H i s b a t t l e s h i p s and t r a i n s a r e l i k e m i s t y a b s t r a c t i o n s r a t h e r than l i k e s o l i d form. He and C o n s t a b l e c e r t a i n l y i n f l u e n c e d the s u b j e c t m a t t e r of Monet and P i s s a r r o . A l e t t e r from P i s s a r r o to Dewhurst, Nov. 1902 s a y s ; "Monet and I were - 21 - v e r y e n t h u s i a s t i c over the London l a n d s c a p e s . Monet worked i n the p a r k s , ' w h i l s t I, l i v i n g a t Lower Norwood, a t t h a t time a charming suburb, s t u d i e d the e f f e c t of f o g , snow and s p r i n g t i m e . We worked from n a t u r e . . . We a l s o v i s i t e d museums. The w a t e r c o l o r s and p a i n t i n g s of Turner and of C o n s t a b l e , the canvases of O l d Crome have c e r t a i n l y had i n f l u e n c e upon u s . We admired G a i n s b o r o u g h , Lawrence, and R e y n o l d s ; but we were s t r u c k c h i e f l y by the landscape p a i n t e r s , who shared more i n our aim w i t h r e g a r d 31 to ' p l e i n a i r ' , l i g h t , and f u g i t i v e e f f e c t s . " . . . . " T u r n e r and C o n s t a b l e w h i l e they taught us something, showed us i n t h e i r works t h a t they had no u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the a n a l y s i s of shadow, which i n T u r n e r ' s p a i n t i n g i s s i m p l y used as an e f f e c t , a mere absence of l i g h t . As f a r as tone d i v i s i o n i s c o n c e r n e d , Turner proved the v a l u e of t h i s as a method 32 among methods, a l t h o u g h he d i d not a p p l y i t c o r r e c t l y and n a t u r a l l y . " Monet s t a t e d i n l a t e r y e a r s t h a t T u r n e r ' s a r t had had a l i m i t e d b e a r i n g on h i s e v o l u t i o n . Both he and P i s s a r r o , through d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n , had i n 1870, come c l o s e r to n a t u r e than T u r n e r , whose work was a n t i p a t h e t i c to him because of the exuberant r o m a n t i c i s m of f a n c y . While i n London i n 1870, Monet and P i s s a r r o met James M c N e i l l W h i s t l e r . W h i s t l e r ' s O l d B a t t e r s e a B r i d g e , 1865, p r o b a b l y based on a Japanese wood b l o c k p r i n t f o r i t s c o m p o s i t i o n , i s a v e r y s u b t l e harmony i n greys and b l u e green. W h i s t e r ' s s u b t i t l e f o r i t Nocturne - B l u e and G o l d , r e v e a l s h i s i n t e r e s t i n c r e a t i n g d e c o r a t i v e e f f e c t s . I t i s h i s t e c h n i c a l r e f i n e m e n t and h i s s u b t l e c o l o r nuances, m a i n l y i n shades o f grey but w i t h luminous e f f e c t s of y e l l o w and p i n k , t h a t must have f a s c i n a t e d Monet. In 1871 Monet d i d a number of works i n and around London such as Waterloo B r i d g e and Westminster, i n the L o r d A s t o r C o l l e c t i o n , London, which uses a much more d i v i d e d b r u s h s t r o k e than - 22 - Whistler's blended works, but which shows an obvious debt to Whistler in its emulation of Whistler's light effects and general mood. From then on Monet became more and more interested in a light which dissolved form in a high- keyed foggy luminosity. Alfred Sisley, 1839 - 1899, studied at Gleyre's Studio with Monet, Renoir and Bazille. In his first work, accepted by the Salon in 1867, he described himself as a pupil of Corot. Sisley painted only landscapes centered in the Ile-de-France area. His delicate feeling for nature is very suited to the snow scenes which he did so well. After 1885 he was more and more influenced by Monet. He adopted the Impressionist tech- nique and colors, and was surprised at Renoir's light palette and colorful painting. Sisley's The Road Through Marly, Seen from the Road to Sevres is a tree-bordered road disappearing into space, influenced by Corot. Sisley always began with the sky, the major depth producing part of his land- scapes. Snow at Louveciennes shows the influence of Monet on Sisley. The picture has taken on a flatter brighter scene showing the multiple re- flections to be found in the snow. Again the road goes straight back into the picture plane giving a feeling of depth but the world seems buried in a great white silence and only the women and the tree trunk break the over- a l l decoration. Sisley and Pissarro often painted very similar subjects in and around Louveciennes and Honfleur. Sisley contributed to four of the eight Impressionist exhibitions between 1874 and 1886. One of the greatest colorists of the Impressionist School was Auguste Renoir who began his artistic career at fourteen as a porcelain painter at Limoges. The precision and delicacy needed in porcelain painting and the technique of painting on a transparent white ground seems to have influenced - 23 - h i s whole l i f e ' s work. In 1864 R e n o i r accompanied Monet, S i s l e y and B a z i l l e when they went to s k e t c h a t C h a i l l y i n the f o r e s t o f F o n t a i n e b l e a u . R e n o i r used a rainbow p a l e t t e a p p l i e d i n t h i n l a y e r s over a pure white r e f l e c t i n g b a s e . T h i s was a new t e c h n i c a l p r o c e d u r e . There was no u n d e r p a i n t i n g to e s t a b l i s h l i g h t , dark a r e a s . F o r the f i r s t time shading was n o t c o n s i d e r e d i n terms of d a r k n e s s . The o n l y c o n s i d e r a t i o n was i n b r i g h t pure c o l o r s . The j e w e l - l i k e l i v e l i n e s s of the c o l o r he a c h i e v e d by t h i s t e c h n i q u e i s u n i q u e . R e n o i r expresses the happy b o u r g o i s e a t t i t u d e behind the I m p r e s s i o n i s t approach to a r t i n h i s statement, "What I l i k e i s s k i n , a young g i r l ' s s k i n t h a t i s p i n k and shows t h a t s h e has a good c i r c u l a t i o n . But what I l i k e 33 above a l l i s s e r e n i t y . " T h i s q u o t a t i o n r e v e a l s how the a r t i s t d e l i g h t e d i n the dappled l i g h t e f f e c t s to be seen i n h i s Nude i n the S u n l i g h t and g i v e s us an i d e a about what he was t r y i n g to r e p r e s e n t i n the p i c t u r e . R e n o i r s a i d , " F o r me a p i c t u r e must be l o v a b l e , c h e e r f u l , and p r e t t y , yes p r e t t y . . . . T h e r e a r e enough t i r e s o m e t h i n g s i n l i f e a l r e a d y w i t h o u t our 34 t a k i n g the t r o u b l e to produce m o r e . " When Claude Monet l e f t G l e y r e ' s s t u d i o i n 1863 he took R e n o i r and S i s l e y w i t h him to p a i n t i n the f o r e s t of F o n t a i n e b l e a u . Monet and Boudin were the f i r s t to p a i n t s e a - b a t h i n g . In 1886 Manet s a i d o f Monet: " J u s t look a t t h i s young man who attempts to do p l a i n a i r ; as i f the a n c i e n t s had 35 ever thought o f such a t h i n g ! " A f t e r 1870 Monet gave up p l a c i n g people i n n a t u r a l s e t t i n g s and r e - s t r i c t e d h i m s e l f to s t u d y i n g problems of l i g h t and c o l o r . H i s a r t became the study of ever more s u b t l e e x p r e s s i o n s o f v i s u a l phenomena. The man who had dreamt of huge f i g u r e c o m p o s i t i o n s , p a i n t e d e a s e l p i c t u r e s . I t - 24 - was only at the end of his l i f e that he again took up works of great size and these are his huge waterlily studies, Les Nympheas, in the Orangerie. From 1872 to 1876 Monet lived near his friend, Gustave Caillebottt^ in Argenteuil on the Petite Genevelieres. There he did his freshest and freest work. The light reflected from the rippling water, prompted his most Impressionistic work. Monet lived on his houseboat and Renoir and Manet were frequent visitors. These three painted the same sub jects, each in his own way. Manet painted an Impressionist study of Monet in his canoe called The Canoer where blue and yellow are present in such an arrangement that they mix optically to give the impression of white light, the most intense, forceful, brilliant, white light of the open air, and its reflection from the water. There are large and monumental areas of dark and light without semi-tint transitions. The most limited palette is used and there is no horizon line. A wall of blue sea forms the background, while the simpli- fied sweeping line of the boat encloses the two figures in a composition reminiscent of a Japanese print. Claude Monet's Gare Saint-Lazare, 1877, is one of a series of railway views shown at the Third Impressionist Exhibition. Altogether he made seven variations on this theme. There were forerunners of this type of theme. Turner had painted Rain, Steam, and Speed in 1844. Monet and Pissarro may have seen these works in England in 1870. The railway was a great novelty at that time and was used as a subject by Pissarro and Sisley as well as. by Monet. These artists often travelled to the suburbs of Paris by train and naturally were interested in the effects of light filtered through glass and steam and touched by the pink colors of early morning. Like the clouds and reflections in water this - 25 - was a l l a part of that ephemeral universe which they chose to paint. Monet also painted many views of haystacks in a field at Givern^y. These were shown in a l l weather conditions. He painted a series of poplars on the banks of the Epte at different times of the day. In February, 1892 he went to live above a shop called "Au Caprice" in Rouen from which he could see the facade of the Cathedral. He reproduced its various aspects in several pictures, going from one to another according to the time of day and the weather. His technique was changing. His paint became a sort of stippled cement as i f to imitate the grain and carvings of the old stones. Clemenceau classified the series of facades into four 36 groups, the greys, the whites, the blues, and the rainbow hued. Monet continued the project into 1893. He wrote, "I work as hard as I can but what I have undertaken is enormously difficult...My stay here is drawing near its close. This does not mean that I am ready to finish my cathedrals. Alas, the more I go on, the more difficult I find i t to put down what I 3 7 feel. It is forced labor, searching, testing, not achieving very much." By 1894 he finished the series and had a highly successful showing of a l l the paintings at Durand-Ruel1s in 1895. The cathedral series was a programmed demonstration of Monet's theory about the painting of light. He painted the structure in morning light, f u l l daylight, evening light, on dull days, rainy days and sunny days. But we may say that he never really painted the cathedral at a l l . The stones became cotton fluff bathed in pink, blue, and lavender irridescence. There is no formal composition and the abstract pattern of color has an unexpect- ed relationship to contemporary art. As early as 18905Monet wrote to his friend, the critic Geffroy, about his attempting the subject of water with its reflections and depths. He - 26 - r e t u r n e d to t h i s problem a g a i n and a g a i n . He t u r n e d to h i s own garden a t G i v e r n y w i t h i t s water l i l i e s r i s i n g to the s u r f a c e of a pond t h a t r e f l e c t e d t r a i l i n g w i l l o w s and cascades o f p u r p l e w i s t a r i a , t a l l p o p l a r s , and beds of b r i l l i a n t and e x o t i c f l o w e r s f o r h i s l a s t works. "The water l i l y s e r i e s , Les Nympheas, r e p r e s e n t e d the crowning achievement of Monet's l o n g c a r e e r . F o r these l a s t works o f an o l d man, t h i s c u l t i v a t i o n of h i s own garden, as i t were, r e p r e s e n t s one of the most p e r s o n a l moments o f Monet's a r t , when he brought t o g e t h e r , on a s u b j e c t t h a t was d i s t i n c t l y h i s own, the themes and t e c h n i q u e s of a l i f e t i m e of s e e i n g . " In Monet's l a t e r p a i n t i n g t h e r e i s a h i g h degree of apparent a b s t r a c t - i o n , the l a c k of r e c o g n i z a b l e l i m i t s and d e f i n i t i o n s , the r e f l e c t i o n s o f t r e e s , the hazy c l o u d s , a l l p r o c e e d i n g a c r o s s the canvas i n seemingly a b s t r a c t rhythms. Roger F r y o b j e c t e d to the l a r g e element of a b s t r a c t i o n and complained t h a t the d i s s o l u t i o n of the f o r m a l elements had f o l l o w e d d i r e c t l y from M o n e t ' s o b s e s s i o n w i t h c a t c h i n g the most f u g i t i v e a s p e c t s of v i s u a l 39 s e n s a t i o n . Monet's admirers on the o t h e r hand, p r a i s e d j u s t t h i s same f o r m l e s s p o e t i c vagueness. " M o n e t ' s c o n c e r n was f o r the immediate v i s u a l a s p e c t of t h i n g s , and then he sought the unusual s e n s a t i o n s of c o l o r and l i g h t t h a t f l a s h upon the eye, i r r e s p e c t i v e of o n e ' s h a b i t u a l knowledge of the s u b j e c t . I t was the apparent s e n s a t i o n t h a t he put on the c a n v a s . We know t h a t the i n n e r p e t a l s of a y e l l o w sunflower a r e n o t , i n f a c t , s t r e a k e d w i t h orange, but when Monet looked - he saw t h a t s t r o k e o f orange l y i n g a l o n g the p e t a l s and t h a t was what he p a i n t e d . The Neo I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , u s i n g o p t i c a l t h e o r i e s , saw t h a t a s t r o k e of r e d and an a d j a c e n t y e l l o w , would merge i n the r e t i n a o f the v i e w e r ' s e y e , p r o d u c i n g an orange more - 27 - brilliant than could be achieved by the conventional method of mixing pigments. If you look carefully at paintings from a l l of Monet's work i t is difficult to find a single example of his using exactly this method. A red placed beside a yellow, or a purple next to a blue, is intended to have the value which Monet put down. What he had discovered was a method for making each individual stroke more brilliant in itself. Sometimes this was a sort of descriptive shorthand for bits of sky reflected in water or flecks of poppy in a field of yellow and green grass. Clemenceau observed that Monet mixed his colors on his palette as other artists did. ^Another attribute accredited to Monet as a novel characteristic of his was his insistence upon paint and upon visible brush- work. When viewed close-up his subjects tended to disappear into a skein of brilliant brushwork. This was quite obviously one of the distinguishing features of Impressionist painting but i t is an enlargement upon that same tendency as seen in Rembrandt or especially Velasquez, except that in Impressionism the brushstrokes remain as brushstrokes when viewed from a 41 distance and do not resolve themselves into a photographic precision." One of the most important aspects of Monet's work, as a leading ex- ample of the whole "Impressionist" style, is his conformity to the actual scene and his dependence upon his subject, no matter how far removed his final "impression" seemed. If one compares photographs of his l i l y pond garden with his paintings of i t , one is struck by his close adherence to visual fact. Monet took his composition from nature and moved himself to get the view that he wanted, rather than ordering the composition on the canvas. He was in the habit of working on several paintings at one time, painting each day on one after another only so long as a given light re- mained the same. We recall that Renoir did this too for his Moulin de la - 28 - Galette scene. Monet did not want a composite picture which incorporated the light of morning and afternoon as well. His dependence on the actual conditions of his subject shows up in his letters complaining in despair about a change in the weather or in the light, or about a river that flooded before he could finish a painting he had begun. He even had to buy the stand of poplars along the Epte River so they would not be cut down before he had completed his famous "poplar series". He depended on 42 the visual scene and upon the visual brushwork. Monet had always been fascinated by water and reflections and his water garden was a perfect subject. He tended to choose a morning mist or afternoon shadow when the forms along the banks of his pond seemed to merge with their reflections, creating a kind of flat double image lying close to the picture's surface. Gradually he discarded clear definitions of edges of the pond or bank and gradually pushed the horizon line further and further to the top of his canvas until i t disappears and there is no definitive boundary left to worry about. Then you see only pond surface. In his water l i l y pond picture Monet captures the impression of the evening light and air, the weedy depths below the water, and the glassy reflecting surface of the pond. "Even in this most 'abstract' manner, Monet's art is s t i l l fixed upon the external world." Degas said that Monet's art was "that of a skilful but not very 44 profound decorator", and i t is true that Monet never touched upon the spiritual, the psychological, or the sociological. His work is much more impersonal. Valiry said that i t represented "the advent of pure sensibil- ity in Painting."^^ Impressionism had a very far reaching influence on a l l art forms. After the last of the group exhibitions in 1886, the impact of outdoor p a i n t i n g , b r i g h t c o l o r s , an a r t f r e e of commentary, a s i m p l e r e p o r t i n g o f a s c e n e , an a r t f o r a r t ' s sake type o f e x p r e s s i o n , f r e e d o t h e r a r t forms from d u l l c o l o r e d , a n e c d o t a l , n a r r a t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n s . P a i n t i n g i n terms o f t o n e , r a t h e r than i n terms of the d e p i c t e d o b j e c t i t s e l f , i s I m p r e s s i o n i s m . I t i s the e f f e c t of l i g h t r e f l e c t e d on the r e t i n a o f the eye from an o b j e c t , r a t h e r than the reproduced form of the o b j e c t s t h e m s e l v e s . Impressionism a l s o i n c l u d e s a t h e o r y of C o l o r found i n Monet, he wanted to p a i n t i n terms of pure l i g h t w i t h o u t any p r e v i o u s knowledge of the form. Trees appear not as t r e e forms but as b i t s o f b l u i s h and g r e e n i s h c o l o r . He a p p l i e s h i s c o l o r i n dots and dabs, a p p r o x i m a t i n g the t o n a l i t y and g e n e r a l shape as seen through i n t e r v e n i n g d i s t a n c e w i t h i t s s p e c i f i c k i n d and degree of l i g h t and atmosphere. In Germain B a z i n ' s I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g s i n the L o u v r e , we f i n d : " T h e f i r s t c o n t a c t o f Americans w i t h Impressionism took p l a c e i n 1883 a t the F o r e i g n E x h i b i t i o n i n Boston, to which Durand-Ruel had s e n t p i c t u r e s by Manet, Monet, S i s l e y and B o u d i n . " ^ "Durand-Ruel had the next l a r g e e x h i b i t i o n c o n t a i n i n g more than 300 works i n t r o d u c i n g I m p r e s s i o n i s m to New York i n one overwhelming g e s t u r e . The e x h i b i t i o n opened on A p r i l 20, 1886, w i t h 23 Degas, 14 M a n e t ' s , 48 M o n e t ' s , 42 P i s s a r j o ' s , 38 R e n o i r ' s , 3 S e u r a t ' s ( i n c l u d e d a t the r e q u e s t of P i s s a r p ) , 14 S i s l e y ' s , and p i c t u r e s by Boudin, C a s s a t t , C a i l l e b © M ; t e , F o r a i n , G u i l l e m i n , Berthe M o r i s o t , John Lewis Brown, R o l l , and s e v e r a l o t h e r s . On May 25, i t was t r a n s p o r t e d to the N a t i o n a l Academy where i t s success was even g r e a t e r . " ^ 7 " A t C h i c a g o , Impressionism p e n e t r a t e d to the h e a r t of the World F a i r of 1 8 9 3 . . . A p r i v a t e e x h i b i t i o n , e n t i r e l y from American c o l l e c t i o n s , showed e i g h t e e n 4 8 I m p r e s s i o n i s t p i c t u r e s o n l y , which had a g r e a t s u c c e s s . " American a r t i s t s f a c e d w i t h even g r e a t e r o b s t a c l e s than European - 30 - artists have given us a painting tradition of which we may well be proud. They wanted to express a new world, wild and strange by European standards. They welded together their own culture with that of other lands, and used every influence, wherever i t originated, to help them express, as pro- foundly as they could, l i f e in America. Canadian artists were to do the same but with the added advantage of having easy access to the developments in the United States. Art publica- tions came to Canada from the United States. Artists visited back and forth across the border. Canadian and American artists worked side by side in the Academies of France and visited the same cafes and lived in the same quarters. Therefore the influence of Impressionism through American sources is almost as strong as the direct influence from France. James McNeil Whistler, 1834 - 1903, was to satisfy that craving in America for the exotically beautiful and the decorative. Like Henry James and T.S. Eliot he was adopted by England when he moved to London. The French Impressionists were lovers of the sun, while Whistler, influenced by Velasquez and the Japanese prints, developed his passion for twilight and night. His Symphony in White, 1862, is however a light-filled canvas where broad areas of color form a white surface; with one area reflecting from the other. An artist who worked in Paris and had a great influence in introduc- ing Modern French Art movements to America was John Singer Sargent, a society painter. He did not follow Impressionism in his work but he admired Manet and Monet. He was their publicity agent across the 49 Atlantic. Mary Cassatt, 1844 - 1926, after studying in the Pennsylvania Academy went abroad in 1866 to Madrid, Amsterdam, Antwerp and Paris to - 31 - study the old Masters. The works of Correggio at Parma were of special interest to her, but she joined the Impressionists in 1877 and exhibited four times with that group. She was encouraged in her work by Degas, but her importance to Americans and Canadians was the fact that she was responsible for advising her friends, the Havemeyers, the Whittemores, Mrs. J. Montgomery Sears and James Stillman to take an interest in French Impressionism and not only bring Impressionist exhibitions to America, but to purchase the work of the Impressionist painters. Benjamin Constant, who taught Mary Cassatt in Paris was the teacher of Theodore Robinson, 1852 - 1896. Robinson also studied with Carolus- Duran and Gerome. In 1888 in his late thirties, Robinson discovered Claude Monet at Giverny and was one of the first Americans to follow the Impressionists and recognize Monet as the most powerful figure of the movement. He championed the cause in an article, "Claude Monet", published in 1892.51 His diary from 1892 to 1896 is in the Frick Library, New York. He always used strong contrasts of light and shadow. His new technique of high keyed, broken color as seen in Willows, 1891, may have been an influence on William Brymner. Like the Canadian artists who worked in Europe and returned to Canada, the Americans found the light in America different. The white New England farm houses were not the old stone villages of Normandy and Brittany. It was only in rural Quebec that peasants in smocks, driving oxen could be found. Childe Hassam, 1859 - 1935, was trained in Boston as a luminist, and in 1883 he visited Great Britain, Holland, Italy and Spain. In 1886 he v settled in Montmartre studying with Boulanger and Lefebre. In 1899 he returned to New York. He painted Fifth Avenue, 1916 - 1918, then called - 32 - "Avenue of the A l l i e s " , and d e c o r a t e d w i t h the many f l a g s of the American a l l i e s , i n a s e r i e s of p a i n t i n g s under changing l i g h t s and c o l o r schemes as the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s had done. In 1878, Monet p a i n t e d N a t i o n a l H o l i d a y , Rue S t . Denis P a r i s , and Manet i n the same year p a i n t e d Rue M o s n i e r , P a r i s , d e c o r a t e d w i t h f l a g s . He was a p a i n t e r of g r e a t v i t a l i t y and o r i g i n a l i t y whose experiments i n l i g h t and c o l o r c o n t r i b u t e d immeasurably to the development of p a i n t i n g i n A m e r i c a . H i s Union Square i n S p r i n g , i n y e l l o w s , p i n k s and g r e e n s , i s l i k e a P i s s a r r o P a r i s s t r e e t scene P l a c e du T h e a t r e - F r a n c a i s , 1 8 9 8 . 5 3 M6wrice C u l l e n and James W i l s o n M o r r i c e d i d s i m i l a r scenes i n Canada. M o r r i c e ' s S t r e e t Scene i n W i n t e r , 1901, may have i n f l u e n c e d C u l l e n ' s W i n t e r S t r e e t Scene, 1906. M o r r i c e ' s South West Wind, 1905, i s a s i m p l e row of p o p l a r t r e e s w i t h the wind r u f f l i n g t h e i r l e a v e s and t u r n i n g up the s i l v e r u n d e r s i d e s through which glimpses o f white b u i l d i n g s and the sea can be s e e n . F l o o d e d w i t h c l e a r white noonday l i g h t , t h i s scene o f summer wind, sun and f r e s h n e s s i s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o a r t . A r t h u r L i s m e r was to c a p t u r e such a scene i n The Guides Home, 1914. John H. Twatchman, 1853 - 1902, l i k e Theodore R o b i n s o n , began w i t h the warm dark tones of Duvenech, whom he accompanied i n 1876 to Munich, but h i s y e a r s i n France changed h i s s t y l e . "The eye of Twatchman c o u l d p e r c e i v e s u b t l e t i e s i n a bank of snow o r an i c e - b o u n d r i v e r which were beyond Hassam. He d e l i g h t e d i n w i n t e r s c e n e s . H i s canvas Snow-Bound, 1885, shows n o t o n l y a d e l i c a t e r e n d e r i n g o f snow, but g i v e s a p o w e r f u l t h r u s t to the r o c k s as they stand out a g a i n s t the s w i r l i n g shapes of water and i c e . " ^ S u z o r - C o t e i n Canada was to p a i n t s i m i l a r scenes a l o n g r- the Athabaska R i v e r . A J . A l d e n Weir, 1852 - 1919, a p u p i l of G^rome i n h i s I m p r e s s i o n i s t - 33 - canvas V i s i t i n g N e i g h b o r s , shows the i n f l u e n c e of R e n o i r who d i e d i n the same year as Weir. There i s a f r e s h n e s s i n the summer sunshine t h a t dapples the l i t t l e g i r l and her donkey. H o r a t i o Walker, a t t i m e s , p a i n t e d t h a t same f r e s h n e s s u s i n g f l e c k e d b r u s h s t r o k e s and I m p r e s s i o n i s t c o l o r s as seen i n h i s The F i r s t Snow, ( F i g . 106) now i n the Beaverbrook A r t G a l l e r y of F r e d e r i c t o n , N.B.* E r n e s t Lawson, 1873 - 1939,. a Canadian b o r n near H a l i f a x , Nova S c o t i a , had l e a r n e d a l l t h a t h i s t e a c h e r s , Twachtman and W e i r , c o u l d t e a c h him o f t h e i r I m p r e s s i o n i s t p r o c e d u r e s . He was a t the J u l i a n Academy i n 1893 and e x h i b i t e d w i t h the Canadian A r t C l u b , T o r o n t o , 1911 - 1915. Through h i s love of the s o l i d i t y of t h i n g s he b u i l t up a form o f Impressionism where the p a i n t was t h i c k and r e v e a l e d the l i g h t r e - f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e s of o l d r i v e r c a b i n s , boat houses and w i n t e r snow scenes a l o n g the Harlem and the Hudson R i v e r s . ^ 5 His Boat House Winter Harlem R i v e r i s v e r y l i k e a S u z o r - C o t e . H a v i n g reviewed the main elements of P r e - I m p r e s s i o n i s m and the Impressionism of the major F r e n c h m a s t e r s , the next c h a p t e r w i l l d e a l w i t h the work of Canadian P r e - I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , whose p a i n t i n g formed an important r o o t to Canadian I m p r e s s i o n i s m . CHAPTER I I I One of Canada's e a r l y P r e - I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t e r s was Homer R a n s f o r d Watson, 1855 - 1936, who l i v e d d u r i n g a time when the i n f l u e n c e s of C o n s t a b l e and T u r n e r from E n g l a n d , of the B a r b i z o n s and Impressionism from France and of the Hudson R i v e r School from A m e r i c a , were a l l c o n - t r i b u t i n g to a r t development i n Canada. Watson began by p r a c t i c i n g drawing a t home, c o p y i n g H o g a r t h ' s T r e a t i s e and GustaveDore^ i l l u s t r a t i o n s from D a n t e ' s I n f e r n o . He j o i n e d Notman's P h o t o g r a p h i c S t u d i o i n Toronto where he met s u c c e s s f u l a r t i s t s l i k e John A. F r a s e r , Henry Sandham, L u c i u s J . O ' B r i e n and H e n r i P e r r e . From A r t p e r i o d i c a l s Watson became f a m i l i a r w i t h the work of Thomas C o l e and Asher B. Durand of the Hudson R i v e r S c h o o l . He p a i n t e d as a r o m a n t i c poet p a i n t e r and i t was o n l y i n the l a s t y e a r s of h i s l i f e t h a t he responded to the c o l o r of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . He wrote i n a l e t t e r to A r t h u r L i s m e r , Sept. 30, 1930, "Why c a n ' t a f e l l o w p a i n t away w i t h o u t anyone wanting to know why and how he p a i n t s i n f a c t the why of h i s e x i s t e n c e " . He goes on to s a y , "I grew from these e a r l y drawings i n t o t r y i n g to c o l o r them". H i s debt to drawing, the c l a s s i c a l mastery of l i n e , the p r o d u c t i o n of s e v e r a l hundreds of p e n c i l and pen s k e t c h e s , are a l l based on the then academic approach to p a i n t i n g as seen i n the p a i n t i n g s and p e r i o d i c a l s of t h a t t i m e . "I never thought of c o l o r : my l o v e p r e f e r r e d to take the form of s t r u c t u r e and d e s i g n , a mood of n a t u r e to be l i v e d on canvas, i n f a c t some s t o r y of the elements. M o s t l y gray days and stormy w e a t h e r . " In Coming Storm i n the A d i r o n d a c s , 1879, ( F i g . 1) Watson d e p i c t s A the moods of weather and the c h a r a c t e r of l i g h t and luminous t o n a l q u a l i of changing l i g h t s on sky and w a t e r . These q u a l i t i e s and the s u b j e c t - 34 - - 35 - matter he had seen in the work of George Innes of the Hudson River School, whom he had met in New York, 1876 - 77. Outlines were dissolved in atmosphere and color. Homer Watson's early choice of subject was obviously influenced by early photographs, which gave great detail throughout the whole picture. What he chose to represent in his painting was exactly the picture the early camera reproduced. His colors were correspondingly reduced. "In 1839 the Daguerreotypes were shown at the Chamber of Deputies in Paris. In one, representing the Pont Marie, a l l the minutest indentations and divisions of the ground or the building, the goods lying on the wharf, even the small stones under the water at the edge of the stream and the different degrees of transparancy given to the water were a l l shown with the most incredible accuracy".^ This type of depiction became a part of the photographic realist tradition which affected academic art. Ruisdael was an artist Watson admired. In 1886 Watson painted The Old Mill, (Fig. 2) where there is the sharp delineation of his early work. There in an all-over harmony of a Turner sky, a Barbizon meadow and a turbulent stream and trees. It is a typical landscape near Watson's home. 58 His best known canvas, The Flood Gate, 1900, is the one in which he admits being influenced by Constable. He portrays the "dignity and beauty of Waterloo County in a manner which parallels John Constable's love of Suffolk county". Watson states, "After I saw the 'Lock' of Constable, I said, fHang i t , I will paint a subject Constable would have delighted to paint, and this is my grandfather's Mill Pond', so the Flood Gate came into being. This is a deliberate attempt to get the spirit of Constable into Canada." He states, however, "I was born - 36 - amid the hardwood t r e e s and noted the b e e c h , oak, and elm, as n a t i v e as a j a c k p i n e . " - ^ A l t h o u g h the t r e e s mentioned are found i n E n g l a n d , t h e r e i s a profound d i f f e r e n c e i n o r g a n i z a t i o n and e c o l o g y . A f t e r h i s s o j o u r n i n Europe and England i n 1887, where he saw B a r b i z o n p a i n t i n g s , was taught by w h i s t l e r , and was a c l o s e f r i e n d of S i r George C l a u s e n ; he p a i n t s L o g - C u t t i n g i n the Woods, 1894 ( F i g . 3 ) . Here f o r the f i r s t time an a l l - o v e r d e s i g n i s e v i d e n t . There are s i m i l a r areas of c o l o r i n meadowland, t r e e - t r u n k s and f o l i a g e , and more l i g h t n e s s and l i g h t f i l l e d a r e a s . He s t a t e s t h a t he l o v e d c o l o r but he f e l t t h a t c o l o r d i d not make a p i c t u r e . In the Sand P i t , 1903, we see T u r n e r ' s v i s i o n a r y i m p r e s s i o n s , o f c o l o r , l i g h t and atmosphere, a t t e m p t e d . Here was a complete break w i t h 61 t r a d i t i o n and we f i n d i n h i s l a t e r work The C a b i n i n the L a n e , 1930, and Near T w i l i g h t , ^ 1934, a " l o s i n g and f i n d i n g the l i n e i n l i g h t and a i r " and an e f f o r t to " f o r m u l a t e a new h i g h l y c o l o r e d i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c landscape t e c h n i q u e " . He wanted more time to p a i n t , more time to develop h i s new t h e o r i e s o f p a i n t i n g and c o l o r . He had g i v e n u n i t y and o r d e r to Canadian landscape p a i n t i n g and now l i g h t and c o l o r were to be added. The i n f l u e n c e from France on Canadian p a i n t e r s came through d i v e r s e r o u t e s . H o r a t i o Walker was c a l l e d the Canadian M i l l e t , perhaps because 64 h i s t e a c h e r Wyatt Eaton was a p u p i l of M i l l e t . E a r l y i n 1845 Jean F r a n c o i s M i l l e t was v i s i t i n g a t B o u d i n ' s shop i n Le Havre to buy h i s 6 S s u p p l i e s f o r p a i n t i n g . Constant T r o y o n , another customer of B o u d i n ' s , p a i n t e d landscapes w i t h cows and sheep and H o r a t i o Walker may be c l o s e r to Troyon i n h i s work, than he i s to M i l l e t . Monet, i n a l e t t e r to B o u d i n , says he admires T r o y o n ' s huge canvases of animals yet t h i n k s them a l i t t l e bit too black in the shadows. In Paris, 1861, Troyon asked Boudin to paint the skies for his animal pictures since the demand 6 7 for his canvases was so great he had difficulty keeping up a supply, and Boudin was famous for his sea and sky compositions. In 1873 Duret wrote to Manet, "Boston has some very beautiful Troyons". By 1879 when the fourth Exposition of the "Artistes Independants" was held in Paris the pictures of Millet and Troyon were popular in America. How- ever, the New York dealers informed Durand-Ruel with regard to the French 69 Impressionist works, "These paintings will never be good for our markets". Horatio Walker visited England and France in 1882. In Paris the great Exhibition of the Independants opened on March 1, 1882, and Manet wrote to Berthe Morisot, "I found the whole brilliant crowd of Impressionists at work hanging a great many pictures in an enormous room....Duret, who knows what he is talking about, says that this year's exhibition is the best your group ever had....Pissarro has two or three figures of peasant women in landscapes, vastly superior to Millet in the veracity of drafts- 70 manship and coloration." After eight years of struggle the Impressionists had an exhibition which truly represented their art; Monet, Pissarro, Renoir, Sisley, Berthe Morisot, Gauguin, Caillebotte, Vignon, and Guillaumin a l l were represented. With a l l the controversy in Paris at that time and knowing the keen interest this would arouse in a visitor like Horatio Walker, i t is not surprising that his art appears to be a synthesis of the many forces at work at that time. In 1883 Boston had a Foreign Exhibition of painting where Manet, Monet, Sisley and Boudin were represented.^ It was not until 1886 that Durand-Ruel had his first success in America with Impressionist painting. The American exhibit was prepared - 38 - f o r 1887. Three hundred works were e x h i b i t e d . There were t w e n t y - t h r e e D e g a s ' , f o u r t e e n M a n e t ' s , f o y t r t y - e i g h t M o n e t ' s , f o U r t y - t w o P i s s a r r o 1 s , t h i r t y - e i g h t R e n o i r s , t h r e e S e u r a t ' s , t h i r t e e n S i s l e y ' s , and Boudin, Mary C a s s a t t , C a i l l e b o t t e , G u i l l a u m i n , and Berthe M o r i s o t were r e p r e s e n t e d . In 1887 H o r a t i o Walker belonged to the S o c i e t y of American A r t i s t s , and w i n n i n g the Bronze Medal i n the P a r i s E x p o s i t i o n , 1889, he would be f a m i l i a r w i t h not o n l y the work of Tioyon and M i l l e t but of the I m p r e s s i o n - i s t s as w e l l . L i k e V i n c e n t van Gogh i t may be t h a t H o r a t i o Walker was i n f l u e n c e d by M i l l e t . Van Gogh who made sketches of the miners i n the B o r i n a g e i n 1880 and who made c o p i e s a f t e r M i l l e t ' s peasant l a b o r e r s , wrote to h i s b r o t h e r Theo, " M i l l e t i s the one modern p a i n t e r who opens up a h o r i z o n f o r many". " E a c h a r t i s t has a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c set of c o l o r s , a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t e c h - 72 n i q u e and some remind me o f sounds. M i l l e t i s perhaps a s t a t e l y o r g a n " . When V i n c e n t van Gogh was i n the h o s p i t a l a t S a i n t Remy, Theo sent him l i t h o g r a p h s of M i l l e t . "Now t h a t I am i l l , I l e t the b l a c k and white by M i l l e t pose f o r me as a s u b j e c t . I i m p r o v i s e c o l o r on i t not you understand a l t o g e t h e r m y s e l f but s e a r c h i n g f o r memories of t h e i r p i c t u r e s , but from memory... The vague consonants of c o l o r which are at l e a s t r i g h t i n f e e l i n g , t h a t i s my own i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I d o n ' t l i k e my own p i c t u r e s i n my bedroom so I c o p i e d one by D e l a c r o i x and one by M i l l e t . I have now made seven c o p i e s of M i l l e t ' s l a b o r e r s i n the f i e l d s . I can a s s u r e you t h a t c o p y i n g i n t e r e s t s me i n t e n s e l y and I l e a r n a g r e a t d e a l by i t w i t h o u t l o s i n g the power of drawing f i g u r e s . I want to t e l l you what I look f o r i n t h i s work and why i t seems to me so good to copy. People do expect us p a i n t e r s always to make our own c o m p o s i t i o n s and to be n o t h i n g but composers. In music i t i s not so, and i f somebody p l a y s - 39 - Beethoven he adds to i t h i s own p e r s o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . In music and e s p e c i a l l y i n s i n g i n g , the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the c o m p o s i t i o n means some- t h i n g . I f t h i s were not so, o n l y composers who p l a y t h e i r own works would be worth l i s t e n i n g t o . I p l a c e the works of D e l a c r o i x or M i l l e t b e f o r e my eyes as models and then I i m p r o v i s e o t h e r c o l o r s on top of t h e i r s but n a t u r a l l y i n d o i n g t h i s I am not c o m p l e t e l y m y s e l f but t r y to reproduce memories of t h e i r p i c t u r e s . But memories, the vague echoes o f c o l o r which I have i n my mind, w i t h o u t b o t h e r i n g i f they a r e e x a c t , t h a t i s my i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . A l o t of p e o p l e do not copy, o t h e r s do. I h i t on t h i s method by chance and f i n d i t teaches me t h i n g s and above a l l i t c o n s o l e s me. My brushes r u n so q u i c k l y through my f i n g e r s l i k e the bow on a v i o l i n that I t h o r o u g h l y enjoy i t . Today I have been t r y i n g to i n t e r p r e t 73 the Sheep S h e a r i n g by M i l l e t i n c o l o r s r a n g i n g from l i l a c to y e l l o w . " H o r a t i o Walker a l s o does a sheep s h e a r i n g p i c t u r e . H o r a t i o Walker i s not c a l l e d an I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t e r but many i n - f l u e n c e s of Impressionism are seen i n h i s work. In an e a r l y work, Oxen D r i n k i n g , 1899, ( F i g . 4) we see the v e r t i c a l for^mat and peasant l a b o r e r of a M i l l e t and the luminous atmospheric sky e f f e c t of a Turner but the a p p l i c a t i o n o f p a i n t i s P i s s a r r o . In some p l a c e s the c o l o r i s heavy and g r a y e d , but i n o t h e r p l a c e s a l o n g the backs of the oxen, on the s u r f a c e water i n the t r o u g h , and i n the p o o l s of water on the ground, Walker has used the h a t c h i n g of s m a l l brush s t r o k e s o f pure b l u e - g r e e n and r e d - orange to g i v e l i g h t r e f l e c t i o n s and t h a t i n s t a n t a n e o u s f e e l i n g so d e - 74 l i g h t f u l i n I m p r e s s i o n i s t work. By 1904 i n I c e - C u t t e r s , ( F i g . 7) Walker has caught an i n s t a n t a n e o u s a c t i o n and has s i m p l i f i e d b o t h h i s p a l e t t e and h i s c o m p o s i t i o n . " F i r s t he p r e p a r e s h i s canvas soaking i t i n water and a p p l i e s white l e a d w i t h a - 40 - p a l e t t e k n i f e . . . n o s i z e or g l u e . The water p r e v e n t s the o i l from e n t e r i n g i n t o the l i n e n , and the r e s u l t a n t s u r f a c e i s the f i n e s t ground t h e r e i s . He t e s t s pure c o l o r s and pure c o l o r s mixed w i t h w h i t e , the fewer p a i n t s the b e t t e r . " 7 - ' The b l u e - g r e e n shadows of the i c e , the p u r p l e shadows on the h o r s e ' s f a c e and neck complimented by the r e d - o r a n g e of the b l a n k e t a r e the two c o m p l i m e n t a r i e s he uses i n h i s canvas. P u r p l e and b l u e are a l s o found i n the c l o u d s and i n the shadows of the i c e . W a l k e r ' s i n t e r e s t i n the r e f l e c t i o n s and r e f r a c t i o n s of c o l o r on the snow and i n the i c e and / 76 water i s seen i n the work of Monet, The Break-Up of the I c e New V e t h e u i l , 1880, and was used l a t e r by M a u r i c e C u l l e n i n I c e H a r v e s t , 1906, ( F i g . 40) I t i s o n l y i n the o r i g i n a l canvas t h a t the I m p r e s s i o n i s t q u a l i t i e s of Horses a t the Trough, ( F i g . 6) and Evening l i e d ' O r l e a n s 1909, ( F i g . 5) can be a p p r e c i a t e d . Here a g a i n the under s u r f a c e i s pure w h i t e . The two c o l o r s used a r e chromium ( v i r i d i a n ) g r e e n , the green of our postage stamps and paper money;, and cadmium s c a r l e t . The hatched b r u s h s t r o k e , the p a i n t e r l y q u a l i t y i n the a p p l i c a t i o n of the pigment, the use of pure c o l o r i n many a r e a s , the b l u e and p u r p l e shadows, the unposed o u t - d o o r s e t t i n g , the s i m p l e j o y o f the scene a l l a r e I m p r e s s i o n i s t i n s p i r e d . L i t t l e White P i g s and M o t h e r , 7 7 1911, may be compared to a P i s s a r r o . There i s a h e a v i e r f r e e r e r b r u s h s t r o k e than i n a P i s s a r r o , P i s s a r r o ' s a d v i c e to the p a i n t e r L o u i s Le B a i l might a p p l y to H o r a t i o Walker, "Look f o r the k i n d of n a t u r e t h a t s u i t s your temperament. The m o t i f should be observed more f o r shape and c o l o r than f o r d r a w i n g . . . P r e c i s e drawing i s dry and hampers the i m p r e s s i o n . . . i t i s the b r u s h s t r o k e w i t h the r i g h t v a l u e and c o l o r . . . P a i n t the e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r of t h i n g s , work on e v e r y - t h i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . . . u s e s m a l l b r u s h s t r o k e s and put down your s e n - 7 8 s a t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y . " W a l k e r ' s a l l - o v e r f r e e b r u s h s t r o k e i s r e m i n i s c e n t - 41 - 79 of Lowpath at P o n t o i s e , 1882, by Camile P i s s a r r o which Walker may have seen i n the Durand-Ruel c o l l e c t i o n of t h a t y e a r . Rewald s t a t e s t h a t the B a r b i z o n s i n t e r p r e t e d what they saw, I m p r e s s i o n i s t s l i k e Monet and R e n o i r p a i n t e d pure s e n s a t i o n s . They b o t h adopted a comma-like b r u s h s t r o k e , a brush s t r o k e which p e r m i t t e d them to r e c o r d every nuance they o b s e r v e d . The s u r f a c e s of t h e i r canvases were thus covered w i t h a v i b r a t i n g t i s s u e o f s m a l l dots and s t r o k e s , none of which by i t s e l f d e f i n e d form, y e t a l l of which h e l p e d to c r e a t e not o n l y the p a r t i c u l a r f e a t u r e s of the chosen m o t i f but moreover the sunny a i r which bathed i t and marked t r e e s , g r a s s , houses or water w i t h the s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r of the day. Nature became the d i r e c t source o f pure s e n s a t i o n s and these s e n s a t i o n s c o u l d b e s t be r e p r o d u c e d by the t e c h n i q u e of s m a l l dots and s t r o k e s w h i c h , i n s t e a d of i n s i s t i n g on d e t a i l s , r e t a i n e d the g e n e r a l i m p r e s s i o n i n a l l i t s r i c h n e s s of c o l o r and l i f e . 80 Monet p a i n t s a f i e l d w i t h white Turkeys i n 1880 t h a t has a d e l i g h t - f u l a p l a y of dark and l i g h t i m p r e s s i o n s . Walker a l s o uses t h i s t e x t u r e d 81 s u r f a c e i n h i s w a t e r - c o l o r s k e t c h and o i l p a i n t i n g of White Turkeys . H o r a t i o Walker uses I m p r e s s i o n i s t c o l o r i n a snow scene The F i r s t Snow, ( F i g . 106). L i k e Claude M o n e t ' s Snow E f f e c t a t V e t h e u i l ^ n the L o u v r e ^ W a l k e r ' s p i c t u r e has a rough r u r a l atmosphere. The scene i s a l - most t r a d i t i o n a l but the b r u s h s t r o k e s make the s u r f a c e v i b r a t e as a u n i t e d whole i n a s o f t muted atmosphere o f f r o s t and snow. 82 Walker, i n h i s The Sugar Bush, 1922, shows a m a s t e r f u l a l l - o v e r p a t t e r n of wide b r u s h s t r o k e s of pure c o l o r put on w i t h the sure d e f t s k i l l of a master. Steam r i s e s from the c a u l d r o n , l i g h t f i l t e r s through the t r e e s on the snow, and e v e r y t h i n g i s reduced to an a l t e r n a t i n g p a t t e r n o f l i g h t and dark. - 42 - M a u r i c e C u l l e n by t h i s time was d o i n g Canadian snow scenes i n the manner o f the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s and the t r e e s i n W a l k e r ' s The Sugar Bush, a r e s i m i l a r to C u l l e n ' s Winter Near M o n t r e a l , ( F i g . 3 3 ) . An American c r i t i c s t a t e s t h a t Walker o u t - B a r b i z o n e d the B a r b i z o n s by e x a g g e r a t i n g the c o n t r a s t s of l i g h t and shade. H i s s y n t h e s i s of B a r b i z o n 83 and Impressionism gave h i s work i t s a p p e a l i n g b e a u t y . The R o y a l M a i l over the Ice B r i d g e , ^ 1914, has a r i c h c o l o r and the unusual e f f e c t s of l i g h t a £ e a g a i n a m i x t u r e of T u r n e r ' s luminism and the l i g h t of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . James M. B a r n s l e y , 1861 - 1929, i s the o u t s t a n d i n g marine p a i n t e r among Canadian a r t i s t s . J . B a r r y L o r d p l a c e s him between the B a r b i z o n p a i n t e r , H o r a t i o Walker, and the I m p r e s s i o n i s t M a u r i c e C u l l e n . A c a r e f u l study of h i s p a i n t i n g s show, as i n the work of Winslow Homer, many c o n t r a d i c t o r y t e n d e n c i e s . " T h e b o l d d i r e c t n e s s of h i s b r u s h work equals that o f the Munich S c h o o l , the s i m p l e b r e a d t h of h i s c o m p o s i t i o n s r i v a l s t h a t of the B a r b i z o n p a i n t e r s , and h i s c l a r i t y o f v i s u a l a n a l y s i s matches t h a t of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s " . ^ C l o s e examination of h i s canvases show 8( j u x t a p o s e d areas of pure c o l o r . The B a r b i z o n p a i n t i n g R i v e r Bank, F r a n c e 1886, i s the t r a d i t i o n a l a e r i a l p e r s p e c t i v e of C o r o t , the c a r e f u l d e t a i l i n the type of t r e e s ; w h i l e i n Study f o r L a Jete'e du P o l l e t , Dieppe, 1884, ( F i g . 8 ) , we see the l i g h t r e f l e c t i o n s from the sky on the w a t e r , i n broad d i r e c t s t r o k e s of c o l o r , the b r i g h t b l u e shadow a l o n g the quai and the orange l o g ends a g a i n s t the heavy b l u e b r u s h s t r o k e s of the walk, s u g g e s t i n g the i n f l u e n c e of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . •This canvas b r i n g s to mind the The Harbor of L o r i e n t , 1869, t h a t Manet p a r t i c u l a r l y admired and which Berthe M o r i s o t had j u s t p a i n t e d i n L o r i e n t . I t r e p r e s e n t s h e r s i s t e r Edma a g a i n s t a view o f the h a r b o r , - 43 - " a work o f e x q u i s i t e f r e s h n e s s and s u b t l e harmonies i n which she had t r i e d what B a z i l l e had attempted i n h i s S a l o n p i c t u r e , to reproduce a f i g u r e i n " p l e i n a i r " . ^ B e g i n n i n g h i s s t u d i e s under H a l s e y C. I v e s , James B a r n s l e y l e a r n e d to draw and model f i g u r e s . H i s i n t e r e s t i n Landscape may be a t t r i b u t e d to h i s t e a c h e r Joseph Meeker who p a i n t e d the bayous of the lower M i s s i s s i p p i . These landscape scenes B a r n s l e y c o u l d p a i n t near h i s home i n M i s s o u r i , and i n O n t a r i o and M o n t r e a l where he v i s i t e d . He s k e t c h e d Marine p a i n t i n g s , s t u d i e d a Turner w a t e r c o l o r and a Daubigny o i l , but i t was n o t u n t i l 1883 when he was i n P a r i s t h a t he would e x p e r i e n c e a change to o u t - d o o r p a i n t i n g and l i g h t e r e f f e c t s . In h i s On the S e i n e , C o u r b e v o i e , ( F i g . 9) the c a s u a l way the f i g u r e s a r e caught i n m o t i o n , the s u g g e s t i v e treatment of the t r e e s , the a n g l e a l o n g the r i v e r bank, remind one of a Degas. J . B a r r y L o r d i n h i s I n t r o d u c t i o n to the J . M . B a r n s l e y c a t a l o g u e , 1964- 1965, s t a t e s t h a t " T h e r e i s no documentary evidence t h a t B a r n s l e y knew E u g \ n e - L o u i s Boudin 1824 - 1 8 9 8 . . . A number of drawings i n The N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y Scrapbook demonstrate that the s i m i l a r i t y of h i s marines to the famous F r e n c h sea p a i n t e r i s more than c o i n c i d e n t a l . Durand-Ruel p r e s e n t e d the f i r s t comprehensive Boudin e x h i b i t i o n to P a r i s i n 1833, and he was r e p r e s e n t e d i n every S a l o n i n which B a r n s l e y f i g u r e d . Indeed L ' E n t r e e du O Q P o r t a Dieppe , 1886, may w e l l have been d i r e c t l y i n s p i r e d by B o u d i n ' s L ' E n t r e e , ( S a l o n 1 8 8 3 ) . " 8 9 We can say t h e r e i s a s i m i l a r l i g h t n e s s and elegance and a l o v e of the s i m p l e b e a u t i e s of n a t u r e . "The S a i n t - S i m e o n farm s i t u a t e d on a c l i f f a l i t t l e above H o n f l e u r was famous among a r t i s t s a l o n g the c o a s t . The r u r a l Inn and the Seine e s t u a r y had been c a l l e d the " B a r b i z o n of Normandy". D i a z , 90 T r o y o n , C a l s , Daubigny and Corot a l l p a i n t e d t h e r e . " .- 44 - Eugene Boudin was the p a i n t e r of seascapes at L e Havre t h a t Monet a t 91 f i r s t thought " d i s g u s t i n g " , but i t was Boudin who came to Monet and t o l d him, " S t u d y , l e a r n to see and to p a i n t , draw, make l a n d s c a p e s . The sea and the sky, the a n i m a l s , the p e o p l e , the t r e e s are so b e a u t i f u l , j u s t as n a t u r e made them, w i t h t h e i r c h a r a c t e r , t h e i r genuineness, i n the l i g h t , 92 i n the a i r , j u s t as they a r e . " Monet admired Boudin and l e a r n e d from the m a s t e r . " E v e r y t h i n g t h a t i s p a i n t e d d i r e c t l y on the spot has always a s t r e n g t h , a power, a v i v i d n e s s of touch t h a t one d o e s n ' t f i n d a g a i n i n the s t u d i o . . . r e t a i n o n e ' s f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n , which i s the good o n e . . . i t i s 9 3 not one p a r t which s h o u l d s t r i k e one i n a p i c t u r e but indeed the w h o l e " . J At t h i s time B a r n s l e y was s t u d y i n g and p a i n t i n g near P a r i s . Courbet was a d m i r i n g B o u d i n ' s s k i e s and h i s f i s h i n g b o a t s . V i c t o r Hugo had pub- l i s h e d h i s e p i c and romantic volume of poems, La legende des S i e c l e s , which were a t t a c k e d and Hugo's name was coupled w i t h t h a t of D e l a c r o i x as b e i n g " d e v o t e d to the c u l t o f i m a g i n a t i o n and c o l o r , s a c r i f i c i n g e v e r y t h i n g to the e f f e c t . " 9 4 What was s a i d o f Monet p o s s i b l y by A s t r u c under the pseudonym P i g a l l e i n L ' A u t o g r a p h e au S a l o n , w i l l a p p l y e q u a l l y w e l l to B a r n s l e y ' s p a i n t i n g of Le J e t e e du P o l l e t Dieppe, 1884, ( F i g . 10). Speaking o f Monet's The Seine 9 5 E s t u a r y a t H o n f l e u r , 1865, A s t r u c s a y s , "Monet i s the a u t h o r o f a seascape the most o r i g i n a l and s u p p l e , the most s t r o n g l y and h a r m o n i o u s l y p a i n t e d . . . what r i c h n e s s , what s i m p l i c i t y of v i e w . . . t h e t a s t e f o r harmonious schemes of c o l o r i n the p l a y of analogous t o n e s , the f e e l i n g f o r v a l u e s , the 96 s t r i k i n g p o i n t o f v i e w . . . t h i s s i n c e r e marine p a i n t e r " . The o b l i q u e a n g l e of a Degas, the l i g h t - f i l l e d canvas and the broad c l e a r brush s t r o k e s of pure c o l o r i n the w a t e r , the b l u e shadows a l o n g the q u a i and the b l u e and s e p i a y e l l o w c o l o r s were used and developed by the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s to make - 45 - t h e i r l i g h t - f i l l e d canvases. 97 Daubigney's canvas The F e r r y , 1860, which w i l l be d i s c u s s e d more f u l l y i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h Maurice C u l l e n ' s work, may be compared w i t h B a r n s l e y ' s F r e n c h Paddle Steamer, 1888, ( F i g . 11). The same f e r r y , the same h i g h t i d e , the same smoke e f f e c t s and clouded sky, but Daubigny has used a h e a v i e r b r u s h s t r o k e on a more two d i m e n s i o n a l canvas and has used some s t r o k e s of pure c o l o r . B a r n s l e y has a l i g h t f i l l e d canvas which would be sketched out o f d o o r s . The movement of w a t e r , boat and c l o u d s , and the l i g h t r e f l e c t i o n s from the w a t e r , w h i l e s t i l l academic, remind one of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . T h i s l a t e r work shows a much more f l o w i n g b r u s h s t r o k e than h i s e a r l i e r work, and has t h a t c l e a r f r e s h o u t - d o o r f e e l i n g t h a t i s l i g h t e r than t h a t of h i s contemporary F r e n c h p a i n t e r s . In High T i d e a t Dieppe, 1886, ( F i g . 12) we see a f i n i s h e d work f o r which t h e r e a r e numerous s k e t c h e s . B a r n s l e y was a b l e to c a p t u r e the s i g h t s of the h a r b o r . The grayed s a i l s on the b l a c k and orange h u l l of the boat a t anchor stand out a g a i n s t the b l u e of the sky and the w a t e r . The s i n g l e s i m p l e tones of the f i g u r e s d e p i c t t y p i c a l genre f i s h e r women. R e f l e c t i o n s from the p o o l s of water on t h e . q u a i and the smoke from the steam boat suggest the weather c o n d i t i o n s o f the day. I t i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y b r i g h t and l i g h t B a r b i z o n h a r b o r s c e n e . In The L a s t Rays, 1887, ( F i g . 13) we see h i s s u b t l e h a n d l i n g of many tones o f green. H i s v e r y r e s t r i c t e d p a l e t t e was the mark of the e a r l y I m p r e s s i o n i s t . I t i s n e c e s s a r y to l o o k c a r e f u l l y a t the development i n the work o f an a r t i s t t e a c h e r l i k e W i l l i a m Brymner to a p p r e c i a t e one of the many i n f l u e n c e s of Impressionism on Canadian a r t . W i l l i a m Brymner i s a f a c i l e p a i n t e r who, i n h i s e a r l y work;, conforms to the academic f o r m u l a taught by h i s t e a c h e r s Bouguereau and R o b e r t - F l e u r y - 46 - at the Atelier Julian in Paris where he studied from 1878 to 1885. He also shows the influence of other schools of painting and of Impressionism which over the years made its impact on his work and which he was able to pass on to his students. "In the same province, painting at the same time, and helping to develop a Canadian school of painting, were William Brymner, Suzor-Cote, James Wilson Morrice, G. Horne Russell, Maurice Cullen and 98 later Clarence Gagnon". The Art Gallery of Toronto Catalogue of October, 1949, "50 Years of Painting in Canada" states: "1900 - 1912 - The New Century opened with the Royal Canadian Academy of Art and the Ontario Society of Artists firmly established in the minds of student and public alike, as the founts of knowledge in Canada. Both had organized schools, and both were ex- hibiting societies. Most of the leading painters, especially the more senior, represented the British tradition, but this tradition had been touched by developments in Holland and France, which also had their ex- ponents here. Within a short time a few Canadian students returning from abroad brought with them, whether consciously or not, the direct impact of Impressionism (already thirty years old), introducing this third factor on the scene. Art magazines with their new facilities for color reproduction began to play their part at the turn of the century, and along with exhibitions have tended to lessen the time lag between originating and receptive centers like Paris and Toronto respectively." Robert Pilot states "I remember that in 1912 he gave me sixty copies 99 of the Studio magazine to study from. A great boon to me". A visit with Miss Grace Brymner of Lawrence Avenue East, Toronto, a niece of William Brymner, was most rewarding. Many of Brymner's paintings, - 47 - c a t a l o g u e s , l e t t e r s , medals and awards a r e i n her p o s s e s s i o n . M i s s Brymner has f a m i l y p i c t u r e s p a i n t e d by Brymner of her g r a n d f a t h e r , Doug'las Brymner, 1886, ( F i g . 14) her f a t h e r Robert Brymner, 1890, ( F i g . 15) a t age 15, and a c a s t of W i l l i a m Brymner ( F i g . 16) from the o r i g i n a l bronze e x h i b i t e d i n Ottawa 1918, and done by the s c u l p t o r George W. H i l l . H i l l s t u d i e d i n P a r i s , was made ARCA i n 1905, RCA i n 1915 and was the S c u l p t o r f o r the D ' A r c y McGee monument, Ottawa, and the South A f r i c a n War M e m o r i a l , Dominion Square, M o n t r e a l , 1908. The Robert Brymners were bankers i n New Westminster, B.C., and t h e i r f i n e o l d home i s now the M e l r o s e Park P r i v a t e H o s p i t a l o v e r l o o k i n g the F r a s e r R i v e r . Miss Brymner's f a t h e r was twenty y e a r s younger than h i s b r o t h e r W i l l i a m , and one of the f a m i l y p a i n t i n g s i s of Robert Brymner, then e l e v e n y e a r s o l d , i n the f a m i l y boat a t B a i e S t . P a u l near M o n t r e a l , p a i n t e d i n 1886 ( F i g . 1 7 ) . Brymner's Sad Memories, ( F i g . 18) about 1885, i s a genre p i c t u r e of the f a m i l y housekeeper i n F r a n c e , now i n the c o l l e c t i o n of Miss Grace Brymner. I t r e p r e s e n t s an e a r l y i n t e r e s t i n s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y Dutch p i c t u r e s where the i n t e r i o r view l i t by a window, shows an i n t e r e s t i n r e a l i s t i c s p a c e - c r e a t i n g d e t a i l . Brymner's f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y work i s a l s o r e f l e c t e d i n the p i c t u r e of h i s b r o t h e r Robert where the name of the a r t i s t , the name of the s i t t e r , and the date a r e a l l w r i t t e n i n L a t i n c a p i t a l l e t t e r s around the edges o f the canvas l i k e an e a r l y H o l b e i n . In 1886 under the a u s p i c e s of the R o y a l Canadian Academy, an e x - h i b i t i o n of Canadian p a i n t i n g was sent to the C o l o n i a l and I n d i a n E x - h i b i t i o n a t South K e n s i n g t o n , London. Brymner's E a r l y Moonrise i n September, 1886, ( F i g . 19) was e x h i b i t e d . T h i s was the f i r s t a l l - Canadian e x h i b i t i o n to be sent out of Canada and the e x h i b i t was shown - 48 - i n Ottawa b e f o r e b e i n g sent to London. The London c r i t i c s were generous w i t h t h e i r p r a i s e . L o r d Lansdowne was i n t e r e s t e d i n the Canadian e x h i b i t and asked Mr. J . E . Hodgson, R.A. p r o f e s s o r o f p a i n t i n g a t the R o y a l Academy to comment. "Hodgson p r e d i c t e d great t h i n g s f o r p a i n t e r s l i k e B e l l - S m i t h , Paul P e e l , Homer Watson, Wickson, Brymner, H a r r i s , Fowler and o t h e r s ; but h i s v i e w p o i n t was one of a m i d - V i c t o r i a n E n g l i s h c r i t i c and he was a g a i n s t the i n f l u e n c e of the F r e n c h I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , of which he d e t e c t e d some s l i g h t s i g n s i n the E x h i b i t i o n " . A r t i s t s were l e a v i n g out a l l d e t a i l and a v o i d i n g some p a r t s a l t o g e t h e r . In the c l o s i n g remarks of h i s r e p o r t , Hodgson s t a t e s , "I would l i k e to see Canadian A r t Canadian to the b a c k - 100 bone; a t h i n g developed by n a t u r e i n a s p e c i a l s o i l and c l i m a t e " . However, new i n f l u e n c e s were a t work i n Canadian P a i n t i n g and from then on a " g r e a t f o r m a t i v e p e r i o d of Canadian p a i n t i n g " had begun. W i l l i a m Brymner who was d i r e c t o r of the c l a s s e s f o r the A r t A s s o c i a t i o n of M o n t r e a l f o r t h i r t y f i v e y e a r s , was to i n f l u e n c e t h i s development and l i k e the g r e a t F r e n c h t e a c h e r , Gustave Moreau, who, when he found h i m s e l f i n c o n t a c t w i t h young s t u d e n t s , devoted h i m s e l f to the task of t e a c h i n g w i t h wisdom and h e a r t f e l t warmth. He developed the i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of each p u p i l and though c o n s c i o u s l y o l d - f a s h i o n e d , urged h i s p u p i l s to experiment and be modern, to be i n t e r e s t e d i n c o l o r , to l e a v e the s t u d i o and to p a i n t o u t - o f - d o o r s . ' ^ ' ' " Brymner i n Champ de Mars W i n t e r , 1892, ( F i g . 20) shows a f a s c i n a t i n g I m p r e s s i o n i s t s t y l e w i t h f i g u r e s c r o s s i n g an expanse of i c e and snow w i t h the town i n t h e background. There are o v e r l a p p i n g planes of l i g h t and dark a r e a s . The dark b l u e shadow f o r e g r o u n d , c o n t r a s t s w i t h the s u n l i t path i n the m i d d l e ground. I t i s l i k e a Monet snow scene a t - 49 - L o u v e c i e n n e s , w i t h f i g u r e s , houses, p o p l a r t r e e s and luminous sky e f f e c t s . The d a t e , 1892, marks t h i s work an e a r l y Canadian snow s c e n e , i n f l u e n c e d by the F r e n c h I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . Snow scenes were t y p i c a l l y I m p r e s s i o n i s t s u b j e c t s because they a f f o r d e d the o p p o r t u n i t y to show s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t s of l i g h t r e f l e c t e d from the snow. Brymner\s landscape E a r l y Moonrise i n September, 1899, ( F i g . 21) i n the N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y , Ottawa, i s a l a t e r p i c t u r e of h i s 1886 t r a d i t i o n a l io: B a r b i z o n p a s t o r a l s c e n e . Compared w i t h C a m i l l e C o r o t ' s The Gust of Wind, i n the G. Renand C o l l e c t i o n , P a r i s , we see the same wind-swept t r e e s , and the same a l l - o v e r haze o b s c u r i n g d e t a i l . Corot had t o l d P i s s a r r o to e s t a b l i s h h i s l i g h t e s t t o n e , then h i s d a r k e s t tone and to grade between the two w i t h two o r t h r e e r e l a t e d h u e s . I n t h i s p i c t u r e Brymner a l s o uses a r e s t r i c t e d p a l e t t e . Brymner was i n P a r i s from 1875 to 1885 and would no doubt meet the a r t i s t Theodore Robinson, 1852 - 1896, who was a l i n k between F r e n c h and American I m p r e s s i o n i s m . Robinson was b o r n i n Vermont and went to F r a n c e i n 1876 to study p a i n t i n g . In 1886, a t the age of t h i r t y - f o u r , he met 103 Claude Monet a t G i v e r n y . Robinson then adopted the new t e c h n i q u e of u s i n g h i g h - k e y e d , broken c o l o r to convey the shimmer of l i g h t and the 104 c o o l tones of shadows. In h i s W i l l o w s , 1891, we see the i n f o r m a l f l a t p a t t e r n e d c o m p o s i t i o n and c o l o r r e n d e r i n g of I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g . I t i s more than c o i n c i d e n t a l t h a t Brymner p a i n t e d h i s f i r s t p i c t u r e E a r l y M o o n r i s e , 1886, l i k e R o b i n s o n ' s W i l l o w s . Brymner had j u s t won the I n t e r n a t i o n a l J u r y of Awards S i l v e r M e d a l , at S t . L o u i s , f o r h i s Bord de F o r e t , 1889. He a g a i n p a i n t s E a r l y Moonrise i n September, u s i n g l i g h t e r c o l o r s , more b l u e i n the shadows and a l i g h t e r brush s t r o k e . In 1891 Robinson a l s o p a i n t s an I m p r e s s i o n i s t i c p i c t u r e S p r i n g a t G i v e r n y . - 50 - Mary C a s s a t t who j o i n e d the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s a t Degas' i n v i t a t i o n employs sharp drawing and a D e g a s - l i k e c o m p o s i t i o n . In her Young Woman Sewing}1"^ 1886, she uses the Japanese i n f l u e n c e of a d i a g o n a l background. Blue and y e l l o w d e p i c t the w h i t e dress as R e n o i r would have done. Brymner's Woman Sewing r e l a t e s to t h i s theme. The Woman Sewing, 1900, ( F i g . 22) i n the M o n t r e a l Museum o f F i n e A r t s , i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of an advance i n t e c h n i q u e from Brymner's e a r l y work, to a f r e e r brush s t r o k e and to d i v i d e d c o l o r . T h i s I m p r e s s i o n i s t s u b j e c t i s p a i n t e d i n d o o r s . The areas are s i m p l i f i e d . The f i l m y c u r t a i n s a r e o f d e l i c a t e b l u e and y e l l o w c o l o r s . T h i s g i v e s l i g h t and movement to the a r e a w h i l e dappled r e f l e c t i o n s from the window f a l l a c r o s s the s h o u l d e r s and the needlework of the woman. Complementing the b l u e o f the s k i r t i s the orange c o v e r l e t , and the deep shadows o f p u r p l e , and p u r p l e p a t t e r n s on the f l o o r , c o n t r a s t s t r o n g l y w i t h the y e l l o w l i g h t of the window. F o l l o w i n g the l e a d of V e l a s q u e z , R e n o i r p a i n t e d two canvases of women 106 sewing. Mary C a s s a t t ' s canvas The B a t h , 1891, has a s i m i l a r f l o o r p a t t e r n but shows a s t r o n g l i n e a r q u a l i t y . W i l l i a m Brymner p a i n t e d C a r i t a , 1910, ( F i g . 24) i n the Spanish s t y l e . He had s t u d i e d w i t h C a r o l u s - D u r a n i n P a r i s from 1878 to 1886. John S i n g e r S a r g e n t , l i k e W h i s t l e r b e f o r e him, was a l s o a student o f C a r o l u s - D u r a n from 1874 to 1879. Duran was a f r i e n d of Manet and an exponent o f the Spanish s t y l e . He a l s o urged h i s students to go out and study n a t u r e i n the f i e l d s . A f t e r 1879 Sargent p a i n t e d a number of s p i r i t e d c o p i e s a f t e r S p a n i s h masters and i t i s t h e r e f o r e not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t Brymner, as a c l a s s mate of Sargent i n P a r i s , should a l s o p a i n t a Spanish type p i c t u r e . L a t e r , i n 1910, Brymner p a i n t e d The Vaughan S i s t e r s ( F i g . 2 3 ) . Here the background t e c h n i q u e reminds one of F a n t i n L a t o u r , where an orange has - 51 - been o v e r p a i n t e d w i t h a b l u e wash. The f l o w e r vase i s a Japanese touch r e m i n i s c e n t o f w h i s t l e r . The pose i s s i m i l a r to the one i n John S i n g e r S a r g e n t ' s The Wyndham S i s t e r y 1 0 ^ , 1900. Sargent and Monet o f t e n p a i n t e d t o g e t h e r i n Monet's garden a t G i v e r n y . In 1889 Sargent d e p i c t e d Monet 108 p a i n t i n g i n h i s garden, and i t may be t h a t t h e r e was a mutual i n f l u e n c e d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d . The d e l i c a t e p a l e b l u e and p i n k d r e s s e s a r e v e r y near I m p r e s s i o n i s m . The b l a c k bows i n the orange h a i r , the r e n d e r i n g of the p i n k blossoms a d j a c e n t to the d e l i c a t e i c e - b l u e of the gown a r e r e m i n i s c e n t 109 110 of Auguste R e n o i r ' s La Loge, 1874, and G l a c k e n ' s Chez Mouquin, 1905. In 1915 Brymner p a i n t e d h i s R e c l i n i n g Nude ( F i g . 25). I t was e x h i b i t e d i n the t h i r t y - s e v e n t h Annual E x h i b i t i o n o f the Royal Canadian Academy i n 111 M o n t r e a l . The c r i t i c s found t h a t "sound c r a f t s m a n s h i p was w e l l e x e m p l i f i e d " . T h i s e x h i b i t i o n had pure landscapes as a theme and i n c o n t r a s t to the academic work of Brymner we f i n d The Y e l l o w Tree by J.W. B e a t t y ; Maples E a r l y S p r i n g , by A . Y . J a c k s o n ; S o l i t u d e ( p a s t e l ) , North R i v e r ( p a s t e l ) , M o n t r e a l Harbour ( o i l ) , by Maurice C u l l e n ; and M e l o d i e s and Golden Glow by A. Suzor-Co'te which w i l l be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r . By 1915 the c r i t i c s noted t h a t "The l a s t two or t h r e e years have a f f o r d e d v e r y c o n c l u s i v e evidence of p r o g r e s s i n the e v o l u t i o n o f Canadian a r t toward the a t t a i n m e n t o f a p o s i t i o n of g r e a t e r independence and s e l f 113 c o n f i d e n c e " . Robert P i l o t says o f Brymner, " H i s s t u d i o on B l e u r y S t r e e t , M o n t r e a l , was l i n e d w i t h books. He was an o m n i f a r i o u s r e a d e r and a g r e a t s t u d e n t . In the summer of 1919 I spent s e v e r a l months p a i n t i n g a t S t . Eustache and l i v e d i n the s m a l l s t u d i o t h a t C u l l e n and Brymner had b u i l t t h e r e many y e a r s b e f o r e . S e v e r a l years l a t e r , due to h i s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h C u l l e n and the f a c t t h a t they p a i n t e d t o g e t h e r i n the c o u n t r y s i d e so o f t e n , he changed h i s v i s i o n of the o u t - o f - d o o r s f o l l o w i n g C u l l e n ' s ' p l e i n a i r ' - 52 - painting. On his retirement the class presented him with the complete works of George Borrow. This gave him great pleasure and he often discuss- ed the merits and color of "Lavengro", "Romany Rye", and "The Bible in 114 Spain". There is a great development in Brymner's style from the early Barbizon work to his later facile lyric qualities. Throughout his career he allowed his students to follow wherever their inclinations led them and his later use of Impressionist techniques led many of his students - Mable May, Frederick Hutchison, William Clapp, Randolph Hewton, Prudence Heward, Ozias Leduc, and others, to Impressionism. CHAPTER IV Maurice G a l b r a i t h C u l l e n was born a t S t . J o h n ' s , Newfoundland i n 1866. In 1870 h i s f a m i l y moved to M o n t r e a l . At the age of f o u r t e e n he was a p p r e n t i c e d to the f i r m o f G a u l t B r o t h e r s to l e a r n Commerce, but at some time between 1884 and 1888 he began n i g h t c l a s s e s w i t h the Abbe Joseph C h a l b e r t ' s N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e of The F i n e A r t s and S c i e n c e s , t a k i n g d e s i g n , e s t h e t i c s , and t e c h n i q u e . A f t e r f o u r years w i t h G a u l t , C u l l e n s a i d , "No, 115 I was not b o r n f o r a commercial c a r e e r . " He then l e f t h i s job and devoted h i m s e l f e n t i r e l y to s c u l p t u r e . C h a l b e r t ' s I n s t i t u t e was p a t t e r n e d a f t e r the Sorbonne i n P a r i s . He had brought back from Europe a r a r e and v e r y complete c o l l e c t i o n o f p l a s t e r c a s t s , which s e r v e d to t e a c h h i s p u p i l s from A n t i q u e models. In 1886 C u l l e n e n r o l l e d i n the s c h o o l of the s c u l p t o r P h i l i p p e Hebert, where he s t u d i e d f o r t h r e e y e a r s . He h e l p e d Hubert c a r v e the s t a t u e s on the r o o f o f S t . James' C a t h e d r a l . These s t a t u e s were c a r v e d i n wood and encased i n c o p p e r . In the meantime h i s mother d i e d l e a v i n g him p r o p e r t y v a l u e d a t two thousand d o l l a r s which he s o l d . The money enabled him to go to Europe to c o n t i n u e h i s s t u d i e s and he a r r i v e d i n P a r i s about 1889, accompanied by h i s Uncle Dr. Ward. There he s t u d i e d a t the s t u d i o of Gerome f o r a s h o r t w h i l e , a t the Academy of F i n e A r t s , and a t the C o l a r o s s i A t e l i e r under the d i r e c t i o n o f C o u r t o i s and R i x e n . On f i r s t a r r i v i n g i n P a r i s , C u l l e n met F r i t z Thalow, a Norwegian a r t i s t , who persuaded him to study p a i n t i n g . His f i r s t i n s t r u c t o r s were Delaunay and L a t o u c h e . £ s i n t e r e s t i n g to note t h a t around 1870 the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s s o l d t h e i r work through Latouche who had a s m a l l shop a t the c o r n e r of the Rue L a f i t t e . Latouche showed w i t h the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s 118 i n 1874 a t N a d a r ' s and i t was a t t h i s E x h i b i t i o n t h a t L o u i s L e r o y - 53 - - 54 - named the movement Impressionism because of Monet's canvas I m p r e s s i o n , S u n r i s e . The p o s s i b i l i t i e s of c o l o r f a s c i n a t e d C u l l e n . F r e n c h a r t was i n a c o l o r f u l epoch, so he began p a i n t i n g f u l l time l a t e i n 1890. He r e - turned to the Beaux A r t s Academy and r e j o i n e d h i s Canadian c o m p a t r i o t s G i l l , Lamarche, Alphonse J o n g e r s , Ludger L a r o s e , F r a n c h ^ r e , Joseph S t . C h a r l e s , and D u b i . In P a r i s the work of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s had a marked a p p e a l f o r C u l l e n , e s p e c i a l l y the s t u d y o f atmospheric e f f e c t s . He took i n s t r u c t i o n from Emile Delaunay, the C l a s s i c a l p a i n t e r , who had won the P r i x de Rome and who was a member of the I n s t i t u t e . James W i l s o n M o r r i c e and Maurice C u l l e n became f r i e n d s , and both saw H a r p i g n i e s f o r c o r r e c t i o n s each week. They a l s o v a c a t i o n e d t o g e t h e r on the B r e t o n c o a s t 1894. Another a s s o c i a t e of C u l l e n was P h i l i p p e R o l l , a well-know p a s t e l l i s t , who taught C u l l e n the p a s t e l t e c h n i q u e . In 1895 C u l l e n was e l e c t e d an a s s o c i a t e of the N a t i o n a l S o c i e t y of F i n e A r t s . In 1896 he became a f u l l member w i t h Fromuth and M a t i s s e . Among the e a r l i e s t works o f M a u r i c e C u l l e n i n Canada i s The M i l l Stream a t M o r e t , 1894, ( F i g . 2 6 ) . T h i s p i c t u r e was p a i n t e d i n the v i c i n i t y of S i s l e y ' s home, and i s done i n S i s l e y ' s s t y l e . There a r e broken tones of w h i t e , b l u e , and p i n k , to be found i n the water and i n the s k y . The m i s t y sky e f f e c t s a r e v e r y r e m i n i s c e n t of C o n s t a b l e ' s and T u r n e r ' s e f f e c t s , and 119 i t must be remembered that b o t h S i s l e y and C u l l e n were admirers of the e a r l i e r E n g l i s h a r t i s t s ' luminous e f f e c t s . Moret i n Summer, ( F i g . 27) and M o r e t , W i n t e r , ( F i g . 28) of about 1895, when compared w i t h the R e n o i r c a l l e d La S e i n e a Chatou, ( F i g . 29)shows a s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t y of c o m p o s i t i o n , h a n d l i n g of l i g h t and pigment, and g e n e r a l I m p r e s s i o n i s t theme. Both o f these C u l l e n s were done i n h i s f i r s t - 55 - trip to Europe and the proximity of Sisley1s and Pissarro's homes, where these subjects were painted, may suggest some very close connection between the Impressionist masters and the work of Maurice Cullen. However, Cullen's work shows a more conservative regard for natural appearances. The treatment of the foreground foliage in Cullen's work is so close to the same parallel strokes and deft application of colors found in Sisley's and Renoir's works, that the similarity is intriguing. Sisley's lyrical interpretation is also found in the work of Pissarro. His limited palette with green, yellow, and blue, a l l with much white added, is adopted in Cullen's early work both in France and in Canada. In 1895 Cullen returned to Canada. He was working for the winter of 1895 - 1896 with J.W. Morrice of Beaupre where he painted Logging in Winter Beaupre (Fig. 31). In the summer of 1896 Cullen and Morrice went to Venice. They spent the winter of 1896 - 1897 in Algiers, and then travelled to Giverny, Le Pouldu, and the Breton coast. Cullen's f u l l Impressionist expression is seen in Environs of Paris, 1895, (Fig. 30). The heavy impasto type of painting with a palette re- duced to blue, yellow and green has the Impressionist technique. It is very close to works done by Pissarro and Sisley, and the addition of black with green, suggests Chevreul as a source for this color scheme. Cezanne and Pissarro were both using black with green in their Impression- ist works dating after their stay together at Pontoise in 1877. Chevreul's theories, which were so important in establishing Seurat's scientific application of Impressionist color, had a renewed influence there- after on continuing Impressionists. Chevreul's book on The Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Colors, although written about 1839 was not widely known until its first f u l l scale publication in 1875. The "Art Nouveau" - 56 - sinuous curve of the pathway, used as a gracefully decorative feature to lead the eye into the picture depth, was beginning to be noticed in French art at that time. Cullen's first painting done on his return to Canada Logging in Winter Beaupre, 1896, (Fig. 31) retains its Impressionist inspiration and uses black in conjunction with green. In this canvas Cullen turns his attent- ion to a Canadian subject while keeping the reduced Impressionist palette he adopted in France of blue and yellow with green, and much white. The snow has blue shadows beneath the trees, and sunlight breaks through the branches to show up in white patches in the snow, or as bright yellow spots on the tree trunks. The effect is a very luminous one where the composition is composed with three overlapping planes of foreground h i l l , distant h i l l , and back-drop of sky. The effect of light in this canvas is indicative of Cullen's association with Impressionist painters in France. There is a thorough and completely new departure from previous Barbizon influences seen in Canada to a newer lighter way of painting. Robert Pilot in his address to the Arts Club of Montreal in 1937 states that "when Cullen first showed these snow pictures he was con- sidered a radical, 'Blue Snow forsoothe'. 1 Snow painting then, with Kipling's 'Lady of the Snow', was looked at askance as bad for immigra- t i o n . " 1 2 0 Another remarkable early picture also from the Hamilton Art Gallery collection and dated 1896, carries the Impressionist title Winter Sunlight Beaupre, (Fig. 32*4) This is a panoramic vista, looking across fields and river to distant h i l l s . The progression of horizontal planes from the foreground done in blue shadow, to the bright white snow in the middle plane, to another blue river plane, then to dark banks and purple h i l l s - 57 - i n the d i s t a n c e ; i s covered by an o v e r c a s t d u l l b l u e s k y . A s m a l l u n - dated s k e t c h i n o i l on c a r d b o a r d c a l l e d Winter near M o n t r e a l ( f i g . 33) i s v e r y s i m i l a r i n c o l o r , c o m p o s i t i o n and h a n d l i n g to the works Logging i n Winter Beaupre, ( F i g . 31) and Winter S u n l i g h t Beaupre, ( F i g . 3 2 ) . C u l l e n t r a v e l e d from P a r i s to G i v e r n y , M o r e t , Pont Aven, Venice and A l g i e r s . He had a s t u d i o i n P a r i s and i n Pont Aven. He was a f r i e n d of Fromuth i n Concarneau and a c l o s e f r i e n d o f A l b e r t . These t h r e e p a i n t e r s m u t u a l l y i n f l u e n c e d one a n o t h e r . A l b e r t was a F r e n c h p a i n t e r of S c a n d i n a v i a n b i r t h , whose c a r e e r was cut s h o r t by h i s e a r l y d e a t h . Fromuth was a F r e n c h p a i n t e r of American b i r t h who l i v e d a r e t i r e d l i f e a t Concarneau i n B r i t t a n y , where he p a i n t e d and d i d b r i l l i a n t p a s t e l s . I n 1900 C u l l e n won a bronze medal a t the P a r i s I n t e r n a t i o n a l E x h i b i t i o n . In 1901 he r e c e i v e d an h o n o r a b l e mention a t the P a r i s S a l o n and was e l e c t e d O f f i c e r of the Academy. In 1902 he a g a i n went to V e n i c e and F r a n c e . In a l e t t e r to Edmond M o r r i s , a M o n t r e a l newspaperman, W i l l i a m Brymner w r i t e s on the 28th of August, 1902, from G i v e r n y par Vernon, Eure F r a n c e : " M o r r i c e and C u l l e n were b o t h a t V e n i c e and they came w i t h me to F l o r e n c e . M o r r i c e and I went a l o n e to F l o r e n c e and S i e n a and now I have s e t t l e d here f o r a few weeks and am t r y i n g to do some work. I s a i l on the 30th o f September from L i v e r p o o l " . . . " C u l l e n i s h e r e , so i s C o l l i n s - t h i s i s the p l a c e Monet l i v e s a t . He has a house, garden, and automobile - 121 They have a l l got a u t o m o b i l e s . " The c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n between Canadian p a i n t e r s was c a r r i e d on overseas as w e l l as a t home. I t i s a l s o r e c o r d e d t h a t on November 17, 1909, Brymner, C u l l e n and Watson a l l went to H a m i l t o n t o g e t h e r to o r g a n i z e an O n t a r i o S o c i e t y of A r t show. "From 1902 to 1908 C u l l e n worked a t Beaupre and Quebec, f o l l o w i n g the - 58 - seasons round - the green s m i l i n g summer, the wondrous c o l o u r of the October t r e e s and the gleaming beauty of the w i n t e r . J u s t as he f o l l o w e d the seasons, so too he f o l l o w e d the hours of the day to r e c o r d the t r a n s i t o r y e f f e c t of l i g h t , which b e a u t i f i e s t h i n g s f o r a moment and then i s gone. " A t some time of the d a y , " he used to remark, " t h e commonest 122 s u b j e c t i s b e a u t i f u l " . Sometimes i n the w i n t e r , he p a i n t e d w i t h M o r r i c e at Beaupre', and he spent the summers w i t h Brymner and Dyonnet a t S t . Eustadje. There was a v e r y c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n between these a r t i s t s . In 1906 M o r r i c e d i d The F e r r y a t Quebec which was shown i n the 1907 P a r i s S a l o n , the year t h a t C u l l e n d i d The O l d F e r r y Boat, ( F i g . 4 1 ) . As Robert P i l o t p o i n t s o u t , " p r a c t i c a l l y no one d i d snow p i c t u r e s i n Canada b e f o r e C u l l e n 1 s r e t u r n , a p a r t from K r i e g h o f f " . C u l l e n ' s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h modern European p a i n t e r s l e d h i m , on h i s r e t u r n from Europe to " a s e a r c h i n g and p r o l o n g e d study of the l i g h t on snow, and he worked w i n t e r a f t e r w i n t e r out of d o o r s . Sometimes f i n i s h i n g h i s canvases i n the " p l e i n a i r " . . . " H e b u i l t up from these years of s i n c e r e study a knowledge o f the l i g h t on snow, w i t h i t s i n t r i c a t e laws of complementary c o l o r and of r e f l e c t e d tone which i s v e r y v e r y good. In the p i c t u r e of W o l f ' s Cove, a t Quebec, t h e r e a r e perhaps twenty d e c i d e d l y d i f f e r e n t snow tones i n the p i c t u r e , produced by r e f l e c t e d c o l o r , and by the d i f f e r e n t angles c a t c h i n g the sun. I t i s s c i e n t i f i c i n i t s a n a l y s i s and s p l e n d i d i n the sureness of i t s knowledge."123 Winter E v e n i n g , Quebec, 1905, ( F i g . 34) and L e v i s from Quebec, 1906, ( F i g . 35) r e p r e s e n t the t y p i c a l b i r d ' s eye view of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . I t encompasses the near and d i s t a n t shores of a r i v e r where houses and b o a t s a r e a l l seen w i t h an i n t e r e s t i n l i g h t e f f e c t s . There a r e dark b l u e shadows i n the f o r e g r o u n d and background p l a n e s , and a s u n f i l l e d m i d d l e - 59 - p l a n e . Newton MacTavish r e c o g n i z e s i n C u l l e n 1 s L e v i s from Quebec ( F i g . 35) the ephemeral e f f e c t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of I m p r e s s i o n i s t works. "Everyone who has v i s i t e d Quebec and c r o s s e d the r i v e r to L e v i s remembers the im- p o s i n g s p e c t a c l e from t h a t p o i n t even i n summer. But l o o k a t Mr. C u l l e n 1 s r e n d i t i o n of the same p l a c e i n w i n t e r , i t i s imposing i n summer; now i t i s b e a u t i f u l , and the s m a l l F e r r y boat c r o s s i n g amongst the broken i c e l e a v i n g i t s t r a i l of smoke i s an e x q u i s i t e s i g h t " . " L ' A c t i o n C a t h o l i q u e " newspaper of Quebec, dated J a n u a r y 11, 1957, r e a d s ; " C u l l e n shows us M o n t r e a l , Quebec, and L e v i s i n w i n t e r ; the d a z z l i n g l i g h t of the snow i n t e r e s t s him v e r y much i f one i s to judge by the c a r e which he takes to c a p t u r e the luminous r e f l e c t i o n s . Most of h i s canvases show i c e - e n v e l o p e d scenes on the S t . Lawrence, a t L o n g u e u i e l , a t Beaupre; these scenes a r e , i t seems, a p r e t e x t to make f e l t the power which i s r e l e a s e d from the r e d d i s h sky making the p a l e sun glow; the d i f f u s e d l i g h t which i l l u m i n a t e s the scene g i v e s a charm to the w i n t e r sky. C u l l e n draws out these e f f e c t s s e i z i n g upon even the t w i l i g h t , as i s proven i n h i s D u f f e r i n T e r r a c e , covered i n shades of dusk. In the canvas t i t l e d The Cache R i v e r i n March, the a r t i s t d e p i c t s n a t u r e h a l f a s l e e p under an a l r e a d y d i s s o l v i n g snow and g i v e s a magic to the canvas, where a p a r t of the scene r e f l e c t s i n the water of a r i v e r , banks covered • • ,,125 in i c e . These e a r l y 1900 - 1910 p i c t u r e s done i n and around Quebec seem to l o o s e the f r e s h n e s s and b r i l l i a n c y of h i s f i r s t works done i n Canada d i r e c t l y a f t e r r e t u r n i n g from F r a n c e . L i k e Plamondon b e f o r e him, on r e t u r n i n g to Canada t h e r e i s a p e r i o d i n h i s work which s t a y s v e r y c l o s e to the European i n f l u e n c e , and then a g r a d u a l t u r n i n g away from the - 60 - European i n f l u e n c e to a l e s s advanced, more somber home s t y l e . The i n f l u e n c e of J.W. M o r r i c e may be s u b s t a n t i a l a t t h i s t i m e , s i n c e M o r r i c e r e t a i n e d f o r some time the d u l l p a l e c o l o r s of the Nabis b e f o r e h i s r e v o l u t i o n a r y change to emulate M a t i s s e , 1911 - 1912. T h i s e a r l y M o r r i c e p e r i o d 1900 - 1910 i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y g r e y e d . I t has heavy m i s t y atmospheric e f f e c t s . C u l l e n ' s views of Quebec, e x h i b i t the heavy leaden m i s t s of w i n t e r . These may be c o n s i d e r e d as " e f f e c t s " much l i k e those sought by the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s but the h a n d l i n g of them, l a c k s the l i g h t n e s s and b r i l l i a n c e t h a t the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s would have d e p i c t e d . Winter S t r e e t Scene, ( F i g . 36) and Snowstorm E v e n i n g , ( F i g . 37) c o u l d almost be e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y M o r r i c e s . Maurice C u l l e n ' s more somber p a l e t t e may a l s o have been caused by h i s c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h E. Dyonnet, and W i l l i a m Brymner. These com- p a t r i o t s p a i n t e d i n an a c c o m p l i s h e d academic way which was more r e l a t e d to the work of W h i s t l e r , S a r g e n t , and e a r l y Manet, than to the I m p r e s s i o n i s t t e c h n i q u e . A l t h o u g h C u l l e n kept P i s s a r r o ' s p a l e t t e of b l u e , y e l l o w , g r e e n , and white he does not choose to show the b r i g h t e r a s p e c t s of Impressionism which made the F r e n c h s c h o o l famous. P a c k i n g I c e , 1906, ( F i g . 38) i s C u l l e n 1 s e a r l i e s t " I c e p i c t u r e " . I t may have been i n s p i r e d by H o r a t i o W a l k e r ' s e a r l i e r p i c t u r e The Ice C u t t e r s , 1904, ( F i g . 7 ) . Here b l u e shadows, d i s t a n t m i s t e f f e c t s , broad brush s t r o k e s , a panoramic b i r d ' s eye view, and the luminous e f f e c t s i n the sky a l l suggest an I m p r e s s i o n i s t i n f l u e n c e . The sky e f f e c t s i n P a c k i n g I c e , 1906, ( F i g . 3 8 ) , The L a s t Loads, 1907, ( F i g . 39) and Ice H a r v e s t , 1914, ( F i g . 40) are v e r y r e l a t e d 126 to G u i l l a u m i n ' s treatment of sky i n Sunset a t I v r y , 1873, and S i s l e y s 127 The F l o o d a t P o r t - M a r l y , 1876. The luminous e f f e c t a c h i e v e d by u s i n g - 61 - two c o l o r s , one d a r k , and one l i g h t , and by m o d e l l i n g s m a l l patches o f darks and l i g h t s i n an a l l - o v e r p a t t e r n a c r o s s the whole sky, a l l w i t h a greyed down o r whitened appearance, g i v e the m o t t l e d luminescence which appealed to C u l l e n i n the e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , and which i s seen i n h i s sky s t u d i e s between 1902 - 1910. Maurice C u l l e n ' s The Old F e r r y Boat, 1907, ( F i g . 41) i s i t s e l f d e r i v e d from the F r e n c h and E n g l i s h m i d - c e n t u r y p a i n t e r s who were i n t r i g u e d w i t h the new steam-powered water c r a f t . T u r n e r d i d boats to get e f f e c t s of steam and the glow of c o a l - f i r e d b o i l e r s i n h i s works. Daubigny who v i s i t e d England i n 1855 would see these e a r l i e r works and i n c o r p o r a t e the s u b j e c t i n t o h i s own p i c t u r e s t y l e . 128 In The F e r r y , 1860, Daubigny shows h i s i n t e r e s t i n water and boat s c e n e s . He was the f i r s t p a i n t e r to have a " b o t i n " , a f l o a t i n g boat s t u d i o , on which he. s a i l e d up and down the O i s e R i v e r . Monet c o p i e s t h i s i d e a l a t e r . Daubigny p l a c e s the h o r i z o n l i n e h a l f way up the p i c t u r e p l a n e and shows sky and water e f f e c t s and i n c l u d e s the sun b r e a k i n g through the s k y . C u l l e n was v e r y fond of showing the sun or the moon i n h i s works as were a l l the B a r b i z o n s . To c a l l C u l l e n ' s O l d F e r r y , ( F i g . 4 1 ) , an I m p r e s s i o n i s t p i c t u r e i s a f a r s t r e t c h of the i m a g i n a t i o n . I t l a c k s the b i r d ' s eye view of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . I n s t e a d , i t has the s t r a i g h t - o n view of Daubigny and i t has a c o m p o s i t i o n i n b l a c k , white and greys t h a t was a p a r t of C u l l e n ' s t e c h n i q u e and was r e l a t e d to the work of w h i s t l e r , V e l a s q u e z , and C a r o l u s - D u r a n . The use o f greys as seen i n C u l l e n ' s F e r r y Boat, ( F i g . 4 1 ) , he l e a r n e d from h i s t e a c h i n g master C a r o l u s - D u r a n . C a r o l u s - D u r a n was a f r i e n d of Manet and an exponent of t h a t Spanish s t y l e which r e i g n e d 129 i n upper c l a s s P a r i s i a n c i r c l e s . Manet p a i n t e d h i s f i r s t p i c t u r e s i n - 62 - 130 t h i s s t y l e as seen i n . h i s Spanish G u i t a r i s t , 1863. C a r o l u s - D u r a n m o d e l l e d h i s work a f t e r Velasquez and encouraged h i s p u p i l s to do the same. Among h i s p u p i l s were James M c N e i l W h i s t l e r , John S i n g e r S a r g e n t , W i l l i a m Brymner, and M a u r i c e C u l l e n . C u l l e n ' s O l d F e r r y , ( F i g . 4 1 ) , i s a ' t o u r - d e - f o r c e ' i n the use of g r e y s , but i n i t he has the l a t e r n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y i n t e r e s t i n f o g , m i s t , and steam e f f e c t s , and the p a s s i o n f o r the i n d i s t i n c t . The depth c r e a t - i n g d e v i c e s i n h i s p i c t u r e are not r e l a t e d to l i n e a r p e r s p e c t i v e but a r e those o f the m i s t pervaded a i e r i a l p e r s p e c t i v e s of Turner and Monet. As a snow scene i t takes i t s i n s p i r a t i o n from the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s S i s l e y , P i s s a r r o , and Monet. The s u b j e c t i s p e r f e c t l y s t i l l , a d e r e l i c t boat perched upon some i c e . There i s g r e a t i n t e r e s t i n the t e c h n i c a l means by which t h i s canvas i s a c h i e v e d . The s t y l e of the brushwork i s between t h a t of the R e a l i s t s , Courbet and Daubigny, and the i n d i s t i n c t d i v i d e d s i n g l e s t r o k e s of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . A l t h o u g h the g e n e r a l c o l o r a t i o n i s as c o r r e c t l y observed as t h a t of the b e s t B a r b i z o n t r a d i t i o n , t h e r e i s an extremely s u b t l e p l a y between the b l u e s of sky and water h e i g h t e n e d w i t h w h i t e , and the golden ochre c o l o r a t i o n of the b o a t , brought out by the g o l d of the frame. C u l l e n ' s Summer N i g h t , 1907, ( F i g . 42) i s r e l a t e d to Monet's s e r i e s of H a y s t a c k s . C u l l e n d i d o n l y one p i c t u r e of the hay c a r t and he makes i t a more B a r b i z o n work by i n c l u d i n g a c a r t , a d r i v e r , and two oxen. L i k e the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s C u l l e n ' s p i c t u r e s a r e based on the a c t u a l s c e n e , p a i n t e d on the s p o t , or done from s t u d i e s sketched out o f d o o r s . In h i s Summer Night C u l l e n has aimed a t the l i g h t e f f e c t s of a s e t t i n g sun b e - g i n n i n g to t i n g e the h o r i z o n w i t h a r e d d i s h glow as i t l e a v e s the sky a d a r k e n i n g b l u e . P u r p l e shadows a r e c a s t on d i s t a n t h i l l s and r e f l e c t i n - 63 - the shining water. In this picture separate brushstrokes are used to color the sky. Separate strokes of blue mixed with white give the pastel Impressionist appearance. Cullen's picture, though obviously influenced by Monet's Impressionism in the background, is curiously Barbizon in the foreground. The subject of oxen pulling a hay cart, done in sepias and brown, even though applied in separated brushstrokes, is not strictly Impressionistic. Robert Pilot, in describing Cullen's method of preparing canvases says he covered his canvas with white lead mixed with a l i t t l e raw umber which gave a warm neutral tone foundation. This warm pale buff can be seen in this picture beneath the blue sky strokes, and beneath the darker foreground browns. This gives an early Impressionist blue and yellow luminist quality 131 reminiscent of a Boudin or a Jongkind. Like the Impressionists, Cullen does not use a system of linear perspective as earlier landscape artists including Constable and Turner did; rather he uses the misty aerial perspective to suggest great back- ground depth, and disposes his subject empirically on a foreground plane which is one of a series of planes running horizontally across the picture format. The inclusion of the sun is a very Barbizon element which is not 132 133 found in Seurat's Haystack of 1882 or in Monet's Haystack series of 1884 done in Giverny. It was a feature which Cullen particularly liked, because i t afforded the opportunity for more light effects. This is Cullen's diploma picture. The calm atmosphere and the slow moving Oxen bring to mind Borleau's verses: "Quatre boeufs atteles d'un pas 134 tranquille et lent, Promenaient dans Paris un monarque indolent" A part of an address by Arthur Lismer is recorded in the Hamilton - 64 - S p e c t a t o r , Nov. 10, 1956, and i t i n d i c a t e s what other p a i n t e r s saw i n C u l l e n ' s work, and i t a l s o suggests i t s d e r i v a t i v e n a t u r e . " C u l l e n s t u d i e d p a i n t i n g i n France a t the end of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t and a t the b e g i n n i n g of the P o s t - I m p r e s s i o n i s t p e r i o d , but he d i d not become an e x p a t r i a t e . He came home and s e t up h i s e a s e l on the i c e . He combined the I m p r e s s i o n i s t i c mood w i t h a Canadian s p i r i t . The Viewer cannot f a i l to be s t r u c k by the u n d e r l y i n g theme of almost a l l the p i c t u r e s . C u l l e n ' s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h l i g h t , and more p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h the e f f e c t of l i g h t on snow. C u l l e n ' s i n t e r e s t i n fogs and m i s t s a r e r e m i n i s c e n t a l s o of the 135 E n g l i s h p a i n t e r T u r n e r . " C u l l e n ' s I c e H a r v e s t , ( F i g . 4 0 ) , 1914, h i s l a s t ' I c e ' p i c t u r e , f o l l o w s v e r y c l o s e l y the e f f e c t s sought i n P a c k i n g I c e , ( F i g . 3 8 ) , and Summer N i g h t , ( F i g . 4 2 ) . C o n f i d i n g to h i s f r i e n d Wm. R. Watson Ghat what he needed to be happy was "A s t u d i o o f my own, a shack i n the mountains, a garden f o r an a c r e of 1 o/r f l o w e r s and a heavy s n o w f a l l every w i n t e r . " Watson says "He made a l o n g and s p e c i a l study of i c e f o r m a t i o n and i c e c o l o r under v a r i e d l i g h t s and c o n d i t i o n s . There i s the s t e e l b l u e of m i d - w i n t e r i c e , vn ' r i d i a n , jade and even golden-amber o f the f l o o d e d i c e a l o n g the marge of mountain streams."-'- 3 His s t u d i e s i n 1912 and a f t e r , made a t Lac T r e m b l a n t , on the i n v i t a t i o n of R i c k s o n O u t h e t , show the o u t - o f - d o o r s o f the L a u r e n t i a n s . H i s p i c t u r e s of t h i s p e r i o d b e g i n a landscape phase where the w i l d s are shown i n much the same way t h a t the Group of Seven, as they l a t e r became known, p a i n t e d . Landscape, ( F i g . 43) of about 1915 i n the N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y , Ottawa, i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h i s phase which l a s t e d f o r the r e s t of h i s l i f e . Landscape, ( F i g . 43) shown i n the M o n t r e a l S p r i n g E x h i b i t i o n of 1921, has an i n t e r e s t i n g m i s t e f f e c t which may have i n s p i r e d James Edward Hervey - 65 - MacDonald's Mist Fantasy, dated 1922. During the war, Cullen was asked by the Government of Canada, along with other Canadian artists, to paint war scenes for the Armed Services Records. In 1918 he was elected to the R.C.A. Two remarkably Impression- istic war pictures, Our Guns at Bonn University, (Fig. 44) and Bombing Area Seaford, (Fig. 45), both of 1918, show the blue and yellow reduced palette of the Impressionists. On his return to Canada after the war, Cullen continued painting in the Laurentian area. 138 "Cullen not only got to the guts of things but to the soul of them as well. He was mentally and physically robust and loved to tramp on snow shoes through the northern woods for his subjects. He said 'nature is a book with most of the leaves uncut.1 He gloried in the Laurentians and to become familiar with mountains built himself a shack at the edge of Lac Tremblant and lived and worked alone for three months of each year. Here he painted some of his finest works....He experimented with the light colors of the Impressionists and achieved the creation of an atmosphere without 139 the loss of form." "He rendered snow on canvas studiously and consist- ently, until now we regard him as the interpreter par excellence of what is pre-eminently a glorious contribution to the Canadian winter."l^O A March Evening, 1923, (Fig. 46) is typical of this outdoor period and i t leads directly to The Valley of the Devil River, 1927, (Fig. 47). This is a most interesting Cullen to consider. In i t , Cullen returns to the panoramic bird's eye view. This picture, done after Canada's famous Group of Seven landscapes of the wilds, unites the Impressionist palette with a broader treatment of brushstroke in large areas of color bounded by sinuous curved lines. There are blue snow shadows, and alternating planes of light and dark. Aerial perspective is used to give - 66 - the d i s t a n t peak a hazy b l u e , f a r - a w a y , appearance, and t h i s c o n t r a s t s v i v i d l y w i t h the golden tones of the f o r e g r o u n d p l a n e . The dark swath of the r i v e r and the t r e e s c u t t i n g d i a g o n a l l y a c r o s s the c e n t e r of the p i c t u r e makes an a x i s about which the curve of the f o r e g r o u n d y e l l o w p l a n e , and the curve of the d i s t a n t r i v e r bank form s y m m e t r i c a l r e v e r s e images. The c a r e f u l s i m p l i f i c a t i o n of n a t u r e , the b a l a n c i n g from s i d e to s i d e , of curve f o r c u r v e , and r i s e o f h i l l s on the l e f t f r o n t , to r i s e of h i l l s i n the r i g h t d i s t a n c e , and the i n t e r e s t i n s u b t l e nuances i s t y p i c a l of Monet, P i s s a r r o , and S i s l e y l a n d s c a p e s . Yet the f l a t n e s s of the p l a n e s , the c l e a r sharp l i n e s , the apparent depth i n t o the p i c t u r e , and the p l a y i n g down o f l i g h t e f f e c t s i s i n d i c a t i v e of a d i f f e r e n t aim i n a r t from I m p r e s s i o n i s m . T h i s l a s t p i c t u r e may somehow show what the Ottawa C i t i z e n , S e p t . 3, 1957, f e l t was the end p r o d u c t o f "The f i e r c e s t r u g g l e of the young C u l l e n to a p p l y the i n n o v a t i o n s of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s to the Canadian l a n d s c a p e . " 1 Speaking about h i s c o l o r t h e o r y , C u l l e n remarked: " T r y never to mix more than two c o l o r s t o g e t h e r - add a t h i r d c o l o r f o r tone o n l y . Do not scrub the c o l o r s t o g e t h e r on the p a l e t t e , r a t h e r weave them t o g e t h e r so t h a t a c t u a l l y the c o l o r s are s t i l l pure but by b e i n g i n o p p o s i t i o n to each o t h e r , they give the f e e l i n g of b e i n g one t o n e . T h i s g i v e s g r e a t e r v a r i e t y 142 and b r i l l i a n c e to the completed w o r k . " A f t e r C u l l e n ' s death i n March, 1934, Marius Barbeau, Saturday N i g h t , June 9, 1934, wrote of "The A r t of M a u r i c e C u l l e n " . " F o r years Mr. C u l l e n r e n d e r e d snow upon canvas s t u d i o u s l y and c o n s i s t e n t l y . . . a n d he has c a r r i e d on t h i s work i n s p i t e o f p o p u l a r and o f f i c i a l p r e j u d i c e a g a i n s t i t . Mr. C u l l e n whose a r t i s t i c sense of beauty and as an i n t e r p r e t e r o f n a t u r e i n h e r most m a j e s t i c moods has gone on w i t h o u t r e a l i z i n g t h a t o t h e r s have - 67 - been discouraging or tabooing the very thing that he has been at great pains to preserve. Mr. Cullen's pictures are most beautiful when they 143 show the play of light and color upon the snow." Jean Chauvin speaking of the art of Maurice Cullen says; "Beginning at the turn of the century Cullen made the first break with the European tradition; he was the first to free our painting from a provincial imitation of older styles abroad. His method was freely to adopt the contemporary Impressionist techniques to our milieu - to our climate, the breadth of our landscape, and the quality of our light...He was the first to look at Canadian scenery through Canadian eyes, thus opening up a way for the Group of 144 Seven and later developments." Marc Aurel de Foy Suzor-Cote was born on April 5, 1869 at Arthabaska, Quebec. "His derivative way of painting like the French, his gift for studio pieces, including Nudes, eventually gave way to a more individual style and a lively interest in his native country. Soon after 1900 he was satisfied to remain for four years in Montreal and at Arthabaska. It is then that he became a Canadian painter and also a sculptor. His outlook and accomplishments were influenced by the prevailing Impressionism of his generation, also by an arbitrary limitation to gentle landscapes patterned after those of France. Even within Canada he looked for pasture and cultivated lands, old habitations, and country roads, like those of his native Arthabaska, almost never for the rugged wilderness. The mellow light permeating his pigments was that of Normandy or Ile-de- 145 France, not the clear and crisp iridescence of Canada." It is a two-hour bus ride from Quebec City to Arthabaska, called the "country of roses" in the Algonquin language, and the home of Canada's great - 68 - I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t e r . No-^one i n the town knows which was the home of S u z o r - C o t e , but the Curef. p o i n t e d out the grave of Cote ( F i g . 48) i n the c h u r c h y a r d of the Chapel of the Sacred H e a r t , o v e r l o o k i n g the v a l l e y of the N i c o l e t R i v e r , ( F i g . 4 9 ) . Nearby, w i t h a view of the r o l l i n g p a s t o r a l c o u n t r y s i d e , i s the home of S i r W i l f r e d L a u r i e r , ( F i g . 50) w i t h i t s bronze plaque ( F i g . 5 1 ) . The house, which i s p r e s e r v e d as a museum,. c o n t a i n s r e p l i c a s of S u z o r-cSte ' s b r o n z e s , an academic p o r t r a i t of Mme. L a u r i e r , and sketches i n c h a r c o a l i n the h a l l s and up the s t a i r c a s e . These sketches were commissioned f o r L o u i s Hemon's n o v e l M a r i a C h a p d e l a i n e . S u z o r - C o t e ' ' s f a t h e r was a n o t a r y of A r t h a b a s k a . H i s mother, C e c i l e de Foy S u z o r , came from a c u l t u r e d and m u s i c a l Quebec f a m i l y . In h i s s c h o o l s t u d i e s S u z o r - C o t e e x c e l l e d i n drawing under B r o t h e r N e p o t i e n , 146 who s a i d , " T h i s one w i l l s u r e l y be an a r t i s t " . On l e a v i n g the c o l l e g e , Suzor a r t i c l e d w i t h M. Guay, a merchant a t V i c t o r i a v i l l e , but commerce d i d not i n t e r e s t him as d i d music and a r t . His f i r s t p a i n t i n g l e s s o n s were taken i n 1886 from Maxime Rousseau, a d e c o r a t o r of churches i n M o n t r e a l where he q u i c k l y l e a r n e d to manager c o l o r s and to do the heads of m a r t y r s and angels so w e l l t h a t he was p a i d f i v e d o l l a r s a day. He devoted h i m s e l f to r e l i g i o u s p a i n t i n g and church d e c o r a t i o n f o r two y e a r s . He a l s o s t u d i e d w i t h C h a l b e r t a t the N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e of F i n e A r t s i n M o n t r e a l . At the age of twenty, i n 1889, S u z o r - C o t e d e c i d e d to go to P a r i s , where he s t u d i e d s i n g i n g a t the C o n s e r v a t o r y under Boulanger and Edouard Masson, making g r e a t p r o g r e s s . He was to have made h i s debut a t the Opera Comique i n the F a l l of 1892, but a t h r o a t i n f e c t i o n caused him to g i v e up s i n g i n g and to take up h i s second g r e a t t a l e n t , p a i n t i n g . - 69 - A / / F o r f o u r y e a r s S u z o r - C o t e f o l l o w e d Leon Bonnat s course a t the E c o l e de Beaux A r t s . The works of Bonnat have been d e s c r i b e d as " a u d a c i o u s harmonies of the p a l e t t e " , " p a i n t i n g i n a p h o t o g r a p h i c way", 147 and " i l l u s i o n i s t i c a l l y t r u e p o r t r a i t s " . These t h r e e t r a i t s of S u z o r - C o t e ' s f i r s t master are seen i n h i s own e a r l y p r i z e - w i n n i n g work, f i l l e d w i t h outdated f o r m u l a s . Suzor took a s t u d i o w i t h the s c u l p t o r , A l f r e d L a l i b e r t e ' , i n . Montparnasse. In 1894 he r e t u r n e d to Canada f o r two y e a r s . He was now an e s t a b l i s h e d a r t i s t and was awarded a homecoming banquet by S i r W i l f r e d L a u r i e r . In 1896 he r e t u r n e d to F r a n c e . In 1898 he a t t e n d e d the c l a s s e s of Benjamin Constant and J u l e s L e f e b v r e a t the C o l a r o s i and J u l i a n Academies. He took d e s i g n from Fernand Cormon. There he l e a r n e d p o r t r a i t and h i s t o r y p a i n t i n g . H i s most n o t a b l e p i c t u r e s a t that time were P a s t o r a l , ( F i g . 53), 1899, and E n t r e V o i s i n , 1900. E n t r e V o i s i n i s l i k e a Dutch s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y i n t e r i o r g e n r e - t y p e p a i n t i n g . Four men a r e shown p l o t t i n g i n a p o a c h e r ' s hut near a f l a m i n g f i r e p l a c e . In o r d e r to p a i n t t h i s p i c t u r e S u z o r - C o t e had to work f o r over two months i n a s m a l l , smokey h o v e l i n Normandy, i n the most u n p l e a s a n t and unsavory s u r r o u n d i n g s . He would get the men to p i l e peat on the f i r e to g i v e a ruddy glow to the i n t e r i o r and cause a heavy atmospheric e f f e c t . " Y e s , and the d i r t had such d e l i g h t f u l c o l o r s . The c r i t i c s found the p i c t u r e , " v e r y w e l l observed and r e n d e r e d w i t h g r e a t t a l e n t " , and " a n e x c e l l e n t p a i n t e r of p e o p l e i s S u z o r - C o t e " , and "Mr. S u z o r - C o t e shows two v e r y l o v e l y landscapes of r a r e a r t i s t i c worth . R e c a l l i n g h i s e a r l y c a r e e r , Cote s a i d "under the b e n e v o l e n t and wise gaze of the F r e n c h m a s t e r s , Mr. M. J u l e s L e f e b v r e , Benjamin C o n s t a n t , and - 70 - Leon Bonnat, whose l e s s o n s I e s p e c i a l l y f o l l o w e d w i t h p r e c i s i o n , and the c o n t e m p l a t i o n of the m a s t e r p i e c e s i n the L o u v r e , I s l o w l y gained a l i t t l e knowledge. I had begun to t h i n k , to r e f l e c t , and to be moved b e f o r e n a t u r e and a l l the b e a u t i f u l I m p r e s s i o n i s t i c scenes which are b e f o r e us i n 152 each season, a t each hour of the d a y . . . " The p e o p l e o f M o n t r e a l knew of the work of S u z o r - C o t e . At the A r t G a l l e r y o f W. S c o t t and Sons, i n N o t r e Dame S t r e e t , a f t e r 1900 t h e r e was an e x h i b i t of s i x t y - f i v e canvases done i n o i l and p a s t e l s i n F r a n c e . The s a l e of these canvases enabled S u z o r - C o t e to r e t u r n to F r a n c e . H i s h i s t o r i c a l works were done around 1906 and i n c l u d e d Death of Montcalm, F r o n t e n a c and The A r r i v a l of Jacques C a r t i e r a t Stadacona. R e t u r n i n g from the F i e l d s , 1904, was shown i n the J(alon and may be based on a M i l l a i s c o m p o s i t i o n by t h a t name, but Cote has reproduced the atmosphere of a Canadian s c e n e . In h i s f i g u r e s he has d e p i c t e d the t r u e H a b i t a n t , and the i n t e r e s t i n g events of h i s d a i l y l i f e . P o r t Blanc en Bretagne, 1906, ( F i g . 54) i s one of S u z o r - C o t e ' s f i r s t I m p r e s s i o n i s t c a n v a s e s . I t has the h i g h h o r i z o n l i n e , the b i r d ' s eye view, the b l u e and golden ochre c o l o r s to a c h i e v e luminous e f f e c t s , and i t shows a l a n d , s e a , sky, landscape t h a t would have a p p e a l e d to the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . The b l u e s and the y e l l o w s a r e mixed w i t h white to get the same v a l u e . There a r e b l u e shadows, and the c o l o r i s a p p l i e d i n d i s c r e e t tones i n s e p a r a t e b r u s h s t r o k e s i n the I m p r e s s i o n i s t way. S u z o r - C o t e v i s i t e d a l l the f e s t i v e g a t h e r i n g s o f the Canadian c o l o n y i n P a r i s . They met a t the C a f / - a u x - F l e u r s , and d i s c u s s e d the r e v i e w of B e a t r i c e La Palme at the Opera Comique i n M i r e i l l e i n 1905. Suzor a t t e n d - ed the Trocadero w i t h h i s f r i e n d L a l i b e r t e ' f o r the p r e s e n t a t i o n of The Damnation of F a u s t , where the t i t l e r o l e was sung by the o p e r a t i c tenor - 71 - Rudolphe Plamondon. He v i s i t e d the s a l o n s of V i a l l a r d , Stone and N a n t e l . He saw a M o r r i c e canvas and s a i d to h i s f r i e n d , " H i s p a i n t i n g has so few 153 c o l o r s , i t i s so l o v e l y , so d i s c r e e t , so g r a n d ! ! " Donald W. Buchanan s t a t e s t h a t Cote d i d not know M o r r i c e but t h a t t h i s spontaneous a p p r e c i a t i o n from Suzor-C&te was worth more than a l l the j o u r n a l i s t i c p r a i s e s o f P a r i s to M o r r i c e . Next was h i s p e r i o d of t r a v e l to E n g l a n d , S c o t l a n d , S p a i n , I t a l y , H o l l a n d , R u s s i a and Germany about 1907. W r i t i n g to h i s f a m i l y he s a y s , "We see the g r e a t works i n Rotterdam and the Hague and we seem so i g n o r - a n t . " 1 5 4 In London S u z o r - C o t e met Pablo C a s a l s , the famous c e l l i s t , who bought two of h i s snow s c e n e s . "Two l i t t l e m a r v e l s " , s a i d C a s a l s , "which i n - s p i r e d me to make the t r i p to Canada". In 1907 Cote f i n d s another p e r s o n a l and v i v i d mode of e x p r e s s i o n i n the p l a s t i c a r t of s c u l p t u r e . H i s f i r s t p o r t r a i t b u s t was o f S i r W i l f r e d L a u r i e r . In Canada he pursued many s u b j e c t s i n s c u l p t u r e which were t y p i c a l of the p r i m i t i v e l i f e l e a d a t t h a t time i n R u r a l Quebec. S u z o r - C o t e ' s b r o n z e s , begun about 1907, may have been suggested by h i s s t u d i o companion, the s c u l p t o r L a l i b e r t e . He took much i n s p i r a t i o n from R o d i n . H i s s u r f a c e s are l e f t showing the t e x t u r e of the m a t e r i a l and the marks of the t o o l s as I m p r e s s i o n i s t canvases do. There i s a l s o the i n d i s t i n c t , almost atmospheric e f f e c t i n C o t e ' s s c u l p t u r e , as w e l l as a f e e l i n g of a c t i o n as l i g h t f a l l s a c r o s s the f a c e t e d s u r f a c e . Caughnawaga Women ( F i g . 5 5 ) , one of the f o r t y or f i f t y bronze f i g u r e s and groups done by Co'te, r e p r e s e n t s I n d i a n women o f the Caughnawaga N a t i o n going to market i n M o n t r e a l . The Caughnawaga men b u i l d the g i a n t s k y s c r a p e r s o f e a s t e r n America as - 72 - w e l l as the b r i d g e s , c l i m b i n g v e r y h i g h w i t h o u t f e a r on s t e e l g i r d e r s and w i t h a sureness and s k i l l not to be matched by o t h e r s . The group i s r e m i n i s c e n t of R o d i n ' s Burgers of C a l a i s , or the h e a v i l y draped f i g u r e of B a l z a c . Both a r t i s t s p r e s e n t an a m b i g u i t y and s u g g e s t i v e n e s s i n a shimmering s u r f a c e . The h a n d l i n g of the m a t e r i a l and the t e x t u r e of the m a t e r i a l i s e v i d e n t . Other important works of s c u l p t u r e by S u z o r - C $ t e are The Woodcutter W a l k i n g , M a r i a C h a p d e l a i n e , The T r a p p e r , and The Woodcutter. In 1908 the Canadian A r t Club e x h i b i t e d the newest works of Canadian p a i n t i n g . C r i t i c s s a i d t h e r e was sound e x e c u t i o n i n every p i c t u r e . There were t h r e e l a r g e Homer W a t s o n ' s , E r n e s t Lawson showed e i g h t canvasses t h a t 156 were " a t h r i l l of pure s u n l i g h t " and C u l l e n d i d a p a s t e l c a l l e d S o l i t u d e . The b r i l l i a n t works of Suzor-Cotfe were s m a l l , Sugar Bush i n Autumn, A V i l l a g e S t r e e t , and Quebec W i n t e r , were i n d i v i d u a l v i s i o n s i n the m a t t e r of c o l o r and mellow charm. James W. M o r r i c e e x h i b i t e d Market P l a c e S t . Malo. S u z o r - C o t e p a i n t e d some of h i s most b e a u t i f u l snow scenes i n Canada. These a r e v e r y remarkable f o r a most e a r n e s t and s i n c e r e e f f o r t to conquer the d i f f i c u l t i e s of p r e s e n t i n g the b r i l l i a n t sunshine on snow, t r e e s and c o u n t r y - s i d e . Winter Landscape, 1909, ( F i g . 56) i s a view of the N i c o l e t R i v e r , near S u z o r ' s home i n A r t h a b a s k a . L i k e Snow a t L o u v e c i e n n e s , ^ - ^ l S T S , by S i s l e y , t h i s f i n e snow p i c t u r e i s a i r y and l i g h t . The banks of f l u f f y white immaculate snow shows us t h a t white i s not w h i t e . J u s t as snow scenes had p e r m i t t e d t h e a r t i s t s to i n v e s t i g a t e the problems of shadows , the study of water o f f e r e d an e x c e l l e n t o p p o r t u n i t y to observe r e v e r b e r a t i o n s and r e f l e c t i o n s . S o - c a l l e d l o c a l c o l o r was a pure c o n v e n t i o n . E v e r y o b j e c t p r e s e n t s to the eye a scheme of c o l o r d e r i v e d from i t s p r o p e r c o l o r , - 73 - from i t s s u r r o u n d i n g s , and from atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s . " I m p r e s s i o n i s m i n j e c t e d i t s p o w e r f u l i n f l u e n c e i n t o Canadian p a i n t i n g through the work of Mqttrice C u l l e n and M.A. de jt>y S u z o r - C o t e , both of whom r e c o g n i z e d a n a t u r a l a f f i n i t y between the I m p r e s s i o n i s t i c t e c h n i q u e 158 and the v a r i e d l i g h t s and c o l o r s of the Canadian snowscape." The S e t t l e m e n t on the H i l l s i d e , 1909, ( F i g . 57) i s another f i n e snow s c e n e . One of the f a s c i n a t i o n s of snow scenes was t h e i r d i f f i c u l t y of e x e c u t i o n . To p a i n t a l a r g e a r e a of canvas white or almost w h i t e , and yet have enough v a r i a t i o n i n the w h i t e to p r e s e n t l i v e l y c o l o r r e n d i t i o n s o f the c o l o r v a l u e s of l i g h t r e f l e c t e d from snow showing many c o l o r e d h i g h l i g h t s and shadows i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t to a c c o m p l i s h . A l t h o u g h Courbet was the f i r s t F r e n c h p a i n t e r to do snow s c e n e s , Monet c a r r i e d the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f u r t h e r , f i n d i n g b r i g h t e r b l u e s i n the shade, p u r p l e s i n dark shadows and many d i f f e r e n c e s of y e l l o w to white tones i n the snow. S e t t l e m e n t on the H i l l s i d e , ( F i g . 57) and Stream i n W i n t e r , ( F i g . 58) are 159 b o t h v e r y r e l a t e d to M o n e t ' s snow scenes l i k e The Magpie, 1869, and a l s o assume the heavy c r u s t y s u r f a c e treatment of Monet's l a t e r Rouen 160 Facade s e r i e s of 1894. Golden ochre and orange r o u g h l y c o r r e s p o n d to p a l e and dark b l u e , as c o m p l i m e n t a r i e s and much white i s used. Some n e u t r a l browns and greys a r e formed by m i x i n g the c o m p l i m e n t a r i e s . The works o f Monet w e r e . e a r l i e r than those of S i s l e y or P i s s a r r o who c o n t i n u e d the e a r l y type of Impressionism on i n t o the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . P i s s a r r o ' s p a l e t t e and s u r f a c e t e x t u r e of 1901 as seen i n h i s Church o f S a i n t - J a c q u e s a t Dieppe, i s v e r y s i m i l a r , t o that of S u z o r - C o t e from 1906 to the end of h i s l i f e . A 162 S u z o r - C o t e ' s , The P e r i b o n k a Church facade seems borrowed i n 163 164 i n s p i r a t i o n from M o n e t ' s C a t h e d r a l a t Rouen, or S i s l e y ' s Church a t Moret. - 74 - I t i s t o u c h i n g t h a t S u z o r - C o t e s h o u l d show the q u a i n t l i t t l e v i l l a g e church of P e r i b o n k a i n the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s t y l e of the g r e a t F r e n c h C a t h e d r a l s done by Monet, P i s s a r r o and S i s l e y . A / 165 S u z o r - C o t e , as w e l l as W i l l i a m Brymner, d i d l o v e l y nudes. Etude de Nu, and M e l o d i e s , ^ a r e two I m p r e s s i o n i s t ones seen i n an e n v e l o p i n g atmosphere s u g g e s t i v e o f t w i l i g h t . S e u r a t ' s Model i n P r o f i l e , and Model from the 167 / Back a r e v e r y s i m i l a r i n pose and i d e a to the ones chosen by S u z o r - C o t e f o r h i s s t u d i e s . Degas' nudes must be the l i n k between academic nudes and cSt '̂s l a t e r - d a y I m p r e s s i o n i s t nudes. J e a n C h a u v i n , w r i t i n g i n A t e l i e r s , says t h a t : "We a r e i n d e b t e d to him, f o r many female nudes i n o i l s and p a s t e l s , the o n l y nudes shown i n our s a l o n s which seem r e s e r v e d o n l y f o r l a n d s c a p e s . What does one see t h e r e , i n d e e d , these many years? Few p o r t r a i t s , few s t i l l l i f e s , few c o m p o s i t i o n s , no h i s t o r i c a l s u b j e c t s , no genre p a i n t i n g s , no i n t e r i o r s or f a m i l i a r s c e n e s , no nudes, landscapes and seascapes o n l y . Is i t the c o n t a g i o n of the f e v e r 168 f o r landscape t h a t rages i n a l l European s c h o o l s ? " 169 Monet s On the Beach, 1870, shows a l a d y w i t h a p a r a s o l s i t t i n g on a bench i n a pose which i s i d e n t i c a l , o n l y r e v e r s e d , to S u z o r - C o t e ' s Youth 170 and S u n l i g h t , 1913. The l a d y w i t h a p a r a s o l was a f a v o r i t e s u b j e c t of I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . R e n o i r shows them i n f i e l d s , and Monet d i d another famous p a i r c a l l e d , Lady w i t h a P a r a s o l Turned Towards the R i g h t , and the same s u b j e c t Turned Towards the L e f t , b o t h of 1886. Suzor'-s I m p r e s s i o n i s t i n t e r e s t i s seen i n the m i d d l e c l a s s enjoyment of a sunny day. The young l a d y i s on a green g r a s s y h i l l o v e r l o o k i n g a pond. L i g h t i s r e f l e c t e d from the water and the shadows are a l i v e w i t h s u g g e s t i o n s of b l u e s and mauve. - 75 - "Youth i n S u n l i g h t " has the l i g h t - f i l l e d manner o f Monet and P i s s a r r o . The s m a l l touches of pure c o l o r are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . Here i s the t y p i c a l I m p r e s s i o n i s t use of Japanese c o m p o s i t i o n whereby the f i g u r e of the g i r l i s seen from an unusual a n g l e , 172 and i s s i l h o u e t t e d i n a d e c o r a t i v e way a g a i n s t a f l a t b a c k g r o u n d . " Of a l l t h e s e I m p r e s s i o n i s t i c f i g u r e s t u d i e s , Youth and S u n l i g h t i s h i s b e s t known. " L a s t autumn where a t the E x h i b i t i o n of the Royal Academy i n M o n t r e a l appeared the v i s i o n "Youth and S u n l i g h t " by S u z o r - C o t e of a f r e s h and happy l o o k i n g young g i r l h o l d i n g a white sunshade over h e r head, s e a t e d on a garden bench i n the b l a z i n g mid-day sun. H i s f r i e n d s were d a z z l e d . The p i c t u r e i s f u l l of " L a J o i e de V i v r e " and the s u b t l e s t e f f e c t s I T O of l i g h t and shade have been caught and a r e h e l d c a p t i v e h e r e f o r e v e r . " 174 F r a n c o i s T a i l l o n , 1921, a p o r t r a i t of a s t u r d y F r e n c h - C a n a d i a n farmer, shows a mixed t e c h n i q u e . The p o r t r a i t i s a f i n e I m p r e s s i o n i s t r e n d e r i n g of c h a r a c t e r . The background, done i n broad s q u a r e d - o f f b r u s h s t r o k e a r e a s , i s more l i k e van Gogh's broad i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Impressionism. The methods of Impressionism and P o s t - I m p r e s s i o n i s m were o l d and well-known by t h e n , and the c o m b i n a t i o n of t e c h n i q u e , though m o s t l y I m p r e s s i o n i s t , i s d e r i v e d from b o t h s o u r c e s . S u z o r - C ^ t e was v e r y adept a t c h a r a c t e r s t u d i e s i n p o r t r a i t u r e . H i s i l l u s t r a t i o n s i n M a r i a C h a p d e l a i n e , 1921, of N e p o t i e n L a l i b e r t e , Hormidas B^rube and Madame C h a p d e l a i n e , g i v e a s e n s i t i v e p i c t o r i a l e q u i v a l e n t to the s t o r y of the F r e n c h Canadian peasants of the l a s t c e n t u r y . S u z o r - C o t e ' s Sugar Camp, A r t h a b a s k a , 1917, shows a wide range of v a l u e s i n c l u d i n g the s i l v e r s and reds t h a t mark the Maples i n the s p r i n g when the sap i s on the move. There are b l u e shadows c a s t on the snow and on the c a b i n ' s r o o f , g i v i n g a d e c o r a t i v e t r a c e r y e f f e c t found so o f t e n i n - 76 - Sisley's and Monet's snow scenes. When compared with his earlier canvas, Primitive Sugar Camp, 1910, i t is seen that Cote" kept very close to an original inspiration working and reworking i t the way the Impressionists did, to give the impression of the instant. Suzor-Cote is the most consistently Impressionist Canadian painter. He is the only painter who stayed with the Impressionist technique long after the artists in France had given up the idiom. His early work, dating from 1892 to 1905, the period of his training, is characteristically reserved and academic. However, from his return to Canada in 1908, until his death in 1937, he painted a continuous series of Impressionist pictures. Suzor-Cote was a French-Canadian peasant who went overseas to learn an academic way of painting, then on returning to Canada brought with him what appealed to him most. It was the Impressionist palette that pleased him, and that was what he chose to use on his return. The studio of Suzor-Cote" as visited by Jean Chauvin in 1927, represented Co\e's varied interests and his double heritage and appreciation of what was old and picturesque in Canada and in France. There were priceless French Aubusson rugs, old Brettpn chests, a three hundred year old marquetry and mahogany harpsichord and Indian curios a l l gathered to- gether. Perhaps no other Canadian painter has blended so rich a heritage of music, painting and sculpture, with the native and peasant l i f e of Quebec. CHAPTER V One of the e a r l i e s t major a r t p a t r o n s i n Canada was S i r W i l l i a m Van Horne, 1843 - 1915. He i s d e s c r i b e d i n the M o n t r e a l Museum of F i n e A r t s C a t a l o g u e as "The foremost r a i l r o a d o r g a n i z e r of h i s day, and a c r e a t o r o f the C . P . R . . . A g i f t e d amateur p a i n t e r , and an e n l i g h t e n e d c o l l e c t o r and c o n n o i s s e u r . " ' ' ' ^ His p i c t u r e S t e e l M i l l s a t Sydney, Cape B r e t o n , 1907, ( F i g . 60) shows a dramatic view of s t e e l - m i l l s i n f u l l - b l a s t , seen a c r o s s the water a t n i g h t . Van Horne made many t r i p s abroad and was always i n t e r e s t e d i n modern a r t , e s p e c i a l l y when i t had some r e l a t i o n to r a i l - ways and heavy i n d u s t r y . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t Armand G u i l l a u m i n , j u s t two y e a r s o l d e r than Van Horne, began working f o r the P a r i s - O r l e a n s Railway Company and p a i n t e d i n h i s l e i s u r e hours around P a r i s where he l i v e d . He showed i n . s i x of the e i g h t I m p r e s s i o n i s t e x h i b i t i o n s and 176 p a i n t e d a v e r y unusual view of Sunset At I v r y , about 1873. I t was shown i n the f i r s t I m p r e s s i o n i s t e x h i b i t i o n at N a d a r ' s i n 1874, d e p i c t i n g a sunset s c e n e , w i t h f a c t o r i e s i n the d i s t a n c e sending up volumes of b r i l l i a n t l y c o l o r e d smoke, a l l r e f l e c t e d i n the w i n d i n g r i v e r i n the f o r e g r o u n d . G u i l l a u m i n , who became i n d e p e n d e n t l y wealthy i n 1892 c o u l d presumably move i n the c i r c l e s f r e q u e n t e d by Van Horne and i t i s most l i k e l y t h a t Van Horne admired t h i s p i c t u r e a t some t i m e , as h i s own i s p a t t e r n e d so c l o s e l y a f t e r i t . L i k e Monet, G u i l l a u m i n s t u d i e d s u n r i s e and sunset e f f e c t s and was the f i r s t to use f a c t o r y chimneys as s u b j e c t s . S i n c e W i l l i a m Brymner taught a t the A r t A s s o c i a t i o n , M o n t r e a l , from 1886 u n t i l 1921, and h i s l a t e r p a i n t i n g s , F e e d i n g C h i c k e n s , 1912, L a t e A f t e r n o o n , and Sea Foam, 1911, assume a s u p e r f i c i a l l i g h t n e s s , a c h o i c e o f s u b j e c t and the i n d i s t i n c t n e s s of Impressionism; i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h r e e of h i s p u p i l s are e s s e n t i a l l y I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . These a r e Mabel May, F r e d e r i c k W. H u t c h i s o n , and W i l l i a m Henry C l a p p . - 78 - Mabel May's work i s c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h that of o t h e r M o n t r e a l p a i n t e r s . There a r e s u b t l e t i e s i n the c o l o r o f the M o n t r e a l s c h o o l which i s more I m p r e s s i o n i s t i c than the work of the Toronto group. Miss May was a l s o i n f l u e n c e d by the F r e n c h I m p r e s s i o n i s t s when she was i n P a r i s from 1912 to 1913. The R e g a t t a , 1914, ( F i g . 61) draws h e a v i l y f o r i n s p i r a t i o n on Monet's works a t A r g e n t e u i l of 1874 and 1875. The p i c t u r e i s v e r y 178 s i m i l a r i n c o m p o s i t i o n to M a n e t ' s The S e i n e a t A r g e n t e u i l , however, the h a n d l i n g i s l o o s e r and l e s s d i s t i n c t , more l i k e the work of R e n o i r and Monet of 1874. The b r u s h s t r o k e f o l l o w s the form of what the a r t i s t p a i n t s - and does not f o l l o w any p r e a r r a n g e d p a t t e r n . F r e d e r i c k W. H u t c h i s o n , 1871 - 1953 was b o r n i n M o n t r e a l . As a student i n P a r i s he was a p u p i l of Benjamin C o n s t a n t . R e t u r n i n g to America he was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the a r t l i f e of the U n i t e d S t a t e s t r a v e l l i n g between New York S t a t e , I l l i n o i s , and h i s summer home i n Quebec. H i s October Snow, B a i e S t . P a u l , ( F i g . 62) shows the i n t e r e s t i n warm l i g h t and c o o l shadow on snow and houses. " T h i s p i c t u r e i s a s u b t l e and p o e t i c arrangement w i t h emphasis p l a c e d on atmospheric envelopment and charm of 179 c o l o r " . H i s landscapes have a f i n e d i f f u s i o n of l i g h t . He i s a t r u e I m p r e s s i o n i s t w i t h an e x q u i s i t e sense of c o l o r . The s u n - f i l l e d p i c t u r e On The Road To Murray Bay, ( F i g . 63) i s a b i r d ' s eye view down a w i n d i n g roadway i n t o a v a l l e y . The i r r e g u l a r b r u s h s t r o k e s of pure pigment a r e r e m i n i s c e n t of the e a r l y I m p r e s s i o n i s t works by P i s s a r r o , Monet and R e n o i r . The c o l o r s are reduced to b l u e , y e l l o w and green w i t h much white added. H u t c h i n s o n ' s work has t h a t l i g h t e r b r i g h t e r c o l o r of R e n o i r w h i c h , when a p p l i e d to a Canadian s c e n e , makes a most p l e a s i n g p i c t u r e . B l a i r B r u c e ' s v e r y e a r l y I m p r e s s i o n i s t i c works of 1887 were done i n the neighborhood of M o n e t ' s home i n G i v e r n y and take the same s u b j e c t s - 79 - chosen by Monet and Sargent when they p a i n t e d t o g e t h e r a t Monet's home i n 1889. The pose, v i e w p o i n t and l i g h t e f f e c t s i n B r u c e 1 s P l e a s a n t Moment, 1887, ( F i g . 64)are a l s o s i m i l a r to Berthe M o r i s o t ' s p i c t u r e , The A r t i s t ' s 180 Sister,Mme. P o n t i l l o n Seated on the G r a s s , 1873, M a n e t ' s The Monet 181 F a m i l y i n T h e i r Garden i n A r g e n t e u i l , 1874, and R e n o i r ' s Mme. Monet and 182 Her Son i n T h e i r Garden a t A r g e n t e u i l , 1874. I n B r u c e ' s G i v e r n y F r a n c e , 1887, ( F i g . 65) t h e r e i s an e m u l a t i o n of R e n o i r ' s Path C l i m b i n g Through 183 Long G r a s s , 1878. Bruce must have seen these p i c t u r e s or o t h e r s l i k e them, i n F r a n c e , 1881 - 1895. H i s works a r e not I m p r e s s i o n i s t i n t e c h - nique but b o r r o w i n g from the s u p e r f i c i a l ' p l e i n - a i r ' e f f e c t s of Impressionism they show an e a r l y F r e n c h I m p r e s s i o n i s t i n f l u e n c e on a Canadian a r t i s t who went abroad to l i v e and p a i n t . W i l l i a m Henry Clapp was born i n M o n t r e a l i n 1879 where h e , t o o , began h i s a r t s t u d i e s under W i l l i a m Brymner. In P a r i s he s t u d i e d w i t h J e a n - P a u l L a u r e n s , L u c i e n Simon, E r n e s t L a u r e n t , Tony R o b e r t - F l e u r y , and w i t h L a p a r r a . The e f f e c t s of s t r o n g s u n l i g h t i n t e r e s t e d him and p l a y e d a l a r g e p a r t i n the landscapes he p a i n t e d i n F r a n c e , S p a i n , and Cuba. He won the J e s s i e Dow p r i z e i n M o n t r e a l i n 1908. Morning i n S p a i n , 1907, ( F i g . 66) i s l i k e a S i s l e y landscape w h i l e The Orchard Quebec, 1909, ( F i g . 67) i s r e m i n i s c e n t of P i s s a r r o 1 s Orchard 184 185 of P o n t o i s e , 1877, and h i s P i c k i n g A p p l e s , 1886. The New C h u r c h , 1913, ( F i g . 68) has a more P o i n t i l i s t s t y l e but Lumber B o a t s , ( F i g . 69)' may be 186 compared w i t h Monet's Beach a t S t . A n d r e s s e , 1867, so c l o s e l y does the t e c h n i q u e compare. As a p a i n t e r , Clapp may be c l a s s e d w i t h the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s a l t h o u g h h i s manner o f p a i n t i n g a l s o suggests the P o i n t i l l i s m o r D i v i s i o n i s m o f the l a t e r ;Neo-Impressionists. His c o l o r i s more I m p r e s s i o n i s t i c because i t does not employ the s c i e n t i f i c a l l y f o r m u l a t e d - 80 - color laws which Seurat followed. "He uses an empirically studied system to paint the objective, determined by his interest in what he termed 'physical vision', the coming in contact of color forces with the retina of the eye."1 8 7 In a letter written in Italy by A.Y. Jackson on Dec. 6, 1912, to Albert Laberge, art editor of "La Presse", Montreal, Jackson finds "The Futurists, Cubists, and Post-Impressionists are working feverishly and already the old Impressionist movement seems like ancient history in Paris. I suppose Montreal s t i l l laughs at Clapp, the loud empty laugh 188 which speaks the vacant mind. But they will learn." From his letter, one may conclude that Jackson considered Clapp's technique Impressionist. Jackson found that Montreal was not ready to accept an art form that was already "ancient history in Paris". This quotation also points out that as late as 1912, the Impressionist way of painting was considered by some Canadian artists to be a current and acceptable way of painting. Ernest Lawson, 1873 - 1939 was a landscape painter who used the French Impressionist style. Newton MacTavish has compared his palette 189 to crushed jewels. Certainly his vibrating brushstrokes and divided color areas are applied in rich o i l pigment that tends to obliterate form. His early Impressionist technique seen in Snowbound Boats, 1907, (Fig. 70) he learned from his teachers John Twachtman and Alden Weir. He lived most of his life in the United States where in 1908 the MacBeth Galleries exhibited canvases painted by eight of the younger American artists including Lawson. Winter, 1914, (Fig. 71) and Misty Day, 1918, (Fig. 72) are also representative of his early atmospheric Impressionism. His later works seen in The Bathers, (Fig. 73) and Sailboats, (Fig. 74) - 81 - b o t h show a much b r i g h t e r and c l e a r e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , more i n f l u e n c e d by P o s t - I m p r e s s i o n i s m . Ida G. H a m i l t o n ' s S u n l i g h t and Shadows of 1923, ( F i g . 75) reminds one of P i s s a r r o ' s The Red R o o f s , 1877, L o u v r e , P a r i s . In b o t h works t h e r e i s a d i s s o c i a t i o n of the elements of houses, t r e e s , and f i e l d s . The landscape i s p r e s e n t e d i n a s i n g l e equal v i b r a t i o n of c o l o r s of the same v a l u e . The dappled shadow e f f e c t of the l e a v e s and f e n c e on the r o a d , and the a l l over b r i g h t d e c o r a t i v e e f f e c t , makes t h i s a v i r t u o s o I m p r e s s i o n i s t p i c t u r e . I t i s not e x a c t l y l i k e any s i n g l e I m p r e s s i o n i s t m a s t e r ' s work but i s a f a i t h f u l e c l e c t i c c o p y i n g of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t elements of s t y l e a t a much l a t e r p e r i o d to g i v e an almost p e r f e c t I m p r e s s i o n i s t e f f e c t . "One has to b e g i n any o u t l i n e of the Group of Seven by m e n t i o n i n g Lawren H a r r i s " . He i t was who saw an e x h i b i t i o n of sketches by James Edward Hervey MacDonald and knew the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of Canadian landscape p a i n t i n g . With the h e l p of Dr. James McCallum he persuaded men l i k e Tom Thomson, A r t h u r L i s m e r , F r e d e r i c k V a r l e y , A l e x a n d e r J a c k s o n , F r a n k l i n C a r m i c h a e l and Franz J o h n s t o n to j o i n a group and develop a s c h o o l of p a i n t i n g which h e l d i t s f i r s t e x h i b i t i o n i n 1920. The o l d e s t member of the group was James MacDonald, 1873 - 1932, who began working as a d e s i g n e r i n the commercial p r i n t i n g and a d v e r t i z i n g f i r m of G r i p and Company i n 1895. He worked s t e a d i l y t h e r e u n t i l 1904 when he l e f t Canada to s t u d y a r t a t the C a r l t o n S t u d i o , London. On h i s r e t u r n home i n 1907 he a g a i n took up work w i t h G r i p Company as a s e n i o r member. He p a i n t e d and sketched i n h i s spare t i m e . In 1909 he t r a v e l l e d i n t o n o r t h e r n O n t a r i o f o r the f i r s t t i m e , and i n 1910 went to Georgian Bay. H i s e a r l y snow p i c t u r e s draw h e a v i l y on I m p r e s s i o n i s t masters f o r i n s p i r a t i o n . Tracks and T r a f f i c , - 82 - 1912, ( F i g . 76) i s immediately r e m i n i s c e n t of Monet's s e r i e s of s t u d i e s 191 of La Gare S t . L a z a r e . The r a i l w a y was a g r e a t n o v e l t y to the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . S i n c e T u r n e r ' s R a i n , Steam and Speed of 1844, Monet, P i s s a r r o , and S i s l e y s t u d i e d w i t h g r e a t i n t e r e s t the e f f e c t s of steam and smoke changing w i t h the wind, but f i x e d as c l o u d e f f e c t s and r e f l e c t i o n s on t h e i r canvases. MacDonald's p i c t u r e i n c l u d e s d i s t a n t f a c t o r y chimneys sending up c l o u d s o f smoke, as w e l l as a l o c o m o t i v e ' s steamy v a p o r s , and the Gas Works near the w a t e r f r o n t of T o r o n t o . Lawren H a r r i s ' p i c t u r e The Gas Works, 1912, ( F i g . 105) i s v e r y s i m i l a r i n a t m o s p h e r i c q u a l i t i e s to the MacDonald. Edge of a Town, ( F i g . 77) i n the U n i v e r s i t y Women's C l u b , T o r o n t o , has a b l u e shadow e f f e c t on the snow as dusk f a l l s b e h i n d f i g u r e s making t h e i r way toward home. The dappled l i g h t e f f e c t on the ground was a 192 s p e c i a l t y of R e n o i r as seen i n The Swing, 1876, or La M o u l i n de L a 193 G a l e t t e , 1876. Shadow e f f e c t s on snow p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d MacDonald. Winter Sunshine, ( F i g . 78) p r e s e n t s a broad v i s t a over snow-covered f i e l d s as an Elm c a s t s b l u e shadows a c r o s s the f o r e g r o u n d p l a n e and the shaded foreward s l o p e s of the r o o f s p r e s e n t b l u e patches i n the m i d d l e ground. High Park, the Luxembourg Gardens of T o r o n t o , was a f a v o r i t e s k e t c h i n g ground f o r MacDonald. I t was c l o s e to the G r i p Company o f f i c e s , and near h i s Toronto r e s i d e n c e and a t the t u r n of the c e n t u r y p r e s e n t e d an u n d i s t u r b e d park a r e a i n which to p a i n t . In Morning A f t e r Snow, ( F i g . 79) done i n High Park, the f o o t p r i n t s c r o s s i n g the snow p r o v i d e the i n c i d e n t a l human touch to the landscape which the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s u s u a l l y i n c l u d e d . L a t e r snow scenes n e g l e c t e d t h i s t o u c h . The mauves and b l u e s of l a t e I m p r e s s i o n i s m a r e seen i n E a r l y E v e n i n g , - 83 - W i n t e r , 1912, ( F i g . 8 0 ) . A l a r g e f u z z y sun shows through a snowstorm. T h i s i s a v e r y i n d i s t i n c t r e n d e r i n g , a s e a r c h i n g f o r a l l the l i g h t e f f e c t s of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , and perhaps i t f a l l s i n t o the e r r o r of the l a t e I m p r e s s i o n i s t s i n b e i n g too d i f f u s e d . MacDonald developed the i n t e r e s t i n shadow and snow e f f e c t s f u r t h e r than the F r e n c h I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . In The Pine Shadows M o o n l i g h t , 1912, ( F i g . 81) MacDonald i n t r o d u c e s a new concept i n t o h i s p i c t u r e . The shadow o f the t r e e on the snow i s the main s u b j e c t , and the canvas becomes a d e c o r a t i v e p a t t e r n o f l i g h t and dark a r e a s . I t was i n 1912 t h a t MacDonald and H a r r i s v i s i t e d the E x h i b i t i o n of S c a n d i n a v i a n A r t a t the A l b r i g h t A r t G a l l e r y , B u f f a l o , New York. In 1894 Gusta\fcGeffroy p u b l i s h e d h i s H i s t o r y o f I m p r e s s i o n i s m , thus g i v i n g I m p r e s s i o n i s m a p l a c e i n the h i s t o r y of a r t . In 1897 t h e r e were I m p r e s s i o n i s t e x h i b i t i o n s i n London and Stockholm. T h i s e a r l y c o n t a c t o f Sweden w i t h I m p r e s s i o n i s m would r e a c h Canada i n d i r e c t l y through the 1912 B u f f a l o e x h i b i t i o n . From t h i s l a r g e s c a l e c o n c e p t i o n of shadows MacDonald f i n d s another new approach to Impressionism i n Snowbound, 1915, ( F i g . 82) a c l o s e u p view of branches bent low by the snow w i t h shadows beneath and b r i g h t h i g h l i g h t s b e h i n d . At t h i s time Lawren H a r r i s and MacDonald were working c l o s e l y t o g e t h e r and the s i m i l a r i t y between MacDonald's Snow Bound, ( F i g . 82) and the snow scene of H a r r i s ( F i g . 83) i n the Robert B. McMichael c o l l e c t i o n i s v e r y s t r i k i n g . A s i m i l a r remarkable e a r l y Tom Thomson canvas i n the McMichael C o l l e c t i o n , h a v i n g d i s t i n c t I m p r e s s i o n i s t f e a t u r e s i s In A l g o n q u i n Park, 1914 ( F i g . 8 4 ) . I t i s r e m i n i s c e n t of the work of the American I m p r e s s i o n i s t s Twachtman, Weir and Lawson. In MacDonald's F a l l s , M o n t r e a l R i v e r , 1920, ( F i g . 85) the a p p l i c a t i o n - 84 - of paint in small brushstrokes of pure color appears Impressionist in isolated areas. In the allover effect the canvases' larger areas of color, sweeping sinuous lines, and abstract forms reflect the influence of many styles. In his Sketch No. 2 for Tangled Garden, (Fig. 86) we see. an intimate bit of the artist's garden with reserved grayed foliage and yellow flowers against a pale blue sky. There are irregular brush strokes which remind one of the Impressionist garden studies but in his final canvas of 194 Tangled Garden, 1916, there is a change to a riot of thick and pasty Fauve color which shocked the public and the critics. Tom Thomson has painted, in the vivid bright colors of Canada, one of our most Impressionist canvases. His Bateaux (Fig. 87) is a more 195 vigorous painting of Claude Monet's Regatta at Argenteuil, 1872. "It was at Argenteuil that the Impressionist technique was really invented. Trie light as reflected in the rippling water cast up reflections beneath the arches of the bridge, while the white sails reflected in the river provide 196 a natural example of the separate of strokes and color." This was Monet's home and there he did his boldest fresh and free work. Arthur Lismer who painted with Tom Thomson in the north says of him, "Thomson belonged to no group. He was as timid as a deer. Every nerve and fibre seemed to be waiting for the time and place to register some creative impression. He was almost monastic in his desire for seclusion, in his seeking out of lonely spots. He was a creature of depression and of ecastatic moments. I've been with him in the woods when I've got the definite feeling that he was part of them, that the birds and animals recognized something in him that they had themselves. That's why I say that the rest of us were painting pictures; he was expressing moods. He - 85 - 197 was simply a part of nature." Tom Thomson exemplifies one of the greatest influences on the younger Canadian painters. He was not always an Impressionist painter, but the s p i r i t of Impressionism led him to the landscape subject, the outdoor scene, and the dependence on the v i s u a l scene for a subject which he then painted with a free-flowing execution, catching the f e e l i n g of the instant i n pure color. Subjects l i k e sunset, autumn landscapes, northern l i g h t s ; the i n t e r e s t i n the c o l o r f u l f a l l e f f e c t s of northern landscapes; intangible themes l i k e a west wind, a shimmering lake, a golden autumn, and moonlight are Impressionist i n s p i r i t . Post-Impressionism, Fauvism, Art Nouveau, and Expressionism are other influences to be found i n h i s works. The sketches for h i s canvases have much more sponteniety and f r e s h - ness of color than the f i n i s h e d painting. Spring Ice, 1916, ( F i g . 88) with i t s l y r i c harmonies of blue and green, perhaps comes c l o s e s t to the freedom of the sketches. Wide color areas are syncopated with smaller areas of Impressionist brush strokes. There i s a high horizon l i n e , an a l l - o v e r cool f e e l i n g of spring, blue shadows and an instantaneous impression. But the s w i r l of brush stroke and the heavy areas of paint are not the r e f i n e d d e l i c a t e modelling of Impressionism but a new more f o r c e f u l , urgent, and emotional rendering. In Edge of the Log Run, 1916, (Fig. 89) the strong color i s swirled and p i l e d high as the a r t i s t depicts the dynamism of the run. Figures 90 and 91, from the McMichael c o l l e c t i o n i l l u s t r a t e how the a r t i s t has gone beyond Impressionism to a broad dynamic brush stroke and yet retains a color rendering that sparkles, s c i n t i l a t e s and moves i n water and sky, i n an Impressionist way; which has a l l the force of color and brush work that the great northland i n s p i r e d . - 86 - F r a n k l i n C a r m i c h a e l , 1890 - 1945, a p u p i l of W i l l i a m Cruikshank might have adopted the m i s t y B a r b i z o n s t y l e o f h i s t e a c h e r . I n s t e a d he became an expert d e s i g n t e a c h e r i n h i s own r i g h t and as a water c o l o r i s t he p a i n t e d d e l i c a t e , b e a u t i f u l l y designed work. Autumn: O r i l l i a , ( F i g . 92) i s an I m p r e s s i o n i s t work o v e r l a i d w i t h a l a c e - l i k e p a t t e r n of t r e e trunks and branches g i v i n g a designed d e c o r a t i v e e f f e c t , s u g g e s t i v e of Mark Toby's C a l l i o g r a p h i c w r i t i n g . H i s Winter Landscape ( F i g . 93) shows the meticulous care w i t h which he put down each b r u s h s t r o k e i n b u i l d i n g up t h i s I m p r e s s i o n i s t canvas. The g r e a t c o l o r i s t of the group was F r e d e r i c k Horsman V a r l e y , 1881 - . H i s P o r t r a i t of J a n e t , ( F i g . 94) i s of a d e l i g h t f u l c h i l d i n her white d r e s s , s t a n d i n g i n the l i g h t - f i l l e d b u t - o f - d o o r s . Only i n the e x p r e s s i v e f a c e does the f i n e draughtsmanship of the a r t i s t become e v i d e n t . V e r a , ( F i g . 95) a p o r t r a i t of a young woman done i n the jewel c o l o r s of a R e n o i r may a l s o have s m a l l areas of I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g combined w i t h areas of Fauve c o l o r and the o u t l i n i n g of P o s t - I m p r e s s i o n i s m . In a p e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w w i t h the p a i n t e r A r t h u r L i s m e r , i n h i s A r t A s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c e i n M o n t r e a l i n the f a l l of 1964, Mr. L i s m e r , when asked about h i s p a i n t i n g The G u i d e ' s Home, A l g o n q u i n , 1914, ( F i g . 96) s a i d " T h a t i s d e f i n i t e l y F r e n c h I m p r e s s i o n i s m and I never r e p e a t e d i t " . He f e l t t h a t the i n f l u e n c e of Impressionism was not as c o n s c i o u s l y f e l t by p a i n t e r s as by the c r i t i c s i n Canada. The F r e n c h I m p r e s s i o n i s t l a n d - scape s u b j e c t was i n t i m a t e and a p p e a l e d to the more v o l a t i l e F r e n c h . The more sober a s s o c i a t e s , l a t e r to form the Group of Seven, found t h a t the I m p r e s s i o n i s t mode of e x p r e s s i o n was not s u i t e d to the w i l d s of Canadian l a n d s c a p e . Lismer thought t h a t Canadian p a i n t i n g adopted I m p r e s s i o n i s t c o l o r , but o n l y used the s m a l l I m p r e s s i o n i s t b r u s h s t r o k e as an a c c e n t and - 87 - contrast to the broader areas used in painting Canadian scenery. He pointed out the thorough-going influence Impressionism had in interior decoration, textiles, and in bringing the newly invented scientific colors to the fore. Afternoon Sunlight, 1915 - 1916, (Fig. 97) and Springtime on the Farm, 1916 - 1917, (Fig. 98) are two canvases of the same scene painted in different seasons of the year. Like the Impressionists, Lismer suggests the presence of people but does not show them. A ladder stands beside the tree in the fenced-in enclosure. Smoke comes from the chimney and a wash is on the line. Two geese are moving along outside the picket fence. These intimate personal touches are found in Impressionism. "It seemed to Arthur Lismer as though French Impressionism, by which he was so stirred, was indeed vibration, not simply of the soul but also 198 an actual physical vibration." Alexander Young Jackson states "It was through Cullen and Morrice that we in Montreal first became aware of the fresh and invigorating 199 movements going on in the art circles of France; ... On Cullen's first return from France he held an exhibition at the Fraser Institute ... To 200 us he was a hero." "Few people liked the work I brought home from Europe. The French Impressionist influence in i t was regarded as • 11 201 extreme modernism'. An early canvas Canoe Lake, (Fig. 99) is an Impressionist snow scene. Two war pictures Churches at Lievin, 1918 (Fig. 100) and A Screened Road, 1918, (Fig. 101) show Impressionist influences. In his 202 canvas Road to St. Simon, 1940, he uses the Impressionist color of blue and yellow but the sinuous curves and wide sweeps of color areas 203 belong to Post-Impressionism. Winter Morning, is a glorious - 88 - I m p r e s s i o n i s t i n f l u e n c e d canvas of b l u e and o c h r e ; but i n s t e a d of b r u s h s t r o k e s t h e r e a r e s w i r l s of p a i n t . The v a s t a r e a of f o o t h i l l s r i s e h i g h e r and h i g h e r on the canvas i n u n d u l a t i n g curves r e m i n i s c e n t of W i l l i a m C u l l e n B r y a n t ' s poem The P r a i r i e s . J a c k s o n ' s p a i n t i n g from the McMichael c o l l e c t i o n ( F i g . 102) i s another such canvas. I t was Lawren H a r r i s , 1885 - , who had the energy and d r i v e to f u l f i l J . E . H . MacDonald's dream of a s c h o o l of p a i n t i n g i n Canada t h a t would r e a l i z e the w e a l t h of m o t i f s which p r e s e n t e d t h e m s e l v e s . " V e r s a t i l i t y has been the keynote of Lawren H a r r i s ' l o n g c a r e e r . . . . H i s v a r i a t i o n s have always been d i c t a t e d by s u b j e c t m a t t e r and an i n n e r . 204 s p i r i t u a l compulsion . H a r r i s had s t u d i e d ' A r t Nouveau' and J u g e n d s t i l i n B e r l i n , and ' A r t Nouveau' was the s t y l e used by the commercial a r t i s t s i n Canada b e f o r e 1913. I t was i n 1913 t h a t Lawren H a r r i s met Thorn Thomson and i t i s h a r d to say j u s t what the exchange of i d e a s was between these two men. I t was Thomson who i n t r o d u c e d H a r r i s to landscape p a i n t i n g as they went s k e t c h i n g t o g e t h e r i n t o A l g o n q u i n Park i n 1914. Thomson's Snow i n O c t o b e r , 1914, 205 ( F i g . 103) and March suggest H a r r i s 1 Winter Woods, 1914, but the canvases of Lawren H a r r i s have a touch of f o r m a l i t y not found i n the work of Thomson. From a d e c o r a t i v e p a t t e r n u s i n g I m p r e s s i o n i s t c o l o r and b r u s h 206 s t r o k e as seen i n Houses, Richmond S t r e e t , T o r o n t o , 1911, the s t y l e of H a r r i s became s i m p l e r , the forms more p o w e r f u l and the l i n e s more a c c e n t u a t e d . The b r u s h s t r o k e and c o l o r of I m p r e s s i o n i s m i s combined w i t h an Arabesque l i n e , the s i l h o u e t t e e f f e c t and elements o f A r t Nouveau. H a r r i s d i d a s e r i e s of snow p i c t u r e s i n the e a r l y t w e n t i e s , one of which Snow II, ( F i g . 104) i s a v e r y I m p r e s s i o n i s t scene of a grove of spruce t r e e s i n the f o r e g r o u n d l a d e n w i t h snow and bathed i n i r i d e s c e n t b l u e , - 89 - mauve, purple, pink, white, and yellow shadows, with very dark greens. In the sun-filled background bright whites, oranges and yellows complement the foreground colors and set up Impressionist vibrations of color. Thomson had watched the style of Harris develop and change from the more traditional Naturalism through Impressionism toward a more abstract design and his own painting mirrors this progression. Thus we see Impressionism not being discarded but being developed. It is difficult to include and assess a l l the Impressionist painters working in Canada after 1900. When part of the Caillebotte collection of Impressionist paintings was accepted by the Luxembourg in 1896 and the Moreau-Nelaton collection by the Louvre in 1906. Canadian artists studying abroad could see great French Impressionist works. By 1910 many Canadian artists were painting pictures in the Impressionist style, but the influence of Impressionism carries on into contemporary work. "The Impressionist tradition, and the love of vibrant colors as autonomous factors of emotion, sometimes independent of the form, are s t i l l continued by artists of a refined sensibility and a very sure taste. Their works dating from after 1945, do not mark a stylistic break, nor even an essential transformation in relation to paintings executed before that date, for these artists had by then reached the age of forty or more, and their aesthetic conceptions and personal techniques had become stabilized. They brilliantly continue a French tradition of sensitive and sensual gracefulness, which often seems a normal develop- 207 ment of Impressionism." FOOTNOTES CHAPTER I 1 Graham C. Mclnnes, A Short H i s t o r y of Canadian A r t , new e d . , T o r o n t o , M a c M i l l a n and Company, 1950, p. 58 2 I b i d . , p. 47 3 I b i d . , p. 3 CHAPTER II 4 H e l e n Gardner, A r t Through The Ages, New York, H a r c o u r t , Brace and Company, 1959, p. 657 5 C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o , L e t t e r s To H i s Son L u c i e n , New Y o r k , Pantheon Books I n c o r p o r a t e d , 1943, p. 14 6 F r a n c o i s Mathey, The I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , New York, F r e d e r i c k A. P r a e g e r , 1961, p. 232 7 John Rewald, The H i s t o r y of I m p r e s s i o n i s m , New Y o r k , The Museum of Modern A r t , 1961, p. 114 8 I b i d . , p. 17 9 I b i d . , p. 29 10 I b i d . , p. 16 11 F r a n c o i s Mathey, The I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , New York, F r e d e r i c k A. Praeger, 1961, p. 217 12 I b i d . , p. 39 13 I b i d . 14 John Rewald, The H i s t o r y of I m p r e s s i o n i s m , New York, The Museum o f Modern A r t , 1961, p. 28 15 I b i d . , p. 34 16 I b i d . , p. 8 17 F r a n g o i s Mathey, The I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , New Y o r k , F r e d e r i c k A . P r a e g e r , - 90 - - 91 - 1961, p. 109 18 I b i d . , p. 13 19 I b i d . , p. 5 0 - 5 1 20 C . J . Smith, I n t e r m e d i a t e P h y s i c s , London, Edward A r n o l d and Company, 1947, p. 495 21 C h a r l e s E. Gauss, The A e s t h e t i c T h e o r i e s of F r e n c h A r t i s t s , B a l t i m o r e , Johns Hopkins P r e s s , 1949, p. 33 22 Jean Auguste Domenique I n g r e s , Comtesse d ' H a u s s o n v i l l e , 1845, The Henry C l a y F r i c k C o l l e c t i o n ; John Canaday, Mainstreams of Modern A r t , New Y o r k , H o l t R i n e h a r t and Winston, 1963, 1 1 1 . , p. 70 23 F r a n c o i s Mathey, The I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , New York, F r e d e r i c k A . P r a e g e r , 1961, p. 109 24 P i e r r e C h a r l e s B a u d e l a i r e , The M i r r o r of A r t , Garden C i t y , New York, Doubleday and Co. I n c . , 1956, p. 49 25 John Rewald, The H i s t o r y of I m p r e s s i o n i s m , New York, The Museum of Modern A r t , 1961, p. 339, No. 22 26 P i e r r e C o u r t h i o n , P a r i s In Our Time, New Y o r k , S k i r a , 1957, p. 17 27 M.E. C h e v r e u l , The P r i n c i p l e s of Harmony and C o n t r a s t o f C o l o u r s , London, George B e l l and Sons, 1890, p. 227 28 C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o , L e t t e r s to H i s Son L u c i e n , New York, Pantheon Books I n c o r p o r a t e d , 1943, p. 15 29 F r a n c o i s Mathey, The I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , New York, F r e d e r i c k A. P r a e g e r , 1961, p. 40 30 John Rewald, The H i s t o r y of I m p r e s s i o n i s m , New York, The Museum of Modern A r t , 1961, p. 258 31 I b i d . , p. 258 - 92 - 32 Pissarro, Letters, op. cit., p. 355 33 Pierre Renoir, Renoir, London, Thames and Hudson, Chapter 2, p. 59 34 Germain Bazin, Impressionist Paintings In The Louvre, London, Thames and Hudson, 1964, p. 14 35 Rewald, Impressionism, op. cit., p. 150 36 John Canaday, Seminars In Art, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Portfolio J, 1964, p. 10 37 Bazin, Impressionist,Paintings, op. cit., p. 260 38 James R. Mellow, "A New Look At Claude Monet", The Best In Arts; New York, Horizon Press, 1962, p. 143 39 Ibid., p. 144 40 Ibid., p. 145 41 Ibid., p. 146 42 Ibid., p. 146 43 Ibid., p. 148 44 Ibid., p. 148 45 Ibid., p. 148 46 Bazin, Impressionist Paintings, op. cit., p. 65 47 Ibid., p. 66 48 Ibid., p. 67 49 Ibid., p. 65 50 The Art Institute of Chicago Paintings, Catalogue, Amsterdam, J. Brandt and Zn, 1961, p. 68 51 Daniel M. Mendelowitz, A History of American Art, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960, p. 444 52 Hirschl and Adler Galleries, Catalogue, New York, Feb. 18, 1964 53 Mathey, Impressionists, op. cit., p. 168 54 Oliver W. Larkin, Art and Life In America, New York, Rinehart and Company, 1949, p. 305 55 R.H. Hubbard, National Gallery of Canada, Catalogue of Paintings and Sculpture, Volume 111, Canadian School, Ottawa, 1960, p. 165. CHAPTER III 56 J. Russell Harper, Homer Watson, R.C.A., 1855 - 1936, Paintings and Drawings, Ottawa, The National Gallery of Canada, Catalogue, 1963 57 Beaumont Newhall, The History of Photography, New York, The Museum of Modern Art, 1964, p. 17 58 Homer Watson, The Flood Gate; Harper Catalogue, op. cit., 1963 plate III 59 J. Russell Harper, Homer Watson, R.C.A., 1855 - 1936, Paintings and Drawings, Catalogue, 1963 60 Ibid., plate 48 61 Ibid., plate 53 62 Ibid., plate 56 63 J. Russell Harper, Paintings and Drawings, Catalogue, op. cit, 1963 64 Alfred H. Robson, Canadian Landscape Painters, Toronto, The Ryerson Press, 1932, p. 114 65 Rewald, Impressionism, p. 40 66 Ibid. 67 Ibid., p. 61 68 Art Vivant, "Duret To Manet", Aug., 1928, p. 261 69 Rewald, Impressionism, op. cit., p. 532 - 94 - 70 I b i d . , pp. 471 - 472 71 B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t e r s , op. c i t . , pp. 65 - 66 72 V i n c e n t van Gogh, Complete L e t t e r s , V o l . 1, Greenwich C o n n e c t i c u t , New York G r a p h i c S o c i e t y , 1959, p. 476 73 I b i d . , V o l . 3, pp. 80 - 83 74 E r i c Brown, " S t u d i o T a l k , T o r o n t o " , I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i o , V o l . 40, 1910, p. 243 75 Newlin P r i c e , H o r a t i o Walker, New York, Lewis C a r r i e r , 1928, p. 4 76 Claude Monet, The Break-up of the I c e Near V e t h e u i l ; Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 443 77 H o r a t i o Walker, L i t t l e White P i g s and Mother; H a r p e r , C a t a l o g u e , Ottawa, N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y of Canada, op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 326 78 Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m, op. c i t . , p. 456 79 C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o , Low Path a t P o n t o i s e , Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m, op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 470 80 Claude Monet, T u r k e y s ; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 288 81 H o r a t i o Walker, White T u r k e y s ; P r i c e , Walker, op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 26 82 H o r a t i o Walker, The Sugar Bush; Canadian P a i n t e r s , P h a i d o n , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p l a t e II 83 Isham and C o r t o i s s o z , H i s t o r y of American P a i n t i n g , New Y o r k , 1927, pp. 495 - 496 84 H o r a t i o Walker, The R o y a l M a i l Over The I c e B r i d g e ; Jean C h a u v i n , A t e l i e r s , M o n t r e a l , L o u i s C a r r i e r & C i e , 1928, 1 1 1 . , p. 70 85 D a n i e l M. M e n d e l o w i t z , American A r t , New York, H o l t R i n e h a r t and Winston, 1960, p. 255 - 95 - 86 J . M . B a r n s l e y , R i v e r Bank, F r a n c e ; J . B a r r y L o r d , J . M . B a r n s l e y , 1861 - 1929, R e t r o s p e c t i v e E x h i b i t i o n , C a t a l o g u e , p l a t e 15 87 Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , p. 227 88 J . M . B a r n s l e y , L ' E n t r e e du P o r t a Dieppe; L o r d , B a r n s l e y R e t r o s p e c t i v e , C a t a l o g u e , op. c i t . , p. 13 89 L o r d , B a r n s l e y R e t r o s p e c t i v e , C a t a l o g u e , op. c i t . 90 Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , p. 110 91 I b i d . , p. 37 92 I b i d . , p. 38 93 I b i d . 94 I b i d . , p. 46 95 Claude Monet, The Seine E s t u a r y a t H o n f l e u r ; Rewald, Impressionism, op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 122 96 Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , p. 123 97 C h a r l e s Daubigny, The F e r r y ; Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . 1 1 1 . , p. 103 98 W i l l i a m C o l g a t e , Canadian A r t , T o r o n t o , Ryerson P r e s s , 1943, p. 122 99 Robert P i l o t , Wm. Brymner, ( T y p e w r i t t e n Notes sent to the N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y Ottawa) June 22, 1958, S e c t i o n 2 100 A l b e r t Henry Robson, Canadian Landscape P a i n t e r s , T o r o n t o , The Ryerson P r e s s , 1932, p. 73 101 A l f r e d H. B a r r , M a t i s s e , New York, The Museum of Modern A r t , 1951, pp. 15 - 16 102 C a m i l l e C o r o t , The Gust of Wind; Mathey, The I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 1 103 F l o r e n c e L e w i s o n , "Theodore Robinson and Claude Monet", A p o l l o , S e p t . 1963, pp. 208 - 211 - 96 - 104 Theodore Robinson, W i l l o w s ; M e n d e l o w i t z , American A r t , op. c i t . 1 1 1 . , p. 443 105 Mary C a s s a t t , Young Woman Sewing; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 211 106 Mary C a s s a t t , The B a t h ; A r t I n s t i t u t e of C h i c a g o , C a t a l o g u e , 111. , p. 369 107 John S. S a r g e n t , The Wyndham S i s t e r s ; Canaday Seminars In A r t H i s t o r y , P o r t f o l i o 4, op. c i t . , p l a t e 39 108 John S. S a r g e n t , Monet P a i n t i n g In H i s Garden; Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 153 109 Auguste R e n o i r , La Loge; F r a n c o i s F o s c a , R e n o i r , London, Thames and Hudson, 1961, 1 1 1 . , p. 40 110 W i l l i a m G l a c k e n s , Chez Mouquin; A r t I n s t i t u t e of C h i c a g o , C a t a l o g u e , • I op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 377 111 I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i o , V o l . 58, 1916, pp. 269 - 274 112 H. Mortimer Lamb, " S t u d i o T a l k , M o n t r e a l " , I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i o , V o l . 58, 1916, pp. 63 - 67 113 I b i d . 114 P i l o t , Brymner, Typed N o t e s , N.G.O., op. c i t . , (99), 1958 CHAPTER IV 115 Romain Gour, M a u r i c e C u l l e n , un M a i t r e de l ' a r t au Canada, Les E d i t i o n s E o l i e n n e s , p. 5 116 W i l l i a m R. Watson, "The A r t of Maurice C u l l e n " , Canadian Review of Music and A r t , T o r o n t o , O n t a r i o , J a n . , 1943, La Grange L i b r a r y , T o r o n t o . 117 B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g s , op. c i t . , p. 30 118 I b i d . , pp. 30&32 119 Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , p. 72 120 Robert W. P i l o t , Maurice C u l l e n , R.C.A., Typed copy of an address g i v e n to The A r t s Club of M o n t r e a l , 1937, La Grange L i b r a r y , T o r o n t o . 121 " W i l l i a m Brymner" l e t t e r f i l e , La Grange L i b r a r y , Toronto 122 Robert W. P i l o t , M a u r i c e C u l l e n , R.C.A., Typed copy of an address g i v e n to The A r t s Club of M o n t r e a l , 1937, L a Grange L i b r a r y , Toronto 123 I b i d . 124- Newton M a c T a v i s h , The F i n e A r t s i n Canada, T o r o n t o , M a c m i l l a n , 1925, p. 539 125 " E x p o s i t i o n r e t r o s p e c t i v e des oeuvres de Maurice C u l l e n " , L ' A c t i o n C a t h o l i q u e , Quebec, January 11, 1957 126 Armand G u i l l a u m i n , Sunset At I v r y ; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g s , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 137 127 A l f r e d S i s l e y , The F l o o d a t P o r t M a r l y ; Mathey, I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , op . c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 73 128 C h a r l e s Daubigny, The F e r r y ; Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 103 129 Denys S u t t o n , "A Bouquet f o r S a r g e n t , " A p o l l o , May, 1964, p. 397 130 Edward Manet, The S p a n i s h G u i t a r i s t ; John Canaday, Mainstreams of Modern A r t , New York, H o l t , R i n e h a r t and W i n s t o n , 1 1 1 . , p.159 131 Robert P i l o t , M a u r i c e C u l l e n , typed notes of address g i v e n to the A r t s Club of M o n t r e a l i n 1937, La Grange L i b r a r y , T o r o n t o 132 Georges S e u r a t , H a y s t a c k s ; Rewald, Impressionism, op. c i t . , 111., p. 507 133 Claude Monet, Haystacks a t G i v e r n y ; Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . 1 1 1 . , p. 517 - 98 - 134 M o n t r e a l G a z e t t e , J u l y , 1929, N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y Ottawa, L i b r a r y 135 La Grange L i b r a r y , Toronto 136 Marius Barbeau, "The A r t of M a u r i c e C u l l e n " , Saturday N i g h t , June 9, 1934 137 I b i d . 138 James W i l s o n M o r r i c e l e t t e r , 1911, L a Grange, L i b r a r y , Toronto 139 W i l l i a m R. Watson, " M a u r i c e C u l l e n " , Canadian Review of Music and A r t , 1943 140 Newton M a c T a v i s h , The F i n e A r t s i n Canada, T o r o n t o , M a c m i l l a n Co. o f Canada L t d . , 1917, p. 537 141 N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y Ottawa, L i b r a r y 142 P i l o t , A d d r e s s , op. c i t . 143 N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y Canada, L i b r a r y 144 M o n t r e a l G a z e t t e , October 5, 1956 145 Marius Barbeau, P a i n t e r s of Quebec, T o r o n t o , The Ryerson P r e s s , May 8, 1945, p. 4 146 Romain Gour, S u z o r - C o t e , A r t i s t e M u l t i f o r m e (1869 - 1937), C a t a l o g u e , Les E d i t i o n s E o l i e n n e s , La Grange, L i b r a r y , N.D. 147 I b i d . 148 M o n t r e a l G a z e t t e , September 30, 1914 149 C. B a t a i l l e , Le J o u r n a l , P a r i s , 1900, Gour, Suzor-Cotr^, op. c i t . 150 M. D ' A l v a r , European A r t i s t , P a r i s , 1900, Gour, S u z o r-c6te 151 A l b e r t L e f e b v r e , The Review of Two F r a n c e ' s , P a r i s , 1900, Gour, Suzor-Cote', op. c i t . 152 Romain Gour, S u z o r - C o t e , op. c i t . 153 I b i d . 154 I b i d . - 99 - 155 I b i d . 156 H . C . , " S t u d i o T a l k , T o r o n t o " , I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i o , March - June, 1916, pp. 269 - 274 157 A l f r e d S i s l e y , Snow a t L o u v e c i e n n e s ; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g s , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 188 158 Dagobert D. Runes, and H a r r y G. S c h r i c k e l , E n c y c l o p e d i a of The A r t s , New York, 1946, p. 136 159 Claude Monet, The Magpie; Mathey, I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , op. c i t . , 111., p. 57 160 Claude Monet, Rouen C a t h e d r a l ; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 260 161 C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o , Church of S a i n t - J a c q u e s a t Dieppe; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , 111. p. 262 162 S u z o r - C ^ t e , The P e r i b o n k a C h u r c h ; L o u i s Hemon, M a r i a C h a p d e l a i n e , M o n t r e a l , A . T . Chapman, 1921, 1 1 1 . , 3 163 Claude Monet, Rouen C a t h e d r a l ; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g s , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 290 164 A l f r e d S i s l e y , Church a t M o r e t ; Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 577 165 Suzor.-Cote, Etude de Nu; C h a u v i n , A t e l i e r s , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 90 166 S u z o r - C o t e , M e l o d i e s ; I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i o , V o l . 58, F e b . , 1916, 1 1 1 . , p. 62 167 Georges S e u r a t , Model i n P r o f i l e ; Model From The Back; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g s , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 299 168 Jean C h a u v i n , A t e l i e r s , M o n t r e a l , L o u i s C a r r i e r and Company, 1928, p. 91 169 Claude Monet, On The Beach; Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 252 - 100 - 170 Suzor-Cote, Youth in Sunlight; National Gallery Ottawa, Catalogue, 111., p. 289 171 Claude Monet, Lady With A Parasol Turned Toward The Right, Lady With A Parasol Turned Toward The Left; Bazin, Impressionist Paintings, op. cit., 111., p. 289 172 R.H. Hubbard, The Development of Canadian Art, Ottawa, The National Gallery of Canada, N.D., pp. 80 - 81 173 Montreal Gazette, September 30, 1914 174 Suzor-Cofe\ Francois Taillon; Canadian Painters, Phaic|on, 111., a • p. 8 CHAPTER V 175 John Steegman, Catalogue of Paintings, Montreal, Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, 1960, p. 42 176 Armand Guillaumin, Sunset at Ivry; Bazin, Impressionist Paintings, op. cit., 111., p. 137 177 Bazin, Impressionist Paintings, op. cit., p. 136 178 Edouard Manet, The Seine at Argenteuil; Rewald, Impressionism, op. cit., 111., p. 347 179 Robson, Canadian Landscape Painters, op. cit., p. 109 180 Berthe Morisot, The Artistes Sister, Mme. Pontillon Seated on the Grass; Rewald, Impressionism, op. cit., 111., p. 325 181 Edouard Manet, The Monet Family in their Garden in Argenteuil; Rewald, Impressionism, op. cit., 111., p. 343 182 Auguste Renoir, Mme. Monet and Her Son in Their Garden at Argenteuil; Rewald, Impressionism, op. cit., 111., p. 343 183 Auguste Renoir, Path Climbing Through Long Grass; Bazin, Impressionist Paintings, op. cit., 111., p. 155 - 101 - \ 184 C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o , O r c h a r d of P o n t o i s e ; Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , 111. , p. 411 185 I b i d . , p. 529 186 Claude Monet, Beach A t S t . A d r e s s e ; Rewald, I m p r e s s i o n i s m , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 154 187 The Examiner, San F r a n c i s c o , C a l i f o r n i a , August 17, 1930. 188 J a c k s o n l e t t e r f i l e , L a Grange L i b r a r y , Toronto 189 Newton M a c T a v i s h , "Some Canadian P a i n t e r s Of The Snow", I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i o , V o l . 66, 1918 - 19, pp. 78 - 82 190 Robson, Canadian Landscape P a i n t e r s , op. c i t . , p. 150 191 Claude Monet, L a Gare S t . L a z a r e ; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g s , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 174 192 Auguste R e n o i r , The Swing; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g s , op. c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 165 193 I b i d . , p. 163 194 J . E . H . MacDonald, Tangled Garden; N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y Ottawa, C a t a l o g u e , 1 1 1 . , p. 193 195 Claude Monet, R e g a t t a a t A r g e n t e u i l ; B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g s , o p i c i t . , 1 1 1 . , p. 131 196 B a z i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g , op c i t . , p. 130 197 Macleans Magazine, J u l y 1, 1953, p. 30 198 Roger F r y , E x h i b i t i o n of F r e n c h A r t at the G r a f t o n G a l l e r i e s , London, 1909, p. 15 199 A . Y . J a c k s o n , A P a i n t e r ' s C o u n t r y , Canada, C l a r k e , I r w i n , and Company, 1963, p. 16 200 I b i d . , p. 17 201 I b i d . , p. 20 - 102 - 202 A . Y . J a c k s o n , Road to S t . Simon; J a c k s o n , A P a i n t e r ' s C o u n t r y , op. c i t . , (199), 1 1 1 . , p. 32 203 A . Y . J a c k s o n , Winter Morning; 1 1 1 . , MacLeans Magazine, F e b . 15 1947 204 P a u l D u v a l , "From Nature to A b s t r a c t i o n " , Lawren H a r r i s , 1963 Vancouver, Seymour P r e s s , 1963, p. 23 205 Lawren H a r r i s , W i n t e r Woods; Lawren H a r r i s P a i n t i n g s 1910 - 1948 C a t a l o g u e , p l a t e 3 206 I b i d . , p l a t e 1 207 A r t S i n c e 1945, New York, Washington Square P r e s s , 1962, p. 16 B I 0 G R A P H I E S THE PRE-IMPRESSIONISTS and IMPRESSIONISTS IN CANADA - 103 - HOMER RANSFORD WATSON 1855 - 1936 Homer watson was c a l l e d The Sage of Doon. He spent h i s w h i l e l i f e p a i n t i n g the O n t a r i o landscape as seen near h i s home a t Doon, a v i l l a g e i n the v a l l e y of the Grand R i v e r near the c i t y of K i t c h e n e r . In 1874 he j o i n e d Notman's P h o t o g r a p h i c S t u d i o i n T o r o n t o . In 1876 he v i s i t e d New York C i t y and met George I n n i s who encouraged and g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d the Canadian a r t i s t to p a i n t i n the A d i r o n d a c k s and a l o n g the Hudson R i v e r . Watson's The P i o n e e r M i l l , 1889, was e x h i b i t e d a t the R o y a l Canadian Academy e x h i b i t i o n i n a u g u r a t e d by the Marquis of L o m e and P r i n c e s s L o u i s e . Queen V i c t o r i a bought one of h i s p a i n t i n g s and James Spooner, an a r t d e a l e r i n T o r o n t o , promoted h i s work. Oscar W i l d e , v i s i t i n g Toronto i n 1882, c a l l e d Watson the " C a n a d i a n C o n s t a b l e " , and l a t e r i n t r o d u c e d Watson to W h i s t l e r i n London. H i s p a i n t i n g s were e x h i b i t e d i n London a t the C o l o n i a l and I n d i a n E x h i b i t i o n of 1886 where he won a bronze medal. Watson v i s i t e d London, 1887 - 90, and was a great f r i e n d o f S i r George Chausen. While i n London he c o u l d study the works of C o n s t a b l e . W h i s t l e r taught Watson e t c h i n g and from London Watson v i s i t e d P a r i s where he saw the e x h i b i t s of Old Masters and B a r b i z o n p a i n t e r s . M o n t r e a l a r t p a t r o n s were b u y i n g not o n l y o l d master works but I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g s . In 1893 he was awarded the b r o n z e medal a t the W o r l d ' s Columbian E x p o s i t i o n , C h i c a g o , and i n 1896 he s k e t c h e d on the XLle d ' O r l e a n s w i t h H o r a t i o Walker. I n 1901 Watson v i s i t e d England w i t h H o r a t i o Walker. S i r W i l l i a m Van Horne, R.B. Angus, James Ross, and A . C . Hutchinson were b u y i n g Watson's p a i n t i n g s and promoting e x h i b i t i o n s o f h i s work. By 1902 he was a s u c c e s s . He had won a g o l d medal a t the Pan American E x p o s i t i o n i n B u f f a l o . He was a p r e s i d e n t o f the Canadian A r t Club f o r f o u r years a f t e r i t s f o u n d i n g i n 1907. Canadian p a i n t i n g was - 104 - b e i n g r e c o g n i z e d . In 1911 an e x h i b i t i o n of Canadian p a i n t i n g i n L i v e r p o o l r e c e i v e d f a v o u r a b l e c r i t i c i s m . In 1914 Watson became a War a r t i s t and made a r e c o r d i n g o f the F i r s t Canadian C o n t i n g e n t a t V a l c a r t i e r Camp. From 1918 - 1921 he was p r e s i d e n t of the R o y a l Canadian Academy and J . R u s s e l l Harper s t a t e s i n h i s N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y of Canada b r o c h u r e t h a t Watson was the man who "brought i n t o sharp focus the moods of n a t u r e , the s u r f a c e p a t t e r n s , the n o s t a l g i a o f the O n t a r i o woodland, which P e r r e , J a c o b i , M a r t i n and a h o s t of o t h e r Canadians of the time saw o n l y as dreamy b l u r r e d p a s t i c h e s of European p a i n t i n g w i t h o u t any i n d i v i d u a l Canadian c h a r a c t e r . He was, as i t were, the"man who f i r s t saw Canada as Canada". In 1922 Watson began an a c t i v e s t u d y of I m p r e s s i o n i s m . He v i s i t e d Western Canada. F r e d S. H a i n e s , p r i n c i p a l of the A r t G a l l e r y of T o r o n t o , h e l d a r e t r o s p e c t i v e e x h i b i t i o n o f h i s work i n 1930. He d i e d a t Doon i n 1936 and was g i v e n a posthumous L . L . D . degree by Western U n i v e r s i t y , London, O n t a r i o . - 105 - HORATIO WALKER, 1858 - 1938, was born at Lis towel, Perth County, Ontario in 1858. His grandmother came from an old French family of Rouen. At an early age Horatio liked to draw pigs and in 1870 he was taken to Quebec City by his father, Thomas Walker. He was then apprenticed to Notman and Fraser, Photographers, Toronto. At the age of twenty he opened a studio of his own in New York City, and from there he visited Rochester, Buffalo and other American cities from 1878 - 1880. He took a walking tour from Montreal to Quebec City in 1880 and the next year he sold his first picture of pigs called The Sty in New York City. In 1882 he visited the English and French Museums. He spent two years in Spain, Belgium and Holland before settling in St. Petronille on the Isle of Orleans, P.Q. where, for forty-two years, he was to live among the farmers and their families and paint pictures of their daily lives that were bright, lively and colorful. In 1887 he was a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters, and of the Royal Institute, England. In 1888 he won the Evans Award of the American Water-Color Society. His pictures were popular and costly and were shown in American collections. As a country gentleman, Walker would paint about five large canvases a year and do many preliminary drawings. M.C.J. Simard, an erudite collector and amateur critic, paid him visits looking for works of art for the Museum of Quebec. In 1896 he sketched with Homer Watson on his Lie d'Orleans. In 1901 he visited England with Homer Watson and visited the studios of Sir George Clausen and J.M. Whistler. In 1906 he was Gold Medalist at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts. In 1907 he became a member of the Canadian Art Club founded to give Canadian painters an opportunity to be members and exhibit whether they lived in Canada or abroad, so that a standard of - 106 - e x c e l l e n c e c o u l d thus be m a i n t a i n e d . The o r i g i n a l members of the group were: Homer Watson, P r e s i d e n t ; C u r t i s W i l l i a m s o n , S e c r e t a r y ; A r c h i b a l d Browne, W.E. A t k i n s o n , H o r a t i o Walker, James W i l s o n M o r r i c e , F r a n k l i n B r o w n e l l and Edmund M o r r i s . I n 1925 he was made p r e s i d e n t of the R o y a l Canadian Academy. As a t o u r i s t of t h a t time one c o u l d stand b e f o r e the s u n l i t windows of the Chateau F r o n t e n a c , w a i t i n g f o r a cab d r i v e r to d r i v e one to the a r t i s t ' s s t u d i o . One drove past the g i l t r o c o c c o monument of C a r d i n a l Tachereau " w i t h i t s chubby cherubs which were as out of p l a c e i n t h a t s e t t i n g as a t o u r i s t " . The c a b l e c a r would take one down to the D u f f e r i n T e r r a c e b e h i n d the Champlain monument where Champlain bows and d o f f s h i s h a t . One passes on to the q u a i and from t h e r e c r o s s e s to the I s l e of O r l e a n s . "The c a r r i a g e goes by the l i t t l e v i l l a g e of S t . P e t r o n i l l e and a l o n g a w a l l of r o c k which f a c e s the s p i l l - w a y to the Mont Morency F a l l s and then e n c l o s e s the domaine of H o r a t i o Walker. The master a c c o r d s one a l o o k i n t o h i s s u i t e i n a s p a c i o u s p a v i l l i o n which he has made h i s a t i l l i e r . He i s t a l l and t h i n w i t h a c u r l i n g moustache which g i v e s him a c a v a l i e r l o o k l i k e a V e l a s q u e z . B r i l l i a n t d r a p e r i e s hang to the r i g h t o f l a r g e bay windows and the s t u d i o w a l l s have f r e s c o e s r e p r e s e n t i n g the seasons. There a r e o l d shoes about and bundles of p e n c i l s . A chimney under the r o o f i s d e c o r a t e d w i t h p r e c i o u s Chinese t r i n k e t s . There i s a Samovar and a death mask of Cromwell. Everywhere t h e r e i s o l d armour and b e a u t i f u l p o t t e r y . There a r e a dozen e a s e l s w i t h p i c t u r e s , water c o l o r s and p a s t e l s , not to speak of sketches w i t h o u t number." Walker l i v e d and s k e t c h e d on the l i e d 1 O r l e a n s i n the summer and moved to New York i n the w i n t e r . He was a member of many important s o c i e t i e s i n America and had been awarded s e v e r a l g o l d medals. " P a i n t i n g the p r i m i t i v e - 107 - peasant l i f e of Quebec he was called "The Canadian Millet". There may be a certain analogy but his art springs from a deep and sincere sympathy and understanding of the habitant l i f e about him". He received an L.L.D. (Toronto) 1915 and an Hon. Doctorate Laval (Laval) 1934. He died at his home on the Isle of Orleans in 1938. - 108 - JAMES MACDONALD BARNSLEY, 1861 - 1929, was the son of a paper m i l l o p e r a t o r near Dundas, O n t a r i o . H i s mother, Mrs. B a n s l e y , o p e r a t e d the m i l l a f t e r the death of h i s f a t h e r and i n 1871 changed t h e i r name to B a r n s l e y . Two years l a t e r the f a m i l y moved to S t . L o u i s , where B a r n s l e y went to the S t . L o u i s S c h o o l o f F i n e A r t s . Under the d i r e c t i o n of H a l s e y Ives he l e a r n e d to s k e t c h i n the l a k e d i s t r i c t of Upper New York S t a t e . He was awarded a gold medal on g r a d u a t i o n and i n 1883 he had a s t u d i o i n P a r i s . He e x h i b i t e d Le Quai S t . Bernard i n the S a l o n which a l s o e x h i b i t e d L u i g i L o i r ' s Le P o i n t du j o u r a A u t e u i l and B o u d i n ' s L 'Entree and L a S o r t i e . T h i s same year a l s o saw the f i r s t comprehensive Boudin e x h i b i t i o n a t the Durand-Ruel G a l l e r i e s . B a r n s l e y sketched and p a i n t e d i n Dieppe and a l o n g the S e i n e near P a r i s . He won a f i r s t c l a s s g o l d medal a t an e x h i b i t i o n i n V e r s a i l l e s and e x h i b i t e d w i t h the R o y a l Canadian Academy. He v i s i t e d V e n i c e , S c o t l a n d and I r e l a n d b e f o r e r e t u r n i n g to S t . L o u i s . I n 1890 he v i s i t e d H o l l a n d and i n 1891 he j o i n e d W i l l i a m Brymner i n I r e l a n d a t K i l l a r n e y and Cork. In 1892 he was awarded f i r s t p r i z e f o r landscape a t the M o n t r e a l S p r i n g E x h i b i t i o n . He was a d m i t t e d to Verdun P r o t e s t a n t H o s p i t a l , c h r o n i c a l l y i l l . The Canadian s e c t i o n of the W o r l d ' s Columbian E x p o s i t i o n i n Chicago of 1893 e x h i b i t e d one o i l and t h r e e water c o l o r s . In 1920 h i s works were shown a t the R o y a l Canadian Academy E x h i b i t i o n and the l a s t showing of h i s work was i n the M o n t r e a l S p r i n g E x h i b i t i o n of 1921. - 109 - WILLIAM BRYMNER was b o r n a t Greenoch, S c o t l a n d on December 14, 1855. H i s p a r e n t s came to Canada when he was a c h i l d i n May, 1857 and s e t t l e d i n Melbourne, an e a s t e r n township of Quebec. H i s f a t h e r , Dr. Douglas Brymner, h e l p e d to found the Dominion A r c h i v e s i n 1872 and became the f i r s t government a r c h i v i s t a t Ottawa. W i l l i a m Brymner began h i s a r t i s t i c c a r e e r as a s t u d e n t o f a r c h i t e c t u r e i n the o f f i c e of the c h i e f government a r c h i t e c t i n Ottawa. L a t e r he was a r t i c l e d by h i s f a t h e r a t the o f f i c e of R.C. Urender i n M o n t r e a l , to complete h i s s t u d i e s i n a r c h i t e c t u r e . He s t u d i e d a t the A t e l i e r J u l i a n , 1878 - 1885, under Tony Robert F l e u r y who, s e e i n g drawings by Brymner a t the Academy a s k e d , "What do you i n t e n d to do?" "I am going to be an a r c h i t e c t " . " D o n ' t do t h a t . I f you take my a d v i c e y o u ' l l t r y p a i n t i n g . There you w i l l s u c c e e d " . Brymner s t u d i e d p a i n t i n g i n P a r i s under Bouguereau and Tony R o b e r t - F l e u r y and a l s o w i t h C a r o l u s - D u r a n . Brymner e x h i b i t e d a p a i n t i n g i n the 1885 S a l o n , Bord de F o r e t . In 1886 he won the I n t e r n a t i o n a l J u r y of awards S i l v e r Medal a t S t . L o u i s . He was e l e c t e d as an A s s o c i a t e of the R.C.A. i n 1885, was made a f u l l member i n 1886, and p r e s i d e n t i n 1909. Brymner was asked to a c c e p t the d i r e c t o r s h i p of the c l a s s e s of the A r t A s s o c i a t i o n of M o n t r e a l i n 1885. T h i s p o s t he h e l d from 1886 u n t i l 1921. In t h i s n o t a b l e 35 y e a r s of t e a c h i n g he saw c l a s s e s grow from l e s s than t e n to over one hundred. Many o f h i s p u p i l s gained d i s t i n c t i o n i n Canadian a r t . At the Pan American e x h i b i t i o n of 1901 he was awarded the g o l d medal. In 1907 he spent a summer i n V e n i c e . In 1908 Brymner s t a y e d a t M a r t i g u e s near M a r s e i l l e s , where he wrote a s k e t c h of h i s l i f e and r e - c a l l e d t h a t the " e f f e c t s " i n Canada were as b e a u t i f u l as e l s e w h e r e . While t h e r e , he p a i n t e d a market scene i n water c o l o r , and a s u n s e t , - 110 - both are vivid impressions set down with confidence. He painted in water color on canvas. In 1916 he received the distinguished honor from his Majesty, King George V, "Companion of St. Michael and St. George". On January 24, 1921 Brymner and his wife left Canada to spend two years in France, Spain and Italy. Sir William Van Home of the C.P.R. was a patron and encouraged Brymner. He died at Waltasey,Cheshire June 20, 1925. The Montreal Gazette of February 2, 1926, states: In a memorial exhibit forty-three works were exhibited, "landscapes with or without figures, marines, quay side scenes with shipping, portraits and s t i l l l i f e " . The Watson Art Galleries in December 1925, records: "He attempted no grand flights. Saw subjects for his brush in everything around him and set them down with a convincing sincerity". - I l l - MAURICE GALBRAITH CULLEN was born a t S t . J o h n ' s , Newfoundland i n 1886 Some time between 1884 and 1888 he began h i s d e s i g n s t u d i e s w i t h Abbe Jose C. C h a l b e r t , a t the N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e of the F i n e A r t s and S c i e n c e s , M o n t r e a l . C h a l b e r t ' s p u p i l s i n c l u d e d Ludger L a r o s e , Joseph S a i n t - C h a r l e s , Joseph C. F r a n c h e r e and A. de Foy S u z o r - C ^ t e . The I n s t i t u t e was r o u g h l y p a t t e r n e d a f t e r the Sorbonne i n P a r i s . In i t C h a l b e r t had accumulated a r a r e and complete c o l l e c t i o n o f p l a s t e r c a s t s which s e r v e d to teach the p u p i l s from a n t i q u e models. In 1886 - 1889 C u l l e n e n r o l l e d i n the s c h o o l of the s c u l p t o r P h i l i p p e H e b e r t , where he s t u d i e d f o r t h r e e y e a r s . He h e l p e d Hebert c a r v e the s t a t u e s on the r o o f of S t . James' C a t h e d r a l . He s a i l e d f o r P a r i s about 1889 w i t h h i s U n c l e Dr. Ward. He s t u d i e d s c u l p t u r e w i t h H a l l a n d Gerome a t the Beaux A r t s Academy, and a t the C o l a r o s s i A t e l i e r w i t h C o u r t o i s and R i x e n . About 1890 he r e t u r n e d to the Beaux A r t s Academy. The work of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s made a profound i n f l u e n c e on C u l l e n , and the study of atmospheric e f f e c t s soon took him to B r i t t a n y between 1890 - 1895, to p a i n t i n the open a i r w i t h James W i l s o n M o r r i c e . C u l l e n r e t u r n e d to Canada i n 1895, coming back by way of E l K a u t u r n , B i s k r a , A l c a n t a r a , S p a i n , I t a l y , Le P o u l d u , and G i v e r n y . He showed i n the Salons of P a r i s 1900 and 1901. Between 1902 and 1908 C u l l e n t r a v e l l e d between P a r i s and M o n t r e a l . These t r i p s i n c l u d e d B e a u p r £ , Quebec, M o n t r e a l , I t a l y and F r a n c e , and B r i t t a n y . When i n Canada he p a i n t e d w i t h Brymner, M o r r i c e and Dyonnet. From 1911 to the end o f h i s l i f e , C u l l e n p a i n t e d i n the w i l d s of the L a u r e n t i a n s , a t Lac T r e m b l a n t , and a l o n g the Cache R i v e r . D u r i n g the war, i n 1918, the Canadian Government commissioned him to go overseas as a war a r t i s t , and on h i s r e t u r n home i n 1919 he a g a i n made h i s home i n the L a u r e n t i a n a r e a u n t i l h i s death on March 28, 1934. - 112 - A • MARC AUREL de FOY SUZOR-COTE was b o r n i n 1869 a t A r t h a b a s k a . In s c h o o l he e x c e l l e d i n the drawing c l a s s of B r o t h e r N e p o t i e n . A t the age of e i g h t e e n he a r r i v e d a t the A t e l i e r of Maxime Rousseau, a church d e c o r a t o r . In 1889 Suzor h e l p e d Rousseau to d e c o r a t e the w a l l s of the P a r i s h church and the c h a p e l of the l o c a l c o l l e g e . He a l s o d e c o r a t e d churches around A r t h a b a s k a , a t S t . H y a c i n t h e and a t S t . J a c q u e s . He s t u d i e d w i t h C h a l b e r t a t the N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e of F i n e A r t s a t M o n t r e a l . H i s s c h o o l mates were Joseph S t . C h a r l e s and F r a n c h e r e . In 1889 he sent some drawings to M o n t r e a l where they were e x h i b i t e d . On a r r i v i n g i n P a r i s i n 1890, Suzor e n r o l l e d a t the C o n s e r v a t o r y of M u s i c , where he undertook an opera course under Boulanger and Edouard Masson. He s t u d i e d music f o r two y e a r s u n t i l a t h r o a t o p e r a t i o n f o r c e d him out o f music and i n t o p a i n t i n g . Le'on Bonnat was h i s t e a c h e r f o r f o u r years a t the S c h o o l of F i n e A r t s . Suzor-Cote', M a u r i c e C u l l e n and James W i l s o n M o r r i c e , were a l l s t u d y i n g t o g e t h e r i n P a r i s . The s c u l p t o r , A l f r e d L a l i b e r t e took a s t u d i o w i t h Suzor i n Montparnasse. Suzor t r a v e l l e d to F o n t a i n e b l e a u , Ramboulette, I v r y , and S e n l i s , Normandy and B r i t t a n y . F o r the f i r s t time i n 1894 he d e c i d e d to t r y f o r the o f f i c i a l S a l o n . He submitted a Normandy I n t e r i o r , which was a c c e p t e d . In 1894 he came home to A r t h a b a s k a f o r two y e a r s . He r e t u r n e d to France i n 1896 and s t a y e d u n t i l 1900. In 1898 he a t t e n d e d Benjamin Constant and J u l e s y L e f e b r e ' s c l a s s e s a t the Academy l e a r n i n g p o r t r a i t u r e and h i s t o r i c a l A p a i n t i n g . The Death of Archimedes won Suzor the grand p r i z e and he won the s i l v e r medal a t the C a l a r o s i Academy. He showed a P a s t o u r e l l e i n the 1898 S a l o n , and he spent two y e a r s between 1899 and 1900 i n Germany. In 1901, Suzor won the Bronze Medal - 113 - a t the P a r i s I n t e r n a t i o n a l E x p o s i t i o n f o r E n t r e V o i s i n and i n 1901 showed a t the P a r i s S a l o n to win an h o n o r a b l e mention, and to be made an o f f i c e r of the Academy o f the French Government. In 1906 he d i d a l a r g e h i s t o r i c a l p i c t u r e The L a n d i n g of Jacques C a r t i e r a t Quebec. One of h i s f i r s t bronzes dates about 1907, The T r a p p e r . He and the o t h e r Canadian s t u d e n t s met a t the C a f e - A u x - F l e u r s . In 1907 he s t a r t e d a p e r i o d of t r a v e l , v i s i t i n g E n g l a n d , S c o t l a n d , R u s s i a , Germany, S p a i n , I t a l y and H o l l a n d . In 1908, he r e t u r n e d to Canada and s e t up as a " P i e d a T e r r e " , a s t u d i o i n M o n t r e a l on V i c t o r i a S t r e e t near S t . C a t h e r i n e ' s , where he was to spend the w i n t e r s u n t i l 1917. In the summers Suzor-cSte p a i n t e d i n the Arthabaska r e g i o n and a l o n g the N i c o l e t R i v e r . From S u z o r ' s sketches of the Quebec p e a s a n t r y he made b r o n z e s . I n 1910 Edmund Dyonnet, R.C.A. of M o n t r e a l , as s e c r e t a r y o f the R.C.A. took an e x h i b i t i o n of Canadian p a i n t i n g to the C r y s t a l P a l a c e i n London f o r the F e s t i v a l of Empire, which i n c l u d e d S u z o r - C o t e ' s P r i m i t i v e Sugar Camp. The e x h i b i t i o n was c a n c e l l e d because of the death of Edward VII i n 1910, but was shown i n L i v e r p o o l b e f o r e Dyonnet's r e t u r n to Canada. In 1912 Suzor j o i n e d the Royal Canadian Academy. By 1917 Suzor-C&te was d o i n g some of h i s b e s t I m p r e s s i o n i s t work. He won the J e s s i e Dow p r i z e i n 1929, the y e a r he s u f f e r e d a s t r o k e . F o r the next ten y e a r s he l i v e d i n r e t i r e m e n t a t Daytona Beach, F l o r i d a , where he d i e d i n 1939. APPENDIX PICTURES BY HORATIO WALKER FIG. 4 OXEN DRINKING OIL ON CANVAS 47 1/2" X 35 1/2" 1899 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA F I G . 5 EVENING ILE D'ORLEANS OIL ON CANVAS 28" X 36" 1909 TORONTO ART GALLERY FIG. 6 HORSES AT THE TROUGH OIL ON CANVAS 50" X 40" N.D. MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURES BY HOMER RANSFORD WATSON F I G . 1 A COMING STORM IN THE ADIRONDACKS OIL ON CANVAS 34" X 47" 1879 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS FIG. 2 THE OLD MILL OIL ON CANVAS 38 1/4" X 58" 1886 TORONTO ART GALLERY F I G . 3 LOG CUTTING IN THE WOODS OIL ON CANVAS 18" X 24" 1894 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURES BY HORATIO WALKER F I G . 7 THE ICE CUTTERS OIL ON CANVAS 21" X 38" 1904 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS THE ICE CUTTERS DETAIL THE ICE CUTTERS I PICTURES BY JAMES MACDONALD BARNSLEY F I G . 8 STUDY FOR LA JETEE DU POLLET DIEPPE OIL ON CANVAS 14 3/4'X 21 5/8" 1884 MRS. W.C. MUNDERLOK MONTREAL F I G . 9 ON THE SEINE COURBEVOIE OIL ON CANVAS 18 3/4" X 32 1/2" PARIS 1883 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA FIG. 10 LA JETEE DU POLLET DIEPPE OIL ON CANVAS 43" X 68 1/2" 1885 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA PICTURES BY JAMES MACDONALD BARNSLEY LA JETEE DU POLLET DIEPPE DETAIL F I G . 11 FRENCH PADDLE STEAMER OIL ON CANVAS 18 1/8" X 30" 1888 DR. & MRS. D. RAFF WESTMOUNT FIG. 12 HIGH TIDE AT DIEPPE OIL ON CANVAS 42 1/2" X 58 3/8" 1886 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURES BY JAMES MACDONALD BARNSLEY HIGH TIDE AT DIEPPE DETAIL F I G . 13 THE LAST RAYS OIL ON CANVAS 55" X 75 3/4" 1887 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURES BY WILLIAM BRYMNER 9* • FIG. 14 DOUGLAS BRYMNER OIL ON CANVAS 1886 MISS GRACE BRYMNER TORONTO FIG. 15 ROBERT BRYMNER AGE 15 OIL ON CANVAS 1890 MISS GRACE BRYMNER TORONTO FIG. 16 WILLIAM BRYMNER BY: GEORGE W. HILL PLASTER CAST OF ORIGINAL BRONZE IN NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA 19" HIGH 1918 PICTURES BY WILLIAM BRYMNER FIG. 17 BAIE S T . PAUL OIL ON CANVAS 1886 MISS GRACE BRYMNER TORONTO F I G . 18 SAD MEMORIES OIL ON CANVAS ABOUT 1885 MISS GRACE BRYMNER TORONTO FIG. 19 EARLY MOONRISE IN SEPTEMBER OIL ON CANVAS 1886 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURES BY WILLIAM BRYMNER F I G . 20 CHAMP DE MARS WINTER OIL ON CANVAS 29 1/2" X 40" 1892 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS FIG. 21 EARLY MOONRISE IN SEPTEMBER OIL ON CANVAS 28 1/2" X 39 1/2' 1899 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA F I G . 22 WOMAN SEWING OIL ON CANVAS 25 1/2" X 16" ABOUT 1900 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURES BY WILLIAM BRYMNER FIG. 23 THE VAUGHAN SISTERS OIL ON CANVAS 40" X 50 1/2" 1910 HAMILTON ART GALLERY F I G . 24 CARITA OIL ON CANVAS 32 1/2" X 23 3/4" 1910 TORONTO ART GALLERY FIG. 25 RECLINING FIGURE OIL ON CANVAS 18 1/2" X 34 1/2" 1915 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURES BY MAURICE CULLEN FIG. 26 THE MILL STREAM OIL ON CANVAS FRANCE 1894 HAMILTON ART GALLERY F I G . 27 MORET IN SUMMER OIL ON CANVAS FRANCE, 1896 HAMILTON ART GALLERY FIG. 28 MORET IN WINTER OIL ON CANVAS FRANCE, 1895 TORONTO ART GALLERY PICTURE BY AUGUSTE RENOIR F I G . 29 % LA SEINE A CHATOU OIL ON CANVAS ABOUT 1878 TORONTO ART GALLERY PICTURES BY MAURICE CULLEN PICTURES BY MAURICE CULLEN FIG. 32 , WINTER SUNLIGHT BEAUPRE OIL ON CANVAS 1896 HAMILTON ART GALLERY A F I G . 34 WINTER EVENING QUEBEC OIL ON CANVAS 29 1/2" X 39 1/4" 1905 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA PICTURES BY MAURICE CULLEN FIG. 35 LEVIS FROM QUEBEC OIL ON CANVAS 1906 TORONTO ART GALLERY FIG. 36 WINTER STREET SCENE OIL ON CANVAS ABOUT 1912 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS F I G . 37 SNOW STORM EVENING OIL ON CANVAS 18" X 15" 1914 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA PAINTINGS BY MAURICE CULLEN F I G . 38 PACKING ICE OIL ON CANVAS 29 1/2" X 39 1/2" 1906 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA FIG. 39 THE LAST LOADS OIL ON CANVAS 1906 TORONTO ART GALLERY F I G . 40 ICE HARVEST OIL ON CANVAS 1914 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURES BY MAURICE CULLEN FIG. 41 THE OLD FERRY BOAT, LOUIS BASIN, QUEBEC OIL ON CANVAS 23 3/4" X 28 3/4" 1907 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA F I G . 42 SUMMER NIGHT OIL ON CANVAS ABOUT 1907 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA PICTURES BY MAURICE CULLEN F I G . 44 OUR GUNS AT BONN UNIVERSITY OIL ON CANVAS 56" X 70" 1918 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA F I G . 45 BOMBING AREA SEAFORD OIL ON CANVAS 34" X 44" 1918 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA F I G . 46 A MARCH EVENING OIL ON CANVAS 30" X 45" 1923 NATIONAL GALLERY CANADA PICTURE BY MAURICE CULLEN F I G . 47 VALLEY OF THE DEVIL RIVER OIL ON CANVAS 30" X 40" 1927 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA FIG. 48 GRAVESTONE OF SUZOR-c6TE AND THE CHURCH AT ARTHABASKA F I G . 49 OVERLOOKING THE VALLEY OF THE NICOLET F I G . 50 HOME OF SIR WILFRED LAURIER, ARTHABASKA FIG. 51 BRONZE PLAQUE AT THE LAURIER HOUSE A / PICTURES BY MARC AUREL DE FOY SUZOR-COTE F I G . 52 AUTUMN LANDSCAPE EVENING, PARIS OIL ON CANVAS 24" X 32" 1900 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA FIG. 53 LANDSCAPE MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURES BY MARC SUZOR-COTE F I G . 54 PORT BLANC EN BRETAGNE OIL ON CANVAS 1906 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA F I G . 55 CAUGHNAWAGA WOMEN BRONZE 17 1/2" X 22" 1909 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA F I G . 56 WINTER LANDSCAPE OIL ON CANVAS 28 1/4" X 37 1/4" 1909 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA A ' PICTURES BY MARC SUZOR-COTE FIG. 57 THE SETTLEMENT ON THE HILLSIDE OIL ON CANVAS 23" X 28 3/4" 1909 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA FIG. 59 ARTHABASKA RIVER OIL ON A PANEL N.D. NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA PICTURE BY SIR WILLIAM VAN HORNE FIG.60 STEEL-MILLS AT SYDNEY, CAPE BRETON OIL ON CANVAS 37 1/2" X 48 1/4" 1907 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURE BY MABEL MAY PICTURE BY FREDERICK W. HUTCHISON FIG. 62 OCTOBER SNOW BAIE ST. PAUL PICTURE BY FREDERICK W. HUTCHISON PICTURES BY BIAIR BRUCE F I G . 64 PLEASANT MOMENT OIL ON CANVAS 1887 HAMILTON ART GALLERY F I G . 65 GIVERNY FRANCE OIL ON CANVAS 1887 HAMILTON ART GALLERY PICTURES BY WILLIAM HENRY CLAPP F I G . 66 MORNING IN SPAIN OIL ON CANVAS 29" X 36 1/2" 1907 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA F I G . 67 IN THE ORCHARD QUEBEC OIL ON CANVAS 1909 HAMILTON ART GALLERY FIG. 68 THE NEW CHURCH OIL ON CANVAS 1913 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA PICTURE BY WILLIAM HENRY CLAPP F I G . 69 LUMBER BOATS OIL ON CANVAS HAMILTON ART GALLERY PICTURES BY ERNEST LAWSON F I G . 70 SNOW-BOUND BOATS OIL ON CANVAS 24 3/4" X 29 3/4" 1907 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA F I G . 71 WINTER OIL ON CANVAS 24 3/4" X 29 3/4' 1914 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA PICTURES BY ERNEST IAWSON PICTURE BY IDA G. HAMILTON F I G . 75 SUNLIGHT AND SHADOWS OIL ON CANVAS 1923 HAMILTON ART GALLERY PICTURES BY JAMES EDWARD HERVEY MACDONALD F I G . 76 TRACKS AND TRAFFIC OIL ON CANVAS 1912 TORONTO ART GALLERY F I G . 77 EDGE OF A TOWN OIL ON CANVAS UNIVERSITY WOMEN'S CLUB TORONTO FIG. 78 WINTER SUNSHINE OIL ON CANVAS HAMILTON ART GALLERY FIG. 79 MORNING AFTER SNOW HIGH PARK OIL ON CANVAS 1912-1914 TORONTO ART GALLERY F I G . 80 EARLY EVENING WINTER OIL ON CANVAS 1912 TORONTO ART GALLERY PICTURES BY J . E . H . MACDONALD F I G . 81 IN THE PINE SHADOWS MOONLIGHT OIL ON CANVAS 31 1/2" X 27 1/4" 1912 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA F I G . 82 SNOW-BOUND OIL ON CANVAS 19 1/2" X 29 1/2" 1915 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA PICTURE BY LAWREN HARRIS F I G . 83 SNOW SCENE OIL ON CANVAS 1915-1916 R.B. McMICHAEL PICTURE BY TOM THOMSON F I G . 84 IN ALGONQUIN PARK OIL ON CANVAS 1914 R.B. McMICHAEL PICTURES BY J . E . H . MACDONALD F I G . 85 FALLS MONTREAL RIVER OIL ON CANVAS 1920 TORONTO ART GALLERY PICTURE BY J . E . H . MACDONALD F I G . 86 TANGLED GARDEN SKETCH NO. 2 OIL ON PANEL 1916 TORONTO ART GALLERY PICTURES BY TOM THOMSON PICTURES BY TOM THOMSON FIG. 89 EDGE OF THE LOG RUN OIL ON PANEL 1916 R.B. McMICHAEL F I G . 90 NORTHERN LAKE OIL ON PANEL ABOUT 1916 R.B. McMICHAEL F I G . 91 NORTHERN SKY OIL ON PANEL ABOUT 1916 R.B. McMICHAEL PICTURES BY FRANKLIN CARMICHAEL F I G . 92 SILVERY TANGLE OIL ON CANVAS 40" X 47" BEAVERBROOK ART GALLERY F I G . 93 WINTER LANDSCAPE OIL ON CANVAS 35" X 27" MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS DETAILS PICTURES BY FREDERICK HORSMA.N VARLEY PICTURES BY ARTHUR LISMER F I G . 96 THE GUIDE'S HOME OIL ON CANVAS 39 1/2" X 44 1/2" 1914 NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA FIG. 97 AFTERNOON SUNLIGHT OIL ON CANVAS 28"'X 36" 1915-1916 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS F I G . 98 SPRINGTIME ON THE FARM OIL ON CANVAS 26" X 32" 1916-1917 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURES BY ALEXANDER YOUNG JACKSON FIG. 99 CANOE LAKE OIL ON CANVAS HAMILTON ART GALLERY FIG. 100 CHURCHES AT LIEVIN OIL ON CANVAS 1918 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS F I G . 101 A SCREENED ROAD OIL ON CANVAS 1918 MONTREAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS PICTURE BY A . Y . JACKSON F I G . 102 OLD BARNS QUEBEC OIL ON CANVAS 44" X 34" ABOUT 1940 R.B. McMICHAEL PICTURE BY TOM THOMSON F I G . 103 SNOW IN OCTOBER OIL ON CANVAS 32 1/4" X 34 1/4" NATIONAL GALLERY OTTAWA PICTURE BY LAWREN HARRIS F I G . 104 SNOW II OIL ON CANVAS PICTURE BY LAWREN HARRIS F I G . 105 THE GAS WORKS OIL ON CANVAS 1912 TORONTO ART GALLERY PICTURE BY HORATIO WALKER F I G . 106 THE FIRST SNOW OIL ON CANVAS BEAVERBROOK ART GALLERY FREDERICTON N.B. - 154 - BOOKS Barbeau, M a r i u s . B a r r , A l f r e d H . . B a u d e l a i r e , P i e r r e C h a r l e s . B a z i n , Germain. Canaday, J o h n . C h a u v i n , J e a n . C h e v r e u l , M . E . . C o l g a t e , W i l l i a m . C o u r t h i o n , P i e r r e . Gardner, H e l e n . Gauss, C h a r l e s E . . Gogh, V i n c e n t v a n . Gour, Romain. Hubbard, R . H . . Isham and C o r t o i s s o z . BIBLIOGRAPHY PAINTERS OF QUEBEC. T o r o n t o , Ryerson P r e s s , 1945. MATISSE. New Y o r k , The Museum of Modern A r t , 1951. THE MIRROR OF ART. New Y o r k , Doubleday and C o . , 1956. 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M o n t r e a l , M o n t r e a l Museum of F i n e A r t s , 1960. J - 157 - PERIODICALS Barbeau, M a r i u s . " T h e A r t o f Maurice C u l l e n . " SATURDAY NIGHT. June 9, 1934. Brown, E r i c . " S t u d i o T a l k , T o r o n t o . " INTERNATIONAL STUDIO. V o l . 40, 1910. " D u r e t to Manet." ART VIVANT. August, 1928. INTERNATIONAL STUDIO. V o l . 58, 1916, pp. 267-274. Lamb, H. M o r t i m e r . " S t u d i o T a l k , M o n t r e a l . " INTERNATIONAL STUDIO. V o l . 58, 1916, pp. 6 3 - 6 7 . Lewison, F l o r e n c e . "Theodore Robinson and C l a u d e Monet." APOLLO. September, 1963, p p . 208-211. " T h e L i f e o f the H a b i t a n t i n B r o n z e . " SATURDAY NIGHT. F e b r u a r y 27, 1954. M a c T a v i s h , Newton. "Some Canadian P a i n t e r s of the Snow." INTERNATIONAL STUDIO. V o l . 66, 1918-19, p p . 7 8 - 8 2 . Mellow, James R.. THE BEST IN ARTS. New Y o r k , H o r i z o n P r e s s , 1962. P i l o t , R o b e r t W.. MAURICE CULLEN, R . C . A . . T y p e w r i t t e n a d d r e s s . L i b r a r y , N.G.O., 1937, " S t u d i o T a l k , T o r o n t o . " INTERNATIONAL STUDIO. March-June, 1916, p p . 269-274. S u t t o n , Denys. "A Bouquet f o r S a r g e n t . " APOLLO. May, 1964. Watson, W i l l i a m R. " M a u r i c e C u l l e n . " CANADIAN REVIEW OF MUSIC AND ART. 1943. 
work_4drbi4tbvvgs5iiqicxf6zol34	----	10601503_45-1.indd CONTENTS VOLUME 45 , NUMBER 1 Activity and Passivity: Class and Gender in the Case of the Artificial Hand 1 Clare Stainthorp Rudyard Kipling’s Tactical Impressionism 17 Chris Ortiz Y Prentice  The “After-Life” of Illness: Reading against the Deathbed in Gaskell’s Ruth and Nineteenth-Century Convalescent Devotionals 35 Hosanna Krienke Sanitation and Telepathy: George Eliot’s The Lifted Veil 55 Derek Woods Confessions of an English Green Tea Drinker: Sheridan Le Fanu and the Medical and Metaphysical Dangers of Green Tea 77 Melissa Dickson Euthanasia and (D)Evolution in Speculative Fiction 95 Nancee Reeves Gods and Ghost-Light: Ancient Egypt, Electricity, and X-Rays 119 Eleanor Dobson Tono-Bungay and Burroughs Wellcome: Branding Imperial Popular Medicine 137 Meegan Kennedy “A Seriousness that Fails”: Reconsidering Symbolism in Oscar Wilde’s Salomé 163 Yeeyon Im  WORK IN PROGRESS Charles Kingsley’s The Water-Babies: Industrial England, the Irish Famine, and the American Civil War 179 Catherine Judd REVIEW ESSAYS Victorians Live Herbert Sussman, Editor Alice in Manhattan 207 U. C. Knoepflmacher Facing Britain’s Imperial Past? 214 Kate Nichols The Victorian Art Scene in 2016: Pre-Raphaelite Women Artists and Marie Spartali Stillman’s Overdue Retrospective in the UK 221 Margaret D. Stetz The Fallen Woman 227 Hilary Fraser Gustave Doré, “All London at a Boat-Race,” April 6, 1870, from Gustave Doré and Blanchard Jerrold, London: A Pilgrimage (London: Grant, 1872). Photograph courtesy of the prints Division, Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs, The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tidden Foundations. Volume 45, Number 1, 2017 V o lu m e 4 5 , N u m b er 1 , 2017 Cambridge CORE For further information about this journal please go to the journal website at: cambridge.org/vlc 10601503_45-1.indd 110601503_45-1.indd 1 08/02/17 3:55 PM08/02/17 3:55 PM https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:14, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1017/S1060150316000565&domain=pdf https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 https://www.cambridge.org/core 10601503_45-1.indd 210601503_45-1.indd 2 08/02/17 3:55 PM08/02/17 3:55 PM https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:14, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:14, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 https://www.cambridge.org/core VICTORIAN LITERATURE AND CULTURE Volume 45, Number 1 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:14, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 https://www.cambridge.org/core ADVISORY BOARD James Eli Adams Isobel Armstrong Nancy Armstrong Tim Barringer Gillian Beer Harold Bloom Patrick Brantlinger James Buzard Ed Cohen Ian Duncan Regenia Gagnier Sandra M. Gilbert Lauren M. E. Goodlad Margaret Homans Audrey Jaffe Gerhard Joseph Joseph Kestner U. C. Knoepflmacher George Levine Tricia Lootens Jerome J. McGann J. Hillis Miller Lynda Nead Jeff Nunokawa Mary Poovey Yopie Prins Harriet Ritvo Talia Schaffer Linda Shires Jonah Siegel E. Warwick Slinn Ruth A. Solie Richard Stein Margaret Stetz Herbert Sussman John Sutherland Herbert Tucker Martha Vicinus Malcolm Warner Michael Wheeler Carolyn Williams https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:14, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 https://www.cambridge.org/core VICTORIAN LITERATURE AND CULTURE Volume 45, Number 1 EDITORS JOHN MAYNARD ADRIENNE MUNICH INCOMING EDITORS RACHEL ABLOW DANIEL HACK Associate Editor: Sandra Donaldson Managing Editor: Abigail Burnham Bloom Assistant Editors: Aliza Atik, Daniel Cook, Kimberly Cox, Lauryn Rose Gold, Tamar Heller, Margaret Kennedy, Sophie Christman Lavin, Tara McGann, Tracy Miller, Karen Odden, Nicole Savage, Anne Summers, Anthony Teets, Amanda Trejbrowski, Benedick G. Turner, and Stephanie Viola Editors for Reviews: Winifred Hughes and Anne Humpherys Associate Editor for Reviews: Annette T. Snape Pictures Editor: Morna O’Neill Assistant Pictures Editor: Angela Wu Editor for Topics: Maria Jerinic Special Effects Editor: Jeffrey Spear Science Editor: Michael Tondre Editor for Victorians Live: Herbert Sussman Assistant Editor for Victorians Live: Victoria Mills CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2017 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:14, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 https://www.cambridge.org/core VICTORIAN LITERATURE AND CULTURE is a publication of Cambridge University Press. It is published through the generous support of New York University and the State University of New York at Stony Brook. The editors gratefully acknowledge our indebtedness to our editorial assistant Nicole Savage. Please email manuscripts to the editors in Word or RTF format: Victorianlitandculture@gmail.com. Articles should be double-spaced throughout and follow the new MLA style (with a list of Works Cited at the conclusion). Chapters of books submitted for the Works in Progress section may follow the author’s chosen style in the book project. Correspondence concerning review essays should be emailed to Anne Humpherys (AHumpherys@gc.cuny.edu). Suggestions for reprints of Victorian materials, texts, or illustrations, and also bibliographic or other kinds of summary work should be emailed to Jeffrey Spear (Jeffrey.Spear@nyu.edu). Ideas for Editors’ Topics (groups of articles on a common subject, issue, or approach) should be raised with Maria Jerinic (mjerinic@yahoo.com). Ideas for Victorians Live (the afterlife of the Victorians, the ways that Victorian literature and culture remain alive, continue to live in our own day) can be e-mailed to Herbert Sussman (Hlsuss@aol.com). Our website for contents of prior volumes and editorial information: https://wikis.nyu.edu/display/engvlc/home E-mail for general correspondence (not submission of papers): vlceditorialqueries@gmail.com Publishing, Subscription, and Advertising Offices: Cambridge University Press, One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA (for the United States, Canada, and Mexico); US: USAdSales@cambridge.org; and Cambridge University Press, University Printing House, Shaftesbury Road, Cambridge CB2 8BS, England (for U.K. and elsewhere); UK: ad−sales@cambridge.org. Victorian Literature and Culture is published quarterly in March, June, September, and December. 2017 Annual institutional subscription rates (print and electronic): US $366.00 in the U.S., Canada, and Mexico, UK £ 221.00 elsewhere; (electronic only) US $270.00 in the U.S., Canada, and Mexico, UK £ 162.00 elsewhere; (print only) US $351.00 in the U.S., Canada, and Mexico, UK £ 210.00 elsewhere. Individual rates (print only): US $72.00 in the U.S., Canada, and Mexico; UK £ 43.00 elsewhere. Individual rates (electronic only): US $72.00 in the U.S., Canada, and Mexico; UK £ 43.00 elsewhere. E-mail for orders and subscription information: journals-subscriptions@cambridge.org The Cambridge University Press website for Victorian Literature and Culture is: http://cambridge.org/vlc C© Cambridge University Press 2017. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, electronic, photocopy, or otherwise, without permission in writing from Cambridge University Press. For further information see http://us.cambridge.org/information/rights/ or http://www.cambridge.org/uk/information/rights/ All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic, photocopying, or otherwise, without permission in writing from Cambridge University Press. Photocopying information for users in the U.S.A.: The Item-Fee Code for this publication (1060-1503/15 $15.00) indicates that copying for internal or personal use beyond that permitted by Sec. 107 or 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law is authorized for users duly registered with the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC), provided that the appropriate remittance of $15.00 is paid directly to: CCC, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 09123. Specific written permission must be obtained for all other copying. Printed in the United States of America. Postmaster: Send address changes in the U.S., Canada, and Mexico to: Victorian Literature and Culture, Journals Department, Cambridge University Press, One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:14, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 https://www.cambridge.org/core CONTENTS VOLUME 45, NUMBER 1 Activity and Passivity: Class and Gender in the Case of the Artificial Hand 1 CLARE STAINTHORP Rudyard Kipling’s Tactical Impressionism 17 CHRIS ORTIZ Y PRENTICE The “After-Life” of Illness: Reading against the Deathbed in Gaskell’s Ruth and Nineteenth-Century Convalescent Devotionals 35 HOSANNA KRIENKE Sanitation and Telepathy: George Eliot’s The Lifted Veil 55 DEREK WOODS Confessions of an English Green Tea Drinker: Sheridan Le Fanu and the Medical and Metaphysical Dangers of Green Tea 77 MELISSA DICKSON Euthanasia and (D)Evolution in Speculative Fiction 95 NANCEE REEVES Gods and Ghost-Light: Ancient Egypt, Electricity, and X-Rays 119 ELEANOR DOBSON Tono-Bungay and Burroughs Wellcome: Branding Imperial Popular Medicine 137 MEEGAN KENNEDY “A Seriousness that Fails”: Reconsidering Symbolism in Oscar Wilde’s Salomé 163 YEEYON IM WORK IN PROGRESS Charles Kingsley’s The Water-Babies: Industrial England, the Irish Famine, and the American Civil War 179 CATHERINE JUDD vii https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:14, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 https://www.cambridge.org/core viii VICTORIAN LITERATURE AND CULTURE REVIEW ESSAYS Victorians Live Herbert Sussman, Editor Alice in Manhattan 207 U. C. KNOEPFLMACHER Facing Britain’s Imperial Past? 214 KATE NICHOLS The Victorian Art Scene in 2016: Pre-Raphaelite Women Artists and Marie Spartali Stillman’s Overdue Retrospective in the UK 221 MARGARET D. STETZ The Fallen Woman 227 HILARY FRASER https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:14, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 https://www.cambridge.org/core ILLUSTRATIONS Page 86 Figure 1. “The Use of Adulteration.” Engraving, from Punch (4 Aug. 1855): 47. Page 87 Figure 2. Ti Ping Koon, Death in the Teapot (London: Effingham Wilson, Royal Exchange, 1874). Title Page. Image courtesy of Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford. Page 125 Figure 3. Warwick Goble, “Nikola Tesla holding in his hands balls of flame.” Illustration, from Chauncy Montgomery M’Govern, “The New Wizard of the West.” Pearson’s Magazine, May 1899: 471. Page 139 Figure 4. Interior of a nineteenth-century pharmacy. Colored etching by H. Heath, 1825. Wellcome Library, London (M0018898). Page 145 Figure 5. Pharmaceutical sign advertising Burroughs Wellcome products, including “Tabloid” brand products, c. 1885. Wellcome Library, London (L0025818). Page 148 Figure 6. “The Happy Phagocyte.” H. G. Wells. Tono-Bungay: A Novel (New York: Duffield, 1922), 171. Page 152 Figure 7. One of the nine “Tabloid” medicine chests provided to Stanley’s Emin Pasha expedition. Wellcome Library, London (L0033326). Page 153 Figure 8. Detail from illustration of “Tabloid” medicine chest “Through Darkest Africa.” Anaesthetics 108 (1907). Wellcome Library, London. ix https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:14, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 https://www.cambridge.org/core x VICTORIAN LITERATURE AND CULTURE Page 154 Figure 9. Pharmacy sign advertising Tabloid first aid kits as the companion of explorers and adventurers. Wellcome Library, London (V0010811). Page 170 Figure 10. “A Platonic Lament.” Illustration by Aubrey Beasley from Oscar Wilde’s Salomé (London, 1894). Page 171 Figure 11. “Enter Herodias.” Illustration by Aubrey Beasley from Oscar Wilde’s Salomé (London, 1894). Page 172 Figure 12. Napoleon Sarony, Portrait of Sarah Bernhardt as Cleopatra, 1891. Page 181 Figure 13. [Edward] Linley Sambourne, illustration from chapter 6 “I should like to cuddle you; but I cannot, you are so horny and prickly.” Engraving, from Charles Kingsley, The Water-Babies: A Fairy Tale for a Land-Baby (London: Macmillan, 1889), 217. Page 185 Figure 14. [Edward] Linley Sambourne, illustration from chapter 1 “Frontispiece.” Engraving, from Charles Kingsley, The Water-Babies: A Fairy Tale for a Land-Baby (London: Macmillan, 1889), 1. Page 187 Figure 15. [Edward] Linley Sambourne, illustration from chapter 1 “What did such a little black ape want in that sweet young lady’s room? And behold, it was himself, reflected in a great mirror.” Engraving, from Charles Kingsley, The Water-Babies: A Fairy Tale for a Land-Baby (London: Macmillan, 1889), 25. Page 188 Figure 16. [Edward] Linley Sambourne, illustration from chapter 6 “She taught him, first, what you have been taught ever since you said your first prayers at your mother’s knees.” Engraving, from Charles Kingsley, The Water-Babies: A Fairy Tale for a Land-Baby (London: Macmillan, 1889), 219. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:14, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 https://www.cambridge.org/core Illustrations xi Page 193 Figure 17. [Edward] Linley Sambourne, illustration from chapter 1 “she was a very tall handsome woman, with bright gray eyes, and heavy black hair hanging about her cheeks.” Engraving, from Charles Kingsley, The Water-Babies: A Fairy Tale for a Land-Baby (London: Macmillan, 1889), 10. Page 199 Figure 18. [Edward] Linley Sambourne, illustration from chapter 6 “So all he said was ‘Ubboboo!’ and died.” Engraving, from Charles Kingsley, The Water-Babies: A Fairy Tale for a Land-Baby (London: Macmillan, 1889), 236. Page 210 Figure 19. Lewis Carroll. Nine drawings made after Tenniel’s proof engravings for Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (Private Collection), drawing 3 [1865]. The Pierpont Morgan Library, New York. Page 216 Figure 20. Installation view of room 3, “Imperial Heroics,” Artist and Empire exhibition, Tate Britain. Foreground: Andrew Gilbert, British Infantry Advance on Jerusalem, 4th July 1879 (2015). The large painting to the right is Edward Armitage, Retribution (1858, Leeds City Art Gallery). The smaller painting to the left is Allan Stewart, To the Memory of Brave Men: The Last Stand of Major Allan Wilson at the Shangani, 4th December 1893 (1897, Russell-Cotes Art Gallery and Museum, Bournemouth). Photograph c©Tate 2015, Joe Humphrys. Page 224 Figure 21. Marie Spartali Stillman, Self Portrait, 1871. Charcoal and white chalk on paper, 25 3/8 x 20 5/8 inches. Delaware Art Museum, Gift of Lucia N. Valentine, 1974. Page 225 Figure 22. Marie Spartali Stillman, Love’s Messenger, 1885. Watercolor, tempera, and gold paint on paper mounted on wood, 32 x 26 inches. Delaware Art Museum, Samuel and Mary R. Bancroft Memorial, 1935. Page 226 Figure 23. Marie Spartali Stillman, The Pilgrim Folk, 1914. Watercolor and gouache on paper, 22 3/8 x 27 11/16 inches. Delaware Art Museum, Gift of Mrs. S. S. Auchincloss, 1974. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000565 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. 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work_4fsmwtvglzhufapxo7df4adohq	----	wp-p1m-38.ebi.ac.uk Params is empty 404 sys_1000 exception wp-p1m-38.ebi.ac.uk no 219530650 Params is empty 219530650 exception Params is empty 2021/04/06-02:36:12 if (typeof jQuery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/1.14.8/js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,String.fromCharCode(60)).replace(/\]/g,String.fromCharCode(62))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} Page not available Reason: The web page address (URL) that you used may be incorrect. Message ID: 219530650 (wp-p1m-38.ebi.ac.uk) Time: 2021/04/06 02:36:12 If you need further help, please send an email to PMC. Include the information from the box above in your message. Otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using PMC: Search the complete PMC archive. Browse the contents of a specific journal in PMC. Find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/ 
work_4gr2hdbdf5boning3c3wddatyy	----	Reviews 899 Robien had an eye for colorful detail; his illuminating descriptions of the events at which he was present are of genuine interest. Moreover, at times he was re- markably discerning. In the spring of 1917 he was justly skeptical of the possibility for a successful Russian offensive, and unlike many of his contemporaries he was not taken in by the apparent victories of early July. After the October Revolution, when many were predicting the quick collapse of the Bolshevik regime, Robien concluded that "peace is what the Russian people long for. . . . It is the men who end the war who will be masters of Russia for a long time." However, Robien was also highly impressionable and capable of incredible misjudgment. Much of what he passed on about the Revolution was picked up at an embassy reception or an intimate after- theater tete-a-tete, usually over a rare wine in a royal palace or fashionable restau- rant, always with someone equally well-born. In part because of this, his diary contains innumerable errors of fact, and many of the most important developments shaping the course of the Revolution escaped his purview entirely. Thus the value of his book for readers seeking a deeper understanding of the Russian Revolution is very limited. ALEXANDER RABINOWITCH Indiana University V BOR'BE ZA SOTSIALISTICHESKOE PEREUSTROISTVO DEREVNI (KREST'IANSKAIA VZAIMOPOMOSHCH1, 1921-1932 GG.). By P. A. Aleksanov. Moscow: "Mysl'," 1971. 271 pp. 1.01 rubles. Aleksanov's study is the first to trace the history of the officially sponsored peasant mutual-aid organization throughout the decade of its existence in the 1920s. With the adoption of the New Economic Policy and the end of grain requisitioning in March 1921 the Soviet government faced the loss of supplies for rural welfare assistance. Social need and its political implications (expressly acknowledged here) combined to create an urgent problem. Prompted by the spontaneous appearance of peasant mutual-aid committees, the government began in May to promote the establishment of a broad network of such groups (Krest'ianskie Komitety Ob- shchestvennoi Vzaimopomoshchi) under the Commissariat of Social Security. From resources acquired through self-taxation and state contributions, the krestkomy were to provide assistance to soldiers' families and victims of natural or social misfortune. Later (as Krest'ianskie Obshchestva Vzaimopomoshchi), they were also to help peasants join cooperatives and collectives. Drawing on commissariat publications, party records, and the surviving scat- tered data (an archival fund exists for the initial year only), the author has assembled a considerable amount of information. Unfortunately, because the source materials are often incomplete or inconsecutive, the assemblage fails to produce a clear picture of the extent and dynamics of the mutual-aid movement. An estimate that some 65-70 percent of the peasantry had been drawn into the krestkomy by the end of the twenties (p. 248) is vitiated by the acknowledgment that a "significant percent" of the committees existed only on paper. The relation of mutual aid to the communal system of peasant social interdependence is unexplored, and few clues are provided to explain the successes or failures reported. Such limitations, however, are compensated by the book's incidental reflections of a convoluting agricultural policy, and by its oblique illumination of the problem of rural administrative control through uncoordinated, replicate agencies. Under 900 Slavic Review collectivization the peasant mutual-aid societies were replaced by corresponding kolkhoz offices. Communism itself, an early KKOV congress had been informed, was to be "a huge organization of mutual aid for all mankind." DOROTHY ATKINSON Hoover Institution T H E W H I T E DEATH: THE EPIC OF THE SOVIET-FINNISH WINTER WAR. By Allen F. Chew. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1971. x, 313 pp. $12.50. Professor Chew's work is primarily a study of military tactics. His sources are impressive: published documents, memoirs, and secondary works in English, Finnish, and Russian; archival materials in Washington and Helsinki; and personal interviews with a number of Finnish officers who participated in the battles he describes. The result is a far more detailed study of the fighting than has hitherto been available in any major Western language. (At times, indeed, the reader may wonder who needs or wants all the details he gives. For example: "While trying to hurl a grenade thru a window, Lt. Heinivaho was hit in the left arm and side, but he was able to crawl back to the aid station to begin the long trek by sleigh and bus to the hospital. Another officer of the Fifth Company, Lt. Lehtinen, was killed near the crest of the hill, his body rolling down the slope," p. 47.) The author's descriptions of air the principal battles of the war are precise and clear, and illustrated by admirable maps and diagrams. He spares neither side in his criticisms, but reserves his admiration for the Finns. One might wish that more generalizations about the reasons for Finnish success and Russian weakness would emerge from Chew's somewhat disjointed individual studies of battles. To be sure, the explanations are there, scattered throughout the book: poor Soviet planning and preparation in the early stages of the war, which Moscow had expected to be a triumphant blitzkrieg; the un- suitability of mechanized Soviet forces to much of the wintry terrain, especially on the more northern fronts, and the corresponding advantages of what Chew calls "primitive tactics" on the part of the highly mobile Finnish infantrymen in the woods; the relative unimportance of air power during the dark winter; and, above all, the generally high quality of Finnish leadership and, until close to the end, the superb morale of the Finnish troops. The White Death is more than a military study. It contains an admirable summary of Mannerheim's career and an evaluation of his complex personality (pp. 84-96 and 278-80). The book includes, perhaps unfortunately, a final chapter on the Continuation War (and the months preceding and years following it), which adds nothing to what is already available in English on the subject and over- simplifies such matters as Mannerheim's attitude toward attacking beyond Finland's boundaries of 1939. Some readers will certainly not agree with the author's pessimistic views about Finland's present and future and his remarks about "certain bourgeois politicians [who] court the Kremlin to advance their personal interests" (p. 247). Indeed, in many of his comments on the political background of military events from the 1920s on, Professor Chew is decidedly partisan. C. LEONARD LUNDIN Indiana University 
work_4hbxpneznjfbxevnata4qhjgvi	----	898 Slavic Review perhaps too critical of Denikin's stiff anti-German stance, failing to take sufficient account of the emotion and experience which lay behind it. Like others, Kenez believes that the White Russian forces were doomed to fail for two basic reasons: first, because their leaders, basically apolitical men, were unable to develop a pro- gram that might appeal to the masses; second, because their Russian nationalism blinded them to the reality of imperial disintegration, thus making them unable to cooperate with the other major non-Bolshevik force, the national minorities. The virtues of the book make one impatient for the author to try his skills on a larger theme. J O H N M. T H O M P S O N Indiana University T H E D I A R Y O F A D I P L O M A T I N R U S S I A , 1917-1918. By Louis de Robien. Translated from the French by Camilla Sykes. New York and Washington: Praeger Publishers, 1970. 319 pp. $8.50. Count Louis de Robien was appointed a minor official in the French embassy in St. Petersburg in 1914 at the age of twenty-six. His diary, first published in French in 1967, is an entertaining, highly personal record of his opinions about and experiences in revolutionary Russia, beginning with the March days and ending with his trans- fer to Prague in November 1918. Unabashedly aristocratic, and overwhelmingly disdainful of Russians in general and the bourgeoisie in particular, Robien viewed the overthrow of the Romanov dynasty and its replacement by a liberal-democratic regime as an unmitigated disaster. A few quotations best convey the spirit and flavor of his lively commen- taries. "One thing alone can still save the cause of the war and the allies, drastic repression, and we are hoping for it wholeheartedly," he noted during the peak of the insurrection which led to the abdication of Nicholas I I . "Now one can see why the Tsars always had to govern with Baits and Germans," he observed in late April as the revolutionary crisis in the Russian Empire deepened. "The real Russians, they only know how to destroy." Speculating about the qualities to be desired in a new French ambassador after Paleologue's recall in May, Robien wrote: " W h a t is needed here, unless they want to send a general with a dog whip (which would be best in a country where all backs are still waiting for the knout), is a very shrewd and very crafty career diplomat, who would know how to compromise the Russian leaders." After an especially enjoyable dinner party at Tsarskoe Selo, he wrote wistfully, "The whole thing was delightful, and that evening spent so far away from the revolution did me good. . . . How pleasant life could still be if only men were sensible." In his official capacity Robien came into occasional contact with leaders of the Provisional Government and Soviet. Following a visit with Kerensky in mid-April he complained, "Kerensky was dressed in a kind of coat buttoned up to the neck, without hard collar or tie: neither bourgeois, nor workman, nor soldier . . . he noticeably makes an exhibition of himself . . . his emaciated face, his glance, his sickly aspect give him the appearance of a hysteric." So great was Robien's contempt for the liberals and moderate socialists that for some time the Bolsheviks appeared more attractive to him. "Met Kerensky again today . . . installed like the Emperor in the Imperial Rolls Royce," he noted in a diary entry of late July. " I don't call these people revolutionaries, but just ' y ° u clear out and make room for me' people, and I much prefer Lenin . . . at least he is an honest and sincere man." Reviews 899 Robien had an eye for colorful detail; his illuminating descriptions of the events at which he was present are of genuine interest. Moreover, at times he was re- markably discerning. In the spring of 1917 he was justly skeptical of the possibility for a successful Russian offensive, and unlike many of his contemporaries he was not taken in by the apparent victories of early July. After the October Revolution, when many were predicting the quick collapse of the Bolshevik regime, Robien concluded that "peace is what the Russian people long for. . . . It is the men who end the war who will be masters of Russia for a long time." However, Robien was also highly impressionable and capable of incredible misjudgment. Much of what he passed on about the Revolution was picked up at an embassy reception or an intimate after- theater tete-a-tete, usually over a rare wine in a royal palace or fashionable restau- rant, always with someone equally well-born. In part because of this, his diary contains innumerable errors of fact, and many of the most important developments shaping the course of the Revolution escaped his purview entirely. Thus the value of his book for readers seeking a deeper understanding of the Russian Revolution is very limited. ALEXANDER RABINOWITCH Indiana University V BOR'BE ZA SOTSIALISTICHESKOE PEREUSTROISTVO DEREVNI (KREST'IANSKAIA VZAIMOPOMOSHCH1, 1921-1932 GG.). By P. A. Aleksanov. Moscow: "Mysl'," 1971. 271 pp. 1.01 rubles. Aleksanov's study is the first to trace the history of the officially sponsored peasant mutual-aid organization throughout the decade of its existence in the 1920s. With the adoption of the New Economic Policy and the end of grain requisitioning in March 1921 the Soviet government faced the loss of supplies for rural welfare assistance. Social need and its political implications (expressly acknowledged here) combined to create an urgent problem. Prompted by the spontaneous appearance of peasant mutual-aid committees, the government began in May to promote the establishment of a broad network of such groups (Krest'ianskie Komitety Ob- shchestvennoi Vzaimopomoshchi) under the Commissariat of Social Security. From resources acquired through self-taxation and state contributions, the krestkomy were to provide assistance to soldiers' families and victims of natural or social misfortune. Later (as Krest'ianskie Obshchestva Vzaimopomoshchi), they were also to help peasants join cooperatives and collectives. Drawing on commissariat publications, party records, and the surviving scat- tered data (an archival fund exists for the initial year only), the author has assembled a considerable amount of information. Unfortunately, because the source materials are often incomplete or inconsecutive, the assemblage fails to produce a clear picture of the extent and dynamics of the mutual-aid movement. An estimate that some 65-70 percent of the peasantry had been drawn into the krestkomy by the end of the twenties (p. 248) is vitiated by the acknowledgment that a "significant percent" of the committees existed only on paper. The relation of mutual aid to the communal system of peasant social interdependence is unexplored, and few clues are provided to explain the successes or failures reported. Such limitations, however, are compensated by the book's incidental reflections of a convoluting agricultural policy, and by its oblique illumination of the problem of rural administrative control through uncoordinated, replicate agencies. Under 
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work_4mcnzef2oranpgjepmqvf7t2pi	----	10 Fattori 2 Number 13 - Year VIII / July 2019 pp. 143-152 The Production of Meaning by Means of Things. We live surrounded by things. Objects that are imagined, designed, built by us to achieve our weakness and inadequacy to survive with only our strenght and body. We build prosthesis to increase our strenght and things to ensure comfort in our daily life. Objects communicate with us, and beetwen them, and crystallize inside them the meanings we give them. .Some of major scholars have studied the relations between things and us: Georg Simmel, Walter Benjamin, Arnold Gehlen, Jean Baudrillard Roland Barthes, Louis Bolke, Abraham Moles, Jan Mukařovský too. This essays aims at exploring the above mentioned issues. Abstract Keywords Goods | Meaning | Reproducibility | Metropolis| Simulacrum Authors Adolfo Fattori adolfofattori@libero.it Design della comunicazione | Accademia di Belle Arti di Napoli Produzione di senso a mezzo di oggetti. Cristallizzazioni dell’umano www.imagojournal.it Number 13 – Year VIII / July 2019 www.imagojournal.it imagojournal.it 144 Adolfo Fattori Produzione di senso a mezzo di oggetti. Dato che ogni strumento possiede un’utilità, ogni uso di strumenti « connota », vale a dire che esso preusppone un modo connotativo di concepire l’operazione che si esegue. Luis J. Prieto (1976) Forse, indispettito di essere alienato dall’osservazione, l’oggetto ci inganna? Forse inventa delle risposte originali, e non solo quelle che gli vengono sollecitate? […] Questa astuzia vittoriosa si coglie molto bene nelle scienze umane… Jean Baudrillard (1984) Sembra che negli ultimi anni la riflessione sul rapporto che abbiamo – noi umani – con gli oggetti progettati e realizzati da noi stessi – gli artefatti, i manufatti – si sia trasferito dalle mani, per così dire, della sociologia e dell’antropologia in quelle della filosofia, di una sua versione contemporanea e, forse, più estrema: quella che teorizza di flat ontologies (Bryant, 2011: 261-) o si inquadra nei critical life studies (Colebrook C. e Weinstein J. 2017). Esplicita, da questo punto di vista, è la rivendicazione dell’interesse della filosofia per il regno del non-umano, interesse legato alla svolta speculativa (speculative turn) avvenuta negli ultimi anni, e che ha concentrato la sua attenzione sugli oggetti e il loro statuto. Nell’introduzione al volume The Speculative Turn i curatori, chiamando in causa Bruno Latour, affermano: While still read more widely in the social sciences than in philosophy, Latour has onetheless been an important figure in the recent Speculative Turn. Against all forms of reduction to physical objects, cultural structures, systems of power, texts, discourses, or phenomena in consciousness, Latour argues for an ‘irreductionism’ in which all entities are equally real (though not equally strong) insofar as they act on other entities. While nonhuman actors such as germs, weather patterns, atoms, and mountains obviously relate to the world around them, the same is true of Harry Potter, the Virgin Mary, democracies, and hallucinations. The incorporeal and corporeal realms are equally capable of having effects on the world (Bryant, Srnicek and Harman, 2011: 6). Come si legge nel testo che riporto qui sopra – è un’implicazione addirittura scontata – il reame del non-umano comprende tutto ciò che ci circonda, che sia di produzione umana o meno. Chiamando in causa anche l’italiano Mario Perniola e il suo Il sex-appeal dell’inorganico (1994), come fa l’americana Jane Bennett, che scriveva Number 13 – Year VIII / July 2019 www.imagojournal.it imagojournal.it 145 Adolfo Fattori Produzione di senso a mezzo di oggetti. qualche anno fa, anticipando alcune implicazioni estreme delle analisi contenute in The Speculative Turn, … a life draws attention not to a lifeworld of human designs or their accidental, accumulated effects, but to an interstitial field of nonpersonal, ahuman forces, bows, tendencies, and trajectories. The project, then, is to theorize a kind of geoaffect or material vitality, a theory born of a methodological commitment to avoid anthropocentrism and biocentrism-or perhaps it is more accurate to say that it is born of an irrational love of matter. Here another «prodigious idea» comes to mind: Mario Perniola's «the sex appeal of the inorganic» (2010 : 61). Senz’altro affascinante e potenzialmente fruttifera (Fattori, 2018), come prospettiva, quella del supermanento definitivo dell’antropocentrismo attraverso il riconoscimento agli oggetti di uno statuto paritario – anche se in alcuni casi del tutto alieno – a quello dell’umano, ma estremamente rischiosa, per la deriva verso la metafisica che implica: in fondo, le culture arcaiche, feticiste e/o animiste, attribuivano all’intero contenuto del cosmo qualità viventi, senzienti. E la metafisica, con gli entusiasmi irrazionalistici che implica almeno sotto certi aspetti, può anche essere considerata come la versione moderna, laicizzata del pensiero sacro, soprannaturale… Bisogna, forse, che la sociologia torni ad occuparsi di questa materia, gli oggetti inanimati, in particolare le produzioni umane – sorvolando sulla circostanza che in realtà la stessa filosofia (come la sociologia, peraltro…) è un prodotto umano, quanto lo è il punto di vista da cui guardiamo alle cose, anche a quelle esistenti a prescindere da noi. E uno spunto ce lo dà, come osservato sopra, la stessa Bennett, citando Perniola, visto che il filosofo piemontese a sua volta usa come titolo del suo libro una frase di Walter Benjamin, pilastro della sociologia del Novecento e uno degli autori esplorati, insieme a Georg Simmel, Arnold Gehlen, Jean Baudrillard, in I cristalli della società (2019) del sociologo Antonio Tramontana. Benjamin usa la locuzione ‘’il sex-appeal dell’inorganico’’ (Benjamin, 2002: 11) riferendosi alla moda e alle sue ritualità, alla sua necessità di ritualità, come medium necessario perché gli oggetti, materia morta in quanto merci, acquistino vita (Tramontana, 2019: 95) e si rendano disponibili, nella loro natura di feticci, all’adorazione delle masse, ai rituali collettivi della vita quotidiana della metropoli e della società di massa (Tramontana, 2019: 94). A partire proprio dalle riflessioni di Walter Benjamin, il saggio di Tramontana riporta, per così dire, il tema sulla terra, strappandolo alle lusinghe della metafisica, dei ragionamenti portati all’estremo, e riparte da un punto di vista rigorosamente sociologico: la definizione del mondo in cui viviamo è il frutto della percezione, osservazione e riflessione su di esso che noi umani articoliamo. E poiché gli oggetti da cui siamo circondati sono nostri prodotti, l’idea che ne abbiamo è un costrutto sociale, Number 13 – Year VIII / July 2019 www.imagojournal.it imagojournal.it 146 Adolfo Fattori Produzione di senso a mezzo di oggetti. come è un costrutto sociale il senso che ci trasmettono, il dialogo che si instaura fra noi e loro.1 Tramontana, a differenza dei filosofi rihiamati più sopra, circoscrive il campo di indagine agli oggetti – materiali e immateriali – più specificamente prodotti dagli uomini, facendo riferimento a tre o quattro elementi fondamentali, tipici luoghi della riflessione sociologica: la metropoli, la merce, il consumo, la produzione di senso – che peraltro sono, seppur in misura e con sguardi diversi, i nuclei da cui si è sviluppata l’analisi di tutti e quattro gli autori su cui si concentra il suo lavoro. In realtà, artefatti e umano sono inestricabili e indivisibili gli uni dall’altro. Sono ciò che chiamiamo ‘’cultura’’ – materiale e immateriale: sono il risultato di quel processo di ‘’ominazione’’ che è indistinguibile dall’umano perché legato alla sua stessa sopravvivenza. Noi umani, come ricorda Tramontana citando l’anatomista olandese Louis Bolk (Tramontana, 2019: 119-120), siamo per natura inadatti a sopravvivere con i nostri soli mezzi: è come se fossimo rimasti – a paragone degli altri viventi – allo stato embrionale, con organi privi delle specializzazioni necessarie ad affrontare il mondo esterno, ‘’… il feto di un primate giunto alla maturità sessuale’’ (Bolk, 2006: 53). La nostra stessa esistenza è il frutto, alla fin fine, di un ‘’errore evolutivo’’, quello che ci ha portati ad essere dotati, unici fra le specie viventi, di autocoscienza – e quindi di memoria e di immaginazione. Capaci, cioè, di riflettere oltre che su noi stessi, sul mondo circostante e sulle eventuali soluzioni da adottare per risolvere le difficoltà connesse alla sopravvivenza. E di costruirci un mondo ‘’a misura d’uomo’’ (Hughes, 2006). Cosa che facciamo, sin dall’alba della nostra esistenza come specie, progettando e costruendo protesi che potenzino le nostre capacità e possibilità, dal procacciarci il cibo e proteggere i nostri corpi al realizzare (con alcune di quelle stesse protesi) oggetti che soddisfino bisogni più elusivi e indefiniti, quelli che abbiamo imparato a definire ‘’estetici’’ – come con una magistrale capacità sintetica ci mostra Stanley Kubrick nella straordinaria sequenza del film 2001 Odissea nello spazio (1968) in cui con uno vertiginoso ‘’stacco’’ di montaggio si passa dall’inquadratura dello scimmione che solleva un osso per usarlo come clava ad una astronave che fluttua nello spazio – dalle opere d’arte a tutto ciò che ci circonda nella vita quotidiana. È Walter Benjamin che ‘’inaugura’’ l’attenzione per gli oggetti – per i ‘’piccoli oggetti’’ della quotidianità – come racconta il suo amico Gersholm Scholem, una passione che si spinge fino alla sua stessa minuscola scrittura (Tramontana, 2019: 76), apparentandolo ad uno dei suoi grandi contemporanei, lo svizzero Robert Walser con i suoi ‘’microgrammi’’ (Fattori, 2013: 21), e facendo da radice per le sue riflessioni sul rapporto fra gli oggetti – merci, certo, ma anche attributi della nostra identità, se vogliamo – spazi metropolitani, e abitanti di quel nuovo continuum spazio/temporale che è la metropoli stessa. 1 Naturalmente da questo discorso sono esclusi gli oggetti del mondo naturale – su cui, peraltro, noi umani costruiamo teorie, che a loro volta sono oggetti, immateriali, sì, ma comunque di produzione umana. Number 13 – Year VIII / July 2019 www.imagojournal.it imagojournal.it 147 Adolfo Fattori Produzione di senso a mezzo di oggetti. Benjamin sceglie per sviluppare le sue considerazioni sul rapporto fra uomini e cose i passages parigini, quei camminamenti coperti che congiungevano strade parallele correndo sotto gli edifici, e che diventano nella metropoli i luoghi di esposizione e vendita delle merci più disparate al pubblico metropolitano, replica in piccolo, ma senza scadenza delle grandi Esposizioni universali, le poderose manifestazioni della grandezza della modernità, della fabbrica, della produzione, del consumo (Benjamin, 2002) – e dello sfruttamento feroce, anche dei propri familiari, come ci mostra Louis- Ferdinand Céline nel suo Morte a credito (2010), uno dei suoi romanzi più ‘’maledetti’’, pubblicato nel 1936 e a lungo censurato e ignorato (Fattori, 2011). Gli oggetti non solo comunicano con noi umani, intrecciando i fili che conducono la nostra vita quotidiana, ma interagiscono fra loro, organizzandosi in configurazioni articolate e coerenti, creando sistemi di rappresentazione dell’immagine che abbiamo della realtà che ci circonda e di noi stessi. Fanno da specchio della nostra condizione, e del rapporto che abbiamo col sociale. E, nella modernità, ne organizzano la dimensione mitica attraverso la ripetizione di se stessi: ‘’Se «l’essenza dell’accadere mitico è la ripetizione »2, allora quello della modernità è un tempo che si richiude, una storia cioè senza possibilità di accadimento realmente nuovo’’ (Tramontana, 2019: 96). È, in ultima analisi, la riproducibilità tecnica dell’oggetto quello che ne assicura la natura ripetitiva, quindi il rimando alla ciclicità delle cose, degli eventi, delle vite… e immerge le soggettività del Novecento – degli umani della società di massa – nella dimensione del Mito. D’altra parte, gli stessi poli – la metropoli da un lato, gli oggetti dall’altro, la società nella sua complessità – sono i cardini della riflessione di un altro gigante della sociologia novecentesca, Georg Simmel, che si concentra proprio sull’interazione degli oggetti con noi. ‘’La società – scrive Tramontana introducendo il pensiero di Simmel – è il risultato di contenuti che si relazionano reciprocamente’’, e gli oggetti sono ‘’forme’’ (sociali) che regolano le ragioni per cui li utlizziamo (Tramontana, 2019: 45- 46), laddove si mescolano e si integrano motivi funzionali e motivi estetici. Un esempio in particolare, proposto dal sociologo tedesco, è paradigmatico, e viene sviluppato nello scritto L’ansa del vaso (Simmel, 2007: 11-17). Scrive Antonio Tramontana commentando il saggio : Un vaso contiene dentro di sé tutta la ricchezza delle sfere in cui può essere collocato. Esso oscilla tra la possibilità di essere considerato un’opera d’arte e la più consueta collocazione nella vita quotidiana. Prese nella loro estremizzazione queste due sfere, completamente diverse tra loro, si compenetrano in un solo oggetto: il vaso. La forma del vaso, infatti, trova la sua ragione d’essere nel prendere parte alla vita pratica, e il fatto di essere maneggiato, spostato, riempito o svuotato, lo rende un oggetto che, pur considerandolo come un’opera d’arte, sfugge dalla “separazione insulare” rispetto alla vita quotidiana. Tale compenetrazione rende il vaso una forma 2 Qui Tramontana cita Benjamin, 2002: 129. Number 13 – Year VIII / July 2019 www.imagojournal.it imagojournal.it 148 Adolfo Fattori Produzione di senso a mezzo di oggetti. capace di contenere la ricchezza delle sfere dell’umano (Tramontana, 2019: 56). La sostanza della questione posta da Georg Simmel è nel mettere in rilievo la doppia natura degli oggetti, anche di quelli più banalmente inseriti nella vita quotidiana: l’essere il risultato di una ricerca funzionale, tesa a perseguire il potenziamento (o la sostituzione, o l’agevolazione, come si esprime Arnold Gehlen) di un gesto umano volto a soddisfare una necessità prosaica, ma contemporaneamente l’essere il frutto di un bisogno estetico. L’attenzione alla dimensione estetica intrinseca alla realizzazione degli oggetti è analoga al rapporto che intercorre fra gli uomini, una socievolezza (Tramontana, 2019: 53) di base, profonda, che secondo Simmel è parte integrante della natura umana, e che credo possa essere rimandata all’altruismo di fondo che Simmel (2011), ragionando sull’amore considera un tratto essenziale della condizione umana. Anzi, proprio ragionando sul tema, il sociologo scrive: Mi sembra di estrema importanza riconoscere nell’amore una funzione immanente, sarei per dire formale, della vita psichica, che pur essendo anch’essa certamente resa attuale da uno stimolo proveniente dal mondo, non determina nulla in anticipo circa la fonte di questo stimolo. Qesto sentimento è collegato con l’unità complessiva della vita più radicalmente di molti, forse della maggior parte degli altri […] Anche quando diciamo di «amare» un oggetto inanimato, invece di definirlo utile, piacevole o bello ci riferiamo a una forte impressione centrale, ci riferiamo a una forte impressione centrale […] che esso produce in noi…3 (Simmel, 2007: 18-19). Il tema dell’intreccio fra strumentalità ed estetica ha percorso – nella ideazione e fabbricazione degli oggetti di uso quotidiano – tutto il percorso della modernità, a partire almeno dalla nascita del fordismo fino ai giorni nostri, mettendo in tensione due traiettorie diverse, ambedue tese a perseguire quella sintesi che Simmel individua nel vaso del suo scritto: quella “triviale”, “concreta” dell’artigianato artistico e quella “colta” – ed “astratta”4 – del design industriale. In un testo ormai classico il ceco Jan Mukařovský, premettendo come nel suo occuparsi di oggetti di uso comune l’artigianato abbia sempre fatto attenzione alla dimensione estetica, ricorda come con “artigianato artistico” si debba indicare un fenomeno che si colloca fra XIX e XX secolo e come, col suo avvento si approdi … a un rapporto diverso dal semplice e placido parallelismo5 di un tempo: l’artigianato tenta di superare i propri confini, di trasformarsi in arte. Dal punto di vista dell’artigianato, ciò fu un tentativo di salvare la produzione 3 Corsivi miei. 4 Qui faccio riferimento alla distinzione che Karl Marx fa fra lavoro astratto e lavoro concreto. 5 Parallelismo fra arte e artigianato. Number 13 – Year VIII / July 2019 www.imagojournal.it imagojournal.it 149 Adolfo Fattori Produzione di senso a mezzo di oggetti. manuale, che andava perdendo di significato pratico in concorrenza colla produzione di fabbrica […] L’artigianato, per il quale i materiali sono un fattore essenziale… doveva aiutare l’arte a sfruttare parimenti le possibilità offerte dal materiale. (Ma) appena entrò nella sfera dell’arte e cominciò a tendere alla produzione di esemplari unici con prevalente funzione estetica, l’artigianato perse la propria funzione pratica… Si videro persino bicchieri in cui era difficile bere e così via (Mukařovský, 1973: 15). L’elemento notevole di questo brano non è tanto nel riferimento all’arte, quanto in quello alla “produzione di fabbrica”: siamo nella fase in cui l’industria comincia a preoccuparsi della necessità di proporre oggetti frutto di una ricerca estetica, oltre che utilitaria: siamo all’alba della nascita del design (e dell’avventura delle “avanguardie storiche”, fra l’altro, il cui intreccio con le vicende della produzione di massa è essenziale, per comprendere le dinamiche dei consumi culturali e non del Novecento… [Balzola – Monteverdi, 2004])6 e quindi dell’alleanza definitiva fra ricerca estetica e produzione in serie – compresa la sua deriva più triviale, il Kitsch, vale a dire … uno stile che fa sentire l’assenza di ogni stile; corrisponde ad una funzione della comodità che è stata aggiunta senza alcuna necessità alle funzioni tradizionali dell’oggetto7 […] Mercanzia scadente, prodotto di rifiuto dell’arte, che si accumula perché ormai i prodotti della società vengono offerti nei grandi magazzini che insieme alle stazioni ferroviarie degenerano in veri templi del Kitsch (Moles, 1979: 27). All’altro capo di questa dinamica c’è il design, il frutto della riflessione “colta” sul rapporto fra produzione e consumo, della ricerca sull’intreccio fra funzionalità ed eleganza degli oggetti e degli ambienti. Su questa tensione riflette Jean Baudrillard nella sua ricerca sulla relazione fra scambio simbolico e scambio economico, sulla merce, la comunicazione, il vero e proprio “sistema” di segni che l’universo degli oggetti trasmette ai suoi creatori ed utilizzatori. Baudrillard, come “l’angelo della storia” benjaminiano, che Ha il viso rivolto al passato. Dove ci appare una catena di eventi, egli vede una sola catastrofe, che accumula senza tregua rovine su rovine e le rovescia ai suoi piedi […] una tempesta spira dal paradiso, che si è impigliata nelle sue ali, ed è così forte che egli non può chiuderle. Questa tempesta lo spinge irresistibilmente nel futuro, a cui volge le spalle, mentre il cumulo delle 6 E non è un caso che Mukařovský citi, nelle stesse pagine, il conterraneo Adolf Loos, il fondatore del razionalismo in architettura. 7 Corsivo mio. Number 13 – Year VIII / July 2019 www.imagojournal.it imagojournal.it 150 Adolfo Fattori Produzione di senso a mezzo di oggetti. rovine sale davanti a lui al cielo. Ciò che chiamiamo il progresso, è questa tempesta8 (Benjamin, 1976: 76-77), può guardare alla storia della società di massa e dei consumi a posteriori rispetto agli altri studiosi, in particolare proprio a Benjamin, e – da grande “apocalittico” qual è – dare rilievo alle derive dell’ideologia del modernismo e del progresso, mettendo l’accento sullo slittamento progressivo e catastrofico, apocalittico, appunto9 della società occidentale, in una vertigine in cui, attraversati tutti gli ordini di simulacri – dall’automa (la contraffazione), attraverso il robot (la produzione), fino al modello (il codice digitale) – progressivamente la realtà si sia nascosta dietro la simulazione, dietro la sua mimesi ispirata ad un modello di sintesi, quello sussunto alla “supremazia del codice” informatico. Una iperrealtà “più reale del reale”, fatta di significanti del tutto emancipati dall’obbligo del legame con un senso preciso, che proiettano la “fantasmagoria della merce” di cui scriveva Walter Benjamin verso nuovi luoghi, quelli della fantasmagoria del codice. Così il nostro legame con gli oggetti si ribalta definitivamente: libere di combinarsi fra loro secondo configurazioni proprie, “giocano” con noi, ci mettono “sotto scacco”, rivelano un “genio” beffardo e dispettoso che rende la realtà fungibile, magmatica, incerta. Per questo il francese, dopo aver ragionato su Kitsch e design si concentra sulla moda, rendendo omaggio a Roland Barthes e alla sua monumentale ricerca sulle riviste francesi di moda (1970), mettendo a fuoco il suo essere l’idealtipo di codice contemporaneo: un sistema di segni in cui il rapporto fra significante e significato non ha più nessuna stabilità e certezza, ma si ricombina continuamente, elevando all’esponente la capacità degli oggetti di produrre sensi. In questo senso, forse, l’icona – con tutto il carico simbolico che contiene – più potente dei nostri tempi è la stampante 3D: lo strumento della riproducibilità illimitata di qualsiasi oggetto sulla base di un modello astratto, e delle sue varianti combinatorie. A questo forse, nonostante tutto (il mutamento sociale è articolato e contraddittorio), si contrappone – in una dialettica fruttuosa a creativa – la nostra propensione a rappresentarci attraverso gli oggetti di cui ci circondiamo, che “parlano di noi”, come nella ricerca condotta qualche anno fa dall’antropologo inglese Daniel Miller visitando un certo numero di abitazioni londinesi e intervistandone gli inquilini (2014; Fattori, 2014). Tutte le persone intervistate da Miller mostrano come gli oggetti di cui sono circondate, ciò che dà forma al loro ambiente personale, sono il frutto di una scelta, più o meno consapevole, al di là della dimensione di comfort che viene perseguito, che performa la loro identità, l’idea che hanno di se stesse: attributi, prolungamenti, espressioni simboliche del proprio Sé, in un processo di riappropriazione che se da un 8 Corsivo mio. 9 Nel suo senso etimologico: cfr. Maffesoli, 2009. Number 13 – Year VIII / July 2019 www.imagojournal.it imagojournal.it 151 Adolfo Fattori Produzione di senso a mezzo di oggetti. lato ha lo scopo di adeguare l’ambiente ai nostri bisogni, dall’altro esprime le nostre, singole, soggettività. Bibliografia Barthes R. (1970), Sistema della moda, Einaudi, Torino. Baudrillard J. (1984), Le strategie fatali, Feltrinelli, Milano. Balzola A. – Monteverdi A.M. (2004), Le arti multimediali digitali, Garzanti, Milano. Benjamin W. (2002), I ‘’passages’’ di Parigi, Einaudi, Torino. Bennett J. (2010), Vibrant Matter : A Political Echology of Things, Duke University Press Durham and London. Bolk L. (2006), Il problema dell’ominazione, Derive/Approdi, Roma. Bryant L. (2011), The Ontic Principle: Outline of an Object-Oriented Ontology, in Bryant, Srnicek and Harman (ed.), The Speculative Turn: Continental Materialism and Realism, re.press Melbourne, Australia. Céline L.-F. (2010), Morte a credito, Garzanti, Milano. Colebrook C. e Weinstein J. (ed.) (2017), Posthumous Life Theorizing beyond the Posthuman, Columbia University Press, New York. Fattori A. (2011), I retrobottega della Ville Lumiére, Quaderni d’Altri Tempi 34, retrieved on 3 may 2019, http://www.quadernidaltritempi.eu/rivista/numero34/mappe/q34_m06.htm Fattori A. (2013), Sparire a se stessi Interrogazioni sull’identità contemporanea, Ipermedium, S. Maria C. Vetere. Fattori A. (2014), Da qui all’identità, Quaderni d’Altri Tempi 48, retrieved on 6 may 2019, http://www.quadernidaltritempi.eu/rivista/numero48/bussole/q48_b02.html Hughes T. P. (2006), Il mondo a misura d’uomo, Codice, Torino. Number 13 – Year VIII / July 2019 www.imagojournal.it imagojournal.it 152 Adolfo Fattori Produzione di senso a mezzo di oggetti. Maffesoli M. (2009), Apocalisse. Rivelazioni sulla socialità postmoderna, Ipermedium, S. Maria C. Vetere. Miller D. (2014), Cose che parlano di noi Un antropologo a casa nostra, il Mulino, Bologna. Moles A. (1979), Il Kitsch. L’arte della felicità, Officina, Roma. Mukařovský J. (1973), Il significato dell’estetica, Einaudi, Torino. Prieto L. J. (1976), Pertinenza e pratica. Saggio di semiotica, Feltrinelli, Milano. Simmel G. (2007), L’ansa del vaso, in AA. VV., La questione della brocca, Mimesis, Milano. Simmel G. (2011), Frammento postumo sull’amore, Mimesis, Milano – Udine. Tramontana A. (2019), I cristalli della società. Simmel, Benjamin, Gehlen, Baudrillard e l’esistenza multiforme degli oggetti, Meltemi, Milano. Videografia Kubrick S. (1968), 2001 Odissea nello spazio, MGM, Usa/Uk. 
work_4ndrwgqd3zg4doezmtvcz3kkwi	----	wp-p1m-38.ebi.ac.uk Params is empty 404 sys_1000 exception wp-p1m-38.ebi.ac.uk no 219524482 Params is empty 219524482 exception Params is empty 2021/04/06-02:36:04 if (typeof jQuery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/1.14.8/js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,String.fromCharCode(60)).replace(/\]/g,String.fromCharCode(62))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} Page not available Reason: The web page address (URL) that you used may be incorrect. Message ID: 219524482 (wp-p1m-38.ebi.ac.uk) Time: 2021/04/06 02:36:04 If you need further help, please send an email to PMC. Include the information from the box above in your message. Otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using PMC: Search the complete PMC archive. Browse the contents of a specific journal in PMC. Find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/ 
work_4o5fo7ktkvdq7as22n625gwbmq	----	Embracing impressionism: revealing the brush strokes of interpretive research 1 Embracing impressionism: revealing the brush strokes of interpretive research1 John Boswell, Institute for Governance and Policy Analysis, University of Canberra, and University of Southampton Jack Corbett, Griffith University and the Australian National University Introduction Key figures in the interpretive approach to studying politics and policy have bristled at the mainstream notion that such research is ‘impressionistic’. Hendrik Wagenaar (2011, 251), in his overview of the core features of interpretive policy analysis, confronts this sticky prejudice: Those who are critical of interpretive approaches generally tend to see them as unsystematic, impressionistic, ‘soft’ ways of doing scientific research. Dvora Yanow (2006, 100) is even more emphatic: ‘Interpretive’ does not mean ‘impressionistic’. For these and other key pioneers (eg. Ospina and Dodge 2005b; Bevir and Rhodes 2010), interpretive research is not impressionistic, but ‘systematic’. Our essay is motivated by the disconnect we felt, as newcomers to this craft, between these claims to systemacity and our own experiences. We had drawn on the tools, techniques and justifications of key interpretive pioneers like Wagenaar and Yanow in 1 This paper is forthcoming in slightly amended form as a Forum contribution in Critical Policy Studies. 2 conducting intense, laborious and technically demanding research. But we remained uneasy. Our analysis seemed to rely as much on lingering impressions from the field as it did on any methodical accretion of insights. Our findings, however well received by academic peers and practitioners, represented only a partial, stylized account of the complexity swirling around in our heads. It did not feel systematic at all. Were we doing it wrong? Or, are there alternative ways of thinking about the practice of interpretive research that celebrate, rather than downplay, the impressionistic nature of this craft? A systematic craft? Several scholars have spoken about an ‘interpretive turn’ in the study of the political2, with a significant minority of researchers moving away from trying to explain the political world as it really is, and towards investigating the ways in which actors make sense of the political world and how their perceptions relate to political practices. As part of the conceptual maturation of this movement, a distinct set of standards by which interpretive research should be conducted and judged has developed. The authors who have advanced these standards the furthest are Ospina and Dodge (see Dodge, Ospina and Foldy 2005; Ospina and Dodge 2005a; 2005b), Bevir and Rhodes (2010), Wagenaar (2011) and Yanow, either alone (see 2006; 2007; 2009) or in combination with Schwartz-Shea (2012). There are nuanced differences in respect of the terminology these authors adopt, but by and large they present a similar range of 2 For overviews, see Yanow and Schwartz-Shea (2006), especially their introductory chapter, as well as the various perspectives in Finlayson et al. (2004) and the more recent special issue to mark the end of RAW Rhodes’ editorship of Public Administration. 3 criteria: that the validity of the research rests on its plausibility with the immediate practitioners to whom it relates and the academic audiences it addresses; that the generation of findings is by necessity iterative, entailing constant and messy interaction between theory and practice; that the research should be based in rich immersion in data, as well as in the academic literatures to which these data relate, through which the outcomes of interpretation—codes, categories, themes, stories— crystallise. We have found many of these criteria extremely useful when thinking about our research. Where we take issue, however, and the point on which our argument turns, is with the depiction of what this crystallisation represents: we argue that by attempting to reclaim the term ‘systematic’ as an overarching descriptor, leading figures envisage a version of interpretivism that we, and possibly others like us, do not experience. So, we present a critique of interpretive research from ‘within’ by drawing reflexively on our own research practice. Our hope is that this will provoke others to do the same. As the term ‘reclaim’ would suggest, no one uses ‘systematic’ in the rigid sense typically employed by positivists—there is room for creativity, spontaneity and iteration. Instead, the key pioneers of this movement see research as systematic in the sense that it involves a methodical progression towards a more coherent and convincing account of the phenomenon under investigation. Wagenaar (2011, 22) explains: Through a painstaking and systematic process of imaginative induction, we transform our crude earlier interpretations/observations into better, higher- 4 order more enduring interpretations that somehow capture the meaning of what has transpired. Likewise, Yanow (2006, 102) describes the work of interpretation as an ‘interpretive dance’ towards a deeper and more fulfilling understanding, offering the following analogy: The most exacting descriptions of forms of interpretive analysis describe a kind of indwelling with one’s data: whether using index cards held in the hand or large sheets of paper tacked to the walls, the process entails reading and rereading again—musing, in an abductive way—until, in the light of prior knowledge of the theoretical literature or the empirical data, or both, something makes sense in a new way. The experience feels like part of a thousand-piece jigsaw puzzle suddenly fitting together... There are aspects of this analogy that we find appealing. The notion of a jigsaw puzzle hints at the fact that interpretation must inevitably be framed or restricted; it recognizes that there is limited space in which to record interpretations and typical constraints about the ways in which this might occur; it also acknowledges that interpretive researchers are working with different sorts of materials (theoretical and empirical), and captures the sense of intellectual creativity involved in trying to link them together. But, in our experience, the creative work of interpretation is not as organic as this analogy suggests. The ‘pieces’ of interpretive research do not always fit together neatly. They are forced together by the researcher, often in service of a cleaner or more interesting account. Moreover, there is no expected or ideal end result to 5 interpretive research. Its final form is in no way obvious, and it can take multiple, conflicting forms. Finally, and most fundamentally, the jigsaw puzzle analogy overlooks the fact that there are not a thousand pieces, but an infinite number. This is true of both the data and the academic literature; the data on which researchers draw is near unlimited and in no ways self-evident, as are the links they can make with scholarly ideas and concerns. The limitations of the jigsaw puzzle analogy are indicative of the limitations of the shared conception among leading figures in this movement, for whom we use Yanow and Wagenaar as influential exemplars, that doing interpretation entails a systematic progression towards a superior analysis. In practice, this stance risks becoming yoked to its ‘counter identity’ – more concerned with its positivist ‘other’ than itself (Corbett and Boswell forthcoming). We argue, in contrast, that the crystallisation around particular ways of making sense is not always the ‘Eureka!’ moment that such a conception implies, and that its outcomes are considerably more unstable and contestable than such a process would deliver: in our experience, a more apt descriptor for the work involved is impressionistic, and a more apt analogy is the creation of impressionist art.3 3 Though we use this analogy to be provocative in the context of the interpretive policy studies literature, it is important to acknowledge that it is not an entirely new way of thinking about research in anthropology (van Maanen 1988), which has been so influential in the interpretive movement. Note, though, that where van Maanen sees impressionism as a particular, rare and conscious mode of representing fieldwork, we are making a somewhat broader claim in this paper. 6 A provocative analogy: interpretation as impressionism We do not intimate here that in their repudiation of the label ‘impressionistic’ that Yanow, Wagenaar or anyone else uses this term as a referent to the art world. Taken in context, their usage is more in line with the everyday sense of impressionistic—being vague, hastily reached or uninformed. And, although the apparent contrast works well as a rhetorical device, we do not, in picking up on this term, mean to appeal to these connotations. Instead, we reclaim the meaning of impressionism as associated with the revolutionary art movement of the 19th century. The ‘impressionists’ went against the conventions of the time, which upheld the virtue of creating smooth portraits of idyllic subjects, and tried instead to capture life as they saw it. Rather than focus on the noble or divine, for instance, they took their inspiration from everyday settings— natural and social—and tried to capture the unique ‘impression’ of being there. They set about their work in a way that was often informed by particular stylistic motifs— to recreate the play of light—which, in turn, were enabled by particular techniques— especially the use of thick, textured, contrasting brush strokes (Clancy 2003). But impressionism was not a conformist school with a method to be formulaically applied according to a set program. It was a general orientation with a set of tools that the artist could draw upon with innovative virtuosity (Herbert 1988). This approach quickly spread from painting to other forms of artistic expression, such as sculpture, literature and music. Here we can hardly delve deeply into art historiography.4 Our aim is to gain a better understanding of what impressionism entails. We do so with a view to arguing that it 4 It is important to acknowledge here that this popular account has been challenged by an alternative view of impressionism as a much more methodical enterprise (a 7 represents an apt analogy for describing the process of doing and communicating interpretation. As such, our focus here is limited to the generic features uniting impressionism across the various artistic pursuits. These include: (a) a challenge to orthodoxy both in style and content, manifested especially in a desire to objectify immediate experience; (b) the aim of shedding new light on the familiar context under examination; (c) a coherent method, but not one that is applied systematically; (d) the sacrifice of detail in the pursuit of recreating the appropriate feel and mood; and (e) an end product which represented a singular, ephemeral impression of the phenomenon under examination. We do not anticipate much opposition in relation to the proposition that (a) above captures an important aspect of interpretive research. Indeed, echoing our earlier ‘counter identity’ point, interpretive researchers typically approach their task in a way that consciously defies contemporary orthodoxy in political science, taking an interest in under-studied phenomena or making an effort to approach familiar phenomena in very different ways (Bevir and Rhodes 2010). Most are preoccupied with understanding action, and their primary interest is in interpreting how everyday political phenomena are perceived by the actors involved, and what practices these perceptions bring about. Most are comfortable in acknowledging the personal, dichotomy that mirrors the challenge we hope to offer to the established account of interpretive research). We do not seek to unpack this at all, but simply to make clear that it is this popular image that we have in mind. 8 subjective nature of their own interpretation (as the researcher) of these interpretations (of the participants), too (Hay 2011). The notion that (b) above applies to doing interpretation also resonates with some existing work in this area. Indeed, this is a point Yanow (2006) makes, for instance, in the section highlighted earlier—putting together pieces in the puzzle represents making sense of some event or phenomenon in a new and interesting way. Bevir (2011, 191), in his defense of public administration as storytelling, is more explicit: Public administration is less about discovering general rules, than about seeing new aspects of cases and relating them to our more abstract concepts. However, the point at which our analogy becomes controversial is in relation to the notion that (c) interpretive research need not and often does not involve the systematic application of method. To be clear, in extending this analogy we accept that there is most certainly a coherent method (or set of methods) that underpins interpretive research. Just as impressionist painters drew on new techniques and developments in colour theory to produce artwork in line with a particular orientation towards creating art, so too do interpretive researchers draw on tools and techniques coherently aligned with epistemological and ontological convictions towards doing social science. The point we want to make, though, is that as with the production of impressionist art, the elements or components that collectively comprise or are affiliated with this coherent method are typically applied in an idiosyncratic and even spontaneous, rather than systematic, manner. We acknowledge that interpretive researchers might sketch out a research design with various compartments or components—a desk research phase, a data collection phase, 9 and so on (see Schwartz-Shea and Yanow 2012). We even accept that some of these components, at least for some of the time, operate in a way that could be described as systematic.5 However, in practice these apparently systematic phases are typically disrupted and reworked to such an extent that we have not experienced them as approaching anything near a systematic whole. To start with, any such systematic work plan is in our experience always infused with, and undermined by, moments of impressionistic intuition. A feisty encounter, a lingering ambiguity, an awkward disquiet, something unexpectedly funny or poignant—these are all moments and sensations that speak to the disruption and dissolution of the systematic or stepwise analytical progression in Hajer’s or Wagenaar’s accounts. Moreover, transforming ideas, however systematically developed, into readable print involves a constant, messy process of shifting and refinement (see van Maanen 1988, Law 2004 or Yanow 2009 for lengthy treatments). As Law in particular stresses, writing up interpretive research typically involves the messy fusion of methodical insights with sudden and exciting recollections of particular impressions—warm, funny or discomforting quotes or episodes which escaped the initial ‘systematic’ analysis but offer more colorful or poignant evidence of the point. It involves disentanglement of these initial insights, which is sometimes a painful exercise in ‘letting go’ of particular ideas or outlying events and episodes so as to generate a more parsimonious account. And it involves frustrating searches back through reams of interview data and observations notes for evidence to support new ideas that 5 For illustrations, see Hajer’s (2006) ‘stepwise’ account of doing discourse analysis or Wagenaar’s (2011) ‘systematic’ approach to analysing interview data. 10 spontaneously arise. These bouts of confusion, frustration, angst and inspiration speak to a craft that neither resembles, nor feels like, a systematic progression. There may also be strong opposition to the related notion (d) that interpretive research produces a stylized rather than faithful representation. To be clear, we acknowledge that no one claims interpretive research entails ‘getting the facts right’ in the first place (Schwartz-Shea and Yanow 2012). Indeed, most researchers drawn to interpretivism and its associated tools and techniques subscribe to a philosophy that eschews the possibility of stable, objective facts and singular, true stories anyway (Finlayson et al. 2004). Our point here is more about the limited capacity of interpretive researchers to convey rich contextual detail in the products of their work. Though interpretive researchers typically see themselves as generating ‘thick descriptions’ that give a comprehensive analysis of the context (eg. van Hulst 2008; Schwartz-Shea 2006)—a claim understandable relative to work in the positivist tradition – they too must be selective about the finer details they incorporate and give meaning to. They cannot recount the full complexity of the phenomena in question, either in terms of the data they are focusing on or the academic literature on which they are drawing.6 Instead, communicating interpretation involves conveying vivid, rich details that best capture what researchers deem to be the most important features of their analysis. Anecdotes, examples and quotes are chosen specifically to give 6 And forging the relationship between the two often involves forcing or stylizing one or both to generate a compelling argument—indeed, a good case in point is our stylized account of impressionist art, which, as we suggested above, some learned art historians would doubtless take issue with as lacking systemacity (though see van Maanen 1988: 101-106 or Merleau-Ponty 1964: 11-12 for equally, but differently, stylized accounts). 11 readers a better feel for the context, as well as to better underpin the broader theoretical argument that the researcher is trying to make. This is not to say that interpretive researchers need not be concerned with the ‘reality’ of the world of politics and policy—that all that matters is the aesthetics of composition. After all, impressionist artists took ‘nature as their model’, and were motivated by the desire to better capture such ‘reality’ (Merleau-Ponty 1964). Indeed, on the contrary, we agree with Bevir and Rhodes (2010) and Torgerson (2013) who make clear that a focus on interpretation or opinion, respectively, does not entail a descent into relativism: plausibility as governed by intersubjective agreement must remain an important criterion of interpretive research. In contrast to this perpetual concern that interpretive scholars have abandoned the reality of the world, our more modest point is that, as in any research tradition, such intersubjectively determined standards of plausibility do not solely rest on fine-grained accuracy, and that we often make trade-offs between detail and accuracy on the one hand and unveiling and communicating broader truths on the other. This process is often, we suggest, impressionistic: impressionistic researchers not only diligently describe and conscientiously interpret the subject at hand, but their work is further shaped by judgments, conscious or unconscious, about the impression their account will make on those who read it. Taken as a whole, we anticipate that the conclusion, in (e) above, that the products of interpretive research may therefore represent singular, ephemeral impressions, will be the most controversial. Indeed, as we have already shown, leading scholars in the interpretive turn in the study of politics and policy have been quick to distance themselves from charges of being ‘impressionistic’. To clarify, in invoking the term 12 impressionism, our argument here is not that the mainstream critics of interpretivism are right—that this type of research is more haphazard or poorly informed than any other, or that its products are less worthy. Our argument is that the collective features described above mean that the products of interpretive research, like those of impressionist art, suggest only a partial and fleeting perception of the world, in the sense that they can only ever convey a limited impression of the phenomenon under investigation. They are, after all, produced by one researcher or a small team of researchers, most often working with limited access, a finite time window and substantial pressures to produce outcomes, as Wildavsky (1989: 13) reflects: The imposition of order on recalcitrant material, which we optimistically call knowledge, is a sometimes thing, hard won, temporary, and artificial, like the rest of civilization. What might embracing impressionism mean? To reiterate, the point of extending the analogy is not to say that interpretive research is more haphazard than other kinds of research. We believe ‘the art and craft of policy analysis’ as Wildavsky more famously said elsewhere is in any tradition impressionistic along many of the dimensions we identify. What distinguishes interpretive research, however, is a commitment to reflexivity which aligns it with the most revolutionary and challenging aspect of impressionism—the move to reveal the brush strokes underlying any composition. We want to conclude by arguing that, in this vein, interpretive researchers for whom this analogy resonates ought to embrace, rather than shy away from or cover over, the impressionism they practice. We suggest that a more reflexively ‘impressionistic’ 13 approach to interpretive research, and some of the changes this might engender in practice, might strengthen rather than weaken the stance of interpretivism in the study of politics and policy more broadly. For the validity of the interpretive approach? This final aim may seem to stretch credulity for those feeling marginalized from the mainstream anyway: embracing a term like ‘impressionism’ seems to run the risk of permanent banishment from the realm of serious social science. However, what we are advocating is less that everyone publicly wear this particular label, and more acknowledgment of the substance of the point. One of the most stinging criticisms is that interpretive research remains opaque in practice (see, for example, the criticisms in Marsh and Hall 2007). Indeed, in line with conceptual assertions about the systemacity of this craft, it is common in practical applications of interpretive research—take some of our own work (Boswell et al. 2013; Corbett 2013)—to see categories of interpretation retrospectively applied as if it had been a hydraulic process all along. Instead, interpretive researchers might embrace the impressionism that they practice. When examined up close, readers should be able to appreciate the ‘brush strokes’ of their work. One step along this path is to be more transparent about where interpretations come from by inviting interested readers into the process. Interpretive researchers could, for instance, make their data and the different iterations of their analysis available for scrutiny, in the same way that some positivist researchers are starting to grant others 14 access to their raw material and analyses.7 Skeptics will be quick to point out that this may not always be possible, for both pragmatic and ethical reasons, although researchers doing such work may be able to think of creative alternatives.8 In any case, moving to open up the process of interpretation would be an important gesture that would better confront and reflect the experience of doing interpretation both for the researcher and the audience. Another step might involve actively embracing partiality and dissonance. Interpretive researchers might, for instance, go out of their way to report on distinct and potentially even incompatible impressions of the relationship of their data to theory, either as independent researchers or as different parts of a collaborative team. This is not to say such an idea is novel—it is indeed a key tenet of good interpretive research according to Schwartz-Shea and Yanow (2012)—nor that it does not already happen to some extent anyway. There are, in fact, many examples of interpretive researchers mining the same data for different purposes. But those who do so generally present these distinct interpretations as having stemmed from a focus on different phenomena or research questions (again, see our own work for examples: cf. Boswell 2014 with Boswell and Corbett 2014). They do not show competing or overlapping interpretations of the same phenomena and questions. Persistent norms and incentives discourage interpretive researchers in politics and policy, like us, from 7This was something called for in a number of contributions to a special issue of PS: Political Science and Politics in 1995, and which has subsequently occurred to some extent in parts of the broader discipline. It is also not unheard of among interpretive researchers. Maynard-Moody and Musheno (2003) provide detailed interview transcripts resulting from their highly influential study of street-level bureaucrats, for instance. 8 See, for example, the effort to make qualitative data from interviews conducted with indigenous people in Australia more broadly available for scholarly use at www.atsida.edu.au. http://www.atsida.edu.au/ 15 acknowledging and representing the discordant nature of our impressions.9 This need not be the case. For the relationship between research and policy? A more consciously impressionistic approach can also strengthen relationships with the policy actors who are the subject of interpretive research. Though often motivated by, and almost always involving, deep engagement in the practice of policy and politics, researchers use the meanings and beliefs of the actors involved to serve a particular purpose and to generate a particular impression. Again, Heclo and Wildavsky (1974, xiii), important forebears of an interpretive approach (see Weller 2014), sum this up succinctly: The cure for ignorance about how something gets done is to talk with those who do it; the cure for the confusion which then replaces the ignorance is to think about what you are told. Almost all of the information for this book has been garnered from those who are or have been participants in the expenditure process. But the interpretation and arrangement of the answers are our own. A consciously impressionistic orientation can confront the messy, partial nature of conducting research and therefore invite practitioners into discussion of claims and findings on a more equal footing at the ‘back end’ of the process. Acknowledging that researchers and practitioners simply have impressions of different types can help 9 Once again looking to ethnography, see Wolf 1992 for an outstanding example of what recognising and addressing such dissonance can look like in a single monograph. 16 realise co-production and embed relevance as core features of the research process (see Ospina and Dodge 2005b). For this community of practice? Most significantly of all, embracing impressionism can open up the ‘black box’ of interpretive research for those attracted to the craft, strengthening the movement from within. For those who adopt an interpretive approach, like ourselves, there can be an initial (and perhaps ongoing) sense of inadequacy. Some recent work has made valuable progress in this regard, revealing, for example, the personal angst that can be associated with doing and analyzing elite interviews (Hendriks 2007), the personal motivations that lead researchers to pursue particular interests and angles (see the introductions to each chapter in Yanow and Schwartz-Shea 2006), or the avowedly low-tech tools and strategies that can be crucial to interpretation (like the ‘index cards’ Yanow 2006 cited earlier). We hope this essay complements this scholarship by shining light on some of the difficulties and anxieties associated with doing and communicating interpretation. Yet, of course, it is far from the final word. Our ‘impressionism’ analogy offers an alternative vision of how interpretive research can be conducted and how it might be received by scholarly and practitioner communities, prompting internal reflection and critique. But there are most certainly a multitude of other ways of thinking about interpretation that may resonate more strongly with those engaged in this scholarly community. We hope that our contribution is provocative, stoking debate and discussion as to how we go about this craft, and how we judge its quality. 17 References Bevir, M and Rhodes, RAW 2010, The state as cultural practice, Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press. Bevir, M 2011, ‘Public administration as storytelling’, Public Administration, vol. 89, no. 1, pp. 183-95. Boswell, J, Niemeyer, SJ and Hendriks, CM 2013, ‘Julia Gillard's citizens' assembly proposal for Australia: a deliberative democratic analysis’, Australian Journal of Political Science, 48, (2), 164-178. Boswell, J 2014, ‘‘Hoisted with our own petard’: evidence and democratic deliberation on obesity’, Policy Sciences, DOI: 10.10072/s11077-014-9195-4. Boswell, J and Corbett, J 2014, ‘Stoic democrats? Anti-politics, elite cynicism and the policy process’, to be presented at Policy & Politics Conference, Bristol (available from authors on request). Corbett, J 2013,‘‘Everybody knows everybody’: practising politics in the Pacific Islands.’ Democratization (ahead-of-print), 1-22. Corbett, J and Boswell, J forthcoming, ‘An Antipodean history of interpretation’, Australian Journal of Public Administration. Clancy, JI (ed.) 2003, Impressionism: historical overview and bibliography, Nova Science Publishers, New York. Dodge, J, Ospina, S and Foldy, EG 2005, ‘Integrating rigor and relevance in public administration scholarship: the contribution of narrative inquiry’, Public Administration Review, vol. 65, no. 3, pp. 286-300. 18 Finlayson, A, Bevir, M, Rhodes RAW, Dowding, K and Hay, C, The interpretive approach in political science: a symposium, British Journal of Politics and International Relations, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 129-164. Hajer, M 2006, ‘Doing discourse analysis: coalitions, practices, meaning’, in M van den Brink and T Metze (eds.), Words matter in policy and planning: discourse theory and method in the social sciences, KNAG/Nethur, Utrecht, ND, pp. 65- 74. Heclo, H and Wildavsky, AB 1974, The private government of public money: community and policy inside British politics, Macmillan, London. Hendriks, CM 2007, ‘Praxis stories: experiencing intepretive policy research’, Critical Policy Studies, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 278-300. Herbert, RE 1988, Impressionism: art, leisure and Parisian society, Yale University Press, New Haven. Law, J 2004, After method: mess in social science research, New York, Routledge. Marsh, D and Hall, M 2007, ‘The British political tradition: explaining the fate of New Labour’s constitutional reform agenda’, British Politics, vol. 2, pp. 215- 238. Merleau-Ponty, M 1964, Sense and Non-sense, Northwestern University Press, Chicago. Maynard-Moody, S and Musheno, M 2003, Cops, teachers, counselors: stories from the front lines of public service, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor. Ospina, S and Dodge, J 2005a. ‘It’s about time: catching method up to meaning—the usefulness of narrative inquiry in public administration research’, Public Administration Review, vol. 65, no. 2, pp. 143-157. 19 Ospina, S and Dodge, J 2005b, ‘Narrative inquiry and the search for connectedness: practitioners and academics developing public administration scholarship’, Public Administration Review, vol. 65, no. 4, pp. 409-423. Schwartz-Shea, P 2006, ‘Judging quality: evaluative criteria and epistemic communities’ , in D Yanow and P Schwartz-Shea, Interpretation and method: empirical research methods and the interpretive turn, ME Sharpe, New York. Schwartz-Shea, P and Yanow D 2012, Interpretive research design: concepts and practices, Routledge, New York. Torgerson, D 2013, ‘Policy as a matter of opinion’, Critical Policy Studies, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 449-454. Wagenaar, H 2011, Meaning in action: interpretation and dialogue in policy analysis, ME Sharpe, New York. Wildavsky, A. 1989, Craftways: On the Organization of Scholarly Work. Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, USA and London, UK. Wildavsky, A. 1979, Speaking truth to power: the art and craft of policy analysis, Little Brown, Boston. Weller, P forthcoming, ‘Anticipating interpretivism: Heclo and Wildavsky as pioneers?’, Australian Journal of Public Administration. Wolf, M 1992, A thrice told tale: feminism, postmodernism and ethnographic responsibility, Stanford University Press, Stanford. van Hulst, M 2008, Town hall tales, Eburon Publishers, Delft (The Netherlands). van Maanen, J. 1988, Tales of the field: on writing ethnography, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 20 Yanow, D and Schwartz-Shea, P (eds.) 2006, Interpretation and method: empirical research methods and the interpretive turn, ME Sharpe, New York. Yanow, D 2006, ‘Neither rigorous nor objective? Interrogating criteria for knowledge claims in interpretive science’, in D Yanow and P Schwartz-Shea (eds), Interpretation and method: empirical research methods and the interpretive turn, ME Sharpe, New York. Yanow, D 2007, ‘Qualitative-Interpretive Methods in Policy Research’, in F Fischer, GJ Miller & MS Sidney (eds), Handbook of Policy Analysis: Theory, Politics and Methods, CRC Press, Boca Raton. Yanow, D 2009, ‘Dear author, dear reader: the third hermeneutic in writing and reviewing ethnography’, in E Schatz (ed.), Political Ethnography, Chicago, University of Chicago Press. Embracing impressionism: revealing the brush strokes of interpretive research0F Introduction A systematic craft? A provocative analogy: interpretation as impressionism What might embracing impressionism mean? References 
work_4t6a2cctavd4te6fireack44u4	----	Journal of Art Historiography Number 7 December 2012 Carl Justi: Modern Errors Review of: Carl Justi. Moderne Irrtümer, Briefe und Aphorismen, edited with introduction and commentary by Johannes Rößler, Matthes & Seitz, Berlin, 2012 (© 2011), ISBN 978-3-88221-863-3, 590 pp., 8 black/white images. By publishing a considerable body of archival material for the first time, this thick volume supports scholarship on the German art historian Carl Justi (1832-1912), the historiography of art history, and the reception history of modernism. Justi is best known today for his monumental biographies of Winckelmann, Velazquez, and Michelangelo, his ground-breaking work on Spanish painting, and his critical dismissal of Impressionism.1 The editor, Johannes Rößler, currently a researcher at the Klassik Stiftung Weimar, has established himself as an important scholar of nineteenth-century art history with a study of Justi and his contemporary Anton Springer (1825-1891) and several essays.2 He brings extensive knowledge of the archival sources and the intellectual context to a publication that succeeds quite well in serving both the general reader and the scholar. Although the title highlights Justi’s infamously negative views of modernity and modernist art, this edition also provides insight into his work as an art historian and the cultural, intellectual, and aesthetic concerns of his time. It joins previous editions of Justi’s letters to his mother and sister from travels in Italy and Spain and of his correspondence with the librarian Otto Hartwig (1830-1903).3 Unlike these, however, it is not a complete edition, but rather a representative selection of letters, written between about 1880 and Justi’s death in 1912, to two principal correspondents: 33 of 46 known letters to Charlotte Broicher (1851-1917/18), a leading social and intellectual figure in Wilhelmine Germany, and 44 of 117 known letters to Wilhelm von Bode (1845-1929), curator and later director of the royal museums in Berlin, interspersed with twelve letters from Bode to Justi. Also included are four of 14 known letters to Justi’s nephew Ludwig Justi (1876-1957), art historian and later director of the Nationalgalerie, Berlin; and one letter each to the 1 Winckelmann: Sein Leben, seine Werke und seine Zeitgenossen, Leipzig, 1866-1872; 1898. Diego Velazquez und sein Jahrhundert, Bonn, 1888; 1903. Michelangelo: Beiträge zur Erklärung der Werke und des Menschen, Leipzig, 1900; Michelangelo: Neue Beiträge zur Erklärung der Werke und des Menschen, Leipzig, 1909. Several of the essays are collected in Miscellaneen aus drei Jahrhunderten spanischen Kunstlebens, Berlin, 1908. His assessment of Impressionism was published as Amorphismus in der Kunst. Ein Vortrag, Bonn, 1903. 2 Johannes Rößler, Poetik der Kunstgeschichte: Anton Springer, Carl Justi und die ästhetische Konzeption der deutschen Kunstwissenschaft, Berlin, Akademie, 2009; other publications are listed in the bibliography, 569-570. 3 Briefe aus Italien, ed. Heinrich Kayser, Bonn, 1922; Spanische Reisebriefe, ed. Heinrich Kayser, Bonn, 1923. Carl Justi and Otto Hartwig, Briefwechsel, ed. Rupprecht Leppla, Bonn, 1968. Garberson Carl Justi: Modern Errors 2 philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911), the musician Sigismund Blumner (probably born 1826), and the art historian August L. Mayer (1885-1944). The final text, 'Observations on modern errors in art’ (Betrachtungen über moderne Irrtümer auf dem Gebiet der Kunst) is published here for the first time in its entirety. Rößler’s edition is based on a typescript prepared around 1932 by Justi’s colleague Paul Clemen (1866-1947) after a now lost manuscript written between 1906 and 1912. Clemen published only a few excerpts with a lecture commemorating Justi’s hundredth birthday, apparently fearing that Justi’s ideas would be taken up by the National Socialists.4 A tall octavo (ca. 21 x 12 cm), the book fits easily in the hand, and the good paper and generous margins further signal that it is meant to serve the joy of reading. Justi, whose writings are widely recognized as a major contribution to German literature, is a natural fit for the publisher, Matthes & Seitz, who specialize in accessible but high-quality editions of intellectually provocative authors. The concise but thorough scholarly apparatus is tucked away at the back of the volume, with only explanatory footnotes in the texts themselves. The notes identify references to persons and to works of literature and art (drawing on current art- historical sources); by citing previous letters and outside sources, they fill in gaps necessary to follow the thread of the correspondence. The apparatus includes a thumbnail biography of each correspondent, with essential publications, secondary bibliography, and archival references. A brief note (Zu dieser Ausgabe, pp. 547-553) explains editorial principles and the guiding rationale for Rößler’s selections. The goal, he writes, is to give ‘a nuanced picture’ (ein differenziertes Bild) of Justi: ‘The edition emphasizes pointed judgments of contemporaries, cultural- and intellectual-historical contexts, the history of the museum and the university, and discussion of art-historical methods’ (p. 547).5 The letters to Broicher present Justi’s views on the culture of his time and portrait sketches of major personages, while those to Bode document his scholarship and his conception of his own art-historical methods. The edition does not avoid expressions of anti-Semitism (in letters 53, 62, 71, 95), which Justi evidently shared with Bode, but it does exclude letters primarily concerned with the minutiae of museum work and publishing or with purely private matters. The bibliography gives a list of Justi’s principal publications and individual essays mentioned in the letters and notes, as well as secondary literature cited in the notes. The index captures persons mentioned in the letters and in the biography (pp. 483-546) that constitutes the major portion of the scholarly apparatus. Titled ‘Carl Justi: a contribution to his intellectual biography’ (Carl Justi: ein Beitrag zu seiner intellektuellen Biographie), this well written essay paints its own ‘nuanced picture’. As Rößler states at the outset (p. 485), it would be wrong to 4 Paul Clemen, Carl Justi. Gedächtnisrede zur hundertsten Wiederkehr seines Geburtstages, Bonn, 1933. 5 Die Edition legt Schwerpunkte auf pointierte Urteile über Zeitgenossen, auf kultur- und wissenschaftshistorische Zusammenhänge, auf die Universitäts- und Museumsgeschichte und auf die Discussion von kunsthistorischen Methoden. Garberson Carl Justi: Modern Errors 3 discount Justi’s “polemical furor’ (polemischer Furor) as the angry ranting of an old professor. Instead, he seeks to create a ‘productive tension’ (produktives Spannungsverhältnis) between Justi’s scholarly activities and his unsparing cultural criticism (Gegenwartskritik), which also encompassed Prussian militarism, the Arts and Crafts movement, Wagner’s Gesamtkunstwerk, and Franz von Lenbach’s old- master painting style. Keyed to the letters and the aphorisms, the biographical essay provides a foundation for understanding them as significant historical documents that provide insight into a time of profound social and cultural change. Rößler manages to promote a deeper appreciation of Justi’s work and scholarly methods without seeming to excuse or justify positions that are now indefensible. The first section of the biography (Leben und Werk, pp. 486-497) provides a concise, orienting overview of Justi’s family background, training, and career. Rößler deftly situates him among the first generation of university art historians, outlining initial training in theology and philosophy and tracing a largely autodidactic path to art history. He grounds the critical empiricism of Justi’s scholarship in an early, and at the time widely shared, skepticism toward speculative thought and rejection of the philosophical system-building exemplified by Hegel. While the earlier books on Winckelmann and Velazquez were largely biographical, supplemented with supporting cultural-historical essays, the late volumes on Michelangelo took the form of essays promoting direct engagement with discrete aspects of the artist’s work. This, too, was a move against the continuing dominance of developmental histories of art, now exemplified by the history of form propounded by Heinrich Wölfflin (1864-1945). In the letter to Dilthey (No. 96) Justi disparages Wölfflin as having a propensity for the proclamation of unsupported ideas and for fanatically following the mistaken theories of the sculptor Adolf Hildebrand (1847-1921). The next section, ‘Art history as scholarship and as art’ (Kunstgeschichte als Wissenschaft und als Kunst, pp. 498-515), more specifically situates Justi’s work in the intellectual contexts of his time. While Justi, like the earlier historicists, sought to unite critical evaluation of sources and effective presentation (Darstellung), he rejected the historicists' self-contained comprehensive account in favor of episodic narratives and an essayistic style, which he found more successful in promoting direct engagement with historical figures and works of art. Acknowledging the much-lauded literary aspect of Justi’s writing Rößler demonstrates that the supposedly 'fictional' elements in the biographies (sometimes denounced as either outright falsifications or literary and thus non-scholarly) functioned as a poetic means toward that same direct engagement. Connecting Justi to Dilthey through their similar readings of Francis Bacon (1561-1526) demonstrates a shared turn to an experience-based method and a rejection of universalist models of explanation. This manifested itself especially in Justi’s continued emphasis on direct examination of original works and their detailed description, even as photography (which Justi saw as of limited use) became more and more important in art-historical practice. Rößler also positions Justi over against the popularising art history of the late nineteenth Garberson Carl Justi: Modern Errors 4 century, demonstrating his many original contributions to the history of Spanish, Portuguese, and Netherlandish painting. At the same time, Justi largely avoided writing the general surveys many of his contemporaries produced, preferring to stress the singularity of the creative individual. When he did attempt a synthesis, he emphasized cultural exchange and the amalgamation of different styles rather than linear histories of autonomous national styles. Not surprisingly, Justi had a particular appreciation for portraits, which Rößler connects to both Justi’s own interest in the individual and increasing critical interest in portraits in the nineteenth century. Surveying Justi’s career as a professor in Bonn from 1872 to 1912 (pp. 515- 520), Rößler documents an active avoidance of teaching, minimal interest in administrative duties, and a distaste for writing reviews or attending scholarly conferences. Justi had only two doctoral students, Ludwig Scheibler and his own nephew Ludwig Justi. The last three sections of the essay focus on Justi’s relationship with each of the main correspondents, Broicher and Bode, and on the personal and cultural context in which Justi composed his 'Observations on modern errors in art'. Rößler aptly describes the correspondence between Justi and Bode as a collegial exchange between two professionals with shared goals, from which a friendship developed only over time (p. 520). The two had known each other since at least 1874, when Justi sought Bode’s opinion on a painting by El Greco, but the correspondence only began in 1876 and became regular only from 1880. While Bode sought out Justi for his expertise in Spanish painting, Justi found in Bode a link to the Berlin collections and a highly useful intermediary with the Prussian culture ministry. Rößler acknowledges the all-too easy contrast between Justi the eccentric university professor, focused on the cultural-historical dimension of art history, and the object-oriented museum connoisseur ever on the hunt for new acquisitions. He rightly argues, however, against too sharp an opposition, noting that for Justi cultural history remained but one, often-distracting aspect of art-historical work. Against this background, as Rößler notes (p. 524), it is not surprising that their correspondence focused on questions of connoisseurship and attribution. One dominant theme was the acquisition of Spanish paintings for Berlin. Supplemented with Rößler’s detailed notes, the letters provide valuable insight into the history of connoisseurship and museum practice, mostly in a general sense, since Justi’s advice led to only a very few actual acquisitions. The letters show a difference of opinion on the relative merits of Giovanni Morelli’s (1816-1891) artist-focused method, which Justi defended against Bode’s preference for the work of Joseph Archer Crowe (1825-1896) and Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle (1819-1897) with its emphasis on regions and schools. Justi and Bode did, however, share an interest in filling in art-historical gaps with the identification of unknown masters and the association of known works with names in the archival sources. Justi had become acquainted with Charlotte Broicher in Bonn, likely through connections to the family of her husband Otto Broicher. Their correspondence Garberson Carl Justi: Modern Errors 5 began when Otto moved the family to Berlin in 1885. There Charlotte ran a prominent salon frequented by disciples of the symbolist poet Stefan George (1868- 1933). She enjoyed some fame as translator of works from English and author of a three-volume study of John Ruskin (1819-1900); she also played an active role in the women’s rights movement within the Protestant church. Broicher seems not to have shared Justi’s anti-modern sentiments, and Rößler sees her as having pushed him to nuance and moderate his extreme views (p. 534). Still, in his letters to Broicher, Justi gives full voice to his growing unease with modernity and the modernist avant- garde. Recounting an amusing anecdote of Justi leaving a reading of symbolist poetry with the remark, ‘Let me go, I can bear the opium no longer’ (Lassen Sie mich gehen, ich halte das Opium nicht länger aus), Rößler crystallizes Justi’s conception, evident throughout the letters, of the modern, in its artistic and social manifestations, as an intoxicant, as collective madness and mass hysteria. He also shows how Justi employed a current umbrella term for these phenomena: degeneration (Entartung), drawing on Max Nordau’s (1849-1923) polemical work of the same title. (p. 532-533). Brief comparisons between Justi’s anti-modern views and his scholarship (e.g. similar critiques of Wilhelm II and Philip IV, Mannerism and El Greco as degeneration) do little to redeem Justi’s anti-modernism (p. 535- 537). More compelling is Rößler’s discussion of Justi’s critical stance toward the cult of Wagner. In Bonn this was represented forcefully by the art historian Henry Thode (1857-1920), who was married to Wagner’s step-daughter, Daniela von Bülow. Rößler cites key passages from Thode’s Habilitationsschrift, showing how it applied Wagner’s concept of the Gesamtkunstwerk and an exaggerated notion of the artist as saviour to the life and work of Giotto, and in ways decidedly at odds with Justi’s conception of art and scholarship. Against this background, Justi’s pointed criticism of Thode and Wagner appears grounded in deeply held intellectual convictions. In the final section, ‘Rescued by aphorism’ (Rettung im Aphorismus, pp. 540- 547), Rößler provides essential background for the ‘Observations on modern errors in art’, focusing on Justi’s earlier Impressionism essay (Amorphismus in der Kunst, 1903). Originally delivered to a gathering of academics in Bonn, the text came to be privately published and circulated in the highest circles in Berlin, including the Imperial Court, where Wilhelm II repeated the arguments as his own. At the time, public debates about art had split between a progressive and a conservative camp, neither of which, Rößler notes, Justi was inclined to join. Still, he did not entirely abandon his critical engagement with modern art, beginning the ‘observations’ in 1906. Rößler speculates that Justi turned to the aphorism, with its open-endedness, as a way to avoid claims to absolute truth. If the title ‘modern errors’ was indeed assigned by Justi (which is far from certain), it may be a reference to Bacon’s empiricism, and to Bacon’s equation of ‘errors’ with ‘idols’. This assertion needs further development, as does the identification of these often extended ‘observations’ as aphorisms. Still, Rößler is certainly justified in his reasons for publishing the text in its entirety: ‘These private notations show an attempt, upon the exhaustion of all affective capacities, to overcome the shock of the modern. The Garberson Carl Justi: Modern Errors 6 at-times aggressive, hate-filled tone and lack of coherent argumentation should thus be published in full as a historical document’ (p. 545).6 As such, the text is now available for other scholars to study in greater depth. Like the letters to Bode and especially Broicher, the ‘Observations’ make for an informative if occasionally disturbing read. The text is divided under seven headings: A. Against Impressionism and the like (Gegen Impressionismus und Verwandtes), B. Subject matter (Gegenstand), C. Causes of the decline (Ursachen des Verfalls), D. Essence of art (Wesen der Kunst), E. Sculpture in the round (Rundplastik), F. Empire – Orient. End of antiquity (Kaiserzeit -- Orient. Ende der Antike), G. Ruin of the galleries (Galerie-Verwüstung). Many of the views expressed are not at all surprising. For example: ‘In the end, Impressionism depends upon the decline of vision, of focus, which the art of the van Eycks, Dürer, an extraordinary self-control, presupposes. Impressionist sketches are simultaneously stuck halfway from imagination to the true picture’ (p. 428).7 Or: ‘The Muse of modern painting is Manet’s Olympia, a courtesan used up with sin – the Picnic [Luncheon on the Grass] the manifesto of shamelessness’ (p. 434).8 Readers approaching the text with their own interests in mind are likely to find intriguing surprises. For the present reviewer one such is Justi’s recourse to medium specificity arguments in his condemnation of modern art. For instance, Impressionism is denounced as a reversal of the laws of art, since music makes an impression, while the plastic arts create clear form; consequently it is self-deception to think that an unfinished work reveals the artist’s locus of feeling (p. 438; see also p. 427, with a reference to Gotthold Ephraim Lessing). Another comes in the final section on ‘the ruin of the galleries’ (pp. 464-474), which Justi ascribes to the move away from the earlier practice of filling the whole wall with symmetrically, artistically arranged paintings. He rejects the historical hang by schools, or even reserving one room for a single master, with pictures placed in a single row at eye- level, finding this monotonous, deadening of aesthetic appreciation, and inappropriately like the display of goods in a shop window. The modern hang thus reduces pictures to the demonstration of a historical schema and forecloses free engagement with them as works of genius. For Justi, it does not make individual paintings available for close study, which is the advantage one might expect a scholar so devoted to direct engagement with works of art to find in it. 6 Die Privataufzeichnungen zeugen von dem Versuch, unter Ausschöpfung aller affektiven Kapazitäten den Schock der Moderne zu bewältigen. Der bisweilen aggressive, hasserfüllte Ton und die fehlende agumentative Stimmigkeit soll deshalb als Zeitdokument vollständig wiedergegeben werden. 7 Der Impressionismus beruht in letzter Instanz auf der Abnahme der Sehkraft, Schärfe, [die] die Kunst der van Eyck, Dürer, eine außerordentliche Haltung, voraussetzt. Die Impressionistischen Skizzen sind gleichsam auf dem halben Weg vom Phantasie zum wirklichen Bild stehen geblieben. 8 Die Muse der modernen Malerei ist Manets Olympia. – das Picnic das Manifeste der Schamlosigkeit. Garberson Carl Justi: Modern Errors 7 Indeed, this whole volume is full of such intriguing discoveries. Rößler can rightly expect the thanks of both scholars and general readers for making more of Justi's fascinating, if sometimes infuriating, texts readily available. Eric Garberson is Associate Professor of Art History and Director of the interdisciplinary doctoral program in Media Art & Text at Virginia Commonwealth University. Past publications include ‘German Baroque Architecture and National Identity’, in Barock als Aufgabe, Andreas Kreul, ed, Wolfenbüttel, 2005; ‘Libraries, Memory, and the Space of Knowledge’, Journal of the History of Collections, 18, 2006; and ‘Art History in the University: Toelken — Hotho — Kugler’, Journal of Art Historiography 5 (December 2011). eggarberson@vcu.edu 
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work_52yhhv5glfcodjhui2f6xhrzau	----	Adansonia33(2)-ENVOI2.indb 323ADANSONIA, sér. 3 • 2011 • 33 (2) © Publications Scientifi ques du Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris. www.adansonia.com MOTS CLÉS Asteraceae, Anthemideae, Santolina ageratifolia, nomenclature, taxonomie. KEY WORDS Asteraceae, Anthemideae, Santolina ageratifolia, nomenclature, taxonomy. Rivero-Guerra A. O. 2011. — Typifi cation and synonymy of Santolina ageratifolia Barnades ex Asso (Asteraceae, Anthemideae), an endemic species of the Iberian Peninsula. Adansonia, sér. 3, 33 (2): 323-330. DOI: 10.5252/a2011n2a15. ABSTRACT Patterns of speciation in the angiosperm genus Santolina (Asteraceae, An- themideae) have recently been intensively studied, but progress is hampered by nomenclatural confusion. In this paper, the species S. ageratifolia Barnades ex Asso, S. pectinata Lag. var. paniculata Loscos & J.Pardo and S. longidentata Pau are lectotypifi ed. An invalid name has been found: S. rosmarinifolia L. subvar. virens macrocephala Pau. Th e nomenclature of S. ageratifolia is provided. RÉSUMÉ Typifi cation et synonymie de Santolina ageratifolia Barnades ex Asso (Asteraceae, Anthemideae), une espèce endémique de la péninsule Ibérique. Les patrons de spéciation dans le genre d’angiospermes Santolina (Asteraceae, Anthemideae) ont été récemment étudiés intensivement, mais la progression des connaissances est entravée par la confusion nomenclaturale. Dans cet arti- cle, les espèces S. ageratifolia Barnades ex Asso, S. pectinata Lag. var. paniculata Loscos & J.Pardo et S. longidentata Pau sont lectotypifi ées. Un nom invalide a été découvert : S. rosmarinifolia L. subvar. virens macrocephala Pau. La nomen- clature de S. ageratifolia est détaillée. Aixa O. RIVERO-GUERRA Universidad de Sevilla, Facultad de Biología, Departamento de Biología Vegetal y Ecología, Avda. Reina Mercedes, 41012 Sevilla (Spain) and Centro de Investigação en Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Campus Agrario de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas-Crasto, 4485-661 Vairão (Portugal) rivero-guerra@hotmail.com Typifi cation and synonymy of Santolina ageratifolia Barnades ex Asso (Asteraceae, Anthemideae), an endemic species of the Iberian Peninsula 324 ADANSONIA, sér. 3 • 2011 • 33 (2) Rivero-Guerra A. O. INTRODUCTION Th e genus Santolina belongs to the subtribe San- tolininae Willk., tribe Anthemideae Cass., family Compositae Giseke, alternatively named Asteraceae Dumort. Recent investigations have focused on reconstructing phylogeny and interpreting bio- geography of the tribe Anthemideae (Francisco- Ortega et al. 1997; Oberprieler & Vogt 2000; Watson et al. 2000, 2002; Oberprieler 2002, 2004a, b, 2005; Oberprieler et al. 2009). In the course of these evolutionary studies, it has also been judged helpful to revise certain taxa of this tribe in need of taxonomic attention. Such is the case with Santolina, a genus endemic to the Medi- terranean Region. Santolina ageratifolia Barnades ex Asso (2n = 6x = 54), a member of the S. rosmarinifolia L. aggregate (Rivero-Guerra 2011) with the highest ploidy level, is an endemic species of Teruel Province, Spain, of restricted geographical distribution: Ródenas, Cerro San Ginés, and Cerro del Ardal (Almohaja) (Rivero-Guerra 2008). Th is species lives on sand- stone and red limolite (Ródenas population), and quartzite (Cerro San Ginés). Pau (1907a) characterised S. ageratifolia and cited S. rosmarinifolia Asso and S. longidentata Pau as its synonyms. Th e same author in 1895, changed the concept and cited “– S. rosmarinifolia b) heterophylla subv.) virens macrocephala Pau, not. bot., fasc. 2, pag. 28. – S. pectinata var. paniculata? Losc. et Pard.?” as synonyms of S. longidentata. Mateo Sanz (1990) suggested that S. ageratifolia and S. longidentata are synonyms of S. rosmarini- folia L.; however, López Udías et al. (1997) cited S. rosmarinifolia subvar. virens macrocephala Pau, S. longidentata Pau and S. rosmarinifolia auct., non L. as synonyms of S. ageratifolia. Th is study was undertaken to improve our knowl- edge of the taxonomy of the genus Santolina and to improve its nomenclature. A search for suitable lectotypes of S. ageratifolia, S. pectinata var. pan- iculata Loscos & J.Pardo, and of S. longidentata Pau, as well as the historical background and the nomenclatural discussion of these names, has been conducted in the literature and in relevant herbaria, and these results are presented below. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Asso y del Río (1779) in Synopsis Stirpium Indige- narum Aragoniae, p. 116, published Santolina ros- marinifolia auct., non L. (1753) with the following notation: “805. Santolina rosmarinifolia // Abrotanum femina, virens, vermiculato, serrato folio Barrel. Ic. 464. // Provenit propè Rodenas // Planta suff ruticosa, pedalis. Caules virgati, unifl ori, supernènudi. Folia linearia, acuta, carnosa, duplici denticulorum serie utrinquè instructa. Flores duplò majores quàm in praecedenti. Paleae concavae”. Th is name is the homonym of the validly published S. rosmarinifolia L., and is there- fore illegitimate and unavailable for use under the Article 53.1 of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (McNeill et al. 2006). Asso y del Río adopted the Linnaeus’ name “S. rosmarinifolia” for a taxon of the same rank, with explicit exclusion of the original type. Th e same author (1779) men- tioned the fi gure 464 of Barrelier in the protologue of S. rosmarinifolia sensu Asso. Pau (1907b) explained the origin of the name S. ageratifolia. Asso (1784) mentioned the Synopsis Stirpium Indigenarum Aragoniae in the protologue of S. ageratifolia, and changed the number “805” into “850”: “Santolina rosmarinifolia Syn. n 850 // Species à nobis circa pagum Rodenas observata S. rosmarini- folia varietas videbatur. Eandem in herbario Cl. Bar- nades nomine Santolina ageratifolia postea invenimus, unde novam speciem esse perspicue apparuit. Caules in nostra, ut in Exemplari Barnadiano, simplices; folia linearia, carnosa, duplici denticulorum serie in utroque margine”. He attributed the name S. ageratifolia to Barnades, apparently because this name was used by Barnades in the label of the voucher specimen of his herbarium. However, there is no indication that Barnades validly published the name. Th e no- men novum and its diagnosis are validly ascribed to Asso y del Río (1784), under the Article 46.4 of the ICBN (McNeill et al. 2006). Th e same author, in Historia de la Economía política de Aragón (1798) emphasized that S. ageratifolia is a novel taxon “y en Ródenas una especie nueva de Santolina, que el difunto D. Miguel Barnades puso en su herbario con el nombre trivial de ageratifolia”. Th e present study is based on collections from the herbaria reported by Stafl eu & Mennega (1992), 325 Typifi cation and synonymy of Santolina ageratifolia Barnades ex Asso (Asteraceae, Anthemideae) ADANSONIA, sér. 3 • 2011 • 33 (2) where the material used by Asso y del Río (some material in P) and Barnades (BC, BM, C, LINN, MA) are deposited, and on all Spanish herbaria that contain collections of Santolina. Specimens of S. ager- atifolia gathered by Pau (BC 30129, BM 909683, UCLA, JE, W) and by Vicioso (MA 126817) were found. Ibáñez Cortina (2006) showed three speci- mens of the genus Santolina (which classifi ed as S. chamaecyparissus) in the collection of Barnades at the BC herbarium. Th e study of Barnades’s col- lection indicates that these specimens do not fully match the diagnostic characteristics of the genus Santolina, and none of them are from the locus classicus of S. ageratifolia. Th e same is true of the S. chamaecyparissus specimen fi gured by Barnades showed in his book “Herbarium pictum hispanicum” (six volumes). Th ese specimens should be excluded from Santolina. Loscos y Bernal & Pardo y Sastrón (1866-1867) classifi ed as “S. rosmarinifolia L. ex Asso” the speci- mens from “en el soto del Cañar”, gathered by Echeandia and indicated in brackets “acaso S. pec- tinata?”. De Jaime Lorén (2005) explained that Loscos y Bernal probably studied the Asso y del Río’s material in the “Sociedad Económica Aragonesa”. I could not fi nd the specimens from the locus clas- sicus of S. ageratifolia in the Echeandia, Schultz, Schule, Vallier and Loscos y Bernal’s collections of the private herbarium of the “Sociedad Económica Aragonesa de Amigos del País, IberCaja, Zaragoza”, and in Loscos y Bernal and Zapater’s collections of the herbarium of the “Instituto de Educación Secundaria “Vega del Turia”, Teruel”. Th e main objects of this study are to: 1) desig- nate a lectotype of S. ageratifolia, S. pectinata var. paniculata Loscos & J.Pardo, and of S. longidentata Pau, and 2) to determine all the names available as synonyms of S. ageratifolia. TYPIFICATION 1. Santolina ageratifolia Barnades ex Asso Introductio in Oryctographiam, et Zoologiam Aragoniae accedit. Enumeratio stirpium in eadem noviter detectarum, n. 805: 179 (1784). TYPUS (as given in the protologue). — “circa pagum Rodenas”. LECTOTYPUS (designated here). — fi g. 464 (Abrotanum femina, virens, vermiculato, serrato folio) of Plantae per Galliam, Hispaniam et Italiam of Barrelier (1714: p. 117) / tab. Viii.; fi g. 3 of Osservazione quarantissima prima – L’origine, e prima impressione di alcune piante marine, imperfette, come fuchi, corralline zeophite, fungi terrestri, e simili” of Schrockius (1697). EPITYPUS (designated here). — Teruel, Ródenas, 40°38’87’’N, 1°31’12’’W, 1400 m, conglomerates, sand- stone and red limolite, 15.VII.1998, A. O. Rivero-Guerra s.n. (SEV 277730, Fig. 1). REMARKS Th e fi gure 464 (Abrotanum femina, virens, vermicula- to, serrato folio) of Plantae per Galliam, Hispaniam et Italiam of Barrelier (1714: p. 117; http://bibdigital. rjb.csic.es/spa/Libro.php?Libro=1394) shows similar morphological characteristics of S. ageratifolia. Bar- relier (1714: p. 91) wrote: “1019. Santolina foliis Rosmarini, major Inst. R. Herb. 461. Abrotanum foemina, virens, vermiculato, serrate folio Barr. Icon. 464 & Bocc. Muss. Part. 1 tab. Viii. Fig. 3. Abrotanum foemina, foliis Rosmarini, majus C.B. Pin. 137”. Th e author’s quotation “Bocc. Muss. Part. 1 tab. Viii. Fig. 3” refers to Schrockius (1697), Osservazione quarantissima prima – L’origine, e prima impressio- ne di alcune piante marine, imperfette, come fuchi, corralline zeophite, fungi terrestri, e simili, p. 262- 273, pl. V-VIII in Boccone P. Museo di fi sica e di esperienze variato, e decorato di osservazioni naturali, table VIII (before p. 271: http://bibdigital.rjb.csic. es/spa/Libro.php?Libro=4631). Th e fi gure 3 of this plate is the counterpart of Barrelier’s fi gure 464. Probably the material used to illustrated this fi gure is from the south of Italy. However, S. ageratifolia is endemic of the Iberian Peninsula. Unfortunately, Asso y del Río’s and Barrelier’s herbaria have ap- parently been lost or destroyed, and duplicates of the original material were not distributed to major herbaria; as a consequence, no known duplicate material exists. Furthermore, there is no herbarium known for Schrockius. Th e lectotype selection is based on Barrelier/Schrockius-Boccone fi gure, due to the fact that the ICBN does not allow to exclude original material, when no other original material is known. 326 ADANSONIA, sér. 3 • 2011 • 33 (2) Rivero-Guerra A. O. 2. Santolina pectinata Lag. var. paniculata Loscos & J.Pardo Series inconfecta plantarum indigenarum Aragoniae praecipue meridionales: 54 (1863). TYPUS (as given in the protologue). — “Prope Aranda del Conde hanc formam memorabilem legit cl Calavia”. LECTOTYPUS (designated here). — Without date, loc., and collector (private herbarium of “Sociedad Económica Aragonesa de Amigos del País, IberCaja, Zaragoza”). ISOLECTOTYPUS (designated here). — “Prope Aranda del Conde in Aragonia, Calavia, without date and collector (COI-WILLK 00035957). REMARKS The lectotype is the sole original material for this name of the private herbarium of “Sociedad Económica Aragonesa de Amigos del País, IberCaja, Zaragoza”. It has several depauperate fl owering stems. Th e lectotype has a label with the following handwritten notation by Loscos y Bernal in black ink: “Santolina / pectinata var. paniculata”. Th e volume I of the book Francisco Loscos y Ber- nal (1823-1886). Un Botánico Aragonés (Muñoz Garmendia & González Bueno 2001) gathers the correspondence between Loscos y Bernal and other botanists, especially with Willlkomm. Willkomm (letter date October 20, 1862) and Boissier (letter date September 12, 1863) requested some Spanish plants from Loscos y Bernal, including S. pectinata and S. pectinata var. paniculata respectively. None specimen of S. pectinata var. paniculata is conserved in G, but one specimen is preserved in COI-WILLK herbarium. Th e isolectotype (COI-WILLK 00035957) has a sample with several fl owering stems without leaves. Th e sheet has three labels with the following notations in black ink. Label 1 (in the lower left- hand corner): “Herbarium Willkommi [printed] // Santolina pectinata Bth. [underlined] / var.? paniculata [underlined] Losc. Pard. // Prope Aranda del Conde in Aragonia [Willkomm’s handwritten notation] // Legit [printed] Calavia [Willkomm’s handwritten notation]. Label 2 (in the lower left- hand corner): “Herb. Univ. Coimbra // *COI 00035957*”. Label 3 (red) [to right of the speci- men]: “TYPUS”. Th e two specimens display all the characteristics listed in the protologue: “diff er a specie caulibus paniculato-ramosis”. Furthermore, Willkomm in Willkomm & Lange (1870) with regards of the diag- nostic characteristics of this name indicated: “Rami fl oriferi paniculato-ramosi polycephali. Pedunculi eximie angulati et incrassati. An species propria?” Loscos y Bernal & Pardo y Sastrón (1866-1867: 205-206) wrote: “1041 S. pectinata Benth., Lag. forma canescens; cerca de Jaca, Forest. Jul. // b. pan- iculata Losc. Pard. Ser, incof., Wk. Lge. Prodr. (an sp. propria?) Abunda alrededor de Aranda, Calavia”. Willkomm in Willkomm & Lange (1870) cited S. pectinata Lag. var. paniculata Loscos & J. Pardo as “S. pectinata Bth. β. paniculata Losc. Pard.”. However, S. pectinata Benth. (Bentham 1826) is the homonym of the validly published S. pectinata Lag. (Lagasca 1816), and is therefore illegitimate and unavailable for use under the Article 53.1 of the ICBN (McNeill et al. 2006). Th e lectotype and isolectype of S. pectinata var. paniculata indicate that this name is a synonym of S. chamaecyparissus L. sensu stricto. Th is suggests that Loscos y Bernal and Pardo y Sastrón used the name S. chamaecyparissus L. for a more inclusive taxon than recent studies. 3. Santolina rosmarinifolia L. subvar. virens macrocephala Pau, Notas botánicas de la Flora española 2: 28 (1888) (nom. inval. cf. Art. 23.1 of ICBN). LECTOTYPUS. — Not cited. REMARKS Pau (1888), in the protologue of S. rosmarinifolia subvar. virens macrocephala, wrote: “Junto á Albar- racín y en Griegos (Zapater). // No conozco esta forma, y si S. canescens Lag. de Sierra Nevada, de la que se aparta, lo mismo que de S. rosmarini- folia L.”. Pau published S. rosmarinifolia subvar. virens macrocephala on the basis of the specimen collected by Zapater (MA 126816). Th is name is not a binary combination of the name of the genus followed by a single specifi c epithet, and the two words of the epithet are not hyphenated (Article 327 Typifi cation and synonymy of Santolina ageratifolia Barnades ex Asso (Asteraceae, Anthemideae) ADANSONIA, sér. 3 • 2011 • 33 (2) FIG 1. — Epitype of Santolina ageratifolia Barnades ex Asso. 328 ADANSONIA, sér. 3 • 2011 • 33 (2) Rivero-Guerra A. O. 23.1 of the ICBN [McNeill et al. 2006]). Th e two subvarietal terms (virens and macrocephala) are adjectives in the nominative case; such unhy- phenated terms, if in adjectives, are not allowed to be hyphenated. Santolina rosmarinifolia subvar. virens macrocephala Pau has no status under ICBN, however, it has been fully cited as a synonyms of S. ageratifolia without alterations from the origi- nally published form. 4. Santolina longidentata Pau Notas botánicas de la Flora española 6: 60 (1896). TYPUS (as given in the protologue). — “Sierra de Albar- racín, en Griegos (Zap.)”. LECTOTYPUS (designated here). — Albarracín, Griegos, Zapater s.n. (MA 126816). REMARKS Th e lectotype (MA 126816) has seven fragments of the fl owering stems, most of them without leaves. Th e sheet has three labels in the lower right-hand corner with the following notations in black ink. Label 1: “Caroli Pau Herbarium hispanicum [printed and underlined] // Santolina longidentata Pau / (notas bot. fas. 6) p. 28, n. 103 / (1888) // Albarracín (Griegos) // Zapater legit [Pau’s handwritten notation]. Label 2: Santolina rosmarinifolia b) heterophylla subv. virens mac- rocephala Pau, Not. Bot. Fasc. 2: 28 (1888) = / S. longidentata Pau, Not. Bot. Fl. Esp. 6: 60 (1895) // Me parece que esta planta, herborizada por Reverchon en Griegos, Hervier se lo comunicó a Rouy, que la dio como especie nueva y le dio la localidad en el Pirineo, al confundir Griegos con Gedre // C. Pau” [Pau’s handwritten notation]. Label 3: Label of determination of E. Guinea: JARDÍN BOTÁNICO DE MADRID [printed] // Santolina pectinata [underlined] Lagasca // 3 IX 1966 [E. Guinea’s handwritten notation in rose ink]. Th is specimen displays all the characteristics listed in the protologue: “Cabezuelas grandes, semiesféricas, no umbilicadas, solitarias, hojas del tallo parecido á la Achillea microphylla W.”. DISCUSSION Asso y del Río (1779, 1784) considered that plant habit, leaf shape, leaf apex, leaf incision and lobe insertion were good diagnostic characteristics, but in 1784 he included plant colour as a new diagnostic character. In contrast, López Udías et al. (1997) used the presence/absence of plant indument, leaf incision, and insertion of the appendage of the outer bracts to diff erentiate S. ageratifolia from the remaining taxa of the S. rosmarinifolia aggregate. Rivero-Guerra (2011) demonstrated that leaf shape, leaf incision, and lobe insertion are variable between individuals of a given population; therefore, they are not good taxonomic characters. Th e shape of the leaf apex has no taxonomic value except to diff erentiate S. impressa, S. orocarpetana (Rivero- Guerra in press) and S. × oblongifolia nothosp. from the remaining taxa of S. rosmarinifolia aggregate. Plant habit and colour diff erentiate S. ageratifolia from the remaining taxa of the S. rosmarinifolia ag- gregate. Th e receptacle is conical in S. rosmarinifolia subsp. arrabidensis, S. ageratifolia, and S. elegans exclusively. Th e appendage of the involucral bract is dark copperish and fragile in S. ageratifolia, whereas in the remaining taxa, it is hyaline and robust. Th e plants of S. rosmarinifolia subsp. rosmarinifolia, S. ageratifolia, S. rosmarinifolia subsp. arrabidensis (69.09% of the individuals), and S. × oblongifolia (26.81% of the individuals) are glabrous, whereas the remaining taxa are tomentose, glabrescent, tomentose to glabrescent or sericeous. Finally, S. agerati folia does not have viscose glands, except on the fl owers and interseminal bracts, whereas the plants of the remaining taxa have viscose glands. Study of the morphological variation of the S. ros- marinifolia aggregate (Rivero-Guerra 2011) suggests strong relationships between the subspecies of S. pec- tinata (pectinata and montiberica) and S. ageratifolia, but the morphological diff erences between those three taxa are greater than those within S. pectinata. Th e study also suggests that S. ageratifolia probably derived from S. pectinata. Th is work demonstrated that S. pectinata var. paniculata Loscos & J.Pardo is not a synonym of S. longidentata, as Pau (1895) suggested. It is a synonym of S. chamaecyparissus L. sensu stricto. Th e 329 Typifi cation and synonymy of Santolina ageratifolia Barnades ex Asso (Asteraceae, Anthemideae) ADANSONIA, sér. 3 • 2011 • 33 (2) results indicated that S. longidentata Pau is synonym of S. ageratifolia as Pau (1907a) and López Udías et al. (1997) suggested. Th e invalid name S. ros- marinifolia subvar. virens macrocephala Pau has no status under the ICBN; however, it has been cited as synonym of S. ageratifolia. Th ese clarifi cations can help future studies on speciation patterns and process in Santolina and, by extension, in angiosperms in general. Th e fol- lowing full synonymy is accepted. Santolina ageratifolia Barnades ex Asso Introductio in Oryctographiam, et Zoologiam Aragoniae accedit. Enumeratio stirpium in eadem noviter detectarum n. 805: 179 (1784). TYPUS (as given in the protologue). — “circa pagum Rodenas”. LECTOTYPUS (designated here). — fi g. 464 (Abrotanum femina, virens, vermiculato, serrato folio) of Plantae per Galliam, Hispaniam et Italiam of Barrelier (1714: p. 117) / tab. Viii. Fig. 3 of Osservazione quarantissima prima – L’origine, e prima impressione di alcune piante marine, imperfette, come fuchi, corralline zeophite, fungi terrestri, e simili” of Schrockius (1697). EPITYPUS (designated here). — Teruel, Ródenas, 40°38’87’’N, 1°31’12’’W, 1400 m, conglomerates, sand- stone and red limolite, 15.VII.1998, A. O. Rivero-Guerra s.n. (SEV 277730; Fig. 1). Santolina rosmarinifolia L. subv. virens macrocephala Pau, Notas botánicas de la Flora española 2: 28. (1888) (nom. inval. cf. Art. 23.1 of ICBN). — Lectotype not cited. Santolina longidentata Pau, Notas botánicas de la Flora española 6: 60 (1896). — Type (as given in the proto- logue): “Sierra de Albarracín, en Griegos (Zap.)”. — Lectotype (designated here): Albarracín, Griegos, Zapater s.n. (MA 126816). Santolina rosmarinifolia sensu Asso, Synopsis Stirpium Indigenarum Aragoniae n. 805, 116 (1779), non L., Species Plantarum II: 842 (1753). Acknowledgements Th e study of the Santolina collection of the Natu- ral History Museum of Vienna was supported by Synthesys Project: AT-TAF-3669. I am most grateful to herbaria: BC, BM, UCLA, JE, W, and MA for supplying vouchers via loan, to the staff of Sociedad Económica Aragonesa de Amigos del País, IberCaja, Zaragoza, to Josefi na Cabarga for their cooperation, to Dr. M. Laurin for comments and help with the English version of the manuscript, to Dr. C. Romero Zarco for his helpful comments and suggestions in revising a pre-submission draft of the manuscript, to Dr. J. Ferrer Plou (Zaragoza University), and to the staff of the library of the Biology Faculty of the Seville University and of the Madrid Botanical Garden. I also thank Dr. F. J. Salgueiro, curator of the SEV herbarium, for his warm reception, professional conduct and techni- cal assistance. REFERENCES ASSO Y DEL RÍO I. J. 1779. — Synopsis stirpium indige- narum Aragoniae. Marseille, 160 p. ASSO Y DEL RÍO I. J. 1784. — Introductio in Orycto- graphiam, et Zoologiam Aragoniae accedit. Enumeratio stirpium in eadem noviter detectarum. Amsterdam, 192 p. ASSO Y DEL RÍO I. J. 1798. — Historia de la Economía política de Aragón. Francisco Magallón, Zaragoza, 503 p. BARRELIER R. P. J. 1714. — Plantae per Galliam, His- paniam et Italiam observata. Stephanum Ganeau, Paris, 140 p. BENTHAM G. 1826. — Catalogue des plantes indigènes des Pyrénées et du bas Languedoc. Huzard, Paris, 128 p. FRANCISCO-ORTEGA J., CRAWFORD D. J., SANTOS- GUERRA A. & JANSEN R. K. 1997. — Origin and evolution of Argyranthemum (Asteraceae: Anthemi- deae) in Macaronesia, in GIVNISH T. J. & SYTSMA K. J. (eds), Molecular Evolution and Adaptive Ra- diation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 407-431. IBÁÑEZ CORTINA N. 2006. — Estudis sobre cinc herba- ris històrics de l’Instituit Botànic de Barcelona. Tesis Doctoral. Universidad de Barcelona, Facultat de Biología, Departament de Biología Vegetal, Barce- lona, 290 p. JAIME LORÉN J. M. DE 2005. — La Botánica en la revista “Miscelánea Turolense”. 1891-1901. Flora Montiberica 29: 8-13. LAGASCA M. 1816. — Elenchus Plantarum, quae in Horto Regio Botanico Matritensi. Typographia Regia, Madrid, 35 p. LÓPEZ UDÍAS S., FABREGAT C. & MATEO G. 1997. — 330 ADANSONIA, sér. 3 • 2011 • 33 (2) Rivero-Guerra A. O. Santolina ageratifolia Barnades ex Asso (Compositae) y el agregado S. rosmarinifolia L. Anales del Jardín Botánico de Madrid 55: 285-296. LOSCOS Y BERNAL F. & PARDO Y SASTRÓN J. 1863. — Series inconfecta plantarum indigenarum Aragoniae praecipue meridionalis. Ex typographie E. Blochmann et fi l., Dresdae, 135 p. LOSCOS Y BERNAL F. & PARDO Y SASTRÓN J. 1866- 1867. — Serie imperfecta de las plantas aragonesas espontáneas particularmente de las que habitan en la parte meridional. Imprenta de U. Cuesta, Alcañiz, 543 p. MATEO SANZ G. 1990. — Catálogo fl orístico de la provin- cia de Teruel. Instituto de Estudios Turolenses. Exma. Diputación de Teruel, Teruel, 548 p. MCNEILL J., BARRIE F. R., BURDET H. M., DEMOULIN V., HAWKSWORTH D. L., MARHOLD K., NICOLSON D. H., PRADO J., SILVA P. C., SKOG J. E., WIERSEMA J. H. & TURLAND N. J. 2006. — International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Vienna Code) adopted by the Seventeenth International Botanical Congress Vienna. Austria, July 2005. A. R. G. Gantner Ver- lag, Ruggell, Liechtenstein. Regnum Vegetabile 146: i-xviii + 1-568 p. MUÑOZ GARMENDIA F. & GONZÁLEZ BUENO A. 2001. — Francisco Loscos y Bernal (1823-1886). Un Botáni- co Aragonés. I. Ibercaja, Real Sociedad Económica Aragonesa de Amigos del País, Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid, CSIC, Madrid, 1054 p. OBERPRIELER C. 2002. — A phylogenetic analysis of Chamaemelum Mill. (Compositae: Anthemideae) and related general based upon nrDNA ITS and cpDNA trnL/trnF IGS sequence variation. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 138: 255-273. OBERPRIELER C. 2004a. — On the taxonomic status and the phylogenetic relationships of some unispecifi c Mediterranean genera of Compositae-Anthemideae I. Brocchia, Endopappus and Heliocauta. Willdenowia 34: 39-57. OBERPRIELER C. 2004b. — On the taxonomic status and the phylogenetic relationships of some unispecifi c Mediterranean genera of Compositae-Anthemideae II. Daveaua, Leucocyclus and Nananthea. Willdenowia 34: 341-350. OBERPRIELER C. 2005. — Temporal and spatial di- versifi cation of circum-Mediterranean Compositae- Anthemideae. Taxon 54: 951-966. OBERPRIELER C. & VOGT R. 2000. — Th e position of Castrilanthemum Vogt & Oberprieler and the phyl- ogeny of mediterranean Anthemideae (Compositae) as inferred from nrDNA ITS and cpDNA trnL/trnF IGS sequence variation. Plant Systematics and Evolu- tion 225: 145-170. OBERPRIELER C., HIMMELREICH S., KÄLLERSJÖ M., VALLÈS J., WATSON L. E. & VOGT R. 2009. — Anthemideae, in FUNK V. A., SUSANNA A., STUESSY T. F. & BAYER R. J. (eds), Systematics, Evolution and Biogeography of Compositae. Chapter. 38. IAPT: In- ternational Association for Plant Taxonomy, Vienna, Austria: 631-666. PAU C. 1888. — Notas botánicas de la Flora española II. Escuela Tipográfi ca del Hospicio, Fuencarral, Madrid, 40 p. PAU C. 1895. — Notas botánicas de la Flora española VI. Imprenta de Romaní y Suay, Segorbe, 115 p. PAU C. 1907a. — Una visita a San Ginés. Boletín de la Sociedad Aragonesa de Ciencias Naturales 7: 85-93. PAU C. 1907b. — Asso como Botánico. Homenaje a Lin- neo. Publicación de la Sociedad Aragonesa de Ciencias Naturales: 141-159. RIVERO-GUERRA A. O. 2008. — Cytogenetics, biogeog- raphy and biology of Santolina ageratifolia Barnades ex Asso (Asteraceae: Anthemideae). Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 157: 797-807. RIVERO-GUERRA A. O. 2011. — Morphological variation within and between taxa of Santolina rosmarinifolia L. aggregate (Asteraceae: Anthemideae). Systematic Botany 36: 171-190 + supplementary online material. RIVERO-GUERRA A. O. in press. — Santolina orocarpe- tana (Asteraceae, Anthemideae), a new species from the Iberian Peninsula: revision of the lectotype of S. oblongifolia Boiss. and typifi cation of their syno- nyms. Adansonia. SCHROCKIUS L. 1697. — Osservazione quarantissima prima – L’origine, e prima impressione di alcune piante marine, imperfette, come fuchi, corralline zeophite, fungi terrestri, e simili, in BOCCONE, P. (ed.), Museo di fi sica e di esperienze variato, e decorato di osservazioni naturali. Zuccato, Venice: 262-273. STAFLEU F. A. & MENNEGA E. A. 1992. — Taxonomic Literature. A Selective Guide to Botanical Publications and Collections with Dates, Commentaries and Types. Supplement I: A-Ba. Koeltz Scientifi c Books, König- stein, Federal Republic of Germany, 453 p. WATSON L. E., EVANS T. M. & BOLUARTE T. 2000. — Molecular phylogeny and biogeography of tribe Anthemideae (Asteraceae), based on chloroplast gene ndhF. Molecular Phylogenetic and Evolution 15: 59-69. WATSON L. E., BATES P., EVANS T., UNWIN M. & ESTES J. 2002. — Molecular phylogeny of subtribe Artemisiinae (Asteraceae), including Artemisia and its allied and segregate genera. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2: 17. WILLKOMM M. & LANGE J. 1870. — Prodromus Florae Hispanicae II. Typis e sumptibus librariae E. Schweiz- erbart, Stuttgartiae, 680 p. Submitted on 19 May 2010; accepted on 31 March 2011. 
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work_53p3xoxd4jcyhhjghr7onambwm	----	Knowing, Understanding, and Other Forms of Learning Knowing, Understanding, and Other Forms of Learning Bette LaSere Erickson and Glenn R. Erickson Introduction Probably the most conunon verbs in higher education are •"to know,·· .. to understand, •• •"to think, •• and •"to appreciate ... They sound like pretty good verbs for college classrooms. They call to mind some admired intellectual activities. However, they are also among the most slippery verbs we use in college classrooms. Consider, for example, what comes to mind when we say we want students .. to understand.'' To some, understanding means being well informed -remembering important facts, events, ideas, theories. To others, understanding involves the ability to ex- plain, to marshal evidence, to detect the unwarranted conclusion. Understanding is used synonymously with remembering, relating, comparing, applying, and a whole host of other intellectual processes. Blurring the distinctions among these intellectual activities would not be a problem if developing such abilities required the same teaching and learning activities. However, research on learning sug- gests there are some important differences among abilities -differ- ences which call for different teaching methods and study procedures. These materials describe four of the more common types of learning outcomes pursued in college courses. They also include some notes on how to formulate questions, write objectives, select teaching methods, and construct test items for each type. Although you may fmd it necessary to adapt or reshape the categories to fit your subject · matter, we think they provide a useful conceptual tool for clarifying 161 To Improve the Academy what you want students to learn and for making instructional deci- sions. Memorization In most courses, there is some basic information which students are expected to commit to memory. Such information sometimes includes names, definitions, terminology, or other facts. More often in college courses, students are asked to remember more complex information-fundamentallaws, theoretical propositions, the charac- teristics of a period, points of view expressed in their reading. For instance, the following questions ask students to recall infor- mation which was presented during instruction. What are the distinguishing characteristics of the following approaches to literary analysis: the historical approach; the psychological ap- proach; the thematic approach; the "elements of fiction" approach. Briefly summarize the procedures, the advantages,and the confounding variables associated with each of the following research designs: cross- sectional; longitudinal; time-sequential; and experimental. Briefly describe the following Piagetian concepts: assimilation; accom- modation; concrete operational thinking; formal operational thinking; conservation. Knowing how an insect feeds can be important in controlling insect damage to crops. What are the characteristics of each of the following types of feeders: generalized feeders; sucking feeders; boring feeders; rasping feeders. What general principles and techniques are suggested in your readings for controlling each type of feeder? Briefly describe the distinguishing characteristics of each of the follow- ing artistic movements: Neo-Classicism; Romanticism; Realism; Im- pressionism; Post-Impressionism. Many people -faculty, as well as students - do not recognize that these questions simply ask students to recall information which they've committed to memory. To be sure, they differ from questions which ask students to recall a name or a date or some other isolated bit of information. These questions require students to remember much more complex information. 162 - Knowing, Understanding, and Other Forms of Learning However, the distinguishing feature of memorization is NOT its complexity. Rather, this type of learning may be recognized by what we ask students to do with the information: to remember it and be able to recaU it. Memorization does not enjoy a very respectable position in higher education these days. To some extent, its reputation is deserved, since we've not always been sensible or frugal about what we ask students to memorize. Yet, being able to recall basic information is often necessary for further study in a course or in a field. Moreover, recent research on thinking and problem-solving suggests that the knowledge available to students plays a critical role in developing other intellec- tual skills and being able to transfer them to new problems and situations. Writing Objectives for Memorization It's fairly easy to write objectives which infonn students that memorization will be required. However, because we're often embar- rassed to tell students and colleagues that we want students to memo- rize, we camouflage these expectations in language which makes them sound more worthy. We ask students .. to become familiar with" or .. to understand." To the extent what familiarity and understanding really mean memorization, it's far more helpful .. to tell it like it is." The following sample of objectives make it pretty clear that memorization is required. Be able to describe the typical questions and conventions which char- acterize the following approaches to literary analysis: the historical approach; the psychological approach; the thematic approach; the elements of fiction approach. Be able to describe the procedures, the advantages, and the confounding variables for each of the following research designs: cross-sectional; longitudinal; time-sequential; and experimental. Be able to define the following Piagetian concepts: assimilation, ac- commodation, conservation, concrete operational thinking, formal op- erational thinking. 163 To Improve the Academy Be able to recall the characteristics of the major types of feeding systems found in insects and to recall the recommended techniques for controlling each type of feeder. Be able to recall the distinguishing characteristics of each of the following artistic movements: Neo-Classicism; Romanticism; Real- ism; Impressionism; Post-Impressionism. Teaching for Memorization and Retention Memorization and retention have been widely researched and much is known about the factors which affect them The following ftndings are especially important. Meaningful material is learned faster and remembered longer than meaningless material. Meaning is a key variable affecting mem- ory and retention; some believe it's the most important variable. However, meaning does not lie in the subject matter; it lies in the relationship between the subject matter and the learner. Although meaning obviously varies from student to student, we won't go far wrong if we assume that most students fmd the concrete more meaningful than the abstract; the familiar more meaningful than the unfamiliar; the present more meaningful than the distant past or distant future. That doesn't imply that we should abandon the abstract, the unfamiliar, the past or the future. Learning about such things is why students are in our classes. However, it does suggest that we'll be more successful if we begin instruction with the concrete, the familiar, and the present. In some subjects, it's relatively easy to point out how material relates to students• current questions and concerns and to draw exam- ples from their experiences. Other subjects require more creativity, and sometimes it seems the only way to make something familiar or concrete is by way of analogy, metaphor, or some other form of poetry. Practice facilitates memorization and retention. As we'll see, practice is an important condition for all types of learning, although the practice looks different for each type. For memorization and retention, practice takes the forms of recitation, drill, and review. Thus, it helps (1) to provide study questions; (2) to encourage students to quiz themselves and each other after reading an assignment or hearing 164 Knowing, Understanding, and Other Fonns of Learning a lecture; (3) to give quizzes; ( 4) to ask questions in class which require students to verbalize the infonnation which they are to remember. The rebellion against memorization has discouraged professors from using such instructional teclmiques in college courses. However, if we wish students to corrnnit material to memory and to remember it for any length of time, recitation and drill and review are sound instructional teclmiques. Testing for Memorization Writing questions which test memorization merely requires in- structors to ask students to recall or recognize material which was presented during instruction. To be sure, many of us could improve our skills in writing such items by attending to some technical prop- erties of test item construction. However, we think the more critical problem is that too few faculty and students distinguish between items which test memorization and items which test other types of learning. Thus, we'd like to raise the red flags on that issue from the beginning. Consider the English professor who spends a week discussing the ••Initiation"themes in the following short stories: .. Editha,'' .. The Open Boat," .. The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky," and .. 1 Want to Know Why." The professor then includes the following essay questions on the exam. ''Editha," "The Open Boat," ''The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky," and "I Want to Know Why" might be thought of as initiation stories in that they dramatize a naive, child-like character going through a difficult, painful, or bewildering experience which initiates him into a view of the world which the reader perceives as more realistic or mature. Discuss any 7WO of the above of initiation. At first glance, this question appears to require some fairly com- plex analytical skills. However, because the essay asked students to discuss literature which had previously been discussed in class, it's quite possible-indeed, probable-that students memorized the key ideas and appropriate references discussed in class and reproduced them on the exam. 165 To Improve til£ Academy This situation illustrates a testing practice found in many college courses and in many disciplines. Faculty and students mistakenly assmne that if a problem or question calls for an analysis or a solution or a conclusion, then it automatically tests something other than memorization. However, if the question is one which was discussed during instruction, then we're on very shaky ground if we conclude that students are demonstrating anything other than memorization. Concept Formation We all know students who can rattle off definitions of important concepts and terms, who can state fundamental laws and principles, who can describe key theoretical constructs. Many students can even give the definitions, state the laws, and describe the constructs in their own words. However, if we show these same students a particular example of a concept, many are unable to name the concept it exemplifies. If we present a new situation, they cannot recognize the laws or principles which are operating. If we give them an interpretation or an analysis, they cannot identify the theoretical perspective taken by the interpreter or analyst. And, we begin to worry that students have learned the deftnitions of concepts, statements of principles, and smnmaries of theoretical constructs in rote fashion. One good indicator of comprehension and understanding is Con- cept Formation-the ability to see relationships between specific instances and broader generalizations. Two kinds of challenges char- acterize this type of learning: (1) Give the broader generalization and ask students to supply specific examples and illustrations; or (2) Give specific examples or illustrations and ask students for the broader generalization. Because students often respond to the frrst challenge by supplying examples they've memorized from the text or readings, we recommend the second type of challenge. The following sample of questions all require the ability to recog- nize the relationship between a specific instance and some broader generalization. 166 Attached you'll find a paper analyzing Hawthorne's "Rappaccini's Daughter." Which approach to literary criticism does it exemplify? Knowing, Understanding, and Other Fcxm$ of Learning Professor Wisdom was interested in the effects of age on political attitudes. He used a well-known and widely accepted attitude survey that measures where an individual falls on the conservative-liberal continuum. He asked 100 people of different ages to complete the survey and tabulated the results. He found that older subjects responded more conservatively and concluded that aging is characterized by a progressive increase in conservative attitudes. Professor Wisdom's research design was an example of ... a) cross-sectional; b) longitudinal; c) time-sequential; or d) experimental? While playing with her paints, Sally discovered that blue and yellow make green. However, when her teacher asked her what colors are green, Sally said she didn't know. As soon as Sally is able to recognize that because blue and yellow make green, then green is composed of blue and yellow, Piaget would say she will be demonstrating which of the following? a) conservative; b) formal operational thinking; c) perpetual thinking; d) concrete operational thinking. A foreign insect which resembles a grasshopper and appears to like spinach has been introduced into the U.S. Entomologists are beginning to worry that the insect will destroy the nation's spinach crops, so they've been studying the insect in the lab. They've determined that the insect is hypognathous. They've also noted that it has mandibles, wings, and large head muscles. Based on this information, the insect is prob- ably an example of what type of feeder? The slide I'm showing you is a reproduction of a painting we've not discussed. Study the painting and decide whether you think it's an example of Neo-Classicism, Romanticism, Realism, Impressionism, or Post-Impressionism. Then explain what characteristic features of the painting led you to your decision. Writing Objectiv(!s for Concept Formation Concept fonnation objectives should somehow capture the key feature of this fonn ofleaming: the ability to recognize the relationship between specific instances and their broader generalizations. If the challenges are to be posed as we ·ve reconnnended, then the objectives should indicate that students (a) will be given specific instances and (b) asked to determine the broader generalization exemplified, illus- trated, or represented. The following statements illustrate some different ways in which such objectives might be phrased. 167 To Improve the Academy Given samples of essays written by literary critics, be able to identify the approach to literary analysis which the critics have taken. Be able to recognize examples of cross- sectional, longitudinal, time- sequential, and experimental designs. Be able to recognize examples of assimilation, accommodation, con- crete operational thinking, formal operational thinking, and conserva- tion. Whenever you encounter a new insect, you should be able to identify the type of feeding system the insect possesses. If I show you a painting we've not studied, you should be able to recognize the artistic movement to which it probably belongs. The most difficult part of cotmnunicating Concept Fonnation objectives to students is getting them to understand that they'll be asked to recognizenew examples and illustrations. Many students mistakenly assume that they'll be asked to recognize examples which were presented in their texts or in class. This leads them to some rather unproductive study behaviors. They write every example in their notes and spend hours memorizing them. Later, they may complain that test questions were not discussed in class. Thus, it's important that professors stress that this type oflearning involves the ability to recognize new examples and illustrations when- ever they're encountered. It helps if that information can be included in the objective. Also, since many students pay closest attention when instructors talk in tenns of tests, tell students from the start that the examples discussed in class or in the readings will not be the ones which appear on the tests. The test questions will ask them to recognize examples which they've never seen before. Teaching for Concept Formation Fortunately, much is known about how concepts are learned and about the instructional activities which promote Concept Fonnation. Certainly, more is known than will be discussed here. However, the following suggestions reflect some of the critical conditions for Con- cept Formation. 168 - Knowing, Understanding, and Other Fonns of Learning Highlight the critical properties, distinguishing characteristics, or key ideas of the concept, principle, generalization, or theory. These will provide the bases or the criteria for judging whether or not specific instances exemplify or illustrate or represent the broader generaliza- tions. Thus, it's critical that students have complete and accurate infonnation about what ''defines .. the concept. Present examples of the concept or principle or generalization or theory, noting in each case how the example embodies the key char- acteristics. The necessity for providing examples and contrasting them with non-examples is well documented in Concept Formation studies. Fortunately, most instructors know this and take great pains to find especially telling examples and illustrations. Provide opportunities for students to practice recognizing exam- ples of concepts, illustrations of principles, representations of theo- ries. As noted earlier, PRACTICE is a critical condition for all the forms of learning discussed here. In the case of concept formation, providing practice opportunities requires instructors (a) to pose a series of specific instances; and (b) to ask students the appropriate questions about them: Which concept does this exemplify? Which principle or law or generalization is illustrated in this situation? Which theory or approach does this interpretation reflect? Which theme is being dramatized here? In each case, instructors should ask students to note how the example or situation does or does not embody the critical properties or characteristics of the concept, generalization or theory. The questions included in the introduction to the section on Concept Formation provide some good examples of practice exer- cises. Start with relatively simple and clear examples and gradually introduce more complex and subtle examples. The first task is to illustrate the properties, characteristics, features which define the concept or generalization or theory. Students will be able to recognize these more clearly if they don't initially get lost in an illustration which is complicated, abstract, or foreign to them. However, if all the examples are simple ones, students won't learn to recognize more complex ones. Draw examples and illustrations from a variety of situations and settings. This recommendation is based on studies of transfer of 169 To Improve the Academy learning. Students are more likely to be able to recognize new exam- ples if the examples used during instruction sample the range of situations and contexts in which you want students to be able to recognize the concept, principle, or theory. Be prepared to provide more practice examples and illustrations than you ever imagined might be necessary. There's no magic mnnber which we can offer as a guide. However, we think most instructors grossly l.Ulderestimate the number of examples needed and the amo\Ult of practice required. Testing for Concept Formation By now, it should come as no surprise that testing for Concept Formation involves (a) presenting a specific instance or situation- one that students have not seen before; and (b) asking students which concept it exemplifies, principle it illustrates, theory it reflects, theme it dramatizes. The questions at the beginning of the section on Concept Formation might make good exam questions, assuming they were not discussed during instruction. At the risk of belaboring the issue, we'd like to stress what does NOT constitute a test of Concept Formation Questions which ask students to recall or recognize defmitions of concepts or statements of principles or summaries of theoretical constructs are not adequate tests of Concept Formation. They can be answered on the basis of memo- rization. Similarly, questions which present examples or illustrations which were presented or discussed during instruction are not adequate tests of Concept Formation. Even though the form of the question is appropriate, such questions also may be answered on the basis of memorization. Application It's one thing to be able to defme a concept, state a principle, or summarize a theory. It's another thing to recognize examples or illustrations of these things. And, it's yet another to be able to use them to solve problems, perform analyses, make decisions, draw conclu- sions. 170 Knowing, Understanding, and Other Fonns of Learning Application is the ability to use concepts, principles, generaliza- tions, theories and the like to expklin or analyze or otherwise cope with specific situations or problems. Most college professors stress the importance of being able to apply previously learned material to a variety of problems and situations. Indeed, many believe that the primary reason for learning such material in the ftrst place is because it's useful in understanding and coping with the situations and prob- lems one encounters in life. The challenge to apply involves presenting a specific problem or situation and asking students to use what they•ve learned in some way-to explain the situation. to solve the problem, to predict an outcome, to make a recommendation. to formulate a policy. Applica- tion questions usually tell students explicitly or strongly imply which concepts, principles, theories, or generalizations students should use in order to complete the task. (We mention this by way of foreshad- owing. It's yet another thing to cope with specific situations without being told which concepts or principles or theories one should use.) The following questions all ask students to use something they•ve learned in a specific situation or problem. A major publishing company has decided to publish a book on Haw- thorne's short stories. The publishers plan to devote one whole section of the book to "Rappaccini's Daughter." That section will include several articles, each analyzing the story using a different approach to literary criticism. You've been asked to write the article which analyzes the story using a thematic approach to literary criticism. Outline what you'd say in such an article. Professor Wisdom was interested in the effects of age on political attitudes. He used a well-known and widely accepted attitude survey that measures where an individual falls on the conservative-liberal continuum. He asked 100 people of different ages to complete the survey and tabulated the results. He found that older subjects responded more conservatively and concluded that aging is characterized by a progressive increase in conservative attitudes. Use your knowledge of the strengths and limitations of cross-sectional research designs to critique Professor Wisdom's conclusions. Peter, who is mid-way through the first grade, is having a great deal of trouble with subtraction, although he did fairly well with addition. He listens carefully when his teacher explains the material and tries hard 171 To Improve the Academy to do the problems in his workbook. But he just can't seem to get it. Identify one activity which Piaget might recommend to help Peter. A foreign insect which resembles a grasshopper and appears to like spinach has been introduced into the U.S. The insect is threatening the nation's spinach crops. As an entomologist, you have been hired by a famous sailor from California to combat this pest. Preliminary study revealed that the insect is a generalized feeder. How would you treat the spinach crop to control the pest? Posted around the room are reproductions of 20 paintings. You have been asked to organize an exhibition designed to capture the spirit of Impressionism. However, space limitations permit you to include only 5 paintings. Which of these paintings would you include in the exhibi- tion? Be prepared to explain why you chose the paintings you chose. Writing Objectives for Application Minirnally, application objectives should tell students two things: (1) that they'll be given specific problems or situations; and (2) that they'll be asked to use what they've learned to do something with those problems or situations. At their best, application objectives also say something about the nature of the problems which will be given and alert students to the ways in which they'll be asked to use what they've learned. The following statements illustrate how such objectives might look. 172 Be able to discuss any American short story, using each of the following approaches to literary analysis: the historical approach, the thematic approach, the psychological approach, the elements of fiction approach. Given research on the effects of aging, be able to use your knowledge of the strengths and confounding variables associated with cross-sec- tional, longitudinal, time-sequential, and experimental designs to cri- tique the studies. Given descriptions of children's responses in instructional situations, be able to use Piagetian constructs to explain their responses and to recommend appropriate instructional activities. Given information about the feeding systems of insects which are making pests of themselves. be able to recommend procedures for controlling the pests. Knowing. Understanding, and Other Forms of Learning If I show you a collection of paintings, you should be able to organize or critique an exhibit which claims to represent one of the following artistic movements: Neo-Classicism, Romanticism, Realism, Impres- sionism, Post-Impressionism. As with Concept Fonnation objectives, students often misinter- pret application objectives to mean that they will be expected to solve the problems or explain the situations or analyze the literature which were discussed in class. Again, ifs important to stress that the ability to apply involves coping with a variety of new problems and situations. To put it in terms which students are more likely to understand, test questions will present problems and situations which have not been discussed in class or in the readings. Teaching for Application Before talking about how to teach for application. there's some good news and some bad news. The good news is that lots of research has been done in this area, usually under the rubric .. transfer of learning." Many studies have asked essentially the same question: .. If students learn how to apply concepts, principles, or theories in one situation, will they be able to apply those concepts, principles, or theories in other situations? The bad news is that the research fmdings have not been very encouraging. It appears that not much transfer occurs, even in the best of instructional circmnstances. In other words, we can teach students how to apply our subject matter in one situation; but give them a new situation, and they act as if they've never encountered such a problem. There has, of cc:>urse, been much speculation and some research into why application skill seem so difficult to develop. While we can't be as confident as we were in discussing Memorization and Concept Fonnation, we can offer the following suggestions. Demonstrate how to apply course materials to specific problems or situations. That is, pose a sample problem or situation and show students how you would go about solving it or explaining it or whatever. Highlight key decisions and explain why you did what you did. 173 To Improve the Acatkmy Provide opportunities for students to practice application. Again practice is a critical condition for application. It requires instructors to pose specific problems or situations and to ask students to solve the problems or explain the situations or predict"the outcomes or whatever. Be keenly aware that instructors demonstrating how to apply is not the same as students practicing how to apply. If you solve all the problems or explain all the situations, you ·n get lots of practice ... but you probably don•t need it Your students probably do. Pose problems and situations which sample the range of contexts in which you hope students will be able to apply course material. Transfer of learning studies found that when the problems used during instruction differed dramatically from the problems posed to test for transfer, students appeared unable to transfer. However, when instruc- tion sampled the range of contexts in which students were expected to apply, transfer seemed to increase. Help students recognize similarities in problems and situations. One obstacle to transfer seems to be that students fail to recognize similarities between new problems and those they•ve already solved successfully. Professors might help students recognize such similari- ties by asking: What are the "givens .. in this situation? What are you asked to do? How is this situation similar to (or different from) other problems you•ve solved? What concepts and principles did you use in solving those problems? Would they work in this problem or situation? Plan instruction systematically so that students receive lots of · guidance on early attempts to apply and less and less guidance on subsequent attempts. Students often need step-by-step prompts, hints, and feedback when they first encounter problems or situations which require them to use course material in some way. In fact, we recom- mend that initial practice exercises be done in class where instructors are available for such guidance. In any event, teaching for application is not the time to use the "sink-or-swim •• approach. Many students will find it too frustrating, will give up prematurely, and may drown in their sense of failure. However, students do need to learn to cope with problems or situations on their own. They won•t if professors continue to "lead them through .. the analyses or the solutions or the critiques. Thus, it's 174 Knowing. Understanding, and Other Forms of Learning importa.tlt to withdraw gradually the prompts and the hints and the other step-by-step questions. Provide more practice than you ever dreamed might be required. Again. most of us grossly underestimate the amount of practice which students need. We forget what it's like to be a novice in our fields- how it felt to encounter a problem the first or second or tenth time. This means, of course, that teaching for application takes time. It's tempting to short-cut the instructiooal process and hope for the best. However, instructors who fall prey to such temptations are likely to be disappointed when they test their students' application skills. Testing for Application In order to test students' abilities to apply, instructors must (a) present a specific problem or situation-one that has not been dis- cussed previously; and (b) ask students to use some concept or principle or theory to solve the problem, analyse the situation, predict the outcome, or whatever the appropriate task might be. The examples of questions included in the introduction to application might be good test items, assuming that they were not used during instruction. How- ever, how to write multiple choice items which test application is a topic considered elsewhere. We'd like to stress here that asking students to recall the definition of a concept, the statement of a principle, or the description of a theoretical construct is NOT an adequate test of whether students can apply the concept, principle, or construct. Such questions on the basis of memorization. The problems and situations posed on exams must be new to students. Finally, questions which test for application usually state explic- itly or strongly imply which concepts, principles, theoretical con- structs, or ideas students are to use in dealing with the situation or problem. In part, it's this feature which distinguishes Application from Complex Problem Solving. Complex Problem Solving Complex Problem Solving is the ability to use course material in coping with real life situations and problems. It resembles Application 175 To Improve the Academy in that it involves presenting a particular problem or situation and asking students to do something with it-to perfonn an analysis, to fmd a solution, to offer an explanation, to reconunend a policy, to reach a decision. Indeed, it may be useful to think of Application and Complex Problem Solving as a continuum rather than as separate categories. However, for purposes of instruction and evaluation, it's helpful to make some distinctions. Application problems and situations are usually fairly structured and direct about what is to be done. Ifs clear which features of the problem or situation deserve attention and which concepts and prin- ciples are to be used. Thus, an application task states explicitly or strongly implies how to approach and think through the problem or situation. In contrast, Complex Problem Solving tasks and questions permit more flexibility in detennining how to approach and think through the problem or situation for several reasons. First, the problems and situations posed in a Complex Problem Solving question are usually more complicated and less structured. More information is presented, and some of the information may be irrelevant and conflicting. Key ideas and relationships are less obvious and may be embedded in a morass of detail. The task to be accom- plished should be clear, but the questions or issues to be considered along the way may not be so obvious. Thus, Complex Problem Solving situations usually demand some restructuring. They may require stu- dents to determine what questions to ask or issues to consider, to decide which features of the situation warrant attention, to judge the credibility of sources and resolve conflicts, to take some key elements out of the contexts in which they're presented, to see relationships which are not explicitly stated or immediately obvious. Secondly, a Complex Problem Solving task does not tell students which concepts, principles, theories, or ideas they should use in coping with the situation. Part of the challenge is to sort through what one has studied and to select that which seems relevant and useful. Further- more, Complex Problem Solving tasks usually require students to use-or at least consider-more than a single concept or principle or construct or idea. Finally, there is usually more than one approach to a Complex Problem Solving task and a range of acceptable answers. Thus, part 176 Knowing, Understanding, and OtherFonns ofLeaming of the problem is to establish the criteria by which an acceptable answer is to be judged, to decide what kind of evidence or support is required, to gather the evidence, and to defend one's answer in light of the criteria established and the evidence available. In short, Complex Problem Solving situations and problems re- semble •<real life" situations in their complexity, their ambiguity, and their structure. The following questions illustrate Complex Problem Solving challenges. A major publishing company has decided to publish a book on Haw- thorne's short stories. Originally, the publishers planned to devote one whole section of the book to "Young Goodman Brown." They were going to ask several people to write articles on the story, each using a different approach to literary criticism. However, the publishers have now realized that they can't afford to devote so much space to "Young Goodman Brown." Instead, they want to include just one article ana- lyzing "Young Goodman Brown," and they want the most illuminative and interesting analysis they can find. If you were going to submit such an analysis, what would you say about "Young Goodman Brown?" The attached report summarizes a study conducted by Professor Wis- dom investigating the effects of age on religious attitudes. Professor Wisdom has sent you this summary because he'd like your opinions about the research design, findings, and conclusions. Outline what you • d say in a response to Professor Wisdom. Peter, who is mid-way through the first grade, is having a great deal of trouble with substraction, although he did fairly well with addition. He listens carefully when his teacher explains the material and tries hard to do the problems in his workbook. But he just can't seem to get it. Peter's teacher has asked you for advice, because she knows you are knowledgeable about several theories of child development and learn- ing. Write her a letter outlining your recommendations and explaining which theory or theories prompted you to make those recommenda- tions. In the attached letter, a farmer describes an insect which appears to be making a pest of itself. As you'll discover, the farmer has provided a rather detailed description of his situation and has admitted that he's not altogether sure how much of the information is relevant. However, he'd like your advice on what to do about the insect. Prepare a response in which you recommend procedures for controlling the insect and explain why you recommend those procedures. 177 To Improve the Academy Posted around the room are reproductions of 20 paintings. The art museum in your city wants to open an exhibit entitled "The Modern Tradition," and the museum has space for up to 15 of these paintings. The museum has asked for your advice about which paintings to include and how to organize them. What recommendations would you make and why? Writing Objectives for Complex Problem Solving It's difficult to write clear, concise objectives for Complex Prob- lem Solving. On the one hand, the objectives should alert students to the complexity of the problems or situations which will be posed and should indicate the kinds of decisions which students will be asked to make. On the other hand, the objectives shouldn't be so lengthy or complicated that students get lost in the process of reading them. We think the following sample of objectives strike a reasonable compro- mise. 178 Be able to write an interesting and illuminating analysis of any Ameri- can short story assigned. This will require you to consider the various approaches to literary analysis, to select the approach or combination of approaches which you think would produce the most interesting and illuminating analysis, and to carry out the analysis. Be able to critique research on the effects of aging. This will require that you consider the questions under investigation, judge the appro- priateness of the research design in light of the possibilities and con- straints which the researcher faced, and determine whether or not the conclusions are warranted. Given descriptions of children's responses in instructional situations, be able to explain their responses and recommend appropriate instruc- tional activities. This will require you to study the situation presented, to consider the theories on development and learning which we've studied, to select the theory or combination of theories which best explain that particular situation, and to create instructional activities in light of your explanation. Given information about an insect which is making a pest of itself in a certain environment, be able to recommend procedures for controlling the pest. This will require that you decide which features of the environment warrant attention, which characteristics of the insect are relevant, and which procedures for controlling the pest will be most effective, most practical, and most safe. Knowing, Understanding, and Other F()llR; of Learning Be able to organize or critique exhibitions of paintings in the Modern Tradition. This might require you to see possibilities and recognize limitations, given the paintings available; to determine whether such exhibitions should sample all modem art movements or concentrate on selected movements; to decide whether paintings should be organized historically, thematically or in some other fashion; to decide which paintings should be included and which excluded. Teaching for Complex Problem Solving? How people go about solving complex problems and how they learn to accomplish such feats remains pretty much a mystery. Re- search indicates that successful problem solvers approach and think through such problems in very different ways. Thus, we are not very taken with some of the current teaching methods and instructional materials which appear to prescribe problem solving steps and se- quences. Indeed, there's doubt about whether Complex Problem Solving abilities can be ''taught" in the same sense that Memorization, Concept Formation and Application can be ''taught". Gagne (1980) concludes his discussion of problem solving studies with considerable skepti- cism that we can design instruction which teaches the selecting and rejecting, weighing and choosing, structuring and restructuring abili- ties required for Complex Problem Solving. Instead, he suspects that these abilities develop from problem solving experience over a period of time and in a variety of situations. We share these suspicions and offer the following suggestions in light of them. Provide opportunities for students to wrestle with Complex Prob- lem Solving tasks and situations. If it's true that these abilities develop from experience over time and in a variety of situations, then perhaps professors can promote their development by providing a variety of experiences over time. Encourage students to write things down as they read the prob- lems. Successful problem solvers report that they jot down key ideas and information, note relationships, write themselves questions, draw diagrams and pictures. Such activities make sense as strategies for pulling out key ideas and restructuring situations. Often students 179 To Improve the Academy merely read and reread problems, get lost in their complexities and give up when solutions don't emerge. Stress that Complex Problem Solving often involves a lot of trial and error. More often than not, students see their professors discuss final versions of solutions or analyses-as if the solutions or analyses emerged in polished forms; as if the key ideas, questions and relation- ships were self evident; as if professors never felt confused, got stuck, pursued blind alleys, had to start over. If students expect that they should be able to produce a solution or an analysis after their first try, they're likely to become discouraged and give up the effort prema- turely. Be available to consult with students as they wrestle with complex problems and situations. There's considerable evidence in the re- search on student development indicating that many students will ftnd such problems psychologically and emotionally distressing. It's not simply that the problems are difficult or that students lack competence or confidence. In far more fundamental and profound ways, these problems may challenge and disrupt students' views of knowledge, their ways of organizing experience and making sense of the world, their value systems, their relationships with parents, professors, and peers. Knowing something about the ways in which students perceive these problems at different stages of development may not enable professors to help students solve such problems more successfully. However, the information may help professors "hear" what students are saying, understand why some students react in what appear bizarre or extreme ways, and provide insights about how to provide guidance and support. Testing for Complex Problem Solving Testing for Complex Problem Solving involves posing a particu- lar problem or situation and asking students to do something with it-to solve the problem, to analyze the situation, to recommend policies, to make predictions, or whatever. However, descriptions of the requirements for evaluating these abilities are deceptively simple. 180 Knowing, Understanding, and Other Forms of Learning Testing for Complex Problem Solving is a challenging task for pro- fessor as well as for students. One part of the challenge to professors lies in finding or creating the problems or situations to be posed. They need to resemble •'real life"situations in their complexity, their ambiguity and their structure, and often professors can fmd suitable situations by examining the issues and questions currently asked of or by scholars in their fields. However, students are not yet scholars in these fields and it's probably not reasonable to expect them to cope with the same com- plexities. Thus, professors often fmd they must reshape or recast problems and must rely on experience to judge the level of complexity appropriate for their students. Judgement is also required in ••grading" students' performances on these tasks. Usually, tests of Complex Problems Solving are found in essay questions, paper assignments, or other types of projects, and it's difficult to ensure reliable and fair grading on such forms of evaluation. These difficulties are compounded by the fact that Com- plex Problem Solving situations usually can be approached in several ways and have a range of acceptable answers of bias ingrading students, performances on these tasks, there's no getting around the fact that judgement plays a prominent role in evaluating Complex Solving abilities. Selected Bibliography Anderson, Richard C., and Faust, Gerald W. Educational Psychology: The Science of Instruction and Learning. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1973. Chapter 10, '"Concepts and Principles," includes a self-instructional program on infonnation related to these two types of learning. The chapter also includes two interesting sections headed "'n learning concepts and principles by discovering them." Bloom, Benjamin S., Hastings, J. Thomas, and Madaus, George F. Handbook of Formative and Summative Evaluation of Student Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1971. Although this handbook focuses on how to design tests for various types of learning o\Xcornes, each section begins with a description of the type of learning to be tested. The handbook also includes separate chapters suggesting alternative ways to concep- tualize learning in art education (Chapter 17), in science (Chapter 18), in literature · (Chapter 20), in a second language (Chapter 22). 181 To Improve the Academy De Cecco, John P ., and Crawford, William R. The Psycholcgy of Learning and Instruction, second edition. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1974. The following chapters discuss different categories of learning and provide a rela- tively thorough discussion of the variables which influence each type of learning: Chapter 8: Conditioning and Verbal Learning, pp. 202-244 Chapter 9: The Teaching and Learning of Psychomotor Skills, pp. 245-286. Chapter 10: The Teaching and Learning of Concepts and Principles, pp. 287-323. Chapter 11: Problem Solving, Creativity, and Discovery Learning, pp. 324-366. Gagne, Robert M. The Conditions of Learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1970. This is, perhaps, Gagne's most thorough and readable discussion of the 8 types of intellectual skills: signal learning, stimulus-response learning, chaining, verbal asso- ciations, discrimination learning, concrete concept learning, defined concepts and rules, and problem solving. Gagne, Robert M. and Briggs, Leslie I. Principles of Instructional Design. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1974. In Chapter 2, the ald!ors propose that educational goals may be divided imo five categories of learning: (1) imellectual skills; (2) cognitive strategies; (3) verbal infonnation; (4) motor skills; and (5) attitudes. Chapter 3 outlines the conditions necessary for learning the 8varieties of intellectual skills and for learning cognitive strategies. Chapter 4 outlines the conditions for learning information, motor skills, and attitudes. Gagne, Robert M. "Learnable Aspects of Problem Solving," Educational Psycholcgist, 1980, Vol. 15, No.2, pp. 84-92. Lembo, John M. The Psycholcgy of Effective Classroom Instruction. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1969. The following chapters are especially relevam: Chapter 5: The Acquisition of Concepts, pp. 122-135. Chapter 6: The Acquisition of Principles, pp. 136-153. Chapter 7: Problem Solving and Creativity, pp. 154-169. McDonald, Frederick I. Educational Psycholcgy, second edition. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1965. The following chapters are especially relevam: Chapter 5: Learning and the Cognitive Processes: Concept Formation, pp. 160-199. 182 -- Knowing, Understanding, and Other Forme; of Learning Chapter 6: Learning and the Cognitive Processes: Generalizations and Associative Thinking, pp. 200-250. Chapter 7: The Learning of Problem-Solving and Creative Behaviour, pp. 252-306. Chapter 8: The Learning of Attitudes, pp. 307-341. Chapter 9: The Learning of Attitudes: Corrnnunication Processes, pp. 342-385. Chapter 10: The Learning of Complex Perfonnances, pp. 386-419. Pelz, Donald D. "Enviromnents for Creative Performance Within Universities" in Samuel Messick and Associates, Individuality in Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Publishers, 1976, pp. 229-247. Pelz reports some of his findings on tl:Je conditions required for creative problem solving and speculates on how university professors might nurture creativity. 183 University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln 1982 Knowing, Understanding, and Other Forms of Learning Bette LaSere Erickson Glenn R. Erickson 1982-erickson-001 1982-erickson-002 1982-erickson-003 1982-erickson-004 1982-erickson-005 1982-erickson-006 1982-erickson-007 1982-erickson-008 1982-erickson-009 1982-erickson-010 1982-erickson-011 1982-erickson-012 1982-erickson-013 1982-erickson-014 1982-erickson-015 1982-erickson-016 1982-erickson-017 1982-erickson-018 1982-erickson-019 1982-erickson-020 1982-erickson-021 1982-erickson-022 1982-erickson-023 
work_4sn2sbuqwvdeplk5235gyn55pq	----	psp75061389.tif Development of Attitude Strength Over the Life Cycle: Surge and Decline Penny S. Visser and Jon A. Krosnick Ohio State University This article explores the relation of age to manifestations and antecedents of attitude strength. Three studies demonstrate that susceptibility to attitude change is greater during early and late adulthood than during middle adulthood. Three additional studies demonstrate that attitude importance, cer- tainty, and perceived quantity of attitude-relevant knowledge are greater in middle adulthood than during early or late adulthood. These antecedents may therefore explain life cycle shifts in susceptibil- ity to change. Susceptibility to change, importance, certainty, and perceived knowledge differ from one another in terms of their correlations with education, gender, and race, challenging the notion that attitude strength is a unitary construct. Evidence that people incorrectly believe that susceptibility to change declines steadily over the life course reinforces the distinction between operative and recta- attitudinal measures of attitude strength. For decades, psychologists, sociologists, political scientists, and other social scientists have engaged in a lively debate over the relation b e t w e e n age and one o f the defining features o f attitude strength: susceptibility to attitude change ( f o r reviews, see A l w i n , Cohen, & Newcomb, 1991; Sears, 1975, 1981, 1983). Several hypotheses about this relation have b e e n ad- vanced, and the b u l k o f the empirical, evidence supports o n e o f them, the hypothesis that susceptibility is high d u r i n g early adulthood and significantly lower later in life. However, these investigations have involved methods that invite alternative ex- planations for the apparent relation b e t w e e n age a n d susceptibil- ity to change. Penny S. Visser and Jon A. Krosnick, Department of Psychology, Ohio State University. This research was supported by Grant 5T32-MH19728-03 from the National Institute of Mental Health (which provided a predoctoral fel- lowship to Penny S. Visser) and Grant SBR-9022192 from the National Science Foundation (which provided a fellowship to Jon A. Krosnick at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences). Study 3 was made possible by a grant from the Electric Power Research Institute to Industrial Economics, Inc. We thank Laura Lowe for her role in collecting those data. A portion of this research was presented by Penny S. Visser to the graduate school at Ohio State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the master of arts degree. We thank Richard Herrmarm, Philip Tetlock, and Paul Sniderman for providing data sets and John Cacioppo and Richard Petty for very helpful suggestions. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Penny S. Visser, who is now at the Department of Psychology, Princeton Univer- sity, Green Hall, Princeton, New Jersey 08544-1010, or Jon A. Krosnick, Department of Psychology, Ohio State University, 1885 Neff Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210. Electronic mail may be sent to pvisser@ princeton.edu or krosnick@osu.edu. I n this article, we describe studies taking a n e w approach to exploring susceptibility to attitude change across the life span, avoiding the pitfalls p l a g u i n g prior studies. We also explore the relation b e t w e e n age and various attitude features believed to be responsible for attitude strength. I n doing so, we g a i n n e w insights into the n a t u r e and structure o f attitude strength gener- ally. We b e g i n b y reviewing the hypotheses we tested a n d de- scribing previous tests o f them. Hypotheses Regarding the Relation Between Age and Susceptibility to Attitude Change Five principal views o f susceptibility to attitude change across the life span have b e e n proposed. The increasing persistence hypothesis suggests that susceptibility is high i n early adulthood a n d gradually decreases across the life span ( G l e n n , 1974, 1980; see F i g u r e 1 A ) . This hypothesis is predicated on the idea that attitudes reflect the a c c u m u l a t i o n o f relevant experiences across the life span, each o f which contributes to increasing stability. I n addition, as individuals age, they typically b e c o m e increasingly entrenched in social networks o f others with similar life experi- ences and worldviews (Berelson, Lazarsfeld, & McPhee, 1954; Newcomb, Koenig, blacks, & Warwick, 1 9 6 7 ) , which is likely to reinforce existing attitudes. A second view, the impressionable years hypothesis, is based o n the n o t i o n that core attitudes, beliefs, a n d values are crystal- lized d u r i n g a period o f great plasticity in early adulthood (Sears, 1975). This period o f plasticity is thought to reflect the transition f r o m adolescence to adulthood, marked by n e w f o u n d interest in events outside o n e ' s i m m e d i a t e surroundings and a b u d d i n g political worldview ( D a w s o n & Prewitt, 1969). For the first time, y o u n g adults are able to participate in political elec- tions, they c a n choose to serve i n the military, a n d they m a y enter the work_force full time. In these ways a n d m a n y others, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1998, Vol. 75, No. 6, 1389-1410 Copyright 1998 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 0022-3514/98/$3.00 1389 1390 V I S S E R A N D K R O S N I C K A II1 t - r" 0 o ~ W 0 i i i i f ~ ~ i i , i , , , J 18 23 2 8 33 3 8 4 3 48 53 58 63 68 73 78 83 88 Age (in years) B 1 CD e- CU 0 ,,Q .,j 0 , , , , i , i , , , , i i 1 18 23 2 8 33 38 43 4 8 53 5 8 63 68 73 78 83 88 Age (in years) C G) O1 c0 r . O q) 2 o m .4D O . u) , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 18 23 2 8 33 38 43 48 53 58 63 68 7 3 78 83 88 Age (in years) Figure 1. The increasing persistence hypothesis (A), the impression- able years hypothesis (B), and the life-stages hypothesis (C). young adults interact for the first time with social and political institutions and begin to formulate opinions on a wide range o f issues. During this time, they also learn a great deal about their social and political surroundings (Strate, Parrish, Elder; & Ford, 1989), which further contributes to the increasing crystallization of their views o f the world. According to the impressionable years hypothesis, the basic orientations formed during this pe- riod o f early adulthood remain largely unaltered throughout the remaining adult years (Carlsson & Karlsson, 1970; Mannheim, 1952; Ryder, 1965). Thus, the impressionable years hypothesis suggests that susceptibility to attitude change is high during early adulthood but drops sharply after this period and remains low throughout the remainder o f the life span (see Figure 1B). T h e life stages hypothesis also predicts high susceptibility to change during early adulthood and lower susceptibility through- out middle adulthood, for all o f the reasons just outlined. But this hypothesis predicts high susceptibility to attitude change in later life as well (Sears, 1981, 1983; see Figure 1C). This upturn in susceptibility at the end o f the life cycle may occur because o f decreases in social support for one's attitudes due to the deaths o f friends or social withdrawal (Burt, 1990; Lang & Carstensen, 1994; Marsden, 1987). In addition, both the early and late adult years are associated with a multitude of role transitions (GlaSer & Strauss, 1971; Steckeurider & Cutler, 1989) that may alter people's perceptions o f the social and political world, thereby undermining the justifications that rein- forced many o f their attitudes. Finally, cognitive skills decline toward the end o f the life cycle (see, e.g., Verhaeghen & Salt- house, 1997), so people may become less and less able to ac- tively resist attitude change through counterarguing. What we call the "perpetual susceptibility" hypothesis is a sort o f null hypothesis proposing no relation between age and susceptibility to attitude change. And cross cutting all of the preceding hypotheses are two assertions about the general level o f susceptibility to change across the life cycle. The lifelong openness hypothesis proposes that individuals are at least some- what susceptible to attitude change throughout their lives (Brim & Kagan, 1980; Gergen, 1980; Lernet; 1984), whereas the persis- tence hypothesis suggests that most o f individuals' fundamental orientations are established so firmly during preadult socialization that susceptibility to attitude change thereafter is very low (Da- vies, 1965; Easton & Dennis, 1969; Hess & Torney, 1967). P r e v i o u s I n v e s t i g a t i o n s A variety o f methods, always focused on social and political attitudes, have been used in testing these hypotheses. One set o f studies tracking aggregate changes in the attitudes o f birth cohorts has generally revealed large attitude shifts in young cohorts and much smaller shifts in middle-aged and older co- horts (Converse, 1976; Converse & Markus, 1979; Crew, Sarl- vik, & Alt, 1977; Cutler & Kaufman, 1975; Glenn, 1974; Jen- nings & Niemi, 1981; Markus, 1979; Mueller, 1973; Nunn, Crockett, & Williams, 1978). Some o f these investigations have been cited as supporting the impressionable years hypothesis (e.g., Crew et al., 1977; Mueller, 1973), whereas others have been interpreted as supporting the increasing persistence hypoth- esis (e.g., Glenn, 1974; Nunn et al., 1978). Such aggregate measures o f attitude change, however, can be misleading, be- cause a great deal o f cross-cutting attitude change may occur at the individual level that cancels out at the aggregate level. To overcome this problem, a number o f researchers have as- sessed individual-level attitude stability using test-retest corre- lations o f the same attitude measure taken at two or more points ATTITUDE STRENGTH 1391 in time ( e . g , Campbell, Dunnette, Lawler, & Weick, 1970; Jen- nings, 1996; Jennings & Markus, 1984; Jennings & Niemi, 1978; Johansson & Campbell, 1971; Markus, 1979; Newcomb et al., 1967). In general, these studies have revealed weaker t e s t - r e t e s t correlations among younger adults than among older adults, as the impressionable years and increasing persistence hypotheses predict.1 However, t e s t - r e t e s t correlations are not pure measures o f attitude stability. In addition to genuine attitude change, such correlations reflect random measurement error in attitude re- ports. Thus, weaker correlations among younger age groups may indicate lower attitude stability or may simply reflect more measurement error. To separate true attitude change from random measurement error, a number o f studies have used panel data to estimate attitude stability more purely via structural equation modeling or related techniques. Although one o f these studies yielded results consistent with the increasing persistance hypothesis ('I~ler & Schuller, 1991), most have supported the impression- able years hypothesis, showing that attitude stability was lowest among 18-25-year-olds and was higher throughout the rest o f the life cycle ( A l w i n et al., 1991; Krosnick & Alwin, 1989; Sears & Funk, 1996). 2 Eliminating measurement error in estimates o f attitude stabil- ity certainly represents a methodological improvement, but this general approach to hypothesis testing still has limitations. Atti- tude stability (no matter how purely estimated) is an imperfect measure o f susceptibility to attitude change because stability reflects both susceptibility to change and opportunity for change. The more attitude-challenging experiences a person has, the more likely attitude change is. And i f exposure to attitude-chal- lenging experiences varies across the life span, attitude stability is likely to be an inaccurate index o f susceptibility to change. I n an effort to more directly assess the relation o f age to susceptibility, "l~ler and Schuller (1991) included measures o f potentially change-inducing experiences in their investigation o f attitude stability across the life span. And, indeed, exposure to some potentially change-inducing experiences was more fre- quent among younger adults. Furthermore, "l~yler and Schuller ( 1991 ) found that the correlation between the reported positive or negative nature o f the attitude-relevant experiences and subse- quent attitudes was highest among older respondents, which they interpreted as evidence that older adults w e r e more susceptible to change than younger adults. Although this correlation may be evidence that relevant per- sonal experiences influenced attitudes, the reverse could have been true instead: Attitudes could have influenced the reported nature o f experiences via self-fulfilling prophecies; people who expected to have bad experiences may have behaved in ways that made the experiences bad. Or attitudes could have shaped the way people perceived their experiences, leading the experi- ences to appear consistent with positive or negative expectations. Alternatively, attitudes may h a v e biased recall o f experiences, such that they were remembered as more consistent with current attitudes than they actually were ( C o n w a y & Ross, 1984; Lydon, Zanna, & Ross, 1988; Ross, McFarland, & Fletcher, 1981). I f these alternative processes were more common or more power- ful among older a d u l t s t h a n among young adults, they would have misleadingly inflated apparent levels o f susceptibility to change among the former individuals. Thus, although incorporating measures o f change-inducing experiences represented a step in the fight direction, this general approach to investigating the relation between age and suscepti- bility to attitude change is inherently limited. It is difficult if not impossible to precisely assess the number and nature o f change-inducing experiences respondents have had and to gauge their impact correlationally, Furthermore, nearly all prior studies o f these issues have suf- fered from a confounding o f age with cohort composition in ways that may have distorted the results obtained. For example, during the last 45 years, the proportion o f young adults attending college has been rising consistently (U.S. Bureau o f the Census, 1953, 1993). In 1952, 18% o f 18-24-year-olds in the United States had completed 1 or more years o f college, whereas this figure was 45% in 1993 (U.S. Bureau o f the Census, 1953, 1993); thus, current 18-year-olds are more educated, on average, than current 65-year-olds. Because better educated people are less susceptible to political attitude change (Sears & Gahart, 1980; ZaUer, 1990), the relatively high levels o f education in the youngest cohorts may have caused their rates o f attitude change to appear misleadingly low. To generate a clean compari- son o f different age groups, one mast control for differences between groups in terms o f educational attainment. Patterns o f mortality can also distort comparisons o f age groups in representative cross-sectional samples o f adults. For example, women tend to live longer than men, so older age groups are likely to be disproportionately female (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1995). Because women may be more susceptible to attitude change than men (Eagly & Carli, 1981), the greater number o f women among the oldest age group may produce an illusory rise in susceptibility among this group, thus perhaps masking a true decline in susceptibility at the end of the life cycle. The demographic composition o f age groups is also likely to differ in terms o f race. Non-Whites have shorter life expectan- cies than Whites, which means that older age groups may be disproportionately White (Centers for Disease Control and Pre- vention, 1995; Markides & Black, 1996). On some issues, racial minority and majority group members m a y hold attitudes that differ in extremity, personal importance, or other factors associ- ated with resistance to attitude change (see, e.g., Petty & Kros- nick, 1995). Therefore, controlling for race may also provide • a more accurate assessment o f the relation between age and susceptibility to attitude change. T h e P r e s e n t I n v e s t i g a t i o n A more direct investigation o f the relation between age and susceptibility to attitude change would require exposing adults o f various ages to an identical change-inducing experience and Sears (1981) suggested, howeve~ that careful exploration of the full adult life span yields a different pattern in at least one domain: In a large panel survey, he found that test-retest correlations for racial atti- tudes were lowest among very young adults and among very old adults, consistent with the life stages hypothesis. 2 Like Sears ( 1981 ), Krosnick and Alwin (1989) found a curvilinear pattern of attitude stability across the life cycle. However, they also found decreased reliability among the oldest respondents, which accounted for the drop in attitude stability at the end of the life cycle in their data and may also account for the pattern reported by Sears ( 1981 ). 1 3 9 2 VISSER AND KROSNICK g au ging its impact. C o n d u c t i n g a laboratory e x p e r i m e n t along these lines w o u l d b e quite challenging, b e c a u s e it w o u l d b e e x t r e m e l y difficult to recruit c o m p a r a b l y representative samples o f adults o f various ages to v i s i t a laboratory. B u t large, repre- sentative samples are relatively easy to contact in a t e l e p h o n e survey, and computer-assisted t e l e p h o n e i n t e r v i e w i n g systems readily p e r m i t the e x e c u t i o n o f e x p e r i m e n t a l manipulations ( s e e S n i d e r m a n & Grob, 1996). In the first t w o studies r e p o r t e d here, w e used precisely this approach. In the context o f t e l e p h o n e interviews, representative samples o f adults were asked to express their attitudes o n vari- ous social and political issues; they w e r e then subjected to poten- tially change-inducing experiences, and attitude change was as- sessed. This p e r m i t t e d gauging o f differences b e t w e e n age groups in rates o f attitude change. In o u r third study, age-related differences in thought-induced attitude c h a n g e w e r e explored, again within the context o f a telephone s u r v e y o f a representative s a m p l e o f adults. In o u r final three studies, w e b r o a d e n e d the f o c u s b y e x a m i n i n g s o m e o f the possible causes o f the o b s e r v e d relation b e t w e e n age and susceptibility to attitude change. S t u d y 1 O u r first study f o c u s e d o n attitudes toward foreign p o l i c y positions. Respondents w e r e presented with a hypothetical sce- n a r i o o f an international conflict and w e r e asked to express their attitudes t o w a r d U.S. military intervention in that situation. T h e n all respondents w e r e asked whether t h e y w o u l d change their minds i f the United Nations r e c o m m e n d e d the o p p o s i t e o f their initial preference. C o n t r o l l i n g f o r attitudes t o w a r d the United Nations and d e m o g r a p h i c c o m p o s i t i o n o f the age groups, w e assessed the relation o f age to attitude change. M e t h o d Sample The data analyzed in this study were collected via telephone inter- views with a representative sample of 1,511 English-speaking U.S. adults living in private households. The data were collected by the Ohio State University Survey Research Unit (then called the Polimetrics Labora- tory) between April and June 1996 (for details, see Herrmann, "Fetlock, & Visser, 1997). Measures Attitudes toward U.S. military intervention. Respondents were told about a military conflict between two hypothetical countries and were given information about the military strength of the attacking country, the history of the relationship between the two countries, and the impor- tance of the attacked country to U.S. economic and security interests. Respondents were then asked " I f the attacker cannot be talked into withdrawing, should our government use our military to push back the invaders, or should we stay out of it?" Respondents who said we should stay out were asked " I f the United Nations believes that Americans should use military force in this conflict, would you be willing to change your mind about using our military?" Respondents who initially said we should use military force were asked, instead, " I f the United Nations believes that Americans should not use military force in this conflict, would you be willing to change your mind about using our military?" A measure of attitude change was coded 0 for respondents who said they would not change their minds and 1 for respondents who said they would change their minds. Forty-six percent of respondents said they would change their minds, and 54% said they would not. Attitudes toward the United Nations. Respondents were asked to indicate their feelings toward the United Nations on a scale ranging from 0 to 100, where 50 represented neutrality; higher numbers repre- sented warmer, more favorable feelings; and lower numbers represented colder, less favorable feelings. Demographic measures. Educational attainment was coded 0 for people who did not graduate from high school, .25 for high school graduates, .50 for people who attended college but did not graduate, .75 for college graduates, and 1 for people who completed postgraduate work. Gender was coded 0 for female respondents and 1 for male respon- dents, and race was coded 0 for Whites and 1 for non-Whites. Age was measured in years and recoded to range from 0 (age 18) to 1 (age 89, the highest age in the sample). 3 Results Relations o f A g e to Education, Gender, a n d R a c e A s expected, age was marginally significantly correlate d with education, such that older age groups c o n t a i n e d f e w e r highly educated p e o p l e than did younger age groups ( r = - . 0 6 , p < .05, n = 1,276). 4 Also, older age groups contained dispropor- tionately f e w e r minorities than did y o u n g e r cohorts ( r = - . 11, p < .01, n = 1,276), although n o significant relation appeared b e t w e e n gender and age ( r = .04, ns, n = 1,276). C o n t r o l l i n g f o r the d e m o g r a p h i c c o m p o s i t i o n o f the age groups was therefore necessary to e x p l o r e the e f f e c t o f age on attitude change. 5 I m p a c t o f A g e on Susceptibility to Change We first r e g r e s s e d the attitude change m e a s u r e on age and the three other d e m o g r a p h i c variables ( s e e c o l u m n 1 o f Table 1). Consistent with the increasing persistence hypothesis, the linear e f f e c t o f a g e was statistically significant and negative ( B = - 0 . 1 2 , p < .05), m e a n i n g that the likelihood o f change d e c r e a s e d w i t h increasing age. However, the i m p r e s s i o n a b l e years and life stages hypotheses predict quadratic effects o f age, w h i c h w e tested b y adding age squared as a predictor in the regression equation ( s e e c o l u m n 2 o f Table 1). T h e linear e f f e c t o f age in this equation was negative and significant ( B = - 0 . 4 7 , p < . 0 5 ) , and the quadratic e f f e c t was positive and marginally significant ( B = 0.38, p < .10). B e c a u s e the e f f e c t o f age c u b e d ( s h o w n in c o l u m n 3 o f Table 1) was not significant ( B = - 0 . 6 9 , ns), the linear and quadratic age effects in c o l u m n 2 p r o v i d e d a c o m p l e t e descrip- tion o f the robust relation o f age to attitude change. 3 Nine respondents did not report their ages and were not included in our analyses. Small numbers of respondents were not included in our subsequent studies for the same reason. 4 Because we had strong a priori expectations of the directions of age- related differences, we present one-tailed hypothesis tests throughout. s The predicted relations between age and both gender and race are due to differential rates of mortality, and, as such, they should be evident only at the end of the life cycle. And the predicted relation between age and education reflects cohort differences in educational attainment between Americans born before and after the 1930s and should also be evident only at the end of the life cycle. To capture these relations, therefore, we have reported the correlations between each of these demo- graphic factors and age squared. ATI'rrUDE STRENGTH 1393 em e4 • --, I ¢ q O e q ¢,4 o= a ~ o% o e q o i I i I ~ ~ ~ ~ ' I i I I I I I I I e ~ ¢~¢5 ¢5 ¢5 ¢~ d I I I I I I I I I I t ~ O x ~ v v *¢ v To understand the shape o f this relation, we used the regres- sion equation that included the quadratic effect o f age to estimate rates o f attitude change at various ages across the life span. We plugged into this equation the mean sample values o f gender, race, education, and attitudes toward the United Nations for the full sample, and we calculated the predicted attitude change rate for each o f a wide array o f ages ( f o r an explanation o f the procedure, see Cohen & Cohen, 1983, pp. 2 2 8 - 2 2 9 ) . Figure 2 provides a graphic representation o f the regression equation presented in column 2 o f Table 1. As Figure 2 illustrates, attitude change decreased with increasing age up to about age 60, at which point attitude change became increasingly common with increasing age. This is consistent with the life stages hypothesis. Other Correlates o f Susceptibility to Change Attitude change was related sensibly to attitudes toward the United Nations: People with more positive attitudes changed more often (B = 0.49, p < .01 ).6 However, contrary to some prior literature, attitude change rate was not significantly corre- lated with gender, race, or education (B = - 0 . 0 4 , - 0 . 0 2 , and 0.01, respectively). Study 2 Although the shifts in respondents' attitude reports observed in Study 1 may have been due to genuine attitude change, they may also simply have been due to what Kelman (1958) called compliance. Specifically, respondents may have perceived the attitude-challenging questions to be suggesting that the inter- viewer or researcher believed that they should change their atti- tudes in response to the new information provided. Conse- quently, to convey impressions o f themselves as cooperative people to their interviewers, some respondents may have claimed that the new information would change their attitudes when this was not, in fact, the case. Because young adults may be especially concerned with presenting favorable self-images (Reifman, Klein, & Murphy, 1989; Tesch, 1983), the evidence o f greater attitude change among such individuals could have been due to a greater chronic concern with conveying favorable impressions to their interviewers rather than a greater general susceptibility to attitude change. We explored this alternative explanation in Study 2. Study 2 involved an experimental design similar to that used in Study 1. Respondents were asked to express their attitudes toward various policies involving issues o f race. Immediately after each attitude measurement, respondents were presented with a counterattitudinal argument, and attitudes toward the policy were then remeasured. Here, we were able to assess the relation between age and susceptibility to attitude change controlling for age-related differences in the motivation to make favorable impressions on others. 6 We also estimated an additional regression model that included terms representing the interactions between attitudes toward the United Nations and (a) age, (b) age squared, and (c) age cubed. None of these interac- tion terms were significant predictors of attitude change. 1 3 9 4 VISSER AND KROSNICK 0.58 0 0.56 ~ 0.54 ~ ~ 0.48 "6 ~ 0.48 0.44 0.42 4) L 0.40 i i i , i , , i i f , i i i , 1 8 2 3 2 8 3 3 38 43 48 53 58 6 3 8 8 7 3 78 83 88 A g e (in y e a r s ) Figure 2. Relation of age to attitude change in Study 1. Method Sample The data analyzed in this study were collected via telephone inter- views with a representative sample of 1,113 English-speaking adult resi- dents of the five-county San Francisco-Oakland Bay area in northern California (for details, see Sniderman & Piazza, 1993).7 The data were collected by the Survey Research Center of the University of California, Berkeley, between August and October 1986. Measures Four items asked respondents whether they supported or opposed (a) increased federal spending on programs to help Blacks, (b) antidiscrimi- nation housing laws, (c) antidiscriminatory employment laws, and (d) preferential admission to colleges and universities for Black students (for the questions' wordings, see Sniderman & Piazza, 1993, pp. 142- 146). Immediately after each of these questions, respondents were pre- sented with a brief counterattitudinal challenge from an unspecified source, and attitude change was measured. For example, respondents initially supportive of preferential admission to colleges and universities for Black students were asked "Would you still feel that way, even if it means fewer opportunities for qualified Whites, or would you change your mind?" Conversely, respondents initially opposed to the admission policy were asked "Would you still feel that way, even if it means that hardly any Blacks would be able to go to the best colleges and universities, or would you change your mind?" Responses were coded 0 for people who said they would not change their minds on any of the issues and 1 for people who said they would change their minds on at least one issue. Seventy-three percent of the respondents said they would change their opinions on at least one issue, and 27% said they would not change their opinions on any issues. 8 As a means of assessing motivation to make favorable impressions on others, respondents were asked "How important is it to you to be accepted by other people: very important, somewhat important, or not important?" Responses were coded 3, 2, and 1, respectively. Education, gender, race, and age were measured and coded as in Study 1. Results Relations of Age to Education, Gender, and Race O l d e r age cohorts contained significantly f e w e r w e l l - e d u c a t e d p e o p l e than y o u n g e r cohorts ( r = - . 2 9 , p < .01, n = 1,086), but age was unrelated to gender ( r = - . 0 2 , ns, n = 1,086) and race ( r = - . 0 3 , ns, n = 1,086). Relation of Age to Susceptibility to Change W h e n d e m o g r a p h i c characteristics w e r e controlled, the linear relation o f age to attitude change was marginally significant and negative, w h i c h is consistent with the increasing persistence hypothesis ( B = - 0 . 0 9 , p < .10; see c o l u m n 4 o f Table 1). However, the quadratic e f f e c t o f age was also positive and sig- nificant ( B = 0.69, p < .05; see c o l u m n 5 o f Table 1 ), and the negative linear e f f e c t o f age was significant in the equation that i n c l u d e d the quadratic e f f e c t o f age ( B = - 0 . 5 9 , p < .01 ). T h e c u b i c e f f e c t o f age was again not significant ( B = - 0 . 0 5 , ns; see c o l u m n 6 o f Table 1 ). F i g u r e 3 illustrates the rates o f attitude change p r e d i c t e d b y the equation in c o l u m n 5 o f Table 1, and they are again clearly in line with the life stages hypothesis: Attitude change rates were highest a m o n g the youngest and oldest adults. Other Correlates of Susceptibility to Change A s expected, p e o p l e w h o had a greater n e e d to b e a c c e p t e d b y others w e r e m o r e likely to change their attitudes ( B = 0.09, p < .05).9 B e c a u s e the relation b e t w e e n age and attitude change r e m a i n e d significant even when this variable was i n c l u d e d in the r e g r e s s i o n equation ( s e e c o l u m n 5 o f Table I ) , n e e d f o r acceptance c a n n o t account for the o b s e r v e d age-related differ- ences in susceptibility to change. Attitude change was also m o r e c o m m o n a m o n g less e d u c a t e d respondents than a m o n g m o r e educated respondents ( B = - 0 . 1 6 , p < .01 ), and m o r e change o c c u r r e d a m o n g w o m e n than a m o n g m e n ( B = - 0 . 0 6 , p < .01). N o relation appeared b e t w e e n attitude change rate and race ( B = 0.05, ns). S t u d y 3 T h e results o f Study 2 suggest that the age-related differences in attitude change o b s e r v e d in Studies 1 and 2 w e r e not the result o f a stronger motivation a m o n g particular age groups to b e responsive to the perceived expectations o r wishes o f the 7 A potentially important advantage of these data is the inclusion of people living in dormitories or serving in the military in the sampling frame. Such individuals were excluded from the National Election Study surveys analyzed in many past studies of aging and attitude change. As Krosnick and Alwin (1989) noted, people living in dormitories (and perhaps people serving in the military as well) are likely to be primarily young adults. If those individuals were more resistant to attitude change (because of their high levels of education, strong social networks, or other factors) than their peers who were not living in dormitories or serving in the military, excluding the former from past analyses may have been partly responsible for the age-related differences observed previously. Our results are not subject to this confound and can therefore make a clearer statement about age-related differences. s Other ways of ceding the attitude change dependent variable yielded comparable results to those reported subsequently. 9 We also estimated an additional regression model that included terms representing the interactions between the importance of being accepted by others and (a) age, (b) age squared, and (c) age cubed. None of these interaction terms were significant predictors of attitude change. ATTITUDE STRENGTH 1 3 9 5 a . 6 9 i i I i i i i i i i t i i i i m 18 2 3 2 8 3 3 3 8 43 4 8 5 3 58 6 3 6 8 7 3 7 8 83 8 8 9 3 A g e ( i n y e a r s ) o 8 9 77 ILl 71 Figure 3. Relation of age to attitude change in Study 2. interviewer. However, t h e a n a l y s e s i n S t u d y 2 r e l i e d o n a s i n g l e i t e m to m e a s u r e t h i s m o t i v a t i o n . T h e r e l i a b l e a s s o c i a t i o n b e - t w e e n s e l f - r e p o r t s o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f b e i n g a c c e p t e d b y o t h e r s a n d s u b s e q u e n t a t t i t u d e c h a n g e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s i n g l e i t e m d i d c a p t u r e m e a n i n g f u l v a r i a n c e in t h e m o t i v a t i o n t o m a k e f a v o r a b l e i m p r e s s i o n s o n others, b u t a m o r e p r e c i s e m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h i s m o t i v a t i o n m a y h a v e y i e l d e d d i f f e r e n t results. For a s t r o n g e r t e s t o f t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n , w e t u r n e d to a d e s i g n t h a t c o m p l e t e l y r e m o v e d t h e i n t e r v i e w e r f r o m t h e a t t i t u d e c h a n g e p r o c e s s , e l i m i n a t i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t o b s e r v e d a t t i t u d e shifts m a y s i m p l y r e f l e c t s e l f - p r e s e n t a t i o n a l c o n c e r n s . C o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a p e r s u a s i v e m e s s a g e is n o t r e q u i r e d f o r a t t i t u d e c h a n g e to occur. S i m p l y t h i n k i n g a b o u t a n a t t i t u d e o b j e c t c a n c a u s e p e o p l e to b e c o m e m o r e p o s i t i v e o r m o r e n e g a t i v e t o w a r d t h e o b j e c t ( s e e , e.g., N e i j e n s , 1987; Tesser, M a r t i n , & M e n d o l i a , 1 9 9 5 ) . I f a g e is i n d e e d r e l a t e d t o s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to a t t i t u d e c h a n g e , t h o u g h t - i n d u c e d a t t i t u d e c h a n g e s h o u l d b e p a r t i c u l a r l y p r o n o u n c e d a m o n g t h e y o u n g e s t a n d o l d e s t r e s p o n d e n t s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f a p p a r e n t a g e - r e l a t e d d i f f e r e n c e s i n s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to a t t i t u d e c h a n g e w e r e a r t i f a c t s o f t h e i n t e r v i e w c o n t e x t , t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h o u g h t - i n d u c e d a t t i t u d e c h a n g e s h o u l d n o t v a r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y a c r o s s a g e g r o u p s . I n S t u d y 3, w e t e s t e d t h e s e h y p o t h e s e s . T h e a t t i t u d e c h a n g e m e a s u r e u s e d h e r e w a s a b i t d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t u s e d i n S t u d i e s 1 a n d 2. I n t h o s e studies, r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h a c o u n t e r a t t i t u d i n a l m e s s a g e a n d r e p o r t e d w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e n e w i n f o r m a t i o n w o u l d c a u s e t h e m to c h a n g e t h e i r attitudes. S t u d y 3 m e a s u r e d a t t i t u d e s e i t h e r b e f o r e o r a f t e r p e o p l e w e r e i n d u c e d to t h i n k a b o u t t h e o b j e c t so t h a t w e c o u l d d i r e c t l y a s s e s s a t t i t u d e c h a n g e . Method Sample For this study, a representative sample of 505 English-speaking adults living in private households in Ohio were interviewed by telephone. The survey was conducted by the Ohio Stute University Survey Research Unit (then called the Polimetrics Laboratory) between December 1995 and January 1996. Measures Respondents' attitudes toward global warming were assessed via the following question: Scientists use the term "global warming" to refer to the idea that the world's average temperature may be about 5 degrees Fahrenheit higher in 75 years than it is now. Overall, would you say that global warming would be good, bad, or neither good nor bad? As a means of best capturing the attitude change that occurred, good and neither good nor bad were coded 0, and bad was coded 1. Education, gender, race, and age were measured and coded the same as they had been in Studies 1 and 2. Thought Induction The thought induction manipulation used was inspired by the struc- tured reasoning tusk used in the Choice Questionnaire (Neijens, 1987). Respondents were randomly assigned to be asked about their attitudes toward global warming either before the structured thinking exercise or after it. In the thinking exercise, participants answered a series of questions about whether or not they thought global warming would affect seven aspects of the environment. Respondents were randomly assigned to be asked about either one set of seven aspects (sea levels, water shortages, the number of different kinds of plants in the world, the overall number of plants in the world, the number of plants in the county in which the respondent lived, natural scenery in the world, and natural scenery in the county in which the respondent lived) or another (annual rainfall, hurricanes and tornadoes, the number of different types of animals in the world, the overall number of animals in the world, the number of animals in the county in which the respondent lived, animal migration, and availability of food for human consumption). Respondents also reported the certainty with which they held each belief and how good or bad each expected consequence would be. For example, respondents were asked " I n the next 100 years, do you think global warming would cause the level of the oceans in the world to go up, to go down, or would global warming have no effect on the sea level?" Some respondents volunteered that global warming would cause the sea level to go up in some places and down in others, and interviewers accepted such answers. Respondents were then asked "How sure are you of your answer to that question? Extremely sure, very sure, somewhat sure, or not sure at all?" Finally, respondents who said that global warming would affect the sea levels were asked whether the change they expected (sea levels going up or down or both) would be good or bad for most people in the w o r d and to what degree. For example, respondents who said that global warming would cause the sea levels to go up were asked "For most people in the world, would the sea level going up be good, bad, or neither good nor b a d ? " Respondents who said " g o o d " or " b a d " were asked "Would it be very [good/bad], or somewhat [good/bad] ? " Simi- lar questions were asked with respect to all of the other potential conse- quences of global warming. Results Relations of Age to Education, Gender, and Race O l d e r a g e c o h o r t s c o n t a i n e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y f e w e r w e l l - e d u c a t e d p e o p l e t h a n y o u n g e r c o h o r t s ( r = - . 1 2 , p < .01, N = 505 ) a n d f e w e r r a c i a l m i n o r i t i e s ( r = - . 1 1 , p < .05, N = 5 0 5 ) , b u t a g e w a s u n r e l a t e d to g e n d e r ( r = .05, ns, N = 5 0 5 ) . 1396 VISSER AND KROSNICK Impact of the Thought Induction on Attitudes To examine the impact o f the thought induction on attitudes toward global warming, we regressed attitudes on a dummy variable coded 0 for people who expressed their attitudes before the thought induction exercise and 1 for people who expressed their attitudes after the thought induction. The question order manipulation significantly affected attitudes: Thinking about po- tential consequences caused respondents to express significantly more negative attitudes (B = 0.16, p < .001). Relation of Age to Susceptibility to Change To determine whether the magnitude o f this thought-induced attitude change varied by age, we conducted additional regres- sions predicting attitudes with question order, age, and the prod- uct o f question order and age. A significant regression coefficient for this interaction term would indicate that thought-induced attitude change varied as a function o f age. To control for com- positional differences across age groups, we included education, gender, and race in the regression, along with interaction terms between each o f these demographics and question order. The interaction between age represented linearly and question order was not significant (B = - 0 . 1 3 , ns; see column 7 o f Table 1 ). However, when we added age squared and the interac- tion between age squared and question order to the equation, the quadratic effect o f age on attitude change was positive and significant (B = 1.64, p < .05; see column 8 o f Table 1 ), and the negative linear effect o f age on attitude change was also significant in that equation (B = - 1 . 5 0 , p < .05). The cubic effect o f age on attitude change was again not significant (B = 0.03, ns; see column 9 o f Table 1 ). Figure 4 illustrates the rates o f attitude change predicted by the equation in column 8 o f Table 1. As in Studies 1 and 2, there is clear support for the life stages hypothesis here: Attitude change rates were highest among the youngest and oldest adults. 0 0 45 ~40 • 35 2O mO)~ 15 ~ lO a . , i , i i i i , , i i i i i 18 23 28 33 38 43 48 53 58 63 68 73 78 83 86 A g e ( i n y e a r s ) 5 0 Figure 4. Relation of age to attitude change in Study 3. Other Correlates of Susceptibility to Change In this study, none o f the demographic control variables were associated with attitude change (Bs = 0.17, 0.07, and - 0 . 0 1 for education, gender, and race, respectively). M e t a - A n a l y s i s o f S t u d i e s 1, 2, a n d 3 The pattern o f results across Studies 1, 2, and 3 appears quite consistent; in one case, however, a key aging effect was on the boundary o f significance. It seemed worthwhile, therefore, to assess the robustness o f the observed effects by meta-analyzing the data from all three studies. Doing so revealed that, when assessed simultaneously, the linear and quadratic effects o f age on attitude change susceptibility were significant (z = 3.69, d = 0.15, p < .001, and z = 3.13, d = 0.12, p < .001, respec- tively). More important, the linear and quadratic effects o f age on attitude change were homogeneous, meaning that they did not vary significantly across the three studies, X : ( 2 , N = 2,803) = 0.53, ns, and X2(2, N = 2,803) = 0.86, ns, respectively. S t u d y 4 Up to this point, we have focused on variation across the life span in resistance to attitude change. To better understand the meanings o f our findings, it is useful to recognize that resistance to change is one o f the four defining qualities o f strong attitudes (Krosnick & Petty, 1995). According to Krosnick and Petty, strong attitudes are those that ( a ) resist change, ( b ) persist over time, ( c ) influence thinking, and ( d ) motivate and guide behavior. Thus, i f one wants to understand why attitudes are most resistant to change in middle adulthood, it is useful to consider what causes attitude strength. Fortunately, a sizable literature now exists regarding the causal antecedents o f attitude strength. There is evidence, for example, that attitudes based on a great deal o f knowledge tend to be stronger than attitudes based on very little knowledge (Wood, Rhodes, & Biek, 1995). Similarly, attitudes about which people are highly certain tend to be stronger than attitudes about which they are less certain (Gross, Holtz, & Miller, 1995). Attitude importance is another antecedent o f attitude strength: Attitudes that people consider personally important tend to be more resistant to change, more stable over time, more likely to influence thinking, and more likely to direct behavior (Boninger, Krosnick, Berent, & Fabrigar, 1995). In fact, roughly a dozen such antecedents o f attitude strength have been identified in past work (for a review, see Petty & Krosnick, 1995). In light o f this literature, it seemed worthwhile to broaden the scope o f our investigation by exploring the relation o f age to such ante- cedents o f attitude strength. We begin by considering some o f the social and psychological processes by which various antecedents o f attitude strength may come to rise and fall over the adult l i f e span, thereby producing the observed age-related differences in susceptibility to change. We then briefly describe two other issues in the attitude strength literature that our next studies explored: the structure of attitude strength antecedents and the distinction between meta-attitudinal and operative indexes o f attitude strength and its antecedents. Underlying Mechanisms When young people enter adulthood, begin to vote in elec- tions, and otherwise take on active social responsibilities, they ATTITUDE STRENGTH 1397 are presumably inspired to learn about their places in the social world and the relevance o f public issues to their material inter- ests, reference groups or individuals, and values. As a result, people may come to attach increasingly more personal impor- tance to public issues ( s e e Boninger, Krosnick, & Berent, 1995). And this increase in personal importance may lead people to seek out information on these issues, leading to an accumulation o f relevant knowledge in memory (see, e.g., Boninger, Krosnick, Berent, & Fabrigar, 1995). Late in the life cycle, social and cognitive disengagement may occur, as people retire from the workforce and focus on new challenges o f their daily lives (e.g., transitions in places o f residence, emerging physical health prob- lems, and spousal caregiving). This increasing disconnection from the active workings o f social institutions may cause de- clines in the personal importance people attach to public issues. Simultaneously, declines in cognitive skills (e.g., Verhaeghen & Salthouse, 1997) may cause people to become less able to store and retrieve issue-relevant knowledge from memory. Thus, the personal importance o f public issues and knowledge about them may rise in early adulthood and fall in late adulthood, just as susceptibility to attitude change apparently does. Attitude importance and knowledge both reduce the likelihood o f attitude change, because they reinforce attitudes socially and cognitively (see, e.g., Boninger, Krosnick, Berent, & Fabrigar, 1995; Wood et al., 1995). Therefore, i f importance and knowledge surge just after early adulthood and decline late in life, they may be partly responsible for the surge and decline in resistance to attitude change. Structure o f Attitude Strength Antecedents Results o f this sort would also speak to another debated issue within the attitude strength literature: whether or not the various antecedents o f attitude strength (e.g., knowledge, certainty, and personal importance, among others) are manifestations o f a sin- gle, unitary underlying construct. For the most part, these ante- cedents are all positively associated with one another, and they are all positively associated with the four defining features o f strong attitudes (resistance to change, stability over time, and impact on thinking and on behavior). Because o f this, many attitude researchers have assumed, during the last five decades, that all o f these defining features and their antecedents are mani- festations o f a single underlying latent factor appropriately called attitude strength (for a review, see Krosnick, Boninger, Chuang, Berent, & Carnot, 1993). There has been empirical support for this single-construct view from some factor-analytic studies (e.g., Verplanken, 1989). However, other investigators have suggested that two underlying constructs are present (Bassili, 1996; Pomerantz, Chaiken, & Tordesillas, 1995) or have found evidence o f three distinct con- structs (Abelson, 1988; Lastovicka & Gardner, 1979), and still others have found evidence o f four (Erber, Hodges, & Wilson, 1995). Finally, some investigators have concluded that all o f the antecedents o f attitude strength are essentially independent o f each other and that no higher order attitude strength construct or constructs exist ( K r o s n i c k et al., 1993; Krosnick & Petty, 1995). Evidence that attitude importance and knowledge rise and fall together across the life span would be consistent with the single-factor view o f attitude strength antecedents, as well as with the midrange hypothesis that importance and knowledge both reflect a single underlying factor, even if other antecedents o f strength do not (Erber et al., 1995; Pomerantz et al., 1995). Meta-Attitudinal Versus Operative Indexes o f Attitude Strength This study offered an opportunity to explore another interest- ing question about the structure o f attitude strength as well. Bassili (1996) recently proposed a distinction between meta- attitudinal and operative indexes o f attitude strength ( s e e also Greenwald & Banaji, 1995, on indirect vs. direct measures). The former involve p e o p l e ' s perceptions o f their attitudes, whereas the latter describe the operation o f the attitudes more directly, unmediated b y perceptions. In our first three studies, we focused on the relation o f age to an operative index o f strength: actual rates o f attitude change. Here, we explored the relation o f age to the corresponding rneta-attitudinal index: peo- p l e ' s perceptions o f the susceptibility o f their attitudes to change. In short, we asked: Are people aware that they are especially susceptible to attitude change at the beginning and end o f the life cycle? Perceptions o f attitudinal qualities can at times be quite divergent from reality. For example, Krosnick et al. (1993) found surprisingly weak correlations between direct measures Of the volume o f attitude-relevant knowledge and p e o p l e ' s per- ceptions o f how much such knowledge they possessed ( m o r e generally, see Nisbett & Wilson, 1977). Just as some psycholo- gists have endorsed the increasing persistence hypothesis, the impressionable years hypothesis, or the life stages hypothesis, so may laypersons as well. This would reinforce the utility o f distinguishing between meta-attitudinal and operative measures in general and with regard to susceptibility to change in particu- lar. The data we analyzed for this study provided an opportunity to explore this question, and we did so. Method Sample In 1984, the National Opinion Research Center's General Social Sur- vey involved face-to-face interviews with 1,473 noninstitutionalized En- glish-speaking people 18 years of age or older living within the continen- tal United States. Measures Attitude importance, perceived attitude-relevant knowledge, and per- ceived likelihood of attitude change were assessed for six political issues: pornography, the death penalty, gun control, crime, law enforcement, and race relations, r° Importance. Respondents were asked how important each issue was to them, and the response options were one of the most important (coded 1 ), important (coded .66), not very important (coded .33), and not important at all (coded 0). The six importance scores were averaged to yield a single importance score for each respondent) 1 ro The wordings of all questions used for these analyses are shown in the cumulative General Social Survey codebook, which is available from the National Opinion Research Center. tl When the analyses reported in this study and the ones to follow were done separately for each issue individually, the same patterns emerged, although a bit more weakly. 1398 VISSER AND KROSNICK Perceived knowledge. Respondents were asked how much informa- tion they had about each issue, and the response options were all the information you need (coded t ), most of the information (coded .66), some information (coded .33), and very little information (coded 0). Perceived knowledge scores were averaged across the issues to yield a single perceived knowledge score for each respondenC 2 Perceived likelihood of attitude change. Respondents were asked how firm their opinion on each issue was, and the response options were very likely to change (coded 1 ), somewhat likely to change (coded .66), somewhat unlikely to change (coded .33), and very unlikely to change (coded 0). Likelihood of change scores were averaged across all six issues to yield a single score for each respondent. Demographic measures. Education, gender, and race were measured and coded in the same manner as in the previous studies. Results Relations of Age to Education, Gender, and Race A g e was significantly associated with education, gender, and race as expected. O l d e r age cohorts c o n t a i n e d f e w e r w e l l - e d u - cated p e o p l e ( r = - . 2 4 , p < .01, n = 1,465), f e w e r w o m e n ( r = - . 0 5 , p < .01, n = 1,467), and f e w e r racial minorities ( r = - . 0 5 , p < .01, n = 1,467) than did younger age cohorts. Relation Between Attitude Importance and Perceived Knowledge Consistent with p r e v i o u s studies (see, e.g., K r o s n i c k & A b e l - son, 1992; K r o s n i c k et al., 1993), the t w o attitude strength antecedents w e r e only w e a k l y correlated with o n e another ( r = .17, p < .01, n = 1,410). Thus, these aspects o f attitudes were largely independent. Relation of Age to Attitude Importance W h e n assessed alone, the linear e f f e c t o f age o n attitude i m p o r t a n c e was positive and significant ( B = 0.10, p < .05), indicating that i m p o r t a n c e increased with increasing age ( s e e c o l u m n 1 o f Table 2 ) . However, the quadratic effect o f age was significant and negative ( B = - 0 . 5 4 , p < .01 ), and the linear e f f e c t o f age was positive and significant when the quadratic e f f e c t was i n c l u d e d in the equation ( B = 0.56, p < .001; see c o l u m n 2 o f Table 2 ) . T h e c u b i c e f f e c t o f age was not significant ( B = - 0 . 4 5 , ns). A s F i g u r e 5 illustrates, attitude i m p o r t a n c e r o s e in early adulthood, up to age 50, and i m p o r t a n c e b e g a n to fall after about age 65. Thus, attitude i m p o r t a n c e was l o w e s t precisely when attitude change was most c o m m o n . A s c o l u m n 2 o f Table 2 illustrates, attitude i m p o r t a n c e was greater a m o n g better educated respondents than a m o n g less edu- cated respondents ( B = 0.12, p < .01), greater a m o n g w o m e n than a m o n g m e n ( B = - 0 . 1 2 , p < .001), and greater a m o n g n o n - W h i t e s than a m o n g Whites ( B = 0.10, p < .01). T h e s e relations again attest to the value o f controlling for these d e m o - graphics in exploring the relation o f age to attitude importance. Relation of Age to Perceived Knowledge The results o f regressions predicting perceived k n o w l e d g e w e r e quite similar to those i n v o l v i n g i m p o r t a n c e ( s e e Table 3 ) . T h e linear e f f e c t o f age was positive and significant in predicting perceived k n o w l e d g e ( B = 0.11, p < .05). W h e n the quadratic effect o f age was a d d e d to the equation, the linear e f f e c t o f age was positive and significant ( B = 0.93, p < .001), and the quadratic e f f e c t was significant and negative ( B = - 0 . 9 4 , p < .001 ). T h e c u b i c e f f e c t o f age was n o t significant ( B = - 0 . 0 3 , ns). F i g u r e 6 illustrates that p e r c e i v e d k n o w l e d g e rose early in the life c y c l e and fell after about age 55. Interestingly, the d e m o g r a p h i c correlates o f perceived k n o w l - edge were s o m e w h a t different f r o m those o f importance. Whereas w o m e n attached m o r e i m p o r t a n c e to these issues, m e n r e p o r t e d h a v i n g m o r e k n o w l e d g e about t h e m ( B = 0.18, p < .001 ). Whereas W h i t e s attached less i m p o r t a n c e to the issues than d i d n o n - W h i t e s , W h i t e s r e p o r t e d h a v i n g m o r e k n o w l e d g e about t h e m than did n o n - W h i t e s ( B = - 0 . 1 4 , p < .01). A n d whereas education was m o d e s t l y positively related to i m p o r - tance, the positive relation o f education to perceived k n o w l e d g e was much stronger ( B = 0 . 5 5 , p < .001 ). Thus, although i m p o r : tance and perceived k n o w l e d g e were positively correlate d with o n e another and had equivalent relations to age, they w e r e dis- tinct in terms o f their d e m o g r a p h i c correlates. Relation of Age to Perceived Likelihood of Change Perceptions o f likelihood o f attitude change w e r e partly accu- rate and partly inaccurate ( s e e Table 4 ) . A negative and signifi- cant linear e f f e c t o f age appeared ( B = - 0 . 4 4 , p < .001), m e a n i n g that perceived likelihood o f change d e c r e a s e d with age. T h e quadratic and c u b i c effects o f age were nonsignificant ( B = 0.16 and B = 0.66, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) , m e a n i n g that perceptions o f likelihood o f change d e c r e a s e d steadily across the life cycle. This is especially clearly illustrated in F i g u r e 7, w h i c h p r o v i d e s a graphic representation o f the r e g r e s s i o n equation f r o m c o l u m n 1 o f Table 4. Thus, p e o p l e w e r e correct in r e c o g n i z i n g that they were highly susceptible to attitude change during early adulthood, but they did not r e a l i z e that susceptibility increased late in life. Perceived likelihood o f attitude change was also distinct f r o m actual susceptibility in terms o f correlations with other d e m o - graphics. A meta-analysis o f the results o f Studies 1, 2, and 3 r e v e a l e d that less educated p e o p l e manifested significantly m o r e attitude change than m o r e educated p e o p l e ( d = - 0 . 0 9 , z = 2.26, p = .01 ), w o m e n manifested significantly m o r e attitude change than m e n ( d = - 0 . 0 8 , z = 2.22, p = . 0 1 ) , and the c o m b i n e d e f f e c t o f race o n susceptibility was not significant ( d = 0.01, z = 0.29, ns). In line with this last finding, r a c e was also not associated with perceived likelihood o f change ( B = - 0 . 0 5 , ns). However, m o r e e d u c a t e d respondents perceived a greater likelihood o f change than less educated respondents ( B = 0.10, p < . 0 5 ) , and m e n r e p o r t e d marginally significantly m o r e p e r c e i v e d likelihood o f attitude change than w o m e n ( B = 0.05, p < .10). Thus, perceived likelihood o f change did not m a t c h actual likelihood o f change in terms o f correlations with these t w o d e m o g r a p h i c variables, in addition to age. 12 Shifts over the life course in answers to this question could be due to changes either in the perceived volume of knowledge one possesses or in the volume of knowledge one thinks one needs. Regardless, how- ever, any shifts observed reflect changes in the gap between these two. This is clearly a meta-attitudlnal measure of knowledge, one presumably based at least in part on actual levels of knowledge (see Krosnick et al., 1993). ATI]TUDE STRENGTH 1 3 9 9 0 ~ 0 0 0 0 d d o d d ~ " a ~ ~ . . . . I o ~ o o o o " N o o o o o " I I ~ . o o o " . . . ~ m ~ o I t d d d d N ' I I * ~ o ~ o I • . 0 ,...~ • t ' N O ,.o ,-.., 8. v V o. v O v Discussion A l t h o u g h attitude i m p o r t a n c e and p e r c e i v e d k n o w l e d g e e x - hibited similar trajectories across the life cycle, they had distinct d e m o g r a p h i c correlates, suggesting that these antecedents o f attitude strength are not manifestations o f a c o m m o n underlying construct. Similarly, the meta-attitudinal m e a s u r e s o f attitude change in this study and the operative m e a s u r e s o f change u s e d in Studies 1, 2, and 3 s e e m n o t to h a v e tapped the same c o n - struct: T h e meta-attitudinal and operative m e a s u r e s had distinct d e m o g r a p h i c correlates, and they also e x h i b i t e d different pat- terns o f change across the life span. This suggests that the dis- tinction b e t w e e n meta-attitudinal and operative indexes o f atti- tude strength is a useful one. T h e distinction b e t w e e n the recta-attitudinal m e a s u r e o f atti- tude change and the attitude change m e a s u r e s used in Studies 1 and 2 is subtle but important. B e c a u s e these latter t w o studies r e l i e d o n self-reported attitude change rather than direct obser- vations o f change, o n e m i g h t t h i n k they w e r e recta-attitudinal indexes, n o t operative ones. Yet, the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n age and susceptibility to change o b s e r v e d in Studies 1 and 2 was repli- c a t e d in Study 3 with a p u r e l y operative m e a s u r e o f change, and the e f f e c t there was h o m o g e n e o u s w i t h the effects in Studies 1 and 2. Therefore, when a n s w e r i n g the question " W o u l d y o u change y o u r m i n d i f . . . ? " respondents w e r e apparently de- scribing actual attitude change that o c c u r r e d at that m o m e n t rather than m o r e generic guesses about their likelihood o f change: R e i n f o r c i n g this conclusion, w e o b s e r v e d a different relation b e t w e e n age and a purely recta-attitudinal m e a s u r e o f attitude change. Study 5 To e x p l o r e the replicability o f the findings o f Study 4, w e turned to another set o f national survey data to assess the relation o f age to attitude i m p o r t a n c e using a different set o f political issues. M e t h o d Sample In 1984, the Center for Political Studies at the University of Michigan conducted face-to-face interviews with a nationally representative proba- bility sample of American adults for the National Election Study. During the weeks immediately preceding the 1984 U.S. presidential elec- tion, interviews were conducted with 2,257 people living in private households. Measures Attitude importance. Respondents were asked to express their atti- tudes on four political issues: government services, U.S. involvement in Central America, improving the economic status of women, and federally guaranteed jobs. 13 After each attitude question, respondents were asked how important it was to them that the federal government adhere to their 13 The wordings of all questions used for the analyses in this study, as well as those used in Study 6, are shown in the codebooks for the 1984 and 1996 American National Election Studies, which are available from the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research at the University of Michigan. 2 . 7 2 2 . 7 0 _• 2 . 6 8 2 . 6 6 2 . 6 4 2 . 6 2 2 . 6 0 2 . 5 8 2 . 5 6 2 . 5 4 i 18 23 2 8 3 3 3 8 43 48 53 58 63 68 73 78 83 88 2 . 4 4 2 . 4 2 2 . 4 0 Ca 2 . 3 8 ~ 2.36 1 2 . 3 4 ~ , 2 . 3 2 ~ 2.30 . 2 . 2 8 ~ 2.28 0 . 2 . 2 4 2 . 2 2 2 . 2 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 1 8 18 2 3 28 33 38 43 4 8 53 5 8 6 3 68 73 78 83 88 Age (in years) 1 4 0 0 VISSER AND KROSNICK Age (in years) Figure 5. Relation of attitude importance to age in Study 4. Figure 6. Relation of perceived knowledge to age in Study 4. preferred policy on that issue (extremely important, very important, somewhat important, or not important at all, coded t, .66, .33, and 0, respectively). 14 Answers to these questions were averaged to form an overall index of attitude importance. Demographic measures. Education, race, and gender were coded as they had been in previous studies. Results Relations of Age to Education, Gender, and Race A g e was significantly associated with education and r a c e as expected: O l d e r cohorts contained f e w e r w e l l - e d u c a t e d p e o p l e ( r = - . 2 9 , p < .01, n = 1,904) and f e w e r racial minorities ( r = - . 0 5 , p < .05, n = 1,902). A g e was not associated with gender ( r = - . 0 2 , ns, n = 1,902). Relation of Age to Attitude Importance T h e relation o f age to attitude i m p o r t a n c e here was c o m p a r a - ble to that seen in Study 4 ( s e e c o l u m n s 4 - 6 o f Table 2 ) . T h e linear e f f e c t o f age was significant and positive when tested b y itself ( B = 0.06, p < .05) and when tested along with a quadratic e f f e c t o f age ( B = 0.35, p < .001 ). T h e quadratic e f f e c t o f age Table 3 Unstandardized Regression Coefficients Predicting Perceived Attitude-Relevant Knowledge in Study 4 Predictor Regression 1 Regression 2 Regression 3 Age 0.11"* 0.93**** 0.92* Age squared -0.94**** - 0 . 9 0 Age cubed - 0 . 0 3 Gender 0.19"*** 0.18"*** 0.18"*** Race -0.13"** -0.14"** -0.14"** Education 0.57**** 0.55**** 0.55**** R 2 .069 .074 .074 Note. n = 1,462. * p < .10 (nmrginally significant). < .001. **p < .05. ***p < .01. ****p was also significant and negative ( B = - 0 . 3 6 , p < .01), and the c u b i c e f f e c t o f age was not significant ( B = 0.13, n s ) . A s F i g u r e 8 illustrates, i m p o r t a n c e r o s e during early adulthood, peaked at about age 45, and b e g a n to drop after about age 65. S t u d y 6 O u r final study m a d e use o f another national survey data set to e x a m i n e the relation o f age to another antecedent o f attitude strength: certainty. Attaching i m p o r t a n c e to a public issue, as w e l l as the extensive thought and i n f o r m a t i o n gathering that f o l l o w f r o m importance, m a y m a k e a person increasingly confi- dent in his o r her attitude. Thus, the d y n a m i c s o f attitude i m p o r - tance and perceived k n o w l e d g e d o c u m e n t e d in Studies 4 and 5 m a y p r o d u c e parallel changes in attitude certainty over the life cycle. I f this is true, certainty m a y b e partly responsible for the shifts in resistance to change o v e r the life span, b e c a u s e certainty enhances resistance to attitude change (see, e.g., Gross et al., 1995). A n d i f certainty manifests the same surge and d e c l i n e o v e r the life course as the other antecedents o f strength, this w o u l d r e i n f o r c e the one-factor v i e w o f attitude strength anteced- ents. Study 6 e x p l o r e d these possibilities and assessed the repli- cability o f the relation b e t w e e n age and attitude i m p o r t a n c e with yet another set o f political issues. Method Sample In 1996, the Center for Political Studies at the University of Michigan conducted face-to-face interviews with a nationally representative proba- bility sample of American adults for the National Election Study. During 14 The phrasing of this question was not optimal in that it addressed the federal government instead of simply asking about the personal importance of the issue (see Boninger, Krosnick, Berent, & Fabrigar, 1995). However, the fact that Study 5 replicated the findings of Studies 4 and 6 regarding attitude importance (in which the simpler importance questions were asked) reinforces confidence in this measure as tapping attitude importance. ATTITUDE STRENGTH 1401 Table 4 Unstandardized Regression Coefficients Predicting Perceived Likelihood o f Attitude Change in Study 4 0.46 - 0.36 Predictor Regression 1 Regression 2 Regression 3 ~ 0.44 Age -0.44**** -0.59*** -0.25 Age squared 0.16 - 0 . 7 5 ~- 0.42 Age cubed 0.66 I= Gender 0.05* 0.05 0.05* Race -0.05 - 0 . 0 5 - 0 . 0 5 "O Education 0.10" 0.10"* 0.09** ._~ 0.40 R 2 .028 .028 .029 0.38 Note. n = 1,461. * p < .10 (marginally significant). ** p < .05. *** p < .01. **** p < .001. the weeks immediately preceding the 1996 U.S. presidential election, 1,714 people living in private households were interviewed. Figure 8. M e a s u r e s , i t i i , r i i i i i i i i I 18 23 28 33 38 43 48 53 58 63 68 73 78 83 88 93 A g e ( i n y e a r s ) Relation of attitude importance to age in Study 5. 0 . 2 8 g) O) 0 . 2 7 Attitude importance. Respondents were asked to express their atti- tudes on five political issues: government spending on social services, defense spending, government assistance to Blacks, abortion, and envi- ronmental protection. After each attitude question, respondents were asked how important each issue was to them personally (extremely important, very important, somewhat important, not too important, or not important at all, coded 1, .75, .50, .25, and 0, respectively). Answers to these questions were averaged to form an overall index of attitude importance. Attitude certainty. For each of the same five issues, respondents were asked to express the certainty with which they held their attitude (very certain, pretty certain, or not very certain, coded 1, .50, and 0, respec- tively). Answers to these questions were averaged to create an overall index of attitude certainty. Demographic measures. Education, race, and gender were coded as they had been in previous studies. m c 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.23 O 0.22 0.21 • "; 0.20 0.19 0 . 1 8 i 0.17 0 . 1 6 0 . 1 5 , i i i i i ¢ ~ i i i , , i i i 18 23 28 33 38 43 48 53 58 63 68 73 78 83 88 A g e ( i n y e a r s ) Relation of perceived likelihood of attitude change to age in Figure 7. Study 4. Results Relations o f A g e to Education, Gender, a n d Race O l d e r cohorts c o n t a i n e d significantly f e w e r w e l l - e d u c a t e d p e o p l e ( r = - . 1 8 , p < .001, n = 1,709), and f e w e r racial minorities ( r = - . 0 7 , p < .01, n = 1,702). A g e was not associ- ated with gender ( r = - . 0 3 , ns, n = 1,702). Relation B e t w e e n Attitude Importance a n d Certainty T h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n attitude i m p o r t a n c e and attitude cer- tainty was positive ( r = .41, p < .001, n = 1,710), b u t was far e n o u g h f r o m perfect to suggest that the t w o attributes are partly independent o f o n e another. Relation o f A g e to Attitude Importance T h e relation o f age to attitude i m p o r t a n c e here essentially replicated that seen in Studies 4 and 5 ( s e e c o l u m n s 7 and 8 o f Table 2 ) . A l t h o u g h the linear e f f e c t o f a g e alone was not sig- nificant ( B = 0.00, ns), the e f f e c t was positive and significant ( B = 0.29, p < .001 ) w h e n the quadratic e f f e c t was included, and the quadratic e f f e c t was negative and significant ( B = - 0 . 3 2 , p < .00I ). A l t h o u g h the c u b i c e f f e c t o f age was signifi- cant ( B = - 0 . 5 0 , p < .05), it did n o t notably alter the relation o f i m p o r t a n c e to age, and the effects o f age here w e r e n o t significantly different f r o m those o n i m p o r t a n c e that w e ob- served in Studies 4 and 5: age, X2(2, N = 5,219) = 0.75, n s ; age squared, X2(2, N = 5 , 2 1 9 ) = 1.50, ns; and age cubed, X2(2, N = 5,219) = 2.72, ns. ~ F i g u r e 9 p r o v i d e s a graphic representation o f the regression equation presented in c o l u m n 9 o f Table 2. A s F i g u r e 9 illustrates, i m p o r t a n c e again i n c r e a s e d across early adulthood, peaked at about age 50, and b e g a n to fall after about age 65. A l t h o u g h attitude i m p o r t a n c e was not as l o w a m o n g y o u n g adults here as it was in Studies 4 and 5, the s a m e basic trajectory o f attitude i m p o r t a n c e across the life c y c l e e m e r g e d in these data. E d u c a t i o n was n o t significantly related to attitude i m p o r t a n c e ( B = 0.02, ns). A s in the p r e v i o u s studies, n o n - W h i t e s attached 0.80 0.78 0.76 ~- 0.74 ~ 0 . 7 2 E 0 . 7 0 • ~ 0 . 6 8 • ~ 0 . 8 8 ~ 0 . 6 4 0 . 6 2 0 . 6 0 A g e ( i n y e a r s ) 0 . 7 7 0.75 ¢~, 0.73 " i 0.71 0.69 0 . 6 7 0.65 0.63 0.61 0.59 , , , g i J , i , i i i i i i J 18 23 28 33 38 43 48 53 58 63 68 73 78 83 88 93 m i i i , , c i i i i i , i i 18 23 28 33 38 43 48 53 58 63 68 73 78 83 88 93 A g e ( i n y e a r s ) Figure I0. Relation of attitude certainty to age in Study 6. Figure 9. Relation of attitude importance to age in Study 6. 1402 VISSER AND KROSNICK more importance to their attitudes on these issues than did Whites (B = 0.04, p < .001 ). And, again, there were no differ- ences between men and women in the importance they attached to these issues (B = 0.01, ns). Relation of Age to Certainty Consistent with the other strength antecedents, certainty in- creased early in the life cycle and declined late in the cycle (see Table 5 and Figure 10). The linear effect o f age alone was negative and significant (B = - 0 . 0 8 , p < .001). When the linear and quadratic age effects were estimated simultaneously, the linear effect was positive and significant (B = 0.23, p < .01), and the quadratic effect was negative and significant (B = - 0 . 3 6 , p < .001 ). The cubic effect o f age was not significant (B = 0.01, ns), The associations between certainty and the other demograph- ics were consistent with the associations between importance and those demographics. Certainty was unrelated to education (B = 0.00, ns), significantly greater among men than among women (B = 0.03, p < .01), and significantly greater among non-Whites than among Whites (B = 0.04, p < .01). Table 5 Unstandardized Regression Coefficients Predicting Attitude Certainty in Study 6 Predictor Regression 1 Regression 2 Regression 3 Age -0.08**** 0.23**** 0.24 Age squared -0.36**** -0.37 Age cubed 0.01 Gender 0.03**** 0.03**** 0.03*** Race 0.04*** 0.04*** 0.04*** Education 0.01 0.00 0.01 R 2 .021 .030 .030 Note. n = 1,696 * * * p < . 0 1 . ****p <.001. G e n e r a l D i s c u s s i o n Our findings have general implications regarding the litera- tures on attitude change and on the structure o f attitude strength antecedents. We discuss these implications in turn before con- sidering the limitations o f our evidence and directions for future studies. Attitude Change Aging and Susceptibility to Change Using methods that overcome various limitations o f past stud- ies, Studies 1, 2, and 3 support the life stages hypothesis and challenge the perpetual susceptibility hypothesis, the impres- sionable years hypothesis, and the increasing persistence hypoth- esis. Because considerable attitude change was evident even among the least susceptible age groups, our findings are more in line with the lifelong openness view than with the persistence hypothesis. It is interesting to note that our findings in this regard offer an extension o f some very old laboratory studies o f susceptibility to persuasion among preadults. For example, Whipple (1909) described a study by Stern ( 1 9 0 7 - 1 9 0 8 ) in which susceptibility to attitude change was found to be three times greater among 7 - 1 4 - y e a r - o l d s than among 16-19-year-olds. Similarly, Stukat (1958) found almost three times as much attitude change among 8-year-olds as among 14-year-olds, with a smooth decline in susceptibility between these ages. And Marple (1933) found that attitude change was greater among high school seniors than among college seniors, who in turn manifested more change than did older adults. In none o f these studies was representative sampling o f age groups done, so it is impossible to know whether the various age groups can legitimately be compared with one another. Furthermore, these studies did not offer oppor- tunities to differentiate among the increasing persistence, im- pressionable years, and life stages hypotheses, because they did not compare older adults o f different ages. But Stern ( 1 9 0 7 - 1908), Stukat (1958), and Marple (1933) nonetheless provided ATTITUDE STRENGTH 1403 evidence consistent with the claim that susceptibility to attitude change declines during preadulthood, a finding that resonates with our own evidence regarding the adult portion o f the life cycle. Reconciling the Present Findings With Other Evidence Although our finding of greater susceptibility to attitude change during early adulthood than during middle adulthood is consistent with most previous correlational research, our evi- dence o f greater susceptibility during late adulthood is inconsis- tent with most o f the existing literature. One possible explana- tion for this discrepancy is the methods o f analysis used. Virtu- ally without exception, previous investigations have divided samples into several discrete age groups and examined the aver- age level o f attitude stability for each group. This strategy re- quires researchers to lump together spans o f ages to achieve subsamples that are sufficiently large to yield reliable parameter estimates for each group. This is particularly necessary at the upper end o f the life cycle; survey samples include relatively small numbers o f very old adults, because o f mortality and other factors. As a result, the oldest age group in previous investigations has often spanned a wide range (e.g., ages 65 to 90 years) but has contained many more people at the younger end o f the range than at the older end. Averaging across these individuals may therefore have masked changes that occur at the very end o f the life cycle, because the oldest members o f the group were far outnumbered by the younger members o f the group. In the studies reported here, we took an analytic approach not yet used in any studies o f aging and attitude change. Rather than arbitrarily breaking the samples into subgroups, we used linear and nonlinear regression models to more precisely assess the relation between age and susceptibility to change across the entire adult life cycle. And, in fact, when we reanalyzed our data using the traditional approach, our results were notably different. For example, we broke the sample from Study 1 into five age categories ( 1 8 - 2 5 , 2 6 - 3 5 , 3 6 - 5 0 , 5 1 - 6 5 , and 6 6 - 9 7 years), and we gauged the average proportion o f respondents in each group who exhibited attitude change. Consistent with most pre- vious research, we found striking evidence o f increased suscep- tibility to change among young adults. Also consistent with this literature, we found no evidence o f an upturn in susceptibility at the end o f the life cycle: The mean rates o f attitude change for these age groups (adjusted for differences between groups in education, gender, and race) were .57, .49, .44, .45, and .43, respectively. Comparable results were obtained when we conducted similar analyses with the data from Studies 2 and 3. Thus, the methods o f analyses used seem likely to account for the discrepancy between our results and the results o f prior investigations regarding susceptibility to attitude change at the end o f the life cycle. One other difference between the current research and previ- ous investigations may also have contributed to the discrepancy. As we have discussed, earlier investigations used attitude stabil- ity as an index o f susceptibility to attitude change, which is likely to underestimate true susceptibility to change among peo- ple who experience few attitude-challenging experiences. If older adults were particularly unlikely to encounter these sorts o f experiences, attitude stability levels would paint a distorted portrait o f susceptibility to change at the end o f the life cycle. Thus, when the dependent variable is attitude stability rather than attitude change, even linear and nonlinear regression analy- ses may yield misleading evidence about the late adult years. Understanding the Relation Between Age and Susceptibility to Attitude Change Virtually without exception, previous investigations o f aging and attitude change have been entirely descriptive. The causal mechanism or mechanisms underlying the relation between age and susceptibility to attitude change have gone largely ignored. The present investigation provides an initial step toward under- standing causal underpinnings by documenting relations o f age to antecedents o f attitude strength. Specifically, we found that attitude importance, perceived knowledge, and certainty surged and declined roughly in parallel with changes in susceptibility to attitude change. Changes in these antecedents o f attitude strength may therefore provide clues about the causal mecha- nisms responsible for the dynamics o f susceptibility to attitude change. In particulaz; resistance to change may increase because peo- ple attach more importance to their attitudes, think more fre- quently and deeply about them as a result (see Boninger, Kros- nick, Berent, & Fabrigar, 1995), and consequently develop a confidence and sense o f knowledgeability that motivates resis- tance to change. And resistance to change may decline later because importance, perceived knowledge, and certainty drop. Future investigations directly testing these mediation hypotheses (by measuring susceptibility to change as well as importance, perceived knowledge, and certainty in the same representative sample survey) clearly seem to be warranted. In addition to antecedents o f attitude strength, a number o f other mechanisms may also be partly responsible for the relation o f age to susceptibility to attitude change. Our initial discussion o f the life stages hypothesis alluded to some o f these mecha- nisms. For example, early and late adulthood are both periods o f relatively frequent role transitions during which individuals are resocialized to new sets o f demands and expectations (Gla- ser & Strauss, 1971; Steckenrider & Cutler, 1989). Often, role adoption encourages certain attitudes and discourages others (Bogardus, 1927), and the adoption o f new roles can lead to changes in attitudes (e.g., Lieberman, 1950). The density o f role transitions in early and late adulthood may contribute to a general increase in susceptibility to attitude change as individu- als reconsider their relation to the social w o r d and redefine their social identities. Changes in social networks may also play a role in the relation between age and susceptibility to change. When discussing so- cial and political issues, people strategically select friends and discussion partners with whom they agree (Byrne, 1961; Huck- feldt & Sprague, 1987, 1988; Newcomb, 1961), and, as a result, discussions with such individuals reinforce their original atti- tudes. People also selectively misperceive the views o f their discussion partners when those views are at odds with their own (Huckfeldt & Sprague, 1987, 1988), further inflating people's perceptions o f social support for their attitudes. Thus, having large social networks with whom one comes into frequent con- tact may reduce susceptibility to change. 1404 VISSER AND KROSNICK And the sizes o f p e o p l e ' s social networks change over the life span. As people move from young adulthood to the middle adult years, they increasingly discuss important matters with a wide range o f people outside o f their families (Marsden, 1987). This trend reverses, however, at the end o f the life cycle: Relative to middle-aged adults, older adults have far fewer people with whom they discuss important matters (Burt, 1990; Lang & Cars- tensen, 1994; Marsden, 1987). Increased susceptibility to atti- tude change at the beginning and end o f the adult life cycle may be due in part to these changes in social support. A number o f other potential mechanisms may account for heightened susceptibility to attitude change during early adult- hood but not late adulthood. For example, because young adult- hood is typically the point o f entry into the political realm, attitudes are likely to be formed one at a time, in relative isola- tion from one another. But as a person ages, he or she is likely to come to see the interrelations among various attitudes and the applicability o f overarching principles such as ideologies or values. Consequently, among middle-aged adults, attitudes are more often embedded within overarching cognitive structures and are more strongly associated with other cognitive elements (Daniels & Clark-Daniels, 1995; Kirkpatrick, 1976). Such asso- ciations stabilize attitudes (Ostrom & Brock, 1969; Scott, 1968) and thus may partly account for the decline in susceptibility to change after early adulthood. Because young adults have had fewer life experiences, they may also have had fewer opportunities to behaviorally commit themselves to their attitudes (e.g., describing their attitudes to others or engaging in attitude-congruent behaviors). Behavioral commitment increases resistance to change (Brehm & Cohen, 1962; Hovland, Campbell, & Brock, 1957; Kiesler, 1971) and may partially account for the heightened susceptibility to atti- tude change at the beginning o f the adult life cycle. Still other processes may uniquely account for the decline in resistance to attitude change later in adulthood. For example, recent meta-analyses have revealed relatively large changes across the life span in cognitive functioning (Salthouse, 1992; Verhaeghen, Marcoen, & Goossens, 1993; Verhaeghen & Salt- house, 1997). Performance o f cognitive tasks declines beginning at approximately age 20, but the rate o f decline becomes espe- cially steep after age 50 (Salthouse, 1992, 1996; Verhaeghen et al., 1993). Thus, the oldest adults may find it hardest to generate effective counterarguments in the face o f persuasive appeals, increasing their susceptibility to attitude change~ Finally, late adulthood may see an increase in susceptibility to change because attitudes may become strikingly obsolete at that time. Young adults apparently form attitudes on a range o f political issues for the first time, and these attitudes remain through middle adulthood. Yet, during these middle adult years, the political world in which the attitudes were formed begins to change because o f technological and social innovations and the march o f time more generally. Thus, for example, people who came o f age during the Great Depression probably found that as the c o u n t r y ' s economic conditions improved, the atti- tudes they formed early in adulthood were less and less suitable to new world conditions. Because social reform and structural change occur slowly, dramatic discrepancies between o n e ' s early-formed attitudes and current world conditions are not likely to occur until late in adulthood. And this may make people especially open to change at that time. In addition, the very meaning o f some attitude objects may change over the several decades that divide early and late adult- hood. In the contemporary political context, for example, the term welfare calls to mind a certain set o f programs that assist a particular subset o f the population. In the 1950s, welfare referred to an entirely different set o f programs that assisted a different subset o f people. Likewise, support for civil rights in the early part o f the 20th century meant support for integration o f workplaces, neighborhoods, schools, and other social institu- tions. But in recent years, support for civil rights has meant support for redistribution o f economic resources and opportuni- ties to offset past inequalities (Schuman, Steeh, & Bobo, 1985). Thus, some people who formed attitudes toward civil rights decades ago may find that those attitudes are no longer applica- ble, therefore opening them up to change. And this should occur most among the oldest adults, whose attitudes were formed longest ago. A l l of these processes, summarized in Table 6, represent plau- sible mechanisms for the observed relation between age and susceptibility to attitude change, and each implies something different about which o f the myriad social, psychological, and biological aspects o f aging are responsible for changes over the life cycle in susceptibility to attitude change. We look forward to future research that investigates the role o f each o f them, along with other potential mechanisms. One possibility that we were able to test with the data from Study 2 turned out not to be a plausible mechanism o f the relation between age and susceptibility to change. That data set included a measure o f the number o f adults living in respon- dents' households, providing one index o f domestic social sup- Table 6 Potential Mechanisms of Decreasing and Increasing Susceptibility to Attitude Change During Early and Late Adulthood Early adulthood Late adulthood Increasing recognition of the relevance of public issues to one's material interests, values, and reference groups, resulting in increased attitude importance Acquisition of knowledge about the social and political world Increasing certainty with which attitudes are held Frequent role transitions Growing social networks Increasing attitude constraint Increasing opportunities for behavioral commitment to attitudes Decreasing attitude importance Decreasing retrievable knowledge Decreasing certainty with which attitudes are held Frequent role transitions Shrinking social networks Declining cognitive resources with which to generate effective counterarguments Increasing obsolescence of attitudes Changes over time in the meaning associated with particular attitude objects ATrlTUDE STRENGTH 1405 port. Linear and nonlinear ordinary least squares regression models revealed that the proportion o f respondents who lived alone increased sharply from young adulthood to middle adult- hood (from about 16% to about 30%), remained steady across the middle adult years (at about 30%), and rose steeply during the late adult years (to about 40% among 65-74-year-olds and about 50% among those 75 years old or older). Thus, social support decreased at roughly the same time that susceptibility to attitude change increased, raising the possibility that the for- mer may mediate the relation between age and susceptibility to change at the end o f the life cycle. However, this measure o f social support was unrelated to attitude change, both in the full sample (B = 0.00, ns) and among the subsample o f respondents 50 years old or older (B = 0.06, ns). Social support in the form o f living companions, therefore, cannot account for the age-related differences in sus- ceptibility to change observed in Study 2. This surprising result illustrates the importance o f formally testing the possible mech- anisms o f the relation between age and susceptibility to change. Other intuitively appealing mechanisms o f this relation, many o f which we outlined earlier, may also be rejected when sub- jected to empirical scrutiny. Societal Implications Our findings have interesting implications for social change across history, both in the past and in the future. To understand some o f these implications, it is useful to begin with Figure 11, which displays the distribution o f age in the American adult population starting in 1950 and projected out to 2050 (U.S. Bureau o f the Census, 1953, 1993). The width o f each band in this figure represents the proportion o f adults in each age group in each year. The consistent widening o f the solid band at the top represents the consistent growth of the 65-year-old and older age group, a process often referred to these days as the " g r a y - ing" of America. The hump in the band at the bottom between 1970 and 1980 represents the baby boom generation, which began to reach age 18 in the late 1960s. That hump is also apparent in each o f the older age groups, but it moves progres- sively to the right (representing the aging o f the baby boomers). If the perpetual susceptibility hypothesis had been true, these changes in the age distribution o f Americans would have no implications at all. And if the impressionable years hypothesis had been true, the growth o f the oldest age group would have had no implications for change in the susceptibility o f the Ameri- can public to attitude change across this 100-year period. But because the life stages hypothesis seems correct, the growing band o f older Americans signals a likely steady increase in the susceptibility o f the population to attitude change. Therefore, increased volatility in public opinion may be apparent in the future, especially during periods o f intense public debate (e.g., during presidential election campaigns). Because the 18-24-year-old group was disproportionately large between 1970 and 1980, and because these individuals were presumably highly susceptible to change, the malleability o f the aggregated public's views on political issues was probably a bit higher during those years than before or after. The national turmoil o f the late 1960s and early 1970s is no doubt attributable primarily to dramatic events such as the Vietnam War and Wa- tergate, but the reverberation o f such events throughout those years (and even today) may have been especially loud and sus- tained because an easily influenced age group was unusually large at that time. Impact o f Education, Gender, and Race on Susceptibility to Change Social psychologists have had long-standing interest in the relation o f other demographics to attitude change susceptibility, most notably gender (e.g., Coope~; 1979; Eagly, 1978; Mac- c o b y & Jacldin, 1974). In a meta-analysis o f 148 studies that explored gender differences in influenceability, Eagly and Carli (1981) found that women were significantly more open to change than were men. Consistent with Eagly and Carli's find- Figure 11. Age distribution of U.S. adults. 1406 VISSER AND KROSNICK ings, our own meta-analysis combining Studies 1, 2, and 3 revealed that women manifested attitude change significantly more than men. In line with ZaUer's (1990) findings, less educated people manifested significantly more attitude change than more edu- cated people (d = - 0 . 0 9 , z = 2.06, p = .04). Because education is strongly correlated with intelligence (Ceci, 1991), this finding may reflect the well-documented greater resistance to attitude change among more intelligent people when a persuasive mes- sage is easy to comprehend and equally exposed to everyone, as was the case here (e.g., Eagly & Warren, 1976; Rhodes & Wood, 1992). However, educational attainment is correlated with many other individual differences as well (see, e.g., Hyman, Wright, & Reed, 1975; Nie, Junn, & Stehlik-Barry, 1996). Thus, our finding encourages further study of the psychological sources of this relation. Given that the oldest age cohort was less educated and more predominantly female than the younger age cohorts, the relation of education to susceptibility would have been systematically distorted if we had not controlled for these characteristics. In contrast, the combined effect of race on susceptibility was not significant (d = 0.02, z = 0.32, p = .75), so controlling for this. variable here had no effect. But our documentation of the expected relation between race and age suggests that other inves- tigators of aging should be attentive to this aspect of changing cohort composition over the life course. Structure o f Attitude Strength One Construct or Many? To the extent that antecedents of attitude strength are all mani- festations of a single underlying construct, they should exhibit similar trajectories across the adult years. Whereas susceptibility to attitude change, attitude importance, and perceived knowl- edge manifested nearly identical relations with age, attitude cer- tainty increased less dramatically early in the life cycle and declined more slowly, beginning at an earlier age. More strik- ingly, different attitude attributes correlated differently with gen- der, race, and education. Averaging across Studies 4, 5, a n d 6 , attitude importance was significantly higher among women than among men ( d = 0.06, z = 3.43, p < .01), whereas men reported higher levels of knowledge, d = 0.24, t(1456) = 5.60, p < .01, and certainty, d = 0.14, t(1691) = 2.96,p < .01. Non-Whites reported higher attitude importance (averaging across Studies 4, 5, and 6; d = 0.14, z = 5.65, p < .01) and higher certainty than Whites, d = 0.13, t(1691) = 2.70, p < .01, but Whites reported having more knowledge than non-Whites, d = 0.i2, t(1456) = 2.83, p < .01. And more educated people reported higher attitude importance (averaging across Studies 4, 5, and 6; d = 0.07, z = 3.31, p < .01 ) and much higher knowledge, d = 0.43, t (1456) = 9.93, p < .01, but education was completely unrelated to certainty. Thus, no two of these attributes manifested the same relations with all three demographics. Taken together, then, this body of evidence challenges the single-construct view of attitude strength. In fact, the distinction between importance and perceived knowledge is inconsistent with even the modest suggestion that importance and perceived knowledge reflect a single latent factor (e.g., Erber et al., 1995; Pomerantz et al., 1995). It therefore seems wise, when studying attitude strength, to measure multiple dimensions, each with multiple items (to eliminate measurement error), and to assess the effects of each dimension individually, no matter what a factor analysis suggests about the potential to combine dimen- sions into a single meta-dimension. Meta-Attitudinal Versus Operative Indexes o f Strength Although attitude change susceptibility fell after early adult- hood and rose again late in life, people are apparently not aware of this, Rather, in Study 4, we observed a negative linear relation between age and perceived susceptibility to attitude change. Therefore, people were partly correct, in that they perceived susceptibility to drop after early adulthood, but they were incor- rect in their beliefs about the rest of the life cycle. Likewise, partial accuracy appeared when gauged by correlations between susceptibility to change and other demographics. Women cor- rectly recognized that they were more susceptible to attitude change than men, and people recognized that there was no robust relation of race to attitude change. However, highly educated people perceived themselves to be especially open to attitude change, whereas, in fact, they were unusually resistant to change. All of this reinforces the claim that meta-attitudinal measures of attitude properties can differ significantly from operative mea- sures of those same properties (see also Bassili, 1996; Krosnick et al., 1993). Thus, there seems to be theoretical value in further exploration of the origins and consequences of both meta-attitu- dinal and operative indexes, because the conclusion one reaches in any given investigation may hinge on which type of measure is used. Limitations Aging Effects Versus Birth Cohort Effects The age-related differences in attitude attributes documented here could be due to progress through the life cycle, as we have presumed, or they could be due to differences between birth cohorts in the nature of their socializing experiences (Mann- helm, 1952). That is, the young adults in our samples may manifest constant attitude attributes throughout their lives, and the older adults may manifest different but constant attributes throughout their lives. The differences we have documented may be attributable not to changes over the life course but to differ- ences in the early life experiences of these individuals. It is impossible to rule out this alternative explanation with the data we analyzed, because age and cohort effects are inevitably confounded. However, many longitudinal studies conducted over 30 years indicate that attitude change has been more common among young adults than among older adults, reinforcing the generalizability of the early life cycle pattern we saw (e.g., Alwin et al., 1991; Krosnick & Alwin, 1989). And even the relatively small number of attitude change data sets we analyzed were collected over a span of more than 10 years, long enough for members of the youngest cohort in the earliest data set to move into middle adulthood when the latest data set was col- lected. The replication across the three data sets provides at least tentative support for the generalizability of our effects across cohorts. As additional survey data are collected from ATTITUDE STRENGTH 1407 different birth cohorts at different points in their life cycles v i a methods such as those used in Studies 1, 2, and 3 here, it will be possible to further explore the generalizability o f our results regarding the life cycle. O b j e c t D o m a i n s Another useful direction for future research would be to ex- plore the relation between age and susceptibility to attitude change in other domains o f objects. Our studies and most in this literature have focused on political attitudes. Early adulthood is typically the period during which many individuals begin at- tending to and becoming behaviorally engaged in the political process, whereas people may become cognitively and socially disengaged from politics late in life. Some issues become espe- cially relevant to people as they reach the end o f the life cycle (e.g., government spending on social security), but most social and political issues probably seem increasingly irrelevant to people as they grow old. This dynamic may account for the life cycle shifts we observed. In contrast, attitudes toward other sorts o f objects may crys- tallize much earlier in life and may be no more susceptible to change during early adulthood than later in life. Food prefer- ences, for example, may be established during childhood and may remain relatively invulnerable to change throughout adult- hood. And some attitudes may remain central to p e o p l e ' s lives throughout old age, so they may become no more open to change late in the life cycle. Thus, the life stages hypothesis may be correct regarding only some attitudes. Alternatively, the crystallization o f any given attitude may not occur independently o f other attitudes. Instead, life experiences across a broad range o f domains may contribute to an increase in the stability o f all attitudes early in adulthood. That is, through the accumalation o f diverse experiences, individuals may arrive at a constellation o f attitudes and beliefs that capture a sense o f order and understanding o f the social environment. Once a consonant system o f attitudes and beliefs i s established, individ- uals may resist changes to any element within the system. Such resistance may be driven b y the motivation to avoid dissonance within the system or by a general sense o f mastery o f o n e ' s social environment and confidence in the validity of o n e ' s views. And late in life, as people have more restricted behavioral op- portunities and interact with more narrow groups o f people, all o f their preferences may weaken. Partly consistent with this latter view, several diverse lines o f research suggest that early adulthood is a period o f relative plasticity across many domains. For example, personality traits gradually increase in stability during young adulthood (Nessel- roade & Baltes, 1974) and become highly stable across the remaining adult years (Caspi, Bem, & Elder, 1989; I~osta, McCrae, & Arenberg, 1983; McCrae & Costa, 1994; Schuerger, Tait, & Tavernelli, 1982; Schuerger & Witt, 1989; Schuerger, Zarrella, & Hotz, 1989). Similarly, self-images exhibit consider- able instability during early adulthood but show much greater stability later in life (Mortimer, Finch, & Kumka, 1982). Many social identities, too, show this pattern o f stability. Identification with a political party, for example, tends to be substantially less stable during young adulthood than it is during middle adulthood ( A l w i n et al., 1991; A l w i n & Krosnick, 1991). Even antecedents o f attitude strength, such as attitude-relevant knowledge, are less stable in early adulthood than they are later in adulthood (Jennings, 1996). The findings o f each o f these lines o f inquiry, along with our own results, provide convergent evidence o f the malleability o f young adulthood. These additional indexes o f malleability suggest that the pattern we observed here regarding early adulthood may describe a wide range o f psychological phenomena. 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Received January 5, 1998 Revision received July 12, 1998 Accepted July 22, 1998 • Call for N o m i n a t i o n s The Publications and Communications (P&C) Board has opened nominations for the editorships of the J o u r n a l of Abnormal Psychology, J o u r n a l of Comparative Psychology, J o u r n a l of Exl~rimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: Attitudes and Social Cognition,Professional Psychology: Research and P r a c t i c e , Psychological Review, and Psychology, Public Policy, a n d L a w for the years 2001-2006. Milton E. Strauss, Phi3; Charles T. Snowdon, Phi); James H. Neely, Phi); Arie W. Kruglanski, PhD; Patrick H. DeLeon,.PhD, JD; Robert A. Bjork, PhD; and Bruce D. Sales, JD, PhD, respectively, are the incumbent editors. Candidates should be members o f APA and should be available to start receiving manuscripts in early 2000 to prepare for issues published in 2001. Please note that the P&C Board encourages participation by members o f underrepresented groups in the publication process and would particularly welcome such nominees. Self-nominations are also encouraged. To nominate candidates, prepare a statement of one page or less in support of each candidate. Send nominations to the attention of the appropriate search c h a i r - - • David L. Rosenhan, PhD, for J o u r n a l o f A b n o r m a l Psychology Lauren B. Resnick, Phi), for J o u r n a l of Comparative Psychology Joe L. Martinez, Jr., PhD, for j E P : Learning, Memory, and Cognition Sara B. Kiesler, PhD, for J P S P : Attitudes a n d Social Cognition Judith P. Worell, PhD, for Professional Psychology: Research and P r a c t i c e Lyle E. Bourne, Jr., Phi), for Psychological Review Lucia A. Gilbert, PhD, for Psychology, Public Policy, a n d Law - - t o the following address: c/o Karen Sellman, P&C Board Search Liaison Room 2004 American Psychological Association 750 First Street, NE Washington, DC 20002-4242 The first review of nominations will begin December 7, 1998. 
work_55y75pzuafdgvjiyjnkf6s3pje	----	The artist's cause at heart: marion Harry Spielmann and the late Victorian art world | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.7227/BJRL.71.1.9 Corpus ID: 190853926The artist's cause at heart: marion Harry Spielmann and the late Victorian art world @article{Codell1989TheAC, title={The artist's cause at heart: marion Harry Spielmann and the late Victorian art world}, author={Julie F. Codell}, journal={Bulletin of the John Rylands Library}, year={1989}, volume={71}, pages={139-163} } Julie F. Codell Published 1989 Art Bulletin of the John Rylands Library Marion Harry Spielmann was one of the most prominent and powerful figures of the late Victorian art world. Editor of The Magazine of Art for seventeen years (1887-1904), he was also art critic of The Graphic, art editor for Black and White (which he helped to found), and critic of The Daily Graphic, The Pall Mall Gazette, London Illustrated News, Westminster Gazette, Morning Post. He published essays on art education and museum administration in Contemporary Review, Nineteenth Century, The New… Expand View via Publisher escholar.manchester.ac.uk Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper 9 Citations View All 9 Citations Citation Type Citation Type All Types Cites Results Cites Methods Cites Background Has PDF Publication Type Author More Filters More Filters Filters Sort by Relevance Sort by Most Influenced Papers Sort by Citation Count Sort by Recency Artists' Biographies and the Anxieties of National Culture Julie F. Codell Sociology 2001 1 Save Alert Research Feed Marion Spielmann’s Brontë-Heger Letters History: Fact or Fiction? Brian D. Bracken History 2013 1 Save Alert Research Feed The Death of the Victorian Art Periodical A. Helmreich History 2010 7 Save Alert Research Feed "Peeps," or "Smatter and Chatter": Late-Victorian Artists Presented as Strand Celebrities Caroline Dakers History 2019 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Introduction: The importance of cartoons, caricature, and satirical art in imperial contexts Richard Scully, A. Varnava Art 2019 PDF Save Alert Research Feed The Periodical and the Art Market: Investigating the “Dealer-Critic System” in Victorian England P. Fletcher, Pamela Anne Helmreich History 2008 11 Save Alert Research Feed Critical Mediators: Locating the Art Press Meaghan Clarke History 2010 3 Save Alert Research Feed Landscape-painter as landscape-gardener : the case of Alfred Parsons R.A. Nicole Milette Art 1997 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Serialized Artists' Biographies: A Culture Industry in Late Victorian Britain J. Codell History 2000 6 Save Alert Research Feed Related Papers Abstract 9 Citations Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. Learn More → Resources DatasetsSupp.aiAPIOpen Corpus Organization About UsResearchPublishing PartnersData Partners   FAQContact Proudly built by AI2 with the help of our Collaborators Terms of Service•Privacy Policy The Allen Institute for AI By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our Privacy Policy, Terms of Service, and Dataset License ACCEPT & CONTINUE 
work_56bwtdpaxnddlddxz7a2apfvqi	----	Babak Saleh Search this site Babak Saleh My publications on Google Scholar I am on Twitter and have a LinkedIn profile babaks -- at-- rutgers -- dot --edu - As of now, I am a Vice President at Morgan Stanley, where I conduct research, implement and scale machine learning algorithms for various applications in financial investments. Previously I worked at American International Group (AIG), under the Investment organization. - I received my Ph.D. in computer science with a concentration on machine learning and computer vision from Rutgers University. My thesis is focused on detecting abnormalities in images and improving the generalization capacity of visual classifiers, which was awarded with the Outstanding Student Paper award from AAAI 2016. - My research on using computer vision for analysis of fine-art paintings received significant coverage from major media outlets. A TV segment (PBS) can be found here, and a longer (with more technical details) video here: IPAM @ UCLA. - I have interned at Adobe Research and Disney Research. "1001 Abnormal Objects" dataset can be found here. Images used in "Learning Style Similarity for Searching Infographics" can be found here. Report abuse Google Sites Report abuse 
work_5bofaluxwrdtppesnvj3texwt4	----	127 Social Media and Mental Health International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (IJTSRD) Volume 3 Issue 6, October 2019 Available Online: www.ijtsrd.com e-ISSN: 2456 – 6470 @ IJTSRD | Unique Paper ID – IJTSRD29194 | Volume – 3 | Issue – 6 | September - October 2019 Page 775 Social Media and Mental Health Dr P. S. Shanmugaboopathi Principal, Maruthi College of Education, Attur, Tamil Nadu, India How to cite this paper: Dr P. S. Shanmugaboopathi "Social Media and Mental Health" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-6, October 2019, pp.775-776, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd29194.pdf Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development Journal. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0) (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0) INTRODUCTION Social media basically means any human communication or sharing information on internet that occurs through the medium of computer, tablet or mobile. There are numerous websites and apps that make it possible. Social media is now becoming one of the largest means of communication and is gaining popularity rapidly. Social media enables you to share ideas, content, information and news etc. at a much faster speed. In last few years social media has grown tremendously at an unexpectedly fast rate and has captured millions of users around the world. Mental health refers to our cognitive, behavioral, and emotional wellbeing - it is all about how we think, feel, and behave. The term 'mental health' is sometimes used to mean an absence of a mental disorder. Mental health can affect daily life, relationships, and even physical health. Mental health also includes a person's ability to enjoy life - to attain a balance between life activities and efforts to achieve psychological resilience. TYPES OF MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS � Anger � Anxiety and panic attacks � Bipolar disorder � Depression � Eating problems � Hearing voices � Hoarding � Hypomania and mania � Loneliness � Mental health problems - introduction � Panic attacks � Paranoia � Personality disorders � Phobias � Self-esteem � Self-harm � Sleep problems POSITIVES The social aspect of course, now people are not limited to being around the people immediately in front of them. They can explore and converse with others from all over the world. Not only can they further their existing relationships as another way of connecting, but also there is more opportunity to connect with a larger base, possibly opening the doors to more choices of people and relationships. This allows for even more interactions that may not have been possible or even existed before, creating outlets and communities. For example, it can benefit people that have trouble with in-person contact, minority or marginalized groups, or people that have been through the same trauma. It sometimes displays the best of humanity, with uplifting stories or messages. In this regard, social media creates a positive impact on the world, benefiting the social aspect of a person’s well-being. However, an online personality is not always the same as someone’s real personality. There are some that use their online presence to augment their true personality and use their social media as an extension of who they think they are, not who they actually are. But even in the more “real” portrayal online, social media provides a perfect avenue for people to create facades. No amount of words, captions, pictures or even videos can completely capture what a person is really like. Social media is an outlet for people to create a curated image, one that is thought-out and intentional, unlike what most can accomplish in real life. This concept, however, can easily be forgotten or not realized for impressionable people, like the youth. NEGATIVES Online personalities are not real, especially because they tend to take the best moments or best said things and string them together to create this image. When this is not regularly acknowledged, it may create pressure on ourselves to replicate this in real life too. IJTSRD29194 International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (IJTSRD) @ www.ijtsrd.com eISSN: 2456-6470 @ IJTSRD | Unique Paper ID – IJTSRD29194 | Volume – 3 | Issue – 6 | September - October 2019 Page 776 And we can get so used to it, it can almost become subconscious, even for young kids. When these standards are not met, people may feel like there is something wrong with them or that there is something missing from their lives. Additionally, the quantification of social media through the number of followers and comments on posts, and even what is being said in the comments, good or bad, can dictate someone’s mood or self-esteem. Businesses know this too, and use it to their benefit to promote products to impressionable youth. The formula for social media makes it so people will always keep coming back for more. With the lack of education in it, people can easily let it control their life and tell them when to look at it and when to stop and how it should make them feel. Sound like an addiction? Perhaps for those that have not understood the effects of social media. This makes less- mature people, like young people, prime exploits. Social media takes advantage of what makes drugs so addictive, but does it psychologically rather than chemically, using instant gratification and impulse. Now, some are stable on their own and know how to deal with their own emotions in healthy ways, so for them social media is just an aid to help them. But for those still learning to deal with their thoughts, feelings, body and health in general, without regulation or education, social media can disrupt this process. In dealing with negative emotions, similar to addictive substances, social media could be learned to be used in response. PROTECT YOUR MENTAL HEALTH FROM SOCIAL MEDIA’S DANGERS Limit when and where you use social media Using social media can interrupt and interfere with in- person communications. You’ll connect better with people in your life if you have certain times each day when your social media notifications are off – or your phone is even in airplane mode. Commit to not checking social media during meals with family and friends, and when playing with children or talking with a partner. Make sure social media doesn’t interfere with work, distracting you from demanding projects and conversations with colleagues. In particular, don’t keep your phone or computer in the bedroom – it disrupts your sleep. Have ‘detox’ periods Schedule regular multi-day breaks from social media. Several studies have shown that even a five-day or week-long break from Face book can lead to lower stress and higher life satisfaction. You can also cut back without going cold turkey: Using Face book, Instagram and Snap chat just 10 minutes a day for three weeks resulted in lower loneliness and depression. It may be difficult at first, but seek help from family and friends by publicly declaring you are on a break. And delete the apps for your favorite social media services. Pay attention to what you do and how you feel Experiment with using your favorite online platforms at different times of day and for varying lengths of time, to see how you feel during and after each session. You may find that a few short spurts help you feel better than spending 45 minutes exhaustively scrolling through a site’s feed. And if you find that going down a Face book rabbit hole at midnight routinely leaves you depleted and feeling bad about yourself, eliminate Face book after 10 p.m. Also note that people who use social media passively, just browsing and consuming others’ posts, feel worse than people who participate actively, posting their own material and engaging with others online. Whenever possible, focus your online interactions on people you also know offline. Stop social media from replacing real life Using Face book to keep abreast of your cousin’s life as a new mother is fine, as long as you don’t neglect to visit as months pass by. Tweeting with a colleague can be engaging and fun, but make sure those interactions don’t become a substitute for talking face to face. When used thoughtfully and deliberately, social media can be a useful addition to your social life, but only a flesh-and-blood person sitting across from you can fulfill the basic human need for connection and belonging. CONCLUSION It is clear that during the past 10 years, social networking has caused significant changes in the way people communicate and interact. It is unclear, however, whether some of these changes affect normal aspects of human behavior and cause psychiatric disorders. In the future, additional research will be needed to identify and describe the potential relationship between the use of social media and various mental health issues. References [1] Kraut R, Patterson M, Lundmark V, et al. Internet paradox. A social technology that reduces social involvement and psychological well-being? The American Psychologist 1998; 53:1017–1031. [2] Subrahmanyam K, Kraut RE, Greenfield PM, et al. The impact of home computer use on children's activities and development. The Future of Children/Center for the Future of Children, the David and Lucile Packard Foundation 2000; 10:123–144. [3] Pantic I, Damjanovic A, Todorovic J, et al. Association between online social networking and depression in high school students: behavioral physiology viewpoint. Psychiatria Danubina 2012; 24:90–93. 
work_5dikuxddera2tml4wb3ckd2zt4	----	Life in the Fast Lane – viewed from the Confluence Lens George Varghese Microsoft Research Redmond, WA, USA varghese@microsoft.com ABSTRACT The most striking ideas in systems are abstractions such as virtual memory, sockets, or packet scheduling. Algorithmics is the servant of abstraction, allowing the performance of the system to approach that of the underlying hardware. I survey the trajectory of network algorithmics, starting with a focus on speed and scale in the 1990s to measurement and security in the 2000s, using what I call the confluence lens. Confluence sees interdisciplinary work as a merger of two or more disciplines made compelling by an inflection point in the real world, while also producing genuinely transformed ideas. I attempt to show that Network Algorithmics repre- sented a confluence in the 1990s between computer systems, algorithms, and networking. I suggest Confluence Diagrams as a means to identify future interdisciplinary opportunities, and describe the emerging field of Network Verification as a new confluence between networking and programming lan- guages. 1. NETWORK ALGORITHMICS I use “algorithmics” in a slightly unnatural way to refer to speeding up any good abstraction in computer science that is in danger of being abandoned because of performance. An abstraction is an idealization of real- ity that allows the user of the abstraction to be more productive by simplifying or idealizing the underling re- ality. Great abstractions make life easier for users of the abstraction. For example, relational databases were an advance, but it took years of effort in query planning before relational databases became commonplace. When I began academic life at Washington Univer- sity, St. Louis, in the 1990s, the web was exploding. Internet traffic was doubling each year, and so were al- located IP addresses. The only flaw in the ointment was that the beautiful networking abstractions, TCP and IP, were much slower than the raw fiber, which was already reaching 1 Gbps . TCP, of course, provides the abstraction of two con- nected queues: this eases the task of data transfer be- tween applications on different machines without con- sidering the details of the underlying network. Simi- larly, IP offers the simple abstraction of datagram ser- vice, sending an isolated message from a source end- point to a destination endpoint regardless of the variety of link technologies used. But when the performance wars began in the 1990s with the emergence of fiber, revolutionaries began propos- ing transports like XTP to replace TCP, and MPLS to replace IP in order to boost performance. This moti- vated the birth of network algorithmics [30] as a set of techniques to restore the speed of networking abstrac- tions to that of fiber without compromising the elegance and ease of use of the abstractions. The rest of this article represents a revisionist history of network algo- rithmics from the lens of what I call confluences, which I now define. 2. CONFLUENCE DIAGRAMS The dictionary meaning of a confluence is the meet- ing place of two rivers, as in the Missouri and the Mis- sissippi who meet near St. Louis, or the Tigris and Euphrates who meet near the Garden of Eden. For the purposes of this article, however, a confluence broadly speaking is a meeting place of two streams of thought. We can add some teeth to this definition so it does not reduce merely to interdisciplinary motherhood and apple pie. First, as in the Confluence Diagram shown in Figure 1, distinguish the top stream as the main stream of thought, and the bottom as the impacting stream. Second, we seek three distinctives, also depicted in the diagram. The first requirement is an inflection point, a change in the real world, that makes the merger of the streams compelling. Second, the new stream should have a different set of design constraints from its constituent streams, what we might call a milieu change, so one must rethink ideas in the merged stream. Thirdly, to ensure that the new stream is a true mixing of streams, there should be evidence of one idea that transforms from the impacting stream to the new stream. Mere reuse of existing ideas would be using the impacting stream as a technology – a good thing certainly, but not as exciting as a true confluence of ideas. To make This article is an editorial note submitted to CCR. It has NOT been peer reviewed. The authors take full responsibility for this article’s technical content. Comments can be posted through CCR Online. ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review 19 Volume 45, Number 1, January 2015 MAIN STREAM IMPACTING STREAM NEW STREAM Inflection Point Milieu Change Transformed Ideas Figure 1: Confluence Diagram: Inflection Point, Milieu Change, and Transformed Ideas these concepts concrete, consider first an example from painting. Ideas to Canvas Photography Realistic Painting Psychology Impressionism Thin to thick strokes Figure 2: Impressionism as a Confluence Figure 2 depicts Impressionism as a confluence when mainstream painting in the 1800s was impacted by the emerging field of psychology to form new streams of painting such as impressionism, and later expression- ism. The inflection point was the arrival of cheap pho- tography which made painters question the value of merely realistic rendering. Why not, painters such as Monet may have reasoned, paint the subjective response to a landscape, an im- pression, something a camera cannot do. This was a milieu change because impressions captured as concepts in psychology now had to be incarnated in paint. There were also transformed ideas: thin, precise brush strokes that delineated borders gave way to blurry thick strokes that mix in the eye at a certain distance. Why look at existing and new work through the lens of confluence? I will develop this thesis in detail else- where. For now, may I suggest that the confluence lens allows us to separate trends from fads by looking for the inflection point; further, the milieu change, once identified, provides a theme for research and a spring of specific research ideas. The inflection point makes it more likely that the re- sulting research will have impact, and the milieu change allows creative freedom to rethink ideas in sometimes beautiful ways, balancing the twin desires we have as computer scientists for both beauty and impact. Fi- nally, a discerned confluence can sometimes suggest a new field in the making – a green field area, especially a boon when the original fields (think TCP papers) have matured 3. NETWORK ALGORITHMICS HISTORY I would like to take a whirlwind tour of various con- cepts that helped make the Internet fast, but looked at retrospectively though the confluence lens. Fast Servers: My first encounter with algorithmics was when I joined Digital Equipment Corporation and found a beautiful confluence between computer archi- tecture and networking (Figure 3) that led to something that today is called RDMA [2] but was part of the VAX- Cluster system invented by Kronenberg, Strecker and Levy [20]. The inflection point was the realization that one could create cheap clusters of minicomputers; the milieu change was going from a bus in a single computer to many computers connected by a network. In particular, the inventors of VAXClusters [20] rea- soned that since Direct Memory Access was a stream- lined way of sending large amounts of data directly from the disk to memory without bothering the CPU, the idea could be extended to Remote DMA from the mem- ory of computer 1 to the memory of computer 2 without the intervention of either CPU. Data was copied only once over the bus, and the overhead of systems calls and interrupts was minimal. Of course, today RDMA is a major force in storage networks, but people forget it was invented in 1986. Networking Architecture Algorithmics Cheap Clusters Machine bus to Network bus DMA RDMA Figure 3: RDMA as a Confluence Soon after VAXClusters, a new inflection point arose as the Internet began to heat up. Servers were found to be woefully slow because they copied data across lay- ers of software, and because of the overhead of system calls. While RDMA did avoid these overheads, it re- quired protocol changes, and only worked for large data transfers. Thus began a stream of work in SIGCOMM influenced by the Operating System community (the impacting stream), to match the speed gains of RDMA ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review 20 Volume 45, Number 1, January 2015 using only local Operating System changes without pro- tocol changes, while retaining structure and protection. I pick three representative papers. Fbufs from Dr- uschel and Peterson [9] showed it was possible to avoid copies by leveraging page tables. Application Device Channels from Druschel, Peterson and Davy [10] showed how to avoid system calls. Both ideas are alive and well in what people call Zero Copy Interfaces [5] and Virtual Interface Architecture [4]. Finally, Active Messages [32] was roughly concurrent with Application Level Device Channels, and again avoided control overhead by pass- ing information in packets. Beyond ways to stream- line data movement, Van Jacobson and Mike Karels showed that TCP performance could be optimized in the expected case using “header prediction” [3] when segments arrive in order. No new transport protocols were needed. The stage had been set for fast servers. Fast Routers: The first glimmer of a real confluence between algorithms and networks that I encountered arrived because of a new inflection point (Figure 4) around 1996. IPv6 was rumored to be imminent and addresses were now W = 128 bits. Simple trie-based schemes were linear in the number of address bits which was too slow. Of course, theoretical computer science had some fast prefix algorithms but they were mostly O(log N) schemes where N is the number of prefixes, and the milieu was different (Figure 4) because memory accesses and not computation is the dominant metric. While most theoretical algorithms were content with computing a prefix lookup in milliseconds, an arriving packet had less than a microsecond to be forwarded. It was in puzzling over IPv6 that we discovered a prefix lookup scheme that took O(log W ) memory accesses, which for IP v6 was 7 memory accesses. This to me seemed to be a transformed concept. While O(log log N) algorithms were known for lookups [28], they were for exact lookups and more complicated. Networking Algorithms Algorithmics Traffic, IP v6 Msec to usec Binary Search on keys Binary search on Lengths Figure 4: Binary Search on Prefix Lengths as a Conflu- ence. The story of Binary Search on prefix lengths [33] is a romantic tale of an encounter with two outsiders, and how ideas are ”in the air” at a certain time period. I met Jon Turner on the stairs of Bryan Hall in Washing- ton University and he asked why one couldnt do binary search on prefix lengths. Prefixes would first be segre- gated by their length and then at each length a search for a prefix required only an exact match by hashing. The usual method starts with the longest length and works backward. Jon, however, wanted to start with the middle prefix length and perform binary search. I thought about his idea for a few minutes and showed him a simple counterexample with two prefixes, one at length 1 and one at length 3. I asked him how one could search in the middle length (2) hash table when there was no prefix of length 2. Some days later, he met me on the same stairs and told me “Easy: for every longer length prefix, add an artificial prefix (called a marker) at all length tables that binary search can reach”. Thus in Figure 5, marker 10 is placed in the Length 2 hash table. This was wonderful as far it went, but there was a flaw. Sometimes markers take you on a wild goose chase to the second half. For example, in Figure 5, when searching for the string 100, marker 10 takes search to the second half towards the entry for 101∗ when the answer (1∗) instead lurks in the first half. Rather than tell Turner about the bug, I decided to fix it myself by precomputing the best matching prefix of every marker. For example, the best matching prefixof 10 is precom- puted to be 1∗ . If the search process remembers the matching prefix of the last marker encountered, this be- comes the answer when search fails without the need for backtracking. 1* 101* Length 1 Length 3 Length 2 10 Three ideas: 1. Start in middle, 2. Add markers 3 . Pre-compute best matching prefix of each marker Figure 5: Binary Search on Prefix Lengths. The two prefixes are 1∗ and 101∗. 10 is an artificial entry called a marker used to guide binary search. Amazingly, on a bus a few days later, I sat next to a really smart Swiss student, Marcel Waldvogel, who was visiting Washington University. He had all the same ideas as Jon and ended with the same bug. So we began working together. Of course, Marcel did all the work, ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review 21 Volume 45, Number 1, January 2015 and added a number of elegant ideas of his own such as Rope Search [33]. Next, every packet arriving on an input link of a router is subject to IP lookup to determine its output port and then must be transferred via the guts of the router, often called a switch. Early switches in the 90s, such as the Catalyst 5K from Cisco designed by Tom Edsall, used a simple bus akin to the older PCI bus in a CPU. But as speeds went up, designers realized they had to use a crossbar, which is a set of parallel busses. The simplest technique to schedule a crossbar uses in- put queuing, where packets waiting for an output are placed in a single queue at the input link. However, that meant that a packet on an input in- terface destined to a red output interface could wait (at the input) behind a packet destined to a busy blue out- put interface, even though the red output interface was free. This is the so-called Head-of-Line blocking prob- lem which can reduce throughput by nearly half. This problem resulted in researchers proposing more complex output queuing designs. But, as far as I know, output queuing designs never entered the mainstream router market because of their complexity. A breakthrough occurred, or so it seems to me, around 1992 when Tom Anderson, Chuck Thacker, and others from DEC SRC [7] introduced two new ideas. First, they changed the FIFO interface to one interface at each input for each output, sometimes referred to as VOQs (virtual output queues), as shown in Figure 6. Then information about all non-empty VOQs is sent to a scheduler. Their second remarkable idea was a maximal match- ing algorithm called PIM [7] that could be done in hardware in around 5 iterations. One can think of their approach as an Ethernet-like approach per out- put port. Each output port randomly selects among all input ports that wish to send to it; input ports rejected because of “collisions” retry in the next iteration. VOQs Maximal Match Figure 6: Virtual Output queues and Maximal Match- ing eliminate Head of Line Blocking A few years later Nick McKeown introduced iSLIP [24] which can be roughly thought of as a token ring equiv- alent of the Ethernet-like approach of PIM. The sched- uler grants access to each output link based on a rotat- ing priority that cycles through the input ports. While iSLIP can start badly, it generally converges to very good matches after a few iterations. iSLIP was used in the Cisco GSR. What is compelling here is not just the impact in terms of switch performance but the transformed idea. Maximum match is normally at least linear in the num- ber of inputs in theory. PIM, and then iSLIP, intro- duced new algorithms for maximal match that com- puted a match in nanoseconds and worked very well in practice. While PIM and iSLIP work well for small switches and unicast traffic, Jon Turner showed how to build scalable broadcast switches [27]. Between algorithmics for fast switching, IP Lookups, and packet scheduling, there was generally a sense by the 2000s that people knew how to build fast routers. There was Cisco’s Catalyst 6K (the first router with a crossbar), Juniper’s M40 (arguably the first router to use ASICs for forwarding), and Cisco’s GSR (one of the first commercial routers to avoid head-of-line blocking). Better still, the solutions scaled with link speeds. Sili- con Valley, with a little help from academia, had figured out routers. Was there nothing left for router algorith- mics? 4. MEASUREMENT ALGORITHMICS In the early 2000, a new inflection point arrived for routers. The perils that accompany success beset the Internet in terms of large scale attacks such as worms and Denial-of-Service attacks. Compounding these tac- tical issues was the strategic difficulty of finding traf- fic estimates to provision networks. It turns out that both detecting security attacks and finer-grain mea- surement require detecting patterns across packets, a milieu change from standard algorithmics that only de- tects patterns (such as prefixes) within packets. Naive methods require keeping massive amount of state across packets. However, theoretical bounds show that randomized algorithms can do much better. To il- lustrate measurement algorithmics as a confluence (Fig- ure 8) between randomized algorithms and algorith- mics, consider the following algorithm called Sample- and-Hold, which differs from standard sampling, as em- ployed in say Cisco’s NetFlow [1]. Consider the problem of estimating the traffic sent by the heavy ”elephant” flow such as F 1 without keeping track of potentially millions of ”mice” flows like F 3. The basic idea in Sample-and-Hold [11] is that ordinary sampling is used to decide whether a flow like F 1 is sampled. But once F 1 is sampled, it is placed in a hash ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review 22 Volume 45, Number 1, January 2015 Algorithmics Randomized Algs Security Algorithmics Attacks, worms Within Across packets Sampling to Sample & Hold Figure 7: Measurement Algorithmics as a Confluence table (Flow Table) and all subsequent traffic sent by F 1 is watched. Unlike sampling, the uncertainty in the measurement of F 1 occurs only at the start and this translates into a reduction of standard error from 1/ √ M to 1/M, where M is the amount of memory available for the flow table. M is typically limited, being high speed on-chip mem- ory. Hence, a reduction of error from 1/100 to 1/10, 000 is appreciable. Of course, the real edge of Sample-and- Hold over sampling occurs because of a milieu change: the router gets to see every packet. By contrast, the Gallup Poll finds it expensive to survey individuals, and hence must resort to standard sampling. F1 F1 F1 F1 F2 F1 3 F2 1 F1 F3 Uncertainty only at start Sampling Flow table Figure 8: Sample-and-Hold samples flows but then keeps track of all subsequent packets for each sampled flow Sample-and-Hold was first described in a very nice paper by Gibbons and Mathias on databases [14]. We [11] did, however, add a new analysis and made other changes to fit the networking mileu. Measurement and security algorithmics have been well developed by many researchers. The following is a sam- ple of three pieces of work I like. First, Elephant traps [16] improve sample-and-hold by periodically removing mice flows that have drifted into the flow table by random chance. Next, researchers have gone beyond heavy- hitter measurements to obtain more complex estimates including flow distributions [21] using small space. Finally, super-spreader algorithms [31] detect more complex security predicates in streaming fashion such as sources that send packets to a large number of des- tinations, sometimes indicative of an intruder trying to break into any compromised machine. Some aspects of these ideas are in chips and software; for example, Cisco fabricated a chip based on automated worm detection technology [26]. Despite this, I do not think that mea- surement algorithmics is mainstream as yet. 5. OTHER NETWORKING CONFLUENCES Confluences in networking are not new. Examples of past confluences with the impacting field shown in parentheses include queuing networks (Queuing The- ory), Pricing the Internet (Economics), and Network Security (Computer Security). More current conflu- ences include Data Center Networks (High Performance Computing) and Wireless Network Coding (Informa- tion Theory). One can argue that each confluence was triggered by an inflection point such as the need to understand packet delays in the early Internet (queuing networks), the shift to the commercial Internet (Internet Pricing), the advent of large scale attacks and cyber-crime (Net- work Security), the need for large scale data centers to support Cloud Services (Data Center Networks), and the advent of Software Defined Radios together with the dearth of wireless spectrum (Wireless Network Coding). Each introduces a milieu change from their impact- ing fields: networks of queues, the reduced importance of marginal costs in Internet economics, the ability to rapidly amplify a security attack, the need to scale clus- ters to hundreds of thousands of nodes, and the possibil- ity of embracing wireless interference instead of shun- ning it. Each confluence has produced new ideas in- cluding the independence assumption [19], edge pric- ing [25], ecosystem analysis [22], data center transports with lower latency than TCP [6], and Zig Zag coding to recover information in the face of collisions [15]. An area that excites me personally is what several researchers call “Network Verification”. Nick McKe- own’s SIGCOMM Keynote two years ago, described the opportunity in network verification by comparing it to hardware and software verification [23]. Network ver- ification can also be viewed as a confluence between Programming Languages and Networking as shown in Figure 9. The inflection point that makes Network Verification compelling is the emergence of cloud services. Stud- ies [34] have shown that network failures are a signifi- cant and debilitating source of operational expenditures that can impact the economic viability of such services. ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review 23 Volume 45, Number 1, January 2015 Networking Programming Languages Programs networks Cloud services 1 Solution to many, SAT to AllSAT Figure 9: Network Verification as a Confluence On the other hand, the field of programming language has produced a variety of tools from debuggers to static checkers. Network verification seeks to find analogous tools for networks. The milieu changes in going from programs to net- works. Networks can be regarded as programs that transform packets, and such network ”programs” typi- cally have simple control flow. However, the large pos- sible space of packet headers complicates the task com- pared even to large-scale software such as operating systems. New ideas have emerged in this confluence including new forms of compression to compactly rep- resent the header space [18, 17], the automatic synthe- sis of forwarding rules at routers [16], the extension of the notion of test coverage to covering links and router queues [34], and the use of causality in network debug- ging [12]. I started with life in the fast lane and I ended in the 2000s with measurement algorithmics and security al- gorithmics both of which have been well studied. Are there any unexplored directions for network algorith- mics? One I find promising, a confluence between net- work algorithmics and virtualization as depicted in Fig- ure 10, was brought to my attention by Daniel Firestone and Ramana Kompella. The milieu change is the placement of network func- tions in virtual machines running on multiple cores in- stead of on pipelined router hardware, once again caused by the inflection point of cheap cloud services. Exam- ples of transformed ideas in this space include rethink- ing TCP performance in virtualized environments [13] and the Route Bricks approach to software router de- sign [8]. 6. CONCLUSION Network algorithmics has played out from a focus on speed and scale in the 90s to a focus on measure- ment and security algorithmics in the 2000s. A conflu- ence that suggests new problems in network algorith- Algorithmics Virtualization Network functions moved to Virtual Switch Improving TCP throughput affected by virtualization Pipelined HW to multicore CPUs with VMs Figure 10: Networking using Virtual Machines as a Confluence mics may arise from the inflection point caused by net- work processing in software on virtual machines. Be- sides current confluences in networking such as Data Center Networking and Wireless Network Coding, Net- work Verification is a promising new confluence. Confluence thinking is useful because it allows a re- searcher to discern a new direction, find a unifying theme, and produce research that balances beauty (via trans- formed ideas) and impact (via the inflection point). The milieu change allows rethinking ideas in both the exist- ing and impacting fields to produce research ideally of interest to both communities. Of course, this begs the question: are there more systematic techniques to use confluence thinking in research? The slides published online [29] have some hints such as “embrace collisions” and ”seek coherence”. This article began with a review of network algorith- mics but gradually segued to a framework for thinking about interdisciplinary research. Perhaps, the ultimate excitement is not making things fast but the thrill of discerning a new field with ideas to explore and impact that potentially awaits. I hope seeking confluences will provide readers with that same rush. 7. REFERENCES [1] Netflow. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetFlow. [2] Remote direct memory access. http: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_direct_memory_access. [3] V. Jacobson’s notes on TCP header prediction. http://yangchi.me/ v-jacobsons-notes-on-tcp-header-prediction.html. [4] Virtual interface architecture. http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Virtual_Interface_Architecture. [5] Zero-copy. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-copy. [6] M. Alizadeh and et al. Data center tcp (dctcp). In Proceedings of ACM SIGCOMM 2010. [7] T. Anderson, S. Owicki, J. Saxe, and C. Thacker. High-speed switch scheduling for local-area networks. ACM Trans. Comput. Syst., 11(4), Nov. 1993. [8] M. Dobrescu and et al. Routebricks: Exploiting parallelism to scale software routers. Proceedings of SOSP ’09. [9] P. Druschel and L. Peterson. Fbufs: A high-bandwidth cross-domain transfer facility. SIGOPS Oper. Syst. Rev., 27(5), Dec. 1993. ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review 24 Volume 45, Number 1, January 2015 [10] P. Druschel, L. Peterson, and B. Davie. Experiences with a high-speed network adaptor: A software perspective. SIGCOMM Comput. Commun. Rev., 24(4), Oct. 1994. [11] C. Estan and G. Varghese. New directions in traffic measurement and accounting. SIGCOMM Comput. Commun. Rev., 32(4), Aug. 2002. [12] R. Fonseca, G. Porter, R. Katz, S. Shenker, and I. Stoica. X-trace: A pervasive network tracing framework. In Proceedings of the 4th USENIX NSDI, 2007. [13] S. Gamage, R. Kompella, D. Xu, and A. Kangarlou. Protocol responsibility offloading to improve TCP throughput in virtualized environments. ACM Trans. Comput. Syst., 31(3), Aug. 2013. [14] P. Gibbons and Y. Matias. New sampling-based summary statistics for improving approximate query answers. In Proceedings of SIGMOD 1998. [15] S. Gollakota and D. Katabi. Zigzag decoding: Combating hidden terminals in wireless networks. In Proceedings of ACM SIGCOMM 2008. [16] N. Kang, Z. Liu, J. Rexford, and D. Walker. Optimizing the ”one big switch” abstraction in software-defined networks. In Proceedings of the Ninth ACM Conference on Emerging Networking Experiments and Technologies, 2013. [17] P. Kazemian, G. Varghese, and N. McKeown. Header space analysis: Static checking for networks. In Proceedings of the 9th USENIX Conference on Networked Systems Design and Implementation, 2012. [18] A. Khurshid, W. Zhou, M. Caesar, and N. Godfrey. Veriflow: Verifying network-wide invariants in real time. In Proceedings of the First Workshop on Hot Topics in Software Defined Networks, 2012. [19] L. Kleinrock. Theory, Volume 2, Computer Applications. Wiley-Interscience, 1975. [20] N. Kronenberg, H. Levy, and W. Strecker. Vaxcluster: A closely-coupled distributed system. ACM Trans. Comput. Syst., 4(2), May 1986. [21] A. Kumar, M. Sung, J. Xu, and J. Wang. Data streaming algorithms for efficient and accurate estimation of flow size distribution. SIGMETRICS Perform. Eval. Rev. [22] K. Levchenko and et al. Click trajectories: End-to-end analysis of the spam value chain. In Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. [23] N. McKeown. Mind the gap. http://yuba.stanford.edu/ ~nickm/talks/Sigcomm%202012%20POSTED.ppt. [24] N. McKeown. iSLIP: A scheduling algorithm for input-queued switches. IEEE/ACM Trans. Netw., 7(2), Apr. 1999. [25] S. Shenker, D. Clark, D. Estrin, and S. Herzog. Pricing in computer networks: Reshaping the research agenda. SIGCOMM Comput. Commun. Rev., 26, 1996. [26] S. Singh, C. Estan, G. Varghese, and S. Savage. Automated worm fingerprinting. In Proceedings of the 6th Conference on Symposium on Operating Systems Design & Implementation, 2004. [27] J. Turner. Design of a broadcast packet switching network. In Proceedings of Infocom 1986. [28] P. van Emde Boas. Preserving order in a forest in less than logarithmic time. In Proceedings of the 16th Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science, SFCS ’75, 1975. [29] G. Varghese. Life in the fast lane. http://conferences. sigcomm.org/sigcomm/2014/doc/slides/2.pdf. [30] G. Varghese. Network Algorithmics. Morgan-Kaufman, 2004. [31] S. Venkataraman, D. Song, P. Gibbons, and A. Blum. New streaming algorithms for fast detection of superspreaders. In in Proceedings of 15th IEEE Symposium on High Performance Interconnects, 2007. [32] T. von Eicken and et al. Active messages: A mechanism for integrated communication and computation. SIGARCH Comput. Archit. News, 20(2), Apr. 1992. [33] M. Waldvogel, G. Varghese, J. Turner, and B. Plattner. Scalable high speed ip routing lookups. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGCOMM ’97, 1997. [34] H. Zeng, P. Kazemian, G. Varghese, and N. McKeown. Automatic test packet generation. In Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Emerging Networking Experiments and Technologies, 2012. ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review 25 Volume 45, Number 1, January 2015 
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work_5hrwwhewfbe2lpjqhnbyfqys5u	----	University of Birmingham Near Vermeer: Edmund C. Tarbell’s and John Sloan’s Dutch Pictures Fagg, John DOI: 10.3366/mod.2016.0127 License: None: All rights reserved Document Version Early version, also known as pre-print Citation for published version (Harvard): Fagg, J 2016, 'Near Vermeer: Edmund C. Tarbell’s and John Sloan’s Dutch Pictures', Modernist Cultures, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 86-117. https://doi.org/10.3366/mod.2016.0127 Link to publication on Research at Birmingham portal Publisher Rights Statement: The final Version of Record was published as detailed above by Edinburgh University Press and is available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/mod.2016.0127 General rights Unless a licence is specified above, all rights (including copyright and moral rights) in this document are retained by the authors and/or the copyright holders. 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Apr. 2021 https://doi.org/10.3366/mod.2016.0127 https://research.birmingham.ac.uk/portal/en/persons/john-fagg(fab0c027-1684-4a7f-9cc7-47522e338180).html https://research.birmingham.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/near-vermeer-edmund-c-tarbells-and-john-sloans-dutch-pictures(401c10c4-2a0d-4993-a9fa-99e8daa64287).html https://research.birmingham.ac.uk/portal/en/journals/modernist-cultures(b94e3e64-e0fb-4345-890b-c251de2e7cf0)/publications.html https://doi.org/10.3366/mod.2016.0127 https://research.birmingham.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/near-vermeer-edmund-c-tarbells-and-john-sloans-dutch-pictures(401c10c4-2a0d-4993-a9fa-99e8daa64287).html 1 Near Vermeer: Edmund C. Tarbell’s and John Sloan’s Dutch Pictures Writing in April 1891 for the London weekly The Speaker the Irish author George Moore celebrated the recently deceased English Punch illustrator Charles Keene as “A Great Artist.” This piece was republished in the 1893 collection of Moore’s art criticism, Modern Painting, which the American painter Robert Henri recommended to his friend John Sloan in Philadelphia that same year. “[Keene] affected neither a knowledge of literature nor of Continental art,” Moore claims. “He lived in England and for England, content to tell the story of his own country and the age he lived in; in a word, he worked and lived as did the Dutchmen of 1630.”1 Two decades later the art critic Charles Caffin, who emigrated to the United States in the early 1890s, wrote extensively on American and European art, and tended to disguise his English origins, declared “I know no better example of complexity, thus ordered into simpleness by Scientific-Artistic Organization, than the Holland genre picture.”2 These strange declarations about historical Dutch painting make more sense in their specific (art) historical moment. Moore and Caffin, like the American critics Frank Jewett Mather and James Gibbons Huneker, were among a group of well-read, well-travelled commentators on historical and contemporary art who sought to reconcile cosmopolitanism with an on-going investment in national culture, and modernity with a reverence for the art of the past. In their writing, and in broader late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century American cultural, historical and political discourse, the art of the Dutch Republic, and indeed the Republic itself, came to signify both rootedness and progressivism. 2 This essay locates the American painters Edmund C. Tarbell and John Sloan within this broad understanding of “Dutch pictures.” It explores Sloan’s response to Moore’s ideas and Caffin’s response to Tarbell’s painting, as well as both painters’ encounters with seventeenth-century Dutch art in American collections, and the various ways in which they acknowledge and assimilate its influence. In so doing it suggests parallels and dialogues with other instances in which modernists consciously revived specific cultural epochs and relates to the broader sense in which early-twentieth-century modernism involved an interrogation of tradition, nostalgia, influence, homage and pastiche. As Alexandra Harris observes, of the Bloomsbury Georgian revival, Lytton Strachey and Virginia Woolf constructed Georgians to fit their own agendas; early-twentieth-century appeals to “Dutchness” were, similarly, a product of presentism, and, to an extent, ignorance.3 While scholarship was improving rapidly critics tended to generalise about “Dutch” painting with little attention to schools, styles and periods, and repeat misattributions and misinformation. That the insularity Moore ascribes to “the Dutchmen of 1630” has been thoroughly refuted by recent scholarship that reconnects Dutch painting to networks of global trade adds a layer of irony for contemporary readers. This essay does not attempt to correct such misunderstandings but instead takes them as part of a complex, mediated negotiation with art history and a transatlantic dialogue in which ideas and paintings moved through time and space while the painters themselves stay rooted to the spot. The influence of long dead Europeans on Americans living in Boston and New York contrasts with the seemingly more vibrant and dialogic form of impressionism. Through Mary Cassatt’s central role in the movement, Whistler’s 3 and Sargent’s complex engagement with its practices, and Tarbell and scores of other art students in Paris who picked up its ideas and techniques, late- nineteenth-century American involvement in impressionism has come to be seen as a paradigm for transatlantic artistic exchange, and American painters’ point of access into the mainstreams of modern art. In this context celebrating the artist “content to tell the story of his own country” seems archaic. As Richard Brettell’s introduction to the recent American Impressionism exhibition catalogue succinctly puts it: “‘nationalism’ is most often at war with ‘the modern’, and, if there is a premier form of artistic modernism, it is Impressionism. A term that is frequently applied to this trans-national or even anti-nation modernism is ‘cosmopolitanism’, which evokes both adaptability and rootlessness… .”4 Tarbell features prominently in this exhibition and both he and Sloan absorbed but then move away from impressionist technique towards practices that look back, quite consciously, to earlier genre painting traditions. This was a shift from painting that exalted in the ephemeral play of light to art praised for its sense of local soil and sturdy folk. While light might seem a more modern medium than soil, attention to local and national roots would remain a living presence in twentieth- century art. Modern Painting was a formative text for Sloan, who, at a time when many American artists, including Henri, travelled to Europe for education and inspiration, lacked the means to do so. Art historians Bernard Perlman and Rebecca Zurier have pointed to the ways Confessions of a Young Man (1888) and Modern Painting shaped both Henri’s receptiveness to impressionism when he first travelled to Paris and the inspirational art teaching be brought back to his circle of American friends and students. Sloan’s biographer, John Loughery, 4 observes that when Henri recommended Modern Painting it must have struck the young artist as “aesthetic guidance of a high order.”5 Moore’s assertion that great art might derive from immersion in the local animates Sloan’s first attempts at easel painting in his native Philadelphia, and works such as the New York City Life etchings that he made shortly after moving to lower Manhattan.6 His attack, in the essay “Our Academicians” and elsewhere, on London art institutions may have bolstered Henri and Sloan in their own stand against the jury system of the National Academy of Design. Sloan’s diary records many instances of buying, reading and sharing Moore’s later work, and arguments, opinions and turns of phrase found in Modern Painting run through Henri’s The Art Spirit (1923) and even Sloan’s Gist of Art (1939).7 Moore argues that Keene’s connection to his “home ground” makes his art “Dutch” and makes him a “Great Artist.” Of the original Punch drawings shown at the Fine Art Society’s memorial exhibition of which Moore’s essay is loosely a review, he writes: These drawings are Dutch in the strange simplicity and directness of intention; they are Dutch in their oblivion to all interests except those of good drawing; they are Dutch in the beautiful quality of the workmanship. Examine the rich, simple drawing of that long coat or the side of that cab, and say if there is not something of the quality of a Terburg [Gerard ter Borch]. Terburg is simple as a page of seventeenth-century prose; and in Keene there is the same deep, rich, classic simplicity. The material is different, but the feeling is the same. I might, of course, say Jan Steen; and is it not certain that both Terburg and Steen, working under the same conditions, would not have produced drawings very like Keene’s?8 5 The qualities Moore identifies as Dutch -- the recurring terms depth, richness and simplicity -- fall in with longstanding Victorian perceptions of the Dutch genre tradition that go back at least to John Ruskin’s Modern Painters (1843-60). But it is Moore’s provocation that artists did not have to be Dutch to be “Dutch” -- which he twists and extends with relish, stating “even the great Dutchmen themselves were not more Dutch than Keene was English” -- that is striking and that must have struck Sloan. Keene’s illustrations, like Moore’s essays, were a lifelong influence for Sloan who grew up surrounded by the British graphic art in his great-uncle Alexander Priestley’s “wonderful library with folios of [William] Hogarth and Cruikshank, etc” and first read Modern Painting while working as an illustrator for the Philadelphia Inquirer. Here he and his colleagues “studied the work of the English line draughtsman: Leech, Keene, et al, men who worked for Punch and the newspapers” as they honed their craft.9 Also in Philadelphia he saw the Dutch paintings amassed by the city’s wealthy collectors P. A. B. Widener and John G. Johnson. Thus, while, frustratingly, Moore’s essay refers to specific examples only by their Fine Art Society’s catalogue number (and makes only general reference to “Terburg and Steen”), Sloan knew the kind of work under discussion: And now, looking through the material deep into the heart of the thing, is it a paradox to say that No. 221 is in feeling and quality of workmanship a Dutch picture of the best time? The scene depicted is the honeymoon. The young wife sits by an open window full of sunlight, and the curtains likewise are drenched in the pure white light. … Look at that peaceful face, that high forehead, how clearly conceived and how complete is the 6 rendering! How slight the means, how extraordinary the result! The sunlight floods the sweet face so exquisitively stupid, and her soul, and the room, and the very conditions of life of these people are revealed to us.10 Much of Moore’s account is grounded in an English specificity that would have been alien to Sloan, who had read Dickens and knew at least something of Punch but lacked the lived experience of English types and classes, and access to Fine Art Society exhibitions, that Moore assumes. Aging ageing jakjfh Moore’s art writing was admired by his British contemporaries, including Roger Fry who likened him to Ruskin and praised his ability to convey “the essential and untranslatable meaning of the picture.”11 No. 221 appeared in Punch in 1887 as In the Honeymoon, with a caption in which the wife’s query, “What first attracted you, Dear?” is met with a rambling obfuscation that ends “I never could guess Widdles!” (fig. 1).12 Moore’s commentary takes readers to the precise locations of the “untranslatable” quality in Keene, that proximity of fit the features and details he depicts to the English middle-class life The Speaker’s readership could be expected to know intimately. Beyond those elements including the drapery and the wife’s forehead that Moore picks out, this quality is perhaps caught in the way the husband’s hand, palm upwards and thumb pinched to forefingers, seems to cradle some tangible truth which absorbs the wife’s attention but from which his own gaze strays blissfully distracted. Sloan’s 1905 illustration, “‘Ain’t it better than choc’late?’” (fig. 2) accompanied a light romance published in McClure’s Magazine in which, in the course of a single Sunday, Irish-American shop workers overcome initial awkwardness, different tastes in ice-cream, and the problems posed by the girl’s 7 drunken father and tyrannical mother. Sloan’s five illustrations for the story catch its New York settings, including the Bethesda fountain (its iconic statue visible in the background) and its bustling terrace (replete with the bonnets and bow-ties of Sunday “best”) where the young lovers eat ice-cream, as well as the details of type and class and character that are the essential content of Harvey J. O’Higgins’ story.13 The orphaned young man works in wholesale but is saving to buy his own store, and it is the precision with which Sloan’s illustrations convey the intertwined anxieties of new romance and second-generation immigrant aspiration that means it would not be paradoxical, in Moore’s terms, to see them as “Dutch pictures” too. Moore’s notion of “Dutch pictures” was a way to express his investment in tradition and rootedness and national culture without being nationalistic, and to elevate a form of provincialism while displaying his own erudition and cosmopolitanism. “We should strive to remain ignorant, making our lives mole- like, burrowing only in our own parish soil,” writes Moore, who as an aspiring painter had eagerly travelled to Paris. “There are no universities in art, but there are village schools.” “Soil,” as a figure for the deep connection to place necessary for “great art,” is a key term in Modern Painting, wherein “the great artist is he who is most racy of his native soil.” In this, and in his understanding of the Dutch Golden Age, Moore moves within the intellectual ambit of the French historian Hippolyte Taine who in his Art in the Netherlands, and in his writing on art and literature generally, pays sustained attention to, literally, the country’s soil and other environmental conditions before turning, figuratively, to the art and culture that took root and flourished there.14 Taine’s ideas and metaphors profoundly influenced 8 transatlantic thinking about national culture in the second half of the nineteenth century, for example shaping, as literary historian Kendall Johnson points out, Henry James’s expression of American cultural inferiority: “Hawthorne ‘sprang’ ‘Out of the soil of New England … – in a crevice of what immitigable granite he sprouted and bloomed.’”15 In his own autodidactic scholarship Sloan found his way back to this source, recording in several entries in his 1908 diary the purchase and careful study of Taine’s History of English Literature.16 While Perlman and Zurier are right to say that Henri and Sloan would have encountered Moore’s enthusiasm for the impressionism of Manet and Degas in Modern Painting, as careful readers they would have also picked up on his discontent with the movement by the late 1880s and disdain for the post- impressionism that followed. Here, too, Moore follows Taine, in whose deterministic model of national culture “A blooming period … is transient for the reason that the sap which produces it is exhausted by its production.17 Moore’s essay “Monet, Sisley, Pissarro and the Decadence” ends: France has produced great artists in quick succession. Think of all the great names, beginning with Ingres and ending with Degas, and wonder if you can that France has at last entered on a period of artistic decadence. For the last sixty years the work done in literary and pictorial art has been immense; the soil has been worked along and across. In every direction, and for many a year nothing will come to us from France but the bleat of the scholiast.18 Again, there are angles to Moore’s writing here that would have been oblique to Henri and Sloan in Philadelphia. As Robert Stephen Becker explains, much of Moore’s art criticism was intended as intervention in specific debates and 9 schisms in the London artworld.19 But the clear message of Modern Painting is that the latter-day followers of the great impressionists were inevitably limited to faddishness and idiosyncrasy. This may explain Sloan’s reservations about the first extended notice he received, from the English writer Charles Caffin, who emigrated to America in the early 1890s and often “passed” as American in his art criticism. In his 1907 work of popular art history, The Story of American Painting, Caffin positions Sloan within transatlantic impressionism: “For it is what the Japanese call the ‘Ukiyoye’ that attracts him – the ‘passing show’ of shops and streets, overhead and surface traffic, and the moving throngs of people, smart and squalid, sad and merry – a phantasmagoria of changing colour, form, and action.”20 Through reference to the Japanese “art of the floating world,” which exerted a powerful influence over the Parisian avant-garde and to the Baudelairean vision of the city as phantasmagoria, Caffin relates Sloan to Manet and his followers. The painting, Easter Eve (1907), which Caffin uses to illustrate his analysis, fits this bill. Sloan spreads a swathe of bright colored smears and loose brushstrokes across the centre of the canvas, the wares of a flower shop that its proprietor offers in a solicitous gesture to his well-dressed customers. A woman in the foreground pauses and turns to look, encouraging viewers to see the floral spray, the large bright-lit window, and the couple’s umbrella silhouette against them as spectacle. The back of another black-clad figure half-caught at the edge of the canvas implies a stream of pedestrians to be briefly illuminated and fascinated by this scene. In an earlier chapter, “The Remnants of the English Influence,” Caffin makes a withering assessment of antebellum artists such as George Caleb 10 Bingham and William Sidney Mount: “The genre painting of the middle of the [nineteenth] century is interesting to-day chiefly as an illustration of the kind of picture that amused our forebears and still amuses those of us who care more about some little anecdotal subject-matter than the method of the painting.” He is then at pains to differentiate Sloan from this tradition, asserting that he, “like other impressionists … avoids all competition with the verbal artist, and renders exclusively a painter’s impression both of the scene and of its underlying human interest.”21 In his account of pre-1940 American art history, Andrew Hemingway explains that in such statements it is, through Caffin, “the emergent aesthetic of modernism speaking, and correspondingly, the models of art practice and art discourse will be French.”22 While pleased to have been given “quite a notice” by Caffin, Sloan’s diary records his concern that the critic had granted him “Almost too much prominence in the ‘impressionist’ movement as he puts it.”23 This might simply be modesty, as Caffin gives far more attention to Sloan than to many of his better-known contemporaries, but it perhaps also acknowledges that this close association with impressionism and “the passing show” misses much of what was at stake in his art. The Story of American Painting celebrates impressionism as a definitive movement away from genre painting, with its baggage of anecdotalism and nostalgia. By contrast the art critic Frank Jewett began a New York Evening Post column, also published in 1907, by stating, “An inspection of the current art exhibitions would show genre painting almost completely in abeyance” and goes on to lament its loss as “we need the interpreter of everyday life.” Mather argues that romanticism “dealt familiar painting its death blow” with its insistence on the “imaginative” and “unfamiliar,” and as a result there is no adequate painterly 11 record of contemporary life equivalent to that of “seventeenth-century Holland [where] we may consult Hals, Terburg, Jan Steen, the Ostades, Metsu, and a score of others.” Like much of the commentary quoted in this essay, these opinions appeared in a newspaper and so carry questionable lasting significance. The painter and critic Guy Pene du Bois explained that the newspaper art critic “writes and thinks so that a man crushed in a crowded subway train will be able to understand every word.”24 But du Bois’s memoir also records a lively and erudite critical community working on the Post, the New York Sun and other City papers and it is clear from his diary that, for example, Sloan paid attention to this kind of art writing, as it is apparent that it was taken seriously in the wider culture. Mather’s column was republished in The Nation and prompted a long counter-argument in defence of contemporary genre painters in the liberal Massachusetts newspaper, the Springfield Republican.25 Mather’s column concludes by turning to impressionism as an unlikely site of genre painting’s re-emergence: Happily, there are suggestions of a revival of this homely art, and paradoxically enough, it is the impressionists who bear the gifts. It is the followers of Manet and Monet, who profess an entirely impersonal devotion to problems of light, that are actually producing as if accidentally the best genre painting. At home one may recall Childe Hassam’s occasional excursions in this field, Tarbell’s transcripts of country house and studio life, the fresh and vivid impressions of New York streets by [William] Glackens, John Sloan, and George Luks. Good genre is rarely brusque: it wants a quiet relish of the human comedy. Truly in the great 12 tradition of genre seems to us Jerome Myers’s vision of our slums. Here is the brooding quality that constitutes the dignity of a homely art: here is the balance between personal interests and play of chromatic light and shade, that one notes in the sober products of the Dutch school. Underlying this argument is the recognition that impressionism rarely strayed far from conventional subjects, so that if painters under its influence slowed down their execution (switching from brusqueness to brooding) and moved back from purely “problems of light” to chiaroscuro, traditions of genre (and landscape and still life) painting re-emerged. Mather’s survey of American impressionists-cum-genre painters takes in Henri and Sloan’s New York circle, but also, in Hassam and Tarbell, members of “The Ten,” a group against whom they sometimes sought to define themselves. In his diary Sloan disparages members of the group as “the poor Boston Brand of American Art!”26 While “Brand” here is derogatory, the group of Boston painters -- including Frank W. Benson, Philip Leslie Hale and, the younger artist, William MacGregor Paxton -- who were sometimes dubbed the “Tarbellites” in recognition of Tarbell perceived leadership or preeminence, certainly shared much in common as former Paris art students, followers of impressionism who assimilated its methods to those of their more formal training, and pupils and teachers at the Museum of Fine Arts School. This strong sense of a group of artists identified closely with one other, with their city, and with European precedents, was institutionalised with the formation of the Guild of Boston Artists -- invoking the Low Countries’ “Guilds of St Luke” -- in 1914. While Mather singles out Sloan’s friend Jerome Myers as comparable to “the sober 13 products of the Dutch school,” it was these Bostonians that American critics most commonly associated with Dutch genre painting. In December 1906, the Boston Sunday Herald hailed Tarbell’s Girl Crocheting (1904) as “The Best Picture in America,” and proclaimed, “there are some sober-minded persons who can see in the little painting qualities surpassing some of those in the work of the old Dutch masters, who delighted in the portraiture of interiors and the quiet home life of the Hollanders.” The full page spread reproduced Tarbell’s painting and Vermeer’s Girl Reading a Letter at an Open Window (1657), which was captioned “Van Der Meer Interior Suggesting Style of Mr. Tarbell’s Picture.”27 Such claims extended beyond local pride and the local press. In his account of New England Interior (fig. 3, 1906), which was shown “unfinished” two months later at The Ten’s 1907 Montross Gallery exhibition in New York James Huneker wearily acknowledges the familiarity of the Dutch painting comparison: “Tarbell is represented by only one picture, but it suffices; a New England interior, unfinished, yet finished beyond the power of other painters. You say Vermeer or Terburg.”28 The point was perhaps so familiar because it struck writers across the critical spectrum: on this matter Huneker, who shared Moore’s commitment to cosmopolitan modernity (but also his reverence for past masters and disdain for postimpressionism), agreed with the more staunchly conservative painter and critic Kenyon Cox. Grouping Girl Crocheting and New England Interior with Preparing for the Matinee (1907) in a 1909 appreciation for Burlington’s Magazine, Cox writes: “The analogy of this art to that of Vermeer is apparent at a glance. There is the same simplicity of subject, the same reliance on sheer perfection of representation – the same delicate truth of values, the same 14 exquisite sensitiveness to gradations of light.”29 The emphasis on simplicity, truth and quality resonates with what Moore and his Victorian predecessors saw in Dutch art, but the focus narrows to Vermeer. Moore presents ter Borch and Steen as essentially interchangeable; indeed it is their absence of individualism, their expression of what is typical and ordinary, that defines their greatness. By the end of the nineteenth-century historians and critics recognised Vermeer, whose identity had long been obscured and paintings misattributed, as an individualistic talent, a precursor indeed to the romantic vision of individual creativity. Tarbell cultivated and acknowledged an association not to Dutch genre painting in general but to Vermeer in particular. Beyond subjective claims about atmosphere and quality, Cox points to a shared “willingness to use a few elements of composition – a few objects – again and again….” Light falls from high windows in sparsely furnished rooms decorated with fine paintings and objects; a woman or women sit or stand absorbed in some combination of hushed talk, silent contemplation, delicate tasks and reading. Moreover, as art historian Ivan Gaskell observes, in Preparing for the Matinee “the generic Vermeer allusion is made explicit by Tarbell’s incorporation of a fragment as a painting-within-a-painting in the upper right corner of the composition. Cut off by that corner, we see windows and a tiled floor: part of a reproduction of The Music Lesson [c. 1662-65].”30 Art historian Bernice Kramer Leader traces a number of such more and less direct allusions. She also follows the spread of appreciation for Vermeer among Boston painters through a collection of essays by Thoré-Bürger and others published in translation in 1904, through Philip Hale’s dedicated, lifelong scholarship, and 15 through the presence of The Concert (c. 1664) at Isabella Stewart Gardner’s Fenway Court.31 While Tarbell had seen and admired Vermeer’s paintings as a student in Europe in the mid 1880s, Gardner’s 1892 acquisition brought The Concert back to the hometown in which he was firmly rooted. The series of related works that begins with Girl Crocheting roughly coincides with the public display of The Concert following the 1903 opening of Fenway Court. Here, amidst a highly cosmopolitan collection of European fine art and antiquities displayed in a manner that “subordinated the symbolism of the particular parts … to the aesthetic integrity of the museum as a whole,” Vermeer was far from Dutch soil.32 In The American Scene, his 1907 account of returning to America after prolonged absence, Henry James made much of the sight of such European objects displaced in American settings, with the Aphrodite sculpture at the nearby Boston Art Museum prompting the wry declaration, “he has not seen a fine Greek thing till he has seen it in America.” Encountering Fenway Court against the backdrop of a moribund Boston haunted by its former glories, James found solace in his friend’s creation: “It is in presence of the results magnificently attained, the energy triumphant over everything, that one feels the fine old disinterested tradition of Boston least broken.”33 James does not mention specific objects at Fenway Court, giving only a brief impression, but Vermeer’s work, with which he was already familiar, was surely among the old world objects re-seen and given new life and energy in this new world scene.34 In her exploration of The American Scene’s mediation of past and present, Beverly Haviland explains that for James 16 ‘Mrs Jack’s’ collection … performs a valuable cultural function not merely because it is an example of taste as a creative rather than a merely consuming act but because, even while it remains private property, it is publicly available for others to study, to appreciate, and, perhaps, even to be inspired by. This is re-creation and interpretation of cultural property on a grand scale.35 Were Tarbell’s paintings the kind of creative interpretation James and Gardner might have envisioned? Recalling his brief time at the Museum of Fine Arts School Lincoln Kirstein told the historian Trevor Fairbrother, “I think all the Bostonians for whom you claim ‘elegance’ came out of Mrs. Jack Gardner’s beautiful Vermeer. You will note that she didn’t have much interest in any of them.…”36 As Kirstein suggests, by bringing his art (perilously) near to that of an Old Master, Tarbell risked a derivative rather than generative relationship with the past. Sympathetic critics and commentators were alive to this possibility and sought to defend Tarbell against the charges of imitation and conservatism. The Boston art dealer S. Morton Vose II recalled that his father, gallery owner Robert C. Vose, admired Tarbell and Benson but dismissed their pupil Paxton with the popular witticism, “A near Vermeer is a mere veneer.”37 “[I]f the inspiration of Vermeer is evident there is no trace of imitation,” Cox declared, perhaps with such jibes in mind. “Mr. Tarbell is trying to do what Vermeer did, not to do it as Vermeer did it – still less to give the superficial aspect of the Dutchman’s pictures.”38 Certainly, seeing these paintings today, it is striking how far from Vermeer they are. While New England Interior has passages of paint -- the bright white shine on the curved arm of the highly polished wooden chair, the carefully worked reflection of the vase on the table top -- on which to hang 17 Vermeer comparisons, much of the canvas is given over to scumbled surfaces and loose, gestural brushwork. The painting’s iconography similarly offers points of comparison -- as in the familiar Dutch genre motif of the open door giving into another interior space -- but complicates or subverts them – the door is quite precisely half-open, playing between the sense of an open, legible home and something more mysterious. In their abbreviations and hints at mystery Tarbell’s paintings are, perhaps unsurprisingly, closer to those of contemporaries, such as John Singer Sargent or Vilhelm Hammershøi, who, similarly, brought the lessons of impressionism to contemplative interiors. Two years after commenting on New England Interior, Huneker saw in Girl Reading, shown at The Ten’s 1909 annual, “silver daylight, the cool light of New England. A girl bathed in its magic is reading. The spacing is alluring, from the chair to the wall, from the window to the chair. It is the Vermeer gambit, that no one will deny, but who can handle such difficult and lovely problems as Tarbell does?”39 Huneker’s patient phrasing measures out the dimensions of the room, rendering in language the poetics of interior space that Vermeer perfected and that, on this account, Tarbell consciously and carefully inhabits. In a similar vein, and in a striking extension of Taine’s metaphoric association of artistic production with organic growth, Hale argued that Tarbell and Paxton were “very interesting as showing the effect of the Impressionistic movement when grafted, so to say, on good old Dutch stock.”40 Hale traces the “Dutch technique” passed from the Antwerp-trained teacher Otto Grundman to his pupil Tarbell, but also stresses the aspects of colour, handling and composition that distinguish Tarbell’s work. 18 The potential for painting in this vein to lapse into nostalgia was apparent in the popular “Dutch” subjects made by Walter MacEwen and others. One of several American painters based in the Netherlands, MacEwen specialised in “costume drama” style Dutch historical scenes. In his The Secretary (1905), as historian Annette Stott points out, “Even the satin dress and fur-trimmed jacket are motifs straight out of Vermeer and other little Dutch masters.”41 For Huneker New England Interior did more than merely hark back in this way to an old world past: “You say Vermeer or Terburg. Tarbell has imprisoned also within this frame a separate national, rather sectional sentiment. It is American, and it is New England.” The implication here is that this is a “Dutch picture” in Moore’s sense of a work analogously immersed in the history of its own time and local soil and character. “The room with its window, above all, its background, fairly floats in atmosphere,” Huneker argues. “The women are actual transcripts.”42 As in many of his paintings, the women Tarbell depicts here are his daughters and that connection makes it harder to see them as “types” in the manner suggested by Huneker, but maybe there is something more in the picture than clothing and setting that marks it as a contemporary New England scene. Perhaps the way the girl to the right’s hand intrudes into the lap and the personal space of her companion who in turn seems to shy away from her introduces a crackle of tension, an angular vehemence, a heightened emotion, into the becalmed, pristine interior and so perhaps calls to mind New England’s history of quietly spoken, fiercely voiced female radicalism and moral suasion. Perhaps this is “sectional sentiment.” Perhaps. These fine distinctions and observations made in earnest by informed critics have been largely dismissed by later art historians. By 1912 Huneker 19 could boast to the New York Sun editor Edward P. Mitchell, “I've seen every Vermeer in existence even the one down in Budapesth (sic).”43 Hale’s comments appear in his Jan Vermeer of Delft (1913), which was the first monograph on the painter in English and which continued to be taken as serious scholarship up to and beyond the publication of a revised edition, Vermeer, in 1937. Tellingly while a chapter on “Vermeer and Modern Painting” appears in both editions, the remarks about Tarbell and Paxton do not. By the 1930s American taste had moved far from their genteel scenes of leisure class women, and Vermeer’s status had risen such that, regardless of the Boston Herald’s claims to the contrary, comparisons could not but seem iconoclastic and pretentious. On the few occasions in which Tarbell and his peers have figured in subsequent histories of American art, critics have tended, like Leader, to dismiss the associations with seventeenth-century Dutch art as profoundly conservative and backward looking, or to bracket them, as curator Erica Hirshler does, as a misguided facet of the contemporary reception in order to stress other more proximate influences such as Japonisme and the Arts and Crafts movement. Bound up with the Boston Herald’s hyperbole and New York Tribune critic Royal Cortissoz’s claim that Girl Crocheting was a “modern Ver Mer,” Cox, Huneker and Hale’s more nuanced references to Vermeer might seem best left to their historical moment.44 Writing in that moment, for Harper’s Monthly in 1908, Charles Caffin suggested ways of seeing Tarbell in relation to both modernity and Vermeer -- while studiously avoiding direct reference or comparison to seventeenth-century Dutch painting. As with his earlier claims about Sloan’s impressionism, Caffin sees Tarbell moving beyond genre painting’s constraints by making scenes of 20 everyday life vehicles for aesthetic expression. “We no longer regard them as genre in the old sense that their significance is to be calculated by their immediate representation of familiar things,” Caffin writes on the page facing a reproduction of New England Interior. “It is true that such matters form the ostensible subject of his pictures; but they are merely the necessary substratum of fact upon which his real intention must be built – the fabric of subtle suggestion to one’s sense of abstract beauty.”45 As Andrew Hemingway points out, Caffin brought to his popular art writing a strong sense of medium specificity and other ways in which French postimpressionism and critics like Roger Fry were beginning to stake out the terrain of modernism. But Caffin would title a later book Art For Life’s Sake (1913), and was also keen to adumbrate Tarbell’s relevance to contemporary society. He opens his Harper’s essay by paraphrasing an editorial in the progressive Christian weekly, The Independent, which asked, what the artists of America are doing toward embodying [current and emerging] ideals. How do they respond to the intense patriotism of the country, to the new religion of humanity in its conflict with disease and crime, to the eager spirit of uplift, to the thousand and one ways in which the modern mind is triumphing anew and more conclusively over matter?46 This question is a roll call of Progressive concerns and keywords, the stuff of Theodore Roosevelt’s New Nationalism and Herbert Croly’s The Promise of American Life (1909). Refuting the belief at the root of such inquiry -- that a painter absorbed by beauty and technique has necessarily “retired into a quiet 21 backwater, far from the real stream of thought and conduct” -- Caffin sees Tarbell’s art as an aesthetic corollary to these ideals. In a subtle argument, the full sense of which only becomes apparent when read in relation to his other art-writing, Caffin moves back and forth between the aesthetic qualities he finds in Tarbell’s painting and what he saw as the dominant values of Progressive America: “For to-day it is the environment in which our form of life exists and the relation of the one to the other that determine not only our own ideals, but those also of the truly modern artist.”47 The vague claims about environment and “form of life” make more sense in the context of Progressive concerns with urban planning and renewal and the City Beautiful movement, about which Caffin had published in Harper’s Monthly and elsewhere.48 For Caffin, Tarbell paints “with a rare vision that is keenly sensitive to the most subtle and intangible and fugitive evidences of beauty” and importantly “knows how to unify all these myriad nuances into a chord of complete harmony.”49 This then is the aesthetic corollary to the language in of Progressivism: Croly’s Promise of American Life sought to rethink “that harmony between public and private interest which must be the object of a national economic system”; John Dewey valued the cultural pluralism that resulted from mass immigration because, “This interactive relationship between things creates unity, and harmony on a higher scale.”50 Caffin’s related writing about Dutch art develops these claims further. In another Harper’s Monthly essay, published exactly one year later, Caffin introduced Tarbell’s friend and fellow Boston School painter, Frank W. Benson, with references to various schools of European painting. He argued that the ideals of contemporary America “come nearer to those of seventeenth-century 22 Holland than to those of Italy,” that the Dutch Republic upheld a “democratic ideal, compact as a crystal” and that “Among the artists in America who are responding to our present-day ideals is Frank W. Benson.” A few months later Caffin published The Story of Dutch Art (1909), which begins, “To the present and future art of the new republic of the United States of America this story of the art of the old Dutch Republic is dedicated by the author.” The parallels drawn here fit a wider cultural phenomenon, coined “Holland Mania” by the historian Annette Stott, wherein revisionist American historians in the nineteenth- and early-twentieth century developed an account of the Dutch Republic as the European antecedent and point of origin for the modern United States. These ideas found expression in the scholarship of John Lothrop Motley but also in the more frivolous form of Walter MacEwan’s popular paintings and the “Old Dutch Cleanser” household product trademarked in 1906. “For the modern world dates from the seventeenth century, and its pioneers were the Hollanders of that period,” Caffin explains, in a presentist manner that fits both the form of his populist art writing and American progressives’ investment in seeing Holland as an alternative antecedent to Britain. “Practically everything that we recognize to- day as characteristic of the modern spirit in politics, religion, science, society, industry, commerce, and art has its prototype amid that sturdy people.” Dutch Republicanism, but also free-thinking, entrepreneurship and cleanliness, were frequent invoked. A respectful but critical reviewer for The Nation observed of The Story of Dutch Art, “Mr. Caffin is caught as he frequently is by putting on an equal basis the artist’s concrete work and his own inferences as to its spirit.”51 The same observation might be made of his claims about the Boston School painters, which 23 in his writing of 1908-09 coalesce with his thoughts on Dutch painting and culture. Tarbell and Benson were residents of the Progressive Boston of Louis Brandeis and William James but there is little sense of dialogue between the Museum School and Harvard. Moreover, Tarbell was an apt representative of what Henry James found to be early-twentieth-century Boston’s “inexpressive generation.” His credo “why not make it like” appears in the Boston Herald’s tribute, recurs in numerous other accounts of the man and his work, and comes to seem like his definitive statement on his art. But Caffin’s arguments rest little on how Tarbell and Benson saw their relationship to either seventeenth-century Dutch art or their contemporary America. Where Moore claims that Terburg and Keene share an analogous approach to their environment -- they would, in the same “conditions” produce the same work -- Caffin creates interwoven analogies between the ideals of the Dutch Republic and progressive-era America and between painters who express those ideals in aesthetic form in each moment. These arguments find fullest and strangest statement in Art for Life’s Sake, which must be one of the few books to devote equivalent attention to Johannes Vermeer and Frederick Winslow Taylor. It is here that Caffin asserts, “I know no better example of complexity, thus ordered into simpleness by Scientific-Artistic Organization, than the Holland genre picture.”52 By bringing his painting near to such Dutch pictures Tarbell, on a sympathetic viewing, creates works that invoke, acknowledge or call to mind Vermeer. In so doing they do not ask for comparison but for a contemplation of mutual or equivalent aesthetics and ideals. Intended to hang in Boston Brahmin homes, as New England Interior was following Catherine Codman’s purchase of 24 the painting, they acknowledge that they shared the city with Vermeer’s The Concert, and perhaps inflected the way that work could be seen in Boston. As The Nation noted, the publication of Caffin’s book on Dutch art coincided with the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s 1909 Hudson-Fulton loan exhibition, which, as part of a city-wide celebration of 300-year anniversary of Henry Hudson’s “discovery,” gathered an array of seventeenth-century Dutch art from the burgeoning collections of wealthy Americans, including Henry C. Frick and J. Pierpont Morgan (but not Isabella Stewart Gardner, whose Vermeer stayed, resolutely, in Boston). The catalogue boasted: “Some little astonishment will no doubt be felt in European art circles that it was possible to assemble in New York one hundred and forty-nine paintings of first importance, among them thirty-seven Rembrandts, twenty Frans Hals, and six Vermeers.”53 The exhibition both expressed and encouraged the feelings of reverence and kinship toward the Dutch Republic that Stott describes in Holland Mania. Dutch painting from this period was, curator Wilhelm Valentiner explained in his “Preface,” the product of “political freedom,” in which “the nation had time and opportunity to occupy itself with the aesthetic expression of newly achieved nationality.”54 The parallels between the Dutch and American “new nations” were underscored by the overall design of the Hudson-Fulton exhibition, in which these paintings were shown alongside a section surveying eighteenth- and nineteenth-century American art. Critics writing about the exhibition, whether caught up in the spirit of the wider Hudson-Fulton celebrations or convinced by Lothrop’s revisionist history, happily claimed Dutch painters as antecedents. In the New York Tribune, Royal Cortissoz (who was of Spanish and Caribbean origins) saw that “The light that 25 suffuses this land of our ancestors is gray and cool” (italics added). Writing in The Craftsman Natalie Curtis (primarily known for her work as a pioneering ethnomusicologist) quotes George Moore’s claim that the “Dutch School” of the seventeenth-century was “entirely original” in its turn to “the most ordinary incidents of everyday life.” In Moore’s essay, “The Failure of the Nineteenth Century” (reprinted in Modern Painting), Dutch artists’ engagement with quotidian subjects is attributed to their being “unimaginative, stay-at-home folk” whose “whole country was known to them.”55 The perception of an insular Dutch Republic in contrast to empire-building Britain carried particular currency in the context of early twentieth century America’s evolving sense of itself as a republic increasingly imbricated in imperialist incursions in Cuba, the Philippines and elsewhere. More prosaically, Curtis taps into the same associations as Old Dutch Cleanser, to find in the exhibition a rebuke to contemporary standards: “as we think of the dark narrow canyons leading from lower Broadway, with the skyscrapers towering on every side, it seems impossible to believe that those very streets once held the homes of the scrupulous Dutch, who in the old country washed even the outside of their houses three times a week.”56 That the exhibition was of public and art historical significant is apparent from Kenyon Cox’s long review, which ran over three separate issues of Burlington’s Magazine.57 Curtis urged that the Metropolitan Museum exhibition “must be an artistic event in the life of every American visitor who cannot go abroad,”58 and it certainly provided an opportunity for John Sloan to contemplate the presence of Dutch painting en masse in his adopted hometown. He visited the exhibition with his friend, the illustrator George Fox, and, in his diary, described 26 A great collection loaned for the most part by private collectors. A number of fine Frans Hals and Rembrandts. Saw again Rembrandt’s Finding of Moses, a small oval picture which I had seen in Mr. J. G. Johnson’s collection in Philadelphia. A beautiful “flute player” by Hals and “boys singing” by the same artist. Several Jan Steens and many other great things captured by the money of these American bourgeois riche.59 It is unsurprising that Sloan mentioned Rembrandt and Hals as both were well known to him and were the most extensively represented painters in the exhibition. But his mention of the five Steens rather than the six Vermeers is significant. Seeing these Steens, and perhaps reading reviews in The Craftsman (which Ashcan School painters knew, and sometimes wrote for or featured in) and elsewhere, may have taken him back to Moore’s grouping of Steen, ter Borch and Keene in Modern Painting, and he may also have seen parallels with his own art. Cortissoz’s review of the exhibition ended in a disparaging assessment of Steen, that may have resonated with Sloan: “Nevertheless, you cannot find delight, a lasting sensation of beauty, in the Dutch Hogarth as you can find it in Vermeer.” In an appreciation of his work published in The Craftsman early in 1909, Charles Wisner Barrell likened Sloan to Hogarth, and the “American Hogarth” association stuck.60 Sloan saw a great deal of art in the galleries of New York City in these years, ranging from the work of contemporaries such as The Ten, to European modern and Old Masters painting, to Japanese ukiyo-e prints, and it was more than likely these encounter with original objects, as with Tarbell and The Concert, that spurred and inspired his art. But Sloan was an avid reader too, of both art and literary history and contemporary art commentary. While often 27 dismissive of the newspaper critics -- after reading Cortissoz’s “sermon” in the Tribune on The Eight’s exhibition he concluded he would “rather have the opinion of a newsboy” -- this writing shaped and solidified, in agreement and in opposition, his own thinking. Cortissoz urged his readers to look, in Dutch paintings, at “the heavy frames and honest but quite unemotional physiognomies of the men and women, and at the wholesome, earthy lives they lead indoors and out. What more natural than that the artists dwelling in such an age of sturdy materialism should develop the gifts which go to the making of a realistic picture?”61 A “sturdy materialism” was among the effects that Sloan would come to pursue in his own painting from around the time of the Hudson-Fulton exhibition. Sloan was in the habit of visiting the Astor Place Library, often in the company of his friend John Butler Yeats, to research illustrations he was producing for magazines and to read about art. His May 25, 1910 diary records one such visit, on which he “looked at a few numbers of the Burlington Magazine. Was much interested in the work of Cézanne.” Maurice Denis’s long article, introduced and translated by Roger Fry, ran concurrently with the second and third installments of Kenyon Cox’s Hudson-Fulton exhibition review, which included reproductions of three “Vermeers” and a Jacob Ruysdael landscape. Cox’s third review groups Pieter de Hooch, Nicholas Maes, Adriaen and Isack Van Ostade, Steen and ter Borch as “minor” painters and -- with Cortissoz but in contrast to Moore -- sees them as fine craftsmen but not great artists like Rembrandt, Hals and Vermeer.62 Sloan in that moment -- browsing a London- based art magazine in a library built and bequeathed by one of the old Dutch New York families; reading at length about French postimpressionist painting; 28 and re-seeing, even if he did not stop to read the accompanying article by an American critic, the seventeenth-century Dutch paintings he had been taken by the previous autumn -- was immersed in currents of transatlantic and transhistorical exchange. Indeed, Roger Fry emphasizes modern painting’s relationship to the art of the past in brief remarks on two of the paintings illustrated, The Bathers and The Satyrs. Here Cezanne “takes the old traditional material of the nude related to landscape” but while “keeping quite close within the limits established by the old masters, gives it an altogether new and effective value.”63 This moment gave rise to Sloan’s most “Dutch” painting. “Started today on a subject I have had in mind for some days, the scrub women in the Astor Library” wrote Sloan in his June 1 diary entry. “Got the idea when there with Yeats last week.” Scrubwomen, Astor Library (fig. 4, 1910-11) describes a richer, more complex interior architecture than that afforded by Sloan’s familiar terrain of single room tenements and cheap cafes. Three women exchange seemingly jovial words as one, on her hands and knees, scrubs the highly polished floor while her companions, carrying buckets and brooms, turn to ascend the spiral staircase. The women occupy a dim-lit, enclosed foreground space beneath the library’s mezzanine balconies, which gives out into the large, light-filled reading room. Here three figures slump and recline around a table scattered with books. Art historians Robert Snyder and Rebecca Zurier note the painting’s Dutchness: “The architectural setting and harmonious golden tone, evocative of Dutch interior scenes with housewives, almost make the scrubwomen’s work seem pleasant, if not easy.”64 Given Sloan’s proximity in this moment to Steen and ter Borch (and Maes and de Hooch), in whose compositions apertures contrast interior spaces of domestic labor -- often the 29 famed Dutch scrubbing and cleaning of the early-twentieth-century imagination - - with exterior spaces and sites of leisure, this seems like more than a general evocation. For example, de Hooch’s The Bedroom (1658/60), lent by Widener to the Hudson-Fulton exhibition, positions a women folding bedding in the right foreground of a dim-lit room and a playful child in the doorway that lets into increasingly bright interior and courtyard spaces. Consciously positioned within this tradition, Sloan’s ambivalent scene -- who among the jovial scrubwomen and reclining readers is at work and who is at leisure? -- is imbued with both depth of allusion and license for playful interpretation. Sloan’s diary records his daily progress on the painting. On the fourth day he, “Went over the whole picture of the ‘Scrub women in the Library,’ brought it up in key.” (June 4) The “harmonious golden tone” identified by Snyder and Zurier was thus a conscious choice or revision, which moved Sloan away from the dark palette he and Henri inherited from Manet. Sloan worked intensively on the painting in June 1910, showed it to an approving Henri in October, and then worked it some more in March 1911. Henri, who in the spirit of Parisian impressionism urged his students to paint quickly -- “Do it all in one sitting if you can. In one minute if you can” -- liked to pun on “Sloan” and “slow,” but this was an unusually extended process. In an uncharacteristically expressive utterance, Tarbell, when asked, “how long it would take him to make a picture as he wished it to,” responded, “Oh, about a hundred years.”65 Again, slow, meticulous painting moved Sloan and Tarbell away from impressionism and at least a little nearer to Vermeer, whose famously slender body of work was often attributed to painstaking craftsmanship. In an article for Harper’s Weekly published in November 1913, John Butler Yeats, who was present at the painting’s inception, 30 asked of Scrubwomen, Astor Library, “Why does this picture interest anyone: What is the charm of this sad colored arrangement in brown? Is it the old women or the two (sic) readers? Or the walls lined with books or the atmosphere made thick, as one fancies, by the dust of so many mouldering volumes: Are we looking at a picture of silence made visible? I cannot say.”66 The painting’s sense of agedness and pathos, its uncertain hold on the interests of his contemporaries, its difference from the passing show of Easter Eve just two years earlier, all might stem from Sloan’s commune with old Dutch pictures. Painting in this way attuned Sloan to thinking slowly about the life around him that was not fleeting and ephemeral but rather rooted and cyclical. The scrubwomen, as he must have noticed on his repeat visits to the library, scrubbed everyday. Scrubwomen, Astor Library instigates a series of paintings, including A Woman’s Work (1912), Sunday, Women Drying Their Hair (1912), and Sun and Wind on the Roof (1915), that depict with varying degrees of meticulousness, New York women at their regular chores and routines. The first of these paintings makes overt Sloan’s attention to the ceaseless nature of domestic labour, and in its title, offers another kind of connection to Dutch genre paintings, which often drew their themes and allusions from proverbial wisdom: Man may work from sun to sun, But woman's work is never done. Seen in light of this proverb the rigged up clothesline create a circuit of work; the shadow passing across the courtyard charts the passage of the working day; and the fire escape ladders become symbols of ‘escape’. Such interpretative possibilities return Sloan to precisely the kind of anecdotal or proverbial genre painting that Caffin sought to distance him from, that George Moore railed 31 against at various points in Modern Painting, and that later modernist critics including Fry and Clement Greenberg would identify as the antithesis of medium specificity. Tarbell and Sloan learned a lot from looking at and thinking about Dutch pictures. In the terms of what would become canonic modernism they perhaps took the wrong lessons, veering dangerously close to imitation and nostalgia; towards replicating the archaism rather than abstracting the essence of past masters. The Burlington article on Cezanne that caught Sloan’s attention and led him to proclaim, “A big man this. His fame is to grow,” pointed towards another way with masters and classics in which their values and qualities might be reimagined in wilder, freer, less illusionistic idioms. But other stories about twentieth-century (American) painting recuperate Sloan at least. The turn from an impressionist concern with light to a “Dutch” sense of soil (place, home, local character) made Sloan an important precedent for the celebration of the “American Scene” in the 1920s and 1930s. That rhetoric, of “100% Americanism,” tended to elide the Ashcan School’s cosmopolitanism but valorised their feeling for and commitment to New York City. Tarbell’s overt allusion to European precedent made him a difficult fit for nationalistic narratives of American art. A twenty-first-century openness to pastiche (or “knowing imitation”) as a way of making meaning help us to see the potential in painting “near Vermeer.” 1 George Moore, Modern Painting (London: Walter Scott, 1893) 215. 32 2 Charles H. Caffin, Art For Life’s Sake (New York: The Prang Company, 1913) 225. 3 Alexandra Harris, Romantic Moderns: English Writers, Artists and the Imagination from Virginia Woolf to John Piper (London: Thames & Hudson, 2010). For further discussions of modernist revivalism see, Donna Cassidy, Marsden Hartley: Race, Region, and Nation (Lebanon, NH: UP of New England, 2005). 4 Richard Brettell, “Impressionism and Nationalism: The American Case” in American Impressionism: A New Vision, 1880-1900 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014) 15-21 15 5 Bernard Perlman, Painters of the Ashcan School: The Immortal Eight (New York: Dover, 2012) 45; Rebecca Zurier, Picturing the City: Urban Vision and the Ashcan School (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006) pp 112-16; John Loughery, John Sloan: Painter and Rebel (New York: Henry Holt, 1995) 35. 6 On Sloan’s localism see Heather Campbell Coyle and Joyce K. Schiller, John Sloan’s New York (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007) pp; Jennifer Parsons?? 7 Sloan’s diary mentions The Lake (1905) on 13 and 15 February 1907 and Memories of My Dead Life (1906) on May 26 and June 8 1907. All references are to the unpublished version of the Diary transcribed and annotated by Judith O’Toole and based on originals in Delaware Art Museum’s John Sloan Manuscript Collection. 8 Moore, Modern Painting, 215-16. 9 John Sloan, The Gist of Art () 2, xi. 10 Moore, Modern Painting, 216. 11 Quoted in Robert Stephen Becker, “George Moore: Artist and Art Critic,” Irish Arts Review (1984-1987), Vol. 2, No. 3 (Autumn, 1985), pp. 49-55 49 12 Charles Keene, In the Honeymoon, in Punch, or the London Charivari, 93 (20 August 1887) 75; FAS publication? 13 Harvey J. O’Higgins, “The Steady,” McClure’s Magazine (August 1905) 399-405. 14 Hippolyte Taine, Art in the Netherlands, trans J Durand (New York: Leypoldt & Holt, 1871). 15 Kendall Johnson, Henry James and the Visual (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007) 27. 16 John Sloan, Diary, 1, 15, 21 and 23 August 1908. 17 Taine, Art in the Netherlands, 185 18 Moore, 96 19 Becker, “George Moore,” 54-55 20 Charles H. Caffin, The Story of American Painting (New York: Frederick A. Stokes Company, 1907) 373. 21 Caffin, American Painting, 94, 373-4. 22 Andrew Hemingway, “American Art Pre-1940 and the Problem of Art History’s Object,” Internationalizing the History of American Art, Barbara Groseclose and Jochen Wierich eds. (University Park PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2009) 63. 23 John Sloan, Diary, 19 December 1907. 24 Guy Pene Du Bois, Artists Say the Silliest Things (**) 146. 33 25 Frank Jewett Mather, “Status of Genre Painting,” New York Evening Post (February 4, 1907): 8. The column is unsigned but the column was reprinted three days later in The Nation, with which Mather was also closely associated and the phrase “brooding quality” recurs in his 1910 assessment of the Ashcan School (quoted in Howard Wayne Morgan, Keepers of Culture: The Art-thought of Kenyon Cox, Royal Cortissoz, and Frank Jewett Mather, Jr. [Kent OH: Kent State University Press, 1989] 123). 26 John Sloan, Diary, 8 November 1906. 27 “The Best Picture in America,” Boston Sunday Herald (9 December 1906) Magazine Section. 28 James Gibbons Huneker, “Ten American Painters,” in Americans in the Arts: Critiques by James Gibbons Huneker, Arnold T. Schwab ed. (New York: A. M. S. Press, 1985) 554. 29 Kenyon Cox, “The Recent Work of Edmund C. Tarbell,” Burlington’s Magazine for Connoisseurs 14.70 (Jan 1909) 254-255+258-60, 259 30 Ivan Gaskell, Vermeer's Wager: Speculations on Art History, Theory, and Art Museums (London: Reacktion Books, 2000) 222. 31 Bernice Kramer Leader, “The Boston School and Vermeer,” Arts Magazine 55.3 (1980): 172-176. 32 Mark Rennella, The Boston Cosmopolitans: International Travel and American Arts and Letters (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2008) 164 33 Henry James, The American Scene (London: Chapman and Hall, 1907) 252, 255. 34 On James and Vermeer see Adeline R. Tintner, “James Discovers Jan Vermeer of Delft,” Henry James Review 8.1 (Autumn 1986) 57-70. 35 Beverly Haviland, Henry James’s Last Romance: Making Sense of the Past and the American Scene (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997) 36 Trevor Fairbrother, The Bostonians: Painters of an Elegant Age, 1870-1930 (Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1986) 92 n95. Douglas Shand-Tucci, The Art of Scandal: The Life and Times of Isabella Stewart Gardner (New York: HarperCollins, 1997) cites several instances of Gardner’s disdain for Boston School painters. 37 Oral history interview with S. Morton Vose, 1986 July 24-1987 April 28, Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution <http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/interviews/oral-history-interview-s- morton-vose-12367> 38 Kenyon Cox, “The Recent Work of Edmund C. Tarbell, The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs 14.70 (January 1909) 259. 39 Huneker “Ten American Painters,” 556, italics added. 40 Philip L. Hale, Jan Vermeer of Delft (Boston: Small, Maynard and Company, 1913) 230 41 Annette Stott, Holland Mania: The Unknown Dutch Period in American Art and Culture (Woodstock, NY: The Overlook Press, 1998) 108. 42 Huneker “Ten American Painters,” 554. 43 James Huneker, Letters of James Gibbons Huneker, Josephine Huneker ed. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1922) 142-3. 44 Erica E. Hirshler, “‘Good and Beautiful Work’: Edmund C. Tarbell and the Arts and Crafts Movement,” in Susan Strickler et al, Impressionism Transformed: The 34 Painting of Edmund C. Tarbell (Manchester, NH: Currier Gallery of Art, 2001). Cortissoz quoted in Hirshler. 45 Charles H. Caffin, “The Art of Edmund C. Tarbell,” Harper’s Monthly (June, 1908) 65-73, 66-67. 46 ibid. 65. 47 ibid. 68. 48 Charles H. Caffin, “Municipal Art,” Harper’s Monthly (April, 1900) 655-666. See also Charles H. Caffin, “The Beautifying of Cities,” World’s Work 3 (November 1901) 1429-40. 49 Caffin, “The Art of Edmund C. Tarbell,” 72. 50 Herbert Croly, 1909 The Promise of American Life (New York: MacMillan, 1912) 368 and passim; Dewey quoted in Rivka Shpak Lissak, Pluralism and Progressives: Hull House and the New Immigrants, 1890-1919 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989) 176. 51 Review, Charles H. Caffin, The Story of Dutch Art (1909), The Nation 89:2317 (Nov. 25, 1909) 522-23. 52 Caffin, Art For Life’s Sake, 225. 53 W. M. Valentiner, Catalogue of a Collection of Paintings by Dutch Masters of the Seventeenth Century, vol. 1 (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1909) ix. For discussion of the tastes and collecting practices that shaped American collections of Dutch art see, Esmée Quodbach ed., Holland’s Golden Age in America: Collecting the Art of Rembrandt, Vermeer, and Hals (Penn State University Press, 2014) 54 Valentiner, x. 55 Moore, Modern Painting, 51. 56 Natalie Curtis, “The Hudson-Fulton Memorial Exhibit in New York,” The Craftsman (November 1909): 124-141, 140 57 Kenyon Cox, “Dutch Painting in the Hudson-Fulton Exhibition,” The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs 16.81 – 16.83 (December 1909 – February 1910). 58 Curtis, “Hudson-Fulton Memorial,” 140. 59 Sloan, Diary, 9 October 1909 60 Royal Cortissoz, “Old Dutch Masters” reprinted from the New York Tribune in The Metropolitan museum of Art Bulletin, 4.10 (October, 1909) 161-67+ ,167; Charles Wisner Barrell, “The Real Drama of the Slums, As Told in John Sloan’s Etching,” The Craftsman 15.5 (February 1909) 559-64. 61 Cortissoz, “Old Dutch Masters,” 162-63. 62 One of the Vermeers, Lady with a Guitar (then in the collection of John G. Johnson) is now recognized as a copy of The Guitar Player (c. 1670-72) at Kenwood House and is no longer considered part of Vermeer’s oeuvre. 63 Roger Fry, “Introductory Note,” The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs 16.82 (January 1910) 207-08 64 Rebecca Zurier, Robert W. Snyder and Virginia Mecklenburg, Metropolitan Lives: The Ashcan Artists and Their New York (New York: Norton, 1995) 175. 65 “The Best Picture in America,” Boston Sunday Herald, December 9, 1906 Magazine Section. On slow, painstaking genre painting as a form of anti- modernity in this period see Emily D. Shapiro, “J. D. Chalfant's Clock Maker: The Image of the Artisan in a Mechanized Age,” American Art 19.3 (Fall 2005), pp. 40- 59 35 66 John Butler Yeats, “The Work of John Sloan: ‘Nature I Loved and Next to Nature Art,” Harper’s Weekly (November 22, 1913) 20-21, 21. 
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work_63jssldylzbdjg4km7ijeymsma	----	1911.] NEW PUBLICATIONS. 43 NEW PUBLICATIONS. I. HIGHER MATHEMATICS. ARNOTJX (G. ). Essai de géométrie analytique modulaire a deux dimensions. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1911. 8vo. 11+160 pp. Fr. 6.00. BECKER (G. F.) and VAN ORSTRAND (C. E.). Hyperbolic functions. New edition. (Smithsonian mathematical tables.) Washington, D. C , Smithsonian Institution, 1911. 8vo. 51+321 pp. $4.00 BELTRAMI (E.). Opere matematiche, pubblicate per cura délia facoltà di scienze délia r. università di Roma. Tomo I I I . Milano, Hoepli, 1911. 4to. 488 pp. L. 25.00 BIRCKENSTAEDT (M.). Zwei neue allgemeine Differentiationsgesetze. (Progr.) Altona, 1911. 4to. 11 pp. BLUM (F.). Die infinitésimale Biegung von Flâchen bei vollstândiger Starrheit eines Kurvensystems. (Diss.) Tubingen, 1909. 8vo. 4 1 p p . BRAUN (W.). Bestimmung der Körperdiscriminante in einem kubischen Zahlkörper. (Diss.) Strassburg, 1909. 8vo. 54 pp. BURGWEDEL (R.). 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A.). Lehrbuch der Differential-und Integralrechnung. Nach Axel Harnacks Uebersetzung neu bearbeitet von G. Scheffers. 2ter Band: Integralrechnung. Leipzig, Teubner, 1911. 8vo. 14+639 pp. Cloth. M. 13.00 SoMMERViLLE (D. M. Y.). Bibliography of non-Euclidean geometry* including the theory of parallels, the foundations of geometry and space of n dimensions. London, Harrison, 1911. 8vo. 400 pp. 10 s. VAN ORSTRAND (C. E.). See BECKER (G. F.). VIVANTI (G.). Lezioni di analisi infinitésimale. Pavia, Mattei, 1911. 8vo. 11+648 pp. L. 15.00 VOTTERO (G.). Un nuovo ellissografo : teoria, descrizione, applicazione. Torino, Cassone, 1911. 8vo. 7 pp. WITTSACK (P.). Ueber das identische Verschwinden der Hauptgleichungen der Variation vielfacher Integrale. (Diss.) Heidelberg, 1910. 8vo. 30 pp. YOUNG (J. W.). Lectures on fundamental concepts of algebra and geom- etry. Prepared for publication with the cooperation of W. W. Denton, with a note on the growth of algebraic symbolism by U. G. Mitchell. 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Berlin, Salle, 1911. 8vo. 6+286 pp. Cloth. M. 3.20 FERRARIS (P.). Elementi di geometria. Vol. I I . Torino, Paravia, 1911. 16mo. 174 pp. L. 3.00 FRATCHER (W. F.). Instantaneous calculator. Detroit, 1911. 6 pp. $5.00 FREYMANN (K. L.). Praktische Lösungen mathematischer Aufgaben. Frankfurt a. M., Gerheim, 1911. 8vo. 15 pp. M. 1.30 GAZZANIGA (P.). See VERONESE (G.). GOLDMANN (H.). Der russische Rechenapparat; seine rationale An- wendung in den Schulen, nebst einigen Untersuchungen über den bildenden Wert der Arithmetik. Wien, Pichler, 1911. 8vo. 3 + 4 4 pp. M. 0.80 GÖTTING (E.). See BEHRENDSEN (O.). GRÈVE (W.). Vierstellige logarithmische und trigonometrische Tafeln nebst zahlreichen Hilfstabellen für das numerische Rechnen. Biele- feld, Velhagen und Klasing, 1911. 8vo. 130 pp. M. 1.80 License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 1 9 1 1 . ] NEW PUBLICATIONS. 4 7 GRÉVY (A.). Traité d'algèbre à l'usage des élèves de mathématiques A et B. 5e édition. Paris, Vuibert. 8vo. 502 pp. Fr. 6.00 HAASE (E.). See W I L K (H.). HEINRICH (M.). Vereinfachter Gang des Anfangsunterrichts in der Planimetrie, analytischen Geometrie und Trigonometrie. Leipzig, Quelle und Meyer, 1911. 8vo. 46 pp. M. 0.80 HOCHHEIM (A.). Aufgaben aus der analytischen Geometrie der Ebene. ltes Heft. 4te, vermehrte Auflage, bearbeitet von O. Jahn und F. Hochheim. Leipzig, Teubner, 1911. 8vo. 6 + 104 pp. Cloth. M. 2.40 KRIMPHOFF (W.). See SCHWERING (R.). KÜHTMANN'S Rechentafeln. Ein handliches Zahlenwerk mit 2 Millionen Lösungen, die ailes Multiplizieren und Dividieren ersparen. Dresden, Kühtmann, 1911. 8vo. 476 pp. Cloth. M. 18.00 LISBOA (J. I. de A.). Liçoes de algebra elementar. Primeiro volume. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1911. 8vo. 6+378 pp. MCCORMACK (T. J.). Why do we study mathematics: a philosophical and historical retrospect. Cedar Rapids, la., Torch Press, 1911. 8vo. 26 pp. $0.25 MARTINI (Z. A.). Guida pratica per la risoluzione delle equazioni di 1° e di 2° grado. 3a edizione. Livorno, Giusti, 1911. 16mo. 10+142 pp. L. 1.00 MULLER (H.). Koordinatenbegriff und Kegelschnittlehre. Metz, Scriba, 1911. 8vo. 4 + 7 9 pp. M. 1.20 MYERS (G, W.) and others. First year mathematics for secondary schools. (University of Chicago mathematical series, edited by E. H. Moore.) Chicago, University of Chicago, 1911. 12mo. 12+365 pp. $1.00 . Teacher's manual for first-year mathematics. (University of Chicago mathematical series, edited by E. H. Moore.) Chicago, University of Chicago, 1911. 12mo. 9+164 pp. $0.80 NIEWENGLOWSKI (B.). Troisième année de géométrie. Premier cycle. Classe de 3e B. Paris, Delagrave, 1911. 18mo. 195 pp. Fr. 2.75 OESTERLE (F. K.). Wesen und Darstellung der Funktion. Strassburg, Heitz, 1911. 8vo. 19 pp. M. 0.60 OTTO (F.) und SIEMON (P.). Uebungsbuch der Geometrie für höhere Mâdchenschulen. 3te Auflage. Leipzig, Hirt, 1911. 8vo. 152 pp. M. 0.60 PAUL (M. O.). Mathematisches Lehr- und Uebungsbuch für höhere Mâdchenschulen. Iter Band: Arithmetik und Algebra. Leipzig, Quelle und Meyer, 1911. 8vo. 4+220 pp. Cloth. M. 2.00 PETERS (J.). Logarithmic tables to seven places of decimals of the trigonometrical functions. Stereotype edition. New York, Stechert, 1911. 4to. 7+921 pp. $10.00 . Siebenstellige Logarithmentafel der trigonometrischen Funktionen. Leipzig, Engelmann, 1911. 8vo. 8+921 pp. Cloth. M. 30.00 . See BAUSCHINGER (J.). RATINET (A.). See BOTJVART ( C ) . SANDERS (A.). Key to Sanders' plane and solid geometry. New York, American Book Co., 1911. 12mo. 144 pp. Half leather. $1.00 License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 48 NEW PUBLICATIONS. [Oct., SCHIMMACK (R.). See ABHANDLUNGEN, etc. SCHWERING (K.) und KRIMPHOFF (W.). Ebene Geometrie. 7te Auflage. Freiburg, Herder, 1911. 8vo. 8+142 pp. Cloth. M. 2.30 SEYBOTH (J.). Tables logarithmiques et trigonométriques à quatres décimales. 2e édition. Paris, Challamel, 1911. 4to. 36 pp. SIEMON (P.). See OTTO (F.). SMITH (D. E.). The teaching of geometry. Boston, Ginn, 1911. 12mo. 5+329 pp. $1.25 THOM (A.). Graduated questions in arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, analytical geometry, with solutions. London, Gibson, 1911. 12mo. 68 pp. Sewed. 6d. TREUTLEIN (P.). Der geometrische Anschauungsunterricht als Unter- stufe eines zweistufigen geometrischen Unterrichtes. Mit einem Ein- führungswort von F. Klein. Leipzig, Teubner, 1911. 8vo. 1 0 + 216 pp. Cloth. M. 5.60 VERONESE (G.). Elementi di geometria, trattati con la coUaborazione di P. Gazzaniga. Parte I I . Edizione quarta. Padova, Drucker, 1911. 8vo. 14+245 pp. L. 2.50 WAGNER (H.). See FENKNER (H.). WARREN (A. T.). Experimental and theoretical course in geometry. 4th edition, revised. London, Clarendon Press, 1911. 8vo. 302 pp. 2s. 6d. WHITEHEAD (A. N.). An introduction to mathematics. (Home Univ- ersity Library.) New York, Holt, 1911. 12mo. 256 pp. $0.75 W I L K (H.) und HAASE (E.). Geometrie für Mittelschulen. 2te Auflage. Dresden, Bleyl und Kaemmerer, 1911. 8vo. 8 + 144 pp. M. 2.00 ZICKEROW (G.). Das abgekürzte Rechnen. (Progr.) Rawitsch, 1911. 4to. 14 pp. I I I . APPLIED MATHEMATICS. ARNOULT ( J.). Sur le mouvement d'un fil dans l'espace. (Thèse.) Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1911. 4to. 153 pp. BÂCKLUND (A. V.). Die in der Mechanik angewandte Variation der Integrationskonstanten als Lie'sche Berührungstransformation be- trachtet. Stockholm, 1910. 8vo. 82 pp. BARLOW (C. W. C ) . Magnetism and electricity. (Mathematical physics, volume I.) London, University Tutorial Press, 1911. BILES (J. H.). The design and construction of ships. Volume 2: Sta- bility, resistance, propulsion, etc. London, Griffin, 1911. 8vo. 438 pp. 25s. BLANCARNOUX (P.). Toute la mécanique rationnelle et appliquée à la portée de tous. Deux tomes. Paris, Geisler, 1911. 8vo. 120 and 172 pp. BLEICHER (K.). Zur Theorie der übergeschlossenen Gelenksysteme. (Diss.) Rostock, 1910. 8vo. 75 pp. CHOVET (J.). Essais sur la résistance de l'air et le calcul des aéroplanes. Grenoble, Anselme, 1911. 8vo. 49 pp. Fr. 2.00 FINDLAY (A.). The phase rule and its applications. 3rd edition. London, Longmans, 1911. 8vo. 372 pp. 6s. License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 1911.] NEW PUBLICATIONS. 49 GIANNITRAPANI (D.). Elementi di geographia matematica. Firenze, Bemporad, 1911. 8vo. 7 + 9 9 pp. L. 2.50 GLAZEBROOK (R. T.). Heat and light : an elementary textbook, theoretical and practical. (Cambridge physical series.) New York, Putnam, 1910. 12mo. 434 pp. $1.40 GRAFF (K.). See HERMES (O.). GRAZIA (G. Di). Piccolo trattato di geometria descrittiva. Milano, Vallardi, 1910. 8vo. 38 pp. L. 2.50 GROSSMANN (L.). Fragmente neuerer mathematisch-technischer Dis- ciplinen der Versicherungs- und Finanzwissenschaft. 6ter Teil. Wien, 1910. 8vo. 63 pp. M. 5.00 HAMMER (E.). Lehrbuch der elementaren praktischen Geometrie (Ver- messungskunde). Iter Band: Feldmessen und Nivellieren. Leipzig, Teubner, 1911. 8vo. 19+766 pp. Cloth. M. 24.00 HELLER (J. F.). Methodisch geordnete Sammlung von Aufgaben und Beispielen aus der darstellenden Geometrie. 2 Teile. 3te umgear- beitete Auflage. Wien, Holder. 8vo. Cloth. M. 4.10 HERMES (O.). Elemente der Astronomie und mathematischen Géographie. 6te Auflage. Unter Mitwirkung von K. Graff neubearbeitet von P. Spies. Berlin, Winkelmann, 1911. 8vo. 56 pp. Cloth. M. 1.50 HOSKINS (L. M.). Theoretical mechanics, an elementary text-book. 4th edition. Stanford University, Cal., Hoskins, 1911. 8vo. 11 + 456 pp. $3.00 JAMIESON (A.). A textbook of applied mechanics and mechanical en- gineering. Volume I I : Strength of materials. 8th edition, revised and enlarged. London, Griffin, 1911. 8vo. 332 pp. 5s. KLINGATSCH (A.). Die gunstigste Lage der durch geometrische Oerter bestimmten Punkte eines Dreiecks bei der Triangulierung. Wien, 1911. 8vo. 17 pp. LANCHESTER (F. W.). Aerodynamik. Ein Gesamtwerk über das Fliegen. Aus dem Englischen übersetzt von C. und A. Runge. 2ter Band: Aerodonetik. Leipzig, Teubner, 1911. 8vo. 14+327 pp. Cloth. M. 12.00 MULLER (E.). Ueber die Stabilitàt der Bewegung. (Diss.) Zurich, 1910. 8vo. 35 pp. NACCARI (G.). Astronomia nautica. 2a edizione, riveduta ed ampliata. Milano, Hoepli, 1911. 24mo. 14+348 pp. L. 3.50 PAPELIER (G.). Précis de mécanique. Paris, Vuibert. 8vo. 7+248 pp. POLARA (V.). L'esperienza nelle teorie di Maxwell e di Lorenz e Finter- pretazione meccanica dei fenomeni elettrici. Catania, Galàtola, 1911. 8vo. 2 + 167 pp. ROSENBAUER (R.). Die oseillatorische Bewegung einer Kreisscheibe im Innern einer f est en Cylinderflâche. (Diss.) Leipzig, 1911. 8vo. 46 pp. RUNGE (C. and A.). See LANCHESTER (F. W.). SATTERLY (J.). See STEWART (R. W.). SCHMIEDEL (R.). Reibung von Elektrizitâtszàhlern mit rotierendem Anker und der Einfluss der Reibung auf die Fehlerkurve. (Diss.) Dresden, 1911. 4to. 47 pp. License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 5 0 NEW PUBLICATIONS. [ O c t . , 1 9 1 1 . ] SCHTJLTZ (P.). Allgemeine Theorie unsymmetrischer Schwingungen und Ablenkungen bei Systemen mit einem Freiheitsgrad, etc. (Progr.) Gardelegen, 1911. 8vo. 29 pp. SONNEFELD (A.). Ueber Flüssigkeitsströmungen um zusammengesetzte zylindrische Schalen und die daraus folgenden Auftriebskrâfte. (Diss.) Jena, 1911. 8vo. 61 pp. SPATH (F.). Zentrifugalkraft und Revision der Newton'schen Bewegungs- gesetze. (Progr.) Salzburg, 1910. 8vo. 20 pp. SPIES (P.). See HERMES (O.). STEWART (R. W.) and SATTERLY (J.). A textbook of heat, theoretical and practical. (The University Tutorial Series.) London, Olive, 1911. 8vo. 480 pp. 4s. 6d. TAPLA (T.). Grundzüge der niederen Geodasie. 4ter Band: Verwertung von geodâtischen Aufnahmen. Wien, Deuticke, 1911. 8vo. 6 + 6 2 pp. M. 3.00 TOPHAM (W. H.). Elementary light, theoretical and practical. London, Arnold, 1911. 8vo. 220 pp. 2s. 6d. VASNIER. Cours de mécanique. Ire partie: Statique. 6e édition. Paris, 1911. 8vo. 24.0 pp. WAGNER (A.). Lösung der Aufgaben des nautischen Dreiecks mittelst darstellender Geometrie. (Progr.) Oberstein-Idar, 1911. 4to. 4 pp. WOLFF (H.). Behandlung des Vorga*nges, dass eine ebene elektromag- netische Welle, die auf die ebene Oberflâche eines Körpers insbesondere eines Leiters, auftritt, von diesem reflektiert wird, auf Grund der Maxwellschen Gleichungen, etc. (Diss.) Rostock, 1910. 8vo. 51 pp. YULE (G. U.). An introduction to the theory of statistics. Philadelphia, Lippincott, 1911. 12mo. 376 pp. $3.50 License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 
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work_6g4lmqpqfvgfrm2hi52vkxu62m	----	They also serve who only stand and wait Letters to the Editor being used. Monitoring of the ante- grade selective perfusion pressure, which we believe to be a critical com- ponent of assessment of the cerebral perfusion, might be easier with axillary cannulation with an arterial pressure line placed in the right radial artery. Also, axillary artery cannulation itself is not very complicated and is usually done within 30 minutes. Therefore, we still prefer using the axillary artery as a cannulation site. Dr Küçüker and his colleagues have suggested an excellent and very impor- tant point: that surgeons should be aware of those patients whose aortic dissection extends into those arteries or whose right axillary artery takes off aberrantly from the descending aorta. Careful review of preoperative imaging will reliably identify an aber- rant artery and extension of dissection into the innominate artery. A dissected axillary artery should be apparent at the time of direct examination. If the artery is dissected, we agree that alter- native cannulation is required. A well performed side graft anastomosis should not lead to a pressurized false lumen, even if the arch is dissected. Careful clamping of the innominate ar- tery, after examination of the vessel, will prevent clamping off of the true lumen. Since the publication of the article, our aortic surgery practice has continued to expand. The axillary artery cannula- tion technique remains a reproducible and reliable method of arterial outflow in our hands as well as others 2–4 and will continue to be our choice. However, it is crucially important to be aware of the pitfalls suggested by Dr. Küçüker and others and to use judicious clinical judgment for each case for its safe and successful use. 1,5 Hiroo Takayama, MD Craig R. Smith, MD Michael E. Bowdish, MD Allan S. Stewart, MD Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery Columbia University New York, NY 798 The Journal of Thoracic and C References 1. Tasxdemir O, Saritasx A, Küçüker S, Ozatik MA, Sener E. Aortic arch repair with right brachial artery perfusion. Ann Thorac Surg. 2002;73:1837-42. 2. Halkos ME, Kerendi F, Myung R, Kilgo P, Puskas JD, Chen EP. Selective antegrade cerebral perfusion via right axillary artery cannulation reduces morbidity and mortality after proximal aortic surgery. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2009;138:1081-9. 3. Etz CD, Plestis KA, Kari FA, Silovitz D, Bodian CA, Spielvogel D, et al. Axillary cannulation significantly improves survival and neurologic outcome after ath- erosclerotic aneurysm repair of the aortic root and as- cending aorta. Ann Thorac Surg. 2008;86:441-6. 4. Svensson LG, Blackstone EH, Rajeswaran J, Sabik JF 3rd, Lytle BW, Gonzalez-Stawinski G, et al. Does the arterial cannulation site for circula- tory arrest influence stroke risk? Ann Thorac Surg. 2004;78:1274-84. 5. Orihashi K, Sueda T, Okada K, Takahashi S. Com- pressed true lumen in the innominate artery: a pitfall of right axillary arterial perfusion in acute aortic dis- section. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2009;137:242-3. doi:10.1016/j.jtcvs.2009.10.026 THEY ALSO SERVE WHO ONLY STAND AND WAIT To the Editor: I read with great interest, and a de- gree of nostalgia, Dr Kumar’s edito- rial 1 on the second assistant. It brought back memories of a time long ago, when I was young and thirsty for learning. I spent 18 months as a Senior House Officer (the most ju- nior member of the surgical team) in Southampton, UK, where my only role in theaters was to harvest a length of vein and then stand next to the sur- geon as a second assistant. Dr Kumar offers great advice on how to make the most of this time. As he suggests, I developed my habit of making notes with illustra- tions during that time. I still have that habit and have a large collection of these handwritten notes and drawings, to which I refer at times even now. I would often get bored with the re- petitive nature of my job of harvesting vein and closing the leg. During one such period of boredom, I started using my left hand (I am right-handed) to do parts of the procedure. I soon became adept at using my left hand as well, a skill that I use on many occasions now with great advantage. ardiovascular Surgery c March 2010 Being a second assistant for a long time can, however, be a source of de- spair, especially if the opportunities to open or close the chest or do a top-end anastomosis do not materialize. ‘‘They also serve who only stand and waite.’’ 2 I would think of Milton. Being a second assistant also allows the mind to drift without anybody notic- ing (at times). Daydreaming can be a wonderful experience (at times). I had chosen cardiac surgery to be a top- notch cardiac surgeon, nothing less. When I was 20-something, just holding the retractor as a second assistant did not make the goal seem nearer. Was it possi- ble that the dream could go sour? I had the opportunity to work as a sec- ond assistant with some great surgeons, and some not so fantastic. As Dr Kumar says, it is a very impressionable part of one’s life and can have a profound bear- ing on one’s later career. But alas, the days of the second as- sistant are numbered. The European Union’s working time directive 3 has cursed the current and future genera- tions of trainees with only 48 hours of work per week. This has resulted in severe manpower shortages in hos- pitals across the United Kingdom, and almost all our surgical procedures are now done with a single assistant. We have learned to adapt to this and now do not find the need for second as- sistants except for the most complex cases. The loss, however, will be that of the trainees who will miss out on such a wonderful training opportunity. And for those lucky enough to have this chance, make the most of it. Look at it as an opportunity that has knocked on your door.and if you don’t answer soon, it will go away forever. Vipin Zamvar, MS Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh Edinburgh, UK References 1. Kumar TK. The second assistant in cardiac surgery: the challenges and answers. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2009;137:1311-4. 2. Milton J. When I consider how my light is spent. In: Ricks C, ed. The Oxford book of English verse. New York: Oxford University Press USA; 1999. p.168. Letters to the Editor 3. EUR-Lex [Internet]. Luxembourg: Publications Of- fice of the European Union; c2009 [updated 2009 Nov 12; cited 2009 Oct 10]. Council Directive 93/ 104/EC of 23 November 1993 concerning certain aspects of the organization of working time; [about 1 screen]. Available from: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/ LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri¼CELEX:31993L01 04:EN:HTML doi:10.1016/j.jtcvs.2009.09.060 INTRA-ATRIAL REROUTING BY THE POSTERIOR LEFT ATRIAL WALL FLAP FOR TOTAL ANOMALOUS PULMONARY VENOUS RETURN DRAINAGE INTO THE CORONARY SINUS IN NEONATES To the Editor: We read with great interest the new procedure for total anomalous pulmo- nary venous return (TAPVR) drainage into the coronary sinus (CS), which Yamagishi and colleagues 1 success- fully performed for an infant weighing 5.5 kg. Briefly, the roof of the CS was incised toward the left atrium (LA) to create a flap from the posterior wall of the LA (¼ the anterior wall of the common chamber and the CS). The flap thus created was then moved ante- riorly to cover the entire atrial commu- nication and the CS orifice. However, we were unable to find any follow-up FIGURE 1. A, Echocardiogram after surgery. Parast common chamber. B, Another parasternal long-axis v chamber. RV, Right ventricle; LV, left ventricle; Ao, The Journal reports on this procedure. We recently successfully performed this procedure for 2 neonatal cases and recognized several important features associated with this surgery. CASE 1 A baby girl with a birth weight of 2.7 kg underwent this new procedure for TAPVR drainage into the CS at 8 days of age. She was discharged on postoperative day 22 without any complications. Postoperative echocar- diogram demonstrated a large commu- nication between the LA and the common chamber (Figure 1, A). An abnormal continuous flow was de- tected at the superior wall of the CS. This flow was directed toward the common chamber and appeared to be a small coronary arterial flow (Fig- ure 1, B). This abnormal flow disap- peared 2 months after the operation. One year after the operation, the patient was doing well with no evi- dence of arrhythmia. CASE 2 The new procedure was also per- formed on a 20-day-old baby girl (birth weight, 3.0 kg) who had ernal long-axis view during the diastolic phase showin iew showing an abnormal continuous flow from the p aorta; LA, left atrium; CC, common chamber. of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surge TAPVR drainage into the CS. Because the posterior wall flap of the LA was not sufficiently large to cover the entire atrial septal defect and CS ori- fice, a fresh autologous pericardial patch was applied to close the rest of the atrial communication. At 1 year and 7 months after the operation, she is in good clinical status with no arrhythmia. The usual surgical treatment for TAPVC to the CS is either the CS cut-back procedure or the Van Praagh technique. 2 The advantages of this new procedure compared with these previously performed procedures are as follows: 1. Sufficiently wide communication between the LA and the common chamber can be obtained. 2. Neither prosthetic materials nor au- tologous pericardium is required for closing the atrial communica- tion and the CS orifice. However, the following cautionary points should be noted: 1. During making the CS anterior wall flap, the incision line may enter into the pulmonary venous orifices. 2. Anastomosing the flap to the ante- rior edge of the CS orifice may damage the atrioventricular node. g a large communication between the LA and the osterior wall of the new LA toward the common ry c Volume 139, Number 3 799 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31993L0104:EN:HTML http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31993L0104:EN:HTML http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31993L0104:EN:HTML http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31993L0104:EN:HTML They also serve who only stand and wait References 
work_67tu5iqqbbagtkzsoxc2dh3pxi	----	Anne Dymond, Valiant, Independent, and Harmonious: Paul Signac and Neo-Impressionism after 1900, RIHA Journal 0046 RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" This article is part of the Special Issue "New Directions in Neo-Impressionism." The issue is guest- edited by Tania Woloshyn and Anne Dymond in cooperation with Regina Wenninger and Anne-Laure Brisac-Chraïbi from RIHA Journal. External peer reviewers for this Special Issue were Hollis Clayson, André Dombrowski, Chantal Georgel, Catherine Meneux, Robyn Roslak, and Michael Zimmermann. Valiant, Independent, and Harmonious: Paul Signac and Neo- Impressionism after 1900* Anne Dymond Abstract Through a close reading of Parisian art criticism around 1900, this essay examines Paul Signac's role as de facto head of the neo-impressionists and guiding spirit of the Salon des Indépendants. Signac, and the neo-impressionists generally, had suffered from the decline of the Indépendants in the latter 1890s, but the resurgence of both group and Salon in 1901 positioned Signac as one of the most significant avant-garde artists in the early 20th century, where he played a vital role in the most significant art debates then animating Paris. Their return to prominence was due in no small measure to Signac's latest foray into the decorative, a highly charged arena that would be central to the artistic debates of the first decade of the 20th century. Contents Introduction The Independents and Neo-Impressionists in the 1890s The Turning Point: 1901 "Towards a New Classical Canon": 1902-1904 Paul Signac … neo-impressionists … Independents … It is difficult to speak of one without evoking the others. Henri Guilbeaux, 19111 Introduction [1] In March of 1904, the death of Paul Signac (1863-1935) was erroneously reported in the Parisian press.2 While this error was quickly corrected, more than a century later Signac's reputation has continued to suffer. His role in the development of many 20th century artists' work has often been noted, only to be rhetorically eradicated. The widespread interest in neo-impressionism by a generation of artists coming to age after 1900 has been most often explained as a combination of factors which minimize the art of Signac and the other living neo-impressionists. Most often, the interest is explained away as a delayed reaction to Signac's 1898 text D'Eugène Delacroix au néo- * I would like to thank Regina Wenninger and the anonymous reviewer for their helpful comments, as well as Tania Woloshyn, for her enthusiastic interest in the neo-impressionists, her insightful comments, and with Anthea Callen her organizing of the "New Directions in Neo-Impressionism" conference for which this paper was originally written. Unless otherwise noted, translations are mine. 1 Henri Guilbeaux, "Paul Signac et les Indépendants," in: Les Hommes du Jour (22 Apr. 1911), unpaginated. 2 Marina Ferretti-Bocquillon, "Chronologie," in: Françoise Cachin with Marina Ferretti-Bocquillon, Signac: Catalogue raisonné de l'œuvre peint, Paris 2000, 343-399, here 374. The mistake was because of the very similar name of the recently deceased but little known artist Paul Seignac. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" impressionnisme, as if his paintings were of negligible significance.3 It is also often explained almost apologetically, as if younger artists had no where else to look, because of the lack of major artists then in Paris.4 Despite some important recent re-evaluations of late neo-impressionism, secondary literature – including even such significant contributions to our understanding of the movement as the exhibition catalogue, Le néo- impressionnisme de Seurat à Paul Klee – often negatively characterizes Signac and late neo-impressionism's importance in various ways. It remains all too common to see neo- impressionism in the 20th century through the lens of Georges Seurat's (1859-1891) work. Yet even those well versed in later neo-impressionism sometimes undercut the movement's significance. Françoise Cachin, for example, described the widespread interest in the 20th century as both an epidemic and a fever,5 suggesting how prevalent the interest was, but also implying that it was infectious and needed to be overcome. The impact of neo-impressionism, it has been so often argued, was "relatively brief,"6 merely "a way station on the trip to other destinations,"7 or a stricture, which artists had to "free themselves from."8 This rhetoric has admitted and then immediately minimized the significance of both Signac and neo-impressionism in the early 20th century. [2] This essay, through a close reading of Parisian art criticism around 1900, reveals a very different narrative. Despite reports of his death in the Parisian press in the years leading up to 1904, Signac was a leading artist. His role as de facto head of the neo- impressionists and, at the same time, guiding spirit of the Salon de la Société des Indépendants (hereafter Independents) positioned him as much more than a follower of Seurat. Beginning in 1901, the neo-impressionists, generally, and Signac, in particular, were highly regarded. Their success closely mirrored the perceived value of the Independents from 1898-1906. I argue that in the opening years of the 20th century, the 3 Much of the interest in neo-impressionism in the twentieth century arises out of research on Matisse for which Catherine Bock's ground-breaking book Henri Matisse and neo-impressionism, 1898-1908, Ann Arbor 1981, has been instrumental; the opening sentence of her text highlights the importance of Signac's text for Matisse and many other young artists, and, throughout, her account remains balanced. More recently, Marina Ferretti-Bocquillon has given Signac's text as the explanation of neo-impressionism's "second souffle" in the twentieth century, while suggesting artists in the school of Signac were of minor importance: "Le néo-impressionnisme (1884-1898)," in: Le néo-impressionnisme de Seurat à Paul Klee, exh. cat., Paris 2005, 14-25, here 25. Cachin, Signac, 64, similarly attributes greater influence to Signac's text than his works. 4 Cachin, "Néo-impressionnisme et fauvisme," in: Le néo-impressionnisme de Seurat à Paul Klee, 83-93, here 83, also sees a dearth of significant artists in the early twentieth century arguing that for young artists "En France, les toutes premières années du siècle on été marquées par une absence d'enseignement théorique et de modèles." She goes on to note that most major nineteenth century figures had died, and the two most relevant, Paul Cézanne and Paul Gauguin were absent from Paris. 5 Cachin, "Néo-impressionnisme et fauvisme," 83: "une sorte d'épidémie de touches de couleur pure"; and 90: "Nous ne ferons pas ici la liste exhaustive de tous les artistes qui, avant le cubisme, l'orphisme ou l'abstraction, eurent [...] une petite fièvre pointilliste." 6 Cachin, "Néo-impressionnisme et fauvisme," 83. 7 John Leighton, "Out of Seurat's Shadow: Signac, 1863-1935, An Introduction," in: Anne Distel et al., eds., Signac, 1863-1935, exh. cat., New York 2001, 3-21, here 20. 8 Cachin, "Néo-impressionnisme et fauvisme," 83. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" neo-impressionist movement played a vital role in the most significant art debates then animating Paris. Despite a period in the later 1890s when the significance of both the neo-impressionists and the Independents waned, the resurgence of both in the early years of the 20th century has not been fully explored. Their twinned resurgence in 1901 was due in no small measure to Signac's latest foray into the decorative, a highly charged arena that would be central to the artistic debates of the first decade of the 20th century. <top> The Independents and Neo-Impressionists in the 1890s [3] From its founding in 1884, the Independents was closely tied to neo- impressionism, and the fortunes of the inter-related groups would rise and fall together.9 Like the Salon des Refusés before it, the group arose in response to the repressive juries of the official Salon of the Société des artistes français.10 The neo-impressionist Albert Dubois-Pillet (1846-1890) was instrumental to the founding of the society, and acted as its first president until his death in 1890. The Independents took as its founding principles the suppression of an admission jury, making its annual exhibition open to any who paid the small membership fee. From the outset, the principles of the Independents were recognized (and sometimes applauded) for their anarchist political corollary, which most members of the neo-impressionist movement shared, as Robyn Roslak has ably shown.11 The adhesion to the society of such major figures of the latter 1880s, such as Georges Seurat, Paul Cézanne (1839-1906), Vincent Van Gogh (1853-1890), Odilon Redon (1840-1916), and the artists who came to be known as the Nabis, guaranteed a certain notoriety; but, as with the Refusés, individual works were often overwhelmed in the massive show. Indeed, despite its importance, even as early as 1889 the German press had stopped reviewing the Independents.12 Throughout the 1880s it was the most avant-garde, but also the unruliest, of the annual Salons. [4] Multiple factors led to its decline in the 1890s. First, the founding and immediate success of the Salon nationale des beaux-arts (hereafter National) in 1890 set the stage for the Independents' loss of direction. Their position as the alternative to the conservative Société des artists français was usurped by the National, which firmly entrenched itself in the middle with a calculated appeal to the middle class consumer.13 Many artists who had shown with the Independents in the 1880s switched to the National 9 Martha Ward, Pissarro, Neo-Impressionism, and the Spaces of the Avant-Garde, Chicago 1996, 193. See also Dominique Lobstein, "Néo-impressionnistes et Indépendants," in: Le Néo- impressionnisme de Seurat à Paul Klee, 54-61. 10 See Lobstein, "Néo-impressionnistes et Indépendants," 55-56. 11 Robyn Roslak, Neo-Impressionism and Anarchism in Fin-de-Siècle France: Painting, Politics and Landscape, Aldershot 2007, 42. 12 Robert Jensen, Marketing Modernism in Fin-de-Siècle France, Princeton 1994, 135. 13 Marie J. Aquilino, "The Decorating Campaigns at the Salon du Champ-de-Mars and the Salon des Champs-Elysées in the 1890s," in: Art Journal 48 (1989), 78-84. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" in the following decade. If this new competition did not devastate the exhibiting society, it mounted a significant challenge. More challenging still was the loss in quick succession of three of the leading independent artists of the day: Van Gogh (d.1890); Dubois-Pillet (d.1890), who was given a large memorial retrospective; and, most significantly, the devastating and sudden death of Georges Seurat after the exhibition's opening, in 1891 (see Marnin Young's paper in this Special Issue).14 [5] Throughout the 1890s, reviews of the Independent's annual show in the Parisian press became increasingly brief, infrequent, and often negative. As Martha Ward has shown, avant-garde groups including the neo-impressionists shifted towards commercial venues in that decade.15 After 1895, when Signac exhibited his poorly received Au temps d'harmonie, "the force of neo-impressionism as a movement and the appeal of the independents as an exhibition venue seem to have declined loosely in tandem."16 Few Parisian journals bothered to review the 1897 Salon des Indépendants at all. André Fontainas could write in the Mercure de France that "The salon of the Independents […] reveals itself to be more and more sterile every year. Nothing, nothing, and nothing! [….] Why M. Signac? Why M. Luce?"17 La Plume, which had been generally sympathetic to the neo-impressionists and the Independents, included a slightly longer review in which Yvanhoé Rambosson trotted out the well-rehearsed complaints about pointillism as a theory spoiling the work of fine artists. He expressed his relief about its supposed demise: "Very happily the sacred battalion has only these 2 combatants."18 Rambosson's use of the military metaphor, typical of much commentary on neo-impressionism, is undoubtedly a veiled reference to their political ties to the anarchist movement, which had also been an important component of the Independents, and was also suffering serious decline. The anarchist attentats, the assassination of President Sadi Carnot, the government's press and artistic censorship and crackdown on anarchist public assemblies, and the consequent Trial of the Thirty all dimmed the attractions of the movement in the mid-1890s.19 When Rambosson concluded, "There is nothing remarkable in this Salon. The beautiful days of the Independents have passed," his 14 Gustave Geffroy, "Les Indépendants," in: La Vie Artistique (1892), 306-312, here 306. 15 On the long association between the neo-impressionists and the Independents, see Ward, Pissarro, Neo-Impressionism, and the Spaces of the Avant-Garde, 55. 16 Ward, Pissarro, Neo-Impressionism, and the Spaces of the Avant-Garde, 193. 17 André Fontainas, "Art," in: Mercure de France 22, no. 89 (May 1897), 411-413, here 412: "Le Salon des Independants […] se manifeste de plus en plus stérile, chaque année. Rien, rien et rien! […] pourquoi M. Signac? pourquoi M. Luce?" 18 Yvanhoé Rambosson, "Le Salon des Indépendants," in: La Plume (1897), 311-313, here 312: "Fort heuresement le bataillon sacré ne compte plus que ces deux combatants." 19 On anarchism, see Jean Maitron, Le Mouvement anarchiste en France, vol.1, Des origines à 1914, Paris 1975; on its relation to neo-impressionism see Roslak, Neo-Impressionism and Anarchism in Fin-de-Siècle France, 173-174. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" comments likely seemed to apply equally to the Independents, the neo-impressionists, and anarchism itself.20 [6] In these same years, neo-impressionist painters began to experiment with a larger touch, resulting in more brilliantly colored canvases, and more individualistic results. In the early 1890s, Signac and his friend and fellow neo-impressionist, Henri- Edmond Cross (1856-1910), both relocated to small towns in Provence. Their subject matter increasingly became France's Mediterranean coast, beautifully rendered, and meant to suggest by both form and content the harmonious society envisioned in the anarchist future.21 Later in the decade, Signac wrote and published D'Eugène Delacroix au néo-impressionisme, an important history of color and explanation of neo- impressionist technique. The text was first published in installments in La Revue Blanche in the spring of 1898, and in book format from the press Éditions de la Revue Blanche in 1899.22 Despite the fact that the text is often used to explain neo-impressionism's popularity in the first years of the 20th century, response even in 1898-1899 was mixed at best. André Fontainas, writing in 1899 for Mercure de France, praised Signac's "excellent" history, but was not won over to the style; he concluded "but, in matters of art, it is the considered view of the art that can persuade." He disparaged Cross's work, in which "the air no longer circulates," and Maximilien Luce's (1858-1941), which he said had "the chill of an overly methodical glance."23 Indeed, even the faint praise for Signac's technique was further muted, since Fontainas said that it was only when the technique was used "with discretion" that he was willing to concede any success to neo- impressionist canvases. [7] Despite the publication of Signac's text, the Independents hit low points in 1899 and 1900. Space constraints, due to preparations for the 1900 Exposition Universelle, caused their annual shows during these years to be held late in the fall and at a poor venue.24 In 1899, the number of exhibiting artists fell sharply to 187, down from more than 1000 as late as 1897. Even the most loyal neo-impressionists were ambivalent about the exhibition that year: despite his gentle chiding of Théo Van Rysselberghe 20 Rambosson, "Art," 313: "il n'y a dans ce Salon rien de remarquable. Les beaux jours des Indépendants sont passés." 21 On Cross, see Tania Woloshyn, "Aesthetic and Therapeutic Imprints: Artists and Invalids on the Côte d'Azur, ca. 1890-1910," in: Nineteenth-Century Art Worldwide 11 (2012), http://www.19thc- artworldwide.org/index.php/spring12/aesthetic-and-therapeutic-imprints-artists-and-invalids-on- the-cote-dazur-c-18901910 (accessed 15 Apr. 2012). 22 It would be reprinted in Paris in 1911; see Ferretti-Bocquillon, "Chronologie," 370-371; and Marina Ferretti-Boquillon, "Ports and Travels: Paul Signac in the Twentieth Century," in: Signac, 1863-1935, 224 which also describes the text's success in Belgium and Germany. 23 André Fontainas, "Art Moderne," in: Mercure de France 30, no. 112 (Apr. 1899), 247-252, here 250: "Mais, en matière d'art, ce qui peut convaincre c'est la vue raisonnée des œuvres," and 251: "l'air ne circule plus"; "la froideur d'un coup d'oeil trop méthodique." 24 It was at the Hôtel de Poilly, 5, rue du Colisée: Félicien Fagus (pseud Georges Faillet), "XVe Exposition des artists Indépendants (1)," in: La Revue Blanche 20 (1899), 387-388, here 387; also described by Henry Eon, "Expositions: Les Indépendants – Lachenal," in: La Plume (1899), 751-752, here 751. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en http://www.19thc-artworldwide.org/index.php/spring12/aesthetic-and-therapeutic-imprints-artists-and-invalids-on-the-cote-dazur-c-18901910 http://www.19thc-artworldwide.org/index.php/spring12/aesthetic-and-therapeutic-imprints-artists-and-invalids-on-the-cote-dazur-c-18901910 http://www.19thc-artworldwide.org/index.php/spring12/aesthetic-and-therapeutic-imprints-artists-and-invalids-on-the-cote-dazur-c-18901910 RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" (1862-1926) for not supporting the Independents in the latter 1890s,25 Signac himself sent only two works in 1899. Cross accurately assessed the situation: "This exhibition has no importance due to the small number of works and the poor location. I believe that it was our duty to send something: it was simply for that reason that I did it."26 In 1899, journals like La Plume and Mercure de France wrote what read as elegies for the Independents: Fontainas devoted a single paragraph to the show, which he described as more than half dead, and as having had its revolutionary hour.27 In 1900, the Independents reached its nadir, with only 55 exhibitors and a dearth of reviews.28 <top> The Turning Point: 1901 [8] Yet reports of the Independents' imminent death were mistaken. Response to both the Independents and neo-impressionist works in 1901 were decidedly – even shockingly – positive.29 The Mercure de France, which had sung the society's death knell, and La Plume, which had not bothered to review the 1900 exhibition, devoted long articles in 1901 to the phoenix-like Salon. In Mercure de France, Emile Verhaeren's article enthusiastically exclaimed: "The Independants! They are alive and have abandoned none of their daring."30 Critics agreed that the 1901 show was "one of the most brilliant exhibitions" in the group's 17-year history.31 Partial explanation for this turnaround must be given to the exhibition's timing: their return to the spring season better fitted established conventions. The new location, in the Grand Palais, was also beneficial. Gustave Coquiot stated "The site is magnificently chosen," and "We are pleased that it has finally become the right home for the Société des Indépendants."32 Cross reported the exhibition's success to Angrand: It is going well! That's to say that the number of visitors to the Independents has maintained itself until now – an average which varies from 150 to 180; slightly lower numbers began to be evident for the last three days – yesterday 140. But the important thing is that, in view of the next show, our funds will be sufficient 25 Undated letter from Signac to van Rysselberghe, Getty Archives, 870355 (4). 26 Quoted in translation in Bock, Henri Matisse and Neo-Impressionism, 136. 27 Fontainas, "Art Moderne," in: Mercure de France 32, no. 120 (Dec. 1899), 811-817, here 816. 28 Although the numbers do not tell the whole story, they are revealing. Before 1890, their annual exhibit had no more than 170 exhibitors; 1891-1898 the number of exhibitors ranged from 198 to 312; but in 1899 the number fell back to 187; and 1900 fell to only 55. The numbers of exhibitors rebounded to 162 in 1901, when it secured a better location, and they expanded rapidly reaching 1320 in 1908 and remained high until the First World War. 29 Jensen, Marketing Modernism in Fin-de-Siècle France, 135, briefly discusses its resurgence. 30 Emile Verhaeren, "Les Salons," in: Mercure de France 38 (June 1901), 673-692, here 687: "Les indépendants! Ils vivent et n'ont rien abandonné de leurs audaces." 31 B. Guinaudeau, "Le Salon des Indépendants," in: L'Aurore (13 May 1901), 1. 32 Gustave Coquiot, "Les Indépendants," in: Gil Blas (20 Apr. 1901), 1-2, here 1: "Le lieu est magnifiquement choisi," and "nous sommes heureux qu'elle soit enfin devenue le bon gite pour la Société des Indépendants." License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" and – that is the case. The quality of the visitors is not mediocre and, which is not always seen in our society, much was sold.33 [9] The majority of reviews of the annual show began by referencing in some way the exhibition's history. Some situated it as having evolved out of the notorious 1863 Salon des Refusés, thus relying on that old trope used to explain unpopular art by comparing it to older works unappreciated in its time but belatedly recognized as of the highest quality.34 Reviews generally agreed that the exhibiting society had proven its worth and triumphed over its naysayers. Most noted the Society's distinctive and revolutionary principle of open admission, "neither jury, nor awards," some even directly quoting motto of the principles at length.35 This call to principles had been common enough in the 1880s, but was far less prevalent in the latter 1890s. Indeed, when the principles had been invoked in the late 1890s, they were often given as the explanation for the failure of the exhibition, rather than its success, as was the case in 1899 when Henry Eon complained: "Independence understood in this way is anarchy and it leads to nothing; it becomes, in fact, the paralysis of all carefully thought out effort."36 Yet, increasingly, after the turn of the century, critics would praise this governing artistic principle precisely for its political corollary, which had often gone unremarked in the restrictive days after 1894.37 Michel Puy, for example, began by praising the Salon des Indépendants for its "spirit of critique" and "assault on the established order," which "worries the good citizens," concluding that all art searching for the new signifies "emancipation."38 Laertes, in La Dépêche, explained that, "The Independents live under the regime of absolute freedom and equality."39 Emile Sedeyn made the positive association between artistic independence and political independence even clearer: The idea of independence enhances human dignity. He who knows how to be honest without fearing the police, to be fair without fear of purgatory, to be a painter without fearing the approval of the official jury and without begging for honors from the Institute, it is he who affirms the beauty of independence.40 33 Cross to Angrand, as quoted and translated in Bock, Henri Matisse, 136, note 41. 34 Coquiot, "Les Indépendants," 1. 35 As a sample, see Verhaeren, "Les Salons," 687; Coquiot, "Les Indépendants," 1; Emile Sedeyn, "Les Artistes Indépendants," in: La Critique 7, no. 149 (5 May 1901), 69-70, here 69; Michel Puy, "Les Indépendants," in: Le Messidor 1, no. 6 (June 1901), 209-214, here 209; and Roger Marx, "La Saison d'art," in: Revue universelle (1901), 649-652, here 652. 36 Henry Eon, "Expositions: Les Indépendants – Lachenal," 751: "L'indépendance ainsi comprise, c'est l'anarchie, et cela ne mène à rien; cela deviant, en effet, la paralysie de tout effort raisonné." See also Henry Eon, "Salon des Indépendants," in: La Plume (1896), 263-4. 37 On the Trial of Thirty, see Maitron, Le Mouvement anarchiste en France, 251-261. 38 Puy, "Les Indépendants," here 209-210: "J'insisterai d'autant plus sur le Salon des Indépendants que, par les tendances qu'il manifeste, labeur, esprit de critique et d'analyse, effort jamais découragé, il apparaît comme attentatoire à l'ordre établi. La clairvoyance des bons citoyens s'en inquiète [...] Un art qui recherche du nouveau ne signifie-t-il pas: émancipation?" 39 Laertes, "Le Salon des Indépendants," in: La Dépêche 32, no. 11, 927 (24 Apr. 1901), 1: "Les Indépendants vivent sous le regime de la liberté et de l'égalité plênières." License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" [10] Such positive assessments of the Société's principles, both artistic and political, reveal a marked shift from responses dating to the latter 1890s, and make clear that 1901 was a decisive turning point for the Independents. [11] Undoubtedly part of the resurgence was due to artists outside the neo- impressionist circle. Cézanne, who had begun showing with the Independents in 1899, continued to exhibit there in 1901 and 190241; his rising status brought much luster. Discussions of the individual artists at the 1901 exhibition most often began with him, "the most renowned landscapist of this time."42 The next discussed group was the neo- impressionists, closely followed by the Nabis, Édouard Vuillard (1868-1940), Pierre Bonnard (1867-1946) and Maurice Denis (1870-1943), who had abandoned the Independents in previous years for the Salon de la Société nationale des beaux-arts. They returned in 1901, in part because the National had taken a more conservative turn. André Fontainas in La Plume noted that many painters of talent showed at both the Independents and the National. He pondered why their works looked different in the different venues: "Strange thing. Is it due to the more pleasant atmosphere? Is it the selection of the official juries that restrained them? The paintings shown at the Independents better reveal, in general, a free temperament, an ease of style, their own beauty."43 The Independents was being attributed new powers. While the presence of so many significant artists does much to explain the resurgence of the Independents, it does not explain the praise newly heaped on the Signac and the other neo-impressionists. [12] If critics did not launch their reviews with Cézanne, most began either by discussing the posthumous retrospective given to the recently discovered painter, Edmond Le Marcis (1829-1900), or by describing the works of Signac and the other neo- impressionists.44 The order of discussion clearly indicated status. The neo-impressionists as a group received increasing critical attention and concomitant space in reviews, even as their technique took less. As their consistent supporter Emile Verhaeren explained, neo-impressionism's "technique is no longer discussed as a challenge or childish behaviour; it has slowly taken its place in the world of art and those who use it, at least 40 Sedeyn, "Les Artistes Indépendants," 69-70: "L'idée d'indépendance rehausse la dignité humaine. Celui qui sait être honnête sans craindre les gendarmes, être juste sans craindre le purgatoire, être peintre sans craindre les suffrages du jury official et sans quémander des honneurs à l'Institut, celui-là affirme la beauté de l'indépendance." 41 Jensen, Marketing Modernism in Fin-de-Siècle France, 135 and 310, note 98, who further notes that Cézanne left the Independents for the Salon d'Automne in 1904 where he was given his own room with 31 works. 42 Coquiot, "Les Indépendants," 1901, 1: "le plus illustre paysagiste de ce temps." 43 Fontainas, "Les Artistes Indépendants," in: La Plume (1901), 352 -355, here 352: "Chose étrange, est-ce dû à l'atmosphère plus sympathique? est-ce le choix des jurys officiels les y a contraints? les toiles mises aux Indépendants, révèlent mieux, en general, un tempérament libre, une aisance de style, leur beauté propre." 44 The reverence with which Cézanne is treated in these reviews is also notable. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" some of them, are in the process of asserting their mastery."45 While a few critics continued to discuss the perceived limits of the divisionist technique in 1901, far more devoted significant space to praising the group and Signac in particular. Coquiot identified him as "the soul of the this admirable Society."46 In L' Encyclopédie Contemporaine, Ivan barely mentioned the technique in passing, as he described Signac as "the well-known pointillist," before going on to heap lavish praise on all the neo-impressionists.47 He singled out Signac's works as "belle," giving special attention to the artist's Saint-Tropez landscapes: "Port de Saint-Tropez is as seductive as possible. I' ve hardly seen the Mediterranean light rendered with more finesse and fidelity."48 [13] Fontainas, who in 1897 had cried "Why M. Signac?", who in 1899 had declared the Independents "almost dead," and concluded "nothing on the walls arouses even the slightest interest,"49 would do an abrupt about-face in 1901. He positively situated the neo-impressionists' "community of means" as having "a combination of refined and effective procedures" which "create a very special atmosphere." His praise extended to most of the neo-impressionists, but especially to Signac, who "makes the sparkling and powderiness of the Southern lights sing; nobody excels like he does when he lights up the whiteness of a sail against the shimmering colors of the Mediterranean."50 There were certainly many factors leading to the renewed value of the Independents but, in 1901, the works of Signac seem to have been central. [14] Signac also exhibited four large oil sketches, collectively titled Projet pour la décoration de la salle des fêtes de la mairie d'Asnières (Project for the Asnières City Hall Decoration) (Figs. 1, 2), which were much discussed in significantly new ways.51 They are perhaps the clearest, but by no means the only, example of the shared concerns around 45 Verhaeren, "Les Salons," 688: "technique n'est plus discutée comme une gageure et une gaminerie; lentement, elle a pris place dans l'art et ceux qui s'en servent, au moins quelques-uns, sont en passé d'affirmer leur maîtrise." 46 Coquiot, "Les Indépendants," 2: "l'âme meme de cette admirable Société." 47 Ivan, "Le Salon des Indépendants," L'Encyclopédie Contemporaine 15, no. 464 (20 May 1901), 79-80, here 79: "le célèbre pointilliste." 48 Ivan, "Le Salon des Indépendants," 79: "Port de Saint-Tropez est séduisant au possible. Je n'ai guere vu la lumière méditerranéenne rendue ave plus de finesse et de fidelité." Further enthusiastic praise is found in Sedeyn, "Les Artistes Indépendants," 69, where the seascapes are described as being "d'un éclat, d'une fraicheur et d'une harmonie remarquable." Guinaudeau, "Le Salon des Indépendants," 2, similarly praised Signac: "La lumière chante merveilleusement dans ces voiles, dans ces arbres, dans ces fuyantes lignes de quais et de bâtisses." 49 Fontainas, "Art Moderne," in: Mercure de France 32, no. 120 (Dec. 1899), 811-817, here 816: "rien aux murs à present ne suscite mème un pale intérêt." 50 Fontainas, "Les Artistes Indépendants," 355: "communauté de moyens"; "une alliance de procédés épurés et effectifs" which "crée une atmosphère bien special"; "fait chanter l'étincellement et la pulvérulence des lumières méridionales; nul n'excelle comme lui à allumer la blancheur d'une voile aux chatoiements colorés des eaux méditerranéennes." 51 They are held in private collections but were reproduced in Cachin, Signac, as catalogue numbers 355-358: Esquisse des cinq fenêtres, 1900, oil on canvas, 49 x 224 cm; Esquisse du paneau central no.2, 1900, oil on canvas, 49 x 112 cm; Esquisse du panneau central no. 3, 1900, oil on canvas, 49 x 224 cm; Esquisse de la voûte unique, 1900, oil on canvas, 49 x 120 cm. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" 1900 of the neo-impressionists and the symbolists, especially regarding the functions of decorative art, which Katherine Kuenzli has shown to be central to defining modernism in the first decade of the 20th century.52 1 Paul Signac, Projet pour la décoration de la salle des fêtes de la mairie d'Asnières: Esquisse du panneau central no. 3 (Project for the Asnières City Hall Decoration: Sketch for the Central Panel no. 3), 1900, oil on canvas, 49 x 224 cm. Private Collection (© Archives Signac, photo J. Hyde. Reprod. from: Françoise Cachin, Signac. Catalogue raisonné de l'oeuvre, Paris 2000, p. 127, cat. 357) 2 Paul Signac, Projet pour la décoration de la mairie d'Asnières: Esquisse de la voûte unique (Project for the Asnières City Hall Decoration: Sketch for the Single Vault), 1900, oil on canvas, 49 x 120 cm. Private Collection (© Archives Signac, photo J. Hyde. Reprod. from: Françoise Cachin, Signac. Catalogue raisonné de l'oeuvre, Paris 2000, p. 127, cat. 358) [15] Signac's canvases had first been exhibited the Hôtel de Ville de Paris, in December 1900, with more than 100 other submissions done for a public contest to win the commission to decorate the Salle des Fêtes of the Mairie d'Asnières.53 He did not expect to win the commission, but asked in his diary, "Has one the right to complain of not having walls to decorate if one does nothing to obtain them?"54 Signac did not even make the short-list, despite widespread support for his work. The commission was awarded to Marseillais painter Henry Bouvet (1859-1945), and the jury was roundly denounced for 52 Katherine M. Kuenzli, The Nabis and Intimate Modernism: Painting and the Decorative at the Fin- de-Siècle, Burlington 2010, 25 and passim. On the evolving concept of the decorative see the ground-breaking work by Gloria Groom, ed., Beyond the Easel: Decorative Painting by Bonnard, Vuillard, Denis, and Roussel, 1890-1930, exh. cat., New Haven, 2001, and especially the essays therein: Nicholas Watkins, "The Genesis of a Decorative Aesthetic," 1-28, and Gloria Groom, "Into the Mainstream: Decorative Painting, 1900-30," 143-168; on the decorative's relation to neo-impressionism, see Roslak, Neo-Impressionism and Anarchism in Fin-de-Siècle France, 5-6 and 162-166. 53 Discover Asnières-sur-Seine: A guide of heritage tourism, http://en.calameo.com/read/00044651974cbea6a0930 (accessed 1 May 2012). 54 Paul Signac, Journal, t. VI, 11 Nov. 1900, Archives Signac; as quoted and translated in Richard Thomson, "Henri Martin at Toulouse: terre natale and juste milieu," in: Framing France: The Representation of Landscape in France, 1870-1914, ed. Richard Thomson, Manchester 1998, 147-172, here 168. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en http://en.calameo.com/read/00044651974cbea6a0930 RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" its decision. In the words of Coquiot: "It is good to call odious, a second time, the judges of the contest."55 In La Revue Blanche, Félicien Fagus too singled out Signac's proposal, praising it for two full paragraphs, and he concluded that "for the first time, the theories that gave rise to it will be controlled in a full, dazzling, decisive way."56 [16] In recent literature, including that of Gloria Groom, Nicholas Watkins and Katherine Kuenzli, the decorative's importance for 20th century art has been highlighted, with a focus on the Nabis. However, as Signac's letters, texts, and the primary criticism makes clear, the neo-impressionists were also deeply invested in the ideals of the decorative. The concept of the decorative was not delimited by style but most commonly implied a contrast with easel painting, and its bourgeois associations; it could relate to an ideal of an elevated, public art or, paradoxically, could suggest the breakdown of hierarchies through the reuniting of the arts and crafts.57 For the neo-impressionists, it implied both the large-scale paintings associated with architecture, as well as the more intimate associations that could be created by an easel painting's formal qualities. The decorative was strongly associated with classicism, and both were deeply connected in the French imaginary to the Mediterranean, as revealed by the fact that immediately upon moving to the Saint-Tropez, Signac made his first effort at a large, decorative work: Femmes au puits. Opus 238 (Jeunes provençales au puits: décoration pour un panneau dans la pénombre) (Women at the Well. Opus 238 [Young Girls from Provence at the Well: Decoration for a Panel in the Shadows], 1892, oil on canvas, 194.8 x 130.7 cm, Musée d'Orsay, Paris). He followed with an even larger and more clearly decorative work, his manifesto of anarchist ideals, Au temps d'harmonie: L' âge d'or n' est pas dans le passé, il est dans l' avenir (In the Time of Harmony: The Golden Age Is Not in the Past, It Is in the Future, 1893-1895, oil on canvas, 300 x 400 cm, Mairie de Montreuil, Montreuil) (Fig. 4).58 Even though these works were not very well received, Signac persisted, as the Asnières canvases reveal. As he had explained in his 1898 book: The effect sought by the neo-impressionists, and ensured by divisionism, is a maximum of light, color, and harmony. Their technique thus seems very well suited to decorative compositions, which some of them have sometimes done. But, being excluded from official commissions, and having no large walls to decorate, they wait for the time when they will be allowed to carry out the great undertakings of which they dream.59 55 Coquiot, "Les Indépendants," 2: "Il est bon de rendre odieux une seconde fois les juges d'un concours." 56 Félicien Fagus, "Décoration de la Mairie d'Asnières," in: La Revue blanche (Jan.-Apr. 1901): 61-63 here 62: "pour la première fois les théories qui le suscitèrent seraient contrôlées d'une façon pleine, éclatante, décisive." 57 Watkins, "The Genesis of a Decorative Aesthetic," 18-19. 58 Dymond, "A Politicized Pastoral," 358-363. 59 Paul Signac, D'Eugène Delacroix au neo-impressionnisme, 3rd edition, Paris 1921, 84: "L'effet recherché par les néo-impressionnistes et assuré par la division, c'est un maximum de lumière, de coloration et d'harmonie. Leur technique semble donc convenir fort bien aux compositions décoratives, à quoi, d'ailleurs, certains d'entre eux l'ont quelquefois appliquée. Mais, exclus des commandes officielles, n'ayant pas de murailles à décorer, ils attendent des temps où il leur sera License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" 3 Paul Signac, Femmes au puits (Women at the Well), 1892, oil on canvas, 195 x 131 cm. Musée d'Orsay, Paris (© RMN Musée d'Orsay. Reprod. from: Françoise Cachin, Signac. Catalogue raisonné de l'oeuvre, Paris 2000, p. 110, cat. 234) 4 Paul Signac, Au temps d’harmonie (In the Time of Harmony), 1894-1895, oil on canvas, 300 x 400 cm. Mairie de Montreuil, Montreuil (Photo: Jean- Luc Tabuteau. Image kindly provided by the Mairie de Montreuil) permis de réaliser les grandes entreprises dont ils rêvent." License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" [17] The decorative had been central to neo-impressionism since its founding, as Roslak has shown, yet there was a renewed enthusiasm for its potential in the 20th century. [18] The artistic success of Signac's Asnières proposal (despite his lack of success in the competition) seems to have encouraged critics to recognize anew neo- impressionism's decorative qualities. Puy, for example, praised the installation of paintings by both Van Rysselberghe and Signac at the Independents in terms that emphasized their decorative potential: They would light up the walls of village halls magnificently; they have understood modern architecture, in the simplicity of its great lines, and are ready to decorate bright rooms and distinguished rooms, where their vibrant luminosity would balance out; they would bring different qualities than those of Puvis de Chavannes, but derived from him: they see widely and know how to compose, a rare gift.60 [19] Puy also took a swipe at the artist who had most successfully used the neo- impressionist technique in the public sphere: Henri Martin (1860-1943).61 Puy lamented Martin's "pillaging" of neo-impressionist style,62 presumably for similar reasons as those decried by Signac, who complained that Martin's use of the technique had been supported by the government, yet drained of its advantages, especially coloristic brilliance.63 As Richard Thomson has made clear, Martin's successful mainstreaming of the technique in such well-known commissions as the Capitole of Toulouse relied on draining it not only of its color, but also of its radical associations.64 [20] Verhaeren went even further than most in condemning the choice of the jury: he demanded to know why, when Signac's works had already entered into the German state museum, they were not yet in the collection of the Musée du Luxembourg, France's national museum for living artists.65 This call for Signac to be officially recognized and nationally represented would not be answered until 1905, when one of his watercolors was purchased by the Luxembourg. Nevertheless, these calls for national recognition marked a significant shift in the reception of Signac. [21] In a longer article on the 1901 spring art season, Roger Marx concluded with a tribute to the Independents that repeatedly linked it to freedom. Noting the promising 60 Puy, "Les Indépendants," 211: "Ils éclaireraient magnifiquement des murailles de salles des fêtes; ils ont compris l'architecture moderne, dans la simplicité des ses grandes lignes, et sont préparés pour la decoration des halls clairs et des salles élevées, où s'équilibrerait leur vibrante luminosité; ils y apporteraient des qualités différentes de celles de Puvis de Chavannes, mais dérivées de lui: ils voient largement, et don rare, savent composer." 61 On Martin, see Thomson, "Henri Martin at Toulouse," which is also one of the few examinations of Signac's Asnières works. 62 Puy, "Les Indépendants," 210. 63 Signac, D'Eugène Delacroix au neo-impressionnisme, 110; noted in Thomson, "Henri Martin at Toulouse," 166-167. 64 Thomson, "Henri Martin at Toulouse," 166-68. 65 Verhaeren, "Les Salons," 689. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" newcomers to the Independents, Marx singled out the former students of Gustave Moreau (1826-1898), including Henri Matisse (1869-1954). Their works, he suggested, "denounce by their presence the incomprehension or the arbitrary harshness of juries."66 The Belgian artists showing, including Van Rysselberghe, were said to be honored "to share the asylum of free art and militant originality with the outcasts."67 In this, Marx made this tradition of freedom a national one, French but not Belgian. Marx's final paragraph is worth quoting at length: Overall, the exhibition of the Independents is more and better than the protesting Salon des Refusés; it gives the example of an open society where the rights of all are equal, where everyone is answerable only to himself and remains individually responsible. The artist admits and shows himself as he is, openly without pretense; the viewer, meanwhile, receives no watchword from the jury, follows the inclination of his preferences and decides, in his own way, from beginning to end. Fortunate training for the will, is it not true, that which accustoms man to use his independence to act, to think by himself and for himself, consulting no-one, in the blissfulness of free will!68 [22] Marx's text, more than any other in 1901, made it clear that the Society's radical artistic and political history was what gave it its power, for the benefit of both the artist and viewer. Marx took it even further, however, in arguing that the Independents' trained the viewer to exercise his free will and that this would benefit all society. His viewpoint was very close to that of Signac, who had been long working toward a decorative art that could transform the public, and help to bring about a new society (see also Katherine Brion's article in this Special Issue).69 [23] These shifts in the critical reception of both the neo-impressionists and the Salon des Indépendants from 1898 to 1901 have made me reconsider why so many young artists were attracted to neo-impressionism and an art of color in the 20th century. After the first flurry of responses at its publication, there were very few published references to Signac's D'Eugène Delacroix, and it was not reprinted in France until 1911.70 Instead of being explained by a two-year old book, it seems that the renewed success in 1901 was 66 Marx, "La Saison d'art," 652: "dénonçaient par leur présence l'incompréhension ou les rigueurs arbitraires des jurys." 67 Marx, "La Saison d'art," 652: "de partager avec les proscrits l'asile de l'art libre et de l'originalité militante." 68 Marx, "La Saison d'art," 652: "Au total, l'exposition des Indépendants est plus et mieux que le Salon protestataire des refusés; elle donne l'exemple d'une société ouverte, où les droits de tous sont égaux, où chacun ne relève que de soi-même et demeure individuellement responsable. L'artiste se confesse et se livre tel qu'il est, sans fard ni feinte; le spectateur, de son côté, ne reçoit point le mot d'ordre des jurys, suit l'inclination de ses préférences et se prononce, à sa guise, en premier et dernier ressort. Heureuse école pour la volonté, n'est-il pas vrai, celle qui habitue ainsi l'homme à user de son indépendance, à agir, à penser par lui-même et pour lui-même, sans prendre conseil de personne, dans la plénitude du libre arbitre!" 69 On Signac's earlier major decorative efforts and their relation to anarchism, see Anne Dymond "A Politicized Pastoral: Signac and the Cultural Geography of Mediterranean France," in The Art Bulletin 85 (June 2003), 353-370; Roslak, Neo-Impressionism and Anarchism in Fin-de-Siècle France, 155-167. 70 The 1911 edition was published by Henry Floury, who would publish a third edition in 1921. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" owed both to the administrative facts of better timing, site and organization, and, in no small measure, to the neo-impressionists' newly-valued capacity for harmonious decorative art, which had been a pictorial and social goal held by Signac and Cross throughout the latter part of the 1890s. As Roslak has persuasively argued, Signac and Cross had been attempting, since their move to southern France in the early 1890s, "to elevate [their beloved land of the sun] to the level of a decorative monument."71 Signac's proposal for the Mairie d'Asnières won over many critics. For the first time, it seems, critics such as Roger Marx, who had long preferred symbolism, could see and applaud both the ideals of the neo-impressionists and their execution. Indeed, the primary critical literature makes evident that it was neo-impressionist art, increasingly esteemed from 1901, that led to a renewal of interest in the book, visible around 1904. <top> "Towards a New Classical Canon": 1902-1904 [24] Response to the 1902 Salon des Indépendants was similar to that of the previous year, with both the exhibition and the group receiving much praise. For example, this year's Independents was praised as one the society's more important,72 and Fagus would exclaim "Here is the real Salon!"73 However, three new trends emerged: Signac was increasingly given the lead position in reviews; the neo-impressionists were more often recognized as having distinctive personal styles within the technique; and the importance of the south, with its associations of freedom, the decorative arabesque, and its links to classicism came to the fore in much criticism. [25] Like many critics, after a laudatory introduction, Henry Bidou turned immediately to discuss Signac.74 His effusive praise for Saint-Tropez (1901, oil on canvas, 131 x 161.5 cm, National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo) is precise and detailed, noting specific lines and colors in the work.75 After some appreciative description, Bidou turned to method: "Signac proceeds by pure tones juxtaposed, that is well known. But his art is more delicate."76 Bidou went on to closely analyze Signac's touch, noting the individual marks as well as their harmony within the whole.77 He instructed viewers: "Examine also the 71 As translated in Roslak, Neo-Impressionism and Anarchism in Fin-de-Siècle France, 167, note 8. 72 Henry Bidou,"Le Salon des Indépendants," in: L'Occident 1, vol. 5 (Apr. 1902), 255-64, here 255. See also Fontainas, "Art moderne," in: Mercure de France 42, no. 149 (May 1902), 523-31, here 526. 73 Fagus, "Les Indépendants," in: La Revue Blanche (Apr. 1902): 623-626, here 623: "Voici le vrai Salon!" 74 For other reviews beginning with Signac, see also François Hoffmann, "L'exposition de la Société des Artistes Indépendants," in: Journal Des Arts (5 Apr. 1902), 2-3, here 2. Even when not discussed first, Signac was given much attention in 1902, as was his solo exhibition in June at Siegfried Bing's Salon de l'Art Nouveau. 75 Cachin, Signac, 249. 76 Bidou, "Le Salon des Indépendants," 255-6. 77 Bidou, "Le Salon des Indépendants," 256: "que dans le meme coup de pinceau le blanc paraisse près de la couleur, sans s'y fonder et sans l'alourdir, et la laisse vivante et brillante, au lieu de la faire plâtreuse." License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" way each touch is laid, combined with the canvas which appears here and there, how it is placed for the pleasure of the eye, the beauty of the matter and for its role in the whole."78 This kind of close attention to individual works, even to specific marks, was rare enough in art criticism, but it was unparalleled in discussions of Signac and the neo- impressionists, who had often been discussed as having lost their individuality to a 'system.' While Bidou went on to discuss each individual neo-impressionists at length, Edmond Pilon, in Aujourd'hui, directly compared Signac's and Van Rysselberghe's differing use of the technique. This recognition that the neo-impressionist method allowed for individual temperament and had evolved greatly since the early 1890s, was noted by Signac in his diary as early as 1895,79 but only became more widely admitted in the 20th century. [26] Even François Hoffmann, critic for the conservative Journal des Arts, was positive about Signac in 1902, and he too began his discussion of specific artists with Signac: Mr. Signac, who for fifteen years has been in the breach as an impressionist painter, in terms of the way of painting, cannot of course please everybody but it is nevertheless true that he still retains his great enthusiasm and increasingly forces himself to simplify and to synthesize according to his caprice, he carries his easel from Passy to Samois and from Samois to Saint-Tropez, noting, here and there, that which speaks to his imagination.80 [27] Hoffmann thus recognized Signac as grounded in specific locations, but also saw the artist's use of imagination; this balance between the real and the imagined, the objective and the subjective, represents a significant rhetorical move away from the situating of the neo-impressionists as mere technicians following a rulebook. While this was never true of the neo-impressionists, it was only intermittently recognized (see Young's analysis of such rhetorical gambits after Seurat's death in 1891 in this Special Issue). The more negative criticism of the later 1890s tended, however, to blunt the movement's complex negotiation of such issues. Hoffmann and others recognized that the imaginative was not the sole purview of the symbolists. This balanced recognition of technique, imagination, and synthesis, all filtered through the individual artist would recur frequently in the coming years. [28] By 1902, the importance of the Côte d'Azur, both for the neo-impressionists and modern art, was also frequently mentioned. Signac had been visiting the Mediterranean 78 Bidou, "Le Salon des Indépendants," 256: "Examinez aussi la façon dont chaque touche est posée, combine avec la toile qui paraît çà et là, comment elle est accrochée pour le plaisir de l'oeil, la beauté de la matière et pour son rôle dans l'ensemble." 79 Roslak, Neo-Impressionism and Anarchism in Fin-de-Siècle France, 191. 80 Hoffmann, "L'exposition de la Société des Artistes Indépendants," 2: "M. Signac, depuis une quinzaine d'années sur la brèche est un peintre impressionniste, dont la façon de peindre, peut bien ne pas plaire à tout le monde, mais il n'en est pas moins vrai que l'artiste conserve toujours sa belle ardeur et qu'il s'efforce de plus en plus à simplifier et à synthétiser au hasard de son caprice, il promène son chevalet de Passy à Samois et de Samois à Saint-Tropez, notant, ici et là, ce qui parle à son imagination." License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" coast regularly since the late 1880s, and settled in the small coastal village of Saint- Tropez in 1892.81 Cross was similarly ensconced in the south, and both had seen Provence as a location that would be conducive to their desired anarchist future. The art critic Edmond Pilon began his review of the 1902 Independents by praising Cézanne's depictions of "the Provencal countryside" which he said "offers sites that are limpid and rugged by way of its contrasts. Great artists know it and go there. Among them are Messrs. Théo Van Rysselberghe, Paul Signac and Henri-Edmond Cross."82 The sunlit port of Saint-Tropez, discussed above, was widely praised as "one of the best works by Paul Signac."83 But the southern location, this "strange enchantress,"84 was not just visual; it had important cultural connotations, often linked to ideals of French classicism and, by the neo-impressionists, to ideals of freedom and anarchism.85 Fagus made the link between the location, the decorative arabesque, and classical ideals explicit. After some complaints about what neo-impressionism lacked, he exclaimed about Cross's works: "but the quivering of these Provençal pines, the beautiful rise towards the arabesque, towards the beautiful line, towards a new classical canon!"86 The depiction of the south, captured by the beautiful arabesque line, and thus linked to the decorative, was leading to a new classicism. Classicism was the central terrain being fought over in the 20th century, and as I have argued elsewhere, Signac did not relinquish it to the conservatives, but instead tried to claim it for the anarchist movement.87 [29] Fagus would take up this effusive praise for the neo-impressionist style and again link it to the classical and the decorative even more forcefully in his review of the group show at Durand-Ruel that fall. In a long discussion of the importance of decorative arts, including much praise for Van Rysselberghe's decorative ensemble for Victor Horta's Hotel 81 On his southern experiences, see Dymond, "A Politicized Pastoral," 357-363; Roslak, Neo- Impressionism and Anarchism in Fin-de-Siècle France, 141-167; Françoise Cachin, "L'Arrivée de Signac à Saint-Tropez," in: Françoise Cachin, Jean-Paul Monerey, and Marina Ferretti-Bocquillon, eds., Signac & Saint-Tropez, 1892-1913, exh. cat., Saint-Tropez 1992, 11-15; Cachin, ed., Méditerranée de Courbet à Matisse, exh. cat., Paris 2000. On Cross see Tania Woloshyn, "Marking out the Maures: Henri-Edmond Cross on the Côte d'Azur," in: Tania Woloshyn and Nicholas Hewitt, eds., L'Invention du Midi: The Rise of the South of France in the National and International Imagination (Nottingham French Studies 50.1, Special Issue), Nottingham 2011, 57-71. 82 Edmond Pilon, "XVIIIme Exposition des Indépendants," in: Aujourd'hui 2 (15 May 1902), 42-45, here 43: "la terre provençale offre par ses contrastes, des sites limpides et tournmentés. De grands artistes le savent et y viennent. Du nombre sont MM. Théo Van Rysselberghe, Paul Signac et Henri-Edmond Cross." 83 Tristan Klingsor, "Les Salons de 1902," in: La Plume (Jan.-June 1902), 566-571, here 567: "des meilleures toiles de Paul Signac." 84 Pilon, "XVIIIme Exposition des Indépendants," 43: "étrange enchanteresse." 85 Dymond, "A Politicized Pastoral," 352-357 and passim; Roslak, Neo-Impressionism and Anarchism in Fin-de-Siècle France, 97-108 and 146-154; and for an account that emphasizes how it is viewed by those in the political right, see James D. Herbert, Fauve Painting: The Making of Cultural Politics, New Haven 1992, especially 122-124. 86 Fagus, "Les Indépendants," 625: "mais le vibrement de ces pins de Provence, la belle ascension vers l'arabesque, vers la belle ligne, vers un nouveau canon classique!" 87 Dymond, "A Politicized Pastoral," 364-365. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" Solvay, Fagus argued that "the universal momentum of painting towards harmony through light and clarity, necessarily led to the logical division of tone."88 Fagus went on to describe a new generation (not a school, he says, since they have more diverse sensibilities) of painters, inspired by Seurat, including both the neo-impressionists and the symbolists. As proof of its move toward universality, Fagus noted that they were even followed by academicians such as Henri Martin. And what, Fagus asked, were they moving towards? Towards a new décor, a new harmony through light and eloquence: towards style. Towards something else; that could only lead to splendor too soon frozen of a classicism, of another academy […] Supreme naivety attained through supreme love, this was the sublime beauty of the Middle Ages and ancient works, and it is towards this that our young renewed art strives without knowing it, and that makes it so alive, so moving, so edifying.89 [30] This praise for both symbolists and neo-impressionists recognized their shared interests in the decorative and the classical, and it indicates the neo-impressionists' new- found success in the opening years of the 20th century at claiming the arabesque, the beautiful line, and the classical. [31] Signac followed his success at the 1902 Independents with his first solo exhibition, at Bing's gallery. This large show included 9 canvases, 12 oil notations, 2 pastels and 100 watercolors.90 Response was overwhelmingly positive and often showed a renewed interest in situating Signac's 'science' in a positive light. Many critics noted how much the neo-impressionist technique had changed: Octave Maus, for example, described the technique as having undergone "a pleasing evolution."91 Fontainas, only recently favorable to neo-impressionism, argued that Signac had productively synthesized art and science: for him, science did not extinguish spontaneity; on the contrary, science is a great help to him; it teaches him to see and to express with more freedom and ease. These are not the cold school rules based on more or less authentic traditions that make up the method of Mr. Signac; no: he captured a secret of nature, neglected by previous painters.92 88 Fagus, "L'Art de demain," in: La Revue Blanche (Sept.-Dec. 1902), 542-546, here 545: "l'élan universel de la peinture vers une harmonie par la lumière et la clarté, nécessairement mena à la division logique du ton." 89 Fagus, "L'Art de demain," 545-546: "Vers un nouveau décor, une nouvelle harmonie par la lumière et le nombre: vers le style. Vers autre chose; cela seul mènerait à la splendeur tôt figée d'un classicisme, d'une autre académie […] Atteindre par le suprême amour la suprême naïveté, cela fit la beauté sublime des oeuvres du moyen âge comme des oeuvres de l'antiquité, et c'est vers cela que s'évertue à l'insu de lui notre jeune art renouvelé, et qui le fait si vivant, si émouvant, si édifiant." 90 Cachin, Signac, 373. 91 Octave Maus, "Exposition Paul Signac," in: L'Art Moderne (3 June 1902), 196-197, here 196: "une évolution heureuse." 92 Fontainas, "Art moderne," in: Mercure de France 43, no. 151 (July 1902), 243-247, here 245: "science n'a pas éteint chez lui la spontanéité; au contraire, elle lui est d'un grand secours; elle lui enseigne à voir et à s'exprimer avec plus de liberté et d'aisance. Ce ne sont pas de froides règles License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" [32] Maurice Denis, reviewing Signac's watercolors, dismissed concerns about the method, concluding, "Like the constructors of the thirteenth century, of which he has the same lucid spirit, he doesn't oppose, but much to the contrary, he reconciles art and science in the same conscious and reflective manner."93 Both critics praise neo- impressionist technique as something that was 'found' rather than 'made' (to invoke Richard Shiff's observation) through synthesis, and thus classic, and this view echoed throughout the early 20th century reception of the neo-impressionists.94 [33] This success of Signac's would be magnified at the next Independents. If the Gazette des beaux-arts was the bell-weather of success, its first review of the Independents in 1903 marked their coming of age.95 In the journal's review of the show, Henry Cochin was able to find individuality and individual expression, which he situated as art's highest goal, within the pointillist style. He praised Signac, but honored him even more by reproducing a drawing after Signac's Sisteron (1902, oil on canvas, 89 x 117, private collection, New York).96 [34] The first Salon d'Automne, in 1903, was organized in the wake of this resurgence of the Independents. Despite its successes, the Salon d'Automne represented, at its founding, a middle path between, on one hand, the conservatism of the Société des artistes français and the Société nationale des beaux-arts and, on the other hand, the anarchism of the Independents.97 As one critic quipped in 1910, "The Salon d'Automne, – the Independents have arrived."98 Its immediate success resulted in changes both within the Independents and in how the group was viewed. As with most post-1900 Independents exhibits, critics continued in 1904 to begin their reviews by noting the democratic governing principles of the group.99 In the wake of the founding of the newest Salon, the trend toward situating the Independents as a by-now well-established institution gathered force. As André Mellerio wrote, "There is no longer any need to explain to the readers of the Revue Universelle the goal of the Independents, and even d'école, basées sur les traditions plus ou moin authentiques, qui composent la méthode de M. Signac; non: il a surpris un secret de la nature, négligé des peindres antérieurs." 93 M.D. [Maurice Denis], "Aquarelles de Paul Signac," in: L'Occident 2, no. 8 (July 1902), 53-54, here 53. 94 Richard Shiff, Cézanne and the End of Impressionism: A Study of the Theory, Technique, and Critical Evaluation of Modern Art, Chicago 1984. 95 Jensen, Marketing Modernism in Fin-de-Siècle France, 136, points out the importance of the Gazette des beaux-arts, and notes that it did not review the Independents. 96 Henry Cochin, "Quelques réflexions sur les salons," in: Gazette des Beaux-Arts 29 (1903), 441- 464, here 456. 97 See Roger Marx's interpretation of its founding, "Le Salon d'Automne," in: Gazette des Beaux- Arts 32 (1904), 458-474. 98 Anonymously quoted in Gérard Monnier, L'art et ses institutions en France: de la Révolution à nos jours, Paris 1995, 273: "Le Salon d'automne, ce sont les Indépendants arrivés." 99 For example, the reviews of the Independents that year in: Le Petit Sou, Le Mercure de France, L'Aurore, Les Annales de la Jeunesse Laique, Les Temps Nouveaux, Le Grand National, and La Dépêche. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" less of a need to plead the case of the artists who, not wanting to make any concession to the taste of the day, prefer the freedom they enjoy here to the partial constraints of the official Salons."100 Maurice Le Blond, in L' Aurore, began by noting that even though the President of France was not visiting the Independents, they had achieved the status of classic.101 If the Independents was situated as classic, the neo-impressionists continued to be seen as tightly linked to the society and, in parallel fashion, were now typically read as established masters, even veterans.102 "The Independents gather proudly around the valiant phalanx of the Luces and the Signacs, the Crosses and the Van Rysselberghes," Le Blond continued.103 Mellerio praised the salon for its associations with liberty, before moving directly on to discuss the neo-impressionists, and linking them to the promised land of the Mediterranean: "Besides, Saint-Tropez and Antibes are increasingly becoming the promised land for neo-impressionist painters, who find in the opposition of the sky and the sun, the colored sea, powerful trees, motifs with chromatic variation and beautiful linear arabesques."104 [35] But 1904 also marked a shift toward less positive reviews, with a renewed sense of neo-impressionism's end that has been much noted in art historical literature. Marcel Fouquier in Le Journal, for example, suggested that the exhibit clearly showed that the neo-impressionist school was nearly finished: "Its influence can be found almost everywhere but its doctrinal authority is in visible decline. Its methods are no longer applied save by a small group of intransigent artists led by Mr. Signac, for whom the Vues d'Antibes, in its ever prestigious charm is more outrageous than ever."105 However, even this negative assessment admitted the continued influence of the movement, and was relatively positive about Signac. Louis Vauxcelles, who would become one of the most important pre-war critics, was never a fan. Yet even he grudgingly conceded that Signac's seascapes vibrated, but complained that the effect tired and hurt the eyes.106 Charles Morice remained supportive of the Independents, even predicting that, along with 100 André Mellerio, "Les Petites Expositions," in: Revue Universelle 4, 108, (15 Apr. 1904), 215-216, here 215: "Il n'est plus besoin d'expliquer aux lecteurs de la Revue Universelle le but des Indépendants, et encore moins de plaider la cause des artistes qui, n'entendant faire aucune concession au goût du jour, préfèrent la liberté dont ils jouissent ici à la demi-contraite des Salons officiels." 101 Maurice Le Blond, "L'Exposition des Indépendants," in: L'Aurore (21 Feb. 1904), 2. 102 G.M. "Glanes du matin" in: La Gazette de France (21 Feb. 1904), 2. 103 Maurice Le Blond, "L'Exposition des Indépendants," 2: "Les Indépendants se groupent avec fierté autour de la vaillante phalange des Luce et des Signac, des Cross et des Van Rysselberghe." 104 Mellerio, "Les Petites Expositions," 215: "Au reste, Saint-Tropez et Antibes deviennent de plus en plus la terre promise des peintres néo-impressionnistes, qui trouvent dans les oppositions du ciel et du sol, da la mer colorée, des arbres puissant, motifs à variations chromatiques et à belles arabesques linéaires." 105 Marcel Fouquier, "Les Petits Salons," in: Le Journal (21 Feb. 1904), 5: "Son influence se retrouve un peu partout, mais son autorité doctrinale s'affaiblit visiblement. Ses procédés ne sont plus appliqués que par un petit groupe d'artistes intransigeants, qui ont pour chef M. Signac, dont les Vues d'Antibes, en leur charme toujours prestigieux sont plus outrancières que jamais." 106 Louis Vauxcelles, "Le Vernissage des Indépendants," in: Gil Blas (21 Feb. 1904), 1. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" the Salon d'Automne, it would outlast the official Salons. Nevertheless, Morice poked gentle fun at neo-impressionism, suggested of their irradiated landscapes that one might get a sunburn "if the sun weren' t so cold!"107 and then he trotted out some old tropes by criticizing the members as having become formulaic. [36] Despite some negative criticism, in 1904, Signac and the neo-impressionists were positioned in much criticism as more than merely having achieved a brief second wind; they were seen to be at the height of their powers, as established masters, who through perseverance had mastered their technique. They were rarely described as followers of Seurat, as indeed their style was recognized as having evolved significantly in the more than ten years since his death. They were consistently positioned as the equals to the symbolists, and as similarly striking a decorative balance between the objective and subjective, and, in the case of Cross and Signac, as concerned with the light and color of Provence above all else. The turning point came at the moment of the Independents' resurgence, in 1901, and was concomitant with Signac's attempt to move into large-scale public decorative works. If neo-impressionism in the 20th century has been primarily studied to understand its impact on later artists, it should be recognized that the movement, now twenty years old, had changed dramatically, and was still at the forefront of artistic debates in Paris. In the case of Matisse, it seems especially ahistorical to suggest the influence was brief. Matisse had two sustained periods of interest in neo- impressionism: from 1898 to 1900 he clearly studied Signac's text; then in 1904, he became immersed in the neo-impressionist world, working with and alongside them for a period that did fully end until the completion of Le Port d'Abaill (1905-06, oil on canvas, 60 x 148, private collection) – begun during the 'Fauve summer' of 1905, incomplete at the time of that year's Salon d'Automne, and finished by the time of its exhibition in the spring of in 1906.108 Given the relative speed at which significant art movements came and went in the 20th century – even Matisse's Fauve period lasted at best three years, roughly equal to his neo-impressionist periods – the high esteem in which Signac and other neo-impressionists were held in the years leading up to 1904 needs to be recognized. Only then can we understand that the definitions of the classical, the decorative, and the French tradition were wide and open to Independents of many stripes. <top> 107 Charles Morice, "Le XXe Salon des Indépendants," in: Mercure de France 50, no. 173 (May 1904), 405-419, here 408: "Mais que ce soleil est froid!" 108 Hilary Spurling, The Unknown Matisse: A Life of Henri Matisse, The Early Years, 1869-1908, Berkeley 1998, 330. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0046 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en Introduction The Independents and Neo-Impressionists in the 1890s The Turning Point: 1901 "Towards a New Classical Canon": 1902-1904 
work_6jidtfvdpndejmkmwc34nhro3u	----	Clinical research on children in the 1990s 636 Editorial Comment Clinical Research on Children in The 1990s* ARTHUR GARSON, JR., MD, FACC Houston, Texas In the 1970s and 1980s, a great deal of clinical research was published (my own work included) that might be viewed differently in the 1990s. It is worthwhile to examine the research principles that have evolved, and especially their application to children, before assessing the report by Mehta and Chidambaram (1) in this issue of the Journal. Clinical research on children. Children are little adults in some ways, and not in others. Some clinical research on children, especially studies of drugs and devices, is based on findings demonstrated previously in adults. Therefore, the original research question can be as simple as, What differ- ences are observed between the responses of children and adults? However, in providing such a narrow focus for an investigation, we miss the opportunity to learn about chil- dren. Any research project, especially one involving inva- sive testing, should provide data that not only are specific to the question being studied, but also can be generalized to other childen. For example, from a drug study, one should learn how children of different ages absorb, metabolize, distribute and excrete drugs in general, using a specific drug as a model. When the research question involves testing specific hypotheses based on data presented in other investigations, such as those performed in adults, it is important to conduct a truly prospective study (a retrospective study identifies areas for future prospective studies). In undertaking a pro- spective study, there is a certain responsibility to obtain from every patient, if at all possible, every piece of data that is sought. Therefore, the data to be evaluated must be chosen carefully and based on hypotheses (one might say that the difference between fishing and hypothesis testing is that with hypothesis testing, you guess what kind of fish you are going to catch). In assessing the specific data to be collected, one must choose the control group carefully. In children especially, the confounding variables of growth and development must be considered. Rarely are historical con- trol subjects acceptable because, in the space of 1 year or less, a problem such as supraventricular tachycardia may 'Editorials published in Journal of the Americ~n College of Car1iology reflect the views of the authors and do not necessanly represent the views of JACC or the American College of Cardiology. . . From the Section of Pediatric Cardiology, Baylor College of Medlcme, Houston, Texas. Address for reprints: Arthur Garson, Jr., MD, Texas Children's Hospital, Pediatric Cardiology, 6621 Fannin, Houston, Texas 77030. © 1992 by the American College of Cardiology JACC Vol. 19, No.3 March 1. 1992:636-7 disappear or worsen spontaneously in response to a child's growth and development. In planning a prospective study, the number of subjects necessary to answer each question must be calculated and the calculation must be based on a straightforward formula of estimated variance. We owe it to the children to perform rigidly controlled protocols. In conducting clinical research studies on antiar- rhythmic drugs in children, I have found that it is not the patients or the parents who are noncompliant but the doctors who "let it go." We can and must perform double-blind, placebo-controlled studies. Although the children may not know the difference between drug and placebo, parents often understand the difference and influence their children in subtle ways. Parents must be taught by the nursing and physician staff to be careful, objective observers. They need to understand that children may show subtle signs of toxicity such as irritability or listlessness (it is difficult for 14-month old children to tell parents that they have a headache). Reliance for evaluation on the presence or absence of symptoms even through the teenage years may be inade- quate in children. More objective methods of evaluation should be sought, including more frequent observation by trained professionals and more frequent laboratory testing. Parallel study designs are more likely than sequential designs to yield meaningful results because the natural history of any disease changes with growth and development. Assessment of the need for invasive studies such as blood drawing or even electrophysiologic study should be based on the risklbenefit ratio in a manner similar to that used in adults. If sequential blood drawing for measurement of pharmacokinetic variables in necessary to answer a ques- tion, and the pharmacokinetic data are needed to answer a specific question about a specific child as well as for general use in learning about children, the data should be obtained. In plannning such invasive studies, however, it should be remembered that children are impressionable and have ex- tremely good memories, but they may not understand the relation of the testing to their overall benefit or to the benefit to human understanding. Therefore, in children the discom- fort of testing must be weighed more importantly on the risk side of the risk/benefit ratio. We have been extremely fortunate to have access to one of several Clinical Research Centers supported by the Na- tional Institutes of Health and designed specifically for children. Because the entire nursing staff in such centers is oriented toward making the children who are being studied as comfortable as possible, the adverse effects of hospital- ization and testing are minimized. These centers are vital to the performance of safe and productive research in children. These centers provide the important atmosphere of concern for the patient; they also require patients or parents, or both, to sign a consent form, thus forcing physicians to declare when they are doing research and to demonstrate to the parents (and in many cases to the child) the exact nature of the research and its costs and its benefits. 0735-1097/92/$5.00 JACC Vol. 19. No.3 March I. 1992:636-7 GARSON EDITORIAL COMMENT 637 We have a responsibility to the children and their parents to make valid conclusions based on the data obtained. A study should not be completed or reported if it is based on small subgroups of patients that are too small to allow meaningful comparisons. The inferences based on these small groups may be misleading and the data subject to a type II error. The present study. The major conclusion in the study of Mehta and Chidambaram (1) is that nadolol is a safe and effective agent in the management of supraventricular tachy- cardia in children; the arrhythmia in 23 of 26 patients was well controlled. It is likely that such good results were the result of the administration of nadolol; nonetheless, a more rigorous study design with a parallel placebo group might have improved the study. The second conclusion-that the long-term efficacy can be predicted by the short-term re- sponse to intravenous nadolol or propranolol-may require more data. Of the 27 children, 7 received intravenous nadolol and 6 received intravenous propranolol. The concor- dance of results again supports the conclusion, but in a prospective study, the inclusion of larger numbers in each subgroup would have been helpful. Conclusions. In recent years, the art of designing a pro- spective clinical research study has become a science. There are numerous examples of extremely well done studies that have allowed us to reach important conclusions that have helped many people. Many of these studies have been in adult patients and some have been in children. If we as pediatric cardiologists are to be taken seriously as members of the scientific community, we must follow the examples of excellence in clinical research. We are being judged by a new standard. Reference I. Mehta AV. Chidambaram B. Efficacy and safety of intravenous and oral nadolol for supraventricular tachycardia in children. J Am Coll Cardiol 1992;19:630-5. 
work_6kqzdowbmngnbgtlm7pobu437u	----	Microsoft Word - 7. DI SANTO - Malmantile.doc Rivista semestrale online / Biannual online journal http://www.parolerubate.unipr.it Fascicolo n. 12 / Issue no. 12 Dicembre 2015 / December 2015 Direttore / Editor Rinaldo Rinaldi (Università di Parma) Comitato scientifico / Research Committee Mariolina Bongiovanni Bertini (Università di Parma) Dominique Budor (Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle – Paris III) Roberto Greci (Università di Parma) Heinz Hofmann (Universität Tübingen) Bert W. Meijer (Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Instituut Firenze / Rijksuniversiteit Utrecht) María de las Nieves Muñiz Muñiz (Universitat de Barcelona) Diego Saglia (Università di Parma) Francesco Spera (Università di Milano) Segreteria di redazione / Editorial Staff Maria Elena Capitani (Università di Parma) Nicola Catelli (Università di Parma) Chiara Rolli (Università di Parma) Esperti esterni (fascicolo n. 12) / External referees (issue no. 12) Giovanni Bárberi Squarotti (Università di Torino) Mario Domenichelli (Università di Firenze) Francesca Fedi (Università di Pisa) Giovanna Silvani (Università di Parma) Carlo Varotti (Università di Parma) Progetto grafico / Graphic design Jelena Radojev Direttore responsabile: Rinaldo Rinaldi Autorizzazione Tribunale di Parma n. 14 del 27 maggio 2010 © Copyright 2015 – ISSN: 2039-0114 INDEX / CONTENTS PALINSESTI / PALIMPSESTS Shelley Recasting of Southey: from Ghost to Monster SYLVIE GAUTHERON (Paris) 3-28 “Quashed Quotatoes”. Per qualche citazione irregolare (seconda parte) RINALDO RINALDI (Università di Parma) 29-50 L’infelicità del principe felice. Oscar Wilde e Tommaso Landolfi LUCA FEDERICO (Università di Torino) 51-68 Tracce d’inizio e di fine. Citazioni sacre nelle “17 variazioni” di Emilio Villa BIANCA BATTILOCCHI (Università di Parma) 69-85 MATERIALI / MATERIALS Metamorfosi pescatorie: l’uso delle fonti in Giulio Cesare Capaccio DANIELA CARACCIOLO (Università del Salento) 89-107 Giustino eroico, Giustino tragico. Qualche scheda metastasiana MASSIMILIANO FOLETTI (Università di Parma) 109-117 Una citazione settecentesca del “Malmantile racquistato”: il “Torquato Tasso” di Carlo Goldoni LUCIA DI SANTO (Università di Milano) 119-136 La copia differente. Due riscritture di Luigi Riccoboni CATERINA BONETTI (Università di Parma) 137-151 LIBRI (FILM) DI LIBRI / BOOKS (FILMS) OF BOOKS [recensione / review] Sebastiano Italia, Dante e l’esegesi virgiliana. Tra Servio, Fulgenzio e Bernardo Silvestre, Acireale – Roma, Bonanno Editore, 2012 CÉCILE LE LAY 155-159 [recensione / review] Giuseppe Tornatore, The Best Offer, Paco Cinematografica – Warner Bros Italia – Friuli Venezia Giulia Film Commission – BLS Südtirol Alto Adige – Unicredit, 2013 FRANCESCO GALLINA 161-167 Parole Rubate / Purloined Letters http://www.parolerubate.unipr.it Fascicolo n. 12 / Issue no. 12 – Dicembre 2015 / December 2015 LUCIA DI SANTO UNA CITAZIONE SETTECENTESCA DEL “MALMANTILE RACQUISTATO”: IL “TORQUATO TASSO” DI CARLO GOLDONI 1. La metamorfosi settecentesca del “Malmantile racquistato” Più di un secolo separa la composizione del poema eroicomico di Lorenzo Lippi, Il Malmantile racquistato, dalla sua edizione di maggiore riferimento. Sembra infatti ormai certo che si debba retrodatare agli anni 1643-1644 il soggiorno austriaco del Lippi, durante il quale, secondo quanto racconta Filippo Baldinucci nelle Notizie de’ Professori del disegno, il poeta-pittore trovò la “congiuntura più adeguata, per dilatare alquanto” l’originario e più semplice disegno di “dare […] sfogo al suo poetico capriccio”, cimentandosi con le prime prove del poema.1 Al 1750 1 Cfr. F. Baldinucci, Vita di Lorenzo Lippi, cittadino e pittor fiorentino, scritta da Filippo Baldinucci, e stampata fra le sue Notizie de’ Professori del disegno, nel Decennale del 1640, in L. Lippi, Il Malmantile racquistato di Perlone Zipoli, colle note di Puccio Lamoni dell’abate Antonmaria Salvini, lettore di lettere greche nello Studio Fiorentino, e del dottore Antonmaria Biscioni, canonico e bibliotecario regio della Parole Rubate / Purloined Letters 120 risale, invece, la monumentale edizione curata da Anton Maria Biscioni per i torchi fiorentini di Francesco Moücke: l’imponente mole di questa stampa, che arrivò al numero di 967 pagine, dissuase gli editori successivi, così che ancor oggi essa rimane l’unica in cui è possibile trovare il testo accompagnato integralmente dallo “spettacoloso commento” stratificatosi negli anni con le annotazioni di Paolo Minucci prima (edite nell’edizione del 1688), di Anton Maria Salvini e Anton Maria Biscioni poi (edite per la prima volta nel 1731 e ampliate nel 1750). Come ho cercato di dimostrare altrove,2 in questi cento anni il poema subisce un processo che per molti versi lo snatura e sposta sempre più l’attenzione sulla sua veste linguistica. La stratificazione storica delle postille, indispensabili all’intelligenza del testo poetico, induce a riflettere su due aspetti fondamentali. Innanzitutto su quanto fosse radicata, già nei contemporanei del Lippi, la consapevolezza che l’ostentata fiorentinità del poema, sia sotto il palese profilo linguistico sia sotto quello meno visibile dei riferimenti storici, avrebbe potuto facilmente diventare un ostacolo alla ricezione del testo;3 in secondo luogo sul fatto che proprio tale caratteristica potesse essere piegata alla causa della Crusca.4 È indubbio che, al di là delle ragioni affettive e di scherzo che Baldinucci attribuisce all’origine del poema, vi sia nel Lippi un Mediceo-Laurenziana, in questa edizione dal medesimo ricorrette ed ampliate, in Firenze, nella stamperia di Francesco Moücke, 1750, vol. I, p. XXXII. 2 Si veda L. Di Santo, L’eroicomico ‘fiorentino’ di Lorenzo Lippi, Milano, Led, 2013, pp. 205-224. 3 Si trattava di un timore condiviso dagli stessi fiorentini, come scrisse Antonio Magliabechi in una lettera indirizzata ad Angelico Aprosio nel 1671: “Forse fuor di qua non avrà nemmeno applauso, perché non sarà inteso, poiché la bellezza di questo poema consiste solamente nella facilità dello stile e nella gran copia de’ proverbi, ed altri modi di dire prettamente fiorentini, che fuora non solamente non usano, ma nemmeno sono intesi” (citata in A. Neri, La prima edizione del “Malmantile”, in Id., Passatempi letterari, Genova, Tipografia del Regio Istituto Sordo-muti, 1882, p. 65). 4 Jacopo Carlieri, nella sua dedica al marchese Francesco Antonio Feroni premessa all’edizione del poema del 1750, definisce il Malmantile un poema piacevole per chi fosse “vago e studioso del Fiorentino linguaggio” (cfr. L. Lippi, Il Malmantile racquistato..., cit., vol. I, p. VI). Lucia Di Santo, Una citazione settecentesca del “Malmantile racquistato” 121 preciso orgoglio municipalistico, in sintonia con la reazione difensiva che Firenze adottò nei confronti delle novità barocche; ma è altresì vero che la lettura settecentesca irrigidì la componente giocosa a favore di una tensione normativa estranea al Lippi e in fondo anche al suo primo commentatore, il poco più giovane Paolo Minucci, nelle cui note si può ancora percepire, accanto al gusto lessicale, il ricordo nostalgico per quella cerchia di amici della quale egli stesso fece parte.5 Le ragioni di questa graduale metamorfosi interpretativa vanno ricondotte ai cambiamenti storici e culturali vissuti da Firenze nell’ampio arco temporale che separa gli anni della genesi dell’opera dall’edizione definitiva del 1750. Si tratta di un mutamento che si riflette in quegli stessi anni nel passaggio dalla terza (1691) alla quarta edizione (1729-1738) del Vocabolario della Crusca: mentre la seconda impressione del Vocabolario poco aggiungeva alla prima, i lavori della terza mirarono a un cambiamento quantitativo (da un unico volume in folio a tre tomi) e qualitativo, notevole per l’apertura alla modernità e non più ripreso nelle edizioni successive.6 La storia della Crusca, ben lontana dalla granitica immagine con cui la ritraevano i suoi oppositori,7 s’interseca così saldamente con la storia del Malmantile, condividendone nomi e date. Il poema nasce durante gli anni 5 Come dimostra la sua presenza, sotto il nome anagrammatico di Puccio Lamoni, tra le file dei personaggi-amici del Malmantile. È utile, per ricostruire la cerchia del poeta e l’ambiente in cui l’opera nacque, l’Indice delle persone nominate nel poema, collo scioglimento degli Anagrammi, ivi, vol. II, pp. 867-868. 6 Si veda M. Vitale, La III edizione del “Vocabolario della Crusca”. Tradizione e innovazione nella cultura linguistica fiorentina secentesca, in Id., L’oro della lingua. Contributi per una storia del tradizionalismo e del purismo italiano, Milano-Napoli, Ricciardi, 1986, pp. 273-333. 7 Cfr. M. Sessa, Fortuna e sfortuna della IV impressione del Vocabolario della Crusca, in La Crusca nella tradizione letteraria e linguistica italiana, Firenze, Accademia della Crusca, 1985, p. 186: “i germi di trasgressione alla norma o di innovazione sono presenti nel corpo stesso del Vocabolario, che, fin dalla sua prima edizione, è tanto vario di registri lessicali a leggerlo bene tra le righe, e così ambiguo nelle sue affermazioni programmatiche”. Parole Rubate / Purloined Letters 122 in cui Benedetto Buommattei stimolava gli Accademici alla ripresa dei lavori e molti degli amici che il Lippi si diverte a travestire di abiti cenciosi sono tra i più importanti fautori dell’apertura ideologica che caratterizzò la terza edizione, come Carlo Dati e Lorenzo Magalotti. Ritroviamo le medesime coincidenze dall’altro lato della parabola storica, poiché i commentatori settecenteschi del poema, Salvini e Biscioni, sono i capiscuola di quel fervore filologico che generò una febbrile attività editoriale di testi fiorentini intesa come apporto alla rinnovata ortodossia tradizionalistica della quarta edizione del Vocabolario.8 Il Malmantile nasce insomma in un contesto storico-culturale in cui la sua “raccolta delle più basse similitudini, e de’ più volgari proverbi e idiotismi fiorentini”9 viene presentata come una distensione del canone di Leonardo Salviati che aveva improntato le prime edizioni del Vocabolario, e come un ritorno alla varchiana valorizzazione dell’uso. Nella prima metà del Settecento questo medesimo materiale ribobolaio si trasforma invece in un restrittivo recinto, all’interno del quale il cotidianus sermo è consentito solo in quanto legittimato dall’“assunzione scritta e letteraria”.10 La spontaneità fiorentina è attribuita al Lippi da Minucci, nel Proemio alla prima edizione commentata del poema (1688): “Tal composizione fece egli a sol fine di mettere in rima alcune novelle, le quali dalle donnicciuole sono per divertimento raccontate a’ bambini: e di sfogare la sua bizzarra fantasia, inserendovi una gran quantità di nostri proverbj, ed una mano di detti 8 Per la relazione tra le edizioni di testi fiorentini e i paralleli lavori dell’Accademia si veda M. Vitale, La IV edizione del “Vocabolario della Crusca”. Toscanismo, classicismo, filologismo nella cultura linguistica fiorentina del primo Settecento, in Id., L’oro della lingua. Contributi per una storia del tradizionalismo e del purismo italiano, cit., pp. 357-359. Su Salvini e Biscioni si veda L. Di Santo, L’eroicomico ‘fiorentino’ di Lorenzo Lippi, cit., pp. 259-266. 9 Cfr. F. Baldinucci, Vita di Lorenzo Lippi..., cit., p. XXXII. 10 Cfr. M. Vitale, La IV edizione del “Vocabolario della Crusca”. Toscanismo, classicismo, filologismo nella cultura linguistica fiorentina del primo Settecento, cit., p. 364. Lucia Di Santo, Una citazione settecentesca del “Malmantile racquistato” 123 e Fiorentinismi più usati ne’ discorsi famigliari, sforzandosi di parlare, se non al tutto Boccaccevole, almeno in quella maniera, che si costuma oggi in Firenze dalle persone civili: ed ha sfuggito per quanto ha potuto quelle parole rancide, alle quali vanno incontro taluni, che per spacciarsi uomini letterati, non sanno fare un discorso, se non vi mettono guari, chente, e simili parole, che per essere state usate dal Boccaccio, essi credono, che dieno l’intero condimento alli loro insipidi ragionamenti: e stimano, che quello sia il vero parlar Fiorentino, che non è inteso, se non da’ loro pari: e non s’accorgono, che in tal guisa parlando, si rendono scherzo di chiunque gli sente.”11 E l’immagine è ripresa anche dal biografo Baldinucci: “ [...] tessè l’opera sua, fuggendo al possibile quelle voci, le quali altri, a guisa di quel rettorico Atticista, ripreso da Luciano ne’ suoi piacevolissimi Dialoghi, affettando ad ogni proposito l’antichità della Toscana favella, va ne’ suoi ragionamenti senza scelta inserendo.”12 L’esaltazione del fiorentino vivo, insieme ai nomi extra-toscani e ai tentativi di un lessico specialistico, rientra in quello slancio secentesco al quale la Crusca, passando dalla terza alla quarta impressione, rinunciò, perdendo così anche una scommessa europea.13 Per ironia della sorte il poema di Lippi divenne suo malgrado vittima di un’incomprensione: da fuggitore delle “parole rancide” il poeta divenne una delle più fortunate personificazioni proprio di quei tradizionalisti, su cui il Minucci già nel 1688 aveva sentenziato “che in tal guisa parlando, si rendono scherzo di chiunque gli sente”. 11 P. Minucci, Proemio, in L. Lippi, Il Malmantile racquistato..., cit., vol. I, p. XXII. 12 F. Baldinucci, Vita di Lorenzo Lippi..., cit., p. XXXII 13 Nel 1694 l’Académie Françoise pubblica, in contemporanea, un dizionario di lingua e un dizionario lessicale dedicato alle arti e ai mestieri; la Real Academia Española si propone, accanto alla prima edizione del Diccionario de Autoridades (1726- 1739), un dizionario per le voci tecniche. Si veda M. Sessa, Fortuna e sfortuna della IV impressione del Vocabolario della Crusca, cit., pp. 183-184. Parole Rubate / Purloined Letters 124 2. Verso il “Torquato Tasso”: Goldoni e il toscano Se si considera questo panorama, è allora ben probabile che quando nel carnevale del 1755, a soli cinque anni dall’edizione lippiana curata da Biscioni, Goldoni cita esplicitamente il Malmantile racquistato all’interno del Torquato Tasso, una commedia autobiografica e dedicata proprio alla questione della lingua, egli si riferisca a un problema linguistico ancora vivo a Firenze e nel resto della penisola. Nell’opera goldoniana il Cavalier del Fiocco, “acerrimo cruscante”14 e detrattore giurato del Tasso, argomenta così le ragioni della sua critica di fronte al veneziano Signor Tomio: “Veniste per il Tasso? Il Tasso, affè, non merita Che muovasi per lui persona benemerita. È un uomo effeminato, nel di cui petto domina Amor per una donna, che Eleonora si nomina. Un che stimato viene pochissimo in Etruria, Che mostra ne’ suoi carmi di termini penuria, Che sbaglia negli epiteti, che manca nei sinonimi, Non merta che s’apprezzi, non merta che si nomini. Nemico della Crusca, degn’è di contumelia; […] Altro è il dir di Camaldoli, altro è il parlar di Boboli. Ciriffo e il Malmantile ad impararli aiutano, Ma quelli per Torquato son termini che putono”.15 L’intera commedia è intessuta di riboboli tratti a bella posta dal poema di Lippi, ma questo è il passo in cui l’autore ricorda apertamente la sua fonte e il suo significato: la recente edizione e l’abbondante ricorso al Malmantile nell’ultima stampa del Vocabolario della Crusca conferivano infatti all’opera un posto di primo piano, fra quelle che i puristi reputavano 14 Cfr. C. Goldoni, Torquato Tasso, in Id., Tutte le opere, a cura di G. Ortolani, Milano, Mondadori, 1941, vol. V, p. 779 (I, 2). 15 Ivi, pp. 814-815 (III, 10). Lucia Di Santo, Una citazione settecentesca del “Malmantile racquistato” 125 necessarie ai non toscani nell’apprendimento della buona lingua. Citare il poema in funzione anti-tassiana significava dunque per Goldoni mettere in campo la questione della lingua e la lingua delle sue commedie, con riferimento ad una delle più agguerrite critiche mosse contro di lui. La novità del teatro goldoniano aveva attirato sul suo creatore gli attacchi dei tradizionalisti, rappresentati dal conte Carlo Gozzi e dall’Accademia dei Granelleschi fondata nel 1747, che “s’eran fatti sulla Laguna custodi feroci della purezza dell’Arno”.16 Gozzi definiva Goldoni “cesso di dottrina”, “vate da Chiasso / e gran riformator de’ miei coglioni”,17 vantandosi di averlo “spennacchiato in sul cul come il tordo” e incitando i granelleschi, con allusione oscena, a uscire “da’ loro baccelli” e ad essere come “Prussiani in campo diligenti”.18 Quest’ultimi, nei 194 fogli dei loro Atti davano “urti”, “morsi”, “cazzotti”, “culate”, “graffi”, “picchiate” e “calci” al povero “Fegejo grassotto” e se la prendevano con gli spettatori che “s’ei [scil. Goldoni] tira un peto, gridan: bello, bello”.19 Lontano dalla moderazione del fratello Gasparo ed ergendosi a custode di un classicismo puristico messo in pericolo dalle nuove mode letterarie, Carlo Gozzi condannava senza mezzi termini il realismo sociale di un teatro pericolosamente vicino al gusto popolare, vera e propria incarnazione dell’odiato Illuminismo. Sul piano linguistico il conservatorismo storico di Gozzi si traduceva in una severa ortodossia formata sui testi trecenteschi e sui maestri della poesia burlesca, nel pieno ossequio del Vocabolario fiorentino. L’assenza 16 Cfr. G. Ziccardi, Intorno al “Torquato Tasso” di C. Goldoni, Arpino, Societa Tipografica Arpinate, 1913, p. 4. 17 Cfr. C. Gozzi, Dissemi un muto, che l’ha udito un sordo e Id., O putti da buon tempo, o compagnoni, in P. Bosisio, Carlo Gozzi e Goldoni. Una polemica letteraria con versi inediti e rari, Firenze, Olschki, 1979, p. 114 e p. 102. 18 Cfr. C. Gozzi, Magnifici, e possenti miei Granelli e Id., Nessun Granelli, sia che si sgomenti, ivi, p. 107 e p. 106. 19 Cfr. Atti degli Accademici Granelleschi per il 1761, ivi, pp. 188-189 e p. 257. Parole Rubate / Purloined Letters 126 di soggezione verso il modello toscano che Goldoni mostrava nelle sue commedie e negli apparati prefatori, era dunque inaccettabile per la schiera dei Granelleschi e nelle loro accuse la sciatteria linguistica del commediografo era costantemente messa alla berlina: egli “è un bel pazzo” poiché “men che il porco è amante della crusca, / E poi ride della lingua Etrusca”.20 Goldoni ironizza dal canto suo sul delicato gusto degli avversari, spiegando le ragioni della sua riforma nella prima edizione delle sue opere presso Bettinelli (1750): “ [...] ho imparato, volendo render utili le mie commedie a regolar talvolta il mio gusto su quello dell’universale, a cui deggio principalmente servire, senza mettermi in pena delle dicerie di alcuni o ignoranti o indiscreti, e difficili, i quali pretendono di dar legge al gusto di tutto un popolo, di tutta una nazione, e fors’anche di tutto il mondo, e di tutti i secoli colla lor sola testa, non riflettendo, che in certe particolarità non integranti i gusti possono impunemente cambiarsi, e convien lasciarne padrone il popolo egualmente che delle mode del vestire, e de’ linguaggi. [...] Infatti, se quelli, che o due o tre anni fa sofferivano sul Teatro improprietà, inezie, arlecchinate da mover nausea agli stomachi più grossolani, son divenuti al presente così dilicati, che ogn’ombra d’inverisimile, ogni picciolo neo, ogni frase, o parola men toscana li turba, e scompone, io posso senza arroganza attribuirmi il merito d’aver il primo loro ispirata una tal dilicatezza col mezzo di quelle stesse commedie, che alcuni di essi indiscretamente, ingratamente, e fors’anche talvolta senza ragione si sono messi, o si metteranno a lacerare”.21 La questione linguistica non è solo un problema stilistico ma anche pratico, nel momento in cui il commediografo mira ad un riconoscimento che superi i confini della Serenissima e raggiunga la forma stabile del testo scritto. Autore trilingue, Goldoni sperimenta fino alla vecchiaia l’impossibilità di un’interscambiabilità perfetta fra lingue differenti, poiché se la sua fonte è la Natura, essa non è però universale, bensì “différemment modifiée dans les différens climats et il faut la présenter partout avec les 20 Cfr. C. Gozzi, Magnifici, e possenti miei Granelli, ivi, p. 107. 21 C. Goldoni, Prefazione dell’Autore alla prima raccolta delle commedie 1750, in Id., Tutte le opere, cit., 1935, vol. I, p. 770 e p. 773. Lucia Di Santo, Una citazione settecentesca del “Malmantile racquistato” 127 mœurs et les habitudes du pays où l’on s’avise de l’imiter”.22 Se il problema del francese segnò (come è noto) l’ultima parte della vita dello scrittore, il confronto tra dialetto e lingua accompagnò tutta la sua produzione: da un lato il dialetto veneziano come dialetto colto e raffinato, dall’altro una lingua italiana che nell’uso scritto era “ancora lontanissima dall’unità anche più relativa del parlato”.23 Non è allora un caso che nel dibattito linguistico del secondo Settecento la divisione fra i difensori dell’italiano moderno e i partigiani del fiorentino coincidesse perfettamente con quella che separava gli amici di Goldoni (Pietro Verri, Francesco Algarotti, Melchiorre Cesarotti) dai suoi detrattori (in primis Carlo Gozzi). E se i primi sapevano apprezzare anche la lingua italiana del commediografo in quanto aliena alle “schizzinose squisitezze del toscanesimo”,24 i secondi non smisero mai di rimproverargli “le péché originel du Vnetianisme”.25 Di tale invidioso accanimento Goldoni si duole in un capitolo dei Mémoires dedicato proprio al Torquato Tasso, testimoniando al tempo stesso un’ostinata volontà di reagire alle critiche e un laborioso studio della tradizione letteraria toscana: “J’appris par principes, et je cultivai avec la lecture le langage des bons Auteurs Italiens ; […] Je fis un voyage en Toscane, où je demeurai pendant quatre ans pour me rendre cette langue familière, et je fis faire à Florence la première édition de mes Ouvrages, sous les yeux et sous la censure des savans du pays, pour les purger des défauts de langage […] .”26 22 Cfr. Id., Mémoires, ivi, p. 427 (II, xliv). 23 Cfr. G. Folena, Una lingua per il teatro: Goldoni, in Id., L’italiano in Europa. Esperienze linguistiche del Settecento, Torino, Einaudi, 1997, p. 89. 24 Cfr. M. Cesarotti, Saggio sulla filosofia delle lingue, in Id., Opere scelte, a cura di G. Ortolani, Firenze, Le Monnier, 1945, vol. 1, p. 69. 25 Cfr. C. Goldoni, Mémoires, cit., p. 383 (II, xxxii). 26 Ibidem. Parole Rubate / Purloined Letters 128 Pur con qualche distorsione autobiografica27 e in tono apologetico, Goldoni ricostruisce qui un percorso linguistico che ha non ha trascurato lo studio di quel Vocabolario della cui ignoranza i puristi lo rimproveravano: “Je tombai machinalement sur les cinq volumes du Dictionnaire de la Crusca : j’y trouvai plus de six cens mots, et quantité d’expressions approuvées par l’Académie, et réprouvées par l’usage : je parcourus quelques-uns des Auteurs anciens, qui sont des textes de langue, et qu’on ne pourroit pas imiter aujourd’hui sans reproche, et je finis par dire, il faut écrire en bon Italien, mais il faut écrire pou être compris dans tous les cantons de l’Italie […] .”28 Nei volumi di questa edizione Goldoni trovava in 4818 occorrenze29 il nome del Malmantile riacquistato di Lorenzo Lippi, che ai suoi occhi doveva apparire come esempio perfetto di una fiorentinità sì popolare, ma non certo utile per soddisfare la sua ricerca di una lingua italiana comune. Il commediografo non ci dice quanto tempo si soffermò sul Vocabolario, ma dichiara – con la sua caratteristica assenza di soggezione verso lo studio – di aver “perdu beaucoup de tems” e tuttavia di aver tratto “parti de son tems perdu” 30 scegliendo Torquato Tasso, anche lui tormentato dai medesimi travagli linguistici, come protagonista di una nuova commedia. 3. Il “Malmantile” nel “Torquato Tasso”: un problema linguistico La commedia è scritta in un periodo difficile per Goldoni, segnato da una grave crisi nervosa e confrontato a difficoltà anche pratiche 27 Si veda M. A. Morelli Timpanaro, Premessa a Carlo Goldoni avvocato a Pisa (1744-1748), a cura di G. De Fecondo e M. A. Morelli Timpanaro, il Mulino, Bologna, 2009, p. 24. 28 C. Goldoni, Mémoires, cit., pp. 383-384 (II, xxxii). 29 Lippi superava anche l’Ercolano di Benedetto Varchi (4050 occorrenze) e la Fiera di Michelangelo Buonarroti il Giovane (4240 occorrenze). 30 Cfr. C. Goldoni, Mémoires, cit., p. 384 (II, xxxii). Lucia Di Santo, Una citazione settecentesca del “Malmantile racquistato” 129 nell’ambiente di lavoro.31 La sua riforma teatrale sembra deviare in parte dai precetti originari, con una serie di sperimentazioni talvolta contraddittorie, spesso non felici. Per quanto nei Mémoires Goldoni parli del successo “général et […] constant” del Torquato Tasso, tanto da collocarlo “dans le rang, je ne dirais pas des meilleurs, mais des plus heureuses de mes productions”,32 la critica moderna è stata ben più severa: parlando di un Tasso che “non muove a pietà né a riso: disgusta”, di “ruderi e frammenti di materia storica mal riuniti in un insieme inestetico”, di una “goffa, assurda trama della commedia, che alla prima lettura offende il nostro gusto letterario”.33 Il Torquato Tasso conserva tuttavia un particolare interesse per lo studio della lingua goldoniana. Dopo la straordinaria creatività artistica degli anni precedenti,34 l’autore appare più sensibile alle accuse degli avversari e cerca di replicare con la sua opera, che obbedisce a un preciso disegno apologetico.35 La tipologia umana degli accusatori, la sostanza ideologica delle accuse e la stessa posizione dell’autore sono infatti ben visibili, dietro la deformazione caricaturale adottata qui da Goldoni. Il personaggio Tasso, vittima delle accuse dei detrattori cruscanti, finisce per 31 Si veda C. Alberti, Alla sorgente dei «caratteri», in Carlo Goldoni 1793-1993. Atti del Convegno del Bicentenario (Venezia, 11-13 aprile 1994), a cura di C. Alberti e G. Pizzamiglio, Venezia, Regione del Veneto, 1995, p. 167. 32 Cfr. C. Goldoni, Mémoires, cit., p. 386 (II, xxxii). 33 Cfr. G. Zincari, Intorno al “Torquato Tasso” di Carlo Goldoni, cit., p. 53 e p. 47; e G. Ortolani, Torquato Tasso, in C. Goldoni, Torquato Tasso, cit., p. 1380. 34 Dal suo ritorno a Venezia nel 1748, Goldoni compone nel giro di cinque anni quasi un terzo di tutte le sue commedie e un terzo dei suoi libretti. Si veda F. Fido, Goldoni e il linguaggio teatrale del Settecento, in Id., Il paradiso dei buoni compagni. Capitoli di storia letteraria veneta (Ruzante, Calmo, Giancarli, Parabosco; Baretti, Chiari, Casanova, Goldoni; Noventa, Marin, Giotti, Pasolini), Padova, Antenore, 1988, p. 165. 35 La triade Terenzio, Torquato Tasso e Malcontenti (già composta nell’aprile del 1755) è rivolta, rispettivamente, contro le accuse di ignoranza dei classici, contro quelle dei puristi, e contro coloro che rimproveravano al comediografo la bassezza di concezione. Si veda G. Zincari, Intorno al “Torquato Tasso” di Carlo Goldoni, cit., pp. 3-4 e p. 40. Parole Rubate / Purloined Letters 130 essere oggetto di nuove accuse quando viene scoperto un suo madrigale amoroso indirizzato a una certa Eleonora: essendo tre le donne di corte con tale nome, i cortigiani gridano allo scandalo e scatenano un parapiglia di curiosità, pettegolezzi e indagini che mettono più a dura prova la salute del poeta. La confusione è amplificata dall’arrivo di tre nuovi personaggi che, rappresentando le città di Napoli, Venezia e Roma, offrono al poeta la promessa di cambiare stato e godere finalmente della giusta gloria. Alla loro ammirazione si oppone il Cavalier del Fiocco, poeta “seguace zelantissimo” della Crusca, per il quale i versi del Tasso sono costellati di termini latini, barbari e lombardi, solo degni di una corona “di buccie di cocomero”.36 Anche se nella citata pagina dei Mémoires si afferma che il Cavalier del Fiocco è un personaggio fiorentino e che i suoi strali parodici non intendono colpire i Granelloni,37 è tuttavia evidentissimo il riferimento di Goldoni ai rigidi puristi veneziani e alla coeve polemiche linguistiche.38 Mirando a colpire gli avversari attraverso l’esasperazione dei loro modelli, l’autore infarcisce ogni battuta del Cavaliere delle voci più tipicamente ribobolaie del Vocabolario della Crusca. E in tal senso il materiale offerto dal Malmantile racquistato, recentemente pubblicato con ricco apparato di note (proprio nel 1753 Goldoni era tornato a Firenze per curare una nuova edizione delle sue commedie), si presentava come strumento perfetto per un gioco che doveva essere esplicito: non a caso il Cavalier del Fiocco rivela senza esitare il nome della sua fonte, come abbiamo visto, sottolineando l’utilità del Malmantile per imparare la buona lingua.39 36 Cfr. C. Goldoni, Torquato Tasso, cit., p. 834 (V, 3) e p. 816 (III, 10). 37 Si veda C. Goldoni, Mémoires, cit., p. 384 (II, xxxii). 38 Si veda G. Zincari, Intorno al “Torquato Tasso” di Carlo Goldoni, cit., passim. 39 Si veda P. Spezzani, La lingua delle commedie goldoniane dalla ‘Bettinelli’ alla ‘Paperini’, in Goldoni in Toscana. Atti del Convegno di Studi (Montecatini Terme, Lucia Di Santo, Una citazione settecentesca del “Malmantile racquistato” 131 Di questo paradossale modello linguistico il ridicolo personaggio fornisce anche un esempio concreto, adeguando il suo parlare ai riboboli della quarta edizione del Vocabolario, tratti da autori come Franco Sacchetti, Benedetto Varchi, Michelangelo Buonarroti il Giovane e, soprattutto, Lorenzo Lippi. Pensiamo a certe espressioni per le quali il Vocabolario cita come esempio più recente il Malmantile: “Non meno il can per l’aia; parlar soglio laconico”40 che deriva da “Mentre costui a ogni cosa s’appella, / E co’ suoi punti mena il can per l’aia”;41 “Ai gonzi per lanterne suol vendere le lucciole”42 che deriva da “Ora per queste sue finzioni eterne, / […] / Lucciole dando a creder per lanterne”;43 “Capperi, chi potrebbe ricusare un tal dono?”44 che deriva da “Capperi! può ben dir d’aver ventura / Quelli, a cui tocca così buon boccone”;45 “Codesta cantafera è badiale e ridicola”46 che deriva da “Vedendo un fantoccion sì badiale”;47 “E al Principe, che freme perciò di gelosia, / Servito ha di presteso quel po’ di frenesia”48 che deriva da “Poi tutto lieto postosegli accanto / Per cavarlo di quella frenesía”.49 Ma pensiamo anche ad altri casi in cui il Vocabolario cita il Malmantile come ulteriore eccezione rispetto al 9-10 ottobre 1992), Firenze, Edizioni Cadmo, 1993, p. 180. La funzione didattica del Malmantile era già stata suggerita da Jacopo Carlieri nella sua dedica: si veda la n. 4. 40 Cfr. C. Goldoni, Torquato Tasso, cit., p. 785 (I, 9). 41 Cfr. L. Lippi, Il Malmantile racquistato..., cit., vol. II, p. 519 (VI, 94) con la mediazione del Vocabolario della Crusca. Quarta impressione. All’altezza reale del serenissimo Gio. Gastone Granduca di Toscana, Firenze, Domenico Maria Manni, 1729-1738, vol. I, p. 104. 42 Cfr. C. Goldoni, Torquato Tasso, cit., p. 786 (I, 10). 43 Cfr. L. Lippi, Il Malmantile racquistato..., cit., vol. II, p. 500 (VI, 68) con la mediazione del Vocabolario della Crusca..., cit., vol. III, p. 90. 44 Cfr. C. Goldoni, Torquato Tasso, cit., p. 794 (II, 5). 45 Cfr. L. Lippi, Il Malmantile racquistato..., cit., vol. I, p. 178 (II, 38) con la mediazione del Vocabolario della Crusca..., cit., vol. I, p. 366. 46 Cfr. C. Goldoni, Torquato Tasso, cit., p. 816 (III, 10). 47 Cfr. L. Lippi, Il Malmantile racquistato..., cit., vol. II, p. 790 (XI, 13) con la mediazione del Vocabolario della Crusca..., cit., vol. III, p. 90. 48 Cfr. C. Goldoni, Torquato Tasso, cit., p. 835 (V, 4). 49 Cfr. L. Lippi, Il Malmantile racquistato..., cit., vol. I, p. 340 (IV, 16) con la mediazione del Vocabolario della Crusca..., cit., vol. II, p. 527. Parole Rubate / Purloined Letters 132 normale uso idiomatico che ne fa anche Goldoni: “Non metto il becco in molle; vuole il dover ch’i’ ammutole”50 corrisponde per esempio alla definizione del Vocabolario “Mettere il becco in molle, si dice altresì di chi comincia a cicalare, e non sa che si sia restare, o di chi ragiona di cose, che nulla gli appartengono”,51 ma non all’altra accezione “Mettere il becco in molle, o Porre il becco in molle, vagliono Bere” che è registrata invece da Lippi (“Quando fu pieno al fin chiese da bere, / E poich’egli ebbe in molle posto il becco, Figliuoli disse [...] ”).52 Ci sono casi, infine, in cui Goldoni sembra recuperare senza mediazione il Malmantile (“Ma ritorniamo a bomba […[ Sì, al proposito” ripete “ecco ritorno a bomba”),53 mentre il Vocabolario cita Lippi per un’altra accezione del termine (“Com’io dissi, Florian nella cittade / Entrò per rinfrescarsi, e toccar bomba”).54 Come si vede, si tratta di una casistica varia e ancora da approfondire per quel che riguarda il rapporto diretto e indiretto con il testo lippiano. È probabile, comunque, che l’assimilazione goldoniana del Malmantile fosse in gran parte mediata dal Vocabolario e dalla risonanza fiorentina della recente edizione del poema curata da Biscioni, a sua volta in stretta relazione con l’ambiente cruscante. Ciò che interessa soprattutto all’autore del Torquato Tasso è far emergere l’incomprensibilità di questa lingua: “CAVALIERE. Ma ritorniamo a bomba. DONNA ELEONORA A bomba? CAVALIERE Sì, al proposito”; “CAVALIERE Quello che ha fatto il Duca, reputo giusto ed utole. TOMIO Utole? No v’intendo. 50 Cfr. C. Goldoni, Torquato Tasso, cit., p. 832 (V, 1). 51 Cfr. Vocabolario della Crusca..., cit., vol. I, p. 407 (anche sotto). 52 Cfr. L. Lippi, Il Malmantile racquistato..., cit., vol. II, p. 686 (IX, 7) 53 Cfr. C. Goldoni, Torquato Tasso, cit., p. 785 (I, 10) e L. Lippi, Il Malmantile racquistato..., cit., vol. II, p. 631 (VIII, 15). 54 Cfr. ivi, vol. I, p. 172 (II, 32) e Vocabolario della Crusca..., cit., vol. I, pp. 448-449 (“arrivare ad un luogo determinato, e subito partirsi”). Lucia Di Santo, Una citazione settecentesca del “Malmantile racquistato” 133 CAVALIERE Bocabolo è antichissimo. Dir utole per utile, è parlar toscanissimo”.55 L’intera commedia è giocata su tali fraintendimenti linguistici che hanno un duplice ruolo: da un lato amplificano la confusione tra i vari personaggi, curiosi di scoprire chi sia in corte la donna amata dal Tasso; dall’altro mettono in risalto l’inapplicabilità del modello purista fiorentino e pongono il problema di una lingua per il teatro che sia davvero sovra- regionale. Nella prefazione dell’Autore a chi legge come nella pagina citata dei Mémoires, Goldoni sovrappone il suo personale profilo a quello di Tasso e ricorda l’attacco “fieramente” mosso “da varie persone critiche, specialmente nella purità della lingua”, la disavventura degli “assalti dell’ippocondria”, nonché l’amarezza di fondo per un “talento insigne” che avrebbe dovuto rendere “più fortunato” il poeta, il quale “non ebbe la giusta ricompensa de’ suoi sudori”.56 Nel testo, invece, fra questi elementi autobiografici spicca proprio il tema della lingua, con una sistematica ridicolizzazione parodica degli avversari puristi nei panni del Cavalier del Fiocco che “quattro riboboli sa unire in lingua tosca” e dunque “per maestro di lingua vuol che ognun lo conosca”, spacciatore di fanfaluche e “chiaccole senza sugo”, “citrullo che chiacchiera toscano”.57 Non a caso è il veneziano Signor Tomio a denunciare la futilità delle dispute letterarie (“No son de quei che perde el tempo malamente / A criticar poeti, a dir mal della zente)”,58 costringendo il Cavaliere a confessare che la sua fiorentinità non è naturale ma acquisita: 55 C. Goldoni, Torquato Tasso, cit., p. 785 (I, 10) e p. 832 (V, 1). 56 Cfr. Id., L’Autore a chi legge, ivi, pp. 772-774. 57 Cfr. Id., Torquato Tasso, cit., p. 786 (I, 11), p. 816 (III, 11), p. 834 (V, 3). 58 Cfr. ivi, p. 809 (III, 8). Parole Rubate / Purloined Letters 134 “TOMIO Seu fiorentin? CAVALIERE Nol sono, ma della lingua vantomi, E cuopromi col vaglio, e col frullone ammantomi. Son cavalier, son tale che ha veste, e può decidere; E appresi la farina dalla crusca a dividere. TOMIO Caro sior cavalier, siben son venezian, Mi me ne son incorto, che no gieri toscan. Usa i Toscani è vero, bone parole e pure, Ma usar no i ho sentii le vostre cargadure.”59 Il quadro è tuttavia più complesso poiché Goldoni, dietro la feroce parodia dei propri accusatori, rivela anche la pessimistica consapevolezza di un problema linguistico irrisolto. Nella commedia il napoletano Don Fazio, il veneziano Signor Tomio e il romano Patrizio sono infatti d’accordo nello sbeffeggiare il cruscante Cavaliere, ma sono loro stessi vittime di incomprensioni e si mostrano incapaci di offrire un modello linguistico alternativo, come dimostra questo esempio: “TOMIO Disemi, caro amigo, xe vero quel che i dise, Che Torquato in Ferrara abbia le so raìse? TORQUATO Signor, non vi capisco. TOMIO Ve la dirò più schietta. Xe vero che gh’avè qua la vostra strazzetta? TORQUATO Il termine m’è ignoto. TOMIO La macchina, el genietto? Gnancora? Che ve piase un babbio, un bel visetto? TORQUATO Basta così, v’intendo.” 60 La confusione delle tre Eleonore è del resto la confusione fra tre dialetti diversi, ognuno dei quali (come le tre protagoniste femminili), si arroga il vanto della superiorità. Torquato Tasso alla fine sceglierà Roma, ma la partenza avrà troppo i toni melanconici dell’esilio per sembrare una trionfale conquista. 59 Ivi, p. 815 (III, 10). 60 Ivi, p. 813 (III, 8). Lucia Di Santo, Una citazione settecentesca del “Malmantile racquistato” 135 La citazione del Malmantile racquistato in bocca al Cavalier del Fiocco, allora, indica emblematicamente un modello linguistico rifiutato ma al tempo stesso una difficoltà alla quale Goldoni non ha ancora trovato soluzione. Il fiorentino infatti è giustificato solo se naturale e ogni registrazione d’uso perde la sua intrinseca vitalità non appena supera gli stretti confini del suo tempo, come dimostra esemplarmente il poema lippiano. L’attualità linguistica del Malmantile, ancora viva nelle note del suo contemporaneo commentatore Minucci, già si tramuta in rigida norma nel Biscioni e nei secoli successivi perde inesorabilmente il suo significato, come documenta questa pagina di Niccolò Tommaseo su Alessandro Manzoni: “Si lagnava a ragione il Nostro che i Toscani confondessero con la lingua viva in loro il linguaggio de’ testi; e che quand’egli ito nel vensette in Toscana a lavare, diceva, i suoi panni sudici, rileggendo col Cioni il romanzo, e domandandogli se tale o tale parola si dicesse, il Cioni, che pure d’eleganze viventi ne sapeva più che altri molti, rispondesse: ‘Si dice; l’ha il Lippi’. ‘Io non domando, – replicava il milanese, – se il Lippi l’abbia scritto, ma se a Firenze si dica’.”61 Il nome Malmantile, nel giro di pochi anni citato nuovamente come titolo del dramma giocoso Il Mercato del Malmantile, doveva così rappresentare un modello da rifiutare ma anche l’esempio di un irrigidimento linguistico, di cui anche Goldoni si sentiva vittima. Nel Torquato Tasso, infatti, il commediografo ha occasione di parlare di sé non solo dietro il ritratto dell’incompreso autore della Liberata, ma anche dietro l’ambigua e strumentalizzata citazione del poema lippiano. La questione, per lui vitale, della scelta letteraria di una lingua viva, impiegata oltre i confini del suo originario contesto d’uso, mostra nella fortuna del Malmantile la sua inevitabile fragilità e la sua effimera fortuna. Quanto il 61 N. Tommaseo, Colloqui col Manzoni. Pubblicati per la prima volta e annotati da T. Lodi, Firenze, Sansoni, 1928, p. 108. Parole Rubate / Purloined Letters 136 problema fosse radicato tra i pensieri del Goldoni, tanto da fargli ancora compagnia nelle notti insonni della sua vecchiaia, lo dimostra una pagina dell’ottuagenario autore, che vorrebbe ribadire un’ostentata indifferenza ai problemi letterari, eppure, mentre lo fa, pare incrinare la serenità del ritratto: “Il m’arrive quelquefois comme à tout le monde d’avoir la tête occupée par quelque chose capable de retarder mon sommeil ; dans ce cas, j’ai un remède sûr pour m’endormir ; le voici : J’avois projetté depuis longtemps de donner un vocabulaire du dialecte Vénitien, et j’en avois même fait part au Public qui l’attend encore ; en travaillant à cet Ouvrage ennuyeux, dégoûtant, je vis que je m’endormois ; je le plantai là, et je profitait de sa faculté narcotique. Toutes les fois que je sens mon esprit agité par quelque cause morale, je prends au hasard un mot de ma langue maternelle ; je le traduis en Toscan et en François ; je passe en revue de la même manière les mots qui suivent par ordre alphabétique, je suis sûr d’être endormi à la troisième ou à la quatrième version ; mon somnifère n’a jamais manqué son coup.”62 62 C. Goldoni, Mémoires, cit., p. 55 (III, xxxviii). Copyright © 2015 Parole rubate. Rivista internazionale di studi sulla citazione / Purloined Letters. An International Journal of Quotation Studies 
work_6njcrn4grvckphbhkppjnzthqu	----	Untitled-1 © 1876 Nature Publishing Group 43 2 NATURE L March 30, 1876 the potential of the mercury should diminish in the same ratio. Mercury contained in a tube of uniform section would always have the same potential, for as it expanded and lengthened by heat, its ?pec_ific den~ity would diminis~, and the product ·of density mto height would remam constant. If contained in a tube of infinitely small diameter compared with the diameter of the cup-like extensio~s, the height would remain constant, whilst the potential would diminish in the ratio of the expansion of mercury, but this is different from the ratio of the diminu- tion of potential of the springs, and in order that these ratios may be accordant, or in other words that the equi- librium of the whole system may be the same at all temperatures, the peculiar form has been employed repre- sented in the illustration, which is between the two forms already referred to. The amount of the variation of gravitation with varia- tion of depth is exceedingly small, and requires some method for indicating it. The method employed in the re- sults hitherto tabulated and presented with the paper is by means of electrical contact, which is established whenever a sounding is to be taken, between the centre of the steel diaphragm and the end of a micrometer screw, which is at other times insulated from the body of the instrument. The screw is of such pitch, and the circular plate which turns with it has divisions so proportioned, that each division represents a depth of one fathom. The readings of the instrument have been compared with soundings taken by means of Sir Wm. Thomson's steel wire sounding apparatus, and the accordance between the two is very satisfactory, especially as the bathometer, from the very nature of its action, gives a mean of the surrounding depths, whilst the sounding- line gives the actual depth below the ship. The reading of the instrument is also effected by means of a spiral glass tube, connecting by means of liquid, less dense than mercury, with the mercury in the upper cup; this_arrange- ment has lately been tried and found to work successfully. The instrument is also available for the measurement of height ; in mountain ascents, however, the elevated land will influence its readings, and allowance would have to be made for the effect of this local attraction. The chief disturbing element in the use of this instru- ment is the effect of latitude, which will have to be ascer- tained approximately before its readings can be accepted as true indications of the depth. The difference between the total attraction of the earth at the pole and on the equator amounts to m of its effect at the equator, the rate of increase in travelling from the equator to the pole being as the square of the sine of the latitude. The amount of this variation is easily calculable in fathoms of depth, to be tabulated for use with the instrument. The principal value of the bathometer would be to serve the mariner as an additional means of determining his position when he was debarred from taking astrono- mical observation on account of the state of the weather. If the contour of the ocean bed were laid down on charts more perfectly than it is at present, and if these were in the hands of the mariner, he would be able to tell from his bathometer what was the depth of ocean below him, and whether that depth was increasing or decreasing in pursuing his course ; he could also observe the rate of increase or decrease of depth, and in consulting his chart he would be enabled to determine his actual position with considerable accuracy, and thus be forewarned of the ap- proach of danger. PHOTOGRAPHY OF THE RED AND ULTRA- RED END OF THE SPECTRUM IN 1874 Dr. Vogel communicated to the scientific publk that he had been able to photograph the least refrangible rays of the solar spectrum by using what are known ·as the Uranium Dry Plates prepared by the Uranium Dry Plate Company. At the same time he experimented with other bromide plates, using dyes to give them distinctive tints. He then enunciated that the sen~ itiveness of the plates for the hitherto unphotographed portion of the spectrum was due to the colours employed, and apparently all his efforts have been diverted in elabo- rating this idea. Last summer I commenced a series of similar experiments to see whether the discovery could be made of practical use in photography ; and have arrived at the conclusion, that the colouring matter gives this extended sensitiveness owing to the compound of silver formed and not to the colour itself, in fact, that the tint given to the film necessitates a very prolonged exposure. The additions of resins, nitro-glucose, and other similar compounds containing carbon to the bromized and bromo- iodized collodion soon convinced me that it was the organic salts of silver to which we must look for sensitiveness in the yellow red and ultra-red rays of the spectrum. Nearly every resinous body seems to prolong the photographic spectrum towards the ultra-red, and one or two in par- ticular, also when the film is least colourless when viewed by transmitted light, that then it is probably in the most impressionable condition. Another point which is worthy of notice is, that a film dried from moisture, taking, in fact, the form of a dry plate, is always most readily acted upon by the ultra-red end of the spectrum. Probably this is due to the absorptive qualities possessed by the silver nitrate solution, and not really from an in- creased sensitiveness of the compound salts when dry. If ordinary pyroxylin be employed for the collodion it is generally less suitable than if it contain a certain quan- tity of nilro-glucose, or other similar body ; and it fre- quently happens if this be absent entirely that the photo- graphic spectrum will stop short near b. Taking a collodion made with pyroxylorin prepared at high temperatures and using the ordinary solvents (in the alcohol of which suitable resin and bromides are dis- solved), it will be found in general that when the silver salts formed through them by the sensitizing bath, or by emulsifying them by direct addition of silver nitrate to the collodion, are presented to the action of the spectrum, the whole of it will be impressed with a developable image. With three prisms of 60° and one of 45° twenty minutes is sufficient exposure to give when the slit is nearly closed, a lens of four feet focus being used as the objective. When this is overcome it will be possible (and I hope shortly to do so) to present a complete photographic map of those lines which lie beyond A to a distance at least equal to D - A, a point beyond which I have not as yet been able to obtain an image. The great difficulty to be encountered is that of finding a sharp focus for the dif- ferent points of the invisible spectrum, the change in length from one point to another being very rapid. Uranium and iron salts have also furnished me with spectra which are weil worthy of notice. With the latter salt more especially the action of the heat-rays is very decided, though at present it seems to me that the ex- posure must be very prolonged. I propose at a later date to give details of all the most interesting of these experiments sufficient to enable any- one to repeat them who may desire to do so. Vl. DE W. ABNEY P.S.- It may be as well to state that the best results with resin plates have been obtained when a modification of alkaline development has been adopted. RAOUL PICTET'S SULPHUROUS ACID ICE- ll£ACHINE . THE countries between the 40th degrees of N. and S. latitude have in general too temperate winters to admit of natural ice being obtained in any quantity ; and yet these are the countries in which it is most required. PHOTOGRAPHY OF THE RED AND ULTRA-RED END OF THE SPECTRUM 
work_6oof2sp3nvbmjbdorobppwppji	----	Efficacy assessed in follow-ups of clinical trials: methodological conundrum | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.1186/ar3080 Corpus ID: 34052718Efficacy assessed in follow-ups of clinical trials: methodological conundrum @article{Landew2010EfficacyAI, title={Efficacy assessed in follow-ups of clinical trials: methodological conundrum}, author={R. Landew{\'e}}, journal={Arthritis Research & Therapy}, year={2010}, volume={12}, pages={132 - 132} } R. Landewé Published 2010 Medicine Arthritis Research & Therapy Increasingly, we see papers describing the long-term follow-up results of randomised clinical trials. Sometimes, like the article by Rantalaiho and colleagues in the previous issue of Arthritis Research & Therapy, the follow-up extends to more than 10 years. It is not uncommon that authors of such articles describe their results as a comparison of the original treatment groups in the original randomised clinical trial. Methodologically, such a comparison is fallible for several reasons. In this… Expand View on Springer arthritis-research.biomedcentral.com Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper 2 Citations View All Topics from this paper Malignant Fibrous Histiocytoma Arthritis 2 Citations Citation Type Citation Type All Types Cites Results Cites Methods Cites Background Has PDF Publication Type Author More Filters More Filters Filters Sort by Relevance Sort by Most Influenced Papers Sort by Citation Count Sort by Recency The initial treatment strategy and the long-term outcome of early rheumatoid arthritis with special interest in the FIN-RACo trial and the current Finnish practice V. Rantalaiho Medicine 2012 3 Save Alert Research Feed Reducing Campylobacter jejuni colonization in broiler chickens by in-feed supplementation with hyperimmune egg yolk antibodies Jasmien Vandeputte, A. Martel, +6 authors A. Garmyn Biology, Medicine Scientific Reports 2019 7 PDF Save Alert Research Feed References SHOWING 1-8 OF 8 REFERENCES COBRA combination therapy in patients with early rheumatoid arthritis: long-term structural benefits of a brief intervention. R. Landewé, M. Boers, +11 authors S. van der Linden Medicine Arthritis and rheumatism 2002 622 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Survival, comorbidities and joint damage 11 years after the COBRA combination therapy trial in early rheumatoid arthritis L. V. van Tuyl, M. Boers, +13 authors A. Voskuyl Medicine Annals of the rheumatic diseases 2010 110 Save Alert Research Feed Comparison of combination therapy with single-drug therapy in early rheumatoid arthritis: a randomised trial T. Möttönen, P. Hannonen, M. Leirisalo-Repo, M. Nissilä, for the FIN-RACo trial group Medicine The Lancet 1999 886 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Early combination disease-modifying antirheumatic drug therapy and tight disease control improve long-term radiologic outcome in patients with early rheumatoid arthritis: the 11-year results of the Finnish Rheumatoid Arthritis Combination Therapy trial V. Rantalaiho, M. Korpela, +8 authors T. Möttönen Medicine Arthritis research & therapy 2010 113 Save Alert Research Feed The relationship between disease activity and radiologic progression in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a longitudinal analysis. P. Welsing, R. Landewé, +5 authors D. M. van der Heijde Medicine Arthritis and rheumatism 2004 242 Save Alert Research Feed Cite this article as: Landewé RBM: Effi cacy assessed in follow-ups of clinical trials: methodological conundrum Arthritis Research & Therapy 2010 Comparison of combination therapy with singledrug therapy in early rheumatoid arthritis : a randomised trial . FINRACo trial group Lancet 1999 Voskuyl AE: Survival, comorbidities and joint damage 11 years after the COBRA combination therapy trial in early rheumatoid arthritis Annals Rheum Dis Related Papers Abstract Topics 2 Citations 8 References Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. Learn More → Resources DatasetsSupp.aiAPIOpen Corpus Organization About UsResearchPublishing PartnersData Partners   FAQContact Proudly built by AI2 with the help of our Collaborators Terms of Service•Privacy Policy The Allen Institute for AI By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our Privacy Policy, Terms of Service, and Dataset License ACCEPT & CONTINUE 
work_6q5chbxojrektltu6ogrgfpp3q	----	OP-EMPH170021 183..184 Evolution, Medicine, and Public Health [2017] pp. 183–184 doi:10.1093/emph/eox022 Developmental plasticity Friend or foe? Karin B. Michels* Department of Epidemiology, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA *Corresponding author. Department of Epidemiology, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA. Tel: (310) 825-8579; Fax: (310) 206-6039; E-mail: k.michels@ucla.edu Received 8 November 2017; revised version accepted 8 November 2017 A B S T R A C T Developmental plasticity – the concept that adaptation to changing and unfavorable environmental conditions are possible but may come at the price of compromised health potentials – has evolutionary grounding as it facilitates survival but dissents with fundamental evolutionary principles in that it may advance the lesser fit. It is an important cornerstone of the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD). Unlike evolutionary adaptation developmental plasticity may be short-lived and restricted to one or few generations and inheritance is uncertain. Potential mechanisms include epigenetic modifications adopted in utero which may not transmit to the next generation; future insights may allow adjustments of the outcomes of developmental plasticity. K E Y W O R D S : developmental plasticity; evolution; DOHaD; epigenetics The duality of evolution and plasticity is intriguing and has evoked much debate [1]. The evolutionary grounding of plasticity is arduous to refute, as it per- mits the emergence of novel traits in response to selective environmental pressures. Nevertheless, rapidly altering nurture conditions do not seamlessly integrate with evolutionary selection across multiple generations. Moreover, developmental plasticity in particular often contradicts the evolutionary prin- ciple of ‘selection of the fittest’. Whether following a developmental constraints or a predictive re- sponse model, which Lee et al. [2] demarcate in their article in this issue of the journal, developmental plasticity allows nurture of an inferior variant by permitting survival in an adverse environment (under the constraints model) and/or sanctions a high-risk strategy of programming the organism to early conditions anticipating a steady state in the future while enduring a considerable chance of mis- match (under the predictive response model). Effective evolution would not tolerate emergence of such compromised variants with poor prospects but likely select for variants with superior traits. The concept of developmental plasticity has been embraced by the followers of the Barker-hypothesis (subsequently termed Developmental Origins of Health and Disease [DOHaD]) as a suitable model for epidemiologic observations linking the intrauter- ine environment to later life health [3]. This concept delineates the ability of the fetus to adapt to the intrauterine environment at the cost of modifying long-term health prospects. Most DOHaD phenom- ena link a resource-deprived or -compromised envir- onment, characterized by maternal starvation, stress or disease, or fetal hormonal or chemical im- balance to chronic disease outcomes decades later. i n v i t e d c o m m e n t a r y 183 � The Author(s) 2018. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Foundation for Evolution, Medicine, and Public Health. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Deleted Text: `` Deleted Text: ''. Deleted Text: <italic>and colleagues</italic> Deleted Text: [2] http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ This thrifty phenotype [4] is largely viewed as the inability to prop- erly adjust to environmental perturbations that lie beyond any anticipated variation. A redirected program releases the fetus into an uncertain future. Plasticity of an organism is assumed greatest at conception and to dwindle thereafter [5]. With increasing age plasticity is compromised. Risk of disease generally escalates with age and declining plasticity. Nevertheless, plasticity can be evoked throughout the lifecourse by perturbed environments such as sea- sonal famine diminishing fertility in sub-Saharan populations [6]. Interestingly, susceptibility to disease varies throughout lifetime with vulnerable windows tied to important developmental mile- stones, such as conception, birth, puberty, pregnancy and meno- pause; however, the intrauterine interval represents an special opportunity for heightened disease propensity for the vulnerable fetus and coincides with the developmental plasticity concept of reaching beyond the boundaries of anticipated programing in re- sponse to an unusual environment. While genetic traits favored by natural selection slowly evolve over large time-intervals—reacting to environmental variations— developmental plasticity or the thrifty phenotype allows short- term responses to the environment without genome alterations. The mechanisms allowing such immediate defense are poorly understood and a current focus of DOHaD research. The concept of plasticity–phenotypic accommodation in the absence of gen- etic change-aligns with epigenetic principles: the propensity of phenotypic modification without genetic change. Indeed, epigen- etic mechanisms represent a likely explanation for much of the DOHaD phenomena. Most of the epigenetic code is determined in utero, and the intrauterine environment will imprint its marks on the epigenetic signature. The stability of such marks throughout the lifecourse remains unclear, and potential reversibility would allow corrections of plasticity-misdirected prospects. Although DNA methylation, chromatic structure, histone modification and miRNA activity are malleable, the complexity of this delicate and intertwined epigenetic architecture has not been disassembled. What has emerged, however, is that all compo- nents are impressionable by the environment and in particular DNA methylation may offer stable, long-lasting profiles that may affect disease propensity [7]. Is developmental plasticity a survival plan gone awry? Evolutionary interests should not support survival of the unfit. The concepts, however, may be less divergent than apparent. Evolution fosters multi-generational adaptation to the ever- changing environment to secure long-term survival of the genetic lineage, whereas developmental plasticity allows short-term tol- erance possibly to avoid instant extinction within the same gen- eration—at the cost of inferior health. A big unknown is whether passing the newly acquired traits and ‘quick fix’ to the next gener- ation is part of that master plan. Do they offer a survival advantage to the offspring? If epigenetics is indeed the underlying mechan- istic tool inheritance may not be the intention. A double-layer of epigenetic erasure, two distinct demethylation cycles—one prior to and one subsequent to conception—aims to ensure the deter- rence of passing any methylation marks to the next generation [8]. Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance would require incom- plete erasure. While this has been the focus of much debate, little confirmatory evidence exists in humans, although some other species display an epigenetic memory [9]. In the context of DOHaD, not conserving these hastily adopted programs might be in the best interest of the evolutionary goal to optimize fitness. With much exploration ongoing in this field, our cursory understanding of these complex but fundamental processes will be much enriched and may stipulate unknown prospects for prevention. Conflict of interest: None declared. r e f e r e n c e s 1. West-Eberhard MJ. Developmental Plasticity and Evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. 2. Lea AJ, Tung J, Archie EA, Alberts SC. Developmental plasticity: bridging research in evolution and human health. Evol Med Public Health 2018, doi:10.1093/emph/eox019. 3. Barker DJP. The fetal and infant origins of adult disease. BMJ 1990; 301:1111. 4. Hales CN, Barker DJ. Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus: the thrifty phenotype hypothesis. Diabetologia 1992; 35:595–601. 5. Godfrey KM, Lillycrop KA, Burdge GC et al. Epigenetic mechanisms and the mismatch concept of the developmental origins of health and disease. Pediatr Res 2007; 61:5R–10R. 6. Ellison PT. On Fertile Ground – A Natural History of Human Reproduction. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003. 7. Michels KB. Epigenetic Epidemiology. New York: Springer Publishing, 2011. 8. Santos F, Dean W. Epigenetic reprogramming during early development in mammals. Reproduction 2004; 127:643–51. 9. van Otterdijk SD, Michels KB. Transgenerational epigenetic inherit- ance in mammals: how good is the evidence? 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work_6rh263k4jjd4bprvozonhl6yp4	----	JOCC_018_03-04_innerwork.indb Journal of Cognition and Culture 18 (2018) 262–273 brill.com/jocc © Allen Tager , ���8 | doi:�0.��63/�5685373-��340030 This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the prevailing CC-BY-NC license at the time of publication. Why Was the Color Violet Rarely Used by Artists before the 1860s? A Descriptive Summary and Potential Explanation Allen Tager Independent scholar allentager999@gmail.com Abstract Although the color violet is now used in a wide variety of everyday products, ranging from toys to clothing to cars, and although it now appears commonly in artistic works, violet was rarely used in fine art before the early 1860s. The color violet only became an integral part of modern culture and life with the rise of the French Impressionists. I investigated the use of violet in over 130,000 artworks prior to 1863 and found that it appeared in about .06 percent of the paintings. Violet was used substantially more fre- quently in Impressionist works, and remains popular in fine art and in popular culture today. I examine several explanations for the explosion of the use of violet in the art world during the Impressionist era, and conclude that a cognitive-perceptual explana- tion, based on the heightened sensitivity of the Impressionists to short wavelengths, may account for it. The findings fit with a new understanding about evolutionary changes in planetary light and human adaptation to light. Keywords violet color – visual perception – neuroscience – astrobiology – high-energy cosmic rays – evolution of visual cognition – culture – evolution This paper examines a curious phenomenon: Until the time of the Impressionists in the mid-nineteenth century, works of art (though they con- tained color combinations and shades covering the rest of the spectrum) did not contain the color violet. After this time violet became much more popular and remains so today. There is no prior examination of this topic that I am Downloaded from Brill.com04/06/2021 01:36:10AM via free access 263USE OF THE COLOR VIOLET IN FINE ART Journal of Cognition and Culture 18 (2018) 262–273 aware of, and there are no other colors that I know of that experienced such a dramatic shift in usage in artwork over such a short period of time. The finding itself is interesting, and potential explanations for it relate broadly to princi- ples of optics, neuroscience, biology, astrobiology, cognitive science, psychol- ogy, anthropology, linguistics, and culture. The color violet itself must be differentiated from a closely-related color, purple, which has been used abundantly in fine art. Although the two colors may seem similar to many viewers, from the point of view of optics, there are important differences. Violet is a spectral color with its own set of wavelengths on the spectrum of visible light. Purple on the other hand is a polychromatic color, made by combining blue and red. Purple is reddish and belongs to the red family of colors, whereas violet is bluish and belongs to blue family of colors. 1 Method Upon observation, one can easily see that some colors, such as purple, have been commonly used in fine art for centuries, and see that violet is used prolifi- cally in contemporary art. But because violet was much less commonly used prior to the early 1860s, a large sample of art must be collected in order to val- idly assess its prevalence. The true colors of artwork, and especially the color violet, cannot be repro- duced with perfect accuracy on paper or a computer monitor, and thus I vis- ited numerous museums worldwide in person to assess its prevalence. I analyzed each piece of art individually, making judgements about its use of color using the Munsell Color Book (1961) which I consulted as I inspected each work, helping minimize errors introduced by changes in lighting or de- pendence on color memory. If the painting contained violet I coded it as such. Otherwise, I coded the painting as not containing violet. Here are the color coordinates from the Munsell Color Book that I used to identify violet color in art works: 2.5P 2/6; 2.5P 3/6–3/8; 5PB 8/4; 7.5PB 1/0–1/16; 7.5PB 2/16; 10PB 1/8–1/10; 10/PB 2/10–2/14; 10PB 3/10–3/16; 10PB 4/12–4/16; 10PB 5/14–5/16; 10PB 6/12–6/14; 10PB 7/10; 10PB 8/8 In total I analyzed 139,892 works of art. The work came from 193 museums in 42 countries. It should be noted that I did not generally have permission to study museum archives. Though I cannot rule out the possibility that these collec- tions contained works with violet, there is no reason to think the percentage of Downloaded from Brill.com04/06/2021 01:36:10AM via free access 264 Tager Journal of Cognition and Culture 18 (2018) 262–273 such works would have been different in these collections than in those I was permitted to study. My sample included Eastern and Western cultures from Paleolithic to the mid-1900s and included architecture, sculpture, paintings, graphics, folk arts and crafts as well as the fields related to art history, such as anthropology and archaeology. The research included data from Prehistoric art (including Paleo- lithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods), Metal Age, Ancient Mediterranean and Mesopotamian art, Egyptian art, Greek and Etruscan art, The Maya, Inca, and Aztec art, Roman art, African art, art of Oceania, Medieval art, Asian art, Renaissance, Mannerism, Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassicism, Romanticism, Aca- demic art, Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, and Modern art. As a comparison, I also coded the prevalence of the color purple in paint- ings prior to 1863 by coding 418 paintings currently on display in the West Wing of the National Gallery in Washington DC. I also coded the prevalence of the color violet in paintings since 1863 by coding 329 paintings of Impressionists, Post-Impressionism, and Modern art currently on display in the West and East Wings of the National Gallery in Washington DC. 2 Results Out of the total of 139,892 works of art that I coded, I found only eighty- seven works with true violet color. In other words, violet was used in only about .06 percent of the works that I examined — violet was almost nonexistent in paintings before the mid-nineteenth century. I did another analysis on a subset of the total paintings — the works of art- ists from different regions of the world with the images of flowers. Comparing 290 paintings and illustrations created by European, Chinese, Indian, Persian and Japanese artists of the seventeenth century, I was able to confirm the widespread absence of violet flowers and vegetation in this period of time. The works of two Flemish artists, Jan Brueghel the Elder (1568–1625) and Jan Brueghel the Younger, (1601–1678) who specialized in painting flowers, were the part of this sample. Here is the list of art works made before the mid-19th century that contain true violet color. 1. Bernardo Daddi, Saint Paul, 1333. National Gallery, Washington DC, USA 2. Khuhraw Comes to Shirin’s Castle, Iran, Tabriz, late 14th century. Freer/ Sackler Gallery of Art, Washington DC, USA 3. Andrea di Bartolo, The Nativity of the Virgin, 1400/1405. National Gallery, Washington DC, USA Downloaded from Brill.com04/06/2021 01:36:10AM via free access 265USE OF THE COLOR VIOLET IN FINE ART Journal of Cognition and Culture 18 (2018) 262–273 4. Rogier van dear Weyden, The Descent from the Cross, 1435. Prado, Madrid, Spain 5. Rustam Shoots His Half-brother Shaghad through a Pane Tree, 1482 Folio from the Shahnama (Book of Kings) of Firdausi, Iran, Shiraz, Timurid pe- riod, Metropolitan museum, New York, USA 6. Benvenito di Giovanny, The Crucifixion, 1491, National Gallery, Washington DC, USA 7. Shaikh Zada, Interior Reception, ca. 1525–35. probably Bukhara, Safavid period, Metropolitan museum, New York, USA 8. El Greco, The Disrobing of Christ. 1577–79, Cathedral of Toledo, Spain 9. El Greco, The Miracle of Christ Healing the Blind. ca. 1570. Metropolitan museum, New York, USA 10. The Simple Peasant Entreats the Salesman Not to Sell His Donkey. Iran, Safavid period. 1556–1665. Freer/Sackler Gallery of Art, Washington DC, USA 11. The Old Man Chides a Foolish Youth. Iran, Safavid period, 1556–1665. Freer/Sackler Gallery of Art, Washington DC, USA 12. Anthony van Dyck, Portrait of a Woman and Child, about 1620–21. National Gallery, London, UK 13. Fyodor Rokotov (after Roslin), Catherine II, 1780s. Hermitage, Saint Petersburg, Russia In addition to the thirteen art works listed above I also found violet in another seventy-four artworks in Islamic art (mostly Persian miniatures) and Indian art (mostly Mughal miniatures). On the other hand, purple was used freely before 1863, being observed in 101 of the 418 paintings I coded in the West Wing of the National Gallery (24%). And violet continues to be used frequently in modern art. I found violet in 20 of the 329 paintings since 1863 that I coded in the West and East Wings of the National Gallery (6%). 3 Explanation I see three possible explanations for the absence of violet in works of art before the mid-nineteenth century. The first such explanation is that violet pigments were not used in painting because, although painters were able to perceive violet, and wanted to paint the violet color, the pigments were not available or were prohibitively expensive. Analysis of colors used by painters prior to the mid-19th century suggests that the violet pigment was available by mixing red and blue colors, but at the same time the natural violet dye was expensive Downloaded from Brill.com04/06/2021 01:36:10AM via free access 266 Tager Journal of Cognition and Culture 18 (2018) 262–273 (Laurie, 1929; Berke, 2007; Ziderman, 2009; Verhecken & Pikhaus, 2012). Yet, for such famous and wealthy artists as Titian, El Greco, Raphael, Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Anthony van Dyck, and Peter Paul Rubens, a high price was no obstacle. If these artists had wanted to use violet in their paintings, given the pigment was available, they could and would have done so. It does not seem likely, then, that the lack of or cost of pigment is a plausible explanation. The second explanation is based on potential changes of flora and fauna (and in other aspects of the environment) during the planet’s history. We might suppose that, until recently, commonly known flowers such as purple lavender, purple lilac or purple and blue pansies were widely spread in nature but pos- sibly lacked the violet shades of which they are known today, at least not in Europe, where some of the artworks included in my research were painted. We could then surmise that artists did not use violet in their work because they did not see examples of the color violet in nature. The absence of violet flow- ers in the paintings of old masters, such as in Dutch still-life paintings showing numerous colorful flowers, could be taken to support this hypothesis. Support for this explanation would be bolstered if we also found the lack of violet color in botanical works from before the mid-nineteenth century. Although botany began to exist as a scientific field in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, so that it could ostensibly tell us about the presence or absence of violet in nature beginning in the seventeenth century, the infor- mation in botany texts from before the mid-nineteenth century is too limited to be of much use. The information contained in botanical manuscripts from this early period provides information about only a limited, and probably quite unrepresentative, sampling of plant life that happened to be of interest to the first botanists. As for the earlier periods, Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the plant-life-related works that a few authors created during those times provide far too little information to give us a complete picture of the common vegeta- tion then found in nature. We do know, however, that flora changes colors and form over time. Hodges and Derieg (2009) documented the evolution of columbine flowers in North America arguing that a color shift from red to white or yellow has happened five times in North America. “Ultimately we want to know if evolution can be predictable … In other words, we want to know if each time there is an evo- lutionary change in flower color, does it happen in the same way?” said these authors. In sum, because flowers do change color over time, the possibility that the color violet appeared in the world’s flora in the 19th century should not be discounted. Perhaps the violet lavender, lilac and pansies became widely spread in nature at the time of the Impressionists and this attracted special Downloaded from Brill.com04/06/2021 01:36:10AM via free access 267USE OF THE COLOR VIOLET IN FINE ART Journal of Cognition and Culture 18 (2018) 262–273 attention from this highly sensitive to short wavelength group of painters. The Impressionists used the color violet so prolifically that critics accused the painters of having “violettomania” (Reutersvärd, 1950). The terminology rep- resents one of the most notable signatures of the Impressionists’ color vision. The manner in which the Impressionist painters related to their world, in- cluding its colors, made them particularly able to sense new experiences. The impressionists were likely particularly high on the “Openness to experience” sub-scale of the “Big Five” personality traits is associated with having more “cognitive reserve”. It correlates with divergent thinking skills and with being more intuitive and creative. Openness correlates with, but is distinct from, in- telligence. Psychologists continue to study the basis of “Openness” at a cog- nitive and neural level. Antinori and colleagues (2017) argued that this trait is central to human nature and that individuals reporting greater openness to experience may also have characteristically different low level perceptual experiences. It seems “open” people “see” the world differently. A third explanation is a physiological-cognitive-psychological one, based on adaptive changes in human color vision over evolutionary time and the expan- sion of the brain’s capabilities of perceiving color. It is possible that the lack of violet in art before the mid-nineteenth century resulted from a relative lack of sensitivity to violet in the visual cones responsible for short-wavelength light (The Blue cones or S-cones) in humans prior to the Impressionist era. In short, this hypothesis proposes that humankind’s increasing level of color sensitivity played an important role in the burst of violet paintings in the 19th century. It is known that color perception in humans has become more complex over evolutionary time. Yokoyama and colleagues (2014) studied the evolutionary pathways of human vision, providing a timeline for the development of color vision. This study traced the evolutionary pathways that led to human vision, going back 90 million years. The authors summarized: “Phylogenetic analysis … suggests that the blue-sensitivity [of human vision] was achieved only gradu- ally. During the period between 45 and 30 [million years] ago, human [visual pigment] S1 was in the final stage of developing its blue-sensitivity. This was the time when two red-sensitive pigments appeared by gene duplication and one of them became green-sensitive. Trichromatic color vision in the human lineage was fully developed by 30 million years ago by interprotein epista- sis among the three visual pigments” (p. 2). Their analysis suggests that the blue sensitivity of human vision was the last to develop (after red and green). Indeed, only about 2% of the cones in the human eye are blue (type S) cones. Why would this change in color perception happen so late in human develop- ment? Biologists say that sponges are the most primitive multicellular animals. They have two genes, Pax and Six, that are involved in the eye development of Downloaded from Brill.com04/06/2021 01:36:10AM via free access 268 Tager Journal of Cognition and Culture 18 (2018) 262–273 most animals. Although the functions of the sponges’ genes are not the same as they are in more developed species, these genes interact with one another in similar ways in both simple and more complex organisms. The genetic mech- anisms for the development of eyes arose earlier in the course of evolution than the eyes themselves (Rivera, Winters, Rued, Ding, Posfai, Cieniewicz et al., 2013). Another research team sought to identify the hidden mechanisms underlying the evolution of the nervous system (Parker, Bronner & Krumlauf, 2014). They concluded that the brains of vertebrates were formed according to genetic “blueprints” created in advance. Again, the genetic blueprints for constructing more complex and capable nervous systems existed well before their physical manifestation in evolution. Only much later, after organisms had developed to the level in which the blueprints could begin to be imposed, did the physical changes made possible by them occur (Erwin, Laflamme, Tweedt, Sperling, Pisani, Peterson et al., 2011). Advance genetic blueprints may have played a similar role in the evolution of human nervous systems, including our eyes’ sensory capacities and our brain’s perceptual abilities. Human visual sensitivity has evolved from early sensitivity only to the (long wavelength) red range of the visual light spectrum, to later sensitivity to the (middle wavelength) green range, and eventually to sensitivity to the (short wavelength) blue-to-violet. As human trichromatic vision gradually developed, growing numbers of humans acquired sensitivity first to some blues, then to the full range of blues, and presumably, finally to some and then to all violets. The lack of sensitivity in the blue range of the spectrum is also found in perception of the color indigo. Since the first recorded use of “indigo” as an English color name in 1289 (Maerz & Paul, 1930), more than 700 years have passed. But even now the human eye is relatively insensitive to indigo’s wave- lengths, and some otherwise well-sighted people cannot distinguish indigo from dark blue (Evans, 1974; Waldman, 2002; McLaren, 2007). As violet color belongs to the blue family of the visible-color spectrum (that is, the family of short-wavelength colors sensed by the blue or S-cones), the same evolutionary principle applies to violet. This progression in which blue is the last color to be learned was also noted in a study of Lazarus Geiger (1878, 1880), who found that in ancient texts from all over the world, including the Bible, Vedic hymns, and Icelandic Sagas, color names appeared sequentially, following the order that the colors appear on the spectrum (with blue last). Geiger also noticed that languages developed the words for colors in the same distinct order, with blue always being the last to emerge, and posited that this must have an anatomical basis in the evolution of visual perception. Geiger believed that people gradually became aware of Downloaded from Brill.com04/06/2021 01:36:10AM via free access 269USE OF THE COLOR VIOLET IN FINE ART Journal of Cognition and Culture 18 (2018) 262–273 color over time and that this awareness was connected to the order of colors in the spectrum, moving from the longest wavelengths (red) to the shortest (blue). Berlin and Kay (1969) confirmed Geiger’s hypothesis and showed a uni- versal regularity underlying the apparently arbitrary way language is used to describe the world. Since then, the color hierarchy (black/white, red, yellow/ green, blue) has remained generally accepted. The triple structure of vision from monochromatic through dichromatic to trichromatic as well as the discovery of Yokoyama’s team testifies that such an evolution of vision from simple to more complex occupied a huge evolution- ary period and should be caused by specific reasons. Since color vision is a reaction of retina’s receptors to different wavelengths, it can be assumed that the global change in the activity of light on the planet (from a long wavelength to a medium and short wavelength) at different periods of its evolution could lead to an evolution in mankind’s color vision. This is in agreement with Geiger’s (1878, 1880) model, Berlin and Kay’s (1969) research, Davidoff ’s (1999) and Gibson’s (2017) studies, as well as Yokoyama’s (2014) findings. This helps to understand the causes of coloration change of the planet’s vegetation and explains the reasons for the appearance of shades of violet in flowers known to mankind for a long time as a lavender, lilac or pansy. This also explains the changes in cognitive responses of mankind to the occur- ring global changes in nature, since the presence of more developed forms of color vision gives an opportunity in the development of all forms of culture, including the fine arts. The evolution of mankind depends on many factors of the external environ- ment (Brodin, Jojic, Gao, Bhattacharya, Angel, Furman et al., 2014) such as the change of the activity of the planetary light. Light influences the human brain’s cognitive functions by conveying a strong stimulating signal, and acts as a regu- lator for multiple neuroendocrine and neurobehavioral functions (Vandewalle, Maquet & Dijk, 2009; Vandewalle, Schwartz, Grandjean, Wuillaume, Balteau, Degueldr, et al., 2010; Chellappa, Gordijn & Cajochen, 2011). In this context, several models explaining evolutionary changes in planetary light and human adaptation to light are of interest. Andrew Parker’s “Light Switch” theory (1998) proposes that when atmo- spheric changes during the Cambrian increased the amount of light reach- ing the Earth, the evolutionary benefits of vision were increased and the eyes rapidly developed. Moreover, several research groups (Atri, Melott & Thomas, 2010; Melott, Thomas, Laird, Neuenswander & Atri, 2016; Melott, Thomas, Kachelriess, Semikoz & Overholt, 2017) provided new evidence of the impact of high-energy cosmic rays (HECRs) on the planetary atmosphere, biological Downloaded from Brill.com04/06/2021 01:36:10AM via free access 270 Tager Journal of Cognition and Culture 18 (2018) 262–273 planetary life, and human evolution, which complements Parker’s theory. Evolution could have been potentially influenced by the occurrence of many supernovae near enough to Earth. This was confirmed by Melott’s team by making the detailed measurements of radioisotopes in deep-sea deposits, and modeling of how they reached the Earth. Melott and colleagues found that high-energy cosmic rays would have caused a serious effect as atmospheric ionization (that makes a pathway for lightning to get started and causes a big increase in lightning) and appearance of blue light in the night sky. Parker’s theory is interesting, but I argue that a single macro-cosmic event can be the only cause for dramatic changes of the entire planetary ecosystem. I believe in Melott’s model that local planetary changes should reflect global macro-cosmic events and they should also reflect the influence of such a pow- erful energy stream as high-energy cosmic rays. I also believe that there are a set of macro-cosmic events shaping the evolution of the planetary light. 4 Conclusion At this point, an explanation can be proposed for why, until the Impressionists in the mid-nineteenth century, only a small percentage of painters used vio- let color in their paintings. We may surmise that these exceptional painters began to use violet color because, due to their heightened sensitivity (physi- cally in their eyes as well as cognitively in their minds), they were the first to react to this newly prevalent wavelength of light. Only with the rise of French Impressionists in the nineteen century, who could not ignore the presence of violet in nature, did violet begin to emerge among other colors and eventually enter all spheres of life. This process took more than a century and only in our day has it reached its full strength. The Impressionists, as members of a society with a heightened sensitivity to short wavelengths, were the first group who (in contrast to some single artists preceding their appearance) perceived the color violet in their surroundings. Then, by using it in their works of art, they brought the color to the general public, such that now violet is a substantial part of our everyday color lives. 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Vandewalle, G., Schwartz, S., Grandjean, D., Wuillaume, C., Balteau, E., Degueldre, C., Schabus, M., Phillips, C., Luxen, A., Dijk, D., & Maquet, P. (2010). Spectral quality of light modulates emotional brain responses in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107 (45) 19549–19554. DOI:10.1073/pnas.1010180107. Vandewalle, G., Maquet, P., & Dijk D-J. (2009). Light as a modulator of cognitive brain function. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Volume 13, Issue 10, pp. 429–438. DOI:https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.07.004. Verhecken, A., & Pikhaus, P. (2012). A Flemish dye recipe manuscript from the 1620’s. DHA311 conference, Antwerp, Belgium. Waldman, G. (2002). Introduction to light: the physics of light, vision, and color. Mineola: Dover Publications. Downloaded from Brill.com04/06/2021 01:36:10AM via free access 273USE OF THE COLOR VIOLET IN FINE ART Journal of Cognition and Culture 18 (2018) 262–273 Yokoyama, S., Xing, J., Liu, Y., Faggionato, D., Altun, A., & Starmer. W. (2014). Epistatic adaptive evolution of human color vision, PLoS Genetics, DOI:10.1371/journal. pgen.1004884. Ziderman, I. (2009). 3600 Years of Purple-Shell Dyeing: Characterization of Hyacinthine Purple (Tekhelet). Advances in Chemistry, Vol. 212, Chapter 10, pp. 187– 198. DOI:10.1021/ ba-1986–0212.ch010. Downloaded from Brill.com04/06/2021 01:36:10AM via free access 
work_74de5bitg5eunoow6so2o73h24	----	Matthews, S. (2017). Thomas A. Prendergast . Poetical Dust: Poets’ Corner and the Making of Britain. Haney Foundation Series. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015. Pp. 256. $59.95 (cloth). Journal of British Studies, 56(1), 212-214. https://doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2016.169 Peer reviewed version License (if available): Unspecified Link to published version (if available): 10.1017/jbr.2016.169 Link to publication record in Explore Bristol Research PDF-document This is the author accepted manuscript (AAM). The final published version (version of record) is available online via Cambridge University Press at https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-british-studies/article/div- classtitlethomas-a-prendergast-poetical-dust-poets-corner-and-the-making-of-britain-haney-foundation-series- philadelphia-university-of-pennsylvania-press-2015-pp-256-5995- clothdiv/F357756C4F98D151A8D4CA53B9CE4F10. Please refer to any applicable terms of use of the publisher. University of Bristol - Explore Bristol Research General rights This document is made available in accordance with publisher policies. Please cite only the published version using the reference above. Full terms of use are available: http://www.bristol.ac.uk/red/research-policy/pure/user-guides/ebr-terms/ https://doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2016.169 https://doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2016.169 https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/en/publications/e519e751-6296-4e1f-a316-51e5d6cf311a https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/en/publications/e519e751-6296-4e1f-a316-51e5d6cf311a THOMAS A. PRENDERGAST. Poetical Dust: Poets’ Corner and the Making of Britain. Haney Foundation Series. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015. Pp. 256. $59.95 (cloth). Poets’ Corner is Britain’s national literary shrine located in the South Transept of Westminster Abbey, London. It is a frankly peculiar heritage landmark: cold, stony, crowded with heterogeneous memorials and inscriptions, incoherent, unlovely, yet evocative. Variously lauded as sacred ground and dismissed as an English curiosity, it evades the factual explanations of guidebooks such as James Wilkinson’s Poets’ Corner (2007). Poetical Dust is the first full-length modern cultural history, a chronologically wide-ranging multi-stranded narrative exploring also the intangible affect of this tiny but symbolically dense site. Thomas A. Prendergast, Professor of English at Wooster College, Ohio, is preoccupied with a complex of material and metaphorical relations between writers’ bodily remains, their literary corpora, readers, and society, as demonstrated by his previous monograph, Chaucer’s Dead Body: From Corpse to Corpus (2004). While recent scholars such as Philip Connell, Matthew Craske, and Samantha Matthews have produced shorter, period-specific studies of Poets’ Corner, medievalist Prendergast offers an in-depth, transhistorical, revisionary history. Presenting the fruits of detailed research in the Westminster Abbey archives and informed by recent theories of the body, affect, space and place, and literary tourism, Poetical Dust is full of rich and strange stories of burials, monuments, commemorative inscriptions, exhumations and relocations—and of the mixed emotions they elicit. The book’s original thesis is that Poets’ Corner is shaped as much by dead writers buried elsewhere—e.g., William Shakespeare, Alexander Pope, and all women authors—as by those whose remains lie under the stone pavement, led by Geoffrey Chaucer, “the first poetical corpse” buried there (29). Many people with no link to the arts, and obscure and third-rate writers with little claim to fame, are buried in this eccentric pantheon. Prendergast shows how, over five centuries, the often fraught interactions of sacred and secular, Catholic and Protestant, public and private, political and literary, material and immaterial have produced the idiosyncratic commemorative space of “Poets’ Corner” (a name not coined until 1733). The book has five chapters. “Westminster Abbey and the Incorporation of Poets’ Corner” explores the importance of the material body to the Abbey’s sacred space, and proposes that a 1378 violation of sanctuary enabled a distinctive secular corporeal aesthetics before Chaucer’s interment. “Melancholia, Monumental Resistance, and the Invention of Poets’ Corner” argues for Edmund Spenser as a foundational Protestant figure of “constructive melancholia,” and lays out Ben Jonson’s ambivalence about the space’s “metaphorical potential” (13–14) through debates about whether to relocate Shakespeare’s remains from Stratford. Focusing on Dryden and Pope, “Love, Literary Publicity, and the Naming of Poets’ Corner” shows how it became defined as the national commemorative space despite anxiety that poetry was devalued by publicity. “Absence and the Public Poetics of Regret” proposes that in the nineteenth century Poets’ Corner was energized then diminished by the exclusion of major writers such as Byron and George Eliot due to prejudices about morals, beliefs, or gender; retrospective commemorations only confirmed the site’s creeping stasis. Finally, “Poetic Exhumation and the Anxiety of Absence” reads the controversial 1938 exhumation of Spenser as evidence of the failed Victorian project of literature as a model for civil society. Appendices—a graveplan, burial and monument list, and chronology—used in combination help the reader envisage the site at different times, though Abbey records are incomplete, so “we will never know everyone who is buried there” (165). For Prendergast, Poets’ Corner is inherently paradoxical, and produces paradoxical emotions and behaviors in those who make and visit it. The cause is that it attempts “a material commemoration of that which was necessarily immaterial” (15)—poetry, which according to the influential Horatian trope outlasts material monuments because it is preserved in readers’ memories. Prendergast boldly attributes agency to Poets’ Corner, arguing that the accumulation of multiple actions over time creates a “larger sensibility” (xi), even an “authorial consciousness” (xiii) that influences visitors. This supports his view that the visitor’s encounter with the space replicates the reader’s encounter with the text, forming a metaphorical canon or “legible history of literature in stone” while generating elusive affective responses produced “by a kind of ghostly absence” (123). In my view, this analysis underestimates the complexity of readers’ experiences of literary texts (particularly poetry), and overestimates the attentiveness of many visitors’ “readings” of commemorative space. More persuasive is Prendergast’s model of narrative emplotment, whereby the site generates an increasingly powerful (if paradoxical) internal narrative logic that diminishes again due to mass tourism, poetry’s weakened cultural status, and closure to new burials and memorials. This self-assured contribution to British Studies is nonetheless bookended by discussions of American responses: writings by Washington Irving and Nathaniel Hawthorne in the nineteenth century and the late-twentieth-century construction of the American Poets’ Corner, in the Cathedral Church of St. John the Divine, New York. Prendergast’s gesture demonstrates the “temporal and geographical reach” of Westminster Abbey’s Poets’ Corner (x), but also suggests anxiety that American readers will not fully grant the significance of such a “profoundly English space” (x). Engagement with scholarship in the field is good, though there are omissions, notably Paul Westover’s Necromanticism: Traveling to Meet the Dead, 1750–1860 (2012). One might also take issue with loose descriptions of Poets’ Corner as “essentially a graveyard” (xii) or “cemetery’ (xiii), terms denoting outdoor burial sites, when its character as an intramural burial-place (within the church walls) is a key factor in its declining modern status, an anachronism at odds with the prevalent anti-monumental, back- to-nature aesthetic for poets’ graves. Prendergast argues with energy, presents his case with critically discriminating use of textual evidence, and in the main writes clear and readable prose; Poetical Dust is an engagingly lively account of a potentially dusty subject. Occasionally, though, it falls into a vein of verbal impressionism and approximation that exceeds the judicious qualification necessitated by presenting contentious or speculative interpretations or describing quasi- mystical affect. The use of “poetical” to mean “of poets”—hence a “poetical graveyard” (3)—casts a speciously figurative aura over factual statements; a poet’s corpse is far from “poetical.” The formula “a kind of” is a compulsive stylistic tic; within a few sentences we are told that “This inscription would seem to be a kind of elegy,” “We move […] through the poem as a kind of narrative,” it laments “a kind of lost former self,” and Robert Hauley is “a kind of ‘martyr’” (35). The reader might legitimately ask, “what kind exactly?” The book would be better—and a couple of pages shorter—if every redundant “a kind of” was cut. However, this quibble does not diminish Prendergast’s achievement; Poetical Dust is the authoritative modern account of Poets’ Corner. Samantha Matthews, University of Bristol 
work_75gdqfwx4nccfdx4lawwll7bla	----	406 15 August 1970 Correspondence BRITISH MEDICAL JOURNAL well, flatly denied that a patient with a par- ticular condition was in the hospital. The administrator, however, after several calls, agreed that such a patient was there but that premature publicity might cause her anxiety and hazard her health. I therefore agreed not to write anything. When I challenged the doctor with this information he said, "I just wanted to throw you off the scent." This sort of experience makes the plea that journalists should treat doctors more gently seem rather hollow. Doctors with ex- perience of reputable journalists will know that reporters frequently are asked and agree to keep confidence about something, even if it is only to preserve a doctor's identity to protect him from charges of advertising. But if a doctor has a grievance about in- accurate reporting or unethical behaviour by reporters he has the remedy in his own hands. A complaint to the newspaper or perhaps to the Press Council can have a very sobering effect on the journalist involved. It is significant that the Press Council confirms that complaints from doctors about medical matters are extremely rare.-I am, etc., JAMES WILKINSON, Science Correspondent, Daily Express. London S.W.I. SIR,-I was interested to read the letter of Mr. J. Roper (18 July, p. 161). There is a great deal to be said for more understanding on both sides between the profession and the press. Taking, however, the current problem of drug addiction among young people, there is much irresponsibility among certain journalists-.although cer- tainly not all. At the Harrogate meeting (Supplement, 11 July, p. 48) it was pleasing to see that at last a more realistic attitude to drug abuse was shown by the motions accepted. We as a profession have individually and generally failed to prevent over-prescribing. May I as a neurologist who uses amphetamines for narcoleptics say that I consider this is the "only" indication for the use of this highly- addictive drug. Dr. F. 0. Wells (9 May, p. 361) has shown the way in Ipswich by his ban on amphetamines, which is working so well. Narcolepsy is not a common disease, and the drug could quite satisfactorily be prescribed only in hospital. May I once more plead for support for organized lectures at schools about the danger of drug addiction, so that the impressionable young may be forewarned about what they face by drug-taking? J. D. Wright' in an interesting article points out that 75 0 of schoolchildren in Wolverhampton that he interviewed had learnt about drugs from television and newspapers. Is is too much to ask for responsible help from the press, and from the teaching profession who often try to push this problem under the carpet? It would also be fair to ask for more help from the Church; many bishops could use their talents by organizing counter- propaganda to drug-taking-an evil at their own front door. Lastly may I turn to the stream of pro- grammes on drugs on radio and television. Only recently I saw a programme on B.B.C.2 called "The Timeless Moment" in which various people were interviewed about their experiences under the influence of drugs. One speaker did mention that one L.S.D. taker had become acutely psychotic and attacked his relatives. This unfortunate person has remained psychotic. However, this danger of L.S.D. was hidden by a great deal of emotional and pseudo-scientific talk about the pleasures of trips. The very sordid side of drugs, with its utter concentration on self and the domination of the mind by a chemical, is forgotten. These programmes can do nothing but harm to young viewers. I consider there is a strong case for banning all drug programmes on the mass media. Producers forget that these programmes are seen by a very uncritical audience, many of whom are not adult and cannot assess the risks at all. The medical profession needs the help of all decent men of every profession to try and stop this evil disease.-I am, etc., A. M. G. CAMPBELL, Vice-Chairman, Bristol University Advisory Committee on Drug Addiction. Bristol. REFERENCE Wright, J. D., Proceedins's of the Roval Societv of Medicine, 1970, 63, 725. George III and the Mad-business SIR,-Having recently been stimulated by student nurses' questions to re-read some of the literature about George III's "insanity," I feel that, although the evidence adduced by Drs. I. Macalpine and R. Hunterl 2 that the King's physical symptoms were due to porphyria is most iinpressive and convinc- ing, the suggestion that his mental symp- toms, including "incessant talking" and "hurry of spirit," were also only of toxic origin and not due to an associated manic state seems much more royalistic than real- istic (see also B.M.7., 8 November 1969, p. 352). I wonder if any of the world's leading porphyriologists would care to assess the likelihood, in their experience, that a patient with a toxic delirium due to porphyrins would (a) survive this not once but repeatedly, (b) stay in a "certifiable" state for five months, (c) make a complete mental recovery without any significant evidence of brain damage, (d) thereafter have a remis- sion lasting twelve years, and (e) live on to the age of 82? Without wishing to recast any slur on our monarchy's ancestors, I feel the facts sug- gest that George III (whose granddaughter, Queen Victoria, certainly had a classical and prolonged depressive breakdown after the death of Prince Albert) was unfortunate enough to suffer from both porphyria and manic-depressive psychosis; the latter being brought on acutely at the climacteric and becoming chronic in senescence.-I am, etc., M. M. SALZMANN. " .,s Cctt Hospital, !okc, Hants. REFERENCES Mtac.,..c,! I., Hunter, R., and Rimington, C., British Medical 7othrnal, 1968. 1. 7. Macalpine, I., and Hunter, R., George III and the Mad-Busincss, London: Allen Lane, The Penguin Press. 1969. Tarsal-tunnel Syndrome in Rheumatoid Arthritis SIR,-Drs. K. Lloyd and A. Agarwal report a case of tarsal-tunnel syndrome as a presenting feature of rheumatoid arthritis (4 July, p. 32), which responded to cortico- steroid injections beneath the retinaculum. They draw attention to the possibility of this condition being not infrequent in rheumatoid arthritis, but that its detection may be masked by the many other causes of pain in the foot in this disease. Dr. A. L. Wilson and I reported three cases of this syndrome1 and drew attention to certain similarities between the tarsal- tunnel syndrome and its carpal counterpart. One of the cases we reported responded very well to the local injection of steroids under the retinaculum. We also noted that the symptoms could be reproduced by forc- ible dorsiflexion of the ankle. The addition of a raise to the heel of the shoe of the affected foot also helps by relaxing the ten- sion on the posterior tibial nerve behind the medial malleolus. Since then we have seen two other cases of tarsal-tunnel syndrome associated with rheumatoid arthritis. One of these cases was treated by bilateral surgical decompression of the nerve, and the other by three injections of corticosteroid given locally under the flexor retinaculum at weekly intervals. Both cases responded well to treatment. It is interesting to note that Yamaguchi2 and his colleagues reviewed over 1,200 cases of carpal-tunnel syndrome and found that 318 of these cases were associated with sys- temic diseases. The commonest systemic diseases associated with the carpal tunnel syndrome were rheumatoid arthritis (93), myxoedema (77), and diabetes (69).-I am, etc., E. H. CHATER. Orthopaedic Department, Merlin Park, Galway. REFERENCES l Chater, E. H., and Wilson, A. L., lournal of the Irish Medical Association, 1968, 61, 326. 2 Yamapuchi, D. M., Lipscomb, P. R., and Soule, E. H., Minneso?a Medicine, 1965, 48, 22. Therapeutic Abortion SIR,-Dr. S. E. Josse is reported (Sup- plement, 11 July, p. 52) as saying at the recent Annual Representative Meeting that "The report of the Royal College of Obstet- ricians and Gynaecologists printed in the British Medical Journal of 30 May showed that 94 ', of consultants replying to a questionnaire had no objection to termination of pregnancy." This is not correct. The questionnaire to which Dr. Josse refers was sent with a cov- ering letter from the president of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists to all consultant obstetricians and gynaecologists employed in the National Health Service. The first question read as follows: "Do you have a conscientious objection to the termination of pregnancy in all circumstances (my italics)?" In reply 424 (94 A',) of the consultants replying answered "No." If Dr. Josse has been reported correctly his statement is erroneous and misleading.- I am, etc., ANTHONY W. PURDIE. North Middllesex Hospital, Lonidon N.18. o n 5 A p ril 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .b m j.co m / B r M e d J: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /b m j.3 .5 7 1 9 .4 0 6 -b o n 1 5 A u g u st 1 9 7 0 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://www.bmj.com/ 
work_76ezlepc6fegtp5neiraisaoye	----	wp-p1m-38.ebi.ac.uk Params is empty 404 sys_1000 exception wp-p1m-38.ebi.ac.uk no 219525478 Params is empty 219525478 exception Params is empty 2021/04/06-02:36:05 if (typeof jQuery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/1.14.8/js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,String.fromCharCode(60)).replace(/\]/g,String.fromCharCode(62))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} Page not available Reason: The web page address (URL) that you used may be incorrect. Message ID: 219525478 (wp-p1m-38.ebi.ac.uk) Time: 2021/04/06 02:36:05 If you need further help, please send an email to PMC. Include the information from the box above in your message. Otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using PMC: Search the complete PMC archive. Browse the contents of a specific journal in PMC. Find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/ 
work_7gqskm2mojdh3amsouszoykdze	----	Letters 52 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR THE PUBLIC IMAGE OF SMOKING From Lt M Cardwell, RAMC(V) and Maj J Rennet!, RAMC 207 (Manchester) General Hospital RAMC(V) was recently deployed to provide medical cover at the Interna- tional Air Tattoo at RAF Fairford where two Russian MIG 29 fighters collided. To many the lasting image will be that of one of the downed pilots immediately lighting up a cigarette. This was well publicised on television and the front page of newspapers such as Today. What might not be so well known is that of the first twenty members of the rescue team seen at 207 for suspected smoke- inhalation injury, no less than twelve were, on admission, smoking cigarettes! One might perhaps forgive the pilot, who was on his second by the time he got to us, for a mid- air collision must be pretty stressful, but should publicity be given to the relief of such stress in such a manner? For- tunately our padre managed to whisk him back to his countrymen or maybe by now he might be replacing the Marlboro cowboy as a role model for the impressionable. 207(Manchester) General Hospital RAMC(V) TA Centre Kings Road Manchester MI67RS OIlITUARIES Regimental Headquarters would welcome self written obituaries and when completed they should be forwarded to Regimental Secretary RHQ, RAMC, Keogh Barracks, Ash Vale, Aldershot, Hants GU12 SRQ. We are etc M Cardwell J Bennett P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. h ttp ://m ilita ryh e a lth .b m j.co m / J R A rm y M e d C o rp s: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /jra m c-1 4 0 -0 1 -1 4 o n 1 F e b ru a ry 1 9 9 4 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://militaryhealth.bmj.com/ 
work_7ig6crhfqzcmvnshltthmkkhxy	----	<30352EB0ADC8F1B8ED2E687770> Journal of Fashion Business Vol. 16, No. 6, pp.63~79(2012) 63 A study of Fashion art Illustration employing Matisse Painting + Kang Heemyung Lecturer of Department of Fashion Design, Dongduk Women's University Abstract Modern art is getting more comprehensive and diversified regardless of genre in many forms due to the pluralism and anti-aesthetic trend of the time which is impacted by post modernism. This atmosphere is also applied to fashion illustration which creates synergy effect in cooperation with many different genres. This study selected Matisse' paper cut-out as the subject which would reflect the minimalism and abstractionism of modern plasticity. By taking this as the motive for fashion illustration, I made seven illustration works with the subject of minimalism of form and color. The conclusion of this study is as following. First, Matisse's paper cut out has controlled plasticity related to the modern abstractionism and it well fits the modern trend and sensibility which is appropriate for motive of fashion illustration. Second, by upgrading the technique of Matisse' paper cut-out in a modern way such as combination of hand drawing and computer graphic using Photoshop, I was able to make originative and creative illustration works with background and patterns that were closely connected with each other. Third, applying the fashion illustration to other various products is being well received now and I made my illustrations that could lead to follow up studies to apply the fashion illustration to other different products. Matisse' paper cut-our has forms, colors and patterns that can contain both commercial and artistic value. Therefore it is quite feasible for follow up research to apply into many different areas. Key Words : art illustration, Matisse, paper cut-out, motives, image + This Paper is an excerpt from the master's thesis. Corresponding author; Kang Heemyung, Tel.+82-11-740-3509, E-mail: fashionkhm@hanmail.net Journal of Fashion Business Vol.16, No.6 64 I. Introduction Modern art is being developed comprehensively and variously regardless of genre in many forms because of the current trend of pluralism and anti-aesthetic open thought which is impacted by post modernism. Fashion, as the cultural phenomenon, reflects the current situation. Accordingly, fashion illustration which is closely related with fashion, also reflects the times and circumstances. Furthermore, as the boundary of fine art, applied art, and pop culture is getting blurred, the combination of art and fashion has become a very clear trend today. As people regard artistic talent and ingenuity as essential components of fashion illustration, this fusion of fashion illustration, art and technology has become more widespread. There were many previous studies which linked fashion illustration to certain style of art, painters, technique and characteristics of certain times. Some of them were papers studying the characteristics of art style such as impressionism techniques by Sook Lee, pop art by Hyekyung Moon, surrealism by Sungjoo Kang and Art Nouveau mode by Sunyoung Moon, etc. There were papers which studied the expression technique of certain painters such as Gustav Klimt by Myunga Jung, Egon Schiele by Sungwoo Lee, and Yaacov Agam by Eunyong Lee, etc. Some papers studied specific techniques such as paper cut-out by Seyoon Choi, mixed media technique by Jieun Jung, and quilling by Hyejin Hur, etc. There were papers which introduced fashion illustration as item such as accessory by Jimin Kim, fashion product by Mijung Lee, and bag design by Eunjoo Jang etc. I found out that fashion illustration studies had some preferred techniques and painters' styles depending on the request of the times. The purpose of this study is to extend the expression area by applying the motive from Matisse' paper cut-out to fashion illustration in order to develop creative image. The subject of this study is Henry Matisse' paper cut-out which has the formative elements that well fit the modern trend of minimal abstractionism. The application of fashion illustration to the motives of many products is being well received today. In this respect, I thought Henry Matisse' paper cut-out was a very good subject having forms, colors and patterns that could be applied to commercial products with artistic value. In addition, I tried to find the possibility of taking this into many other products of high commercial value. This study was conducted to adopt and apply the work of Henri Matisse to fashion illustration, a Fauvism artist of simplicity and purity. To be more specific, the objective of the study is to adopt and apply the unique simplification method in patterns and color of the artist's paper cut-out to fashion illustration. In the theoretical part, the definition of art fashion illustration, classification of techniques, and history of fashion illustration from its inception to modern date were researched in the past studies published in Korean and overseas journals. In addition, the art of Henri Matisse with focus on paper cut-out was studied. In the art work part, I produced seven fashion illustrations with the motive from Henry Matisse' paper cut-put. I pursued simplicity with Matisse' vivid color and simplified single pattern on clothes in all my drawings. Repeated pattern was used as a background to maximize simplification and visual effect. Kang Heemyung / A study of Fashion art Illustration employing Matisse Painting 65 II. Theoretical Consideration on Fashion Art Illustration 1. Definition and History of Fashion Art Illustration 'Illustration' has the dictionary meanings of 'an instance', 'a cut', 'an explanatory drawing', and 'an example', etc. The origin of the word is 'to make light', meaning that sentiment of invisible world is clearly opened and defined to public through lighting and visualization. In other words, by lighting the invisible object, it visualizes invisible world such as emotion or thoughts to makes it clear to the public. Therefore, Illustration is an internal expression of imagination and acts as a communication tool. 1) In modern term, illustration is 'communication Art' with the concept to reflect culture, the spirit of the times and artists. That is, illustration plays a role not only as the marketing or communication but also as very important media of communication to visualize humanism 2) 1) Before the 19th century In this time, the main subject was about the recording of clothes, especially the popular clothes of high class or the stage costume. Fashion illustration was regarded as the artist's pure work to describe the clothes of the time rather than as precise communication and description of costume itself. The example can be found in Renaissance masters' sketches and wood block prints. In addition, the appearance of Aubrey Beardsley who reflected the style of Art Nouveau, and Toulouse Lautrec who was affected by Japanese wood block became a starting point of fashion illustration which had a great influence on today.<Fig1> 2) In 1900's~1950's As the photograph was introduced to mode magazine and fashion advertisement in the early 18th century, the traditional illustration technique couldn't compete with the photograph in terms of realistic description. The emerging Fauvism and Cubism and Art Deco at this time had a big influence on fashion illustration. Fashion illustration took bright and splendid color from Fauvism and plane and geometric screen composition from the shape theory of Cubism. From the 1930's, the fashion transformed from the rectilinear silhouette to softer and more natural and feminine silhouette. Along with the birth of this new silhouette, the fashion illustration word had an aspect of the pictorial image rather than the graphic image. Surrealism, which was technically free by collage and empirical photography, was recognized as the art movement which had a great effect on the postwar modern art and illustration 3) <Fig.2> Illustration in the 1950's was based on the orthodox drawing style of the 1930's to the 1940's that looked like one piece of painting, and it emphasized line and simplicity. 3) In the 1960's-1970's In 1960's, new fashion trend came out. The concrete formative consciousness of Pop Art was emerged to revolt against the subjective aesthetics of abstract expression, which affected fashion to use new materials such as metal, glass, paper, vinyl, etc. Modernism of Pop Art and the praise of youth influenced fashion illustration. Journal of Fashion Business Vol.16, No.6 66 After the 1960's, as the standardization by industrialization affected fashion illustration, the fixed formative image became one of the general features. 4) From the 1980's to the present The most striking feature in 1980's fashion illustration was the new interpretation of human body and the change of the related expression style. <Fig.3> The artists in the 20th century tended to disassemble, distort and reconstruct human body by their own will. Nevertheless, fashion illustration was exceptional in this trend 4) From the 1970's, the photography became highlighted while fashion illustration was in decline due to the influence of Hyper Realism. Accordingly, fashion illustration created new image to meet the needs of the times and extended its field by absorbing variety of technique such as collage, air brush, the combination of photography and illustration, block print, CAD and hand drawing. Recently, fashion illustration makes cubic effects using the various embossing and extends into applied visual art with new technology, media and computer graphics. 3. Classification of Techniques The techniques of fashion illustration has been developed by reflecting the trend and artists' preference, and modern fashion illustration uses two or three techniques combined rather than one technique alone to create new images. In this study, I made fashion illustrations by combining hand drawing and computer graphic technique. In the process of production, I applied more appropriate techniques which best fitted my subject. 1) Woodblock print It had been the mostly used technique in the early fashion illustration before the phography emerged or the press was generalized. In the 17th century, etching technique was used mainly as the print technique to express the details in spite of its limitation before the photography was invented.<Fig.4> 2) Computer Graphic The development of computer technique opened the new expression technique. As the connection of science and art creates new shape and new image, computer graphic is extending the field of fashion illustration into unlimited possibilities like combination of picture and drawings, and various forms of color and images.<Fig.5> 3) Collage 'Collage' came from a French word, Coller, mentioned to mean the technique of cut and paste of the common unartistic materials. In other words, it is a way of expressing various material by fashion illustrator. Collage was evolved into many forms as it passed thru pop art of 1980's. The illustration using this Collage technique can make unique material, texture and three dimensional expression.<Fig.6> 4) Embossing Embossing is the technique to make the dress pattern with thick paper which is imprinted by press to show embossing and engraving expression. This technique is easy to express the visual texture of materials. In case the pressure is strong in print, it's proper to call 'press'. Even if the material is not Kang Heemyung / A study of Fashion art Illustration employing Matisse Painting 67 <Fig.1>Aubrey Beardsley, 1893,Fashion Darwing in Vogue,p.22. <Fig.2>Benito,1939 Fashion Darwing in Vogue,p.27. <Fig.3>Gianfranco Ferre, 1982, Fashion Darwing in Vogue,p.172. <Fig.4>Francois Berthoud, 1987,Fashion Darwing in Vogue,p.31. <Fig.5>Kang Hee Myung, 1999. <Fig.6>Henri Matchavariani, 1993,Fashion Darwing in Vogue,p.82. <Fig.7>Lee Mi Jung,1996. <Fig.8>Henri Matisse, 1943, The Clown(jazz),HENRI MATISSE CUT-OUTS,p.27. <Fig.9>Henri Matisse, 1943, jazz ,HENRI MATISSE CUT-OUTS,p.42. Journal of Fashion Business Vol.16, No.6 68 thin and soft, press can make unevenness effect by pressure. It can make hand felt expressions and the effect of light by the form of shade<Fig.7> III. Study on Henri Matisse' art 1. Influenced by Neo-Impressionism and Post-Impressionism Matisse learned the strictness of pure geometrical color composition from Cezanne, artistic intuition and sensibility from Gogh and the sense of color like volcano from Gauguin. 5) The pointillism and the abstractness of plane and curve were linked to the color and the line of Fauvism. 2. Fauvism Fauvism was the start of the new painting which replaced the existing realism and naturalism with a new order in the 20th century. Fauvism used the pure light color of new impressionism but its emotional subject was influenced by Les nabis and Symbolism. Fauvism was a naturally born short-term artistic phenomenon which was shared by similar artists at that time, rather than an intentional movement of a specific group. Fauvism made a big influence on modern art such as expressionism, dadaism, and surrealism. 6) 3. paper cut-out Matisse started paper cut-out after the 1910's. At the early stage, he used this as a supportive technique for oil painting but later he developed and established it as an independent and new technique in his late art works. While trying various decorative works, Matisse became interested in the color especially and he developed the technique called paper cut-out by combination of decorative work. Matisse' paper cut-out was focused on colors and simplified forms which contributed to the development of abstractionism painting. The detailed technique is coloring with several primary colors and paper cutting with rhythmical sense having similarity with minimalism art of omission and implication. In this work, he found his own visual signal system and finalized his expression of color by balancing the harmonized manufacturing method and different elements. 7) Using use the new term " paper cut-out" was naturally made thru his seek of effective expression of the subject. In this process, color was getting more stabilized and became the strong method of expression. In order to make general unity while omitting detail description, Matisse thought that simple and strong subject was required and began to make work regarding dance. Matisse' work having both decoration and simplicity began to appear in 1910's work of "Dance" and "Jazz". With simplified human image and background, Matisse' work began to be recognized in his harmony of color, line and space as well as form and contents. Matisse excluded the sophisticated element and focused more on the natural and instinctive element of dance. In addition, he pioneered his own area by combination of the elements of painting and sculpture with simplification. With this work, one of his masterpiece, "Jazz Album", was made. <Jazz1> and <Jazz2> are the most representative paper cut-out which are composed of about twenty works. The subject is mostly about circus or theater colored with Kang Heemyung / A study of Fashion art Illustration employing Matisse Painting 69 Gouche. The work shows simplified form and clear movement with unified strong paper cut-out expression (Fig. 8,9). Matisse' paper cut-out is fundamentally different from collage of cubism. Collage tried to show new expression image by adding newspaper or wallpaper on canvass instead of color paint, but Matisse' paper cut-out captured the moment of movement and expressed it with vivid color characterfully. The representative works of this are big nude work, "Zulma" and "The Sadness of King" (Fig. 10) His sophisticated and mysterious work image with simplified form and vivid color was carefully planned and the best technique can be seen in Vence Cathedral which is the work of his later years (Fig. 11). Pater cut-out has its attraction in its combination of drawing, sculpture and painting and it is recognized as an independent art area even today. IV. Manufacture 1. Intention of manufacture <Fig.10>Henri Matisse, 1952, The Sadness of the King,p.14. <Fig.11>Henri Matisse, 1952, Christmas Night,p.49. I made fashion illustrations with motive from the unique pattern, form and color of Matisse' paper cut-out. I also borrowed the production technique of Matisse for the production of my work. I drew and colored the body form that matched with the motive and reworked this by using computer graphic. The whole process can be called paper cut-out using computer graphic. Matisse' paper cut-out had harmony of decoration and simplicity and by using simplified form and controlled color, it had a strong image which was not monotonous. In addition, it had unity, rhythm and volume of light and dark with sophisticated shape. In this respect, it is connected with creative abstractive painting and modern elements. I think Matisse' paper cut-out is appropriate to express the modern minimal abstractive sensibility. Fashion illustration is being more widely used as design work for the motive of many other products. In this respect, the introduction of form, color and pattern of Matisse' paper cut-out has both commercial and artistic value that can lead to additional follow-up designs for clothes and accessories etc. This is the reason that I selected Matisse' Journal of Fashion Business Vol.16, No.6 70 paper cut-out as the subject of my study. For the motive of my work, I chose "Jazz" series mainly from his works which is recognized as master piece in the expression of paper cut-out technique. Especially I tried to introduce the birds, flowers and paradisical - which is like see plant - which was frequently used in his work to show unique pattern and minimal form. <Tab 1> shows the patterns that I introduced in my work from Jazz series of Matisse's paper cut-out. <Tab 2> summarizes seven motives that I selected from Matisse' paper-cut and their main patterns. <Tab 1> Pattern that was shown in matisse's paper cut-out abstract figure circle flower sky sea paradisical / coral line 2. Production Method The subject was set as shape and color of minimalism and I made seven illustration arts. In order to maximize the beauty of simplicity, I applied contrast of color and restrained line while seeking my own art with the computer work of color and print. I tried to emphasize the minimal element of Matisse paper cut-out in my design. In my color, I expressed sophisticated strong color in general by using complementary contrast. I used pattern as background or print to show the rhythm and image while maintaining the organic harmony. The detailed working procedure is first sketch Kang Heemyung / A study of Fashion art Illustration employing Matisse Painting 71 on fabriano paper with motive followed by re-design in harmony with Matisse's art and final Photoshop work to finish. While Matisse used paper and scissors, I used hand drawing and computer graphic for paper cut-out. My intention was to show the originality and characteristics of my work by combination of painting and graphic image. <Tab 2> shows hand drawings that I made and their major points that are applied to my fashion illustration works. <Tab 2> Main pattern, motive and my illustration 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 main pattern circle, coral paradisical coral paradisical abstract bird abstract abstract dance bronze plaster, body motive applyin g point pattern, light contrast, rhythm organic unity of the form, detailed body and tattoo body drawing, pattern color contrast, body drawing, bag print one piece pattern on the body drawing diagonal line, color contrast space, color contrast, hand drawing, harmony with motive my illustrati on 3. Illustration work and explanation My design intended to show human body with implications and minimalism by using restrained lines and strong contrast of color. <Tab 3> summarizes my seven illustration works that I made from the motives of Matisse' paper-cut and the main colors that I applied in my work. Journal of Fashion Business Vol.16, No.6 72 <Tab 3> matisse's , my work , color analysis motive work color 1 Lime light, Pink Carnation, Dahlia, Pastel Green 2 Lily Green, Sweet Lavender, Starlight Blue, Aquarius, Black 3 Aqu, Chicory,White 4 Moonlight Blue, Phlox Pink, Irish Green Kang Heemyung / A study of Fashion art Illustration employing Matisse Painting 73 <Tab 3> Continued motive work color 5 Deep Periwinkle, Poison, Carmine Rose 6 vibrant Yellow,Green Flash Mandarin Orange,Black 7 Sunshine, Apricot, Classic Green,Strawberry Pink Journal of Fashion Business Vol.16, No.6 74 1) work 1 Work 1 took the motive from Matisse' work “Sea-Beasts”. <Fig.12> As the pattern of the "Sea-Beast" was thought to be well matched with vertical form, I applied this to the print on pants. First, I drew the lower body by hand and colored it with green and black which was the main color of the motive.<Fig.13> On top of it, I made the print using Photoshop. I took the original Matisse' work as background by splitting into both sides and I put my illustration in the center. In this illustration, I tried to express light contrast, rhythmic sense and various print harmoniously. <Fig.12>Motive 1 <Fig.13>Hand drawing 1 <Fig.14>Work 1 <Fig.15>Motive 2 <Fig.16>Hand drawing 2 <Fig.17>Work 2 <Fig.14> 2) Work 2 Work 2 took the motive from Matisse' work “The Knife-thrower" from Jazz.<Fig.15> I tried to express the fantastic image of elevation from the vertical structure. I materialized the simplified body of Matisse's work by hand-drawing and colored them as a woman's body with hair, volume and curve.<Fig.16> I changed the pattern of the Matisse' work and used it as background to match with my hand-drawing figure in harmony and unity. I think the finished illustration can be applied variously by using silk screen.<Fig.17> Kang Heemyung / A study of Fashion art Illustration employing Matisse Painting 75 3) Work 3 Work 3 took the motive from Matisse' work “Polynesia, The sea”. <Fig.18> Inspired by the movement of birds' wings, I drew the dynamic body and hair by hand and colored it with blue, which is the main color, in harmony with the background.<Fig.19> Inspired by the repeated unit of Matisse' work, I combined the two figures in diagonal form by using computer graphic and applied this to the print of one piece in cool and individual style.<Fig.20> 4) Work 4 <Fig.18>Motive 3 <Fig.19>Hand drawing 3 <Fig.20>Work 3 <Fig.21>Motive 4 <Fig.22>Hand drawing 4 <Fig.23>Work 4 Work 4 took the motive from the Matisse' work “The Woman Swimming in the Aquarium" and "Destiny" from Jazz.<Fig.21> When I saw these two works of Matisse, I felt like they were one work. So I took these two works as one motive and used it as background. This motive especially stood out in the stability of horizontal division and color contrast. Using this as background, I drew the sophisticated figure with a bag by hand.<Fig.22> I colored the body with black and decorated the detail. By using Photoshop, I used Matisse' work as the print of the bag which cab be applied to commercial product.<Fig.23> Journal of Fashion Business Vol.16, No.6 76 5) Work 5 Work 5 took the motive from the Matisse' work “The Horse, the squire and the clown”. <Fig.24> I was inspired by the fan shape abstract pattern of this work and used this as background. I drew the body and colored the one piece with the main color of skyblue and black to match with the pattern.<Fig.25, 26> 6) Work 6 Work 6 took the motive from the Matisse' work “Cecole Woman Dancing”. <Fig.27> <Fig.24>Motive 5 <Fig.25>Hand drawing 5 <Fig.26>Work 5 <Fig.27>Motive 6 <Fig.28>Hand drawing 6 <Fig.29>Work 6 I drew the dancer figure with the same pause of Matisse' work <Fig.28>and made a strong image with the contract of color. I made three dimensional effect by making shade when I put the figure on the background using Photoshop.<Fig.29> This process turned out very satisfactory result and I think this work can be applied to print and collage for various fashion items. 7) Work 7 Work 7 took the motive from the Matisse' work “Zulma”. <Fig.30> Kang Heemyung / A study of Fashion art Illustration employing Matisse Painting 77 <Fig.30>Motive 7 <Fig.31>Hand drawing 7 <Fig.32>Work 7 <Tab 4> Matisse's work and focus of my work Matisse' work Focus of my work 1 Sea-Beasts 1950 - color contrast with motive - applying pattern on lower body - dynamic pose and vivid color in harmony with print - possibility to apply on pants print. 2 Te Knife-thrower 1943 from Jazz - future oriented ideal in the ascending image of vertical line - materialize the abstractive body - tattoo print on hip and upper body - enlargement or reduction of background motive size 3 Polynesia, The sea 1946 - simplified bird and repetition of color - balanced space construction - dynamic rhythm of hair from the movement of bird's wings 4 The Woman Swimming in the Aquarium 와 Destiny 1946 from Jazz series - two motives that can be combined as one - sophisticated image by complementary color - bag design from the motive of Destiny 5 The Horse, the squire and the clown 1943 from Jazz series - asymmetrical expression - vivid fan shape motive on one piece with symmetrical pattern, color contrast and unity 6 Cecole Woman Dancing 1950 - repetitive arrangement of motive - dynamic movement and color contrast 7 Zulma 1950 - divide the Zulma into both sides - hand drawing figure in the center with similar color to show organic unity. - vertical line and color contrast to show stability and strong image Journal of Fashion Business Vol.16, No.6 78 By using the Photoshop, I divided the Matisse' work vertically into both sides. By taking the idea from Matisse who shaped the nude from bronze, I re-interpreted Zulma's nude in a modern way<fig.31> and completed the figure and put it in the center of the divided background in harmony. I maintained the stable vertical structure and made strong and harmonious illustration by using complementary colors.<Fig.32> <Tab 4> shows the main focus of my work for each motive. V. Conclusion This study was conducted to adopt and apply the work of Henri Matisse to fashion illustration, a Fauvism artist who realized liberalization and independence of color, whose work is characterized by autonomy, simplicity, purity. To be more specific, the objective of the study is to adopt and apply the unique simplification method, pattern and color of the artist's paper cut-out to fashion illustration. The conclusion drawn from this study is as follows.: First, Matisse's paper cut-out has controlled plasticity related to the modern abstractionism and it well fits the modern trend and sensibility which is appropriate for motive of fashion illustration. It was also found that the color of Matisse's Paper cut-out that emphasizes beauty of simplicity and vividness through contrast of colors matches well with the sensibility of today that seek creativity and minimalism. Second, by upgrading the technique of Matisse' paper cut-out in a modern way such as combination of hand drawing and computer graphic using Photoshop, I was able to make originative and creative arts having background and patterns that were closely connected with each other. Specifically, I changed Matisse' work to be modern by adjusting the color and pattern. Through this work, I completed new modern fashion illustrations while maintaining the identity of Matisse' work. Third, applying fashion illustration to other various products is being well received now and I made my illustrations that would lead to follow up studies to apply the fashion illustration to other different products. Matisse' paper cut-our has forms, colors and patterns having both commercial and artistic value. In my work, I used the pattern for fashion clothes and bags limitedly but by taking this motive, I think it is possible to produce various items in various ways. Therefore it is quite feasible for follow up research to apply into many different areas. Fourth, the development of new technologies and multi-media leads to many varieties in regards to the means of expression, and a new chapter is opened to all sectors of art. One of the newly introduced tools is the computer graphic. The use of computer graphic in creating the background and patterns can bring an unlimited world of possibility in expression enabled by new techniques and instruments. Reference 1) Jang Andrew(1993), The world of Illustration, Design house, p.80. 2) Young Sun Yoo(2000), "A study on the method of express for fashion illustration visual image after 1980", Kyung Hee University, p.11. 3) William Packer(1983), Fashion Drawing in Kang Heemyung / A study of Fashion art Illustration employing Matisse Painting 79 vogue, London: Thames and Hudson, p.26. 4) Mi Rae Park (1987), Fashion Illustration, Kyungchunsa, p.9. 5) Keun Joon Yoo(1974),Collection of World Western Art, vol 17, Hankook Daily News, P.120. 6) Kwang soo Oh(1976), Seoul Modern Painting History, Ilji Publishing Company, p87. 7) Young bang Im(1983),Understanding of Modern Art. Seoul National University. P,133. 8) Heung Mi Kim(1984), “Study on Matisse' plan painting with focus on life philosophy”, Hon gik University, p.16. 9) Nicholas Darke (1987), Fashion Illustration Today, London: Thames and Hudson. 10) Richard Martin (1989), Fashion and Surrealism, London: Thames and Hudson. 11) Gilles Neret (1994),NHENRI MATISSE CUT-OUTS, London: Benedikt Taschen. 접수일(2012년 11월 2일), 수정일(1차 : 2012년 11월 23일, 2차 : 12월 7일), 게재확정일(2012년 12월 14일) << /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false /AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /All /Binding /Left /CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 20%) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2) /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Warning /CompatibilityLevel 1.4 /CompressObjects /Tags /CompressPages true /ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true /CreateJobTicket false /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default /DetectBlends true /DetectCurves 0.0000 /ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged 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work_7j7mfxqai5fpjpylx3cmaefdvy	----	Knowledge-Based Assessment of Expertise in the Arts: Exploring Aesthetic Fluency Paul J. Silvia University of North Carolina at Greensboro Scientific interest in expertise in the arts is growing, but measures of expertise have largely been brief and informal. The present research examines Smith and Smith’s (2006) Aesthetic fluency scale, which measures expertise by assessing domain knowledge in the arts. A latent variable study examined Aesthetic fluency in relation to fluid intelligence and the Big Five dimensions of personality. Openness to experience had a large effect, and all other effects were small. Aesthetic fluency appears to be associated with the artistic values and interests typical of people high in openness to experience. Keywords: Aesthetic fluency, expertise, Aesthetics, openness to experience, assessment Experts and novices perceive, evaluate, create, and experience art differently (e.g., Axelsson, 2007; Kozbelt & Seeley, 2007), and scientific interest in artistic expertise is growing (Locher, 2007). A straightforward way to study expertise is to recruit groups of novices and experts. For many questions, however, researchers need a continuous measure of expertise. In longitudinal research, for example, it is more typical to estimate growth on a continuum than to estimate transitions between categories. And in individual- differences research, researchers are usually interested in variation along a construct’s full range, not just in a construct’s extremes. Continuous measures of expertise have typically been brief and blunt, such as simply asking people how much training they have had (e.g., Locher, Smith, & Smith, 2001; Silvia, 2006). A prom- ising new method, however, measures expertise with a knowledge- based approach. Smith and Smith’s (2006) Aesthetic fluency scale presents figures and terms from art history, and respondents indi- cate how much they know about each one. This scale has some nice features: it emphasizes what people know about art (vs. how much they like it or how good they are at it), and researchers can adapt the scale for other domains by adding items (Silvia & Barona, in press). Given the youth of this approach, evidence for the scale’s validity is preliminary but promising. In their study of museum visitors, Smith and Smith (2006) found that people who visited museums often and who had formal training in art had higher Aesthetic fluency scores. A natural next step is to consider major dimensions of personality and individual differences—what are people high in Aesthetic fluency like? Locating Aesthetic fluency within a network of other variables, particularly variables that have been widely studied and are well understood, will refine the construct’s meaning and expand the evidence for validity. The present research thus explores Aesthetic fluency in relation to fluid intelligence and the Big Five dimensions of personality. Method Participants A sample of 226 university students (178 women, 48 men) participated as part of a research option; most (82%) were 18 or 19 years old. The data were collected as part of a broader psycho- metric study of creativity and cognition (see Silvia et al., in press, for more details). Procedure People completed several measures of individual differences. Aesthetic fluency was measured with Smith and Smith’s (2006) Aesthetic fluency scale, which contains 10 items referring to people and ideas in art history (Mary Cassatt, Isamu Noguchi, John Singer Sargent, Alessandro Boticelli, Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Fauvism, Egyptian Funerary Stelae, Impressionism, Chinese Scrolls, Abstract Expressionism). To explore other domains, we added five literary terms (Carl Sandburg, Language Poetry, The Black Mountain School, Beat Writing, Confessional Poetry) and five terms from the decorative arts (Alvar Aalto, Charles and Ray Eames, Tapio Wirkkala, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Frank Lloyd Wright). People respond to each item on a 0 – 4 scale (0 � I have never heard of this artist or term; 1 � I have heard of this but don’t really know anything about it; 2 � I have a vague idea of what this is; 3 � I understand this artist or idea when it is discussed; 4 � I can talk intelligently about this artist or idea in art). The original 10 items correlated highly with the literary items (r � 0.52) and with the decorative arts items (r � 0.46); the latter two correlated as well (r � 0.42). The Big Five dimensions of personality—Neuroticism, Extra- version, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscien- These data are from the Creativity and Cognition project, which was first described in Silvia et al. (in press). Chris Barona, Josh Cram, Karl Hess, Jenna Martinez, and Crystal Richard deserve thanks for their help with collecting data. Researchers interested in reanalyzing the data can download the data files (in SPSS and Mplus formats) from the author’s Web page. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Paul J. Silvia, Department of Psychology, P.O. Box 26170, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27402-6170. E-mail: p_silvia@uncg.edu Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts Copyright 2007 by the American Psychological Association 2007, Vol. 1, No. 4, 247–249 1931-3896/07/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/1931-3896.1.4.247 247 tiousness—were measured with three scales: the 60-item NEO Five Factor Inventory (Costa & McCrae, 1992), the 50-item In- ternational Personality Item Pool scale (Goldberg et al., 2006), and a 10-item brief scale (Gosling, Rentfrow, & Swann, 2003). Each scale used a 1 to 5 format. Fluid intelligence was measured with the Ravens progressive matrices; a Letter Sets task, which in- volved finding rules that distinguished groups of letters; and a Paper Folding task, which involved deciding how sheets of paper would appear if mentally unfolded. We included two demographic predictors. The first was gender (scored 1 for men, 2 for women). The second was whether peo- ple’s college major was related to the arts, which reflects a com- mitment to training in a creative field (see Silvia et al., in press). People with arts majors—the visual arts (e.g., fine arts, art history), performing arts (e.g., theater, music performance), or decorative arts (e.g., fashion design, interior architecture)—received 1 point; people with conventional majors (91% of the sample) received 0 points. Results and Discussion The Big Five factors, fluid intelligence, and Aesthetic fluency were modeled as latent variables. The three self-report scales were indicators for the Big Five factors, the three cognitive tasks were indicators for fluid intelligence, and the three Aesthetic fluency scores were indicators for Aesthetic fluency. Each latent factor’s variance was fixed to 1. The analyses were conducted with Mplus 4.21 using full-information maximum-likelihood estimation. Table 1 presents descriptive statistics for the Aesthetic fluency items. Aesthetic fluency was regressed on the Big Five factors, fluid intelligence, the creativity of people’s college majors, and gender. The fit of the model was acceptable (RMSEA � 0.076, SRMR � 0.073, CFI � 0.88, �2/df � 2.32, �2[196] � 454.79); measurement models showed that the misfit stemmed from the Big Five scales. Table 2 depicts the paths from the predictors to Aesthetic fluency. The largest effect size—and the only large effect— belonged to openness to experience (� � 0.553). Several small effects (�s around 0.15) were found for extraversion, conscientiousness, and gender. Neuroticism, agreeableness, and fluid intelligence were essentially unrelated to Aesthetic fluency. The model explained 28.3% of the variance in Aesthetic fluency. This study thus provides evidence for the validity of Smith and Smith’s (2006) knowledge-based approach to measuring expertise in the arts. People high in Aesthetic fluency were not generally smarter; interestingly, they were also not more likely to have a college major related to the arts. Instead, the broad factor of openness to experience—a factor associated with Aesthetic inter- ests, curiosity, unconventionality, and creativity (McCrae, 2007)— strongly predicted people’s levels of Aesthetic fluency. This result adds to the emerging view of openness as a general factor in Aesthetics (McCrae, 2007) and in creativity (Silvia et al., in press), and it suggests that people’s values and interests are central to Aesthetic fluency. A limitation, of course, is that this study was a cross-sectional analysis of young adults, most of whom were too young to be true experts in the arts. The growth of expertise over time remains a critical question for future research. References Axelsson, Ö. (2007). Individual differences in preferences for photographs. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 1, 61–72. Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) pro- fessional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Goldberg, L. R., Johnson, J. A., Eber, H. W., Hogan, R., Ashton, M. C., Cloninger, C. R., et al. (2006). The international personality item pool and the future of public-domain personality assessment. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 84 –96. Gosling, S. D., Rentfrow, P. J., & Swann, W. B., Jr. (2003). A very brief measure of the Big-Five personality domains. Journal of Research in Personality, 37, 504 –528. Kozbelt, A., & Seeley, W. P. (2007). Integrating art historical, psycholog- ical, and neuroscientific explanations of artists’ advantages in drawing and perception. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 1, 80 –90. Locher, P. J. (2007). Editorial: Twenty-five years of Empirical Studies of the Arts. Empirical Studies of the Arts, 25, 117–120. Locher, P. J., Smith, J. K., & Smith, L. F. (2001). The influence of presentation format and viewer training in the visual arts on the percep- tion of pictorial and aesthetic qualities of paintings. Perception, 30, 449 – 465. Table 1 Descriptive Statistics for the Aesthetic Fluency Items M Median Mode Minimum/Maximum SD � 1 2 3 1. Aesthetic fluency: Original items 0.753 0.60 0.40 0.00/3.60 0.58 0.83 1 2. Aesthetic fluency: Literary arts 0.798 0.60 0.60 0.00/2.80 0.67 0.66 0.52 1 3. Aesthetic fluency: Decorative arts 0.391 0.20 0.00 0.00/3.40 0.55 0.67 0.46 0.42 1 Table 2 Predictors of Aesthetic Fluency Standardized � z Value Openness to experience 0.553 4.49 Extraversion �0.162 1.78 Neuroticism �0.037 0.45 Agreeableness 0.107 1.15 Conscientiousness �0.183 1.97 Fluid intelligence 0.025 0.25 Gender 0.153 1.79 Arts major �0.026 0.34 Note. n � 226. All variables are latent variables, except for gender and creative college major. 248 BRIEF REPORTS McCrae, R. R. (2007). Aesthetic chills as a universal marker of openness to experience. Motivation and Emotion, 31, 5–11. Silvia, P. J. (2006). Artistic training and interest in visual art: Applying the appraisal model of aesthetic emotions. Empirical Studies of the Arts, 24, 139 –161. Silvia, P. J., & Barona, C. M. (in press). Do people prefer curved objects? Angularity, expertise, and aesthetic preference. Empirical Studies of the Arts. Silvia, P. J., Winterstein, B. P., Willse, J. T., Barona, C. M., Cram, J. T., Hess, K. I., et al. (in press). Assessing creativity with divergent thinking tasks: Exploring the reliability and validity of new subjective scoring methods. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts. Smith, L. F., & Smith, J. K. (2006). The nature and growth of aesthetic fluency. In P. Locher, C. Martindale, & L. Dorfman (Eds.), New direc- tions in aesthetics, creativity, and the arts (pp. 47–58). Amityville, NY: Baywood. Received June 11, 2007 Revision received August 2, 2007 Accepted August 2, 2007 � Call for Nominations The Publications and Communications (P&C) Board of the American Psychological Association has opened nominations for the editorships of Psychological Assessment, Journal of Family Psychology, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, and Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: Personality Processes and Individual Differences (PPID), for the years 2010-2015. Milton E. Strauss, PhD, Anne E. Kazak, PhD, Nicholas Mackintosh, PhD, and Charles S. Carver, PhD, respectively, are the incumbent editors. Candidates should be members of APA and should be available to start receiving manuscripts in early 2009 to prepare for issues published in 2010. Please note that the P&C Board encourages participation by members of underrepresented groups in the publication process and would partic- ularly welcome such nominees. Self-nominations are also encouraged. Search chairs have been appointed as follows: • Psychological Assessment, William C. Howell, PhD, and J Gilbert Benedict, PhD • Journal of Family Psychology, Lillian Comas-Diaz, PhD, and Robert G. Frank, PhD • Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, Peter A. Ornstein, PhD, and Linda Porrino, PhD • Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: PPID, David C. Funder, PhD, and Leah L. Light, PhD Candidates should be nominated by accessing APA’s EditorQuest site on the Web. Using your Web browser, go to http://editorquest.apa.org. On the Home menu on the left, find “Guests.” Next, click on the link “Submit a Nomination,” enter your nominee’s information, and click “Submit.” Prepared statements of one page or less in support of a nominee can also be submitted by e-mail to Emnet Tesfaye, P&C Board Search Liaison, at etesfaye@apa.org. Deadline for accepting nominations is January 10, 2008, when reviews will begin. 249BRIEF REPORTS 
work_7jrkhpt7mbfyniyrssun4pej7y	----	Renninger Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 5, No. 1, January 2005, pp. 54 - 65. Building Connections, Building Communities: Strategies for Integrating Music and Literature in an Undergraduate Learning Community Laura Renninger1, Michael Austin2, Karen Pugsley3 Abstract: This article explains the strategies that were used to create a closely integrated, paired-course learning community in the fall of 2001 and presents focus-group assessment data from the combined courses. Five specific strategies were used to create a high degree of connection between the World Literature course and the Music Appreciation course that formed the learning community: 1) Exploring the formal connections between literature and music; 2) Organizing the class by movements in intellectual history common to both disciplines; 3) Focusing on musical works inspired by works of literature; 4) Selecting music and literature from identical non-Western regions; and 5) Combining course web supplements for both courses into a single, “super site” web page. Approximately half of the students in the English class and one third of the students in the Music class were direct participants who were part of the learning-community cohort. The rest of the students were indirect participants enrolled in one class but not the other. In focus groups held at the end of the semester with both groups of students in the English class, the direct participants reported a strong feeling that the information presented in the two classes was more connected, more integrated, and more relevant than information presented in a stand-alone class. Surprisingly, however, the indirect participants in the learning community reported similar feelings, which strongly suggests that the benefits of these integration strategies are not limited to those who participate directly in the course clusters or linked courses. Introduction: This article explains specific strategies used to create a closely integrated, paired-course learning community combining Music Appreciation with World Literature. Focus-group assessment data from the combined courses is presented. One of the most interesting findings shows that students not directly involved in the learning community (students only enrolled in one class or the other, or “indirect participants”) reported similar feelings as the direct participants. Namely, that the information presented was more connected, more integrated, and more relevant than information presented in a stand-alone class. 1 Assistant Professor of Music, Shepherd University, PO Box 3210, Shepherdstown, WV 25443. lrennng@shepherd.edu. 2 Associate Professor of English, Shepherd University, PO Box 3210, Shepherdstown, WV 25443. maustin@shepherd.edu. 3 Assistant Professor of Nursing Education Shepherd University, PO Box 3210, Shepherdstown, WV 25443. kpugsley@shepherd.edu. L. Renninger, M. Austin, and K. Pugsley Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 5, No. 1, January 2005. 55 I. Literature Review Though the term learning community has been applied to a number of different approaches to community-based education at all levels (Lenning and Ebbers, 1999), in higher education, it has increasingly come to be associated with curricular strategies that “purposefully restructure the curriculum to link together courses or course work so that students find greater coherence in what they are learning as well as increased intellectual interaction with faculty and fellow students” (Gabelnick, MacGregor, Matthews, and Smith, 1990, p. 5). Before 1990, only a handful of colleges and universities in the United States offered undergraduate courses specifically designed as learning communities (Smith, 1993). These initial experiments, however, have become influential models for educators responding to many of the structural trends in higher education that have decreased students’ ability to integrate the perspectives of different disciplines and to form peer groups into which knowledge can be processed and applied. Critiques of higher education in the 1980s and early 1990s often argued that disciplines had become too provincial, students too isolated, and faculty too complacent for colleges and universities to provide the kind of genuine intellectual community that had once been an important part of the higher education experience (Boyer, 1987; Levine, 1993; Study Group, 1984). Early proponents of learning communities saw the model as a way to integrate knowledge across a wide variety of academic disciplines and to establish the communal foundations needed to make abstract knowledge meaningful for students. Learning communities were also seen as a way to reinvigorate faculty by promoting collaboration among a wide variety of disciplines (Gabelnick, et al., 1990; Hill 1985; Smith, 1991). For the bottom line, learning communities offered increased student retention, increased customer satisfaction, increased faculty productivity, and, most importantly, a more integrated and higher quality educational environment for everybody involved in the learning process. Most of the research collected from learning communities in recent years supports the claims of its early advocates. Minkler’s (2000) interviews and analyses of evaluation data revealed a strong preference for learning community courses among both students and faculty at community colleges in Idaho and Washington. Gardner (2001), Bean and Shevawn (2001), and Johnson (2000) have all demonstrated a strong correlation between participation in learning communities and retention of college freshmen. A study by Zheng, Saunders, Shelly, and Whalen (2002) found participation in a learning community to be one of the primary indicators of academic success for freshmen living in residence halls. Walker (2001) found that involvement in freshman learning clusters at UCLA increased, not only the quality of students performance in a class, but also their overall social and academic integration at the university. And several recent studies (Baker and Pemerantz, 2000; Thompson, 1998; Tinto and Love, 1995) showed a strong tendency of students enrolled in learning communities to earn higher grades and be more satisfied with their overall college experience than students who take only stand-alone courses. The research also shows that faculty members, as well as students, benefit from the cross- disciplinary collaboration that the learning community model fosters. By bringing faculty members from different disciplines into the same classrooms, learning communities often lead faculty to reexamine both their own disciplines and their own teaching strategies, leading to a general innovation of the curriculum (Stark and Lattuca, 1997). Benefits are especially evident L. Renninger, M. Austin, and K. Pugsley Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 5, No. 1, January 2005. 56 for mid-career faculty who have fallen into a comfortable routine in their classroom teaching and who tend to be invigorated by the interactive, collaborative pedagogical strategies that the learning community model encourages (Durrington and Bacon, 1999). Learning communities have also been shown to “encourage faculty members to share knowledge with one another,” “broade[n] faculty members’ knowledge about pedagogy” and “increase collegial trust” (Lenning and Ebbers, 1999, p. 57). II. Strategies for Building an English-Music Learning Community The learning community in the present study took place in the Fall of 2001 in a comprehensive, four-year public college in the Mid-Atlantic Region. The community consisted of two linked general studies courses, Survey of World Literature II and Introduction to Music. Though the learning community model had been in use in the College Honors Program for nearly 10 years, this was one of the first two learning communities offered to the general undergraduate population. Two different professors taught the English and Music portions of the course separately, but great care was taken to ensure that course content was tightly linked. Both professors attended each other’s classes and were free to comment on material presented in order to help enhance instruction. In addition, both professors modified their basic departmental syllabi to achieve a high level of content integration. Five specific strategies were employed to link material from the two courses together. What follows is a description of each of these five strategies with examples, where appropriate, of class presentations resulting from each strategy. A. Exploring the Formal Connections Between Literature and Music The initial weeks of each class covered the fundamentals of both music and literature, with a special emphasis on concepts shared by the two disciplines such as meter, theme, rhythm, motif, and form. In the music portion of the community, students learned the basics of music notation. They were taught to identify the meters of songs such as “Home on the Range” and “Mary Had a Little Lamb” through exercises involving singing and clapping. Students were subsequently taught to notate music in a given meter at a very basic level via the use of correct musical note shapes and time signatures. Finally, students practiced identifying meters while listening to classical and popular music examples. In the beginning of the music class, students were taught to listen for primary and secondary themes or melodies in classical music excerpts. They were asked to discern whether or not themes were repeated or varied at different points in the course of a piece. Students were then asked to notate or map these themes or main musical ideas by using letters of the alphabet. For example, a piece with a three-part formal structure may be notated as follows: “A” (primary thematic idea), “B” (secondary thematic idea), “A’ ” (primary thematic idea returns but is slightly varied as far as rhythm, mode or timbre). Subsequently, every piece studied in the course included a discussion of meter and formal structure. In the literature portion of the learning community, the instructor spent the first two weeks of the class exploring what makes literature, and especially poetry, “musical.” Students were encouraged to take the basic principles of rhythm that they learned in their music class and use these principles to scan selected poems and identify basic meters (iambic, trochaic spondaic, anapestic, and dactylic) and simple rhyme schemes in poetry. Longer prose works were read with special attention to the kinds of thematic repetitions and symbolic motifs that also characterize musical composition. Most of the literature studied during these early weeks of the course was L. Renninger, M. Austin, and K. Pugsley Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 5, No. 1, January 2005. 57 selected for its “musicality” rather than for its chronological relationship to the remainder of the course. B. Organizing the Class by Movements in Intellectual History Common to Both Disciplines Both classes in the learning community were largely organized according to intellectual movements common to music and literature, as well as to other disciplines such as visual art, history, philosophy, and political science. In most class lectures, visual art was also employed to supplement discussions of these various movements. Not only did this prove to be a highly effective teaching tool, it allowed students to perceive the kinds of strong connections between the two disciplines that, while usually obvious to instructors, are often missed in a less integrated general- education core. For example, the class sessions in both courses devoted to “Impressionism” began with displays and descriptions of visual art from the impressionist period. The professors explained that in impressionistic visual art there is a strong reliance on the effect of light, color, blurring and brilliance. In essence, the brush strokes suggest an image and the viewer’s mind must piece the image together into a concrete picture. It was emphasized that this movement, prominent in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, extended not only to visual artists but to musicians and writers as well. In the music portion of the community, students were shown ways in which one could musically create the same effect of color and suggestion found in the visual art. For example, use of irregular phrases and parallel chordal motion, avoidance of traditional harmonic progressions, suppression of the leading tone and coloristic choice of instruments are stable traits of impressionistic music. A brief description of the lives of musical impressionists such as Claude Debussy, Maurice Ravel and Lili Boulanger was followed by an analysis of musical excerpts containing several of the specific musical traits listed above. In the literature portion of the community, students studied the poetry of Charles Baudelaire and Rainer Maria Rilke and a brief selection from Marcel Proust’s Remembrance of Things Past. The instructor extrapolated from visual and musical impressionism several key characteristics from the intellectual movement in general, such as the use of strong emotional associations, a resistance to traditional connections, and a formal incompleteness that invites the auditor to complete connections only suggested by the artist. During the course of the discussion, students were shown a single PowerPoint slide (below) containing an impressionist painting (Monet’s “Rough Sea,”), an impressionist poem (Rilke’s “Song of the Sea”), and an impressionist musical composition (Debussy’s “Dialogue of the Wind and Sea” from Le Mer). Students were asked to interpret each work in light of the other two and to draw specific conclusions about the phenomenon of impressionism from their collective impression of the three works. These conclusions became the framework for studying work by other impressionists. L. Renninger, M. Austin, and K. Pugsley Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 5, No. 1, January 2005. 58 Figure 1: Impressionism Power Point Slide In all, seven Western intellectual movements were used to organize the majority of the lectures and discussions for both courses in the learning community: Classicism Impressionism Romanticism Expressionism Nationalism Minimalism Realism When these movements were discussed, they were discussed on exactly the same days in both classes, with both instructors participating in both discussions. All visual materials generated for these discussions were converted to PowerPoint format and loaded onto the learning community web site where students could view and download them at their convenience. C. Focusing on Musical Works Inspired by Works of Literature Two major works in each class were specifically selected for study because of their connection to a work in the other discipline. Students studied the paired works simultaneously, with frequent references to both work in both classes. With these pairings, the instructors hoped to connect the two courses more concretely than they had on either the formal or the thematic level. Near the midpoint of the semester, Charles Gounod’s opera Faust was paired with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s dramatic poem Faust, the source upon which it was based. Students viewed portions of the opera on VHS in class and listened to other musical examples based on Goethe’s work, including Hector Berlioz’s La Damnation de Faust and Franz Peter Schubert’s Gretchen am Spinnrade. In addition to reinforcing the story, the discussion of Gounod’s music in particular allowed the instructor to incorporate additional lecture material focused on characteristics of French lyric opera. L. Renninger, M. Austin, and K. Pugsley Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 5, No. 1, January 2005. 59 Later in the semester, students spent a week studying Henrik Ibsen’s play Peer Gynt as an important example of nationalism in literature. After reading the story in the literature portion of the community, students were introduced to Edvard Grieg’s music, originally composed as twenty-three movements of incidental music to accompany Ibsen’s stage play. Although the play was initially unsuccessful, the music became one of Grieg’s most famous works. In the late nineteenth century, eight movements from the original score were extracted and fully orchestrated. These movements were later separated into two orchestral suites, both of which are widely performed today. The use of Peer Gynt was a very effective way to link course material. Students often remarked how well the music helped them to easily and vividly imagine various scenes from the play studied in the literature class. D. Selecting Music and Literature from Identical Non-Western Regions India and Africa were selected for an in-depth analysis of both non-Western music and literature. In the music portion of the community, students examined general characteristics of classical Indian music and sub-Saharan African music. These characteristics were further applied via the analysis of various musical examples. The differences between Western and non-Western musical systems was largely emphasized. For example, the students were shown that concepts focused on at the beginning of the semester, such as meter, form, and even pitch could be approached in very different ways depending on the musical culture. Socio-political factors were also incorporated. One example used was the music of Zimbabwean artist, Thomas Mapfumo, who wrote several songs protesting the white domination of his country in the 1960’s and 1970’s. Mapfumo’s music was paired with Chinua Achebe’s postcolonial novel, Things Fall Apart, a realistic narrative, heavily influenced by European Modernism, about a pre-colonial Igbo civilization in present-day Nigeria encountering, for the first time, the forces of European colonialism. From these discussions, students were able to see clearly how formal and ideological concerns can be connected in many different kinds of artistic production. E. Combining Course Web Pages for Both Courses into a Single, “Super Site” Web Page Research has consistently shown that the use of computer technology as a classroom supplement has the potential to significantly increase the sense of community among students enrolled in traditional learning communities (Dial-Driver & Sesso, 2000; Lally & Barrett, 1999; Lenning & Ebbers, 1999). In order to foster this sense of community in the English-Music community, an extensive course web site was created with the popular course management system, Web CT. All lecture notes for the two classes were posted to the web site, as were the PowerPoint presentations containing visual art that were used almost daily in the class discussions. Also included were links to research-grade Internet sources relevant to both classes that students could use to supplement material from class and homework assignments. Another important element of the web site was the discussion board, which has been shown to be an effective tool for creating communities in cyberspace (Caverly & MacDonald, 2002). Each week, students were required to provide two posts containing questions or comments based on that week’s lecture material, readings, or listening examples. Discussion posts often continued discussions begun in normal class sessions, and they were also used by instructors to generate discussion on new topics or readings. The most important function of the learning-community web site was to help students create a single, unified learning experience out of the two distinct courses that made up the community. Early in the semester, students learned to go to this single site for notes, study aids, L. Renninger, M. Austin, and K. Pugsley Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 5, No. 1, January 2005. 60 visual aids, and handouts from both courses. Instructors also worked to structure the electronic bulletin board as a single discussion about the connected aspects of the two courses rather than as a series of separate discussions about the two separate classes. With the exception of a few small administrative matters unique to each course, no effort was made to separate elements of the bulletin board into “music” and “literature” components. It was simply the Learning Community Web Site. III. Results of Student Focus Groups Because of lower-than-expected enrollments in the learning community classes, both the English and the Music class were opened to students not enrolled in the learning community. A core cohort of 13 students enrolled in both the Music and the English classes. An additional 12 students enrolled only in the English class, and an additional 20 students enrolled only in the Music class, for total class sizes of 25 and 32, respectively. The blending of learning-community and non-learning-community students into one half of a closely integrated, cross-disciplinary setting provided a unique opportunity to study the effects of the learning community model on students who did not participate in it directly but who were exposed to it indirectly through the connection strategies that both teachers employed. To assess the effect of the learning community on both direct and indirect participants, two focus groups were conducted during the final month of the semester, one among students enrolled in both learning community classes and one among students enrolled only in the English class. Focus groups were used because students were already filling out standard evaluation forms, and the instructors wanted to generate assessment data that was not connected to normal instructional evaluation so as to measure as accurately as possible the effect of the learning community portion of the course. A total of 20 students participated in the two focus groups, nine in the LC group and 11 in the non- LC group. The gender composition of the two groups differed dramatically. The LC group was composed entirely of women (100%) and 91% of non-LC participants were men (10 men, 1 woman). In addition, the number of years attending college differed between the two groups. LC participants were in their first or second year of college, and non-LC participants were in their fourth year. The focus group facilitator used open-ended questions to elicit the thoughts and feelings of the participants. Participants were assured of the confidentiality and that names would not be identified with any comments. The students sat in a circle and the atmosphere was informal. Snacks were provided. The facilitator analyzed the data and identified the common themes after the completion of the focus groups. Students were asked to participate in the focus group during the normally scheduled class period for the English component of the learning community. The LC and the non-LC groups were separated. While one group participated in a focus group session, the other group attended class. After the first focus group finished, the LC group and the non-LC groups switched. Students who were absent from class on the day scheduled for the focus groups did not participate in the focus groups. The focus group discussions focused on four general themes: interest and enthusiasm, depth of learning, connections, and technology use. Each theme is described in the following paragraphs. L. Renninger, M. Austin, and K. Pugsley Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 5, No. 1, January 2005. 61 A. Interest and Enthusiasm Focus group participants in both the LC and non-LC expressed interest and enthusiasm over the course material. Participants in the LC were animated and lavish with their praise, making statements such as the following: “Best classes I’ve taken.” “[The LC] are my favorite classes.” “LC makes you interested and excited.” “[I] wish there were more LC classes.” “All general education courses should be Learning Communities.” When asked if there were any disadvantages to being in the Learning Community, LC participants felt that mixing LC and non-LC students together was a problem. They believed that the LC students had more drive and wanted to learn. The participants stated that non-LC students were not interested in the class, frequently came to class late or skipped, and were disruptive during class. They wondered if the non-LC students understood the content. They also felt that non-LC students missed a major component of the course content because they did not attend the music course. The LC group strongly felt that it should be mandatory to enroll in both linked- courses. As one participant said, “It should be all LC or none.” Students unanimously expressed interest and enthusiasm in the Learning Community. They strongly endorsed expanding the Learning Communities at the College. B. Depth of Learning Participants were asked about their understanding of the course material. Both LC and non-LC participants strongly felt that they have a “deeper” understanding of the material. Not only did respondents state they learned more, but they also thought they would retain the material. Two participants summed-up the groups’ feelings, “I’ve learned more than in any other course.” “It comes alive to you.” The non-LC participants related how they were able to comprehend the material. One participant stated, “I couldn’t understand what the author was talking about. Finally I got it.” Another student became excited describing an author that he could relate to, stating, “He [author] talked to me. [He] wrote about my life.” Focus Group participants viewed learning as greatly enhanced by the Learning Communities. This viewpoint was reported by both LC and non-LC members. In fact, one unexpected finding of the focus group was that students in the LC felt that they learned about disciplines besides the two linked courses. They stated that they also learned about History and Visual Arts. In addition, both the LC and the non-LC participants stated that they learned about themselves. C. Connections between Courses Participants were asked specifically if the Learning Communities impacted their feelings of connection between the two courses. The participants expressed their belief that the connections between the two courses were strong. They expressed the value of relating course material to current events. The participants explained that cultural beliefs, norms and values were compared between the literature and our current times. The following quotes highlight these connections: “In a normal class, you just take notes. In this class, you remember material because you relate it to current life.” L. Renninger, M. Austin, and K. Pugsley Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 5, No. 1, January 2005. 62 “It makes students read when we relate it to current events, such as women’s roles.” “There should be more joint classes. The material comes together.” Participants earnestly affirmed their understanding of the influence music and literature have on each other. They said it took a few weeks for them to learn the basics of music, but then it all came together. As mentioned above, they also felt they learned more about history and art. The following paragraph represents the group’s discussion: “I felt I knew the author. I listened to the music he listened to and I saw the art he saw. We talked about what was happening historically. As I came to understand the perspective he was writing from, I came to understand him. This helped me understand myself and relate what he was writing about to what’s happening in our time.” Significantly, the non-LC participants also saw a strong connection between English and music. The participants became very excited and animated when they described the Halloween class. They stated, “It was eerie. The art (The Scream) together with the instructor’s sound effects, the music, and the literature were something else.” These positive findings about the connections between English and music were in spite of non- LC participants frequently stating that they were not aware of the learning communities. Overall, focus group participants expressed an immense appreciation for the connection between the disciplines, even when they were not direct participants in both halves of the learning community. D. Course Technology Focus group participants were asked about the technological components used in the courses. Participants were unanimously positive about the PowerPoint presentations, web discussions (WebCT Bulletin Board), and the notes/handouts. The non-LC participants viewed the Internet supplements as helpful. Both LC and non-LC participants appreciated the PowerPoint presentations. They liked seeing the art and hearing the music from the time period. They said, “This helped the author’s personality come alive.” They also felt that the use of this technology greatly enhanced their interest and enthusiasm in the course. The non-LC group summarized their thoughts as follows: “The PowerPoint was great. [We] liked the music and pictures. [It] gets me more into class, especially the time-period.” Participants were also positive about the web discussions. The LC participants liked being able to express their opinions. They stated that the web discussions especially helped the quiet students who don’t like to speak out in class. The non-LC participants felt that the web discussions allowed them to ask questions and express their feelings without having to be concerned about criticism. However, the non-LC participants stated that it was easy to get behind in posting on the web discussions. As one student pointed out, “It’s easy for it to get away from you.” In this regard, the LC and non-LC participants viewed the web discussions differently. The LC participants saw the discussions as a fun and easy way to earn extra credit for exceeding the mandatory postings per week. The non-LC participants found that their grade was lowered because they did not keep up with mandatory requirements, even though they enjoyed reading and responding to the discussions. All participants viewed the on-line notes and handouts as beneficial. Participants made the following statements: “The notes on line allow us to participate in class instead of taking notes.” “The notes allow me to know the ‘points’ ahead of time.” L. Renninger, M. Austin, and K. Pugsley Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 5, No. 1, January 2005. 63 “It’s a win/win situation for us.” The non-LC participants said the Internet supplements were helpful for research. One participant stated, “It was good when reading complicated stuff that I didn’t get.” The use of technology enhanced participants’ interest and learning of the course material. Participants specifically valued the power point presentations, WebCT Bulletin Board, and on- line notes/handouts. IV. Conclusions As other research has suggested, the direct participants in the learning community expressed a high degree of satisfaction with the linked courses and with the learning community model in general. More specifically, our focus-group assessment shows that the students responded very positively to the ways in which the course content was linked. In other words, our selected integration strategies were highly successful. The classroom performance of our students conforms to the findings of other researchers. The grade point average of the students in the learning-community cohort was 2.85 in the English class and 3.08 in the Music class, whereas students not in the learning-community cohort averaged 1.78 and 2.50, respectively, in the same classes. Similarly, of a total of six withdrawals in the two classes (four in Music and two in English) none came from students in the learning-community cohort. The learning- community students felt that the linked courses provided a more coherent, integrated, and dynamic approach to undergraduate, general education than that found in stand-alone classes. Furthermore, because the cross-disciplinary approach to intellectual history (a major part of our course integration strategy) used in the linked courses required the instructors to include materials from disciplines other than music and literature, specifically, history and art, students reported making connections to academic disciplines beyond those represented in the learning community. One of the most significant and interesting findings of the focus group assessment, however, was that the indirect participants in the learning community (students who were not co- enrolled in the linked classes, but who were exposed to the course-integration strategies discussed in this article) reported receiving many of the same advantages that students enrolled in both classes received, even though they were not aware of the fact that the class was structured differently than any other. Whereas the instructors initially feared that students not in the learning community cohort would feel left out, alienated, and confused, the focus group assessment reveals exactly the reverse: these students reported making connections across disciplines and integrating knowledge from other fields. They also responded well to the instructors’ obvious enthusiasm for the courses—an enthusiasm brought on, in no small measure, by the excitement of teaching familiar things in fresh, innovative ways. Furthermore, it was found that the technology integration strategy developed for use in the learning community (a course web page, a threaded discussion board, and a series of multimedia PowerPoint presentations) benefited both learning-community and non-learning-community students equally, and, though the bulletin board was less popular with non-learning-community students, it did have the desired effect of bringing them into the community in substantial ways. Hence, the responses of both the direct and the indirect participants in the learning community suggest that there are even more advantages to a tightly integrated learning-community model than those normally articulated by its proponents. Additional research into different categories of “indirect participants” in learning communities is clearly warranted. L. Renninger, M. Austin, and K. Pugsley Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 5, No. 1, January 2005. 64 Learning communities clearly have a profound influence on faculty as well. By invigorating faculty members and challenging them to become less isolated in their own disciplines and more collaborative in their pedagogy, learning communities create connections that can extend well beyond the classroom setting and influence the culture of an entire institution. Once faculty collaborate with colleagues in other disciplines and reevaluate their teaching styles, it is likely that they will bring a stronger cross-disciplinary focus to the other classes they teach and that they will be more likely to try to make connections with other disciplines even when they are not teaching in an institutionally created learning community. No single approach to learning communities or course integration, of course, will work for every institution or even for any two instructors; part of the intellectual stretching required in these kinds of courses comes when faculty members design specific, individual strategies for connecting their disciplines into a single learning experience. And, as this kind of joint course development occurs, a tightly integrated learning community model has the ability to begin important conversations within academic institutions at every level. 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(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED448457). Durrington, C., & Bacon, C. M. (1999). “Making Connections through Learning Communities: A Case Study in the Creation and Development of Learning Communities at Abilene Christian University.” (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED434641). Gabelnick, F., MacGregor, J., Matthews, R. S., & Smith, B. L. (1990). Learning Communities: Creating Connections among Students, Faculty, and Disciplines. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 41. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Gardiner, J. N. (2001). “Focusing on the first-year student.” Priorities 17. Washington, DC: Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED458865). Hill, P. (1985). “The Rationale for Learning Communities and Learning Community Models.” Paper presented at the inaugural conference on learning communities of the Washington Center for Improving the Quality of Undergraduate Education, Olympia, WA. 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Doctoral Dissertation, University of Idaho. Dissertation Abstracts International, 61, 05A. Smith, B. L. (1993). “Creating Learning Communities.” Liberal Education, Vol. 79, No. 4, pp. 32-39. Stark, J. S., & Lattuca, L. R. (1997). Shaping the College Curriculum: Academic Plans in Action. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Study Group on the Conditions of Excellence in American Higher Education. (1984). Involvement in Learning: Realizing the Potential of American Higher Education. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Institute of Education (ED 246 883). Tinto, V., & Love, A. G. (1995). “A Longitudinal Study of Learning Communities at LaGuardia Community College.” Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement (EDD00036). Trautmann, N., & Boes, C. (2001). “Sociology, Writing, and Reading and the Community College Learning Community: The Skills/Content Tango Principles of Sociology and Freshman English and Critical Reading and Principles of Sociology.” (Eric Document Reproduction Service No. ED454897). Walker, A. A. (2001). “General Education Clusters at UCLA: Their Impact on Students’ Academic and Social Integration. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Seattle, WA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED452790). Zheng, J. L., Saunders, K. P., Shelley, M. C., & Whalen, D. F. (2002). “Predictors of Academic Success for Freshmen Residence Hall Students. Journal of College Student Development, No. 43, pp. 267-283. 
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work_7vmwcvhi4ba2rak2yuo2at6onq	----	EDITORIAL E6bitortal HEREDITY IN PSYCHIATRY r NHE recent controversy started on eugenic grounds regarding the inheritance of mental deficiency has A-served at least one useful purpose. It has drawn atten- tion to the almost complete absence of data of a scientifically acceptable kind from any source in this country on the heredity of mental defect. Such statistics as were available in the text- books and journals covered an insignificant total of cases, and have not been collected in a way that would bring satis- faction to a geneticist. The same is true of work abroad in this particular field but not to the same extent. It does not very well become us to criticize some of the foreign work because it seems extravagant. Only in the past three years or so has any sound attempt been made in this country to fill the gap with regard to the inheritance of mental deficiency on well-considered genetic principles. With mental disease as with mental deficiency, the position in this country is also unsatisfactory. In the technical journals, which presumably reflect in their contents the leading interests of those engaged in research, it is a rare event to find a paper on the inheritance of mental disease. Yet the opportunities are very great. Clouston, many years ago, set an example of what might be done. ' . . . An inquiry I made into the history of 83 families, taken at random, in a country parish in Scotland, all the members of which were personally known to me for three generations. I took every family I really knew and no others. I made no selection. They were all country people, decent folks, hard-working, thrifty, few very poor, indeed mostly money-loving, with scarcely any drunkards. ' I took advantage of my intimate knowledge of the people as a doctor to count in the lesser attacks of melancholia, the milder delusional states and the milder degrees of imbecility, that would not have gone into any public statistics of lunacy or census schedules. Still, they were all mental diseases or defects just as truly, from the scientific point of view, as our acutest case in Morningside. The result was this, that of those 83 139 P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / J N e u ro l P sych o p a th o l: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /jn n p .s1 -1 4 .5 4 .1 3 9 o n 1 O cto b e r 1 9 3 3 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ families, I knew that in 41 of them one or other of those four diseases had occurred.' The great majority of our mental hospitals draw on a local non-migratory population resembling that available to Clouston on a much larger scale. A high proportion of the families on which they draw have been settled in the same district for several generations, presenting opportunities that can seldom be surpassed; yet for our more thorough informa- tion at present we have to go abroad. While we are surprised and disturbed by some of the conclusions reached by our foreign colleagues, we have little of our own except clinical impressionism to fall back upon. This lack of interest in heredity, judging from the pub- lished material, justifies pointing out what should be obvious, that hereditary data are most valuable and sometimes essential in daily medical practice. Medical students do not have it emphasized enough to them how important the information about a patient's heredity can be for diagnosis, especially in difficult cases. The old type of doctor was credited with a knowledge of the constitution of his patient. How much of this must have been compounded of a knowledge of the disease- tendencies of their families whom they looked after often through two or even three generations ? Mental constitution, apart from mental disease, is a more or less important factor in almost any morbid condition. It has familial and hereditary .aspects which are more readily grasped through the study of those exaggerated traits which are transmitted through succes- sive generations, appearing in various combinations in indi- vidual members, of families tainted with mental disease. Studies of the inheritance of characterological and temperamental traits of this type, that is, the type usually credited with close association with or predisposition to actual mental disorder, is one of the most interesting by-products of the recent work on constitution with which Kretschmer's name is so much associated. It throws light conversely on what constitutes a unitary trait of character and temperament and thereby illumines a very difficult field of psychopathology. What has been partly done for the psychoses in this way badly needs extending to the psychoneuroses. Even those psychopathologists who claim to reduce any psychoneurosis to ultimate immediately postnatal terms are forced to postulate a constitutional factor for anxiety, to take an example. A study of the inheritance of such a supposed constitutional factor can show how much it matters. There can be little 140 EDITORIAL P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / J N e u ro l P sych o p a th o l: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /jn n p .s1 -1 4 .5 4 .1 3 9 o n 1 O cto b e r 1 9 3 3 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ doubt that psychopathologists in general sometimes set them- selves too hard a task which a better knowledge of the con- stitutional element and of the weight to be assigned to it would teach them to undertake not so optimistically. Thereby they offer themselves too willing victims to that excessive demand made by the public of medicine in general, namely, to make bricks without straw and to give mental or physical 'stuff ' and a resistance to disease that the patient has never been given the opportunity by his ancestors to possess. And thus psycho- logical medicine, especially, sometimes comes into unnecessary disrepute. There are certain offshoots of any investigation into the inheritance of mental disease which are of interest and might prove fruitful topics for research. The hereditary aspects of allergy have always been appreciated, as, for example, with the eczema-asthma-prurigo complex, but there is an analogous field for investigation in hereditary idiosyncrasies to certain drugs. That individual idiosyncrasy exists with regard to the barbiturates is well known, and that they can have something like a specific action on anxiety is also well known. It would be very interesting to know whether such drug idiosyncrasies are heritable. It seems possible from fragmentary clinical observation that something of interest might emerge; for example, it has even been occasionally observed that a family hypersensitivity to bromide exists. Knowledge of the heredi- tary aspects of nervous temperaments and constitutions might be increased in this way. The true neuroses-that is, functional disturbances which are not apparently psychogenic-form another domain which overlaps that of the hereditary psychopathies. It seems that the vegetative functions, in spite of Langley's brilliant pioneer work, have received less attention clinically here than abroad, and probably much less attention than they deserve. Everyone knows how obscure disturbances seemingly subjective, but not easily explained on purely psychological grounds, are sometimes found, for instance, in association with an epileptic ' anlage.' It seems that in many of these obscure disturbances where there is no physical disease which is relevant, a study of the hereditary relationships, as Alvarez has recently pointed out, especially in the mental field, often gives a clue to what would otherwise remain a mysterious disorder, or might readily be mistaken for something else and given erroneous and un- fortunate treatment. Work undertaken along these or similar lines would not only add to our fund of knowledge, but would EDITORIAL 141 P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / J N e u ro l P sych o p a th o l: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /jn n p .s1 -1 4 .5 4 .1 3 9 o n 1 O cto b e r 1 9 3 3 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ 142 EDITORIAL tend gradually to produce an influence on the teaching of medicine, so that the present trend of seeing the patient as a whole, which is gaining momentum, would be reinforced by a sane philosophical viewpoint of the patient as a whole against the background of his ancestry. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / J N e u ro l P sych o p a th o l: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /jn n p .s1 -1 4 .5 4 .1 3 9 o n 1 O cto b e r 1 9 3 3 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ 
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work_a3voxcc7frahrkpqemhfcjsxfq	----	NATURE.COM To comment online, click on Editorials at: go.nature.com/xhunqv Poetry in motion A quantitative approach to the humanities enriches research. The Oscar-winning 1989 film Dead Poets Society is an unabashedly exuberant story that appeals to the Lord Byron in each of us. Robin Williams plays a charismatic English teacher at a conserva- tive US prep school in the 1950s and, in one scene, gets his impres- sionable students to read a lesson from a poetry textbook aloud. The worth of a poem, they read, should be measured on two axes: its artistic perfection and its importance. As the schoolboys start to map out graphs in their notebooks, Williams cuts them off. “Excrement,” he announces — that’s what he thinks of the mathematical approach. A poem must be felt, not figured. He orders the boys to tear the page out of the textbook. “We’re not laying pipe,” he says. “We’re talking about poetry.” It is hard to disagree with the spirit of that moment. We should all be passionate about our academic interests, and daring enough to rip up hidebound rules that govern them. But the scene’s explicit disdain for quantitative analysis of text is as out of date as it is wrong. These days, it is the humanities scholars who equip themselves with quantitative skills who are most able to sound their ‘barbaric yawps’ over the roofs of the world, as Williams urged his students to do. As the News Feature on page 436 shows, the field of digital humani- ties is flourishing, led by scientists such as those behind the innovative Google n-grams viewer, which can be used to track the frequencies of words and phrases as they appear in 4% of the books ever published. Whether mapping the transmission of Voltaire’s letters across Europe, finding structural patterns in music across cultures or tracking the evolution of irregular verbs through time, these digital humanists have plenty to say. And they have the data to back it up. That is not to say that traditional approaches in the humanities will be disappearing any time soon, or that careful, interpretive readings by experienced scholars are as arbitrary as the learning-by-feeling espoused by Dead Poets Society. But digitization is marching on, and in all subjects, researchers who have their ears to the ground, rather than their heads in the sand, can hear the approaching drums. Every day, more and more of the media that make up both historical and contemporary culture are being converted to electronica. It seems just a matter of time before the humanities, like the social sciences before them, wholeheartedly embrace scientific methodology. And that should be reason to rejoice, not remonstrate. As Williams implored his young charges: carpe diem. Seize the day. ■ Damned if they do An industry approach to greener hydropower is far from perfect, but it does offer a way forwards. The mighty Iguaçu Falls in Brazil are an excellent illustration of the power of water, so what better place for the hydropower industry to promote what it says is a fresh approach to its sus- tainability? There is ample room for scepticism about the effort — known as the Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol (see page 430). It is an industry-led endeavour that requires next to nothing from the industry. It grades hydropower projects, but makes no judgement on what should happen to projects that rank poorly. And it is geared towards assessment of individual dams, independent of broader questions about energy-resource development. So far, so bad. Yet, if deployed properly, it could also be an invaluable tool to inject much- needed science and reason into a planning process that has operated with little of either for much too long. Developers and governments have historically assessed dam projects mainly on the basis of cost and power. Engineers simply survey the landscape to identify the easiest places to block channels, set up turbines and run power lines. Sediments, endemic species and the consequences of severing communication between headwaters and estuaries are very much secondary issues. Even people get short shrift, leading indigenous groups to mount the kind of intense pro- tests that last week saw the Peruvian government shelve plans for a massive dam in the Amazon. This standard approach has caused numerous environmental problems — such as siltation and blockages to migrating fish — in industrialized countries, which exploited their best hydropower resources long ago and are now trying to repair the damage. In some cases, the costs of improvement outweigh the benefits, and old dams are being decommissioned. But, in the developing world, hydropower projects continue to stack up. Countries in Southeast Asia and Latin America, in particular, are pursing hydropower with gusto, hoping to alleviate energy poverty and feed burgeoning economies. By one optimistic industry estimate, cumulative hydropower capacity could nearly double by 2030. Without a more coordinated approach, these countries are doomed to make the same mistakes. The new hydropower protocol comes courtesy of the International Hydropower Association, which consulted with environmental and human-rights groups, as well as representatives from finance and government, in an effort to set out some basic principles of sustain- able hydropower. After three years of work, the result is a way to assess dam projects on a range of criteria — from planning, governance and pub- lic engagement to ecology and hydrology. It is voluntary, however, and there are no minimum standards. The protocol asks all the right questions but fails to provide any answers. This has driven a wedge into the community of environmental and social activists that work in this arena. Critics argue that the protocol represents little more than a public-relations exercise that will allow bad developers to appear green while pursuing business as normal — often on projects that pre-date current environmental thinking. This may be true, but, unfortunately, in the politi- cal and corporate world such ‘greenwash’ is common. The new effort would at least cre- ate a common language with which to raise concerns, evaluate the best available science and negotiate improvements. The biggest shortcoming lies in the assessment of individual dams that have already been proposed for specific locations. Much better would be an approach to analyse entire river basins in an effort to identify the most suitable locations, as well as areas where special precautions should be taken. Indeed, it might well be that some rivers should be left to flow freely to preserve ecological integrity. The protocol does touch on these issues, raising questions about a dam’s role in the broader energy mix and about wider impacts from hydroelectric development. And it could yet offer a foundation to set minimum standards in these and other areas, so that companies would need to build and operate better dams, as well as integrate them into a more comprehensive energy strategy. For all of its faults, the protocol opens another bridge to a better future. Now it’s up to governments, banks and companies to make the journey across. ■ “The hydropower assessment protocol asks all the right questions but fails to provide any answers.” 4 2 0 | N A T U R E | V O L 4 7 4 | 2 3 J U N E 2 0 1 1 EDITORIALSTHIS WEEK © 2011 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved Damned if they do 
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work_acpjgxf2h5d3rbkcwoftx3e5hi	----	Phenomenology of the social self in the prodrome of psychosis: From perceived negative attitude of others to heightened interpersonal sensitivity European Psychiatry xxx (2011) xxx–xxx G Model EURPSY-2947; No. of Pages 2 Letter to the editor Phenomenology of the social self in the prodrome of psychosis: From perceived negative attitude of others to heightened interpersonal sensitivity Qualitative changes in the experience of self in relation to others (i.e. the social self) have been consistently reported to be a feature of the ‘‘silent’’ initial part of the prodrome [4] and vulnerability to schizophrenia [2,8]. For example, increased interpersonal sensitivity, or changes in the felt naturalness of social interaction, often precedes behavioural manifestations such as social withdrawal and attenuated negative symptoms [3]. Thus, early experiential disturbances of social interaction might be an important early indicator of vulnerability to psychosis in help- seeking subjects. The recent report by Salokangas et al. [6] offers crucial empirical evidence that seems to support this idea. Specifically, it shows that a not-yet psychotic, paranoia-tinged social sensitivity, consisting of the subjective experience of negative attitude of others (NAO) towards oneself, predicts prospective psychotic episodes (over a follow-up period of 5 years). The study is a longitudinal hypothesis-testing of previous cross- sectional findings [7], which revealed an association between NAO and escalating levels of psychoticism: broad vulnerability to psychosis, defined by self-reported psychotic-like experiences, and high risk of psychosis, assessed according to international criteria for prodromal/at risk mental states (i.e. transient or attenuated psychotic symptoms; presence of cognitive-perceptual basic symptoms; putative genetic risk and recent functional decline). The study holds substantial clinical and conceptual appeal for several reasons. First, it shows that, although not formally included among the risk-indicators of transition to psychosis, certain forms of interpersonal sensitivity are actually predictive of imminent risk of psychosis. Second, it coheres with other empirical studies pointing to certain forms of disturbed intersubjective experience as a feature of schizophrenia-related psychosis [2,5]. This includes a cluster of basic symptoms indicative of ‘‘interpersonal vulnerability’’, such as reduced ability to maintain or initiate social contacts, disturbances of expressive-emotional responsiveness, increased emotional reactivity to routine social interactions and unstable feelings of self-reference [2]. Finally, in our view, the study points to the heuristic value of adopting a sociorelational perspective in the clinical assessment of at-risk mental states. Despite the fact that various social inadequacies are frequently observed in prepsychotic prodromal phases, our current descriptive-conceptual repertoire is rela- tively modest, particularly within the field of early detection. In this context, the closest criteriological notion is attenuated negative symptoms [3], recently re-emphasized within the context of ‘‘early and broadly defined psychosis risk mental states’’ [1]. Please cite this article in press as: Raballo A, Krueger J. Phenomenolo negative attitude of others to heightened interpersonal sensitivity. E 0924-9338/$ – see front matter � 2011 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2011.03.003 However, even attenuated negative symptoms, such as initial interpersonal withdrawal or declining social competences, might be of limited clinical specificity if only mapped onto the mere behavioural level (e.g. they can easily be secondary to non- psychotic psychopathology such as anxiety or depressive dis- orders). But the same manifestations, when considered within a phenomenological context—that is, in relation to subtle feelings of self-reference and an initial paranoid interpersonal sensitivity— might ultimately be more illuminative of impending psychotic risk. Nonetheless, besides the ‘‘soft’’ paranoid tainting of social experiences, other salient experiential changes in the social self are also worth more focused clinical attention. For example, in the early prodrome of schizophrenia, the experience of interpersonal relatedness is often profoundly changed—although not necessarily in a paranoid configuration. This phenomenological alteration may exhibit a number of characteristics: a felt sense of loss of spontaneity (i.e., naturalness) in the very way of relating to and communicating with others; social hypo-hedonia (i.e. reduced vital engagement, social drive, a loss of pleasure in interactions with peers); experienced alterations of intersubjective resonance (e.g. over-impressionability or fading of empathic feelings towards others); propensity to de-socializing and solipsistic modes of experience (e.g. in the sense of alienation from the naturalness of common sense, or extraordinary, quasi-grandiose feelings of superhuman capacities and exceptionality, or radical incommuni- cability and dehumanization) ([4] and [8] for clinical examples). In our view, this diversity of experiential phenomena calls for a more systematic clinical focus on the intersubjective manifestations of vulnerability to psychosis, particularly with respect to the phenomenological underpinnings of social interaction. Disclosure of interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest concerning this article. References [1] Keshavan MS, Delisi LE, Seidman LJ. Early and broadly defined psychosis risk mental states. Schizophr Res 2011, in press. [2] Klosterkotter J, Ebel H, Schultze-Lutter F, Steinmeyer EM. Diagnostic validity of basic symptoms. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1996;246(3):147–54. [3] Lencz T, Smith CW, Auther A, Correll CU, Cornblatt B. Nonspecific and attenu- ated negative symptoms in patients at clinical high-risk for schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2004;68(1):37–48. [4] Moller P, Husby R. The initial prodrome in schizophrenia: searching for natu- ralistic core dimensions of experience and behavior. Schizophr Bull 2000; 26(1):217–32. [5] Oshima K, Okimura T, Yukizane T, Yasumi K, Iwawaki A, Nishikawa T, et al. Reliability and diagnostic validity for schizophrenia of the Japanese version of the Bonn Scale for Assessment of Basic Symptoms (BSABS). J Med Dent Sci 2010;57(1):83–94. [6] Salokangas RK, Patterson P, Heinimaa M, Svirskis T, From T, Vaskelainen L, et al. Perceived negative attitude of others predicts transition to psychosis in patients at risk of psychosis. Eur Psychiatry 2011, in press. gy of the social self in the prodrome of psychosis: From perceived uropean Psychiatry (2011), doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2011.03.003 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2011.03.003 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2011.03.003 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2011.03.003 Letter to the editor / European Psychiatry xxx (2011) xxx–xxx2 G Model EURPSY-2947; No. of Pages 2 [7] Salokangas RK, Heinimaa M, Svirskis T, Laine T, Huttunen J, Ristkari T, et al. Perceived negative attitude of others as an early sign of psychosis. Eur Psychia- try 2009;24(4):233–8. [8] Stanghellini G. Vulnerability to schizophrenia and lack of common sense. Schizophr Bull 2000;26(4):775–87. A. Raballoa,*,b,c, J. Kruegera aCenter for Subjectivity Research, University of Copenhagen, Njalsgade 140-142, Building 25, 5th floor, 2300 Copenhagen, Denmark bDepartment of Psychiatry, Psychiatric Center Hvidovre, University of Copenhagen, Brøndby, Denmark Please cite this article in press as: Raballo A, Krueger J. Phenomenolo negative attitude of others to heightened interpersonal sensitivity. E cDepartment of Mental Health, AUSL di Reggio Emilia, Reggio Emilia, Italy *Corresponding author. Tel.: +45 35328686; fax: +45 35328681 E-mail address: anr@hum.ku.dk (A. Raballo). Received: 4 March 2011 Accepted: 17 March 2011 gy of the social self in the prodrome of psychosis: From perceived uropean Psychiatry (2011), doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2011.03.003 mailto:anr@hum.ku.dk http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2011.03.003 Phenomenology of the social self in the prodrome of psychosis: From perceived negative attitude of others to heightened in... Disclosure of interest References 
work_adltjnxumja75ibv5jdsxnizsa	----	From the Editors’ Desk: The Power of First Impressions Richard L. Kravitz, MD, MSPH Division of General Medicine, University of California at Davis, Sacramento, CA, USA. I n Blink: The Power of Thinking without Thinking (Little,Brown & Co. 2005), the journalist Malcolm Gladwell writes about the way first impressions—judgments reached within two minutes of encountering a person, thing, or situation—can yield remarkably accurate results. At the same time, he warns about how such “thin-slicing” can readily be hijacked by prejudice. So, for example, watching just a few seconds of interaction between a married couple (with attention to tone of voice, facial expressions, and gestures) predicts the future health of their marriage, while misreading the intentions of a criminal suspect like Amadou Diallo can lead to tragic results. In this issue of JGIM, two articles illustrate the power of thin- slicing in medicine. In the first, Hardy et al. show how a simple measure of self-reported functional performance (ability to walk a quarter-mile) predicts future functional status, hospi- talization rates, and health care costs. The findings are reminiscent of a meta-analysis published in these pages (DeSalvo et al., JGIM, March 2005) which showed a strong relationship between single-item health status and mortality. In a sense, such work is part of a recurring narrative in health measurement, in which clinical impressions are replaced by complex scales with good psychometric properties, which in turn evolve into shorter and shorter measures with greater clinical and practical utility. Thus the Medical Outcomes Study self-reported health scales begat the SF-36, which begat the SF-12, which begat the SF-1. Shorter measures trade off psychometric rigor for greater ease of implementation; ironi- cally, in their brevity, the ultra-short measures start to resemble the traditional clinical interview questions their psychometric progenitors displaced. The second article in the spirit of Blink comes to us from Hwang et al. Their paper describes the results of a study in which 58 physicians rated 126 patient photographs as looking older or younger than their “stated age.” Being rated as 5 or more years older than stated (actual) age was associated with poor patient self-reported health, defined as >=2 standard deviations below the mean on SF-12 physical or mental health composites. The sensitivity of this appearance-based clinical impression was poor (29%), but the specificity was moderate (82%). In short, first impressions convey useful information. However, they cannot be fully relied upon and should be confirmed via careful clinical investigation. Also in this issue of JGIM are several articles related to screening for cancer and mental health conditions, including pieces concerning what physicians know about colorectal cancer screening (Yabroff et al.: not that much), how breast cancer screening and follow-up can be improved (Donelan et al. and Philips et al.: through patient navigators; Atlas et al.: through intelligent use of information systems), and whether alcohol screening in the inpatient setting is worthwhile (Bradley et al.: it depends). The line separating thin-slice impressionism from bias and prejudice is itself pretty thin. The key to appropriate applica- tion of first impressions is to subject them to care scientific evaluation. Do the articles in this issue succeed in doing this? We encourage readers to share their reactions. Richard L. Kravitz, MD, MSPH, UC Davis Division of General Medicine, 4150 V. Street, Suite 2400 PSSB, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA; (e-mail: rlkravitz@ucdavis.edu). J Gen Intern Med 26(2):103 DOI: 10.1007/s11606-010-1595-3 © The Author(s) 2010. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com Open Access: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License which per- mits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited. Corresponding Author: Richard L. Kravitz, MD, MSPH, UC Davis Division of General Medicine, 4150 V. Street, Suite 2400 PSSB, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA (e-mail: rlkravitz@ucdavis.edu). 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work_aekxrwlkereijca5z53ibttcea	----	349-354.indd ESTUDOS AVANÇADOS 32 (92), 2018 349 onhecer a psiquiatra Nise da Silvei- ra (1906-1999) através de entrevis- tas e depoimentos que concedeu entre 1976 e 1997 é uma experiência transfor- madora. Ao reconstituir a trajetória de uma das maiores profissionais da área de saúde mental do país, o livro Encontros. Nise da Silveira realiza uma justa home- nagem e acrescenta uma página valiosa no registro da memória científica e cul- tural do Brasil. Ao longo de décadas, desde que criou nos anos 1950 o Museu de Imagens do Inconsciente, a Casa das Palmeiras e o Grupo de Estudos C.G. Jung, Nise da Silveira revolucionou a psiquiatria tra- dicional e apostou numa forma huma- nista e criativa de ajudar seus pacientes. Incomodada com os diagnósticos apri- sionantes dos médicos psiquiatras, ain- da cativos da taxonomia conservadora do alemão Emil Kraeplin (1856-1926), Nise rebelou-se contra os tratamentos e medicamentos adotados na época pelo Centro Psiquiátrico Nacional no Enge- nho de Dentro, onde trabalhava desde 1944. “Aquele miserável daquele portu- guês Egas Moniz, que ganhou o prêmio Nobel, tinha inventado a lobotomia”, diz Nise a Ferreira Gullar, na bela en- trevista que abre o livro. Outros méto- dos, recém-chegados ao Brasil, também foram rejeitados por ela, como o eletro- choque de insulina e cariazol. Mas sua revolta era, sobretudo, contra o olhar médico, pouco sensível ao ser humano que sofre. O leitor logo estabelece empatia com a médica psiquiatra que, em seu primei- ro treinamento, diante de um paciente C na maca, se recusa a apertar o botão do choque. Recorrendo ao diretor geral, que aposta na novata e suas ideias excên- tricas, Nise consegue autorização para renovar o setor de Terapêutica Ocupa- cional, bastante atrasado por usar doen- tes para serviços de limpeza, sem nada mais a oferecer. Aí nasce o novo modelo de cura, transformando uma pequena enfermaria numa sala de estar com ofi- cinas de trabalhos manuais, chegando a 17 salas, como costura, modelagem, pintura, marcenaria etc. “A inovação consiste exatamente em abrir para eles [os pacientes] o caminho da expressão, da criatividade, da emoção de lidar com os diferentes materiais de trabalho”, re- sume Nise. O que hoje é consenso, na época era absoluta vanguarda. Importante ressaltar aqui como a ex- periência de ter sido presa na ditadura Vargas foi determinante para a renova- ção do setor de terapêutica ocupacio- nal, quando Nise retoma seu posto no serviço público, em 1944. Antes dis- so, em 1933, Nise havia sido aprovada no concurso para médica psiquiatra do Hospital Nacional de Alienados da Praia Vermelha, na Urca, o mesmo em que Lima Barreto foi internado pela primeira vez em 1914. No mesmo hospício, Nise tinha ocupado um quartinho para estu- dar para o concurso (e também conviver com os loucos...), quando foi denuncia- da por uma enfermeira que viu os livros marxistas em sua mesa. Mas a reclusão trouxe uma lição definitiva: “Todo preso procura uma atividade, senão sucumbe mentalmente”, afirma Nise, em outra entrevista do livro. Sem medo do inconsciente Yudith Rosenbaum I 10.5935/0103-4014.20180023 ESTUDOS AVANÇADOS 32 (92), 2018350 De fato, a prisão de Nise por mais de um ano, sem provas e sem processo jurí- dico, logo após a Intentona Comunista de 1935, retorna em várias entrevistas e revela a força e resistência dessa mu- lher, de fragilidade apenas física. Tendo enfrentado o mundo masculino para es- tudar medicina nos anos 1920, Nise sa- bia nadar na contracorrente e também não se rendeu ao Partido Comunista, desligando-se após algumas reuniões: “Eu não pertenço a nenhuma socieda- de, nem mesmo à Junguiana. Está claro que a minha posição é de esquerda, mas não sou pessoa de se colocar nenhuma coleira no pescoço. Eu vou andando pela vida, fazendo rupturas” (p.149), diz Nise em depoimento à revista Bric a Brac, em 1977. Mesmo sem ser ativista, Nise é leva- da à famosa “Sala 4” para réus primários do Presídio Frei Caneca, onde se dá seu comovente encontro com o conterrâneo alagoano Graciliano Ramos, imortaliza- do nas páginas de Memórias do cárcere, reproduzidas neste volume. A amizade com o autor de Vidas secas seguiria, após a prisão, nos cafés e livrarias do Rio de Janeiro. Não teria a mesma sorte Olga Benário, mulher de Luis Carlos Prestes e colega de Nise dos tempos de clausura, entregue aos nazistas pelo governo de Getulio Vargas. A partir de sua soltura, o percurso de Nise não cessa de criar novos terri- tórios no Hospital Pedro II, ex-Centro Psiquiátrico Nacional de Engenho de Dentro, atual Instituto Municipal Nise da Silveira. As produções artísticas dos esquizofrênicos nas oficinas de terapia ocupacional levam à fundação do Museu de Imagens do Inconsciente, em 1952. Desde 1946, as pinturas dos internos eram arquivadas, chegando a compor um imenso acervo que deu origem ao museu. Talvez essa seja a grande realiza- ção de Nise e sua equipe, mobilizando críticos de arte, como Mario Pedrosa – que se encantou com as pinturas e in- centivou Nise a montar uma exposição em 1959 no Masp – e o próprio Carl Gustav Jung, que se impressionou com o material enviado a ele por Nise. A história da relação do grande mes- tre da psicologia analítica com Nise da Silveira é contada no livro diversas vezes, revelando-se um ritual de iniciação de- terminante. Nise pedia aos doentes do atelier que pintassem livremente, sem modelos ou guias. A abordagem inter- pretativa desses desenhos seguia, inicial- mente, a teoria freudiana, que buscava conflitos exclusivamente de natureza pessoal no conteúdo latente desses trabalhos. Um detalhe, no entanto, começou a causar preocupação: no meio de imagens de total desagrega- ção, esperáveis dentro da produção de pacientes esquizofrênicos, apare- ciam, aqui e ali, símbolos de ordem: derivados do círculo e do quadrado, até mesmo círculos perfeitos. (p.53) Pois bem: o que seriam essas ima- gens? Mandalas? A pergunta de Nise sin- tetiza o impasse: “Como um símbolo de perfeição, usado até mesmo como ins- trumento de meditação pelos orientais, pode ser produzido por mentes tão de- sintegradas?” (p.54). Inquieta, em 1955 Nise fotografa mais de cem imagens e as anexa a uma carta para Jung, dizendo que eram “cria- ções espontâneas de esquizofrênicos em estado de pura desordem psíquica” (p.54). Em um mês, recebia a resposta assinada pela secretária do discípulo de Freud, confirmando que eram manda- las e pedindo mais informações sobre ESTUDOS AVANÇADOS 32 (92), 2018 351 os casos clínicos dos autores. Jung tam- bém esclarece a função dessas imagens para o processo de individuação dos pa- cientes: “Elas apareciam justamente nos momentos de maior desordem psíquica, como autodefesa da psique desordena- da” (p.54). Por dois anos eles se correspondem, até que Nise participa do II Congresso de Psiquiatria em Zurique, em 1957, no qual Jung inaugura uma exposição de pinturas de esquizofrênicos de vá- rios países, sendo cinco salas ocupadas pela produção dos pacientes de Nise. O prefácio de Mário Pedrosa ao livro Museu de Imagens do Inconsciente (Fu- narte, 1980), também reproduzido em Encontros..., relata a conversa de Jung e Nise. Impactado com a produção pic- tórica brasileira levada a Zurique, Jung pergunta-se a respeito do ambiente em que pintavam e diz: “Suponho que tra- balhem cercados de simpatia e de pes- soas que não têm medo do inconscien- te” (p.181). É exatamente essa a sensação que as entrevistas passam ao leitor. Como as narrativas de episódios mais marcantes se repetem pelos vários diálogos com os entrevistadores, entre eles Luis Carlos Lisboa, Lúcia Leão e Marco Lucchesi, o perfil de uma pesquisadora determinada e apaixonada, que respeita o sujeito em sua mais recôndita singularidade, vai se firmando a cada página. Uma cientista da psique, sem temor de deixar os núcle- os profundos de cada paciente se expres- sarem, e, sobretudo, sem preconceito. E que enfrentou descrença e deboche dos colegas. Um dos diretores do Hospital chegou a afirmar que Nise trazia qua- dros de Di Cavalcanti e outros artistas à noite, às escondidas, dizendo que eram feitos pelos internos... Ancorada na teoria junguiana, que am- pliou o conceito de inconsciente freu- diano pessoal para um território coletivo de imagens, uma espécie de esqueleto histórico da psique, expresso na forma de mitos, sonhos e arte universais, Nise mobilizava os pacientes pela linguagem do imaginário, sem buscar traduzi-la para o código verbal e racional, como faria Freud. A própria pintura seria uma forma de cura ao dar expressão e figu- ração ao mundo interno fragmentado e conflituoso. O self, que não se confunde com o ego consciente, explica Nise, or- denaria o processo de busca de unidade de opostos, atendendo à própria nature- za da individuação. Além de Jung e Espinosa, é na lite- ratura que Nise vai beber para com- preender o universo do ser humano e especificamente da loucura. Descobriu Machado de Assis, ao ler “A cartoman- te” na adolescência, e recomendava aos seus discípulos que aprendessem sobre a alma humana com o bruxo do Cosme Velho. “Pela literatura tenho chegado à psiquiatria”, dizia Nise. Mas, de todos os autores mencionados no livro, Anto- nin Artaud tornou-se referência para a pesquisadora, quando leu as palavras do escritor comentando o pintor surrealis- ta Victor Brauner nos Cahier d´Ars: “O ser tem estados inumeráveis e cada vez mais perigosos”. Cito Nise, discorrendo sobre esses processos aos quais se refere Artaud: [...] Descarrilhamentos e metamor- foses do corpo; perda de imites da própria personalidade, espantosas ampliações do espaço; caos, vazio; e muitas mais condições subjetivamen- te vividas que a pintura dos interna- dos do Engenho de Dentro torna- ram visíveis. (p.82) ESTUDOS AVANÇADOS 32 (92), 2018352 F o to A rq u iv o N ac io n al Nise da Silveira (1906-1999) ESTUDOS AVANÇADOS 32 (92), 2018 353 Os “perigosos estados do ser” torna- ram-se expressão de uso corrente entre os profissionais do Museu de Imagens do Inconsciente, combatendo a psiquia- tria descritiva ao acolher os múltiplos estados que a psique atormentada pode produzir e que extrapolam as definições cartesianas dos manuais. As estórias e seus personagens são momentos especiais do livro, que traz depoimentos vivos e iluminados des- sa psiquiatra mais do que irreverente e transgressora do status quo da ciência da época. O leitor se aproxima de pessoas com nome e história, muito diferente do anonimato e da reificação a que eram submetidos os psicóticos internados nos hospitais psiquiátricos até décadas atrás. Assim conhecemos Alfredo, que se curou ao cuidar de uma cadela aban- donada, mostrando o caminho dos cães coterapeutas, introduzidos por Nise no mesmo hospital (não sem a brutal resis- tência de médicos e funcionários, o que culminou na matança de vários cães); Fernando Diniz, o artista de mais de 25 mil pinturas; Adelina e suas figuras do mito de Dafne; Emydgio, o torneiro mecânico (considerado incurável após 23 anos de internação) que virou pin- tor e impressionou o primeiro diretor do Masp; Carlos Pertuiss e as telas do mito de Dionysos, e muitos outros. Alguns desses chegaram a ser consi- derados artistas, expondo fora dos ate- liers do Engenho de Dentro. Vale res- saltar que definir as obras dos internos como arte nunca foi uma preocupação para Nise. A finalidade dos ateliers era exclusivamente oferecer caminhos de elaboração simbólica dos núcleos psí- quicos emudecidos. Se dali nascesse um gênio da pintura, era uma alegria. Mas, para Nise, uma garatuja e uma obra são igualmente respeitadas, pois seu inte- resse reside no momento em que uma imagem arquetípica ganha forma como abordagem do mundo interno do psi- cótico. O julgamento estético, diz ela, “foge ao mérito de minha questão” (p.53). Chama a atenção a escuta privilegiada de Nise para criar oportunidade curati- vas. Um exemplo é quando percebe que seus pacientes estão expressando recor- rentes imagens relativas ao mito dioni- síaco. Resolve, então, fazer a leitura de As bacantes, de Eurípedes, misturando atores profissionais, entre eles Rubens Corrêa, e doentes “para manter um de nossos pontos de vista: não separar, não discriminar”, diz Nise (p.187). Um es- quizofrênico leu tão bem o papel do cego Tirésias que a experiência foi um acontecimento teatral e terapêutico im- pressionante. Como aprendiz de seus pacientes, Nise entendeu que era preciso ousar mais. Preocupada com a reincidência de internações, Nise funda a Casa das Pal- meiras, em 1956, ativa até hoje. A casa nasceu de uma indignação: “O doente saía de uma porta e entrava pela outra [...] Que tratamento é esse? A partir daí, me inspirei para criar uma instituição na qual o doente que superasse o surto psi- cótico não caísse de súbito nesta socie- dade, que é um pouco mais louca que o hospital” (p.123). Movida pelo desejo de mitigar a violência da reintegração do sujeito ao mundo social, a Casa funciona em regi- me aberto, portas e janelas sem trancas, médicos sem jalecos. Teatro, literatu- ra, botânica, bailes e outras atividades proporcionam vivências humanizadas aos doentes. O espírito inovador da Casa suscitou recentemente a “Ocupa- ESTUDOS AVANÇADOS 32 (92), 2018354 ção Nise da Silveira”, uma exposição da história da Casa pelo Itaú Cultural em São Paulo (http://www.itaucultural. org.br/casa-das-palmeiras-territorio- -livre-ocupacao-nise-da-silveira-2017). Também o funcionamento do Grupo de Estudos Carl Gustav Jung por mais de 40 anos alimentou, com discussões e se- minários, uma prática clínica intensa, re- ferência para a formação de estudantes e profissionais de saúde mental. A batalha de Nise para mostrar que a afetividade dos psicóticos não estava embotada, como queriam os livros téc- nicos, mantém-se extremamente atual. Quando a sociedade trata drogados e loucos como coisas, dispersando-os pela cidade sem rumo e sem atendimento adequado, é preciso mais do que nun- ca relembrar Nise da Silveira, para quem remédios e neurolépticos (que passaram a dominar a psiquiatria a partir dos anos 1970) podem, esses sim, embotar a cria- tividade. Quando lhe perguntaram, em 1977, por que não surgiam novos talen- tos no Engenho de Dentro, a resposta foi contundente: “Como podem apare- cer novos artistas se eles estão dopados?” (p.131). Por fim, ainda que o livro apresente falhas imperdoáveis de revisão e edição, seu valor é inegável ao trazer de volta a potência disruptiva de uma mulher ex- cepcional, muito além de seu tempo. Sua fala continua ecoando na busca de um sujeito integrado, antes de tudo con- sigo mesmo. Como diz Nise, “o eu é um picadinho e nós devemos nos esforçar para juntar esse picadinho. Mas não é fá- cil, é uma grande luta” (p.217). Referência MELLO, L. (Org.) Encontros. Nise da Silveira. São Paulo: Azougue Editorial, 2009. Yudith Rosenbaum é professora de Litera- tura Brasileira na Faculdade de Filosofia, Letras e Ciências Humanas da USP e psi- cóloga formada pela PUC-SP. @ – yudith@uol.com.br Recebido em 7.2.2018 e aceito em 25.2.2018. I Faculdade de Filosofia, Letras e Ciências Humanas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil. 
work_afcfnuwdmveeviorq2pv7rg6za	----	Abstract: A Clinical Trial for Three-Dimensional Vascular Mapping of Anterolateral Thigh Flap Distally-Branching Perforator Vessels Based on Photoacoustic Tomography: The Protocol and Preliminary Results | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.1097/01.GOX.0000547148.06961.24 Corpus ID: 53210326Abstract: A Clinical Trial for Three-Dimensional Vascular Mapping of Anterolateral Thigh Flap Distally-Branching Perforator Vessels Based on Photoacoustic Tomography: The Protocol and Preliminary Results @article{Tsuge2018AbstractAC, title={Abstract: A Clinical Trial for Three-Dimensional Vascular Mapping of Anterolateral Thigh Flap Distally-Branching Perforator Vessels Based on Photoacoustic Tomography: The Protocol and Preliminary Results}, author={I. Tsuge and S. Saito and S. Suzuki}, journal={Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Global Open}, year={2018}, volume={6} } I. Tsuge, S. Saito, S. Suzuki Published 2018 Medicine Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Global Open RESULTS: In the still images, the lymphatic vessels up to the diameter of 0.2 millimeters could be observed threedimensionally with the blood vessels around them. In the videos, it was observed that lymphatic fluid including ICG was transported by spontaneous contraction of the collecting lymph vessels. The flow was observed intermittently with various intervals. The velocity of the flow was also varied from subject to subject. Lymph flow tended to be faster in the upper limbs than in the lower… Expand View via Publisher doi.org Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper Topics from this paper Blood Vessel Spontaneous order Lymphatic vessel Limb structure tomography CT scan Velocity (software development) millimeter Diameter (qualifier value) Lymphatic Diseases Inversive congruential generator Upper Extremity References SHOWING 1-5 OF 5 REFERENCES Photoacoustic Tomography Shows the Branching Pattern of Anterolateral Thigh Perforators In Vivo I. Tsuge, S. Saito, +4 authors S. Suzuki Medicine Plastic and reconstructive surgery 2018 8 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Label-free photoacoustic imaging of human palmar vessels: a structural morphological analysis Y. Matsumoto, Y. Asao, +9 authors M. Toi Medicine Scientific Reports 2018 34 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Visualization of tumor-related blood vessels in human breast by photoacoustic imaging system with a hemispherical detector array M. Toi, Y. Asao, +17 authors T. Shiina Medicine Scientific reports 2017 103 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Light in and sound out: emerging translational strategies for photoacoustic imaging. S. Zackrisson, S. M. van de Ven, S. Gambhir Medicine Cancer research 2014 278 PDF View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Photoacoustic imaging of lymphatic pumping A. Forbrich, A. Heinmiller, R. Zemp Materials Science, Engineering Journal of biomedical optics 2017 11 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Related Papers Abstract Topics 5 References Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. Learn More → Resources DatasetsSupp.aiAPIOpen Corpus Organization About UsResearchPublishing PartnersData Partners   FAQContact Proudly built by AI2 with the help of our Collaborators Terms of Service•Privacy Policy The Allen Institute for AI By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our Privacy Policy, Terms of Service, and Dataset License ACCEPT & CONTINUE 
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work_aga6l73hmjgr5ibeml6wm6si2a	----	Edinburgh Research Explorer Hallucinating Art History Citation for published version: Vellodi, K 2017, 'Hallucinating Art History: Brain-Eye: New Histories of Modern Painting, by Eric Alliez, with Jean-Clet Martin. ', Art History, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 220-224. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8365.12299 Digital Object Identifier (DOI): 10.1111/1467-8365.12299 Link: Link to publication record in Edinburgh Research Explorer Document Version: Peer reviewed version Published In: Art History General rights Copyright for the publications made accessible via the Edinburgh Research Explorer is retained by the author(s) and / or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing these publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. Take down policy The University of Edinburgh has made every reasonable effort to ensure that Edinburgh Research Explorer content complies with UK legislation. If you believe that the public display of this file breaches copyright please contact openaccess@ed.ac.uk providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 06. Apr. 2021 https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8365.12299 https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8365.12299 https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/hallucinating-art-history(d5ae5b76-119a-4f17-8e2f-ac0522953670).html HYSTERICISING ART HISTORY Brain-Eye: New Histories of Modern Painting, by Eric Alliez, with Jean-Clet Martin. Trans. Robin Mackay. Rowman & Littlefield International, 2015, 472pp., Hdbk £90.00; pbk £29.95 For those sceptics of the chronological accounts of modern painting as the natural successor to Romanticism, or for those tired with the still-pervasive modernist narratives of formalism and aesthetic purism, Eric Alliez’s formidable and highly original book may well provide the stimulation they have been waiting for. The Brain-Eye (the translation of the 2007 French text) presents us with a Deleuzian rewriting of the history of Modern Painting. It pivots on five painters: Delacroix, Manet, Seurat, Gauguin and Cezanne. Alliez’s aim is not to write a new history, and indeed, these five, very familiar, modern practices are presented more as coexistent events than successive moments (hence the placement of the chapter on Cezanne after those on Seurat and Gauguin). His aim is rather to ‘bring to light a thinking at work in modern painting’(xxi), an ‘Aesthetic thought’ (xxv) that, it is implied, has hitherto been concealed under reigning hegemonic discourses of modernity, including Clement Greenberg’s and Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s, who supply the book with its two most prominent targets. This distinction between painting as a historical object and painting as an event of thought – which might be called the first characteristic of a Deleuzian rewriting of the history of modern painting - is crucial to the book’s philosophical tenor. It is important to stress from the outset that what is designated here as ‘painting’ has nothing to do with the purifying essentialisation of a specific medium. Whence we find Alliez, firstly, continually confronting painting to the problem of a photography that displaces painting’s interiority, and secondly, orienting his analyses not only to works of art but to the dense and heady clusters of critics, historians, philosophers, and scientists that constituted the trans-pictorial worlds within which the five painters worked. Rejecting in this way any analysis of painting ‘on its own terms’, painting is instead invested as the vector for a (very Deleuzian) staging of a philosophical problem – that of the eruption of the sensible into thought that the work of art, as a ‘being of sensation’ rather than a medium-specific manifestation, may condition, and the consequences of this aesthetic function for the thought of modernity. ‘Art’ thus emerges here not as an object for a thinking supplied by philosophy, whether Deleuze’s or anyone else’s, nor indeed for a thinking supplied by Art History – which Alliez contends ‘is no less timid than philosophy when it comes to any mention of painter’s ‘thinking”’(xxiii). Art does not even ‘express’ the thoughts of its maker – a contention that Delacroix himself, the first painter in Alliez’s genealogy (but not its ‘forerunner’(99)), had described as foolish.i Rather, for Alliez art functions as the ‘outside’ within philosophy, introducing a ‘play’ into ‘its customary habits of thought’ through its construction in the sensible (xxi). And it is on this playful register that the reader should best approach this book – viewing it not as a work of art history, nor a work of philosophy, nor even as a mediation between the two (‘for today both these disciplines have become generally subservient to a hysterically antiquarian history as evidenced by their accelerated fossilisation’ xxii) but as a performance of writing that displaces engagement with disciplinary findings, and attempts to give fresh expression to the work that painting enacts. Such a project of writing a Deleuzian counter-history of modern painting has never before been undertaken. This is perhaps intriguing, given that its possibility was pointed to by Deleuze himself in his 1981 Francis Bacon. Logic of Sensation when the philosopher placed Bacon within a strange, deformed lineage that encompassed Egyptian bas-relief, Byzantine painting, and the work of, amongst others, Giotto, Michelangelo and Velasquez. With indubitable zest, Alliez takes up and affirms the conceptual possibilities that remain under- articulated in Deleuze’s own work, whilst forging nuanced and detailed engagements with the history of painting that Deleuze makes no attempt to embark upon. As such, Alliez emerges through this book (and indeed in every other book he has written) as a true ‘apprentice’ of Deleuze (who, of course, was in fact his teacher in reality), in the precise sense in which the latter understands philosophical apprenticeship: that is, as the abandonment of fidelity for a creative deformation that transfigures the work of the teacher so as to render it unrecognisable whilst casting it anew on a new plane. Indeed, the name of Deleuze features only very rarely in Alliez’s text, and we are never presented with explications or exegeses of Deleuze’s thought. We encounter instead the somewhat unexpected extraction of a subterranean Deleuzian thread within a familiar historical sequence, one that obscures the name of Deleuze within a panoply of other names not usually associated with him (Goethe, Taine, Chevreul, Baudelaire, Blanc, Gautier, Fenelon, De Piles…). Thus, whilst the book puts to work many of the definitive characteristics of Deleuze’s philosophy of art – the idea of ‘constructivism’ as a differential genesis, the displacement of the logic of the visible by a logic of sensation, the displacement of aesthetic formalism with an ontology of forces, the obscuring of interpretation with the force of production; the critique of the Image, of History, of Representation – it performs, rather than explicitly declares these. We sense, rather than come to know, Deleuze, learning his philosophy through Alliez’s affective restaging of his fertile concepts. This is achieved through an inimitable, at times bizarre, style that fully accedes to Deleuze’s invocation for writing to enact thought through ‘speeds and slownesses’, displacing any hymns to essence or meaning with the delirious revelation of passage. As indicated by its title, the leading concept of the book is the ‘Brain-Eye’, a concept that emerges in Deleuze and Guattari’s What is Philosophy? in the context of their critique of both rationalist and empiricist philosophies of the Subject, and the phenomenological complicity of eye and mind. Painting thinks through a Brain-Eye, which is to say through a ‘denaturalisation and cerebralisation’ of the eye that frees it ‘from its role as a fixed organ and from its representational function’ in a process that bypasses the organic structures of the Subject and his lived perceptions, and which, concomitantly, liberates painting from its historical (that is, by the logic of this book, ‘pre-modern’) naturalism. Hippolyte Taine’s notion of ‘hallucination’ (which displaces ‘perception’ as the source of artistic work) and Goethe’s theory of colours supply the main sources for Alliez’s substantiation of this conception. Indeed, the figure of Goethe, albeit a “Goethe against type’ (that is, an ‘anti-classical’ Goethe), supplies the shimmering source and horizon of the thinking that each of Alliez’s painters will be understood to, in their different ways, enact. The book opens with this Goethe, experimentally searching for the psycho-physiological field of the sensory in a ‘living nature’ that involves the ‘living plane of the eye’, whilst exceeding the pole of the ‘subject’ (xxiv, 4). Alliez reminds us of the alternative this Goethe poses to Newton: the latter with his ‘mechanistic’ account of colour that analytically deduces colour from the decomposition of white light and detaches it from the organ of the visible, in contrast to the former for whom colour is an event within the eye that ‘brings it forth’, the inauguration of a visibility that has no necessary relation to the everyday visible world, and that ‘troubles appearances’ with its material differentiation of the sensible (p23). Thus the chapter delineates, via Goethe, a scientific image of thought as differentiated, materialist, coloristic and embodied (in a radically impersonal way), which will be used to frame the subsequent analyses of the five painters, each of whom will also emerge ‘against type’, through the filter of different, but closely interrelated, problems: for Delacroix, this is the ‘true hallucination of colour’; for Manet, it is the question of the plane; for Seurat, it is the ‘spectral element’ of a ‘science-art’; for Gauguin, it is ‘symbolism and decorative abstraction’, for Cezanne it is a construction irreducible to the ‘Impressionism projected onto his work by the phenomenology of art’ (xxv). Wrested from his designation as the embodiment of French Romanticism, Delacroix is presented as a post-Romantic painter who surpasses Romantic ‘melancholy’ with a ‘vertigo of colour’ through which ‘expressive forces’ displace “descriptive terms” and impart to painting a thickness ‘more hallucinated than sensed’ (p67,72). Wrested from the (post- Baudelairian) designation as a ‘Painter of Modern Life’, that is, as a painter applauded for his capture of the real in all its transitory being – as well as from Mallarme’s attribution to him of the title of bearer of a ‘new Impressionism’, Manet is presented by Alliez, via the intuitions of George Bataille, as an impersonal colourist who attacks the narrativity and realist economy of the image through ‘cuts’ to the plane, and the violence of his brush. Wrested from the characterisation of his work (inaugurated by Signac) as ‘neo-impressionist’ - a designation that merely extends the (for Alliez, impoverished) identification of modern painting with the ‘pictorial essence’ which Impressionism unleashed - Seurat is presented as an anachronistic painter steeped in ‘sterile science’, one who signals the end of painting’s auratic quality through a ‘photo-graphic machine-eye’ (90), a mechanical practice that inaugurates a scientific aesthetic of colour which displaces the incorporation of colour within any modernist purist teleology. Wrested from his reduction to a ‘symbolist’, Gauguin is presented as a decorative colourist, engaging the flattened aesthetic of Japanesque cloissonism in his own, idiosyncratic version of constructivism (293). Finally, wrested from his classification by Merleau-Pontyian phenomenology as a painter of lived sensations in the service of the visible, Cezanne is presented a constructivist who erects his motif via the destruction of the image (and of the images of the motifs he creates), and a colouring modulation of relations. Mont Saint-Victoire constantly differs from itself. There is a scintillating power of innovation to these readings. The exposure of the relations between science and art in the 19th century through the lens of the problem of hallucination and other psycho-physiological theories is fascinating, as is the revelation of an obscure genealogy of 19th century French art criticism that is used to support the distinction of painting’s coloristic thought from literature’s use of language to articulate ‘heterogeneous significations’ (97. There are many moments of real brilliance in the analyses of individual works: for example, the reading of the ‘extra’ asparagus in Manet’s Bunch of Asparagus, 1880 as a sign of an aesthetic supplement to the participation of painting in a modern commercial exchange. The problem is that the reader has to work extremely hard to extract the unorthodox sense and logic of Alliez’s complex project. His style – labyrinthine and fast-paced, circuitous and oblique – demands inordinate levels of energy to follow. Of course, this itself would not be cause for criticism; after all, as readers are we not obliged to work to place ourselves within the unique territory of a singular voice, and extract the ease that is concealed to an ordinary point of view? And is not, furthermore, the disorienting impact of Alliez’s style indicative of its vehemently practical character, its staging of the effects it speaks of through an affective prose? This risk, and experiment, is to be admired. However, the relentless complexity of Alliez’s language, the breathless, lateral skipping from one concept, term or figure to the next, the unyieldingly long sentences and disarmingly fluid structure, pose a serious challenge to sustained attention and obscure the driving claims. Whilst we cannot imagine the foreclosure of attention effected by Alliez’s style to be altogether unintended - consistent as it is with Deleuze and Guattari’s own conception of writing as a ‘war machine’ that forces the reader to think rather than know, and their conception of the book as a rhizomatic arrangement of connections rather than the tree-like development of an idea - the tenor of its attack must be carefully measured if it is not to deter the reader and undermine the invitation of an engagement. The book is informed by a staggering breadth of research. A dazzling array of voices are deftly woven together and integrated into the author’s own in such a way that appears to undermine the authority of the authoring subject, whilst again exposing what Alliez perceives as a subterranean deleuzian logic within painting’s history. But too often in this process, quotes and concepts are used without any sense of the original intent that informed them, uprooted entirely from their context with the seeming consequence of becoming appropriated as neutral material for the imprint of Alliez’s own claims. Again, whilst this ‘deterritorialisation’ of statements is a hallmark of Alliez’s creativity, it has the effect of reinstating the sense of authority that the cacophony of voices apparently destabilised. The positive recasting of Huysman’s ambiguous evaluation of Cezanne’s ‘diseased retina’, to support the argument for the artist’s participation in the inorganic thought regime of the ‘Brain-Eye’, is a case in point. Thus whilst methodologically we are given the sense that Deleuze emerges as a spectral figure through an empirical engagement with the historical apparatus, it often feels to be the other way round - that Deleuze’s presence is assumed a priori. Art History is unavoidably implicated in this assumption. Alliez states from the outset that his subject exceeds the parameters of disciplinary concerns of either Philosophy or Art History. But this doesn’t quite hold, since the implicit Deleuzianism of the work reinstates a form of philosophical supremacy over Art History. Comments such as that Seurat presents a ‘difficult’ to Art History because his practice deals with ‘weighty notions of art and science’ (190) are troubling from a number of angles, and not least because of the fact that ever since its origins the strongest work at the borders of art history have often scaled the most complex scientific summits. That Alliez also does not engage in any sustained way with the intellectual advances within the discipline that overlap with his own concerns – with neuro art-history and neuro aesthetics as the obvious examples – also does not sit well, and imparts a certain anachronism to the conception of Brain that he develops. More worrying perhaps, at least by the measure of Alliez’s declared intentions, is that this philosophical supremacy seems to hold sway even over Art. That the book begins not with an artistic practice but with the philosophical figure of (a Deleuzian) Goethe, and that there are no images included of the works of which he speaks of in such great detail, are symptoms of this. Alliez justifies the latter, in a preface, as a deliberate refusal of the principles of ‘description’ and of ‘illustration’ whereby art is reduced to the status of philosophy’s example, to instead allow the articulation of a ‘plastic thought in action’ (xvii). This feels disingenuous. The fact is that painting’s work is manifested as actual painting, in a material reality given to be seen and felt, and not simply as a ‘thought’, whether plastic or bearing another image. That it is this material reality – as Alliez himself repeatedly states – that conditions the plastic thought it participates in. No painter in history would ever agree that writing about his work could provide an adequate substitution for his material work! In conclusion then, the book’s achievements are several: above all, it paves the path for a Deleuzian approach to art history, showing how it might be written, the kind of tone it might assume, and the critical displacements it makes. It provides a new philosophy of colour, and reveals how this constructivism of colour, and the logic of sensation that accompanies it, forces a rethinking of the way we understand modern painting. It offers new readings of canonical figures of modernity, that reveals the scientific and trans-pictorial register of their works and wrests them from any purified idea of the modernist form of painting. The lingering theoretical problem concerns the question of the aesthetic implicated in painting’s thought. The claim is that modern painting engages a constructivist aesthetic that circumvents the problems of aesthetic purism: the work of art participates fully in the reality of the sensible whilst effecting a construction that differentiates its work from what is given in the sensible. Alliez’s placement of the art work within the scientific apparatus of its time, and in the nexus of criticism, as well as his recasting of colour as a quality that intertwines (without identifying) art and nature, are made towards this end – that is, of depurifying painting and recasting the aesthetic as an impure, heterogeneous regime. But the problem is that in Alliez’s analyses of actual paintings, qualities such as colour are attended to as attributes of the painting alone with little or no reference to any reality other than the painterly. In itself of course, modulation is no less ‘pure’ than modelling. To convince otherwise, more analyses of the interfaces of painting’s work with the life of its maker and the life of its times (beyond the intellectual edifice of ideas), that is, with the ‘social’, would be needed. A similar problem haunted the reception of Deleuze’s Logic of Sensation, a text that arguably does not accede to the micropolitical, ‘diagrammatic’ idea of aesthetics outlined by Deleuze and Guattari a year earlier in A Thousand Plateaus. Alliez himself has brilliantly developed the latter in other papers: perhaps we might have seen more of that register of thought in the current text. i Eugene Delacroix Journal 6th October 1822. 
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work_anewubv4hjeorpdmg7fl5nqvua	----	[PDF] Entering Adulthood in a Recession Tempers Later Narcissism | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.1177/0956797614532818 Corpus ID: 29787915Entering Adulthood in a Recession Tempers Later Narcissism @article{Bianchi2014EnteringAI, title={Entering Adulthood in a Recession Tempers Later Narcissism}, author={Emily C. Bianchi}, journal={Psychological Science}, year={2014}, volume={25}, pages={1429 - 1437} } Emily C. Bianchi Published 2014 Psychology, Medicine Psychological Science Despite widespread interest in narcissism, relatively little is known about the conditions that encourage or dampen it. Drawing on research showing that macroenvironmental conditions in emerging adulthood can leave a lasting imprint on attitudes and behaviors, I argue that people who enter adulthood during recessions are less likely to be narcissistic later in life than those who come of age in more prosperous times. Using large samples of American adults, Studies 1 and 2 showed that people who… Expand View on SAGE goizueta.emory.edu Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper 41 CitationsHighly Influential Citations 4 Background Citations 19 Methods Citations 1 Results Citations 1 View All Figures, Tables, and Topics from this paper figure 1 table 1 figure 2 table 2 table 3 View All 5 Figures & Tables Narcissism recession Experience Imprinting (Psychology) Behavior Paper Mentions News Article People Who Graduate During Recessions Earn Less Money — but They’re Happier Harvard Business Review 21 September 2018 News Article Vasectomy Rates Rose During Great Recession, Along With Many Other Things Medical Daily 21 October 2014 News Article Hard times make nicer people - study IOL 27 May 2014 News Article Millennials may not be that narcissistic after all, study suggests The Toronto Star 20 May 2014 Blog Post Will the Great Recession Spawn Humble CEOs? Association for Psychological Science 16 May 2014 Blog Post Hard Times For The Ego The Dish 15 May 2014 News Article Narcissism linked to economic conditions during young adulthood, study finds MinnPost 14 May 2014 News Article Study: Opportunities in Young Adulthood Linked to Later Narcissism The Atlantic 13 May 2014 SHOW MORE 41 Citations Citation Type Citation Type All Types Cites Results Cites Methods Cites Background Has PDF Publication Type Author More Filters More Filters Filters Sort by Relevance Sort by Most Influenced Papers Sort by Citation Count Sort by Recency Narcissism and the Economic Environment Emily C. Bianchi Psychology 2018 2 Save Alert Research Feed Narcissism Over Time in Australia and Canada: A Cross-Temporal Meta-Analysis Takeshi Hamamura, C. A. Johnson, Michelle Stankovic Psychology 2020 2 Save Alert Research Feed The malleability of personality traits in adolescence Rosemary Elkins, Sonja C. Kassenboehmer, S. Schurer Psychology 2016 2 PDF View 1 excerpt, cites background Save Alert Research Feed The stability of personality traits in adolescence and young adulthood Rosemary Elkins, Sonja C. Kassenboehmer, S. Schurer Psychology 2017 37 Save Alert Research Feed The perks of narcissism: Behaving like a star speeds up career advancement to the CEO position P. Rovelli, Camilla Curnis Psychology 2020 Save Alert Research Feed Are People Becoming More Entitled Over Time? Not in New Zealand S. Stronge, Petar Milojev, C. Sibley Psychology, Medicine Personality & social psychology bulletin 2018 7 Highly Influenced View 6 excerpts, cites background and results Save Alert Research Feed The Narcissism Epidemic Is Dead; Long Live the Narcissism Epidemic Eunike Wetzel, A. Brown, P. Hill, Joanne M Chung, R. Robins, B. Roberts Psychology, Medicine Psychological science 2017 49 PDF View 1 excerpt, cites background Save Alert Research Feed Parents’ Socialization of Narcissism in Children Sander Thomaes, E. Brummelman Psychology 2018 4 Save Alert Research Feed Generational Differences in Narcissism and Narcissistic Traits Joshua B. Grubbs, Allison C. Riley Psychology 2018 3 Save Alert Research Feed American individualism rises and falls with the economy: Cross-temporal evidence that individualism declines when the economy falters. Emily C. Bianchi Sociology, Medicine Journal of personality and social psychology 2016 34 Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 3 4 5 ... References SHOWING 1-10 OF 50 REFERENCES SORT BYRelevance Most Influenced Papers Recency Individual differences in narcissism: Inflated self-views across the lifespan and around the world J. Foster, W. Campbell, J. Twenge Psychology 2003 445 PDF View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed American individualism rises and falls with the economy: Cross-temporal evidence that individualism declines when the economy falters. Emily C. Bianchi Sociology, Medicine Journal of personality and social psychology 2016 34 View 2 excerpts, references background Save Alert Research Feed Egos inflating over time: a cross-temporal meta-analysis of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory. J. Twenge, S. Konrath, J. Foster, W. Campbell, B. Bushman Psychology, Medicine Journal of personality 2008 771 PDF View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed It is Developmental Me, Not Generation Me: Developmental Changes are more Important than Generational Changes in Narcissism—Commentary on Trzesniewski & Donnellan (2010) B. Roberts, Grant Edmonds, Emily Grijalva Psychology, Medicine Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science 2010 94 PDF Save Alert Research Feed The Bright Side of Bad Times Emily C. Bianchi Economics 2013 40 PDF View 3 excerpts, references background Save Alert Research Feed The intersection of life stage and social events: personality and life outcomes. L. Duncan, G. S. Agronick Psychology, Medicine Journal of personality and social psychology 1995 20 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed The Narcissism Epidemic: Living in the Age of Entitlement J. Twenge, W. Campbell Psychology 2009 689 PDF View 2 excerpts, references background Save Alert Research Feed Depression Babies: Do Macroeconomic Experiences Affect Risk-Taking? Ulrike M. Malmendier, S. Nagel Economics 2009 1,462 PDF View 2 excerpts, references background Save Alert Research Feed Are normal narcissists psychologically healthy?: self-esteem matters. C. Sedikides, Eric A. Rudich, A. Gregg, M. Kumashiro, C. Rusbult Psychology, Medicine Journal of personality and social psychology 2004 554 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Interpersonal and intrapsychic adaptiveness of trait self-enhancement: a mixed blessing? D. Paulhus Medicine Journal of personality and social psychology 1998 929 PDF View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 3 4 5 ... Related Papers Abstract Figures, Tables, and Topics Paper Mentions 41 Citations 50 References Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. 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work_awlyf6igungjxop7skipasxlda	----	Virtual Mentor Virtual Mentor American Medical Association Journal of Ethics May 2013, Volume 15, Number 5: 421-427. MEDICAL EDUCATION Undergraduate Medical Education on Pain Management across the Globe Nalini Vadivelu, MD, Sukanya Mitra, MD, MAMS, and Roberta L. Hines, MD Introduction and an Appeal Pain is common, easily recognized, and largely treatable, and, despite this, pain is often inadequately assessed and managed in clinical practice [1-5]. Inadequately managed pain is a worldwide problem that leads to significant suffering, dysfunction and disability, loss in job productivity, and an increasing health care burden [1-3]. Adequate pain management is now recognized as a patient/human right [6]. An essential cause of suboptimal pain recognition, assessment, and treatment is inadequate education of health care practitioners. This is of particular concern because patients with pain are most likely to visit their primary care or general physicians first. In other words, we are failing to teach a large percentage of doctors who are the first line of patient care. The failure to do so during residency training has particularly notable consequences. This failure should not be attributed to the lack of guidelines or clinical and research studies. In fact, there are numerous guidelines and a robust body of literature on how pain management should be taught and implemented. For example, a detailed “core professional curriculum” for teaching about all aspects of pain, developed by the International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP), has been available for the past 25 years [7], with the latest (third) version published in 2005 [8]. Guidelines to ensure that hospital staff are adequately trained to manage acute pain were issued by the Joint Commission on Accreditation on Healthcare Organizations (now the Joint Commission) more than a decade ago [9]. Thus, inadequate pain management is rooted not in a lack of guidance but in the deficiencies in our current methods of pain education [10]. We addressed this issue in a recent publication on acute pain education and management [11]. In that piece, we argued that improved medical education is the key to solving the problem of inadequate acute pain management. Residency is the seminal period during which attitudes toward pain are conceived and nurtured. Instilling an early understanding of and empathy for pain during residency will greatly enhance the chances that future practitioners will be more willing and able to treat pain. This understanding, coupled with the knowledge and skills required for assessment and management of acute pain, will round out all three domains of medical education: cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. www.virtualmentor.org Virtual Mentor, May 2013—Vol 15 421 http://www.virtualmentor.org/ In this article we seek to expand upon the early discussions of acute and chronic pain and focus on the broader area of pain education. We make the appeal that such education should start early into the career of the undergraduate medical student, whose mind is more receptive and impressionable [11]. We also believe that such education should be integrated in the general medical curriculum from the first through the final years to ensure the broadest reach possible at both the national and the international levels. We contrast our approach with those aimed at developing pain medicine as a dedicated specialty. While there is no doubt that such emphasis and approaches are required (and, indeed, being followed in some countries), our point is that a more broad-based and early introduction to pain education is likely to yield richer dividends. Utilizing this approach, common pain conditions can be effectively managed in primary or secondary health care settings, thus freeing up valuable time, limited manpower, and even more limited resources to manage the complex pain conditions at the tertiary care level. Pain Education: A Bird’s-Eye View of the Global Situation Recently we examined pain education from a global perspective by reviewing the varying degrees of information available from several developed and developing countries: the U.S., Canada, the United Kingdom, Finland, Australia, New Zealand, and India [11]. Our results showed that, despite marked variations across countries, the overall picture was one of inadequacy and dissatisfaction on the part of practitioners. For example, until recently only 3 percent of medical schools in the United States had any part of their curricula specifically dedicated to pain education [12]. In a 2009-2010 survey of 117 medical schools in the U.S. and Canada, the situation appeared much better: 80 percent of U.S. medical schools and 92 percent of Canadian medical schools required at least one pain session in their curricula. The actual content, style, and format of the education, however, were found to be “limited, variable, and often fragmentary” [13]. On closer scrutiny it was discerned that many topics of the IASP core curriculum were not even addressed [13]. Findings with similar results have been reported from Finland, Australia, and New Zealand, and the United Kingdom [14-17]. The recently published results of a comprehensive survey conducted by the Special Interest Group on Pain Education of the British Pain Society are eye-opening [18]. In this survey of 19 higher education institutions affiliated with 11 universities offering 108 undergraduate programs in a wide range of medical and related disciplines across the U.K., it was found that pain education comprised less than 1 percent of the university-based teaching for health care professionals. The average pain-related content comprised only 12 hours. Of note, more coverage of pain-related topics was provided in physiotherapy and veterinary science programs than in medical science. Only 11 programs (less than 15 percent) offered a specific pain teaching module. The original report finally concluded that “the amount of pain education in the curricula of healthcare professionals is woefully inadequate given the burden of pain in the general population in the UK” [17]. Virtual Mentor, May 2013—Vol 15 www.virtualmentor.org 422 The emphasis on integrating pain education into the medical school curriculum has been studied significantly less in developing countries than in the developed world. In a recent preliminary, impression-based survey of medical centers, one each from 7 developing countries (India, China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Nigeria, and Guatemala), it was felt by all respondents but those in Thailand that there was “no” or “some” availability of education in acute pain management in medical, nursing, or pharmacy schools [19]. Pain was felt to be adequately managed in only 30 to 50 percent of patients. Indeed, all respondents agreed that “pain control is not given priority.” Of note, “concerns about addiction (even for Acute Pain)” was mentioned as a barrier to opioid use in severe acute pain management [19]. Additionally, the IASP conducted a survey in its chapters in the developing countries in 2005 [20]. More than 90 percent of the respondents agreed that pain recognition and management was a significant issue in their populations. Furthermore, results from the survey revealed that, although up to 50 percent of respondents had, as undergraduates, attended formal courses relating to pain, more than 90 percent stated that the level of education they received was not sufficient to cover their needs at the time they entered clinical practice. Ways Forward: Learning Lessons from Existing and Innovative Programs The most desirable way to advance pain education is to encourage its integration in the regular medical school curriculum. Some institutions have begun to do this, although in most situations there is a lack of coordination between the preclinical and clinical curricula [21, 22]. Pain as a topic is often relegated to brief lectures or seminars at most institutions. There are several reasons for this, including attitudes of the program administrators but also the real constraint on time in an ever-expanding medical curriculum that forces prioritization of themes and topics to be covered during medical school. Despite these limitations, it is encouraging that even brief study can still produce positive effects. Even a 6-hour course for first-year medical students that combined written materials on behavioral, social, and biological aspects of pain with clinical observations of an acute and chronic pain treatment team produced a greater recognition of pain as a real and complex entity and a stronger belief that working with pain patients is rewarding [23]. When even less time is available, the role of bedside instruction assumes particular significance. For example, fourth-year medical students randomly assigned to a 1- hour lecture on regional anesthesia plus a 1-hour bedside teaching session scored significantly better on an objective structured clinical examination than those assigned to a 2-hour classroom-based structured course alone [24]. A recent report from the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine demonstrated the utility and feasibility of a short (18 hours over 4 consecutive days) pain education program for first-year medical students. This program combined core curriculum knowledge on pain with affective and attitudinal development in an innovative way [25]. The program consisted of 4 didactic lectures, 3 learning “labs,” 3 team-based learning www.virtualmentor.org Virtual Mentor, May 2013—Vol 15 423 http://www.virtualmentor.org/ exercises, and 3 small-group teaching sessions. Overall, the students gave positive feedback on their training and expressed enhanced interest in pain medicine. In Canada, the University of Toronto Centre for the Study of Pain has offered an interfaculty, interprofessional pain curriculum (IPC) since 2002 [26, 27]. In this 5- day offering, a 20-hour integrated pain course was provided by six health science departments—dentistry, medicine, nursing, pharmacy, physical therapy, and occupational therapy—to some of their second- or third-year students. Evaluation of the program revealed that it not only produced significant improvements in pain knowledge and beliefs, but also generated a high degree of student satisfaction with both the process and content of teaching [26]. Recently, the same group published on an interactive multimedia pain education program focusing on cognitive (knowledge- based) as well as reflective (affective, experiential, and attitudinal) aspects of pain evaluation and management [28]. The Developing Countries Working Group of the IASP has been supporting several educational initiatives specifically for developing countries for a decade now by giving grants for educational programs (74 grants to members from 34 countries) and establishing clinical training centers [29]. Conclusion A recent editorial by John D. Loeser, MD, former president and founding member of the IASP, identified “inadequate education of primary care providers about pain and how to treat it” as one of five major crises in pain management today [30]. To effectively address this problem, basic pain education should be made a mandatory and integral part of medical school curricula in developed and developing countries alike. A small but growing number of such educational efforts are taking place, mostly in developed countries, as briefly reviewed above. Now is the time to rigorously evaluate these programs to probe their effectiveness [31] and expand upon their evidence base so it can be effectively used in political and advocacy campaigns to further expand pain education offerings worldwide. As a recent editorial put it [32], “education…education…education” in the area of pain should be our motto now. References 1. Stewart WF, Ricci JA, Chee E, Morganstein D, Lipton R. Lost productive time and cost due to common pain conditions in the US workforce. JAMA. 2003;290(18):2443-2454. 2. Breivik H, Collett B, Ventafridda V, Cohen R, Gallacher D. Survey of chronic pain in Europe: prevalence, impact on daily life, and treatment. Eur J Pain. 2006;10(4):287-333. 3. McDermott AM, Toelle TR, Rowbotham DJ, Schaefer CP, Dukes EM. The burdens of neuropathic pain: results from a cross-sectional survey. Eur J Pain. 2006;10(2):127-135. 4. Blyth FM, March LM, Brnabic AJ, Jorm LR, Williamson M, Cousins MJ. Chronic pain in Australia: a prevalence study. Pain. 2001;89(2-3):127-134. Virtual Mentor, May 2013—Vol 15 www.virtualmentor.org 424 5. Apfelbaum JL, Chen C, Mehta SS, Gan TJ. Postoperative pain experience: results from a national survey suggest postoperative pain continues to be undermanaged. Anesth Analg. 2003;97(2):534-540. 6. Brennan F, Carr DB, Cousins M. Pain management: a fundamental human right. Anesth Analg. 2007;105(1):205-221. 7. Pilowsky I. An outline curriculum on pain for medical schools. Pain. 1988;33(1):1-2. 8. International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP). Core Curriculum for Professional Education in Pain. Charlton JE, ed. 3rd ed. Seattle, WA: IASP Press; 2005. http://www.iasp- pain.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Core_Curriculum_Chapters&Template =/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentFileID=49. Accessed April 19, 2013. 9. Phillips DM. JCAHO pain management standards are unveiled. Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations. JAMA. 2000;284(4):428-429. 10. Max MB. Improving outcomes of analgesic treatment: is education enough? Ann Intern Med. 1990;113(11):885-889. 11. Vadivelu N, Mitra S, Hines R, Elia M, Rosenquist RW. Acute pain in undergraduate medical education: an unfinished chapter! Pain Pract. 2012;12(8):663-671. 12. Heavner JE. Teaching pain management to medical students. Pain Pract. 2009;9(2):85. 13. Mezei L, Murinson BB; Johns Hopkins Pain Curriculum Development Team. Pain education in North American medical schools. J Pain. 2011;12(12):1199-1208. 14. Poyhia R, Kalso E. Pain related undergraduate teaching in medical faculties in Finland. Pain. 1999;79(2-3):121-125. 15. Macintyre PE, Scott DA, Schug SA, Visser EJ, Walker SM. Acute Pain Management: Scientific Evidence. 3rd ed. Melbourne: Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists (ANZCA) and Faculty of Pain Medicine; 2010. http://www.anzca.edu.au/resources/college- publications/pdfs/Acute%20Pain%20Management/books-and- publications/acutepain.pdf. Accessed April 19, 2013. 16. Watt-Watson J, McGillion M, Hunter J, et al. A survey of prelicensure pain curricula in health science faculties in Canadian Universities. Pain Res Manage. 2009;14(6):439-444. 17. Briggs E, Whittaker M, Carr E; Pain Education Special Interest Group of the British Pain Society. Survey of Undergraduate Pain Curricula for Healthcare Professionals in the United Kingdom. London: The British Pain Society; 2009. http://www.britishpainsociety.org/members_sig_edu_short_report_survey.pdf . Accessed April 19, 2013. 18. Briggs EV, Carr EC, Whittaker MS. Survey of undergraduate pain curricula for healthcare professionals in the United Kingdom. Eur J Pain. 2011;15(8):789-795. www.virtualmentor.org Virtual Mentor, May 2013—Vol 15 425 http://www.virtualmentor.org/ 19. Vijayan R. Managing acute pain in the developing world. Pain Clinical Updates. 2011;19(3):1-7. http://www.iasp- pain.org/AM/AMTemplate.cfm?Section=HOME&CONTENTID=15077&TE MPLATE=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&SECTION=HOME. Accessed January 17, 2013. 20. Bond M, Acuna Mourin M, Barros N, et al. Education and training for pain management in developing countries: a report by the IASP Developing Countries Taskforce. Seattle: IASP Press; 2007. http://www.iasp- pain.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Home%26Template=/CM/ContentDispl ay.cfm%26ContentID=4982. Accessed April 19, 2013. 21. Vadivelu N, Kombo N, Hines RL. The urgent need for pain management training. Acad Med. 2009;84(4):408. 22. Sloan PA, Plymale M, LaFountain P, Johnson M, Snapp J, Sloan DA. Equipping medical students to manage cancer pain: a comparison of three educational methods. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2004;27(4):333-342. 23. Wilson JF, Brockopp GW, Kryst S, Steger H, Witt WO. Medical students’ attitudes towards pain before and after a brief course on pain. Pain. 1992;50(3);251-256. 24. Hanna M, Donnelly MB, Montgomery CL, Sloan PA. Perioperative pain management education: A short structured regional anesthesia course compared with traditional teaching among medical students. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2005;30(6):523-528. 25. Murinson BB, Nenortas E, Mayer RS, et al. A new program in pain medicine for medical students: integrating core curriculum knowledge with emotional and reflective development. Pain Med. 2011;12(2):186-195. 26. Watt-Watson J, Hunter J, Pennefather P, et al. An integrated undergraduate pain curriculum, based on IASP curricula, for six health science faculties. Pain. 2004;110(1-2):140-148. 27. Hunter J, Watt-Watson J, McGillion M, et al. An interfaculty pain curriculum: lessons learned from six years experience. Pain. 2008;140(1):74- 86. 28. Lax L, Watt-Watson J, Lui M, et al. Innovation and design of a web-based pain education interprofessional resource. Pain Res Manag. 2011;16(6):427- 432. 29. Bond M. A decade of improvement in pain education and clinical practice in developing countries: IASP initiatives. Br J Pain. 2012;6(2):81-84. 30. Loeser JD. Five crises in pain management. Pain Clinical Updates. 2012;19(3):111-116. http://www.iasp- pain.org/AM/AMTemplate.cfm?Section=Home,Home&CONTENTID=1569 8&TEMPLATE=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&SECTION=Home,Home. Accessed April 19, 2013. 31. Briggs E. Evaluating the impact of pain education: how do we know we have made a difference? Br J Pain. 2012;6(2):85-91. 32. Briggs E. “Education…education…education.” Br J Pain. 2012;6(2):52-53. Virtual Mentor, May 2013—Vol 15 www.virtualmentor.org 426 Nalini Vadivelu, MD, is an associate professor of anesthesiology in the Department of Anesthesiology at Yale University. She is certified by the American Board of Anesthesiology and has completed an accredited pain fellowship at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center in New York. Her educational and research interests are in pain management. She is the editor of five textbooks in the field of pain management and has patents in airway devices in several countries. Sukanya Mitra, MD, MAMS, is a professor of anesthesiology in the Department of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care at the Government Medical College and Hospital in Chandigarh, India. She has been the recipient of a pain research fellowship at Yale University, the Rukmani Pandit Award, Kop’s Award, and a scholarship from the Indian Society of Anaesthesiologists and the World Federation of Societies of Anaesthesiologists. Her chief interests are acute and chronic pain management, including labor analgesia and cancer pain management, and pain education. Roberta L. Hines, MD, is Nicholas M. Greene Professor of Anesthesiology and chair of the anesthesiology department at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut. The viewpoints expressed on this site are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the AMA. Copyright 2013 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. www.virtualmentor.org Virtual Mentor, May 2013—Vol 15 427 http://www.virtualmentor.org/ 
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work_aylmkokovjg2fmpwz2pzfmpvmy	----	Aurora Panzica Une nouvelle rédaction du Commentaire sur les Météorologiques de Nicole Oresme The aim of this paper is to show that the anonymous Questiones in Meteorologica in the manuscript Münich, Staatsbibliothek, Clm 4375, ff. 19r-46r, should be attributed to Nicole Oresme. These Questiones, together with those of the manuscript Darmstadt, Hessische Landes- und Hochschulbibliothek, 2197, ff. 58r-98r, prove the existence of an older and more interesting version of the Nicole Oresme's Questiones in Meteorologica. Mots clés: Commentaires d'Aristote au Moyen Âge, Météorologie, Nicole Oresme DOI: 10.1484/J.BPM.5.110808 https://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/abs/10.1484/J.BPM.5.110808 Cet article a été publié dans : Bulletin de Philosophie médiévale (Société Internationale de Philosophie Médiévale), 57 (2015), Brepols Publishers, 2016, p. 257-264. Nous renvoyons à cette publication pour la version et la pagination définitives. https://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/abs/10.1484/J.BPM.5.110808 Le manuscrit Darmstadt Hessische Landes- und Hochschulbibliothek, 2197, qui a été porté à l’attention des chercheurs par Stefano Caroti 1 , renferme un certain nombre de surprises. Aux folios 58r-98r il contient une copie des Questions sur les Météorologiques de Nicole Oresme 2 . Rédigée à Paris vers 1346 3 , elle représente le témoin le plus ancien de cet ouvrage qui nous soit parvenu. Si l’on compare toutefois l’incipit et la liste des questions 4 du manuscrit de Darmstadt avec la rédaction des Questions sur les Météorologiques de Nicole Oresme qui a été transmise par dix-neuf manuscrits 5 et qui a fait l’objet d’une édition partielle 6 , on se trouve tout de suite confronté à une difficulté : ils ne correspondent pas. Une analyse détaillée du contenu du texte ne fait que confirmer ce fait : le manuscrit de Darmstadt présente une rédaction du commentaire oresmien fort différente de celle qu’on connaissait jusqu’à présent 7 . 1 NICOLAUS ORESME, Questiones super De generatione et corruptione, éd. S. CAROTI, in : Veröffentlichungen der Kommission für die Herausgabe ungedruckter Texte aus der mittelalterlichen Geisteswelt, vol. 20, München, 1996, pp. 35-46. 2 Pour l’attribution de ce texte à Nicole Oresme, cf. le folio 58r: « Questiones primi metheororum compilate ante magistrum nicholaum de oresme normannum, sed de questionibus secundi libri non sunt nisi quatordecim questiones ». Cf. aussi f. 81rb: « Expliciunt questiones primi Metheororum compilate ante venerabilem magistrum Nicholaum de Oresme normannum. Deo gratias ». 3 Cf. le folio 192vb: « Expliciunt questiones supra librum de anima reportate ante magistrum Johannem de Vezalia in vico straminum Parisius per manus Johannis Margan de Yvia anno domini m ccc 46° Deo gratias ». Cité d’après NICOLAUS ORESME, Questiones super De generatione et corruptione, éd. S. CAROTI, p. 35. 4 NICOLAUS ORESME, Questiones super De generatione et corruptione, éd. S. CAROTI, pp. 38*-40*. 5 Basel, Universitätsbibliothek, F I 11, ff. 4r-85v ; F V 2, ff. 2r-63v ; Berlin, Staatsbibliothek, lat. fol. 631, ff. 39r- 114r; Erfurt, Amplon. F. 344, ff. 158v-167r (seulement le quatrième livre); Kassel, Landesbibliothek Phys 2o 12, ff. 1r-107r; Klagenfurt, Bischöfliche Bibliothek, Ms. XXXI b. 5, ff. 1r-124r; Kraków, Uniwersytet Jagiellonski, Biblioteka Jagiellonska, 749, ff. 59v-110; 751, ff. 3r-53r; 2095, ff. 245r-307r; 2117, ff. 195r-322r; Leipzig, Universitätsbibliothek, Ms. 1387, ff. 181r-275r; München, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm. 4376, ff. 1r-64r; 17226, ff. 130r-140r (seulement quelques questions); Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, lat. 15156, ff. 226r-288v (seulement les deux premiers livres); Sankt Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek, 839, ff. 1r-175v; Uppsala, Universitetsbiblioteket, C. 596, ff. 2r-97v; Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Cod. 5453, ff. 49r-109v; Wroclaw, Biblioteka Uniwersytecka, IV Q. 27, ff. 1r-163r. Cette liste est présente dans les suivants ouvrages, tous également antérieurs à la découverte du manuscrit de Darmstadt par S. Caroti: C. LOHR, « Medieval Latin Aristotle Commentaries Authors : Narcissus – Richardus », in : Traditio, 28 (1972), pp. 281-396, ici p. 296 ; JR. S. C. MCCLUSKEY, Nicole Oresme on Light, Color, and the Rainbow: an Edition and Translation, with Introduction and Critical Notes, of Part of Book III of his “Questiones super IV libros Meteororum”, diss. Univ. of Wisconsin, 1974, pp. 81-98 ; O. WEIJERS, Le Travail intellectuel à la Faculté des arts de Paris : textes et maîtres (ca. 1200-1500) vol. 6, Turnhouht, 1994 (Studia artistarum, 13), p. 175. Dans une publication plus récente (Latin Aristotle Commentaries 1, Medieval Authors, M-Z (Corpus philosophorum medii aevi. Subsidia, 17-18), Firenze, SISMEL, Ed. del Galluzzo, 2010-2013, p. 34), Lohr a pris en considération le manuscrit de Darmstadt ; toutefois, comme il le liste avec les autres témoins des Questions sur les Météorologiques de Nicole Oresme, il ne semble pas avoir remarqué la différence entre la version transmise par ce codex et celle présente dans les autres manuscrits. 6 JR. S. C. MCCLUSKEY, Nicole Oresme on Light, Color, and the Rainbow: an Edition and Translation, with Introduction and Critical Notes, of Part of Book III of his “Questiones super IV libros Meteororum”, diss. Univ. of Wisconsin, 1974. 7 Pour s’en rendre compte, il suffit de comparer la liste des questions du manuscrit de Darmstadt (in : NICOLAUS ORESME, Questiones super De generatione et corruptione, éd. S. CAROTI, pp. 38*-40*) avec celle d’un témoin de la Le manuscrit de Darmstadt n’est toutefois pas le seul témoin de cette rédaction des Questions sur les Météorologiques de Nicole Oresme. Dans un article publié en 2010, S. Kirschner signalait la présence de la théorie oresmienne de l’accident en tant que condicio d’une substance dans des Questions anonymes sur les Météorologiques conservées dans le manuscrit Münich, Staatsbibibliothek, Clm. 4375, ff. 19ra-46r 8 . Ce n’était pas la première fois que Kirschner s’occupait de ce manuscrit en relation avec la pensée de Nicole Oresme : dans un article traitant de la localisation et de la nature des comètes, il avait porté l’attention sur un commentaire aux Météorologiques anonyme soutenant la thèse de la nature supralunaire des comètes et de la voie lactée 9 , théorie minoritaire au Moyen Âge, et partagée, comme le remarque Kirschner, par Albert le Grand, Henri de Hesse et, justement, Nicole Oresme 10 . De plus, en étudiant les Questions sur la Physique d’Oresme, Kirschner y avait trouvé deux auto-citations des Questions sur les Météorologiques, dont l’une ne correspondait à aucun passage dans la version connue de ce texte oresmien 11 , raison pour laquelle il avait renvoyé aux Questions anonymes de Münich 12 . Déjà Kirschner, à la fin de l’article où il relevait la présence de la théorie oresmienne de l’accident dans les Questions anonymes contenues dans le manuscrit Clm. 4375 de la Staatsbibliothek de Münich, avait proposé que l’auteur de cet ouvrage n’était autre qu’Oresme lui- même, sans toutefois pouvoir démontrer sa supposition 13 . Or, sur la base de la confrontation de la version connue, comme par exemple Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, lat. 15156, ff. 226r-288v (liste des questions in : L. THORNDIKE, « Oresme and Fourteenth. Century Commentaries on the Meteorologica », in: Isis, 45 (1954), pp. 145-152, ici, pp. 151-152), ou encore Kraków, Uniwersytet Jagiellonski, Biblioteka Jagiellonska, 751, ff. 3r-53r; Sankt Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek, 839, ff. 1r-175v; Uppsala, Universitetsbiblioteket, C. 596, ff. 2r-97v; Wroclaw, Biblioteka Uniwersytecka, IV Q. 27, ff. 1r-163r (liste des questions des quatre manuscrits in : JR. S. C. MCCLUSKEY, Nicole Oresme on Light, Color, and the Rainbow, pp. 114-124). 8 S. KIRSCHNER, « A possible Trace of Oresme's Condicio-Theory of Accident in an Anonymous Commentary on Aristotle's Meteorology », in: Vivarium, 48 (2010), pp. 349-367. 9 S. KIRSCHNER, « An Anonymous Medieval Commentary on Aristotle's Meteorology Stating the Supralunar location of Comets », in: Sic Itur Ad Astra. Studien Zur Geschichte Der Mathematik Und Naturwissenschaften - Festschrift Für Den Arabisten Paul Kunitzsch Zum 70. Geburtstag, éd. M. FOLKERTS et R. LORCH, Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz Verlag, 2000, pp. 334-361. 10 Ivi, p. 343. 11 S. KIRSCHNER, Nicolaus Oresmes Kommentar zur Physik des Aristoteles. Kommentar mit Edition der Quaestionen zu Buch 3 und 4 der Aristotelischen Physik sowie von vier Quaestionen zu Buch 5, Stuttgart, Franz Steiner Verlag, 1997, p. 30. Cf. aussi: NICOLE ORESME, Questiones super physicam (books I-VII), éd. S. CAROTI, J. CELEYRETTE, S. KIRSCHNER, E. MAZET, Leiden-Boston, Brill, 2013, p. XXIV. 12 S. KIRSCHNER, Nicolaus Oresmes Kommentar zur Physik, pp. 30-31, n. 91. Plus précisément, Oresme renvoie à la question I.12: « utrum aliquod agens possit agere in passum distans ab eo sine hoc quod agat in intermedium », absente dans la version connue des Questions sur les Météorologiques d’Oresme, mais présente aux ff. 25ra-25vb du manuscrit de Münich. 13 S. KIRSCHNER, « A possible Trace of Oresme's Condicio-Theory of Accident in an Anonymous Commentary on liste des questions 14 et d’un certain nombre de passages choisis tout au long du texte avec ceux du manuscrit Darmstadt, Hessische Landes- und Hochschulbibliothek, 2197, je crois pouvoir affirmer que l’auteur des Questions anonymes sur les Météorologiques du manuscrit Clm. 4375 est effectivement Nicole Oresme. Les manuscrits de Darmstadt et de Münich témoigneraient donc de l’existence d’une autre rédaction des Questions sur les Météorologiques d’Oresme, chronologiquement antérieure à celle qu’on connaissait et philosophiquement beaucoup plus riche. L’étude des deux rédactions des Questions sur les Météorologiques, ainsi que de la Sententia sur les Météorologiques, que nous mènerons dans le cadre de notre thèse de doctorat 15 , contribuera à porter de la lumière sur l’activité de Nicole Oresme à la Faculté des Arts, période cruciale dans le développement de sa pensée. En même temps, elle permettra de clarifier la tradition complexe des Commentaires sur les Météorologiques au milieu du XIV e siècle 16 . Aurora Panzica Université de Fribourg Dans le tableau suivant nous avons représenté de façon synoptique la correspondance entre les questions transmises par le manuscrit Darmstadt Hessische Landes- und Hochschulbibliothek, Aristotle's Meteorology », pp. 366-367. 14 Pour la liste des questions du manuscrit de Darmstadt, cf. supra, n. 8; pour celle du manuscrit de Münich: S. KIRSCHNER, « An Anonymous Medieval Commentary on Aristotle's Meteorology Stating the Supralunar location of Comets », pp. 360-361. 15 Texte également transmis par le manuscrit de Darmstadt, et jusqu’à présent inconnu (cf. NICOLAUS ORESME, Questiones super De generatione et corruptione, éd. S. CAROTI p. 40*, n. 6). 16 Sur cette problématique, et notamment sur les rapports très étroits entre les Questions sur les Météorologiques de Nicole Oresme, Albert de Saxe, Thémon le Juif et le Pseudo-Scot, cf. Etudes d„histoire des sciences en Pologne, choix d'articles par J. B. KOROLEC, A. M. BIRKENMAJER, textes polonais trad. par C. BRENDEL et al., revus par J. WOLF, (Studia Copernicana, IV), Wroclaw-Warszawa-Krakow-Gdansk, 1972, pp. 178-238 ; L. THORNDIKE, « Oresme and Fourteenth. Century Commentaries on the Meteorologica », in: Isis, 45 (1954), pp. 145-152 ; JR. S. C. MCCLUSKEY, Nicole Oresme on Light, Color, and the Rainbow: an Edition and Translation, with Introduction and Critical Notes, of Part of Book III of his “Questiones super IV libros Meteororum”, diss. Univ. of Wisconsin, 1974, pp. 28-63; B. MICHAEL, Johannes Buridan: Studien zu seinem Leben, seinen Werken und zur Rezeption seiner Theorien im Europa des Späten Mittelalters, Berlin 1985 (Diss., 2 vols.), vol. 2, pp. 660-667; S. KIRSCHNER, Nicolaus Oresmes Kommentar zur Physik, pp. 32-34. 2197, ff. 58r-98r, et celles du manuscrit de Münich. En établissant cette correspondance, on est confronté à plusieurs problèmes qui touchent à l'organisation des questions et à la divisions des livres dans les deux manuscrits. Le premier élément qui saute aux yeux, en parcourant les listes des questions des deux manuscrits, est que, tandis que dans la copie de Münich les questions sont reparties en quatre livres, dans le témoin de Darmstadt on en compte seulement deux. Toutefois, si l'on régarde de plus près les deux listes, on s'aperçoit tout de suite que cette différence ne relève pas de l'absence d'un certain nombre de questions dans le manuscrit de Darmstadt, mais plutôt de la disposition des questions dans les livres dans les deux manuscrits. Le quatrième livre du manuscrit de Münich se compose en effet d'une seule question, qui, dans le témoin de Darmstadt, se trouve dans le premier livre (I.10). Le déplacement de cette question au quatrième livre, voulu par le copiste de Münich, détermine, entre les deux manuscrits, un décalage dans la numérotation des questions, décalage qui, à cause de l'absence de la question « utrum omnes impressiones aque sint eiusdem speciei » (I.23) dans le manuscrit de Darmstadt, se trouve à être augmenté d'une unité. Un phénomène analogue se vérifie pour le troisième livre : les questions « utrum halo fiat ex refractione radiorum ab ipsa nube », « utrum sit aliquis color spiritualis, utrum colores apparentes in iride sint ibi vere et realiter », et « utrum iris debeat apparere secundum circuli periferiam », qui dans le manuscrit de Darmstadt ont été inclues dans le deuxième livre, constituent, avec deux autres questions d'optique, absentes dans le version de Darmstadt, « utrum iris possit apparere maior semicirculo », « utrum iris quandoque appareat secundum proportionem maioris et quandoque minoris circuli », le troisième livre du manuscrit de Münich. Cette opération de déplacement des questions semble donc répondre, dans le manuscrit de Münich, à l'exigeance de constituer un troisième et un quatrième livre des Questions sur les Météorologiques de Nicole Oresme. Nous reviendrons plus en détail dans une autre occasion sur cette opération stragégique. Un problème ultérieur auquel on se trouve confronté en dressant la liste des questions des deux manuscrits concerne plus plarticulièrement la constitution de la copie de Darmstadt. À partir du folio 80r, et jusqu'au folio 82rb, en effet, on assiste à une « interpolation » suite à la quelle on a introduit quatre questions (« Utrum habitatio terre permutentur propter mare », f. 80rb ; « utrum habitatio terre permutetur propter intemperantiam in qualitatibus secundis », f. 80vb ; « utrum locus naturalis elementi aque sit ubi nunc est mare », f. 81rb; « utrum mare fluat et refluat », f. 81v), écrites par une main différente de celle qui a copié le reste du texte. Liste des questions 17 Darmstadt, Hessische Landes- und Hochschulbibliothek, 2197, ff. 58r-98r München, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm 4375, ff. 19r- 46r Utrum impressiones metheorologice fiant secundum naturam inordinatiorem ea que est primi elementi corporum, id est secundum naturam minus ordinatam quam natura celi I.1 58ra I.1 19ra Utrum iste mundus inferior sit contiguus ipsi celo I.2 58vb I.2 19va Utrum omnis virtus inferior a superioribus, scilicet supercelestibus, gubernetur I.3 59va I.3 20ra Utrum aliquis motus localis in istis inferioribus sit effective a celo I.4 60ra I.4 20va Utrum, cessante motu celi, fierent generationes, alterationes, impressiones et similia in istis inferioribus I.5 60vb I.5 21rb Utrum, solo primo motu superiorum cessante, fierent generationes, impressiones etc., I.6 61va I.6 21va Cette liste des questions se base sur le texte transmis par le manuscrit de Darmstadt. Tandis que les graphies médiévales ont été respectées, les particularités orthographiques de ce manuscrit ont été normalisées pour une intelligibilité accrue. On a donc choisi galaxia, au lieu de galasia (I.22 d'après la numérotation du manuscrit de Darmstadt), periferiam au lieu de pelliferiam (II.14 d'après la même numérotation). posito quod sol et alii planete moverentur Utrum motus localis sit causa caloris I.7 62ra I.7 22ra Utrum aer superior et ignis in suis speris calefiant ex motu celi I.8 63ra I.8 22vb Utrum lumen in istis inferioribus a corporibus celestibus generetur I.9 63va I.9 23rb Utrum quattuor elementa sint continue proportionalia I.10 64rb IV.1 45ra Utrum omne lumen sit calefactivum I.11 66rb I.10 23vb Utrum omne corpus oppositum luminoso sit calefactibile per lumen I.12 67rb I.11 24va Utrum aliquod agens possit agere in passum distans ab eo sine hoc quod agat in intermedium I.13 68rb I.12 25ra Utrum aliquod agens fortius agat in remotum quam in sibi propinquum I.14 69ra I.13 25vb Utrum unum contrarium possit movere localiter alterum sibi I.15 69vb I.14 26rb contrarium Utrum media regio aeris sit semper frigida I.16 70va I.15 27ra Utrum flamme apparentes de nocte in aere fiant ibi naturaliter I.17 71ra I.16 27va Utrum, serenitate existente, appareant in celo de nocte iatus seu aperture et voragines et sanguinei colores I.18 71va I.17 28ra Utrum stelle comate sint de natura celi aut elementari I.19 72ra I.18 28va Utrum motus stelle comate sit naturalis I.20 72va I.19 29ra Utrum comete significant guerras, mortes principum, pestilentias et huiusmodi I.21 73rb I.20 29va Utrum omnes comete sint eiusdem speciei inter se et cum galasia I.22 73vb I.21 29vb Utrum impressiones humide fiant a calido I.23 74ra I.22 30rb Utrum omnes impressiones aquee sint eiusdem speciei I.23 30vb Utrum nix et pluvia generentur in media aeris regione I.25 75rb I.24 31rb Utrum grando debeat magis fieri in hieme, vel estate, aut in temporibus medibus sicut in vere aut in autompno I.26 76ra I.25 32ra Utrum nebula sit signum serenitatis I.27 76rb I.26 32va Utrum aqua naturaliter ascendat ad orificia fontium I.28 77ra I.27 33ra Utrum fontes et fluvii veniant ex aqua pluviali vel ex mari vel aliunde I.29 77va I.28 33va Utrum fontes et pluvia derivantur a montibus I.30 78rb I.29 34rb Utrum habitationes permutentur I.31 79ra I.30 34vb Utrum habitatio terre permutetur propter mare I.32 79rb I.31 35rb Utrum habitatio terre permutetur propter mare I.31 80rb Utrum habitatio terre permutetur propter intemperantiam in qualitatibus secundis I.33 80vb I.32 35vb Utrum locus naturalis elementi aque sit ubi nunc est mare II.1 81rb II.1 36rb Utrum mare fluat et refluat II.2 81vb II.2 36vb Utrum habitatio terre permutetur propter permutationes in qualitatibus secundis I.33 85ra Utrum mare fluat et refluat II.2 86ra Utrum aqua maris sit salsa II.3 86va II.3 37rb Utrum fontes et fluvii debant esse salsi II.4 87ra II.4 37vb Utrum ventus sit exalatio sicca II.5 87va II.5 38rb Utrum auster veniat a polo antartico et boreas ab artico II.6 88rb II.6 39ra Utrum terremotus sit possibilis II.7 88vb II.7 39va Utrum terremotus, ventus et tonitrum et similia sint eiusdem nature II.8 89rb II.8 40ra Utrum fulgur sit exhalatio calida et sicca ignita II.9 89vb II.9 40va Utrum visus refrangatur a corporibus densis II.10 90va II.10 41ra Utrum halo fiat ex refractione radiorum ab ipsa nube II.11 91va III.1 42ra Utrum sit aliquis color spiritualis II.12 92ra III.2 42rb Utrum colores apparentes in II.13 92rb III.3 42vb iride sint ibi vere et realiter Utrum iris debeat apparere secundum circuli periferiam II.14 92vb III.4 43rb Utrum iris possit apparere maior semicirculo III.5 44ra Utrum iris quandoque appareat secundum portionem maioris et quandoque minoris circuli III.6 44va 
work_aztouyryjvfflfkm4cfzr5ajse	----	wp-p1m-38.ebi.ac.uk Params is empty 404 sys_1000 exception wp-p1m-38.ebi.ac.uk no 219525445 Params is empty 219525445 exception Params is empty 2021/04/06-02:36:05 if (typeof jQuery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/1.14.8/js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,String.fromCharCode(60)).replace(/\]/g,String.fromCharCode(62))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} Page not available Reason: The web page address (URL) that you used may be incorrect. Message ID: 219525445 (wp-p1m-38.ebi.ac.uk) Time: 2021/04/06 02:36:05 If you need further help, please send an email to PMC. Include the information from the box above in your message. Otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using PMC: Search the complete PMC archive. Browse the contents of a specific journal in PMC. Find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/ 
work_b3ea64e65rfnjkr2neri64qtkm	----	J Bras Patol Med Lab • Volume 46 • Número 3 • junho 2010 ISSN 1676-2444 Nossa capa our journal cover M us ée d 'O rs ay , P ar is , F ra nç a Monet: o pai do Impressionismo Em vez de dar continuidade ao comércio da família (uma mercearia) como seu pai sonhava, Claude Monet transformou- se no precursor de um movimento artístico inovador, cujo nome, Impressionismo, começou a ser usado após uma crítica nega- tiva a seu quadro Impressão, Sol Levante, exibido no ano de 1872 em conjunto com obras de alguns amigos como Renoir, Degas e Cézanne Oscar-Claude Monet nasceu em Paris, em 1840, mas cresceu na cidade portuária de Havre, onde teve seu primei- ro contato com a pintura quando conheceu Eugène Boudin, que o estimulou a trabalhar ao ar livre, prática que seria fun- damental no desenvolvimento de sua técnica e seu estilo. Monet voltou a viver em Paris aos 19 anos, com o objetivo úni- co de estudar pintura. Apesar do desejo da família de vê-lo na tradicional Escola de Belas Artes, escolheu ingressar no Atelier Suisse, cujo modelo educacional mais livre combinava melhor com sua personalidade. Embora apreciasse o desenho, Monet não concordava com a prática acadêmica das escolas tradicio- nais. É nesse ambiente que conheceria Pissaro, por meio de quem conheceu Manet, Coubert e outros artistas vanguardistas. Em 1861, Monet é convocado para defender a França na guerra e viaja para a Argélia. Com a ajuda da tia, retorna a Paris um ano depois, dando continuidade a seus projetos ao ar livre. Era costume encontrar com amigos, também artistas, no estúdio de algum deles e sair para bosques e campos próximos, onde pas- savam o dia pintando paisagens e aproveitando ao máximo as mu- danças de luminosidade proporcionadas pelo desenrolar do dia. Monet conheceu a jovem Camille Doncieux, que trabalha- va para ele como modelo e acabou se tornando sua esposa. Juntos tiveram dois filhos, mas somente se casaram após três anos juntos. Os primeiros tempos do jovem casal foram de sérios problemas financeiros. Como Monet relutava em mudar seu estilo de pintar, encontrava grandes dificulda- des para comercializar seus quadros. Apenas depois de de- flagrada a Guerra Franco-Prussiana (1870), quando fugiu para Londres, é que a vida do pintor começou a melhorar. Na Inglaterra conheceu o marchand Paul Durand-Ruel, que passou a apoiar os impressionistas e a adquirir obras do grupo. De volta à França em 1871, Monet morou em Argenteuil e depois se instalou em Vétheuil, dando início ao período mais fértil de sua vida. Torna-se muito amigo do ca- sal milionário Alice e Ernest Hoschedé, que se tornam gran- des fãs de seu trabalho. Pelas tramas do destino, Monet e Alice acabaram se casando após ambos ficarem viúvos. Em 1883, Monet mudou-se definitivamente para Giverny junto da nova esposa e dos sete filhos (dois dele e cinco dela). Aos poucos Monet transformou a propriedade em seu pequeno pa- raíso, local onde construiu um lago que receberia seus famosos nenúfares, ninfeias e a ponte nipônica. Realizaria ali variadas séries de pinturas maravilhosas. A morte da segunda esposa e do filho Jean, a Primeira Grande Guerra e a luta contra a ce- gueira abalaram bastante o pintor na velhice. Contudo, Monet viveu e pintou até os 86 anos e está enterrado no jardim de sua casa em Giverny. Monet: father of Impressionism Instead of continuing the family’s business (a grocery store) as his father wanted, Claude Monet became the forerunner of an innovative art movement, whose name, Impressionism, began to be used after a negative review to his painting Impression, Sunrise (Impression, Soleil Levant), exhibited in the year 1872 together with works from some of his friends, as Renoir, Degas and Cezanne. Oscar-Claude Monet was born in Paris in 1840, but grew up in the port city of Le Havre, where he had his first contact with the painting when he met Eugene Boudin, who encouraged him to work outdoors, a practice that would be crucial in developing his technique and style. Monet returned to live in Paris at age of 19, with the sole purpose of studying painting. Despite the family’s desire of seeing him in the traditional School of Fine Arts, he chose to join the Atelier Suisse, whose more liberal educational model better matched with his personality. Although Monet enjoyed drawing, he did not agree with the academic practice of traditional schools. It was in this environment that he would meet Pissarro, through whom he met Manet, Courbet and other avant-garde artists. In 1861, Monet joined the army to defend France in the war and travels to Algeria. With the help of his aunt, he returns to Paris a year later, continuing his outdoor projects. He used to meet with his friends, artists as him, in the studio of some of them and go out to nearby fields and woods, where they spent their days painting landscapes and making the most of the changes in brightness offered by the course of the day. Monet met the young Camille Doncieux, who worked for him as a model and eventually became his wife. Together they had two children, but only married after three years together. The early days of the young couple were in serious financial trouble. As Monet was reluctant to change their painting style, he faced great difficulty in selling his paintings. It was only after the outbreak of Franco- Prussian War (1870), when he fled to London, that the painter’s life began to improve. In England, he met the dealer Paul Durand-Ruel, who came to support the Impressionist and to acquire works from the group. Back to France in 1871, Monet lived in Argenteuil, and then settled in Vétheuil, beginning the most fertile period of his life. He became a close friend of the millionaire couple Alice and Ernest Hoschede that turned big fans of his work. By twist of fate, Monet and Alice eventually married after both became widows. In 1883, Monet moved to Giverny once for all with his new wife and seven children (two of him and five of her). Gradually Monet turned his property into his little paradise, where he built a pond that would receive his famous nenuphars, nymphs and the Japanese bridge. He would paint there multiple series of marvelous pictures. The death of his second wife and of his son Jean, the First World War and the fight against blindness seriously afflicted the painter in old age. Yet, Monet lived and painted until 86 years old and he is buried in the garden of his property in Giverny. Papoulas vermelhas em Argenteuil (Red Poppies at Argenteuil) Óleo sobre tela, 1873. Claude Monet 
work_b6cfnlqa4nhk5eykpwpyj7ea4u	----	Brigitte Hamann. Hitler's Vienna: A Dictator's Apprenticeship. Trans T. Thornton. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. Pp. viii, 482. Black and white illustrations, bibliography, index All Rights Reserved © Urban History Review / Revue d'histoire urbaine, 2001 Ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. L’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ Cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’Université de Montréal, l’Université Laval et l’Université du Québec à Montréal. Il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ Document généré le 5 avr. 2021 21:36 Urban History Review Revue d'histoire urbaine Brigitte Hamann. Hitler's Vienna: A Dictator's Apprenticeship. Trans T. Thornton. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. Pp. viii, 482. Black and white illustrations, bibliography, index Thomas J. Saunders Volume 30, numéro 1, october 2001 URI : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/1015951ar DOI : https://doi.org/10.7202/1015951ar Aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) Urban History Review / Revue d'histoire urbaine ISSN 0703-0428 (imprimé) 1918-5138 (numérique) Découvrir la revue Citer ce compte rendu Saunders, T. J. (2001). Compte rendu de [Brigitte Hamann. Hitler's Vienna: A Dictator's Apprenticeship. Trans T. Thornton. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. Pp. viii, 482. Black and white illustrations, bibliography, index]. Urban History Review / Revue d'histoire urbaine, 30(1), 74–75. https://doi.org/10.7202/1015951ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/1015951ar https://doi.org/10.7202/1015951ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/2001-v30-n1-uhr0603/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ Book Reviews I Comptes rendus dominating the city's notion of itself and its past and providing the basis for an extremely profitable tourist industry. In the second section of the book, "Forms and Media", Borsay outlines characteristics of Bath's classical image and the means by which it was developed, maintained, and transmitted. He identifies two key constituents of Bath's Georgian image: biography (ac- counts of Bath's Georgian celebrities) and architecture (the clas- sical buildings inherited from the eighteenth century). The book becomes more interesting when Borsay turns to the uses the Georgian image has served, that is, to the commercial, social and political, and psychological contexts in which Bath's Georgian image operated. The image has been used to sell the city, especially to tourists, and as justification for intervening in and attempting to control the city's political processes—the twentieth-century conservation battles being a prime example here. Bath's image as a Georgian city has also been used to con- fer social status on middle-class aspirants, and psychologically It provided an opportunity to escape from the pressures of the present, to establish a sense of continuity and therefore of personal and collective identity, and to celebrate several of the defining myths of western culture, (p. 348) In his conclusion Borsay focuses on the wider significance of his study. He sees late twentieth-century Bath as an exemplar of a number of trends. Aside from meeting the needs just identi- fied, it has also been part of a "heritage boom" (p. 369) and has provided ammunition in the debates surrounding the relation- ship of heritage with conservatism and class. Finally, Borsay says the study of Bath's image has implications for the under- standing of history. It is a case study both for the complex and dynamic relationship between past and present and for the way in which meaning and identity are constructed not only through what is said but also through what is left unsaid. In the last two sections of the book—on the uses of the Geor- gian image and in his conclusion—Borsay makes many thought- ful points and intriguing arguments that one wishes were more thoroughly discussed. For all his cavils against the orthodox his- torical pursuit of the objective and the real, the book is weighed down by the masses of empirical evidence Borsay feels com- pelled to supply throughout. Consigning some of the detailed accounts of the historiographical literature to footnotes, for in- stance, would have been a kindness to readers. It is a pity the editing could not have been tightened throughout to allow for a fuller exploration of the fascinating uses of Bath's image and its wider significance. It is ironic, surely, that a book firmly espous- ing a post-modernist stance with respect to reality should be crit- icised for evidential over-kill. Lynn MacKay Department of History Brandon University Brigitte Hamann. Hitler's Vienna: A Dictator's Apprenticeship. Trans T. Thornton. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. Pp. viii, 482. Black and white illustrations, bibliography, index. The specialist receives another book about Adolf Hitler with sus- picion that the human resources invested in it could have been better applied to a topic less exhaustively mined. Narrowing of the vital context to fin-de-siècle Vienna only partially allays suspi- cion: though no competition for the German dictator, pre-war Vi- enna has drawn considerable historical attention of its own. That this translation from the original German edition appeared after the first volume of the massive biography by Ian Kershaw, which draws from it, creates further scepticism. Against all these odds, however, Brigitte Hamann's book is a pleasant surprise. Whether viewed as a study of an important phase in Hitler's life or as an account of the political culture of the Habsburg capital, it is both engaging and insightful. It manages, crucially, while re- visiting broadly familiar terrain, to establish wide-ranging, plausi- ble links between the dreamy indolent who moved from Linz to Vienna in early 1908 and the rabble-rousing German politician of the 1920s and 1930s. Since the sources for Hitler's early life remain scanty and often problematic, there are no great biographical revelations here. The only minimal addition comes from the author's contact with the daughter of Rudolf Hâusler, a previously neglected room- mate of Hitler's in Munich. Painstaking cross-checking of eyewit- ness accounts and the few official documents does allow Hamann to correct a number of errors in traditional accounts. However, her real achievement is to balance careful use of the traditional sources with statements gleaned from Mein Kampf and later speeches or conversations to show the formation of Hitler's mental world and political vision. While acknowledging that virtually everything Hitler later said was for political ef- fect—above all, his so-called political testament, Mein Kampf— and that he stylized or deliberately obscured much of his pre-war biography, Hamann is still able to draw persuasive connections between the German public figure and the Austrian drifter and post-card painter. That these occasionally become speculative is no strike against her scholarship. For her achieve- ment is to make sense of the impressionable, self-educated loner by immersing him, and the reader, in the socio-economic and ethnic struggles of pre-war Vienna. Hamann manages to integrate Hitler's experience—concrete and imaginary—into this world without normalizing or making him a mere distillation of banalities. He emerges as no less idi- osyncratic, no less an outsider and loser. Yet his very banality acquires substance through the world from which he drew preju- dices, shreds of ideological comfort, and lessons in political gamesmanship. He remains a caricature, yet one identifiable and capable of being situated within the matrix of the fantastic ideologies, bitter nationality conflicts, and political peculiarities of pre-war Vienna. This matrix knew blacks and whites, not shades of gray, as Germans were pitted against Slavs in a strug- gle for ethnic survival and as democratic politics became char- acterized by demagogy and violent confrontation. While Hamann does not prophesy doom for the Austro-Hungarian em- pire, one way to read this book is as an account of the circum- 14 Urban History Review f Revue d'histoire urbaine Vol. XXX, No. 1 (October 2001) Book Reviews I Comptes rendus stances under which that empire was set to implode. Indeed there are some noteworthy parallels between the disintegrative forces Hamann describes and those which later undermined the Weimar Republic, allowing Hitler to come to power. While Hitler never studied formally or systematically, he was an avid observer and a veritable sponge for absorbing the cross currents of his time. In Hamann's portrait he appears an eager imbiber of the Pan-German and racist notions that gained re- markable circulation in the context of the nationality conflicts that rocked Austria-Hungary from the end of the nineteenth cen- tury. He also emerges as an avid political apprentice, gleaning especially from Karl Lueger, the people's tribune, essential les- sons in demagogy and self-representation. Furthermore, his passion for the arts—notably architecture and Wagnerian op- era—while unschooled, gave him an eye for the possibilities of political theatre and mis-en-scène. Altogether, his stay in Vienna supplied the fundamentals of a worldview and a political praxis. Even with the subsequent publication of Ian Kershaw's two-vol- ume biography of Hitler, this study retains its fascination, for Hitler's Vienna boasts texture not achieved in Kershaw's early chapters. Moreover, it is highly readable, notwithstanding the oc- casional infelicity in translation. (References to the "Double" rather than "Dual Alliance" of Austria and Germany, or to "aliena- tion" to render fear of ethnic displacement, are initially confus- ing.) Urban politics are situated among the plethora of challenges faced by city planners and administrators. The pov- erty, loneliness, and lack of prospects among residents of the men's hostel, themselves not the lowest of the low in pre-war Vi- enna, receive graphic description. Likewise, the ferocity of the clash between Czechs and Germans, the latter fearful of a Slavic tide, and the growing estrangement between Germans and Jews acquire substance as aspects of everyday life. For anyone wanting to understand the peculiarities of central Euro- pean politics in an age of ethnic assertiveness, and thus the vi- tal context for both National Socialism—a movement with origins in pre-war Bohemia—and the shaping of its eventual leader, this book is indispensable. Thomas J. Saunders Department of History University of Victoria 75 Urban History Review / Revue d'histoire urbaine Vol. XXX, No. 1 (October 2001) 
work_b7qva4l24vbkdpyk2c6w7dl72q	----	Learning From Gus - Shuman - 2014 - The Oncologist - Wiley Online Library Skip to Article Content Skip to Article Information 
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work_bbhnheg6vjgi7ifggi3adkwpzq	----	Victorian Literature and Culture (2017), 45, 17–33. © Cambridge University Press 2017. 1060-1503/17 doi:10.1017/S1060150316000413 RUDYARD KIPLING’S TACTICAL IMPRESSIONISM By Chris Ortiz y Prentice A STORY TITLED “THE IMPRESSIONISTS” that was published in 1897 should have something to say about art, but does it? The sixth installment in Rudyard Kipling’s Stalky & Co. series, “The Impressionists” follows the antics of M’Turk, Stalky, and Beetle, three cunning boys at a dreary English military preparatory school. Suspecting these boys of cheating on their schoolwork, housemaster Mr. Prout turns them out of their private study into the main house dormitory. For revenge, and hoping to win back their room, Stalky & Co. become agents provocateurs. They start a fight in their house and manage to involve the other housemasters’ houses: “Under cover of the confusion the three escaped to the corridor, whence they called in and sent up passers-by to the fray. ‘Rescue, King’s! King’s! King’s! Number Twelve form-room! Rescue, Prout’s – Prout’s! Rescue, Macrea’s! Rescue, Hartopp’s!’” (102). The three boys then allow Mr. Prout to overhear a conversation that makes money-lending seem common practice in the houses: “‘Where’s that shillin’ you owe me?’ said Beetle suddenly. Stalky could not see Prout behind him, but returned the lead without a quaver. ‘I only owed you ninepence, you old usurer’” (103). Stalky & Co. rile up the other boys by telling ghost stories and spreading slanderous ditties; they turn the house against the prefects and undermine Mr. Prout’s authority; and in the end they win back their room, but they are also found out by the headmaster, who mixes corporeal punishment with his admonishments: “There is a limit – one finds it by experience, Beetle – beyond which it is never safe to pursue private vendettas, because – don’t move – sooner or later one comes – into collision with the – higher authority, who has studied the animal. Et ego – M’Turk, please – in Arcadia vixi” (117). The boys take the headmaster’s attentions as a compliment, and they take his advice. Never again do they stake the school’s peace in the pursuit of their own ends. From this distance, “The Impressionists” seems a far cry from its namesake, capital- I Impressionism, the movement commonly associated with figures like Monet, Conrad, Pater, and Proust. Yet, as I hope to show here, this Impressionism and turn-of-the-century Impressionist discourse inspire much of the story’s plot, dialogue, and reference. The connections between the story and capital-I Impressionism may be discovered by tracking Kipling’s prior thinking about Impressionism in his novel about painters The Light That Failed (1890) and in his reflections on Japonisme in From Sea to Sea (1889). In these works, Kipling examines the artist’s duty to tell the truth and experiments with rhetorical maneuvers aimed at disarming readers’ prejudices. In “The Impressionists” – which makes explicit reference to these earlier works – Kipling illustrates how to gain by telling lies that exploit a 17 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:11, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1017/S1060150316000413&domain=pdf https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 https://www.cambridge.org/core 18 VICTORIAN LITERATURE AND CULTURE person’s prejudices. At the crux of Kipling’s theorization of Impressionism is an insight into the novel possibility inscribed in the Latin root, impressiō, which means “irruption, onset, attack” (“impression”). The impression makes an attack on the understanding to gain assent. The artist may use the belief-rendering capacities of the impression not only to overcome incredulity but also to mislead and manipulate. Scholars have tended to think about Impressionism in terms of mimesis and modernity. “Impressionism,” writes Adam Parkes in A Sense of Shock: The Impact of Impressionism on Modern British and Irish Writing (2011), “might represent aesthetic adaptation to the changing conditions of modernity; it might even be understood as an appropriate means of reflecting the deluge of sensations back to itself” (12). In turn-of-the-century Impressionist discourse, the artist is frequently envisioned as helping the bewildered to assimilate their impressions. Nietzsche discussed “Modernity” in the 1880s, complaining that “the abundance of disparate impressions [has become] greater than ever” (47), and thinkers like Georg Simmel, Freud and William James similarly theorized modernity in terms of an onrush of “impressions.” “The task [of the artist],” as Conrad famously put it, “is to hold up unquestioningly, without choice and without fear, the rescued fragment before all eyes in the light of a sincere mood” (“Preface” xlix).1 In this essay, I want to keep Kipling in focus as an artist responding to modernity like other capital-I Impressionists. Viewed as mimesis, Impressionism looks like the elite property of the Aesthete, signaling epistemological concerns shared by painters, critics, novelists, and philosophers. Viewed as tactics, Impressionism looks like the commonplace property of the schoolboy, signaling scrappy concerns shared by crammers, subalterns, connivers, and survivors. In the texts I read here, Kipling’s artistic ideals may be seen to emerge, as if dialectically, from a never fully synthesized conception of Impressionism, as mimesis and as tactics, as art and as artifice, as fine and as vulgar, as telling the truth and as deception, as community-building and as an act of war. In what follows, we see Kipling approving of two different uses of Impressionism: by the artist, mimetically, to stimulate the imagination to a wider sympathy and thereby fend off the anomie and malaise caused by modernity’s onrush of impressions and by those made precarious by modernity, tactically, to utilize impressions to survive or gain comeuppance. If modernity’s bewildering quality sets the stage for “a wide game,” as Kipling wrote, the propagandistic deployment of impressions may also sow discord and lead to anarchy. Kipling thus held anxieties about tactical Impressionism. “The Village That Voted the Earth Was Flat” (1913) portrays tactical Impressionism as setting loose forces of anomie and distrust made possible by the “Age of Acceleration.” In Kipling’s depiction of modernity – exemplified by “Mrs. Bathurst” (1904) – foremost among what threatens the mind, body, soul, and finally the social order, is the impression itself. Critics have called attention recently to Stalky & Co.’s ideological discourses of manliness and shame, showing how these shaped Britain’s middle class into conformity with conservative imperialist mindsets.2 In certain instances in Stalky & Co., tactical Impressionism looks very much like a weapon of imperialist war and colonial control. In “Slaves of the Lamp: Part II” (1897), for example, Stalky helps defend a British fort in the northwest of India. The Malôts and the Khye-Kheens – fictionalized names for two indigenous groups – have put away past antagonisms to oust the British. In the middle of the night, Stalky sneaks across enemy lines and begins firing from the Malôts’s line on the Khye-Kheens. Lending an impression in which one’s adversary is predisposed to believe – in this case that a newly formed ally has turned traitor – is shown to be a favored tactic of Stalky, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:11, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 https://www.cambridge.org/core Rudyard Kipling’s Tactical Impressionism 19 both as a boy and as a soldier in the British Empire. From the perspective this essay develops, “Slaves of the Lamp: Part II” does not valorize the British Empire but the underdog’s use of tactical Impressionism for survival. The story emphasizes the precariousness of life in the British Army: despite being agents of British “masters,” there is nothing to ensure that the British soldiers will not die in battle. To his credit, Kipling did not need to imagine Britain in the role of the underdog to approve of the tactical Impressionist’s ability to overcome a stronger force through cunning. In “On the City Wall” (1888), colonial subjects Lalun and Wali Dad use tactical Impressionism to outwit and defeat the British authorities.3 Kipling derives the limits of ethical Impressionism from his sense of justice, his sympathy for the imperiled, and his care for the bewildered. 1. Mimetic Impressionism IMPRESSIONISM HAS BEEN DESCRIBED as a major epistemic shift, dating from David Hume’s distinction between “ideas” and the direct “impressions” of the five senses, playing out across a number of artistic media, reaching an apotheosis sometime in the later part of the nineteenth century, and serving as the grounds for modernism.4 Among writers, Impressionism has been associated with Walter Pater, Henry James, Joseph Conrad, Ford Madox Ford (a self-avowed Impressionist), Marcel Proust, Stephen Crane (whom Conrad called “the only impressionist, and only an impressionist” [CL 1: 416]), Frank Norris, Anton Chekov, and Katherine Mansfield.5 Max Saunders has theorized Impressionism’s influence on modernism, arguing that, The gem-like flame with which Pater wants to burn; the wondering or haunted consciousnesses of James’s novels; Conrad’s rigor in trying “to make you see”; the modernist epiphanies of Proust, Joyce, and Woolf: all these (and one could add others: Lawrence’s visionary vitalism; Eliot’s Tiresias foresuffering all; Pound’s desire to reconnect with the divine energies of Homer or Dante) represent a specific paradigm, which corresponds to a new way of thinking about how the mind works (where phenomenology, pragmatism, and Bergsonian vitalism coexist), about the experience of knowing, and the relationship between perceiving and understanding. (206-07) In Literary Impressionism and Modernist Aesthetics (2001), Jesse Matz argues that specifically literary Impressionism should be defined not as any special reliance on description but as a special reliance on or skepticism about the capacity of the “impression,” and by extension “impressionist” writing, to transcend subjective perception. Paul Armstrong defines Impressionism in Conrad, James, and Ford as a “Challenge of Bewilderment,” bespeaking a conservative politics and an invitation “to develop greater self-consciousness about the workings of consciousness in representation and interpretation” (25). Various critics have ascribed the causes for the intrusion of bewilderment in modern fiction to an “Age of Acceleration,” characterized by, on the one hand, urbanization, faster, more extensive means of travel and communication, new technologies, rising literacy, and, on the other hand, a dissolution of Victorian beliefs and assumptions.6 Fredric Jameson has argued that Impressionism emerged to compensate subjects for the deadening and socially destructive processes of Taylorization (227-37). Impressionism can also be thought of more narrowly, as one among several neologisms circulating in the second half of the nineteenth https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:11, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 https://www.cambridge.org/core 20 VICTORIAN LITERATURE AND CULTURE century, invented to describe trends seen to diverge from classical, orthodox, academic, or established schools of thought, particularly those concerning artistic creation. When Kipling has been considered in connection with Impressionism, it has been for such qualities in his literary writing as its sensory descriptiveness, its suggestive understatement, its telling detail, its pared down and carefully organized forms, its practiced ambiguity and sense of mystery. Critics immediately recognized Impressionist attributes in Kipling’s work. Gleeson White, for instance, advised Kipling in Letters to Eminent Hands (1892) that, “Like a clever impressionist your aim is for colour, air and light, with the supreme moment only” (59), while W. S. Sichel considered Kipling along with Pierre Loti as “modern word-colorists” in his 1897 Quarterly Review article, “Fathers of Literary Impressionism in England” (194). Because its semi-autobiographical protagonist is a painter and one of its minor characters is named only “the red-haired impressionist girl,” critics have tended to track Kipling’s thinking about Impressionism to his first novel, The Light That Failed. The novel follows English painter and war correspondent, Dick Heldar, whose artistic allegiances shift away from the establishment Neoclassicists in the Académie des Beaux Arts, where drawing and detail are emphasized, to the radical Impressionists, who stress color, speed of composition, and the relevance of the observer’s emotional attachment to the subject. Kipling’s family connections to painters and Paris made Impressionism a natural point of reference for his own ideas about art,7 and as Richard Berrong argues, “Kipling may well have found certain aspects of this new style of painting to be convenient ways of talking about what he wanted to do, or already saw himself as doing, in his own work” (35). Charles Carrington, Kipling’s first official biographer, thought that the “daring portrait of the ‘red-haired girl’” in The Light That Failed, “dabbed on the canvas, en plein air, with a few bold strokes in primary colours, is itself an impressionist masterpiece. Few other writers can convey light and colour in words, as vividly as Rudyard Kipling” (615). In an often referenced but rarely quoted book, J. M. S. Tompkins similarly compliments “that incandescence of the imagination that saw the light slipping through the oar-holes of the galley’s lower deck, or Dravot walking among the pines, like a big red devil, with the sun on his crown and his beard” (114). Discussing the descriptive writing in Kim, Tompkins writes: Much of the charm of the pictures is in the lighting, and this varies continually. The sun sets red through a mango-grove or washes across the gold-coloured grass of a hillside; the lights prick out in Simla; the Sahiba’s palanquin swings round the homestead with its escort of smoky torches, and the old servitor curls his white moustaches savagely in the young moonlight; and then the dawn rises cold on the waking camps, the railway-sidings, the little villages with temples and the cool, cut stone of the cells of the Jain monks. (26) As Tompkins concludes, Kipling “never cared to write a neutral-coloured prose,” and indeed his words convey not only light and colors but the whole sensual gamut (245). Kipling himself recognized that, especially in his earlier tales, “it was necessary that every word should tell, carry, weigh, taste and, if need were, smell,” and that “I made my own experiments in the weights, colors, perfumes, and attributes of words in relation to other words, either as read aloud so that they may hold the ear, or, scattered over the page, draw the eye” (Something 120, 43–44). As critics have seen, Kipling’s literary Impressionism goes beyond the use of descriptive language. It is significant that Tompkins chose to explicate Kipling’s tales as “Art,” a matter of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:11, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 https://www.cambridge.org/core Rudyard Kipling’s Tactical Impressionism 21 frames and focal points, lightings and patterns, dramatic and symbolic imagery, “viewable” in a single sitting. “As his work deepened,” Tompkins argued, “the intricacies sank into its grain, and he produced that figured art . . . where the full meaning has to be developed from image, symbol and hint, and the reader must also be an investigator” (258). Kipling’s mature Impressionism gives the same challenge of bewilderment Paul Armstrong finds in the novels of James, Conrad, and Ford. Louis Menand has regarded “Mrs. Bathurst” as an exemplary Impressionist text because it draws parallels between the processes of consciousness and new technologies of factual yet illusory representation, such as the photograph and cinematograph (160-64). One is reminded of Michael Fried’s argument that “in Manet’s paintings of the first half of the 1860s photography and Japanese woodblocks interpret one another . . . . Manet imagined photographs – which in the early 1860s visibly bore the marks of a certain constitutive duration (i.e. stillness, heldness) – to have been produced as if instantaneously, in a flash or rather by a blow, a single powerful woodblock-like impression” (327). In “Mrs. Bathurst,” the men compare their single powerful woodblock-like impressions and end up mystified, causing Pyecroft to wonder about perception’s power to exceed understanding. What Tompkins wrote about Kipling’s Impressionist “Art” could be said of other literary Impressionists: “Kipling’s work is full of deliberate gaps and abstentions. We are brought to the outside of the shut door or the edge of the gulf, and, if we have used our human understanding and our keenest attention, we have sufficient knowledge of what is going on behind the one or in the depth of the other” (155). In the infamously obscure “Mrs. Bathurst” as in some other of Kipling’s stories, we do not have sufficient knowledge, yet this seems to be part of the point. As the poet had remarked early in his career: “A stone’s throw out on either hand / From that well-ordered road we tread, / And all the world is wild and strange” (Verse 8). To depict this wild and strange world, Kipling developed a fully literary, mimetic Impressionism. 2. Towards Tactical Impressionism KIPLING’S IMPRESSIONISM has been explained only in its mimetic aspects, yet the travelogue From Sea to Sea (1889) suggests that Kipling began to conceive of the Impressionist’s art in terms of tactics as he became frustrated with the demands of verisimilitude. In this book, Kipling collected his travel reports or “letters” written between 1887 and 1889 for the Anglo-Indian audience of the Pioneer, an English-language Indian newspaper. Early in the book, the impression’s mimetic capacities are tested and found wanting. After describing the Taj Mahal, for instance, the “Englishman” – Kipling’s tongue-in-cheek name for his first-person narrator – complains: “It may be, too, that each must view the Taj for himself with his own eyes, working out his own interpretation of the sight. It is certain that no man can in cold blood and colder ink set down his impressions if he has been in the least moved” (1: 6). In this instance, as in others, “impression” connotes something different, and seemingly more than, either thoughts or sensations. “An impression is never simply a feeling, a thought, or a sensation,” explains Matz: “It partakes, rather, of a mode of experience that is neither sensuous nor rational, neither felt nor thought, but somewhere in between” (16).8 Kipling evidently shared this technical definition of the impression. When the Englishman’s travelling companion – the “Professor” (Samuel Alexander Hill) – asks, “What have you done? What have you seen?” the Englishman responds: “Nothing. I’ve accumulated a lot of impressions of no use to any one but the owner” (1: 395). For Kipling, having “been moved” https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:11, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 https://www.cambridge.org/core 22 VICTORIAN LITERATURE AND CULTURE renders a writer unable to “set down” his impressions. Writing is just too slow: the blood cools while the head works, and the impression is lost. What is then produced, being untrue to the original impression, will fail to convince. Travel writing must content itself with, as the Englishman says, “itinerary” – an attempt at factual descriptions of sights, sounds, smells, tastes, textures – or, as in another instance, ideas: “It is good, good beyond expression, to see the sun rise upon a strange land and to know that you have only to go forward and possess that land – that it will dower you before the day is ended with a hundred new impressions and, perhaps, one idea” (1: 136). “Perhaps,” if one is lucky. Impressions are desirable to the traveler but, regrettably, useless to the writer who would convey those impressions; whereas Ideas, because they can be communicated, are what the travel writer really wants. We get an idea from the travelogues of the kinds of problems Kipling saw as intervening between the earnest Impressionist’s desire to communicate with his audience and the audience’s capacity to believe in the truth of what is being shown. These obstacles are both epistemological and social. In painting, the act of composition and the moment of experience can be conflated into one and the same process, that of Impressionism. Heldar’s Impressionist masterpiece in The Light That Failed, “Melancholia,” is shown to represent not so much Bessie, the sitter, as Heldar’s own internal turmoil (the loss of his sight, his increasing dependence on drink, his broken heart). The “truth” of Heldar’s painting is in the painting’s existence; the painting is itself the impression. Literary Impressionism, by contrast, cannot hope to achieve this conflation of experience and expression. But there are further difficulties: Because experience is embodied, words must suggest and evoke rather than relate and describe. One must rely, therefore, upon style, but because one is always speaking within an embedded rhetorical situation, the style of earnest evocation is not so simply achieved. Kipling’s most revealing theorizations of Impressionism in From Sea to Sea occur in the chapters recounting his visit to Japan. When Kipling made his visit, Japan was known in Europe as a source of artistic innovation and as a bellicose empire. Many of Kipling’s contemporaries would have associated Impressionism with Japonisme. Japonisme evolved from an exoticist penchant for Japanese objects – “for example, Japanese lacquers, ivories, ceramics, textiles, medicine boxes, and ornamental sword guards” – that swept through Europe, especially France, after Japan opened its borders in 1854 (Wichmann 8). Artists and critics began to draw principles from Japanese art as it was put on display at the World’s Fairs and Expositions, and as more Westerners traveled to Japan. “To the Impressionists and their second-generation successors,” explains art historian Siegfried Wichmann, “Japonisme spelt liberation, the revelation of techniques which released them from the old traditional concepts of classical modeling taught at the academies” (10). More specifically: “From the 1860s to the 1890s, the themes of Japonisme provided an exciting new direction for artists such as James Abbott McNeill Whistler (1834-1903), Édouard Manet (1832-83) and Claude Monet (1840-1926), and authors such as the de Goncourt brothers, Guy de Maupassant and Pierre Loti . . . and [later] Vincent van Gogh (1853-90) and Paul Gauguin (1848-1903)” (Lambourne 32). As Yoko Chiba notes, Whistler’s influence bound up Impressionism with Japonisme for British writers such as Swinburne, Wilde, and Henley (10-11). According to Yeats in an 1892 essay, “a distinguished member of the Gosse, Lang and Dobson school” wrote: “He is no poet who would not go to Japan for a new form” (144). In his chapters on Japan, Kipling explores the limits of literary Impressionism. The problems of mimetic travel writing are particularly pronounced when the destination is https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:11, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 https://www.cambridge.org/core Rudyard Kipling’s Tactical Impressionism 23 Japan and the traveler is a European writing for Europeans. The reason is that Japonisme complicates any attempt at verisimilitude. Kipling draws attention to this problem in the first paragraph of an original draft of the chapters. The Englishman begins by advising the reader, “Never believe anything that Mister Oscar Wilde tells you” because he is “a long-toothed liar!”: “Among other things he, with his tongue in his brazen cheek, averred that there was no such a place as Japan – that it had been created by fans and picture-books just as he himself had been created by pottery and fragments of coloured cloth” (qtd. by Ricketts 28). The reference is to “The Decay of Lying” (1889), in which Vivian claims that Impressionism is not so much influenced by Japanese art as Japanese aesthetics are a European Impressionist construction (939). Kipling’s Englishman must preempt the sophisticated reader’s skepticism about the reality of the Impressionists’ Japan if he wants to represent Japan using the techniques of mimetic Impressionism. Interestingly, the editors of The Pioneer struck out this passage (Ricketts 31), perhaps because they perceived that the remarks were aimed at London and not Anglo-Indian readers. The second paragraph in the original draft combines literary Impressionism with wry commentary to persuade the reader of the reality of what is described. The Englishman writes of looking out his porthole to see “two great grey rocks studded and streaked with green and crowned by two stunted blue-black pines.” The description here is painterly, drawing the attention to colors and arrangement, smoothing out or putting a point on words through alliteration and meter. The Englishman describes seeing an “indigo-blue boy with an old ivory face and a musical voice” and a boat in the harbor with an “ivory-white frilled sail.” These images, painted in words, inspire the Englishman to comment on their seeming artificiality. They make, he admits, “a panel from a Japanese screen.” Yet, the Englishman attests to the reality of the Impressionists’ Japan: “I saw that the land was not a lie.” Japan really is as it has been depicted in books: “Japan, whence the camphor and the lacquer and the sharkskin swords come; among – what was it the books said? – a nation of artists” (291). Harry Ricketts has interpreted this opening as “shadow-boxing” in preparation for Kipling’s arrival in literary London “where Wilde held court”: “Having playfully dismissed Wilde’s aestheticised version of Japan with a faux naif display of Anglo-Indian literalism, Kipling now made it his own. With deliberate irony, his descriptive writing . . . absolutely bore out Wilde’s contention that the only Japan available to us is an artistic construct” (30). At the same time, however, the Englishman is contending that Japan really is a nation of artists and that it really does look like an Impressionist painting. The persuasive gambit of the opening paragraphs is tantamount to saying, “You would not believe me if I told you what I saw.” This pattern of writing is repeated throughout the Japanese chapters: Kipling constructs precise impressions that synthesize symbol and sensation, and he accompanies these exercises in literary Impressionism with a number of rhetorical techniques aimed at disarming the reader’s incredulity. At the end of the chapters, the Professor asks the Englishman, “What sort of mental impression do you carry away?” The first impression the Englishman offers is, “A tea-girl in fawn-coloured crêpe under a cherry tree all blossom.” This is a postcard image of Japan, the modifier “all blossom” neatly arranged to apply to both the tree and tea-girl. The next impression directs the reader, painter-like, to look “behind” the tea-girl at images that skirt the line between object and symbol: “green pines, two babies, and a hog-backed bridge spanning a bottle-green river running over blue boulders.” In the following impression, the Englishman begins by directing the reader’s visual imagination but then slides perceptibly into symbolic language: “In the foreground a little policeman in badly https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:11, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 https://www.cambridge.org/core 24 VICTORIAN LITERATURE AND CULTURE fitting Europe clothes drinking tea from blue and white china on a black lacquered stand.” The European clothes are badly fitting because, as the preceding chapters have indicated, the Englishman disapproves of Japanese adoption of Western culture and society. The final two impressions, by veering away from political signification, make it figure ambiguously as a subtext: “‘Fleecy white clouds above and a cold wind up the street,’ I said, summarising hastily.” It is possible that the cold wind up the street represents the Aesthete’s foreboding about the militaristic dimension of Japanese society.9 These final impressions of Japan strive to combine descriptive and symbolic language. They are made to seem indicative of some “truer” reality in which sensation and meaning are mutually constitutive, and to this extent, they derive from literary-Impressionist theory.10 Yet, tellingly, the Englishman cannot allow the impressions to stand by themselves. They are supported rather than undercut by a proviso – “I said, summarising hastily” – and then by a disavowal – “But what’s the good of writing impressions? Every man has to get his own at first hand. Suppose I give an itinerary of what we saw?” (1: 421). The rhetorical manipulation here is that of saying, “Believe me if you want to.” In the chapters on Japan, then, Kipling offers “impressions” while disarming his readers’ preconceptions. If Kipling was able to find a “new form” in Japan, it was a new understanding of Impressionism as tactics in addition to mimesis. The connection between tactical Impressionism and Japonisme is made explicit when, in “The Impressionists,” M’Turk analogizes Stalky & Co. tactics to a form of Japanese wrestling: “These wrestler- chaps have got some sort of trick that lets the other chap do all the work. Then they give a little wriggle, and he upsets himself. It’s called shibbuwichee or tokonoma, or somethin’” (115). The significance of this passage to Kipling’s thinking about Impressionism becomes clear when we situate it within the story’s use of the word “impression.” 3. “The Impressionists” IN “THE IMPRESSIONISTS,” Stalky & Co. deploy impressions on Mr. Prout that are ingeniously designed to make him act as the boys wish him to. The impressions stoke Mr. Prout’s fears, confirm his prejudices, tease his vanity, and attack his equanimity. Mr. Prout is represented as a typical Victorian housemaster: “Prout expounded to Beetle the enormity of money- lending, which, like everything except compulsory cricket, corrupted houses and destroyed good feeling among boys, made youth cold and calculating, and opened the door to all evil” (105). The fight between the houses earlier in the day attests to Mr. Prout that good feeling has been destroyed among boys through money-lending and other corrupting practices. But, of course, Stalky & Co. triggered the fight and invented the story about money-lending so that Mr. Prout would become convinced that good feeling has been destroyed among the boys. Mr. Prout’s self-assurance makes him easy prey to the tactical Impressionists. Beetle takes aim at Mr. Prout’s vanity and invents a tune, which he knows will please the younger boys for its catchiness and the safe rebellion it affords. Beetle whispers the ditty in a child’s ear, and it is sung around the school by day’s end: Oh, Prout he is a nobleman, a nobleman, a nobleman! Our Heffy is a nobleman – He does an awful lot, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:11, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 https://www.cambridge.org/core Rudyard Kipling’s Tactical Impressionism 25 Because his popularity – Oh, pop-u-pop-u-larity – His giddy popularity Would suffer did he not! (109) By this stage, writes the narrator, “The game was developing itself almost automatically” (103). The fight in the school has put the boys on edge and made them insubordinate. Mr. Prout is letting his worst fears run wild and begins to feel as if “mysteries hedged him on all sides” (108). The narrator explains how Stalky & Co.’s inventions give rise to conspiratorial behavior among the other boys: When a House is thoroughly upset, however good its conscience, it breaks into knots and coteries – small gatherings in the twilight, box-room committees, and groups in the corridor. And when from group to group, with an immense affectation of secrecy, three wicked boys steal, crying ‘Cave’ when there is no need of caution, and whispering ‘Don’t tell!’ on the heels of trumpery confidences that instant invented, a very fine air of plot and intrigue can be woven round such a House. (108) Mr. Prout becomes convinced of the degradation of the schools’ social relations when he overhears one boy saying, “Shut up, Beetle; it’s too beastly.” Inevitably, the housemaster assumes Beetle has been “perverting the juniors” (114), that is, talking about sex, probably of a homosexual variety. In fact, Beetle had only been telling a ghost story but he is delighted with the effect, although he resents the implication. Vaguely perceiving the cause of the disorder, Mr. Prout decides to return Stalky & Co. to their private room. The second half of the story opens with the school chaplain making a visit to the three troublemakers. To the chaplain’s question, “But why in the world didn’t you explain to Mr. Prout, instead of leaving him under the impression – ”, Beetle insists: “I was too truthful. I always am. You see, he was under an impression, Padre, and I suppose I ought to have corrected that impression; but of course I couldn’t be quite certain that his House wasn’t given over to money-lendin’, could I?” (114-15). As the chaplain points out, this is a specious argument; when Mr. Prout had asked Beetle: “I wish to know whether you are in the habit of advancing money to your associates Beetle?” Beetle responded, “No, sir; not as a general rule, sir” (104). Beetle’s answer is ingenious because, while the truth, it advances the wrong impression. M’Turk gloats at Beetle’s interpretive maneuver, noting about Prout: “He is quick to get an impression, ain’t he?” (116). The chaplain, picking up on Stalky & Co.’s idea of Impressionism, quips: “My own private impression is that all three of you will infallibly be hanged” (115). During this same conversation, M’Turk compares Stalky & Co. to Japanese wrestlers. Bradley Deane has read the passage in the context of Japan’s place in British conservative ideology. According to Deane, M’Turk’s reference is to Bushido and the samurai tradition of Japan, and the allusion is meant to recall martial virtues of obedience, stoicism, and aggression associated in England with Japan (140). Yet M’Turk’s mistranslations of Judo or Ju-Jitsu point not so much to martial Japan as to the “nation of artists” Kipling writes about in From Sea to Sea. A tokonoma is “a recess in a Japanese room constituting its focal point and usually containing a hanging scroll picture and a flower arrangement” (Page n. pag.). Kipling writes of a tokonoma in the letters on Japan in From Sea to Sea: “The tokonoma, recess aforementioned, held one scroll-picture of bats wheeling in the twilight, a bamboo flower-holder, and yellow https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:11, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 https://www.cambridge.org/core 26 VICTORIAN LITERATURE AND CULTURE flowers” (1: 301). Even more suggestive is “shibbuwichee,” which, although it does not appear in the travelogue, we may assume Kipling learned either from his travels or from his reading. Shibuichi refers to an alloy in popular use for engravings and ornamental fittings, for impressions – a highly tangential reference but not an altogether impossible one for the son of an engraver (“shibuichi”). Possibly Kipling conflated shibuichi with shibui, a commonplace but complex word often used to denote an aesthetic quality of simple stylishness or understated and thus profound beauty (“shibui”). In a scholarly assessment of the word’s etymology, Kawakita asserts that shibui connotes a set of principles within which, “Flashy individualism and showy, wasteful decoration are not merely unnecessary: they are harmful” (41). It is worth noting that shibui came to include a description of the esprit de corps of those baseball players who are essential to the team’s success but do not make showy plays (Kawakita 35). As in the Stalky variety of tactical Impressionism, shibui denotes an aesthetic quality that makes an agonistic virtue of understatement. Tactical Impressionism is an effect-oriented art, aiming more to stimulate than simulate the psychology of perception. It is a manipulation of prejudices not a transmission of felt reality. An advanced form of lying, it exploits prejudices and creates mistrust. It is revealing of Kipling’s anxieties about tactical Impressionism that he does not allow Stalky & Co. to go unpunished. The trio is found out at the end of story by the headmaster, “a man more subtle than them all” (116), who punishes the boys for misbehavior he never specifies: “There’s a certain flagrant injustice about this that ought to appeal to – your temperament” (117). The pattern of hyphenation here recalls probably the most recognizable signature of literary Impressionism; the “appeal to – your temperament” parallels the Conradian pronouncement that, “Fiction – if it at all aspires to art – appeals to temperament” (“Preface” xlviii); while the marks the headmaster’s lashings produce on the boys’ bodies are remarkably described as bearing “a certain clarity of outline that stamps the work of the artist” (117). This clarity contrasts sharply with the story’s pervasive atmosphere of fakery and cribbing. Order has been restored, and the boys “aren’t wrathy” (118). Instead, they receive the headmaster’s punishment as a compliment, since it takes an “artist” to know one. Moreover, the “artist” has restored good faith in the community by perceiving the truth and ensuring justice. Kipling’s anxieties about tactical Impressionism in this story are recognizably those of a capital-I Impressionist. If the Impressionists’ skepticism was right for the times, it was not only on account of advances in the physical sciences which drew attention to the relay between sensation and ideation but also and perhaps a fortiori because Impressionists and their audiences experienced modernity as a bewilderment.11 In Impressionist fiction, atomism, solipsism, and anarchy lurk behind what Paul Armstrong has called “the drama of interpretation.”12 In Stalky & Co.’s hands, Impressionist suggestiveness becomes sensationalism, opportunism, rumor spreading, and falsification. The purpose of the boys’ subterfuge is to gain their personal objectives: revenge and their private study. The headmaster is there to ensure that no lasting harm is done to the community of the school through the boys’ prejudice-stoking insinuations. In “The Impressionists,” Stalky & Co. and the headmaster can both “win,” but for reasons we shall now consider, Kipling did not always choose such a utopic ending for his stories about tactical Impressionism. In “The Village That Voted the Earth Was Flat” tactical Impressionism sets the ship of state adrift. This story suggests, furthermore, that tactical Impressionism may hasten modernity’s unraveling effects. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:11, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 https://www.cambridge.org/core Rudyard Kipling’s Tactical Impressionism 27 4. Impressionism and Kipling’s Modernity NIETZSCHE THEORIZED THAT A “kind of adaptation to [Modernity’s] flood of impressions takes place”: As the “tempo of this influx” becomes more “prestissimo,” “one instinctively resists taking in anything, taking anything deeply,” spending all one’s energy, instead, “merely react[ing] to stimuli from outside.” People so deluged by impressions “spend their strength partly in assimilating things, partly in defense, partly in opposition,” resulting in a “[p]rofound weakening of spontaneity.” According to Nietzsche, all the “talents” of “Modernity” are “reactive talents”: viz., “the historian, critic, analyst, the interpreter, the observer, the collector, the reader,” and, one might add, the Impressionist (47). The talents of Modernity Stalky & Co. possess are, by contrast, proactive: they are “spontaneous,” not reacting to impressions but playing upon reactionary tendencies in their interlocutors. Where the discourse of the game (with its duty to one’s side) meets the discourse of the artist (the highest value of which is sincerity) is in the notion of responsibility. I see Kipling’s sense of responsibility widening as his conception of modernity developed. In “The Village That Voted the Earth Was Flat,” Kipling warns against the art of lying where it might add to the anarchy of an already impressionistic modernity. As in “The Impressionists,” “The Village” puts the reader on the side of revenge-seekers, and, as in “The Impressionists,” there is a vicarious sense of power running through the story. Kipling is letting us in on what he calls in the poem appended to the story, “the widest game / That all of a man can play” (Verse 600). The “game” in this instance is a Stalky-style manipulation of prejudices amplified by means of the cheap dailies, the Music Hall, and new media like the cinematograph and phonograph. The story begins when three London newspapermen and an MP are caught speeding through the small town of Huckley. The men are made to appear in court, where the magistrate, also an MP, rebukes and humiliates them, showing off to the assembled villagers. Outside of the courthouse, the men meet Impresario Bat Masquerier, who has been similarly ridiculed and embarrassed. Together, the men vow to take their revenge on the magistrate. The Wildean art of lying is taken to extremes in “The Village.” Vivian says in “The Decay of Lying” that, “Art takes life as part of her rough material, recreates it, and refashions it in fresh forms, is absolutely indifferent to fact” (929). In “The Village,” Masquerier employs the real Huckley “as a back-cloth to one of his own dramas” (396). Masquerier hires London actors and actresses to stage a revival-type meeting of the “Geoplanarian Society – a society devoted to the proposition that the earth is flat” (388). The event is so successful that the villagers of Huckley, who have been plied with drink, take a vote and hold that the Earth is flat. The rumor of this vote is made by the newspapermen to spread through London. In the meantime, the newspapermen have been disseminating other stories about the backwardness of Huckley. These hijinks culminate in the invention of a satirical song and dance making fun of Huckley. The song, the refrain of which is “the Village that voted the Earth was flat!,” takes the London stage by storm, is recorded and distributed around the world: “The Song ran and raped [the world] with the cataleptic kick of ‘Ta-ra-ra-boom-de-ay,’ multiplied by the West African significance of ‘Everybody’s doing it,’ plus twice the infernal elementality of a certain tune in Dona et Gamma” (394). Unlike “The Impressionists,” there is no finally authorized “artist” in “The Village” who can recuperate the truth or restore order: the revengers “did not need to lift [their] little fingers any more than the Alpine climber whose last sentence has unkeyed the arch of the avalanche. The thing roared and pulverised and swept beyond eyesight all by https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:11, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 https://www.cambridge.org/core 28 VICTORIAN LITERATURE AND CULTURE itself – all by itself. And once well away, the fall of kingdoms could not have diverted it” (394). As the popularity of “The Song” grows, the original reference to Huckley is forgotten. After the creators have lost control of their game, the narrating “I” recognizes that “for all practical purposes, literary, dramatic, artistic, social, municipal, political, commercial, and administrative, the Earth was flat” (394). Whereas Stalky & Co. laugh in relief at the end of “The Impressionists,” the erstwhile revengers are ashen-faced at the end of “The Village.” The story ends with the men looking on at Parliament, which, in the midst of a vicious sectarian battle, breaks out spontaneously into a rendition of “The Song.” It is a fever-dream ending to a fever-pitched story: “The ship of State drifted out helpless on the rocking tide of melody . . . . They sang ‘The Village that voted the Earth was flat’: first, because they wanted to, and secondly – which is the terror of that song – because they could not stop” (405). The revengers’ game has come to include Parliament, London, the English countryside, the British Empire, the English-speaking world: who knows where it ends, or how? In “The Impressionists” a House, then an entire school is “thoroughly upset” by tactical Impressionism (108). Here the effects are distributed wide and far via a global system of interconnected communities. What was false has become real, and the social consequences of the tactical Impressionism are permanent and impossible to measure. Tactical Impressionism has contributed to the anarchy of modernity. For the most part, misdirection, although a key component in Kipling’s thinking about Impressionism, did not enter into his literary practice. We are not misled in the enigmatic stories like “Wireless” or “The Wish House.” Even if we cannot believe that Mr. Shaynor has channeled the ur-Keats or that Mrs. Ashcroft has taken on the pain of Harry, we do not fail to understand these characters or to credit their stories. Rather, we are put into a position from which we may value their experiences regardless of whether we choose to believe as they do in mysterious forces. In a few instances, however, such as “Mrs. Bathurst,” Kipling could reproduce his characters’ impressions in his readers without offering the paradigm that recuperates their value. Just as Conrad’s recourse to such Impressionist techniques as achronology, limited point of view, delayed decoding, and multiple narrators often stems from an appreciation of the violence of experience – its capacity to jar, even to injure the psyche as well as the body – the violence of the men’s experience in “Mrs. Bathurst” accounts for the story’s irremediably disjointed quality. “Mrs. Bathurst” is a wandering story, cobbled together piece-meal in the start-and-stop conversation of four working men temporarily made useless in an out-of-the-way corner of the British Empire called “False Bay.” It is a story, indeed, of false starts. Before we hear anything of Mrs. Bathurst, we learn of Sergeant Pritchard’s misguided attempts to find a farm “back o Vancouver Island”: “A day an’ a night – eight of us – followin’ Boy Niven round an uninhabited island in the Vancouver archipelago!” (330). The narrator has mistimed his trip to Simon’s Bay and is stranded there until 5 p.m. Stories are traded of naval incompetence and desertion. Mr. Hooper’s impatience when, just as the story seems to be getting to its point, which would appear to be the nature of the relationship between Mrs. Bathurst and Vickery, Pyecroft switches to his account of the early cinema, is offered as a surrogate for the reader’s frustration with trying to keep this story in frame. As the extensive critical explication of this tale attests, the story’s characters are shadows of persons, illusively seen and depicted.13 Mr. Hooper says, “I don’t see her yet somehow” in response to Pyecroft’s and Pritchard’s efforts to convey Mrs. Bathurst, such as offering her personal history, physical appearance, and an anecdote of her behavior. Pyecroft finally conveys Mrs. Bathurst to Mr. Hooper through an unadorned fact which is not about her at all but rather her capacity to leave an impression: https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:11, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 https://www.cambridge.org/core Rudyard Kipling’s Tactical Impressionism 29 namely, that Pritchard remembers every moment of his encounters with her, although these amounted to no more than three in ten years (334). Despite or because of their fleeting nature, encounters such as those with which the story is concerned leave their impressions. Pyecroft describes his piecing-together of Vickery’s tale as a working of his “epicycloidal gears” (339). Pyecroft’s mechanical images are of a piece with his technical jargon, but the point is also that the working of these gears is never entirely satisfactory. An epicycloid is formed by tracing a line from the fixed point on a wheel as it rolls around the circumference of a fixed circle. When this process is repeated starting from different points on the circle, a wonderfully regular mosaic is formed around the circle. The circumference itself, however, remains undrawn, only returned to again and again. The presence of modernity in “Mrs. Bathurst” is likewise projected in an absent circle at the center of this tale. Britain’s empire does not appear in this imagining as a monolithic ordering but as an occasioning of fleeting sensations. The dislocations of modernity – which are figured both in the men’s peripatetic lives and in the effect of the early cinema to aggravate Vickery’s solipsism, guilt, and infatuation – are not fixed to an interpretive framework but made to disturb the coherence of the story. “Mrs. Bathurst” is especially mindful of the “hurt” – a word encoded into its title – which may be done to the emotional integrity by an inability to sort experiences. The hurts of the story are only secondarily injuries to the flesh, although these are manifold. Vickery loses a quarter of his face to an ammunition hoist, but to be flicked on the raw by an early cinematographic simulacra of Mrs. Bathurst – the most ephemeral, fleeting, and disconnected of experiences – was apparently more than he could bear. The reason the mere impression may hurt appears to be its lack of frame. Pyecroft explains about the cinematograph that “when anyone came down too far towards us that was watchin’, they walked right out o’ the picture, so to speak,” and, sure enough, Mrs. Bathurst “walked on and on till she melted out of the picture – like – like a shadow jumpin’ over a candle” (336). It is a maddening form of disappearance, and it is precisely how Vickery disappears at the end of the story, when he walks out of the frame of Pyecroft’s account. The story’s conclusion suggests that frameless impressions can wound the sense of coherence, which is presented as an emotional vulnerability. These impressions must be warded off through a communal ritual of shaking-the-head. Because Pyecroft cannot draw the line which connects the dots of what he knows of Vickery’s experience – cannot circumscribe Vickery and by this means of categorization protect himself from what he has seen – it is important that he should be allowed to exorcise his impressions: “Well, I don’t know how you feel about it,” he concludes his account, “but ‘avin’ seen ‘is face for five consecutive nights on end, I’m inclined to finish what’s left of the beer an’ thank Gawd he’s dead!” The “enormous Sergeant of Marines,” Pritchard, is left at the story’s end with his face in his hands “like a child shutting out an ugliness.” His last lines, bearing all the markings of mimetic Impressionism, show what affective dangers lurk in the mere impression: “‘And to think of her at Hauraki!’ he murmured – ‘with ‘er ‘air-ribbon on my beer. “Ada,” she said to her niece . . . Oh, my Gawd!’” (341). As critics have recognized, Pritchard’s horror is that Mrs. Bathurst should be connected to Vickery’s strange fate, not that he presumes her to be the other figure found burned to ashes by Vickery’s side. If so, then the source of Pritchard’s pain is in the impression of connectedness that yet defies meaningfulness. How could one so lovely be associated to such a gruesome tale? In getting at this question, “Mrs. Bathurst” foregrounds modernity as an immense and bewildering connecting – through new media, through empire, through trains and ships and markets, through word-of-mouth and chance encounters. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:11, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 https://www.cambridge.org/core 30 VICTORIAN LITERATURE AND CULTURE If in our understanding of Impressionism we include Kipling’s literary practice and perceptions, then we may see as he did that Impressionism attends the dangers and hurts of a world put into contact by new modes of communication and travel yet wrenched out of context by population growth and by world systems grown wider, more intrusive, and increasingly embattled. The artist behind Kipling’s stories was an Impressionist like Conrad who would not exacerbate the impressionistic nature of modernity but seek to ameliorate bewilderment. Perhaps Conrad appreciated this when he praised Kipling’s “beautiful squint” for being also “a useful squint,” adding: “And – after all – perhaps he sees round the corner? And suppose Truth is just round the corner, like the elusive and useless loafer it is? I can’t tell. No one can tell. It is impossible to know. It is impossible to know anything tho’ it is possible to believe a thing or two” (CL 1: 369). In the end, Kipling could have said what, as it happens, Conrad said: that “all ambitions are lawful except those which climb upward on the miseries or credulities of mankind” (Personal Record 12). Kipling saw that Impressionism could be used tactically, to survive and to get comeuppance. But Kipling was also an Impressionist with a capital-I, and for literary-Impressionists at the turn of the century, art was a public duty to aid faith, to conduce feeling, and to offer healing. Kipling’s stories about tactical Impressionism thus emphasize an ethical injunction, to shore up and not to sever the precarious ties of trust. University of Texas at Austin NOTES I wish to thank Allen MacDuffie for reading many drafts of this essay and offering excellent guidance at every stage of development. I am also grateful to Neville Hoad, Jake Ptacek, and Parama Roy, whose constructive criticism improved this essay. 1. For the best discussions of Conrad’s own views on Impressionism, see Hay, Knowles and Moore 166–68, and Karl 409–10. Peters and Johnson have situated Conrad’s aesthetics more broadly within Impressionist epistemologies. 2. Kucich argues that Kipling’s “broadened middle-class appeal” derived from two strategies, which are on display in Stalky & Co.: the utilization of sadomasochism to produce a dynamic of insiders and outsiders and a blending of “upper- and lower-middle-class ideological languages” of evangelism and professionalism (57-59). Deane reads the Stalky stories in support for his argument that “Kipling recommends an imperialism that does not conform to conventional civilized virtues or to traditional liberal justifications, but in place of these he proposes an apparently coherent honor code through which competitive manliness can make the entire enterprise virtuous, meaningful, and satisfying” (48). 3. For this reason, the story is Salman Rushdie’s favorite of Kipling’s tales. See Rushdie 74–80. 4. Saunders synthesizes the vast scholarship on Impressionism in his excellent entry in the Companion to Modernist Literature and Culture (2008). 5. See, especially, Armstrong, Bender, van Gunsteren, Hoople, Nagel, Fried, Peters, and Stowell. 6. Miller has argued that the “typically high modernist concern [is] with the confusion of the individual trying to make sense of a bewildering cosmos” (147), while, as Parkes and Wollaeger have shown, the bewilderment explored by literary Impressionists was decidedly less “cosmic” than quotidian. Ford Maddox Ford and Conrad, for example, connect Impressionism to propaganda and sensationalist journalism. See, respectively, Wollaeger 128–63 and Parkes 99–146. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:11, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 https://www.cambridge.org/core Rudyard Kipling’s Tactical Impressionism 31 7. Drawing on Lycett’s and Flanders’s biographies, Berrong offers a concise rehearsal of Kipling’s family connections to artists and Parisian Impressionism: [Kipling] was the son of an art teacher and talented draftsman, Lockwood Kipling, who, when they visited the Paris Universal Exposition in April 1878, prompted the then thirteen-year-old boy to visit art galleries and that year’s Salon (Lycett 56). He spent his English Christmases with his Aunt Georgie and her husband, the distinguished Pre-Raphaelite painter Edward Burne- Jones. Another of his aunts, Agnes, had married the Orientalist academic painter Edward Poynter, who had known James Whistler in Paris and studied there with Charles Gleyre at the same time as Claude Monet (Flanders 104). After Whistler sued Ruskin for libeling his work neither Burne-Jones nor Poynter seems to have thought much of him or it (Flanders 256), but they continued to be aware of what was going on in modern French painting. In 1888 Whistler, by then a friend of Monet, married Beatrice Godwin, the widowed daughter of Lockwood Kipling’s artistic mentor, John Birnie Philip (Lycett 64). Rudyard’s familiarity with Whistler’s style by the time he began work on his first novel is demonstrated by the fact that he entitled one of four sketches he did for his friend Edmonia Hill in early 1889 ‘Study (after the fashion of Whistler)’ (Lycett 171). (Berrong 25) 8. For an overview and explication of “the impression” in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century thought and literature, see Matz 12–52. Shiff (27-38) offers a similar account of the synthesizing function of the “impression” for French Impressionist painters and art critics. 9. The Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) was a potent reminder of Japan’s militarism. The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) would put an end to Japonisme by “chang[ing] the image of Japan from the nation of flowery beauty to that of might” (Chiba 3). 10. As Matz has explained, the “impression” in Impressionist theory is no mere inkling but a transcendent experience binding sensation to a universal reality, serving thus as the grounds for community. Matz writes: “Beyond Hume but prior to Husserl, with greater breadth than empirical psychology, the impression’s perceptual aspirations and uncertainties match those at work when idealism tries to subsume Empiricism by distinguishing a faculty, synthetic in function and dialectical in process, through which the transcendent and the real interact” (29). Neither wholly in the individual psychology nor in the shared sphere of meaning nor yet in the objective world but somehow part and parcel of all these, the impression was an attempt to ground reality in the synthesis of intuition and observation. Such a valorized notion of the “impression” goes some way to explaining why for Conrad “an impression conveyed through the senses” should be capable of revealing “the solidarity in mysterious origin, in toil, in joy, in hope, in uncertain fate which binds men to each other and all mankind to the visible world” (“Preface” l). That Kipling felt a need to shore up mimetic Impressionism with persuasive techniques reveals his doubts about the impression as a means of access to universal reality. 11. This claim, which originates in Jameson, has been investigated in detail by Parkes. 12. See, especially, Armstrong 261–70. 13. The Kipling Society has very helpfully reviewed half a century’s criticism on “Mrs. Bathurst” in the online Readers’ Guide to the Works of Rudyard Kipling. WORKS CITED Armstrong, Paul B. The Challenge of Bewilderment: Understanding and Representation in James, Conrad, and Ford. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1987. Bender, Todd K. 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In Darkest James: Reviewing Impressionism, 1900–1905. Lewisburg: Bucknell UP, 2000. “Impression.” OED Online. Oxford UP. March 2013. Web. 23 May 2013. Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1981. Jarrell, Randall. Kipling, Auden & Co: Essays and Reviews, 1935–1964. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1980. Johnson, Bruce. “Conrad’s Impressionism and Watt’s ‘Delayed Decoding.’” Conrad Revisited: Essays for the Eighties. Ed. Ross C. Murfin. Tuscaloosa: U of Alabama P, 1985. Karl, Frederick R. Joseph Conrad: The Three Lives, A Biography. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1979. Kawakita, Michiaki. “The World of Shibui.” Japan Quarterly 8.1 (1961): 33–42. Kipling, Rudyard. The Complete Stalky & Co. New York: Oxford UP, 2009. ———. From Sea to Sea. Vol.1. New York: Doubleday, 1913. ———. “Mrs. Bathurst.” The Man Who Would Be King. New York: Penguin, 2011. 327–41. ———. Rudyard Kipling’s Verse: Inclusive Edition: 1885–1918. New York: Doubleday, Page, 1922. ———. Something of Myself: For My Friends Known and Unknown. New York: Penguin, 1992. ———. “The Village That Voted the Earth Was Flat.” The Man Who Would Be King. New York: Penguin, 2011. 377–406. Knowles, Owen, and Gene M. Moore. Oxford Reader’s Companion to Conrad. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2000. Kucich, John. “Sadomasochism and the Magical Group: Kipling’s Middle-Class Imperialism.” Victorian Studies 46.1 (2003): 33–68. Lambourne, Lionel. Japonisme: Cultural Crossings between Japan and the West. New York: Phaidon, 2005. Lycett, Andrew. Rudyard Kipling. London: Wiedenfeld and Nicolson, 1999. Matz, Jesse. Literary Impressionism and Modernist Aesthetics. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001. Menand, Louis. “Kipling in the History of Forms.” High and Low Moderns: Literature and Culture, 1889– 1939. Ed. Maria DiBattista and Lucy McDiarmid. New York: Oxford UP, 1996. 148–65. Miller, Tyrus. Late Modernism: Politics, Fiction, and the Arts between the World Wars. Berkeley: U California P, 1999. “Mrs. Bathurst: The Critics, 1955–1999.” The Kipling Society Readers’ Guide. The Kipling Society, 1 March 2010. Web. 23 May 2013. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:11, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 https://www.cambridge.org/core Rudyard Kipling’s Tactical Impressionism 33 Nagel, Thomas. “What is it like to be a bat?” Philosophical Review 83.4 (1974): 435–50. Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Will to Power. Ed. Kaufman. Trans. Walter Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale. New York: Vintage, 1968. Page, David. “Notes on From Sea to Sea. No. XI.” The Kipling Society Readers’ Guide. The Kipling Society, 1 March 2010. Web. 23 May 2013. Parkes, Adam. A Sense of Shock: The Impact of Impressionism on Modern British and Irish Writing. New York: Oxford UP, 2011. Peters, John G. Conrad and Impressionism. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001. Ricketts, Harry. “A Short Walk on the Wilde Side: Kipling’s First Impressions of Japan.” New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies 5.2 (Dec. 2003): 26–32. Rushie, Salman. Imaginary Homelands. London: Granta, 1991. Said, Edward. Introduction. Kim. By Rudyard Kipling. New York: Penguin, 2011. 291–331. Saunders, Max. “Literary Impressionism.” A Companion to Modernist Literature and Culture. Ed. David Bradshaw and Kevin J. H. Dettmar. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008. 204–11. Sherry, Norman, ed. Conrad: The Critical Heritage. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973. “Shibui.” OED Online. Oxford UP. March 2013. Web. 23 May 2013 “Shibuichi.” OED Online. Oxford UP. March 2013. Web. 23 May 2013. Shiff, Richard. Cezanne and the End of Impressionism: A Study of the Theory, Technique, and Critical Evaluation of Modern Art. Chicago: Chicago UP, 1984. Sichel, Walter Sydney. “Fathers of Literary Impressionism in England.” Quarterly Review 185 (1897): 173–94. Stewart, Garrett. Review. Literary Impressionism and Modernist Aesthetics. By Jesse Matz. Modernism/modernity 10.4 (2003): 770–72. Stowell, Peter H. Literary Impressionism, James and Chekhov. Athens: U of Georgia P, 1980. Tompkins, J. M. S. The Art of Rudyard Kipling. London: Methuen, 1965. van Gunsteren, Julia. Katherine Mansfield and Literary Impressionism. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1990. White, Gleeson. Letters to Eminent Hands. Derby: Frank Murray, 1892. Wichmann, Siegfried. Japonisme: The Japanese Influence on Western Art since 1858. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1999. Wilde, Oscar. “The Decay of Lying.” The Collected Works of Oscar Wilde. London: Wordsworth, 1997. 919–44. Wollaeger, Mark. Modernism, Media, and Propaganda: British Narrative from 1900 to 1945. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2006. Yeats, W. B. Letters to the New Island. Ed. Horace Reynolds. 1934. London: Oxford UP, 1970. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:11, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000413 https://www.cambridge.org/core 1. Mimetic Impressionism 2. Towards Tactical Impressionism 3. “The Impressionists” 4. Impressionism and Kipling’s Modernity Notes WORKS CITED 
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work_bd6glkilvjbipaoua2l6dgcoiy	----	PDF hosted at the Radboud Repository of the Radboud University Nijmegen The following full text is a publisher's version. For additional information about this publication click this link. http://hdl.handle.net/2066/208884 Please be advised that this information was generated on 2021-04-06 and may be subject to change. http://hdl.handle.net/2066/208884 ORIGINAL ARTICLE The Rise in Support for Gender Egalitarianism in the Netherlands, 1979-2006: The Roles of Educational Expansion, Secularization, and Female Labor Force Participation Paula Thijs1 & Manfred Te Grotenhuis2 & Peer Scheepers2 & Marieke van den Brink3 # The Author(s) 2019 Abstract Since the 1960s, public support for gender egalitarianism has risen substantially in many western countries. Although earlier research proposed that structural and cultural developments, such as educational expansion, declining religiosity, and the rise of women’s employment may explain this upward trend, these theoretical speculations have not yet been thoroughly tested. In the present research, we aim to contribute to the existing literature by empirically analyzing the influence of educational expansion, secularization, and the rise of women’s labor force participation on support for gender egalitarianism in the Netherlands and to explore to what extent these influences differ for men and women. We use repeated cross-sectional survey data from the Netherlands involving 12,146 men and 13,858 women. To capture cohort and period effects, we include historical and contem- porary contextual measures of educational expansion, secularization, and female labor force participation obtained from popu- lation censuses and labor force surveys, covering about 100 birth cohorts and 25 survey years. Of these three indicators, educational expansion contributed most to the rise in men’s, and particularly women’s, support for gender egalitarianism by changing the normative societal climate in which men and women have grown up and live. Promoting educational levels may therefore have far-reaching benefits for gender equality. Keywords Genderegalitarianism .Educationalexpansion .Secularization .Femalelaborforceparticipation .Normativechange . Contextual indicators Although gender equality has improved throughout the world, considerable gender-based inequality, discrimination, and exclu- sion persist (World Economic Forum 2015). Public support for gender egalitarianism may be an important factor in achieving gender equality because it contributes to a more egalitarian divi- sion of work and family responsibilities between partners, and it increases women’s opportunities, political participation, and la- bor market outcomes (Corrigall and Konrad 2007; Fortin 2005; Inglehart and Norris 2003). Gender egalitarianism is referred to as a belief system that supports equal rights, roles, and responsi- bilities for men and women and, vice versa, opposes the notion that men and women have innately different roles (i.e., women would essentially be more suited for caretaking and homemak- ing whereas men’s natural role is that of the breadwinner) (Davis and Greenstein 2009). Since the 1960s, a liberalizing trend to- ward greater public support for gender egalitarianism has been found in a wide range of countries, including the United States (Cotter et al. 2011; Mason and Lu 1988; Thornton et al. 1983), western Europe (Kraaykamp 2012; Lee et al. 2007; Scott et al. 1996), Australia (Van Egmond et al. 2010), as well as non- western countries (Inglehart and Norris 2003). Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-1015-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. * Paula Thijs p.e.thijs@uva.nl 1 Department of Sociology, University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Achtergracht 166, 1018, WVAmsterdam, The Netherlands 2 Department of Sociology, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands 3 Radboud Gender & Diversity studies, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-1015-z Sex Roles (2019) 81:594–609 Published online: 20 February 2019 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s11199-019-1015-z&domain=pdf http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9123-4966 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-1015-z mailto:p.e.thijs@uva.nl Theoretically, it is argued that structural and cultural devel- opments, such as increasing levels of education, declining reli- giosity, the rise of women’s employment, declining fertility, and the women’s movement have propelled support for gender egal- itarianism (Brewster and Padavic 2000; Cotter et al. 2011; Mason and Lu 1988; Pampel 2011; Scott et al. 1996; Shorrocks 2016). These developments have supposedly trans- formed the dominant societal discourse, exposing all individ- uals, and particularly those in late adolescence and early adult- hood (the so-called Bimpressionable years^; Sears 1983, p. 81), to ideas of gender egalitarianism (Inglehart and Norris 2003). Instead, to explain the upward trend in support for gender egal- itarianism, previous research has mainly compared levels of support for gender egalitarianism over time and across different birth cohorts (so-called period and cohort effects, respectively) (Brewster and Padavic 2000; Brooks and Bolzendahl 2004; Cotter et al. 2011; Firebaugh 1992; Kraaykamp 2012; Mason and Lu 1988; Neve 1995; Thijs et al. 2017). However, by using temporal measures of birth cohort and survey year as broad indicators of historical and contemporary societal developments, these studies leave unexplained why people living and growing up in times of different structural and cultural circumstances vary in their support for gender egalitarianism. In their literature review, Davis and Greenstein (2009, p. 91) concluded that Bseveral researchers have found period effects, but the impetus for change continues to be unclear.^ Thus, still surprisingly little is known about the under- lying determinants of the overall upward trend in support for gender egalitarianism in the past decennia. More recently, scholarly attention has been directed to an apparent slowdown of the trend toward gender egalitarianism in the mid-1990s, also referred to as the stalled gender revolution (Cotter et al. 2011; England 2010, p. 149–150; Pepin and Cotter 2018, p. 7; Shu and Meagher 2017, p. 1). Since then, studies have started to take the societal context into account to explain this stall in gender egalitarianism. For example, Shu and Meagher (2017) found that increased gender equality in the labor force partly accounted for the increase in gender attitudes in the United States in the 1980s, whereas the rise of men’s overwork appeared to explain part of the slowdown in gender attitudes in the 1990s as well as a restart of liberal gender atti- tudes from 2004 onwards. Pepin and Cotter (2018), by contrast, found that contextual increases in mothers’ education and em- ployment played a minimal role in explaining American high school students’ gender attitudes about work and family. Based on cross-national comparisons, Dotti Sani and Quaranta (2017) found that adolescents’ gender attitudes are influenced by the dominant societal discourse on gender inequality, but it remains to be seen whether this persists over the lifecourse. To our knowledge, however, no prior study has as yet tested the influ- ence of important structural and cultural developments in the societal context during people’s early adulthood on the upward trend in public support for gender egalitarianism. In the present research, we aim to contribute to the existing literature on changes in gender egalitarianism by empirically analyzing the influence of three theoretically relevant societal developments—educational expansion, secularization, and the rise of women’s labor force participation—on support for gender egalitarianism among women and men in the Netherlands. Instead of estimating the influence of birth co- hort and survey year to capture cohort and period effects as has been done in previous research, we analyze the influence of contextual measures of these three societal developments (a) when the respondents were in their late adolescence and early adulthood (16–20 years-old), and (b) in times of the survey year, while controlling for age effects and differences in the composition of the population. We thereby provide a more thorough test of the previously theorized influence of educational expansion, secularization, and female labor force participation on changes in gender egalitarianism over time and across cohorts (Menard 1991; Rodgers 1990). In addition, we analyze whether the influence of these structural and cul- tural developments is gendered because men and women have different interests in gender equality and may respond differ- ently to questions about gender egalitarianism (Ciabattari 2001; Jennings 2006). In the Netherlands, public support for gender egalitarian- ism has risen substantially to one of the highest levels in Europe (Merens an d Van de n Brake l 20 14) . Notwithstanding, views on childcare arrangements and re- sponsibilities seem more ambivalent because women are still being held primarily responsible for their children and they spend more time on caregiving than men do (Knijn 1994; Merens and Van den Brakel 2014; Wiesmann et al. 2008). We therefore focus on one aspect of support for gender egal- itarianism that seems of particular interest in the Netherlands as well as in many other western countries: whether women are viewed as more suited to raise little children than men are. Moreover, the Netherlands provides an interesting case be- cause the Dutch societal and cultural context has vastly changed since the 1960s. As compared to many other coun- tries, the Netherlands has been in the vanguard of educational expansion (Bar Haim and Shavit 2013) and secularization (Becker and De Hart 2006). In addition, Dutch women’s labor force participation has increased rapidly, shifting from one of the lowest in Europe to one of the highest in only a few de- cades, notwithstanding that the majority of women works part-time (Merens and Van den Brakel 2014; Pott-Buter 1993). Although other explanations for trends toward gender egalitarianism have been proposed in the literature, such as declining fertility or the women’s movement, we focus on these three developments because these have been very per- vasive in the Netherlands. The Dutch women’s movement has been relatively small as compared to the United States. Moreover, we lack historical data on these contextual indica- tors during respondents’ emerging adulthood, and Sex Roles (2019) 81:594–609 595 developments such as the women’s movement are difficult to operationalize in terms of numbers and impact. We address the following research question: To what extent have historical and contemporary contextual indicators of ed- ucational expansion, secularization, and female labor force participation contributed to the trend toward stronger support for gender egalitarianism among men and women in the Netherlands since 1979? We use nationally representative cross-sectional data from the Cultural Changes in the Netherlands surveys between 1979 and 2006. We complement these data with historical and contemporary indicators of ed- ucational expansion, secularization, and female labor force participation collected from the Dutch population censuses and labor force surveys, covering a timespan of about 100 cohort years and about 25 survey years. From Micro-Level Theories to Macro-Level Explanations Two theoretical approaches are mainly used to explain indi- vidual variation in support for gender egalitarianism: the interest-based approach and the socialization or exposure ap- proach. The interest-based perspective argues that people adopt and maintain attitudes that are in line with their personal goals and interests (Bolzendahl and Myers 2004). According to theories of socialization and exposure, people adopt egali- tarian beliefs when socialized into liberal gender norms or when exposed to egalitarian ideas about gender (Bolzendahl and Myers 2004; Inglehart and Norris 2003). These perspec- tives are often employed to explain why women support gen- der egalitarianism more than men do (Davis and Greenstein 2009). Because women in general continue to have a deprived position in society as compared to men (Epstein 2007; World Economic Forum 2015), promoting gender equality benefits their interests (Bolzendahl and Myers 2004). Men, by con- trast, gain less from supporting gender egalitarianism because it may undermine their dominant position or because they are simply unaware of their favorable position (Baxter and Kane 1995; Ciabattari 2001). In addition, childhood socialization in and exposure to egalitarian ideas and contexts are supposed to impact women more than men (Bolzendahl and Myers 2004; Dotti Sani and Quaranta 2017), resulting in stronger support for gender egalitarianism among women. These individual-level theoretical perspectives, however, cannot explain changes in support for gender egalitarianism over time. Previous studies have therefore argued that people’s interest in and exposure to gender egalitarianism may have changed due to societal developments that have taken place during the past decades. For example, it is argued that women’s interest in gender egalitarianism in society has increased due to their rising educational levels, declining religiosity, and increas- ing labor market participation, which makes them more likely to adopt gender egalitarian views (Brooks and Bolzendahl 2004; Pampel 2011). Yet, the influence of these societal developments may even spill over to other individuals by shifting the norma- tive climate to which all individuals, including men, are exposed (Inglehart and Norris 2003). Historical and Contemporary Societal Developments Building on theories of social change, societal developments could have influenced support for gender egalitarianism in two ways. First, according to theories of socialization, histor- ical circumstances and events that people experience during late adolescence and early adulthood shape their basic values, attitudes, and worldviews (Jennings and Niemi 1981; Krosnick and Alwin 1989; Mannheim 1952; Sears 1983). It is argued that this period between late adolescence and early adulthood, also referred to as emerging adulthood (Arnett 2000), is a crucial period in people’s lives in which they are especially impressionable to the social and political context (Jennings and Niemi 1981; Krosnick and Alwin 1989). According to Mannheim (1952), people who share the same year of birth experience similar societal circumstances during their impressionable years. These so-called cohort effects are supposed to have a lasting influence on people’s attitudes throughout the lifecourse (Alwin and McCammon 2003; Inglehart 1997; Jennings and Niemi 1981; Krosnick and Alwin 1989; Sears 1983). People who are socialized under societal circumstances in which egalitarian gender norms pre- vail may therefore show more support for gender egalitarian- ism, even at later stages in their lives. Social change then originates from the natural replacement of older cohorts by younger cohorts with different experiences and, therefore, dif- ferent attitudes (Mannheim 1952; Ryder 1965). A second explanation assumes that people are open to change throughout the lifecourse and that they alter their atti- tudes in response to certain events and developments (Alwin and McCammon 2003). Contemporary societal circumstances at a certain moment in time, also referred to as period effects, may expose the entire population equally and simultaneously to a certain cultural discourse of gender egalitarianism, resulting in a broad shift in aggregate support for gender egalitarianism from one period to another (Inglehart and Norris 2003). Drawing on these theoretical notions of socialization and exposure, we de- rive predictions on cohort- and period-specific societal develop- ments in the Netherlands that may have contributed to the up- ward trend toward gender egalitarianism. Given the greater interest of women in supporting gender egalitarianism due to their relatively disadvantaged position, as well as their supposedly stronger socialization in and expo- sure to more egalitarian beliefs (Brooks and Bolzendahl 2004), we expect the influence of these societal circumstances Sex Roles (2019) 81:594–609596 to be consistently stronger for women as compared to men. Adopting egalitarian gender norms could benefit women’s educational and occupational opportunities and may reduce the double burden of paid labor and family responsibilities that women often experience (Bolzendahl and Myers 2004; Van der Lippe and Van Dijk 2001). For example, Dotti Sani and Quaranta (2017) found that the dominant societal dis- course on gender equality had a strong influence on young women’s gender egalitarianism, but not on young men’s. Educational Expansion The educational level of the Dutch population has increased substantially in the last century (Bar Haim and Shavit 2013). It is argued that education has a liberalizing influence, transmitting ideas about diversity and equality, countering gender stereo- types, and increasing individuals’ openness to alternative per- spectives on the roles of women and men in the public and private spheres (Bolzendahl and Myers 2004; Vogt 1997). Previous research has consistently shown that obtaining a higher educational level is related to more support for gender egalitar- ianism (Bolzendahl and Myers 2004; Brewster and Padavic 2000). When educational levels rise in society, the likelihood of interacting with people who endorse more egalitarian gender attitudes increases. Moreover, educational expansion may shift the dominant societal discourse regarding gendered roles, sig- naling a culture shift toward more opportunities for women. As a consequence, people in their emerging adult years have be- come socialized into an increasingly egalitarian societal context, instilling stronger support for gender egalitarianism in these co- horts. Although Pepin and Cotter (2018) found that contextual increases in mother’s educational levels in the United States played a minimal role in explaining changes in adolescents’ gender attitudes, a stronger influence of rising educational levels may be found when comparing gender egalitarianism across a larger number of generations. Hence, we propose that the higher the level of education in society to which people are exposed during emerging adulthood, the stronger people will support gender egalitarianism, and this cohort effect will be stronger for women than for men (Hypothesis 1a). Contemporary exposure to a highly educated societal con- text, characterized by a more egalitarian discourse, may also spill over to other individuals in such contexts, inducing sup- port for gender egalitarianism among these individuals regard- less of their own social position. For example, Banaszak and Plutzer (1993) found stronger support for gender egalitarian- ism in U.S. regions where women’s educational attainment approached that of men. To investigate whether this also ap- plies when comparing different time points instead of regions, we formulate the following hypothesis: The higher the level of education to which people are exposed at a specific historical moment in time, the stronger people will support gender egalitarianism, and this period effect will be stronger for wom- en than for men (Hypothesis 1b). Secularization Traditional religious institutions have long prescribed and ac- tively enforced social norms regarding which activities and behaviors are considered appropriate for men and women, assigning women a separate and subordinate position in soci- ety confined to the care for children and household chores (Inglehart and Norris 2003; Peek et al. 1991). According to Voas, McAndrew and Storm (2013, p. 264): B[t]he conserva- tive ethos of religious organizations validates and reinforces the choice [of a woman] to be a home-maker.^ Over the past decades, the Netherlands has witnessed a dramatic decline in church membership, church attendance, and religious beliefs (De Graaf and Te Grotenhuis 2008). This process of secular- ization is supposed to have weakened the strength of tradition- al gender norms, leading people to dissociate themselves from their prescribed roles as homemakers or breadwinners (Inglehart and Norris 2003). Previous studies indeed found higher levels of support for gender egalitarianism among non-religious individuals (Bolzendahl and Myers 2004; Thornton et al. 1983; Voicu 2009). With advancing seculari- zation, people in their emerging adult years are likely social- ized into an increasingly egalitarian cultural climate, which may have instilled higher levels of support for gender egali- tarianism in these cohorts. We thus expect that the higher the level of secularization in society to which people are exposed during emerging adulthood, the stronger people will support gender egalitarianism, and this cohort effect will be stronger for women than for men (Hypothesis 2a). Exposure to a context with higher shares of non-religious people not only may influence support for gender egalitarian- ism among those in their emerging adult years, but also may affect all individuals in such context. Comparing differences in gender attitudes between U.S. states, Moore and Vanneman (2003) found that people living in states with higher propor- tions of religious fundamentalists held less egalitarian gender beliefs. Hence, we expect that the decline of religiosity in society exposes both religious and non-religious people to increasingly egalitarian gender norms. We expect that the higher the level of secularization to which people are exposed at a specific historical moment in time, the stronger people will support gender egalitarianism, and this period effect will be stronger for women than for men (Hypothesis 2b). The Feminization of the Labor Force The rise of women’s labor force participation is one of the most frequently mentioned explanations for the increase in support Sex Roles (2019) 81:594–609 597 for gender egalitarianism (Banaszak and Plutzer 1993; Brooks and Bolzendahl 2004; Cotter et al. 2011; Mason and Lu 1988). In the Netherlands, women’s participation in the labor force has increased considerably over the past decades (Merens and Van den Brakel 2014; Pott-Buter 1993). As a consequence, people are more likely to interact with working women as family, friends, neighbors, and colleagues, which may challenge ideas about a traditional division of paid and unpaid labor as well as women’s dependency on men, in turn legitimizing alternative family and childcare arrangements. It is argued that exposure to working women’s ability to be self-reliant and to perform in the labor market induces higher levels of gender egalitarianism (Meuleman et al. 2016). Moreover, societal norms on women’s capability to work outside the home may be more widespread when female labor force participation is higher. Particularly for people during their emerging adult years, socialization in such a normative climate may have a lasting influence on their support for gender egalitarianism. Dotti Sani and Quaranta (2017), for example, showed that adolescents, especially young women, are more likely to internalize gender egalitarian attitudes in countries where women are more emancipated and visible in the public sphere. Yet, the influence of changes in the societal context within one country over time may differ from variation between countries. We therefore formulate the following hy- pothesis: The higher the level of female labor force participa- tion in society to which people are exposed during emerging adulthood, the stronger people will support gender egalitarian- ism, and this cohort effect will be stronger for women than for men (Hypothesis 3a). Increased female labor force participation may also influ- ence people who are not in their emerging adult years, expos- ing the entire population to a more egalitarian normative cli- mate. In addition, employed women’s gender egalitarianism may spillover to other individuals in society, inducing more support for gender egalitarianism independent from people’s own employment status. In a cross-national study, André et al. (2013) indeed found stronger support for gender egalitarian- ism in countries with higher female labor force participation, particularly among women. By contrast, Meuleman and col- leagues (2016) found no such effect, whereas Banaszak and Plutzer (1993) found regional rates of labor force participation in the United States to be related to lower gender egalitarian- ism among non-working women. Focusing on changes over time instead of differences between countries or regions, Shu and Meagher (2017) found that contextual changes in women’s labor force participation in the United States indeed partly accounted for the rise in support for gender egalitarian- ism, as well as for the mid-1990s slowdown. Hence, we ex- pect that: The higher the level of female labor force participa- tion to which people are exposed at a specific historical mo- ment in time, the stronger people will support gender egalitar- ianism, and this period effect will be stronger for women than for men (Hypothesis 3b). Method To test our hypotheses we employed repeated cross-sectional data from 14 waves of the Cultural Changes in the Netherlands surveys (CV). These data were collected in face-to-face interviews between 1979 and 2006 by The Netherlands Institute for Social Research, and Statistics Netherlands (2016) to monitor opinions about society and culture among the Dutch population. Each wave consists of a representative national sample of around 2000 individuals aged between 16 and 74 years-old. We combined all 14 waves into one pooled dataset, containing 28,091 respondents. We enriched these data with contextual data to measure period- and cohort-specific societal circumstances. Support for Gender Egalitarianism Support for gender egalitarianism was measured with the question: BAwoman is more suited to raise little children than a man.^ Response categories ranged from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree). This question relates to a specific aspect of the private dimension of gender egalitarianism (Wilcox and Jelen 1991) and captures a gender essentialist notion of women and men having innately different interests and skills, which may guide preferences for a gender-typed division of roles (Charles 2011). Although gender egalitarian- ism consists of various dimensions (Davis and Greenstein 2009), other questions on gender egalitarianism in the data were only available in a more limited number of waves. A higher score on the dependent variable indicates more support for gender egalitarianism. We excluded individuals with a missing value on the dependent variable (n = 756, 2.7%). Individual-Level Characteristics The respondents’ gender was measured as (0) male or (1) female. We operationalized educational attainment as the re- spondents’ highest educational level followed. We harmo- nized the educational categories across the waves, resulting in seven categories of educational attainment ranging from (1) primary education to (7) university education. To measure church attendance, respondents were asked how often they had attended church or any other house of prayer in the past half year, measured in five categories ranging from once a week or more (0) to never (4). In addition, we included a variable indicating whether or not respondents considered themselves a member of any church or religious community (0 = yes; 1 = no). To measure employment status, we com- bined information about the respondents’ socio-economic po- sition and working hours, based on the commonly used defi- nition of Statistics Netherlands (Janssen and Dirven 2015; Kraaykamp 2012), which distinguishes between full-time em- ployment (more than 35 h a week, coded 0), part-time Sex Roles (2019) 81:594–609598 employment (12–35 h working per week, coded 1), and not in paid employment (0–12 h a week). We grouped respondents in the latter category into four additional categories based on information about their socio-economic position: unemployed (2), household labor (3), pensioned or disabled (4), student (5) or other (6). We included a variable indicating whether there are children in the household (0 = no; 1 = yes). Because peo- ple may become more conservative as they age, we included a continuous measure of age of the respondent as a control variable. We excluded missing values on the individual level characteristics (n = 1021, 3.7%). Historical and Contemporary Contextual Characteristics To measure historical and contemporary societal circum- stances, we complemented the data with contextual informa- tion on the average educational level, the share of non- religious people, and women’s participation in the labor force at the province level. The Netherlands is divided into 12 prov- inces, with on average about 1.5 million inhabitants per prov- ince. Considerable differences among these provinces exist in the levels and rates of educational expansion, secularization, and rising female labor force participation. We propose that circumstances at the province level provide a more direct mea- surement of socialization or exposure than national-level cir- cumstances. Moreover, contextual characteristics on the na- tional level show far less variation. We measured educational expansion by calculating per province the average educational level of the cohort that entered the labor market (Te Grotenhuis 1999), derived from the Dutch population census 1960 (Statistics Netherlands 1999) and the Dutch labor force surveys 1992, 1994, 1996, and 2016 (Statistics Netherlands 1987, 2016). Labor force entry was determined by adding the number of years required to finish a certain education- al level to a cohort’s birth year (excluding those still in education). We used the Dutch Standard Education Classification (SOI), which ranges from 1 (primary education) to 5 (tertiary education). In 1900 the average educational level of people who entered the labor market amounted to 1.06 (SD = .04; M = 1.04, SD = .03, among women and M = 1.07, SD = .05, among men), which is just above primary education level (see Fig. 1s in the online supplement). By 2006, the Dutch educational level had risen to 3.44 (SD = .18; M = 3.55, SD = .21 among women and M = 3.33, SD = .21 among men), correspond- ing to (upper) secondary education. In the early 1990s, women’s educational level surpassed that of men. Secularization was measured as the percentage of individ- uals not belonging to any religious denomination per prov- ince, derived from the Dutch population censuses from 1899, 1909, 1920, 1930, 1947, 1960, and 1971 (Statistics Netherlands 1999), the Cultural Changes in the Netherlands surveys 1970–2006 (The Netherlands Institute for Social Research and Statistics Netherlands 2016), and the Socio- cultural Developments in the Netherlands surveys (SOCON) 1979–2011 (Eisinga et al. 2012). Between 1900 and 2006, the share of non-religious individuals increased from 2.6% (2.5% among women and 2.3% among men) to 63.0% (59.2% among women and 67.4% among men) (see Fig. 2s in the online supplement). Female labor force participation was measured as the per- centage of women above 14 years of age who were active in paid labor in each province, based on the number of women in an occupation (excluding those who are [temporarily] unem- ployed, in education, who do household labor, who are unable to work or who are institutionalized) derived from the Dutch population censuses from 1899, 1909, 1920, 1930, 1947, 1956, 1960, and 1971 (Statistics Netherlands 1999) and on the number of women employed for at least 12 h a week retrieved from the Dutch labor force surveys 1981–2013 (Statistics Netherlands 2014). These statistics do not allow to differentiate between full-time and part-time employment at the province level. The share of women participating in the labor force more than dou- bled from 16.7% in 1900 to 35.4% in 2006 (see Fig. 3s in the online supplement). However, female labor force participation only slightly increased in the years before the Second World War, and even dropped below 15% afterwards. From the late 1950s, women’s participation on the labor market increased again, but it was not until the second half of the 1980s that women’s employment really took off. Societal circumstances during people’s emerging adult years were operationalized by calculating for each respon- dent a 5-year average of each of these three indicators when the respondent was between 16 and 20 years-old. Although there is no general agreement regarding precise- ly which are the impressionable years, socialization per- spectives agree that the period around people’s 18th birth year is important for the formation of attitudes (Arnett 2000; Jennings and Niemi 1981; Krosnick and Alwin 1989). Hence, we consider the emerging adult years be- tween 16 and 20 to be an important part of people’s im- pressionable years. Furthermore, data for younger ages were not available in the survey. Unfortunately, no infor- mation about the province in which people were living during their impressionable years was available. However, according to Statistics Netherlands, only 17% of all residential mobility in 2015 was between provinces. Considering processes of geographical mobility and ur- banization in the Netherlands, this percentage likely was lower in the past. Contemporary societal circumstances that are specific for a certain time period were operationalized by using the average values on the indicators of educational expansion, seculariza- tion, and female labor force participation per province from Sex Roles (2019) 81:594–609 599 the year preceding the year of the survey (i.e., lagged by one year). Missing values on the historical and contemporary con- textual measures were replaced using linear interpolation. Because one of the Dutch provinces (Flevoland) was established only in 1986, we lacked information on cohort-specific circum- stances for people in this province. We excluded respondents living in this province from our analyses (1.2%), resulting in a sample size of 26,004 individuals (12,146 men and 13,858 women). Descriptive statistics for the individual and contextual variables are presented in Table 1. Analytical Strategy To test our hypotheses, we estimated OLS regression models for men and women separately, using historical and contemporary contextual characteristics as proxies for cohort and period effects (Menard 1991; Rodgers 1990). For this purpose, we included continuous measurements of the percentage tertiary-educated people, the percentage non-religious people, and the percentage employed women during the respondents’ emerging adulthood (instead of birth year) to capture cohort effects, and continuous Table 1 Descriptive statistics of the dependent and independent variables Men (n = 12,146) Women (n = 13,858) Min Max M SD Min Max M SD Support for gender egalitarianism 1 5 2.74 1.17 1 5 3.16 1.19 Individual level variables Age 16 74 42.66 15.85 16 74 41.85 15.46 Educational attainment 3.60 Primary 0 1 .10 0 1 .11 Primary vocational 0 1 .24 0 1 .26 Lower secondary 0 1 .09 0 1 .14 Secondary vocational 0 1 .20 0 1 .20 Upper secondary 0 1 .09 0 1 .11 Bachelor’s or equivalent 0 1 .14 0 1 .12 Master’s or equivalent 0 1 .15 0 1 .08 Church attendance Once a week 0 1 .15 0 1 .15 Once a fortnight 0 1 .04 0 1 .05 Once a month 0 1 .06 0 1 .06 Less than once a month 0 1 .17 0 1 .18 Never 0 1 .58 0 1 .56 Church membership (no) 0 1 .58 0 1 .55 Socio-economic position Full-time employment 0 1 .57 0 1 .13 Part-time employment 0 1 .06 0 1 .21 Unemployed 0 1 .04 0 1 .02 Household labor 0 1 .01 0 1 .47 Pensioned 0 1 .21 0 1 .07 In education 0 1 .09 0 1 .07 Other position 0 1 .02 0 1 .03 Children (yes) 0 1 .54 0 1 .58 Contextual level variables Cohort-specific educational expansion 1.17 3.78 2.58 .57 1.17 3.78 2.61 .55 Cohort-specific secularization .64 76.87 34.60 19.70 .70 76.87 35.28 19.36 Cohort-specific female LFP 11.85 41.42 20.05 4.29 11.85 41.42 20.04 4.29 Period-specific educational expansion 2.82 3.85 3.26 .22 2.82 3.85 3.26 .21 Period-specific secularization 15.12 77.39 54.96 13.63 15.12 77.39 55.01 13.63 Period-specific female LFP 16.56 38.72 26.99 5.60 16.56 38.72 26.92 5.52 Source of these data is Cultural Changes in the Netherlands 1979–2006; n = 26,004 Sex Roles (2019) 81:594–609600 measurements of these developments during the survey year (instead of survey year itself) to capture period effects. This method allowed us to estimate the separate influences of three indicators of important societal circumstances and, moreover, to provide a more meaningful interpretation of previously pro- posed theoretical explanations of the rise of public support for gender egalitarianism over time. All cohort- and period-specific contextual characteristics were mean-centred, and the values of the percentage non-religious people and percentage employed women were divided by 10 to facilitate interpretation of the unstandardized coefficients. All control variables, including age, were entered as dummy variables to allow for possible non-linear relationships with the dependent variable. Because we expect the influence of all contextual characteristics to differ between men and women, we analyzed models for men and women separately. To assess whether the effects for men and women are significantly different, we used a z-test for the dif- ference between two regression coefficients, based on the work of Paternoster et al. (1998). First, we analyzed the influence of cohort- and period- specific indicators of educational expansion, secularization, and feminization of the labor force separately, while control- ling for a dummified age variable (see Table 1s in the online supplement). To analyze the influence of each of these devel- opments net of one another, we subsequently included all contextual characteristics simultaneously in one model. We could, however, not obtain reliable estimates due to harmful multicollinearity resulting from the confounding of the con- textual characteristics with age. One solution to this conun- drum is to impose a restriction on the effect of age, that is, we constrained the effects for all respondents between 16 and 29 years of age to be equal (following the approach of Firebaugh and Chen 1995). This restriction can be theoretical- ly justified because younger men and women, who generally are not yet confronted with the care for little children, are likely to respond similarly to the question whether women and men are equally suited to raise little children, whereas older people may respond differently depending on their ex- periences regarding family formation and parenthood. In the Netherlands, the average age at which couples expect their first child lies around 29 years (Statistics Netherlands 2017). Previous studies indeed showed that support for gender egal- itarianism decreases after marriage, and after the birth of the first child (Baxter et al. 2015; Corrigall and Konrad 2007). Moreover, models, in which we separately analyzed the influence of cohort- and period-specific educational expan- sion, secularization, and feminization of the labor force while controlling for age (see Table 1s in the online supplement), showed that the older people are, the less they support gender egalitarianism, starting from their mid-thirties. People aged 16 to 29 years-old seem not to differ in their support for gender egalitarianism (see Fig. 4s in the online supplement), provid- ing statistical support for a restriction on age. We therefore collapsed the age dummies for respondents aged between 16 and 29 into one reference category, and we included all other age dummies in our models to control for age effects. This allowed us to analyze the influence of our contextual charac- teristics simultaneously in Models 1a and 1b, while control- ling for age. Because the structure of the population may change with respect to individual characteristics that dispose people toward more support for gender egalitarianism, we included the individual characteristics in Model 2a and 2b to account for compositional differences. Results Support for Gender Egalitarianism over Time Figure 1 shows the trend in support for gender egalitarianism for men and women in the Netherlands over time. The average level of support for gender egalitarianism among men in- creased from 2.5 in 1979 to almost 2.8 in 1996 (on a scale from 1 to 5). Women’s support for gender egalitarianism is higher and increased somewhat stronger from 2.8 in 1979 to 3.4 in 1996. Between 1997 and 2002, however, the trend reversed slightly and stabilized after 2002. Contributions to the Upward Trend in Support for Gender Egalitarianism Table 2 shows the multivariate results from regression analy- ses including period- and cohort-specific contextual character- istics simultaneously, controlled for age. Models 1a and 1b demonstrate that socialization in times of a higher average educational level in the population during people’s emerging adult years exerts a substantial positive and significant influ- ence on men’s (b = .42, p < .001) and women’s (b = .92, p < .001) support for gender. For example, women socialized in times of the highest average level of education in Dutch society (3.78) score on average 2.40 points higher (on a scale from 1 to 5) on the measure of gender egalitarianism as com- pared to women socialized when the average educational level in the Netherlands was at its lowest point (1.17)—calculation: (3.78–1.17) * .92 = 2.40. The standardized coefficients indi- cate that the influence of cohort-specific educational expan- sion is twice as strong for women (β = .43) as for men (β = .21). The difference between the regression coefficients for men and women is significant (z = −3.96, p < .001). This provides preliminary support for Hypothesis 1a. Exposure to a higher average educational level in society at a specific his- torical moment in time (i.e., in times of the survey year) has an additional positive influence on both men’s (b = .26, p = .01; β = .05) and women’s (b = .44, p < .001; β = .08) support for gender egalitarianism, although the standardized coefficients show that these effects are less strong as compared to the Sex Roles (2019) 81:594–609 601 influence of educational expansion during emerging adult- hood. The effect is not significantly stronger for women than for men (z = −1.26, p = .21). Thus, we find partial support for Hypothesis 1b. Models 1a and 1b show that socialization in times of higher shares of non-religious people during people’s emerging adult years has a small yet significant influence on men’s support for gender egalitarianism (b = .05, p < .001; β = .09), whereas such effect is absent for women. This suggests that Hypothesis 2a is only partially supported. Exposure to higher shares of non-religious people in society at a specific historical moment in time (i.e., in times of the survey year) exerts a small signif- icant influence on women’s support for gender egalitarianism (b = .07, p < .001; β = .08), but not on men’s. Hence, Hypothesis 2b also seems only partially supported. Contrary to our expectation, socialization in times of higher female labor force participation during emerging adulthood is related to significantly lower levels of support for gender egal- itarianism among men (b = −.12, p < .001; β = −.04) and women (b = −.20, p < .001; β = −.07). This would lead to a rejection of Hypothesis 3a. Yet, Dutch women’s participation on the labor market remained rather stable for a long period, and even declined during the first half of the 1950s. Only since then, people in the Netherlands started to be exposed to rising female labor force participation. Model 1a and 1b show a negative effect of period-specific female labor force participation for both men (b = −.16, p < .001; β = −.08) and women (b = −.31, p < .001; β = −.14), indicating that exposure to working women in society at a specific historical moment in time (i.e., in times of the survey year) also reduces people’s support for gender egalitar- ianism. Additional analyses showed that this effect of period- specific labor force participation was positive when analyzed in a model without educational expansion (see Table 1s in the online supplement), but the effect turned negative (but remained significant) once the level of educational expansion was taken into account. This may be due to the high correla- tion between educational expansion and female labor force participation (the correlation matrix is presented in Table 2s in the online supplement). Hence, this finding should be interpreted with caution. Table 2 also presents a coefficient which summarizes the effects of all age dummies in the model. This so-called Sheaf- coefficient is to be interpreted as a standardized regression coefficient and is always positive (Heise 1972). To ascertain the direction of the age effect, we plotted the b-coefficients of all age dummies (see Fig. 5s in the online supplement). The results show that the older men are, the less they support gender egalitarianism, whereas there is no significant age ef- fect for women. Model 1 explains 10.7% of the variance among men and 12.5% among women. In Models 2a and 2b in Table 2, individual characteristics are taken into account to control for compositional differences in the structure of the population. The results show that the influences of historical and contemporary societal circum- stances on gender egalitarianism remain present once accounted for people’s structural positions in society. The es- timates of educational expansion and secularization become slightly smaller, indicating that a small part of these contextual effects is due to changes in the composition of the population with respect to the individual characteristics. The negative influence of period-specific female labor force participation becomes somewhat stronger for both men and women once the individual characteristics are taken into account. This sug- gests that shifts in the population composition, for a small part, counterbalance the negative influence of exposure to women 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 1( msi n air atil a g e r e d n e g r of tr o p p us n a e M -5 ) Survey year Women Men Fig. 1 Trends in support for gender egalitarianism for men and women, 1979–2006. The source for these data is cultural changes in the Netherlands 1979–2006; n = 26,004 Sex Roles (2019) 81:594–609602 on the labor market. The individual-level characteristics in Model 2a and 2b indicate that support for gender egalitarian- ism is stronger among higher educated people, people who attend church less than once a week, non-religious people, full-time and part-time working men and women, men working in the household, and when there are no children present in the household. The variance explained by our final model amounts to 13.7% for men and 17.5% for women. To summarize, people who are exposed to a higher average educational level in society, particularly during their emerging Table 2 Unstandardized and standardized regression coefficients of cohort-specific and period-specific contextual characteristics on support for gender egalitarianism Men (n = 12,146) Women (n = 13,858) Model 1a Model 2a Model 1b Model 2b Ba β Ba β Ba β Ba β Intercept 2.83*** 2.40*** 3.15*** 2.52*** Cohort-specific Educational expansion .42*** .21 .38*** .18 .92*** .43 .78*** .36 Secularization (/10) .05*** .09 .04*** .08 −.01 −.02 −.02 −.03 Female LFP (/10) −.12** −.04 −.09* −.03 −.20*** −.07 −.17*** −.06 Period-specific Educational expansion .26** .05 .20* .04 .44*** .08 .41*** .07 Secularization (/10) .01 .01 −.01 −.01 .07*** .08 .04** .05 Female LFP (/10) −.16** −.08 −.21*** −.10 −.31*** −.14 −.39*** −.18 Age (16 to 29 years = ref.)b 1.00** .10 1.00** .10 1.00 .06 1.00 .08 Individual controls Educational attainment (primary = ref.) .12 .17 Primary vocational .03 .20*** Lower secondary .17*** .35*** Secondary vocational .14*** .47*** Upper secondary .31*** .53*** Bachelor’s or equivalent .31*** .62*** Master’s or equivalent .40*** .69*** Church attendance (once a week = ref.) .05 .06 Once a fortnight .13* .24*** Once a month .20*** .14*** Less than once a month .14*** .15*** Never .15*** .20*** No church member (yes = ref.) .20*** .08 .21*** .09 Socio-economic position (full-time = ref.) .04 .06 Part-time employment .14** .07* Unemployed .00 .01 Household labor .26* −.10** Pensioned .06 −.08 In education .07 .02 Other employment position .11 −.05 Children in the household (no children = ref.) −.11*** .05 −.09*** .04 Variance explained 10.7% 13.7% 12.5% 17.5% Model 1 controlled for age (with age categories 16–29 collapsed into one category); Model 2 controlled for age (with age categories 16–29 collapsed into one category) and individual-level characteristics. Source of these data is Cultural Changes in the Netherlands 1979–2006; n = 26,004 a Coefficients in bold indicate a significant difference (p < .05, two-tailed) between men and women (see Paternoster et al. 1998) b To save space, we calculated one standardized coefficient (β) summarizing the effect for all dummy categories of age, with age categories 16–29 collapsed into one category (Heise 1972). The b-coefficients of all age dummies are presented in Fig. 5s in the online supplement * p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001 Sex Roles (2019) 81:594–609 603 adult years, support gender egalitarianism more, independent of their own social position. This pattern supports Hypotheses 1a and 1b, although it is only the socialization effect that is stronger for women than for men. Being socialized in a more secular society increases men’s, but not women’s support for gender egalitarianism, which only partly supports Hypothesis 2a. On the contrary, women who were exposed to higher shares of non-religious people in a specific time period showed more support for gender egalitarianism, over and above their own level of religiosity, but this relationship was not found among men. This pattern confirms Hypothesis 2b, although for women only. Finally, socialization in times of higher female labor force participation did not have the ex- pected positive influence on support for gender egalitarianism, and people who have been exposed to larger shares of employed women in society seem to support gender egalitar- ianism less once accounting for the level of educational ex- pansion in society. This pattern contradicts Hypothesis 3a and 3b. Of all characteristics in the model, educational expansion during emerging adulthood was found to be the most impor- tant indicator of support for gender egalitarianism. Additional Analyses Because our dependent variable is an ordinal outcome mea- sure, we performed an additional analysis of the final model using an ordinal logistic regression procedure (polytomous universal models or PLUM in SPSS) as a robustness check. The results are highly similar to the outcomes of our linear regression model (see Table 3s in the online supplement). We also analyzed the contextual influence of gender-specific ed- ucational expansion and secularization on men’s and women’s support for gender egalitarianism. For example, we analyzed whether the rise of men’s educational levels in society influ- enced women’s support for gender egalitarianism (see Table 4s in the online supplement), and vice versa (see Table 5s in the online supplement). These analyses do not alter our conclusions, with the exception that exposure to higher educated women in society in times of the survey year has no significant influence on men’s support for gender egalitarian- ism. Moreover, we analyzed the final model excluding respon- dents still in their late adolescence and preadult years (be- tween 16 and 20 years). This analysis yielded highly similar results (see Table 6s in the online supplement). Lastly, we lacked information about the province in which respondents lived during their impressionable years. Because higher educated respondents are more likely to have moved between provinces during the transition to adulthood (most notably to attend a university), we may have overestimated the cohort effect among higher educated respondents. As a robustness check, we ran our model on a selection of respon- dents excluding tertiairy educated respondents (those with a Bachelor’s or Master’s degree). The results are highly similar, with the exception that the effects among men became slightly smaller and the (already small and marginally significant) ef- fects of cohort-specific female labor force participation and period-specific educational expansion become non- significant (see Table 7s in the online supplement). This sug- gests that we may have slightly overestimated the cohort ef- fects among men, although we believe that our overall con- clusions remain valid. Discussion In the present study, we aimed to answer the question to what extent changes in the historical and contemporary societal context have contributed to the trend toward stronger support for gender egalitarianism among men and women in the Netherlands. Using data from 16 waves of nationally repre- sentative surveys collected in the Netherlands between 1979 and 2006, we showed that the liberalizing trend toward greater gender egalitarianism that has been found in a wide range of countries (e.g., Cotter et al. 2011; Inglehart and Norris 2003; Lee et al. 2007) was also present in the Netherlands. We empirically analyzed the influence of three important and widely theorized societal developments that have taken place in many countries over the past decades, including the Netherlands: educational expansion, secularization, and the rise of female labor force participation. Whereas previous re- search mainly focused on temporal indicators of birth cohort and time period to explain the rise in support for gender egal- itarianism over time, we used contextual measures of these three developments as indicators of the societal context during the respondents’ emerging adult years and in specific histori- cal times when the survey was held. In this way, we offered a closer look into the black box of why people living and grow- ing up in different times vary in their support for gender egalitarianism. We showed that changes in the societal context in which people have grown up and live contributed to the upward trend in support for gender egalitarianism. Of the three expla- nations we tested, educational expansion proved the most im- portant societal development that contributed to the upward trend. The cohort-specific effect of educational expansion was particularly strong, which suggests that people in their emerg- ing adult impressionable years are especially susceptible to the societal climate, providing support for the socialization per- spective (Mannheim 1952). That is, due to educational expan- sion, subsequent cohorts have been socialized in a more egalitarian-normative climate, which has induced support for egalitarianism regarding the care for little children among men, and especially among women. Exposure to such a cli- mate exerts an additional influence on people’s support for gender egalitarianism, independent of their own social posi- tion (Alwin and McCammon 2003). Additionally, although Sex Roles (2019) 81:594–609604 the contribution of secularization is modest, increased shares of secular individuals in Dutch society during people’s emerg- ing adult years have promoted some support for gender egal- itarianism among men, whereas a higher share of secular in- dividuals in the year preceding the survey positively influ- enced women’s support for gender egalitarianism. A possible explanation for this differential finding is that men are, in general, less religious than women are and leave the church at younger ages. Moreover, it is argued that religious sociali- zation differs between men and women (Trzebiatowska and Bruce 2012). As a consequence, men may be more impres- sionable to secular influences in the social context during emerging adulthood than are women. In contrast to our hypotheses, we found that exposure to the rise of female labor force participation could not in itself ex- plain the upward trend in support for gender egalitarianism, that is, not independently from educational expansion. Given that women’s labor force participation in the Netherlands remained stable at a rather low level during the first half of the twentieth century and only started to rise substantially since the late 1980s, many Dutch cohorts had been exposed to low levels of female labor force participation during emerging adulthood. Kraaykamp (2002) also observed high levels of female labor force participation in people’s pre-adult years to be related to more conservative attitudes toward pre- marital and extramarital sexuality in the Netherlands. Moreover, we found that people who are exposed to higher rates of female labor force participation during later periods support gender egalitarianism less, after accounting for the level of educational expansion. Hence, the positive influence of female labor force participation may be entirely driven by the expansion of educational levels in society. Given the high correlation between educational expansion and female labor force participation, however, this result should be interpreted with caution. Alternatively, a theoretical explanation may be proposed. As argued in previous research (see Cotter et al. 2011), the increased participation of women in the labor market has pos- sibly evoked a discussion in society about motherhood and who should care for children when women work (Damaske 2013). This argument may as well apply to the Dutch context. Although support for mothers’ employment is high in the Netherlands (Merens and Van den Brakel 2014) and views toward men’s and women’s (natural) roles concerning the care for little children have become increasingly egalitarian, a strong motherhood ideology—with the mother seen as pri- marily responsible for the child’s well-being—has long been present in the Netherlands, originating from its strong Christian tradition and emphasized by the government as women’s contribution to the rebuilding of the country after the Second World War (Knijn 1994). With women’s rising education and labor force participation, this motherhood ide- ology may have become more culturally salient (Douglas and Michaels 2005; Hays 1996). For example, Damaske (2013, p. 441) argued that Bthe tension between rising workforce par- ticipation and intensive mothering, …appears resolved not through a reduction in mothering efforts, but through a dis- course that emphasizes conformity to good mothering ideals.^ In a context in which women’s employment becomes more common, women (and especially working mothers) may adopt more traditional views on childcare responsibilities as a strategy to legitimize their lower commitment to their careers and/or their higher involvement with childcare and household tasks as compared to men (Johnston and Swanson 2006). Moreover, increased labor force participation in the Netherlands does not necessarily reflect an increasingly egal- itarian societal discourse. About three-quarters of Dutch wom- en in paid labor work part-time, and the majority of women works in traditionally female sectors such as education and care (Merens and Van den Brakel 2014). In addition, full- time working women in the Netherlands generally spend more time on household tasks and childcare than men do (Merens and Van den Brakel 2014). Hence, women’s increased partic- ipation in the labor force has not yet been met with symmet- rical changes in men’s position in the public and private do- main (England 2010). Unfortunately, the available data did not allow a distinction between part-time and full-time em- ployment of women. This may be an important contribution to the present study, especially in the context of the Netherlands. Future research should further explore the role of female labor force participation—and mother’s employ- ment in particular—for explaining trends in public support for gender egalitarianism, taking into account occupational segregation and part-time employment. Lastly, in line with previous research (Dotti Sani and Quaranta 2017), we found that the influence of changes in the societal context was generally stronger for women than for men. Young women appear the forerunners in the process toward more gender egalitarianism, which signifies their greater interest in promoting gender equality (Bolzendahl and Myers 2004). Notwithstanding, men’s support for gender egalitarianism also has benefited from the rise of societal ed- ucational levels and secularism during their emerging adult years. Limitations and Future Research Directions Several limitations and directions for future research should be discussed. First, only one item in the data was suited to indicate changes in support for gender egalitarianism in the Netherlands over a longer period of time. Although gender egalitarianism consists of various dimensions (Davis and Greenstein 2009), we could only study one dimension related to the raising of little children. We thus may have sketched an incomplete picture of changes in gender ideology in the Netherlands. Yet, the trend in this measure of gender Sex Roles (2019) 81:594–609 605 egalitarianism is highly comparable to trends in other mea- sures of gender egalitarianism that have been found in various studies (e.g., Cotter et al. 2011; Pepin and Cotter 2018; Shu and Meagher 2017). To what extent the indicators studied here also contributed to trends in other measures of gender egali- tarianism remains a question for future research. Second, we could not explain why support for gender egal- itarianism temporarily reversed in the Netherlands in the late 1990s, despite continuing educational expansion, seculariza- tion, and rising female labor force participation. Yet, this find- ing is highly consistent with a reversal of the trend during the same period in other parts of the world (e.g., in the United States: Cotter et al. 2011; Shu and Meagher 2017; Australia: Van Egmond et al. 2010), in particular with regard to attitudes about the role of men and women in the family (Pepin and Cotter 2018). This suggests that a rather universal develop- ment that is not limited to a specific national context may explain the stalled gender revolution in the 1990s. For exam- ple, Shu and Meagher (2017) found that a rise of men’s over- work partially accounted for the stagnation in Americans’ gender attitudes. Such a rise in men’s overwork may have also taken place in the Netherlands, but it remains to be seen whether this explanation holds in the Dutch context. Another possible explanation is that rising female labor force participation has induced an essentialist counter-reaction in the family domain (Cotter et al. 2011). Whether progress of women’s positions in the public domain indeed produces re- sistance to egalitarianism in the private domain (Pepin and Cotter 2018) needs further investigation. Third, absence of information on the province in which respondents lived after 2006 hindered the inclusion of contex- tual data for more recently interviewed respondents. Moreover, respondents were not asked in which province they had lived during their emerging adult years. As a conse- quence, we could not exactly determine the geographical con- text of the respondents’ emerging adulthood because they may have moved in the years between their youth and the moment of the interview. This is a serious limitation, which we are unfortunately unable to resolve. Yet, only 17% of residential mobility takes place between provinces (Statistics Netherlands 2018), and we have shown that our conclusions are fairly robust. We also lacked information on the employ- ment status of the respondents’ mother and partner, which both may affect people’s support for gender egalitarianism. In addition, fathers’ part-time work and involvement in the family during people’s, and especially men’s, emerging adult years may also influence their support for the statement that women and men are equally suited to raise little children. Studies that aim to explain trends in gender egalitarianism may benefit from including other indicators of socialization at different levels, such as the family or the neighborhood. Lastly, our study is limited to three contextual indicators of historical societal circumstances due to the lack of other contextual measures going back to the early adult years of the older cohorts in the data. Previous studies have argued that, among others, rising employment of married mothers, increased divorce rates, declining fertility, and the emergence of women’s movements may have advanced public support for gender egalitarianism (Brewster and Padavic 2000; Brooks and Bolzendahl 2004; Cotter et al. 2011; Inglehart and Norris 2003; Lee et al. 2007; Pampel 2011; Shorrocks 2016). Family policies may also play a role in changing public views on gender egalitarianism. Unfortunately, it is not possible to di- rectly test the influence of these developments because such data are not available in the Netherlands at the level of prov- inces. Future research could take more historical and contem- porary contextual factors into account, although such data are scarce, if available at all. Practice Implications Gender equality, particularly in the field of education, has been high on the policy agenda in the Netherlands. Emancipation policies have been primarily aimed at increas- ing girls’ participation rates and advancement to higher levels of education, and they have successfully done so over the past decades (Van Hek et al. 2015). By increasing women’s edu- cational levels, these policies have secondarily also propelled support for gender egalitarianism, which in turn may advance girls’ and women’s educational and occupational opportuni- ties even further. This suggests that progress in one domain may spillover to other domains of gender equality. However, it seems that women have reacted more strongly to changes in the normative climate than men have, given women’s stronger interest in adopting gender egalitarian atti- tudes and/or because emancipation policies in the Netherlands have been mainly directed at girls and women. Moreover, women’s increased educational and occupational participation has not yet been matched with men’s equal involvement in the household (Merens and Van den Brakel 2014). Nonetheless, our findings showed that men also adopt more gender egali- tarian attitudes in response to changes in the societal context. Promoting an emancipatory societal context therefore has the potential to further enhance gender equality. Conclusion Our study highlights that the societal normative climate to which people are exposed, especially during their early adult years, plays an important role in shaping their current views on gender egalitarianism. Promoting educational levels within the population seems to have far-reaching benefits for advanc- ing support for gender equality, not only for men and women who obtain higher educational levels themselves, but also for society writ large. Sex Roles (2019) 81:594–609606 Acknowledgement Manfred Te Grotenhuis died before publication of this work was completed. Compliance with Ethical Standards Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. Ethical Approval This article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the authors. Informed Consent Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to juris- dictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. 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Abstract From Micro-Level Theories to Macro-Level Explanations Historical and Contemporary Societal Developments Educational Expansion Secularization The Feminization of the Labor Force Method Support for Gender Egalitarianism Individual-Level Characteristics Historical and Contemporary Contextual Characteristics Analytical Strategy Results Support for Gender Egalitarianism over Time Contributions to the Upward Trend in Support for Gender Egalitarianism Additional Analyses Discussion Limitations and Future Research Directions Practice Implications Conclusion References 
work_bdogznwu5rhsxjrir3ls3tfv74	----	education sciences Article Machine-Assisted Learning in Highly-Interdisciplinary Media Fields: A Multimedia Guide on Modern Art Elena Chatzara, Rigas Kotsakis, Nikolaos Tsipas, Lazaros Vrysis and Charalampos Dimoulas * Multidisciplinary Media and Mediated Communication (M3C) Research Group, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece * Correspondence: babis@eng.auth.gr Received: 9 June 2019; Accepted: 22 July 2019; Published: 25 July 2019 ���������� ������� Abstract: Art and technology have always been very tightly intertwined, presenting strong influences on each other. On the other hand, technological evolution led to today’s digital media landscape, elaborating mediated communication tools, thus providing new creative means of expression (i.e., new-media art). Rich-media interaction can expedite the whole process into an augmented schooling experience though art cannot be easily enclosed in classical teaching procedures. The current work focuses on the deployment of a modern-art web-guide, aiming at enhancing traditional approaches with machine-assisted blended-learning. In this perspective, “machine” has a two-folded goal: to offer highly-interdisciplinary multimedia services for both in-class demonstration and self-training support, and to crowdsource users’ feedback, as to train artificial intelligence systems on painting movements semantics. The paper presents the implementation of the “Istoriart” website through the main phases of Analysis, Design, Development, and Evaluation, while also answering typical questions regarding its impact on the targeted audience. Hence, elaborating on this constructive case study, initial hypotheses on the multidisciplinary usefulness, and contribution of the new digital services are put into test and verified. Keywords: modern-art; multimedia guide; painting-movements recognition; blended learning; technology-enhanced learning; machine learning 1. Introduction There is no doubt that technological evolution has always affected society and everyday human activities at multiple levels, i.e., communicational, professional, educational, etc. Following the rapid advancement of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) that have been conducted during the last two decades, a new trend, which is referred to as Industry 4.0, aims at further revolutionizing digital processes through end-to-end automation mechanisms. Amongst others, the media landscape has been already transformed into a new digital experience (and continues to elaborate constantly), bringing modern tools forward that accelerate mediated communication, i.e., thru easy multimedia production and sharing, sophisticated content documentation and management, semantic interpretation and conceptualization of data (and meta-data), information recognition, and retrieval. While these fresh services offer innumerous capabilities in both ends of media production and consumption, they also raise multiple concerns, uncertainties, and hesitations regarding how to exploit the released capacities without being exposed to ethical, privacy, and security risks or dangerous pathways [1–5]. Clearly, the frequently immature and unstable character of the lately launched assets/facilities, along with the lack of related operational knowledge and experience, are listed among the foremost causes that deteriorate fast adoption and utilization of pioneering machinery [4–8]. Nonetheless, contemporary Educ. Sci. 2019, 9, 198; doi:10.3390/educsci9030198 www.mdpi.com/journal/education http://www.mdpi.com/journal/education http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2900-4657 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7923-9361 http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/educsci9030198 http://www.mdpi.com/journal/education https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7102/9/3/198?type=check_update&version=2 Educ. Sci. 2019, 9, 198 2 of 22 forms of human creative and communicative expressions (artistic, cultural, social, etc.) require a highly multidisciplinary approach, in which STEM skillsets (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) need to be combined with humanities and sociological disciplines [9–13]. Hence, the usefulness of ICT toolsets in the media environment and, especially for the training demands, has two-folded merit: firstly, to expedite the learning process by deploying digital assets for better content demonstration and enhancement purposes and, secondly, to organize dedicated coaching sessions, as to support the proper use of tools and overall technology. In all cases, it is vital to prepare fertile ground for embracing and exploiting cutting-edge progress and brand-new developments. 2. Background—Review or Related Work Extending the above, it is apparent that we are living in a world of data, where ICT devices and computing terminals are literally everywhere. New terms (and trends), like ambient-media, have been invented and unveiled to describe the pervasive nature of information exchange and communication that have become commonplace in today’s digital and ubiquitous society [14,15]. Novel genres, i.e., Mobile, Multimedia and Data Journalism, have also launched to support the required non-linear dataflows, seeking audience engagement through enhanced storytelling with multiple augmentation layers [1–4,10–18]. However, the development of such software/multimedia services requires highly interdisciplinary production teams, which could serve the associated aesthetic, operational, communicational, and computational specifications, without disregarding the desired content and its accessing/browsing functionalities. The latter is usually dependent on the nature of the specific topic and the selected presentation, which is also known as the “education” approach, being deployed by the collaboration of the instructional designer with the subject matter expert(s). These specialties must cooperate with the graphic designers, the software engineers and programmers, the content creation teams, the media/communication advisors, and many others, who all need to have some common background and use the corresponding terminology properly [19–25]. Undoubtedly, the procedures of web/multimedia authoring, and generally the development of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) software, are considered to be extremely multidisciplinary, especially when it comes to rich-media presentation of informatory data. Such conditions are encountered in the processes of creative production and education, in which suitable material should be digitized, properly formed, and finally assembled to user-friendly integrated environments for entertainment, infotainment, or learning purposes. Aiming at serving such demands at a schooling level, a related Interdisciplinary, Interdepartmental Post-graduate Program has been formed and it has operated for nearly fifteen years in the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, offering master-degree studies on “Advanced Computing and Communication Systems”. Among the available pathways, the specialization of “Audio-visual Technologies in Production and Education” combines disciplines from engineering and media departments, both in terms of academic staff and preferable graduation of applicants (e.g., School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, School of Journalism and Mass Communication, School of Musical Studies, etc.). The utmost target is to bring the different sectors closer, to combine the various talents and backgrounds, and to cultivate some mutual skills and interests in all of the aspects of technology-assisted (audiovisual) creation and learning (technological, artistic, aesthetic, ethical, functional, etc.). The paper describes Technology-Enhanced Learning (TEL) strategies for one of the highly interdisciplinary courses, which deals with the History of Audiovisual Artistic Expressions to end up in the thorough presentation of important art movements. The primary motive starts on the basis that it is rather tough to enclose art in classical rule-based teaching guides, especially for students presenting a STEM or media background, who are seeking to obtain expertise on Advanced Computing and Communication Systems. Hence, the idea was to construct a multimedia/web guide on modern-art painting styles, for both in-class demonstration and self-training support. This project started as a diploma thesis undertaking [13], which investigated the impact of different e-learning methods, to indicate, shape, and assemble the applicable HCI interfaces into an integrated browsing Educ. Sci. 2019, 9, 198 3 of 22 experience. The present paper extends development and evaluation perspectives, assessing the educational challenges of content/coaching augmentation and audience engagement following the codes and values of blended learning [26]. Multimedia elements, interaction mechanisms, and gaming components are combined and tested in the current multidisciplinary schooling scenario, following the so-called LUCID principles (Logical User-Centered Interactive Design) [19–23]. Apart from the design itself (and its evaluation), the deployed interactive implementation offers valuable insights for the impact of technology-assisted media tutoring. Specifically, the initial hypotheses can be examined by answering specific questions on User eXperience (UX) achievements, thus retrieving vital feedback. This latest feature stands as the outmost target, not only for improving the fabricated services and their utilities, but also for adopting the best practices, arriving at useful conclusions that could be used as representative use-case scenarios and featured studies in other classes (i.e., in projects of the laboratory course Multimedia Production that is also offered in the same program, supporting most of the discussed viewpoints). The above-listed exploration perspectives extend the scopes of the present work to broader research considerations on professional media training and digital literacy support. 3. Research Aims and Project Motivation The current work demonstrates the implementation of a web/multimedia guide on modern art, following the structure and the appropriate development models that are usually adopted in related projects [27]. In the same context, principal values of blended learning [26] are considered for the in-class utilization of the targeted tools, incorporating modalities that would expedite interactivity with rich user experience, intensifying audience engagement (i.e., gaming elements, simulation examples, etc. [26,28]). Furthermore, algorithmic recognition of those painting styles offers another technological domain when considering that classification of significant art movements is included in the syllabus and goals of the selected/demanding course, whereas smart systems could be used as assistive training machines. Artificial intelligence does represent a cutting-edge topic that is essential for many higher education programs [29,30], ranging from standard STEM subjects to broader multidisciplinary studies, which is also the current use-case scenario. Hence, Machine Learning (ML) modules can be tested for their contribution as schooling material, i.e., to make the teaching procedure more appealing for students having loose relation to artistic/social sciences. At the same time, such a type of exercising could force digital literacy support for less digitally oriented audience, providing applied tutoring on core functional/algorithmic features, for many of the presently elaborating/upcoming trends in our ubiquitous information society (i.e., Semantic Web, Internet of Things, Big Data, etc.). Extending the above, these processes are also suitable for obtaining useful feedback and crowdsourcing-driven indirect annotation that could further propel artificial art recognition projects [12,13]. Even if these perspectives are considered somewhat beyond the main scope of TEL, the associated efforts are thought as being amongst the most challenging and trendy examples of inter-sectoral research [31–39], fueling cross-domain collaboration and knowledge exchange. Overall, the paper attempts to investigate and thoroughly analyze the potential advantages of TEL services in the media business, detecting the difficulties and needs that are associated with the interdisciplinary nature of this area, while stressing out convincing answers and prosperous solutions. Specifically, apart from the presentation material used in class, the idea was to develop an online guide, holding all of the necessary information that someone would request concerning this course and broadly this topic. The effort was directed in the examination of related examples on other languages since there was not available such an integrated site for the history of art in Greek, following the principles of exploratory development and throwaway prototyping (i.e., selecting/implementing the useful parts/utilities, while removing/replacing the ones seem to be problematic) [19–23,40–43]. As the next section explains, the name Istoriart was chosen after the Greek word history (Iστoρἰα = Istoria) and the global term art (i.e., history of art in Greek). Thus, adopting the main phases of software engineering encountered in web-/multimedia-authoring, the current work pursues best-practices on the design, application, and evaluation of TEL resources, emphasizing the interdisciplinary nature Educ. Sci. 2019, 9, 198 4 of 22 of contemporary media services. The deployed interactive prototyping model put targeted users on the center of the design (LUCID framework), aiming at obtaining valuable feedback concerning the wanted tools and their utilization. Usability assessment is employed at almost all the phases of project evolution, while a focused investigation on small-grouped training sessions is proposed to test the accomplishment of the set goals. In this context, the paper deals with the aspects of technology-enhanced (and on-demand) media learning, having a two-folded intention. Firstly, to review the Istoriart agile development case-study, aiming at concluding the adoption of best-practices, which are suitable for the current scenario and broader usage. Secondly, to validate specific hypotheses, which are related to the wanted educatory character and impact, by answering the corresponding research questions. Based on the above analysis and given as granted that contemporary media paradigms feature many teaching difficulties for learners with different scientific background [1,2,4,5], the hypotheses besides the conducted research are stated, as follows: RH1: A properly organized multimedia guide could facilitate the process of media learning, both for enhancing the in-class teaching experience and for offering self-training support. RH2: If specific modalities are selected and appropriately assembled, online training services can propel audience engagement (even if the presented topics are different from their core disciplines, thus posing comprehension difficulties). Moreover, targeted audience (i.e., students, trainees) can provide valuable feedback, helping to improve the teaching experience (in multiple levels), while also promoting digital literacy support, for both the involved topics and broader media processes during the implementation of TEL services. In this context, risen research questions accommodated to the listed hypotheses are as follows: RQ1: Are the targeted users (media students/trainees) interested in using interactive multimedia applications in media learning topics? RQ2: What is the impact of technology-enhanced learning resources in supporting a specific highly multidisciplinary media subject (i.e., modern art), prioritizing audience engagement? Extending the above, representative users of the targeted audience can actively participate in the implementation of such TEL services, providing valuable feedback to indicate the different problems, issues, and challenges that media training is facing nowadays, caused, amongst others, by its rapidly evolving multidisciplinary nature. Specifically, the current work aims at enlightening various diverse perspectives, which are related to the rapid prototyping procedures of project implementation. Close collaboration between experts of different backgrounds and skills has been forced (including the authors of this paper) to indicate the advantageous TEL values for confronting the demanding nature of the discussed cross-domain subject. Broader conclusions and the adoption of best-practices are targeted to promote digital literacy support, for both the involved topics and wider media processes. 4. Materials and Methods As already stated, the implementation model follows the principles of human-centered design. Starting with the initial idea, the phases of analysis, design, development, and evaluation are successively repeated in a spiral model. Hence, functional requirements and implementation details are continually refined and elaborated until the targeted criteria are finally met [19–23]. In this context, risk assessment and reduction procedures are engaged at every iteration/cycle, which ensures the desired communication and collaboration with the targeted audience (that is very important in the current case). From a different perspective, the Component-Based Software Engineering (CBSE) model is also involved, which allows for existing material to be part of the process (e.g., user interfaces, multimodal content/assets, applicable/already available code, etc.). The main concept is gradually transformed to crisper functional requirements and specifications, in which the analysis of related web applications Educ. Sci. 2019, 9, 198 5 of 22 and users’ preferences guide the structure and the aesthetics of the entailed prototypes. Gaming components, interactive multimedia presentations, and simulations are then imposed, which measure the offered functionalities against the computation and communication load demands. Usability evaluation and UX analysis are also repeatedly deployed, taking valuable feedback for the accurate direction of the next design steps. Project completion takes place with the integration of all the produced or refactored components, which triggers the final evaluation within and outside the production team (alpha/beta testing). The associated stress-tests are executed in typical/simulated learning sessions, which are aimed at validating the initially stated hypotheses by answering the risen questions. 4.1. Analysis The goal of Analysis is to elaborate the initial idea, to examine the demands and preferences of the targeted audience, and to formulate the first list of functional (and non- functional) specifications. There are two main procedures that are deployed in this phase, namely, to review the related applications and to investigate the needs of selected/representative users. The first process was executed in parallel by the members of the production team (including authors of this article), leading to a brainstorming discussion group, where all of the findings were inspected in the viewpoint of exploratory development and throwaway prototyping (mentioned above). Therefore, a list with related services and their qualitative evaluation was formed to highlight the interesting ideas, usable features, and possible best practices to adopt. Table 1 contains the results of the top-ranked applications/webpages on modern art, synopsizing favorite elements and characteristics that are to be considered during the subsequent design steps. Table 1. Review/qualitative evaluation of related applications (mostly websites on modern art) [13]. Name URL Address Comments Wikipaintings www.wikiart.org clear navigation, good aesthetics, precise art-movements classification Wikipedia www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Modern_art poor aesthetics, crisp texts Artcyclopedia www.artcyclopedia.com no aesthetic pleasure, disorienting navigation structure GoogleArtProject www.artsandculture.google.com good aesthetics, rich visual content, options to create personal collections Tate-modern www.tate.org.uk/visit/tate-modern good aesthetics, rich visual content, inspiring confidence, browsing flaws (missing return/back options) Greek Arts Museum www.greekstatemuseum.com/kmst/ index.html good aesthetics, clear navigation, rich visual content Theartstory www.theartstory.org clear and pleasant navigation, concise summaries with options for further/extensive information lookup, satisfactory visual content, crisp/salient texts, inspiring confidence MoMA www.moma.org bright aesthetics, rich content, pleasant navigation, crisp texts National Gallery of Art (NGA) www.nga.gov user-friendly, rich in content, good aesthetics, inspiring confidence Guggenheim Museum www.guggenheim.org rich in visual content, accurate descriptions, clear and pleasant navigation, concise summaries with options for further/extensive information lookup, bright aesthetics The second important analysis task, monitoring of users’ preferences, was conducted through an empirical survey, with the help of a corresponding questionnaire. The answers of forty-seven (47) www.wikiart.org www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_art www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_art www.artcyclopedia.com www.artsandculture.google.com www.tate.org.uk/visit/tate-modern www.greekstatemuseum.com/kmst/index.html www.greekstatemuseum.com/kmst/index.html www.theartstory.org www.moma.org www.nga.gov www.guggenheim.org Educ. Sci. 2019, 9, 198 6 of 22 individuals were finally selected (out of 103) to balance the diversity of the sample (therefore, the statistical reliability of the approach), which featured age ranging between thirty and fifty years, with interests and professional occupations in the domains of art and education (that was evaluated as positive). In addition, the majority of the participants attended a university program and/or they were interested in post-graduate studies (>80%), with only a small percentage posing a post-graduate degree (~11%), while most of them had frequent access to the Internet and, in many cases, via multiple devices (desktop/laptop PC, smartphone, tablet, etc.). Finally, although the majority was interested in modern art, there were significant variations regarding specific preferences (i.e., period or species) and pre-existed knowledge. More detailed information regarding this survey is provided, along with the assessment outcomes in the associated results section. At this moment, it is important to maintain that the selected group matches the set goal, while considering that the guide is primarily intended to support a post-graduate interdisciplinary course (and broader related master pathways) that deals with media, artistic expressions, and overall creative communication. The initial analysis resulted in the description of some basic requirements and guidelines to be used in the remaining design iterations. Specifically, it validated the informative and educational character of the targeted guide, positing a modular structure with articles on painting movements, artists, timelines, and game components. The enhancement of the visual element and the incorporation of featured photo-galleries was also decided, prejudging a “chic & simple” aesthetical approach. While the main purpose was to have the material available online, the necessity to be able to work without Internet connection was also pointed out (using a copy of “downloaded site”), so as to adapt in the various teaching conditions. This last remark rather excludes some easy-to-use live web authoring tools and associated generic-purpose CMS tools (Content Management Systems), hence, custom-made solutions had to be deployed, without disregarding the needs for central managing and updating mechanisms. Finally, attention was paid to maintain low computation and communication load, thus to expedite fast browsing experience, without unnecessary interruptions and delays. Overall, the Analysis outcomes include the findings of the survey (discussed in the related results section), as well as the extracted specifications that were evaluated and verified with the users that were involved in the LUCID process (especially for the parts dealing with functional and content-wise attributes). 4.2. Design Taking the deliverables of the Analysis cycles as the inputs, low-fidelity prototyping iterations were deployed during this phase (mock-up design), which refined the structure of the web-guide and the overall navigation experience (Figure 1a). Specifically, many features of “theartstory.org” were indicated as the most appropriate to be adopted in the current approach, aspiring to be the respective Greek point-of-reference for modern art and principally painting movements. The main screens of the corresponding thematic categories were sketched, while the Istoriart logo ideas were brought into the table and refined during the successive spiral design (Figure 1b,c). Color pallet, chromatic code, and page composition were decided for the entire site, providing some initial high-fidelity prototype illustrations (Figure 1d). Apart from the “painting movements” and the “artists” themes, in which popular styles and painters would be listed and linked to featured pages, further elements (i.e., timelines, games) were implanted to augment interaction, which targeted rich-media experience and audience engagement. Hence, the first two items of the navigation bar point to the primary learning resources, which might also form the syllabus of a related class (like the post-graduate course of the working scenario), while the rest of them offer enhanced ways of accessing and interacting. Timelines were again inspired by “theartstory.org” to draw infographic visualizations, which highlighted key-events and generally temporal style elaboration. In this view, alternative schemes for information organization and presentation are offered, facilitating various filtering, searching, or indexing mechanisms, which can be adapted to the (self-) instructing preferences of both in-class students and distant trainees. Such exploratory capabilities are additionally supported with the “links” section, which directs users to selected external sites. Multimedia quizzes, photo-galleries, and puzzles were lastly considered as the Educ. Sci. 2019, 9, 198 7 of 22 entertaining components, which aimed to stimulate engaging schooling activities through educational games. All of these processes and their outcomes were systematically discussed and evaluated with the participating users, to come to the final decisions. Figure 1. Design of the proposed Istoriart web guide [13]: (a) organization and navigation structure (proposed sitemap); (b) low-fidelity prototype (mock-up design); (c) alternative logo suggestions; and, (d) illustration of a high-fidelity prototype. Recalling the analysis and design conclusions, the goal for Istoriart was to develop an interactive environment that would be accessible through any computing device (smartphones, tablets, laptop, and desktop computers). A static site was advocated based on the stateless web development example to achieve this goal, allowing for the consumption of interactive contents by clients with and without internet connectivity. A significant advantage of the chosen stateless development model is the fact that there is no shared state between the servers (e.g., a database), which simplifies the scaling of the application, thus allowing it to serve high volumes of traffic [13,44,45]. A computational architecture was also designed, which incorporated all of the stated specifications and requirements into the blueprinted diagram of Figure 2. The Docker-based containerization approach allows for achieving isolation between different services running on the server, also simplifying the authoring/programming and deployment workflow. Specifically, a docker image is generated and pushed to a repository, containing the Apache web-server and Istoriart content. A virtualization layer on top of hardware resources, as supplied by Okeanos cloud platform, is employed for the hosts running the containerized application. Along with these technological suggestions, it was also decided that Istoriart would be delivered as an additional microservice through the “arutv.ee.auth.gr” domain, Educ. Sci. 2019, 9, 198 8 of 22 in the URL address http://arutv.ee.auth.gr/istoriart/. The reason behind this choice is two-folded: (a) ARUTV is an interactive-TV effort that started within the same post-graduate program, which often served as a repository of other audiovisual and multimedia products, and (b) this repository is engaged in the educational activities of some other classes, including the mentioned courses of “Modern Art” and “Multimedia Production” [13,44,45]. Figure 2. The blueprinted back-end/computing architecture of Istoriart web guide: The various layers comprising the full tech stack are presented. 4.3. Development In many aspects, the design and development processes co-exist within the iterative spirals, so the main distinction is the heavier production and programming, deployed during content/media assets construction and authoring. Hence, the project continues to actually implement the adopted aesthetic and functional plan that has been already presented in the previous section. However, some strategic decisions are clarified in this section, which are mostly related to the aims of providing additional interactions, so as to engage the audience from all of the different/targeted disciplines. As already implied, photo-galleries and puzzles (jigsaw, slide) have been incorporated as interactive/entertaining components (Figure 3a). These elements allow for users to browse through various collections of pictures, which are categorized in different movements, thus to become more familiarized with the visual features of the similar styles. Moreover, students (or trainees) and professionals working on related projects can organize their own digital painting collections that would be later utilized in the processes of gaming. Coming to the perspective of educators, various experiential teaching activities could be organized and directed within the physical or electronic classes (i.e., classify the image to the proper style, group alike examples, recognize a specific artwork to retrieve further information or historical details, etc.). These elements were created in Adobe Flash (continued as Adobe Animate) and then extracted as SWF files, taking advantage of previous experience, the offered authoring capabilities, and the availability of related/original code, which could be elaborated to adapt to any specific needs of the project, according to CBSE model [13. While it was already known that this option would exclude the possibility of reproducing these services on mobile devices, it was a conscious decision to proceed with the choice that was made for two main reasons. First, the combination of the offered interactivity/scripting and the associated design tools were advantageous when compared to the alternatives, especially if the working environment and the back-end components had to be presented and explained in a multidisciplinary audience (i.e., within the teaching activities of the mentioned post-graduate program, for instance, in the “Multimedia Production” class). Second, the specific limitation of not playing these utilities in mobile devices was actually a desired feature, since high size and resolution screens or projections are preferred (for obvious reasons). http://arutv.ee.auth.gr/istoriart/ Educ. Sci. 2019, 9, 198 9 of 22 Figure 3. Examples of the gaming components in the Istoriart web guide [13]: (a) interactive galleries and puzzles (organize pictures in related movement folders); and, (b) knowledge and image-recognition quizzes (following the movement-recognition exercise, a subsequent question is shown, requesting to justify the initial classification decision, i.e., based on colors, shapes, thematic content, intuition). Another kind of educational gaming was attempted with the implementation of quizzes, asking general knowledge questions and/or focusing on the recognition of specific visual artworks (Figure 3b). Such tools could be exploited as self-testing material and for triggering group discussion in a classroom. The utilization of SWF format (and Adobe Flash) was again decided, based on the justification that was provided in the previous paragraph, as well as to serve seamless engineering and maintenance (i.e., not to search and cope with another technology, only for questions that do not contain images). While modern art paintings cannot easily be attached with strict style recognition rules, an effort was put in that direction to help, challenge, and engage the audience (i.e., especially the technologically-oriented students coming from STEM disciplines). Particularly, a two-step questioning dialogue was decided, which asked participants/players to indicate the reason of their movement classification response (through a list of choices, as shown in Figure 3b), regardless of whether their answer was right or wrong (a “checking the right answer possibility” is available in down-left green button of Figure 3b). Therefore, erroneous and correct replies could be massively selected and associated with the different categories in order to extract empirical rules and knowledge for types or specific examples posing recognition complexity/difficultness. Anonymous submission of the game results was set, with a randomization engine generating different questions, so that users would not face the exact same content each time they would play the game. All of these features could be easily handled within Adobe Flash, without deviating from the initial requirement for web content portability and offline reproduction. Returning to the educational perspectives and the offered capabilities, the introduced “learning by example” concept can be inducted in the goals of blended learning, thus giving the opportunity to schedule physical- and/or distant-communication teaching (synchronous or asynchronous). In addition, this new approach is closer to the training of artificial intelligence systems, i.e., through the paradigms of Machine and Deep Learning (ML/DL) [12,13,31–39]. Inspired by this, a painting movement recognition modality was examined (already implied), which offered an alternative/opposite viewpoint, where humans guide the machines. Figure 4 presents the envisioned TEL framework behind the conducted work, which included already running services and future perspectives, while also demonstrating the two-folded orientation of the proposed “machine-assisted learning”. When considering the intensiveness of present-day research projects that were related to art recognition and attendance [31–33,46,47], such labors require interdisciplinary workforce and associative media training that cannot be left out of the scope of this work. Specifically, while mobile devices are not compatible with the offered gaming utilities (as already explained), there was an effort to engage smartphones and tablets in educative exercises Educ. Sci. 2019, 9, 198 10 of 22 on artificial art recognition. The utmost target is to be able to combine such intelligent ML systems with Augmented Reality (AR) modules [30], i.e., to recognize an artwork through the mobile camera, retrieving and displaying further information on the screen. Therefore, while taking advantage of previous successful implementations for crowdsourcing audio semantics [48,49], the idea was to extend such strategies in the discussed example, i.e., enabling users to validate the movement recognition results by providing semi-automated annotation feedback. A proof of concept attempt was made in algorithmic level even if such demanding/generic purpose solutions are not technically feasible yet, investigating the potential visual parameters to be used in various modern-art classification schemes [12,13]. For instance, visual features that were extracted and ranked for their descriptive saliency in the discrimination of the different painting classes could be more easily understood and comprehended to some teaching groups. Clearly, this approach can be thought of as more suitable and challenging to technologists, post-graduate students, or academics, who are (/willing to be) involved in such types of multidisciplinary research. In this case, Istoriart can also provide the necessary creative or artistic background to fill in the gap in media literacy from an art perspective. Finally, the games and the targeted AR services could both propel the gradual construction of large-volume ground-truth repositories, appropriate to advance future works on DL, not only for media and art, but also for broader collaborations on demanding multimedia semantics. Figure 4. The envisioned bundle of technology-enhanced services within the Istoriart framework. Advanced movement recognition modalities attempt to further propel machine-driven training. When considering the diversification of modern-art styles and even inner-class dissimilarities of artists under the same trend, it would be beneficial to provide an educational map for the implicated painting movements, where visual content withholds large amounts of information (colors, textures, etc.). Initial experiments were conducted for the potential discrimination of patterns through machine learning. The whole classification task is quite demanding due to the heterogeneity of the art styles, as well as the personalized characteristics of representative artists. Imaging properties had to be imprinted/reflected into mathematical expressions, transforming empirical observations or intuitions into relevant visual parameters. In the current case, the feature extraction and ranking procedures were conducted with the close collaboration of different groups of expertise within the discussed post-graduate program, i.e., in the classes of related courses and as a part of master/doctoral theses [12,13]. Figure 4 shows the implicated processes, along with the triggered TEL activities and the associated services. As it is further discussed in the Results and Discussion sections, the overall cooperation experience was found exciting, enjoyable, and engaging by the different participants, while Educ. Sci. 2019, 9, 198 11 of 22 the preliminary performance outcomes of the trained models per se, seem to be very encouraging, making a strong proof of concept. 4.4. Evaluation Assessment is considered to be an essential procedure in multimedia production and broadly in system engineering projects, especially if rapid prototyping and human-centered design are involved (as in the current work). Overall, different types of evaluation can be conducted in qualitative and/or quantitative terms throughout all of the development phases. The main scope is to indicate likely flaws, imperfect behavior, or unjustified deviations from the blueprinted plan when such analyses are deployed in parallel with the project execution, providing useful feedback for course rectification (formative evaluation). A respective small panel of multi-domain experts was formed for this purpose, including representative users of the targeted Istoriart audience along with authors of this paper. Specifically, individuals coming from the sectors of education (3), audiovisual industries, artistic, or creative media (3), were assembled with technologists, web programmers, and software engineers (4) to cover all of the necessary appraising perspectives. Most of the participants had an associated degree and related experience in the field, while the students of the relevant post-graduate program were listed among the contributors. Experimental/inspection sessions and associated discussion groups were organized to uncover and shape the required curative actions. Testing and validation mechanisms were emanated from the favorite rules and principles, i.e., the Nielsen metrics and the so-called “five Es of usability” (Effectiveness, Efficiency, Engagement, Error tolerance, Ease of learning), which highlighted the desired application attributes [13,19–23,40–44]. These codes were adapted to the characteristics of the intended Istoriart functionalities and the aimed end-users. Formative evaluation was decided to mainly proceed in qualitative terms, even if bigger teams were sometimes involved in the process (i.e., focused post-graduate classes). Apart from the above formative procedure, a final assessment session was employed at project completion with the help of a different board of evaluators. This analysis mainly incorporates subjective/empirical observations and suggestions that, except for their qualitative nature, were supplemented with a related quantification approach. The central aim was to estimate the succeeded achievements, to indicate proper use of the offered TEL services in broader learning/training scenarios in the highly multidisciplinary media sector, and to unveil the potential future deployment and elaboration directions. A different kind of evaluation was employed for the case of the artificial movement recognition utilities, i.e., to stress the performance and the expected generalization accuracy of the trained modalities. More details regarding all of these processes are provided in the corresponding results section. 5. Results Elaborating on the previous paragraph, the qualitative and quantitative results, as presented in this section, can be divided into three major categories: (a) the implemented guide and the offered services; (b) the analysis and usability evaluation outcomes; and, (c) the deployed pattern classification schemes with the associated performance scores. 5.1. Implemented Guide and Offered Services The implemented modern art guide with its featured multimedia elements and the associated TEL perspectives are listed among the undeniably positive results of the work. The delivered services managed to fill the gap in the availability of related tools, especially for the Greek language. Figure 5 presents views of the Istoriart site. The starting screen contains a tag-cloud animation with direct access to the most popular movements. The horizontal menu that follows is present in all browsing instances, offering site-map guidance, thus allowing for quick navigation to each thematic page. A short welcome text completes the composition of the introduction message, providing primary project identity information, while overall maintaining a “chic and simple” design. All of the internal Educ. Sci. 2019, 9, 198 12 of 22 nodes open in the main window (_iframe), while external sites open to new tabs (_blank). In this context, users and especially students/trainees can safely explore the informatory data needed during an educational exercise or activity, without worrying about possible disorientation or misplacing (i.e., to get lost). Figure 5. The implemented Istoriart web-guide: (a) Start page, containing a tag-cloud animation with links to the most popular modern-art movements, followed by the horizontal navigation bar and the welcome text; (b) An artist page (Degas) with his identity data and timeline, representative/favorite artworks, abstract section (in bluish color) and lookup mechanisms (links/pop-up windows) for finding further information on related art movements. In both screens, project-identity links are given in the right-top corner, while the Istoriart logo is placed an instance below, in the opposite side (left -top). The horizontal menu is always present (just below the logo) to facilitate easy access to all the browsing nodes/pages. 5.2. Analysis and Usability Evaluation Results Empirical surveys were conducted during the rapid prototyping processes to serve the analysis and evaluation tasks. Qualitative observations and feedback were received by various experts through interview and lab inspection approaches, while a broader audience anonymously selected the quantitative responses. A properly formed questionnaire was used during analysis to collect the answers of potential end-users (target group) and to reveal key characteristics for the subsequent development. The questions were related to the users’ knowledge and interests, either in art generally or exclusively in modern-contemporary art, their preferences in different artistic kinds, their needs/willingness to utilize online material (and how often) for retrieving interesting information (artistic or not), and their language preferences (English, Greek). The elaborated queries were posed to assess the availability and importance of educational platforms/web-guides on modern art, especially for the Greek language. The participants were asked to state their opinions about the appropriateness and effectiveness of the advocated guide modalities (image, audio, video) and the preferred accessing modes (online/offline with downloadable material provisions). Several demographic variables (gender, age, profession) were also recorded, along with technology familiarity metrics to extract the correlation outcomes and meaningful conclusions (i.e., estimated level of competency/engagement in digital literacy and web technologies, device preferences during navigation, etc.). Table 2 depicts the analytic structure of the questionnaire. Educ. Sci. 2019, 9, 198 13 of 22 Table 2. The analysis questionnaire. # Question (Indicative Answers—Range) A Gender (Male, Female) B Age (intervals: <30, 30–50, >50) C Education (Secondary, University, Master) D Profession related to (multimedia, art, education, other) E Technology familiarity (low, medium, high) F Place for computer utilization (home, work, both, other) G Use of Internet frequency (1–5) H Device preference (desktop computer, laptop, mobile, tablet) I Knowledge of differences between modern and contemporary art (Yes, No, Not Sure) J Do you want to know more about modern art? (1–5) K Do you search on the Web for art-related information? (1–5) L Do you search on the Web for modern art related information (1–5) M Main Interest in Art (Painting, Music, Literature, Theater, Dancing) N Do you search on the Web for general information? (1–5) O Would you read an English text for Information Acquirement? (1–5) P Do you know any featured multimedia guide for modern art in Greek language? (1–5) Q Would you be interested in a modern art guide in Greek language? (1–5) R Should a modern art guide involve multimodal content (audio, video etc.)? (1–5) S Importance of downloadable content of the guide, i.e., offline mode (1–5) T Main Interest in modern art (historical data, movements, artists, creations, all, none) U A multimedia modern-art guide should involve (extended textual descriptions, basic information, concise summaries with options for further/extensive information lookup) Questions that were related to modern art and Istoriart aspects (initial knowledge, suggested modalities, anticipated usefulness, etc.) were structured in a categorical form of potential answers, with five-point Likert scales (1–5, from “Totally Disagree” to “Totally Agree” or from “Not at all” to “Very Often”). Binary values (i.e., Gender) and higher-dimension lists were also involved. A reliability test was conducted in the formulated questionnaire via Cronbach’s alpha estimation before proceeding into an extensive correlation analysis between the various factors, which revealed a value of 0.71, thus ensuring the reliability of the test. A primal statistical analysis was made with the exploitation of Chi-Squared tests, taking into consideration the categorical nature of the involved answers, based on the calculation of Pearson Correlation Coefficient with 95% confidence level (as compared to 0.05 threshold value). The items were divided in two subsets, with the former involving basic characteristics/demographics of the users (questions A-H) and the latter containing their art-related answers (questions I-U). The correlation matrix from the Chi-Square tests presents the p-values for the combinations of row/column elements, which were compared to the 0.05 threshold of statistically significant correlations (marked as green for values below 0.05, as depicted in Figure 6). Statistical differentiations in the answers of male/female users for their interests in a on modern-art guide (like Istoriart) and the preferred multimedia elements were found. The diversified professional orientation revealed statistical correlation to the anticipated services and the Internet utilization. Educ. Sci. 2019, 9, 198 14 of 22 Table 3. Evaluation questions adapted to the Nielsen metrics and the five Es of usability [13,19–23]. # Usability Criteria 1 Crisp and simple navigation 2 Use of correct Language—Terminology 3 Visibility of System Status 4 Effective Presentation 5 Flexibility and efficiency of (multimedia) use 6 Information retrieval (recognition rather than recall) 7 Aesthetic and minimalistic design 8 Multimedia interaction/user control 9 Alternative navigation routes/user freedom 10 Help and documentation support Figure 6. P-values for the questioned items (the green-highlighted cells indicated statistical difference between the associated factors, as presented in Table 3. Regarding usability evaluation, apart from the formative feedback that was received in all the corresponding phases of the iterative design (low-/high fidelity prototypes, midway deliverables, etc.), the final assessment derived from five (5) experts, specialized in the following domains: (a) education and technology, (b) creative expressions, graphics and arts, (c) game development, (d) software engineering, web authoring and management, and (e) audiovisual signal processing and multimedia. The goal (in all phases) was to receive timely feedback regarding the inspection of functional errors, misleading content, ineffective design, etc., targeting to drive the subsequent optimization process. For this reason, a short list of questions was adapted to the associated Nielsen rules and the five Es of usability [22,40–44], inquiring discussion regarding ten (10) different multimedia perspectives of Istoriart to match the specific analysis needs in the current scenario (i.e., to form the variables presented in Table 3). The interviewed experts’ team had to respond with a Likert-like score from 1 to 5, to each of the 10 properties, which are exhibited in Table 3. Figure 7 presents the statistical results of the respective scores. The mean values were in all cases around 4.5, which point to the high-quality and functional design of the application, while the tiny deviations declare the homogeneity in the answers of the implicated experts. Despite that this outcome relies on a small group, it is essential to note the agreement from all the different angles of expertise, without any diversifications between educational, creative, and technological disciplines. Educ. Sci. 2019, 9, 198 15 of 22 Figure 7. Statistics (mean, standard deviation) of the final Istoriart evaluation, using the modified usability assessment criteria, as presented in Table 3. Regarding the formed metrics and the absence of some popular/key parameters (i.e., error rate/presence—prevention and recovery; formal documentation), formative feedback pointed out that the deployed architecture and the simplicity of the back-end design resulted in the abstain of related navigation errors. For this reason, it was decided to exclude “error queries”, while also considering that, at some point, these aspects were somewhat projected in the “Navigation, Visibility, and Control” views. In the same context, the missing of formal documentation was noticed, though, it was admitted that helping notes and supporting material adequately covered this necessity (also reflected in the variables of Table 3). In qualitative terms, small concerns were further expressed regarding the use of *.swf files and popup windows, justified on the expected difficulties and incompatibilities when executed on mobile devices. Thus, the incorporation of alternative future implementations was prompted. The possibility of a search bar was finally mentioned, realizing the subsequent/unwanted increase of complexity, with the additional risk to distract or disorient users (students/trainees) in their educational tasks. Despite the above optional points, all of the reviews were intensely positive, thinking of the stated minor flaws as insignificant, especially for the current phase and the set aims, thus agreeing that the project accomplished the vast majority of its targets. The positive remarks were also validated and verified in qualitative terms by different groups of evaluators, i.e., students that were enrolled in the referred post-graduate media courses, multi-domain researchers participating in the training of the machine-driven movement recognition system (presented next), etc. It has to be noted that this last assessment was deployed to test the initial/stated hypotheses of the TEL-contributions and not for evaluative purposes per se. Nevertheless, in-class triggered discussions and feedback is collected for a potential future release of a next Istoriart version (optimized with augmented features), whereas the additional statistics and solid results could be extracted (considered out of the scope of the current work). 5.3. Machine-Driven Movement Recognition: Classification Schemes and Performance Evaluation As already pointed out, this experimentation was decided to meet the highly multi-domain nature of the media education scenarios, as well as to trigger audience engagement and experiential learning activities. Initial classification schemes were set, which involved the following eight styles: Impressionism, Meta-Impressionism, Fauvism, Expressionism, Abstract Expressionism, Cubism, Futurism, and Surrealism. The most famous/representative artists and artworks of each movement were included for training and testing purposes (the associated numbers of painting samples per class Educ. Sci. 2019, 9, 198 16 of 22 are given in Table 4). Lossless compression image files (i.e., *.png format) were retrieved from web sources in different dimensions/resolutions; hence, a preprocessing step was necessary for smoothening this heterogeneity. Specifically, each picture was rescaled to the same horizontal dimension (400 pixels), which analogously accommodated the vertical size, for the avoidance of distortion/disproportion problems. Thereafter, a set of features was extracted as related to color components, texture properties, and spatial shape detection, representing the inputs to feed system training. Table 4. Painting collections of the different genres used for the machine-driven art recognition. # Movement Number of Paintings 1 Impressionism 20 2 Meta-Impressionism 15 3 Fauvism 15 4 Expressionism 18 5 Abstract Expressionism 18 6 Cubism 15 7 Futurism 16 8 Surrealism 16 Sum 133 Specifically, basic statistical variables, i.e., mean value, standard deviation, skewness, kurtosis, and entropy, were computed for the grayscale images (with 256 gray-levels, i.e., 8-bit quantization). These parameters were combined to form structural descriptors that could aid in mining and assigning rules for each category. Moreover, color transformations into different models were deployed since color information is essential in modern-art style discrimination (i.e., RGB, HSV, YCbCr, LIQ) and the above statistics were again calculated to contribute tp a combined color-structure identification perspective. Similarly, typical filters (i.e., edge detectors) were utilized to reveal shape characteristics, i.e., through the number of edges, corners and lines. In purely technical terms, contrast/dynamic range processing were applied, along with corner/node detection techniques (i.e., Eigenvalues, Harris methods) and their elaborated edge estimation counterparts in the extracted binary versions (i.e., Canny, Sobel, Prewitt, Roberts, Laplace-Gaussian, Zero-crossing). Furthermore, continuous lines of pixels were located and quantified via the Hough-Transform, which configured the minimum line-length threshold values through trial and error testing (a number of 7 consecutive active pixels turned to be a good compromise). An alternatively texture discovery approach was attempted with a more sophisticated property set (i.e., via the computation of the Haralick coefficients, deriving from the respective co-occurrence matrices), while Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) transforms were also included to indicate salient spectral/scaling attributes. Overall, a feature vector of 147 visual parameters was formed for each image, using the Matlab Computer Vision toolbox [12,13,50]. The last two paragraphs might seem entirely unfitting to the main concept of the paper, especially for average readers without an essential technological and algorithmic background. However, this is the exact point when it comes to highly interdisciplinary studies, as presented in this paper. On the one hand, creative media and communication disciplines are needed to provide the human experience in classifying modern-art painting movements, as to suggest the accompanying discrimination rules. Clearly, the interested users of this domain would be fascinated with the idea of using a machine-driven recognition guide (and the respective TEL scenarios that are listed in Figure 4). On the other hand, scientists and researchers from the computer vision perspective bring the skillsets and assets to train such smart systems through ML and DL techniques into the table. In this context, multi-domain audience is strongly engaged in the TEL processes and urged to close collaboration with the co-mates. In fact, this was the case during the ML sessions, presented here, where post-graduate students and researchers/PhD candidates were collaborating towards the construction of the ground-truth dataset (i.e., image-samples annotated with movement labels) to train and test the artificial recognition modules [12,13]. Table 5 lists the different categories/classification schemes that were formed in order Educ. Sci. 2019, 9, 198 17 of 22 to verify the initial proof of concept (i.e., to estimate the algorithmic style detection performance) and the associated evaluation metrics/results. The ratio of the correctly classified samples to the total population is defined as the Pattern Recognition accuracy (PR), while partial scores (PRi = A,B,C) refer to the intrinsic measures within each one of the classes i (=A, B, C). Table 5. Overall (PR%) and partial (PRi %) Performance Rates of the various classification schemes. # Class A PRA Class B PRB Class C PRC PR 1 Surrealism 86.67 Fauvism 100 93.33 2 Futurism 81.25 Surrealism 73.33 77.42 3 Meta-Impressionism 50.00 Cubism 66.67 56.67 4 Impressionism 80.00 Fauvism 80.00 80.00 5 Meta-Impressionism 66.67 Futurism 62.50 64.52 6 Abstract Expressionism 66.67 Surrealism 60.00 63.64 7 Cubism 73.33 Expressionism 72.22 72.73 8 Fauvism 86.67 Cubism 73.33 80.00 9 Meta-Impressionism 93.33 Surrealism 93.33 93.33 10 Meta-Impressionism 73.33 Surrealism 80.00 Futurism 81.25 78.26 11 Fauvism 86.67 Impressionism 80.00 Surrealism 66.67 76.00 12 Fauvism Futurism 76.67 Cubism Surrealism 80.65 78.69 13 Expressionism Impressionism Abstract Expressionism Meta-Impressionism 69.01 Cubism 62.30 65.91 Several machine-learning techniques were applied and compared (Support Vector Machines, k-Nearest Neighbors, Regressions, etc.), which balanced the overall and partial accuracies, before concluding to the utilization of Neural Network models. After iterative trial and error tests, the final neural structure that was involved the input layer (i.e., system input), one intermediate/hidden layer (with 40 neurons and sigmoid trigger functions), and a linear output layer (adapted to the number of classes). The standard k-fold validation method (k = 8) was adopted, which divided the input samples into k clusters; k-1 groups were used for model training and the remaining one for estimating the system generalization performance, which measured the classification scores in all of the formed k-combinations. Based on the data depicted in Table 5, high recognition rates have succeeded in quite a few schemes, while the overall preliminary results seem to be very encouraging (also accounting the difficulty of the problem and the small dataset used for training). Elaborating on this initial experimentation, useful insights have been highlighted and further discussed in the next section, which indicated potential future directions of machine-assisted art recognition and their implication in demanding media learning scenarios. 6. Limitations The current project has some unique characteristics that cannot be easily accommodated to other studies. Nevertheless, technological and methodological principles concerning the engaging aspects of the pursued TEL services could be propagated to the broader media training domain. In the same context, multidisciplinary demands may be significantly different in other challenging/real-world scenarios, so that the deployed modalities and solutions might not be so applicable. However, best practices can be extracted and tested in other/linked disciplines and related research collaborations. Concerning the two main set goals, i.e., the implementation of the multimedia guide to augment the learning experience and the machine-assisted art recognition approach for stimulating interdisciplinary engagement; both undertakings feature certain difficulties and limitations. Thus, formative and final evaluation outcomes need to be enhanced with the participation of wider audiences, by massively Educ. Sci. 2019, 9, 198 18 of 22 deploying the developed utilities in featured classrooms and/or as self-learning toolsets. Enlarging the received feedback would provide more concrete and reliable assessment insights, thus eliminating the associated design uncertainties during system maintenance. Regarding the anticipated AR modalities that rely on artificial movement detection, as already stated, the purpose was to make an initial proof of concept. The limited number of training samples and the formed classification schemes need to be elaborated with further experiments and more sophisticated analysis. These limitations do not affect the targets stated in this study in all cases, while future research directions can be listed based on this first experimentation, as discussed in the following section. 7. Discussion Starting with the stated hypotheses and questions, the conducted analysis verified that the targeted audience approves the art-guide idea of Istoriart with the envisioned TEL services. Specifically, most of the participants answered that they would be interested in extending their knowledge on the topic (>87%), seeing the usefulness of such an environment as very important (>75%). These percentages are incredibly high, even if the associated results for web searching and retrieval (of art and modern-art information) have significantly lower levels (46% and 24%, respectively). The majority is positive on the multimedia character of the webpage (~93%), as well as in the offline browsing option, although with some small variation (40% thinks of this facility as very important, 40% as important, and the remaining 10% as irrelevant). The above findings become even more significant when combined with the query on the availability of similar applications in the Greek language (the 39% is certain or almost certain that such a site is missing, while a 38% declares ignorance). Despite the restricted sample of 47 participants, the preliminary statistical values revealed correlations between the users’ gender, professions, and their interests/expectations about Istoriart. Overall, the achieved integration and evaluation results point in the direction that the project succeeded in combining many of the wanted/positive attributes that have been analyzed during the review of related works (Table 1). These initial conclusions will be further investigated, aiming to optimize the platform modalities for supporting the suitable and effective adaptation to users’ characteristics (art background, media literacy, technology familiarity, etc.), thus facilitating pleasant navigation with engaging interactions and an overall rich user experience. The bundle of the implemented TEL services can be utilized for forming innovative education activities, both for in-class tutoring and self-training support, through the use of comprehensive material (e.g., showing items of specific movements, artists, artworks, their temporal evolution/timelines, etc.). Hence, the values of blended learning [26] are extended with the incorporation of representative examples, experiential assignments, simulations, and exercises that can be addressed to individuals or as team-work projects, thus transforming the schooling routine into an augmented interactive experience [30,31,45–49]. Specifically, photo galleries can be used to highlight the resemblances and dissimilarities of the different species; quizzes can examine the levels of understanding and knowledge, triggering class discussion; puzzles can be exploited to organize personal collections and team-contests [26–28]. Gaming components can also provide indications of the salient visual parameters that facilitate artwork recognition, which urge trainees to get involved in associated AR-driven TEL services [12,13,27–39] (i.e., to identify the parts of the paintings, the revealing of which triggers higher/empirical cognition, thus helping to detect the descriptive features behind the different styles and their classification properties). Feedback queries allow for the harvesting of users’ responses (while playing the corresponding movement recognition games), thus receiving useful insights on subjective discrimination difficulties, which could help to better adapt and direct the teaching procedures. At the same time, a dedicated repository is constructed and annotated with the necessary meta-information, which can be further elaborated through semi-automated crowdsourcing processes. These labelled datasets could be valuable in the direction of learning by example, both for humans and machines (i.e., use the associated samples as inputs in sophisticated ML/DL artificially-trained recognition systems, as it was attempted in the current project, making the first proof of concept). Educ. Sci. 2019, 9, 198 19 of 22 Extending the above, it is essential to evaluate the achieved audience engagement perspectives, which form the second research question to be answered. Based on the usability assessment outcomes and the associated qualitative validation sessions, which were conducted in featured target groups and related post-graduate classes, the received feedback verifies the powerfully engaging character of the Istoriart TEL services. Excluding all of the above-stated advantages, it worth elaborating on the example of the ML-training procedures. The corresponding research was deployed with the close collaboration of multi-domain authorities, which revealed the highly multidisciplinary nature of the undertaking. Specifically, subject-matter experts from the broader area of audiovisual industries, who had previous knowledge and/or interests in modern art, cooperated with technologists, specialists on signal processing, and artificial intelligence. The common targets were to form the initial dataset with representative painting styles and to detect the applicable visual properties for their automated discrimination. The classification schemes, as presented in Table 5, were investigated and finally formed based on the joint empirical observations of the involved teams. It should be noted that direct movement recognition experiments were initially attempted, which aimed at separating all of the samples in each painting category at once, but reduced performance rates were achieved, which pointed out the increased complexity of the problem [12,13]. This was a good “lesson” for media disciplines to comprehend that ML algorithms cannot provide any solution by their own, an experience that can be portrayed on similar trendy topics (i.e., Semantic Web, Internet of Things, Big Data applications in media/communications). In this context, their digital literacy was expanded in practice, which allowed for them to contribute the team effort, i.e., by participating in the investigation and configuration of the remaining tasks of visual feature extraction and ranking. On the other hand, technologists took the opportunity to exploit Istoriart resources, to get basic training on the necessary artistic background. Overall, both teams were attracted by the mutual challenge and they enjoyed their active engagement in such a demanding project. In future perspectives, the conducted semantic analysis could be reinforced/optimized with the collection of extended ground-truth data (for more adequate movement representation), or even with the integration of hierarchical modules, which support the classification process in sequential layers of coarse/hybrid schemes. In all cases, this style recognition approach serves as an introductory guide and a key element for Istoriart, fulfilling educational purposes either for art related users or technology-oriented ones, while addressing the wanted interdisciplinary skillset. Furthermore, the extracted conclusions regarding movement discrimination and the explicitly-described ML know-how could initiate interesting discussions in media classes, motivating the collaborative actions between the co-mates. Finally, the already-trained modules can be exploited, along with the Istoriart gaming components, to enhance the initially constructed repository, which could propel future DL/ML works, targeting significantly improved generalization performance. When such mature solutions become broadly available, more sophisticated TEL services (like the augmented-reality painting recognition of Figure 4) would further heighten the schooling procedures to even higher levels of audience excitement and engagement. Such systems seem among the few prosperous solutions to support digital literacy and life-long learning in the dizzying media society transformation, where unawareness and the uncertainty of the technological capacities are dominant to considerable amounts of population. 8. Conclusions Summarizing the above observations, someone would argue with confidence about the strong impact of technology-enhanced learning in supporting highly multidisciplinary topics, prioritizing audience engagement. Based on the feedback that was received during the implementation of the Istoriart case-study, the adopted practices can help to improve the teaching experience (in multiple levels), promoting digital literacy support, for both the specific topic and broader training processes. More specifically, the engaging, experiencing, and innovative TEL aspects can be ingested within the international theoretical framework regarding highly multidisciplinary/demanding fields. As already stated, we are living in a world of data, in which the pervasive nature of information exchange and Educ. Sci. 2019, 9, 198 20 of 22 communication have dominated today’s ubiquitous society. The media landscape has drastically altered during the last years, while it continues to elaborate with strong dependencies on the use of technology. In this context, the previously mentioned contemporary trends of the Semantic Web and Big Data are considered as the next big thing in the media world and require the close collaboration of multi-domain experts. Hence, following the experience gained in this project, TEL services could propel such cooperative models, in favor of all the involved parties. Author Contributions: Conceptualization, E.C. and C.D.; methodology, E.C. and C.D.; software, N.T. and L.V.; validation, R.K., investigation, E.C.; data curation, R.K., L.V. and N.T.; writing—original draft preparation, E.C., R.K. and C.D.; writing—review and editing, L.V., N.T. and C.D.; visualization, N.T. and C.D.; supervision, C.D. Funding: This research received no external funding. Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the valuable contribution and guidance of G. Paschalidis, during the methodological preparation and implementation of the conducted work. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. 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Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach, 7th ed.; McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, USA, 2010. 20. Sommerville, I. Software Engineering, 9th ed.; Addison-Wesley: London, UK, 2011. 21. Vaughan, T. Multimedia: Making It Work, 9th ed.; McGraw-Hill Osborne Media: New York, NY, USA, 2014. 22. Dimoulas, C.A. Multimedia. In The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Mass Media and Society; Merskin, D.L., Ed.; SAGE Publications, Inc.: Saunders Oaks, CA, USA, 2019. 23. Dimoulas, C.A. Multimedia Authoring and Management Technologies: Non-Linear Storytelling in the New Digital Media; Association of Greek Academic Libraries: Athens, Greece, 2015. Available online: https: //repository.kallipos.gr/handle/11419/4343 (accessed on 5 May 2019). (In Greek) 24. Veglis, A.; Maniou, T. The Mediated Data Model of Communication Flow: Big Data and Data Journalism. KOME Int. J. Pure Commun. Inq. 2018, 6, 32–43. [CrossRef] 25. Veglis, A.; Maniou, T. Chatbots on the Rise: A new Narrative in Journalism. Stud. 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In Proceedings of the Audio Mostly 2015 on Interaction with Sound, Thessaloniki, Greece, 7–9 October 2015; p. 34. 46. Predescu, A.D.; Triantafyllidis, G. New Forms of Creative Artistic Expression Through Technology: An Alternative Perspective to Education. In Interactivity, Game Creation, Design, Learning, and Innovation; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2017; pp. 500–509. 47. Billeskov, J.A.; Møller, T.N.; Triantafyllidis, G.; Palamas, G. Using Motion Expressiveness and Human Pose Estimation for Collaborative Surveillance Art. In Interactivity, Game Creation, Design, Learning, and Innovation; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2018; pp. 111–120. 48. Vrysis, L.; Tsipas, N.; Dimoulas, C.; Papanikolaou, G. Crowdsourcing Audio Semantics by Means of Hybrid Bimodal Segmentation with Hierarchical Classification. J. Audio Eng. Soc. 2016, 64, 1042–1054. [CrossRef] 49. Vrysis, L.; Vryzas, N.; Sidiropoulos, E.; Avraam, E.; Dimoulas, C.A. jReporter: A Smart Voice-Recording Mobile Application. In Proceedings of the Audio Engineering Society Convention 146, Dublin, Ireland, 20–23 March 2018. 50. MathWorks. Computer Vision Toolbox: User’s Guide. 2012. Available online: mathworks.com/help/pdf_ doc/vision/vision_ug.pdf (accessed on 5 May 2019). © 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/93.917971 http://search.lib.auth.gr/Record/ikee-130613 http://dx.doi.org/10.17743/jaes.2016.0051 mathworks.com/help/pdf_doc/vision/vision_ug.pdf mathworks.com/help/pdf_doc/vision/vision_ug.pdf http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Introduction Background—Review or Related Work Research Aims and Project Motivation Materials and Methods Analysis Design Development Evaluation Results Implemented Guide and Offered Services Analysis and Usability Evaluation Results Machine-Driven Movement Recognition: Classification Schemes and Performance Evaluation Limitations Discussion Conclusions References 
work_bfimv6gagvclhgaerrzdweeya4	----	of administration of inotropic agents in the first week of life in LBW infants. There is still uncertainty about the effect of prenatal steroids on various extrapulmonary outcome variables. As the positive effect of maternal administration of steroids on neo- natal respiratory distress syndrome has been repeatedly demonstrated, a randomised con- trolled trial approach to assess the effect of prenatal steroids on these extrapulmonary outcome variables is no longer ethical or feasible. However, prospective collection of these variables, as was done by both groups mentioned above, is still of clinical relevance, especially if we take into account that the large randomised controlled trial studies were performed in the 1980s and 1990s and there- fore potentially only in part reflect the populations admitted to our present day units. K Allegaert, A Debeer University Hospital, Gasthuisberg, Belgium Correspondence to: Dr Allegaert; karel.allegaert@uz. kuleuven.ac.be References 1 Vural M, Yilmaz I, Oztunc F, et al. Cardiac effects of single course antenatal betamethasone in preterm infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2006;91:F118–22. 2 Dimitriou G, Kavvadia V, Marcou M, et al. Antenatal steroids and fluid balance in very low birthweight infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2005;90:F509–13. 3 Allegaert K, Debeer A, Cossey V, et al. Dopamine is not an independent risk factor for reduced amikacin clearance in extremely low birth weight infants. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2006;7:143–6. doi: 10.1136/adc.2006.095943 Funding: the clinical research of KA is supported by the fund for Scientific Research, Flanders, Belgium by a clinical doctoral grant (A 615-KV-G1). Competing interests: none declared BOOK REVIEWS I approached this book with interest after a rash of congenital and acquired infections locally. The book is divided into two sections, the first tackling the sometimes baffling array of serological, immunological, and molecular tests simply but thoroughly. An excellent chapter on placental pathology reminds the reader of how much information this often overlooked organ can yield. The second part of the book deals with specific infections, and the chapters are pre- sented in a standard format which makes dipping in and out easy, despite the almost wall to wall text. The emphasis of this book is on diagnosis, but there is also considerable infor- mation on epidemiology, transmission risks, and clinical features of each infection. However, from a clinician’s perspective, it is frustrating that the authors chose not to include the areas of management and outcome as they are ‘‘well detailed in many other sources’’. Although the epidemiological emphasis is on the United States, the author extends appeal to the developing world, and chapters include the diagnosis of malaria, syphilis, and tuberculosis. In contrast, common bacterial infections are given little coverage, except a good chapter on group B Streptococcus and the controversies surrounding screening and treat- ing. Disappointingly, the coliforms are dealt with in a single short paragraph, and coagulase negative Staphylococcus does not receive a mention, despite being the most common neonatal pathogen across the developed world. Moreover neonatal tetanus, which accounts for 7% of all early neonatal deaths world wide, is ignored. Instead two chapters are dedicated to the epidemiology and diagnosis of congeni- tal lymphocytic choriomeningitis and dengue virus, of which there are only a few small case series in the literature. The book is heavy on text with a few tables, and only two conditions are illustrated with poor quality black and white photographs. Priced at £75, colour photographs would have been welcome, particularly as the emphasis throughout is on laboratory diagnosis in conjunction with clinical signs. The strength of this book is the diagnostic expertise and would undoubtedly be found most useful by microbiologists in the perinatal field. It provides good information on epide- miology, range of appropriate tests, risks to mother and fetus, and spectrum of clinical features. Such detail would be invaluable for those developing a perinatal microbiological service. However, this book will fall short in many perinatologists’ eyes in not providing guidance on treatment and information on outcome, both of which could have been handled reasonably succinctly at the expense of some of the more exceptional diseases. J-C Becher Intensive care of the fetus & neonate, 2nd edn Edited by Alan R Spitzer. Published by Elsevier, 2005, £99.00, pp 1472. ISBN 1560535121 As I was on the look out for a good reference book on neonatology, this book crossed my path at just the right time. As a basic reference text it did not disappoint. I was particularly impressed with the good ground- ing it provides in fetal medicine as well as covering neonatal intensive care. Although on the whole I like the book a lot, it does not quite meet my expectations in terms of the comprehensiveness of its subject matter. The book starts well with an interesting and informative history of fetal and neonatal inten- sive care. It then moves on to chapters covering fetal development, assessment, diagnosis, and intervention. These chapters, along with the subsequent sections on maternal factors influencing neonatal outcome and manage- ment of the high risk pregnancy, are a fantastic resource for those who, like me, are somewhat rusty when it comes to the intricacies of fetal medicine. I enjoyed reading these chapters and am likely to refer to them repeatedly. Logically enough, the text moves on to give a good, robust coverage of neonatal resusci- tation and newborn examination. Following this, the lion’s share of the book is concerned with neonatal intensive care. This is intro- duced by a rather hotchpotch mix of chapters on radiology, thermal regulation, and the evolving role of nurse practitioners, which have been squeezed in before the major chapters covering body systems. As an aside, this is not the only place in the book where the topic order might be felt to be slightly unusual or counter-intuitive. The chapters on body systems give detailed coverage of all of the more common and important neonatal conditions. They also give important consideration to related topics such as different modes of ventilation (which are given a chapter each), follow up of the high risk neonate, nutrition, fluid and elec- trolyte physiology, and transfusion therapy to name a few. To complete the book, there are sections on surgical management of the neonate, which concentrate on general surgi- cal care issues and urological problems, followed by a brief look at some epidemiolo- gical and ethical considerations. At first glance, the book seems to be fairly comprehensive, but, on closer examination, I felt that there was less mention of several organ systems than I would have liked: there are no chapters specifically covering neonatal derma- tology or orthopaedic problems, for example. I was also surprised to find several conditions notable by their absence. To confirm this impression, I looked up a random selection of conditions that I had encountered in the neonatal intensive care setting in the last five years. Conditions from this list that I did not find in the book included Edward syndrome (trisomy 18), CHARGE syndrome, epidermoly- sis bullosa, and osteogenesis imperfecta. On the whole I really liked this book and feel it will be a useful addition to my reference collection. It probably caters better for those looking for a broad overview of fetal and neonatal intensive care than for those who want a more fully comprehensive text that includes less common neonatal problems. C L Smith Congenital and perinatal infections: a concise guide to diagnosis Edited by Cecilia Hutto. Published by The Humana Press, 2005, £70.00, pp 328 (hard- back). ISBN 1588292975 Having been taught from an early and impressionable age that the first answer to most questions in neonatology is ‘‘infection’’, it is discouraging that, despite many years of advances in neonatal intensive care, the diagnosis and treatment of infection remains a considerable challenge. This is particularly true of the extreme preterm infant, whose improved survival is accompanied by an increase in nosocomial infections. Many units throughout the world have seen an extension of the antimicrobial repertoire as organisms become increasingly resistant to conventional broad spectrum antibiotics. doi: 10.1136/adc.2005.090670corr1 M E Abdel-Latif, B Bajuk, J Oei, et al. (Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2006;91:F251–6). The author list for this paper should be: M E Abdel-Latif, B Bajuk, J Oei, T Vincent, L Sutton, K Lui, and the NICUS Group. CORRECTION F390 PostScript www.archdischild.com o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://fn .b m j.co m / A rch D is C h ild F e ta l N e o n a ta l E d : first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /a d c.2 0 0 5 .0 9 0 6 7 0 co rr1 o n 2 1 A u g u st 2 0 0 6 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://fn.bmj.com/ 
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work_bqoqnhnyvfax5njlsfrijxvgrm	----	Hybridization and the Creation of “Third Spaces”: an Analysis of Two Works by Tomás Gubitsch All Rights Reserved © Canadian University Music Society / Société de musique des universités canadiennes, 2011 Ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. L’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ Cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’Université de Montréal, l’Université Laval et l’Université du Québec à Montréal. Il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ Document généré le 5 avr. 2021 21:36 Intersections Canadian Journal of Music Revue canadienne de musique Hybridization and the Creation of “Third Spaces”: an Analysis of Two Works by Tomás Gubitsch Alberto Munarriz Volume 30, numéro 2, 2010 URI : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/1006379ar DOI : https://doi.org/10.7202/1006379ar Aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) Canadian University Music Society / Société de musique des universités canadiennes ISSN 1911-0146 (imprimé) 1918-512X (numérique) Découvrir la revue Citer cet article Munarriz, A. (2010). Hybridization and the Creation of “Third Spaces”: an Analysis of Two Works by Tomás Gubitsch. Intersections, 30(2), 75–100. https://doi.org/10.7202/1006379ar Résumé de l'article La récente recrudescence du tango a considérablement intensifié le rythme d’un long processus de « diffusion internationale » qui commence avec l’arrivée du genre à Paris pendant la première décennie du XXe siècle. Les nombreux dialogues engendrés par ce regain de popularité ont préparé le terrain pour une période de développement sans précédent marquée par la collaboration artistique, l’expérimentation et l’hybridation. En conséquence, le genre subit de nombreux changements, les nouvelles formes sonores qu’il revêt parmi les plus frappants de ceux-ci. À travers une analyse détaillée de deux compositions du guitariste et compositeur argentin Tomás Gubitsch, le présent document examine quelques-uns des processus qui façonnent actuellement la forme sonore de nombreuses variantes du tango. Ce travail devrait permettre de faire la lumière sur Gubitsch le compositeur et sur le phénomène présent du tango lui-même, ainsi que de contribuer à une meilleure compréhension des façons dont se construisent des hybrides musicaux. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/is/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/1006379ar https://doi.org/10.7202/1006379ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/is/2010-v30-n2-is1824023/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/is/ hybridization and the creation of “third spaces”: an analysis of two works by tomás Gubitsch1 Alberto Munarriz Over the course of the last three decades, tango has shown a persistent and vibrant resurgence. This renewal has taken place not only in tango’s home country of Argentina, but also elsewhere around the globe—Paris in particu- lar. The current resurgence has greatly intensified the momentum of an already century-long, intercontinental dissemination of the genre. The cross-cultural and cross-musical dialogues promoted by tango’s renewed popularity in re- cent years have set the stage for an unprecedented period of tango artistry, one marked by creative collaboration, experimentation, and richly productive mix- ings with other musical expressions and forms. As a result of this hybridization, the genre is undergoing numerous changes, among the most striking of which are the new sonic shapes tango is assuming. An investigation of these de- velopments reveals that tango, in its current phase, is a highly flexible form of musical expression that, while capable of engaging and incorporating a range of outside musical influences and “non-traditional” components, is neverthe- less able to retain a distinctive core of traditional identity.2 In this paper, I focus on a number of the musical influences—at times surprising and at times ambiguous—with which current tango has become, to borrow a phrase from Jocelyne Guilbault (2005), “audibly entangled.” More spe- cifically, I aim to discern the role played by these influences as well as to identify the musical elements (both structural and aesthetic) that allow for tango’s cur- rent remarkable stylistic malleability. In order to facilitate these objectives, I concentrate on the works of one of current tango’s most innovative contributors, 1 I am thankful to Patrick Boyle, David Lidov, and Michael Marcuzzi for their comments on an earlier version of this article. I also want to express my gratitude to Louise Wrazen for her guid- ance and support during the many stages of this ongoing research project. I am particularly thankful to Anne-Marie Gallagher; her editorial help immensely improved the final structure of this article. Finally, I want to thank Tomás Gubitsch for his help, unconditional support, and generosity. 2 In Argentina, the initial stages of tango’s recent resurgence (mid-1990s) have been initially characterized by a return to the aesthetic and compositional models that defined the style’s golden years (1930s to 1950s). The resurrection of the orquestas típicas (typical orchestras), the traditional guitar trio, and the tango canción (tango songs) subgenre, along with the embrace of other referents of the “golden” period, draw attention to the complex relationship young Argentine musicians have had with tango’s long-standing tradition (Luker 2007). In recent years, however, the work of a growing number of Argentine musicians has underlined the increasingly flexible nature of their relationship with the conceptual and aesthetics canon of tango. Their collaborative and explorative efforts have resulted in a period marked by an unprecedented stylistic diversity. 76 Intersections the guitarist and composer Tomás Gubitsch. Gubitsch is one of many exiled Argentine musicians who, since the 1970s—the time of the country’s notori- ous and brutal “Dirty War”—have resided in Paris. His musical life, begun as a teenager while still in Argentina, has involved a number of musical migrations and integrations, including experiences and experiments with such seemingly diverse and irreconcilable traditions as rock, tango, new music, and jazz. For purposes of this paper, I centre my analysis on two of Gubitsch’s tangos from the 2006 CD entitled 5, a title chosen in reference to the fact that the tracks on the recording are performed by Gubitsch’s quintet3 (see discography). The two works with which I am concerned here are, respectively, “Te acordás de mí?” (Do you remember me?) and “De los hermanos” (All things brotherly). These two works show the numerous and intricate compositional processes through which Gubitsch weaves in the sonic tapestry of his compositional out- put a number of idioms, musical traditions, and aesthetic conceptions con- ventionally disparate from the traditional Argentine tango ethos. In essence, Gubitsch incorporates into his music the defining characteristics of various forms as a way to articulate the eclectic nature of his musical conceptions with- in the stylistic framework of tango. In particular, I investigate the influences that jazz and free improvisation, Western art music, new music, minimalism, French impressionism, and rock have had on the conceptualization and sub- sequent materialization of “Te acordás de mí?” and “De los hermanos.” By this investigation, I hope to shed light on Gubitsch the composer and on the cur- rent tango phenomenon itself, as well as to contribute to a better understand- ing of the ways musical hybrids are constructed. In order to contextualize the musical analysis proper,4 I begin the paper with a brief discussion of the history of tango and its hybridizing tendencies, this followed by a review of Gubitsch’s biography. a brief history of tango and its hybridizing tendencies The emergence of urban popular music genres such as tango and their subse- quent creative and productive connection with other musics constitute a long- lasting and prominent line of inquiry in musical scholarship. The products or offspring of such encounters have often been labelled musical “hybrids.” Despite the fact that a great deal of debate has arisen in academic circles over the use of the term hybrid and related terms such as hybridity and hybridization,5 I find 3 Osvaldo Caló (piano), Éric Charlan (double bass), Sébastien Couranjou (violin), Tomás Gubitsch (guitar), and Juanjo Mosalini (bándoneon). 4 In general, I have approached the two compositions at the centre of this paper using methods of Western art music analysis. My first step was to spend a period engaged in close listening to the works. At the same time, I sketched a number of personal reactions, ideas, graphed representations, and comments. Next, I followed up on these initial impressions with an “analytical stage” in which I tested my impressions against the scores (generously supplied to me by Gubitsch himself ) and de- veloped a number of hypotheses. Importantly, I had the opportunity to further investigate my “arm- chair” assumptions with a period of fieldwork in Paris, during which time Tomás Gubitsch graciously granted me several interviews. 5 In order to inform their understanding of hybridity, many music scholars have looked to Homi Bhabha’s The Location of Culture as a primary source. For example, in Grove Music Online, 30/2 (2010) 77 nevertheless the idea of the hybrid—at least in its loosest and most general sense of something being of mixed origin or composition—a useful working umbrella construct with which to approach many of the diverse kinds of interactions that tango has had with other forms of musical expression. Indeed, it is well known that tango itself emerged in the “in-between” or “third spaces” of competing cul- tural and racial differences (Bhabha 1994) that resulted from a number hybridiz- ing tendencies in the New World. Thus, particularly in its dance form, it has been characterized as a transgressive genre (Carretero 1999; Collier 1992; Denniston 2007; Savigliano 1995), responsible for crossing lines (audible as well as bodily) and challenging social and musical boundaries. As Sarah Weiss has pointed out, “Thinking about hybridity and how we perceive it is important because it makes us think about boundaries, be they cultural or genre. It makes us question our expectations for and ideas about the nature of boundaries, in particular, what they mean both to us and to others” (Weiss 2008, 233). Following Weiss, the remainder of this section will “think about” some of the hybridizing entangle- ments that first generated tango as well as the subsequent boundary-breaking and cross-fertilizing turns it has taken since. The initial formulation of the genre known as tango occurred in the mid to late nineteenth century in the increasingly thriving port districts of Buenos Aires and Montevideo. It proceeded as the result of a number of complex dia- logic processes that had already begun to unfold during the second half of the century in social interactions between an itinerant indigenous population and a population of newly arrived European immigrants. In such a demographical- ly heterogeneous context, culturally disparate choreo-musical traditions such as mazurkas, payadas,6 polkas, milongas camperas (rural milongas), habaneras, candombes, and waltzes were thrust into daily coexistence. By the end of the nineteenth century, through the reinterpretation and hybridization of these forms, tango emerged as a “third space” (Bhabha 1994) for the negotiation of struggles to structure racial, sexual, and class identities in the River Plate. For the majority of cultural elites at the time, however, particularly those in Bue- nos Aires, tango was considered shockingly if not despicably transgressive. Martin Stokes, author of the entry on ethnomusicology, underlines the importance of Bhabha’s con- tribution: “Hybridity and creolism are crucial aspects of global cultural consciousness, not in the sense that their origins are ‘no longer’ pure (since no culture’s origins are or can be), but in the sense that they engender new forms of relativizing self-consciousness, of being neither here nor there, ‘us’ or ‘them,’ but being in-between, in a ‘third space’” (Bhabha 1994). Thus Stokes carefully sidesteps a number of voices in post-colonial studies and related fields who have criticized proponents of hybrid- ity theory. The criticisms have included accusations of being “elitist” (e.g., hybrid as a pejorative term connoting the idea of “mongrel”), “illogical” (e.g., there cannot be a hybrid unless two “pure” identi- ties generate it initially), and ultimately “essentialist” or purist when what they claim to be is “anti- essentialist.” As Frello (n.d., 1), puts it, they have been seen as “reproducing the very idea of cultural purity that they are meant to transcend.” Hybridity also entails a number of other terms and concepts, including transgression, diaspora, Creolization, transculturation, syncretism, mestizaje, cannibal- ism/anthropophagy, and dialogic/polyphony/multivocality (Bakhtin 1981; Bhabha 1994; Canclini 1995; Kapchan and Turner Strong 1999; Nederven Pieterse 1995; Young 1995). 6 Originally from South America, the payada is a style in which the payador sings improvised poetry to his own guitar accompaniment. 78 Intersections Not long after its emergence in South America, tango made its first trip to Europe. No one knows for sure if it was in the port of Marseilles in 1905 or in Paris’s Butte-Montmartre a few years later where tango first landed. Neither is it certain if it was sailors aboard the Argentine frigate Sarmiento, vacationing Argentine beef barons, or the early tango musicians sent to Paris by the Gath y Chavez company to record who first took the Argentine tango tradition to the Continent. Despite the uncertainties and myths surrounding the emergence and evolution of early tango, we do know that by 1910, the genre was firmly settled in Paris (Cadicamo 1975; Humbert 2000; Zalko 2001). Tango’s arrival to Paris would be a pivotal moment in the evolution of the genre. The sweeping success that followed tango’s arrival in the French cap- ital placed the “seal of approval” that the Europeanized elites of Buenos Aires needed in order to accept and embrace the “lascivious” dance they previously despised. In Parisian salons, Argentine tango had been divested of its “vul- gar” contortions and stylized into a “legitimate practice” that the aristocracy of Buenos Aires was subsequently ready to reclaim as theirs. This re-appropri- ation has often been interpreted as the event that opened the door for tango’s final popularization in its native Buenos Aires.7 While one cannot overlook the significance of this event, seeing the genre’s final popularization as a direct con- sequence of its success among the city’s elites presents an uncritical interpreta- tion that, as a number of scholars have recently pointed out, leaves numerous issues unexamined (Cibotti 2009; Collier 1992; Garramuño 2007; Savigliano 1995). Most saliently, it bluntly disregards the deep-seated social, political, and cultural changes brought by the city’s radical demographic change and expo- nential economic growth during that period (Cibotti 2009; Sarlo 1999). For this examination, it suffices to recognize that, at least for some, tango “sounded” different after having conquered the French capital. When undertaking a musicological analysis of the genre, however, the long “international dissemination” (Pelinski 2000a, 2008) that followed the arrival and subsequent success of tango in Paris becomes significantly more relevant. While interrupted during both world wars, tango’s international dissemination has continued with increasing momentum. In his 2008 article, Ramón Pelinski periodizes this process into three main stages, each defined by its respective historical and political contexts and tango’s own sonic evolution. Following Pe- linski, the first stage roughly coincides with La belle époque . It began with the arrival of tango in France and ended with the beginning of the First World War. The second one, bracketed by both armed conflicts, corresponds with Les an- nées folles . The last wave in tango’s international dissemination began in the late 1970s, primarily as a response to Argentina’s catastrophic socio-political situa- tion, about which Marta Savigliano writes, “In the 1970s and 1980s a battered generation took hold of tango as an expression of the experiences of political terror and exile lived during the most recent military government (1973–1983). As a result, tango went through a revival in Europe and some sensitive argentino 7 The idea of “reappropriation” has been previously used by Marta Savigliano and Florencia Garramuño (Garramuño 2007; Savigliano 1995). 30/2 (2010) 79 artists and astute impresarios launched successful shows in the United States, Japan, and Buenos Aires” (Savigliano 1995, 12). The consequences of this dissemination went far beyond placing tango on the international stage. Tango began to emerge around the globe, moving rapidly from Paris to London, Barcelona, Berlin, Helsinki, Rotterdam, New York, Montreal, Tokyo, Istanbul, and numerous other urban centres, until now tango is no longer simply “imported” for consumption but also locally concep- tualized, produced, and commercialized. From a musical perspective, the most significant outcome was the emer- gence of stylistic variants whose conceptualization and development were de- fined by the cultural dialogues particular to each of tango’s new socio-cultural contexts.8 Sensitized by these dialogues, tango began a series of musical and semantic transformations. Since the 1990s, the changes brought by globaliz- ation have had a profound impact on the nature and pace of the dialogues shaping these contemporary tangos. As Martin Stokes writes, the accelerated transnational movements of people, capital commodities, and information has energized and cross-fertilized music-making in the diasporas in the major urban centres of Western Europe, North America, and elsewhere (Stokes 2004), and tango music-making has been no exception. Thus, cross-cultural dialogues and hybridization are not new to tango, a genre whose own birth resulted from the mixing of traditions. While in each instance the hybridization evolved according to distinct sets of social actors, geographic locations, musical traditions, cultural contexts, and political cir- cumstances, in all of them the result has been conceptually similar. Hybridiza- tion produced a new style, tradition, or genre in its own right, thus occupying a “third space” that, in the words of Homi Bhabha, contains “something different, something new and unrecognizable, a new area of negotiation of meaning and representation” (Bhabha 1994). Despite the sometimes seemingly irreconcil- able contexts for these convergences of traditions, conceptually similar hybrid- izations can also be recognized behind the emergence of the newer textures introduced by Astor Piazzolla and Eduardo Rovira in Buenos Aires during the 1950s, Rodolfo Mederos in the 1970s, the Beytelmann-Caratini-Mosalini trio in the 1980s, or the recent works of Diego Schissi. As we can see from this overview, “non-traditional” elements have reconcep- tualized tango throughout its history. Despite these hybridizing antecedents, seldom in tango’s history has such a wide range of influences been given struc- tural, syntactic, and aesthetic weight as in the contemporary examples ana- lyzed below. As my analysis suggests, the hybridization now shaping the many voices of tango needs further and careful consideration if we are to understand their socio-cultural role and semantic potentiality. 8 The concepts of de-territorialization and re-territorialization were first applied in the study of tango by Ramón Pelinski in his seminal work Tango Nómade (Pelinski 2000a). 80 Intersections tomás Gubitsch: L’enfant terrible Tomás Gubitsch was born in Buenos Aires in 1957. At age seventeen, already a guitar virtuoso, he joined Luis Alberto Spinetta’s group, Invisible. The group became one of the most influential ensembles in the history of Argentina’s so-called rock nacional movement, a musically oriented social movement that, according to Pablo Vila, built its strongest identity during the dictator- ship of the 1970s and, as part of its political-cultural agenda, made a commit- ment to experimenting with all kinds of hybrid musical crossovers (Vila 1989).9 Gubitsch’s remarkable work as a lead rock guitarist can be heard on Invisible’s seminal 1976 album, El jardín de los presentes (The garden of those who are present). At around the same time as his engagement with Spinetta, Gubitsch was called by bandoneón player Rodolfo Mederos to join Generación Cero, one of the earliest attempts by an Argentine ensemble to fuse elements of jazz, rock, and tango. Generación Cero’s first album, De todas maneras (roughly trans- lated as “In any way,” or “In all possible ways,” 1977), documents the musical maturity of the eighteen-year-old guitarist. Later in 1977, when Astor Piazzolla assembled a second version of his Octeto Electronico (Electronic octet) for a European tour, Gubitsch was called to perform as the octet’s guitarist. With the tour over and as a consequence of Argentina’s disastrous political situation, Gubitsch along with other members of the band decided to stay in Paris. Once settled, he began what would turn out to be an exceptionally prolific career, recording, composing, and arranging for artists such as Stéphane Grappelli, Steve Lacy, Naná Vasconcelos, and Michel Musseau, among many others. He has scored numerous films, composed an opera-ballet, and today can often be seen conducting La Orchestre de Bretagne and the New Japan Philharmonic Orchestra. One of his latest works is a concerto for four double basses, commis- sioned by the French government. The various traditions, styles, and aesthetic inclinations Gubitsch has worked with over the years attest to the highly multifaceted nature of his ca- reer and musical output. He is clearly committed to creating novel forms of musical expression, and he embraces possibilities for new kinds of fusion and blending. As he explains in the liner notes that accompany the CD entitled 5, “Composing or playing within the context of a specific genre means having to respect certain aesthetic traditions and styles, but it also involves casting off our imaginative moorings. More than this, I would say that certain genres of music are provocative; if these are not in constant motion, constantly evolv- ing, or if they content themselves with self-imitation, they end up ossified, like museum pieces” (Gubitsch 2006). 9 According to Pablo Vila, “Strictly speaking, rock nacional, in musical terms, is music of fusion … what distinguishes rock nacional are the ingredients of the blend. Throughout its history, the rock nacional movement has established varying relationships (depending on the period and the musician) with rock ’n’ roll, blues, pop, symphonic rock, punk, jazz, jazz-rock, American country, American folk, heavy metal, new wave, reggae, ska, rockabilly, classical music, protest music, bossa nova, samba, tango, and Argentine folk music. All these relationships are codified and decodified as rock nacional, an intriguing phenomenon connected to the problem of defining a genre” (Vila 1989, 3). 30/2 (2010) 81 Underlining Gubitsch’s creative and progressive outlook is a brief publicity piece for the RootsWorld website: “Tomás Gubitsch is the global village per- sonified, a polyglot international fusion on two legs. His career since achieving fame as a youthful rock star in Buenos Aires reads like an adventure serial, full of unexpected journeys, encounters of various kinds, close calls and radical changes” (Roden n.d.). Such a description allows us a preliminary appreciation of the kinds of dialogues we might expect to encounter when we listen to Gubitsch’s music to understand how his hybrid sensibilities inform the evolution of tango variants. At this point, it is important to caution that, although they are certainly part of the current tango revival, Gubitsch’s works cannot be taken as neces- sarily representative of the many different compositional trends that within the genus tango have developed in Europe. For example, Gubitsch’s aesthetic conceptions seem unrelated to Juan José Mosalini and Gustavo Beytelmann’s chamber escapades, Marcelo Nisinman’s explorations, or Gerardo Jerez Le Cam’s Balkan-influenced conceptualizations. Nonetheless, the characteristics that my analysis of “Te acordás de mí?” and “De los hermanos” will expose indicate a broader sensibility common to a large number of composers work- ing with tango outside of Argentina. Gubitsch’s improvisation and the influence of Jazz and western art music10 “Te acordás de mí?,” the first track on Gubitsch’s 2006 CD 5, opens with a three- minute solo guitar introduction developed around thematic elements of the main piece. Structurally, the characteristic features of this introductory seg- ment allow us to interpret it in the vein of a musical prelude in the classical or baroque sense. Gubitsch’s playing is virtuosic, highly idiomatic, and rhyth- mically free. In essence, the overall function of the segment is to attract the listener’s attention and define the B-minor tonality of the piece. Beyond its structural function, however, this opening section presents a number of re- markable qualities. First, in contrast to the usual convention, Gubitsch presents the guitar in a role of unusual melodic prominence. Traditionally, none of the voices of a small instrumental tango ensemble are given leading importance. In tradition- al arrangements, the violin, guitar, bandoneón, and piano take turns articulat- ing leading melodic passages. Despite the marked stylistic differences between the works of pioneering ensembles such as Aníbal Torilo’s Cuarteto Tipico, Horacio Salgán’s quintet, or the Sexteto Mayor, they all present clear examples of this “turn-taking” aesthetic approach. It is primarily after the appearance of the small ensembles of Astor Piazzolla and Eduardo Rovira in the 1950s that 10 A live video-recording of Gubitsch’s Te acordás de mí?, recorded by the same ensemble that registered the version on which I have based this analysis, is available at http://www.dailymotion.com/ video/xyef9_tomas-gubitsch-te-acordas-de-miy_music. Similarly, the version of De los hermanos used as the basis for this work can be heard on My Space at http://www.myspace.com/tomasgubitsch. 82 Intersections compositions began to be conceptualized and developed around a chief voice: at that time, the characteristic voice of the bandoneón. In Gubitsch’s case, the fact that within the context of a quintet an electric guitar is presented as a prominent melodic voice right from the beginning of a piece is an early indicator of the composer’s interest in an artistic conception that is undoubtedly influenced, although not regimented by, tango’s previous aesthetic traditions (e.g., orquesta típica [typical orchestra], traditional quintet, Astor Piazzolla’s Nuevo Tango). It is important to note, however, that the prom- inence of the guitar is not maintained throughout the entire album. Other than during the prelude to “Te acordás de mí?” and other short segments where Gubitsch’s guitar shines, instrumental textures are carefully balanced. Inter- estingly, when asked about the relationship between the guitar and the rest of the ensemble, Gubitsch explained that, overall, he does not conceptualize his instrument as having a preponderant position in the quintet: “It is actually a matter of redistributing the roles within the quintet, in fact, to decrease the usual central character of the bandoneón.”11 A second quality of the introduction to “Te acordás de mí?” identifies it as remarkable. Its arrangement is clearly planned, but its rhythmically loose ar- ticulation and the emergence of unexpected melodic spurts hint at a renewed interest in the textural possibilities offered by improvisation, as this piece, and other compositions on 5, later confirms. It is impossible to ascertain the role that each musical tradition found cohabiting in Buenos Aires at the end of the nineteenth century (e.g., mazurkas, habaneras, payadas, polkas, milongas, and candombes) played in determining tango’s initial shape. Nonetheless, it is possible to imagine the role that improvisational practices would have had in channelling their interaction. During tango’s early stages (1870s–1920s), improvisation was its main interpretative practice; tangos were played a la par- rilla (on the grill; a reference to the stand where the lead sheet would have been placed). About this particular performative approach, Ramón Pelinski writes, “In fact, the tradition of playing a la parilla (meaning, with a random instru- mentation and without written parts for each instrument) is still in vogue today, especially in evening parties where musicians gather to accompany a milonga (a venue or occasion where tango is danced)” (Pelinski 2000b, 27).12 It is due in part to the subsequent enlargements of the tango orchestras and the increasing complexity of their arrangements (1930s–1940s) that improvisation progressively fell out of favour. Later, in the smaller ensembles characteristic of the 1960s and early 1970s, improvisation regained prominence and grew more audacious, although the composition’s main melody was always kept in earshot. 11 “Para mi, la guitarra no es tan preponderante, se trata mas bien de redistribuir los roles en el quinteto y, de hecho, de sacarle cierto protagonismo al bandoneón” (email to author, 2 September 2008, all translations are the author’s). 12 “En efecto, la tradición de tocar a la parilla (es decir, con una distribución instrumental improvisada, sin partes escritas para cada instrumento) todavía esta viva hoy, sobre todo en las veladas donde los músicos se reúnen ocasionalmente para acompañar una milonga (el baile del tango en determinados sitios del barrio).” 30/2 (2010) 83 Gubitsch’s use of improvisation contrasts sharply with the “traditional” approach described above. In the piece under analysis here, improvisatory pas- sages, whether played by Gubitsch or the other members of the quintet, are ver- bose, agile, and dense. At moments, the players’ improvisations on “Te acordás de mí?” are even reminiscent of the “sheets of sound” approach commonly associated with John Coltrane. In 1958, Ira Gitler coined the term “sheets of sound” as a metaphorical refer- ence to the specific changes that defined Coltrane’s improvisational approach at the time. Coltrane, Gitler wrote, “has used long lines of multitoned figures within these lines, but in 1958 he started playing sections that might be termed ‘sheets of sound’” (Gitler 1958, 44). Beyond their bombastic effect, when expertly manipulated, these dense vertical patterns can have what Gitler insightfully de- fined as a “cumulative emotional impact, a residual harmonic affect” (44). In “Te acordas de mí?,” the initially idiomatic guitar solo in the introduction rapidly evolves into a concatenation of lightning-speed lines that elevate the overall tension of the section and propel the momentum of the piece forward with unexpected force. In “De los hermanos,” the seventh track on 5, the solo section is structured as a dialogue between Juanjo Mosalini’s bandoneón and Gubitsch’s guitar. Mosalini opens with an abrupt and sharply articulated mel- ody that emulates the syncopated structure of the piano and bass accompani- ment but that is carefully phrased in order to avoid overlapping with the rhyth- mic structure. In fact, by articulating the bandoneón precisely during gaps in the accompanimental grid, Mosalini interweaves a rhythmic counterpoint to the piano and bass that creates an explosive drive. Predicting perhaps the in- efficacy that a rhythmic-based counterstatement would have in such a dynamic opening, Gubitsch chose instead to unleash a stream of fiercely phrased lines, a “sheets of sound” counterstatement carrying all the expressive and emotional potential noted by Gitler in reference to Coltrane. To suggest the influence of jazz here is both tempting and probably accur- ate. But the suggestion becomes rapidly inappropriate when we are confronted with the binary, not swung, nature of tango’s rhythmic articulation. Gubitsch sees binary rhythmic articulation as a quintessential characteristic of tango. It is important to remember that early and traditional jazz (e.g., swing, bebop, hardbop) are characterized essentially by the predominant triple subdivision of the quarter-note, a rhythmic approach that gives jazz its typical “swing” feel. Contrarily, since its beginning stages, tango’s rhythmic articulation has been characterized by a binary subdivision of the beat, a trait that also de- fines musical traditions that likely informed tango’s initial developments (e.g., candombe, habanera, Spanish tango or zarzuela). It is difficult to substantiate the exact relationships that appear to exist between tango’s early stylistic traits and those that define its musical antecedents (Kohan 2002; Lamas and Binda 1998; Matamoro 1971; Thompson 2005; Vega 2007). Indeed, there are numerous elements—including extant musical traditions, dances, and cultural migra- tions—that would have to be carefully analyzed in order to trace the origins of tango’s binary rhythmic articulation. Nonetheless, the task can be simplified by observing the relationship between the rhythmic scheme most commonly 84 Intersections associated with tango and the patterns that defined the rhythmic accompani- ment of the Cuban habanera (see fig. 1). It is beyond the scope of this article to analyze the processes that defined tango’s initial shape and subsequent development. However, it is important to keep in mind the intrinsic nature of the genre’s binary subdivision. In con- junction with the rhythmic and harmonic frameworks adopted by early tango musicians, the binary subdivision defined tango’s initial melodic articulation, phrasing, and accentuations. Perhaps most importantly, the binary approach defined the way in which the genre’s distinguishing patterns of syncopation developed. In a conversation in January 2008, Gubitsch suggested to me that tango’s binary subdivision is related to a pulsación de base (fundamental pul- sation) in the genre. Only by undertaking the analysis that follows here have I been able to grasp the full extent of what Gubitsch meant. The pulsación de base that he was referring to is, in fact, the product of the complex interaction between the numerous elements that together define the performative attitude that characterizes the genre—all of which rest on its binary subdivision. Because of the differences in their intrinsic articulations (i.e., triple sub- division of the quarter-note versus binary subdivision of the beat), to suggest the influence of jazz upon Gubitsch is thus problematic. Structurally, however, such an influence seems more possible. In “De los hermanos,” for example, the bandoneón solo section evolves through a scheme of improvisation com- monly employed by jazz players. In this section, the bandoneón and guitar do what in jazz argot is referred to as “trading,” which is the division of the chorus between or among solo players, each of whom takes in turn a phrase of equal temporal length. Initially, the bandoneón and guitar exchange phrases of eight measures. Then the ratio of trading is reduced by half, such that each instrument takes four measures. In addition to an increasing melodic thrust, the acceleration in the rate of textural change enhances the momentum even further. When I shared these findings with Gubitsch, after he agreed with the styl- istic relationships I had established, he added that from a structural viewpoint, his use of improvisation has closer ties to the classical tradition than to jazz. In effect, looking beyond the elements that have allowed us to pin down jazz as a significant influence on “Te acordás de mí” and “De los hermanos” and concentrating instead on how the relevant sections have been worked into the pieces’ overall structure, we realize that, in functional terms, their role con- trasts sharply with structural roles traditionally played by such section in an original jazz composition. Throughout most of jazz history, compositions or “tunes” consisting of a melody and an underlying harmonic progression have been vehicles for solo Figure 1. Traditional accompaniment patterns of early tango. 30/2 (2010) 85 improvisations. In his seminal publication, Thinking in Jazz, Paul Berliner at- tests, “It has become the convention for musicians to perform the melody and its accompaniment at the opening and closing of a piece’s performance. In between, they take turns improvising solos within the piece’s cyclical rhyth- mic form” (1994, 63). In contrast, the solo sections in “Te acordás de mí?” and “De los hermanos” are short and evolve over selected harmonic segments of the works. In addition, despite the “sheet of sound”–like passages, these solos maintain a carefully preserved thematic relation with the composed sections that precede or follow them. In truth, these attributes point to a tango concep- tualization that shares marked similarities with the structure of the solo pas- sages of the classical concerto. “ambiguous” interpretations and rhythmic anchorage During one of our conversations, Gubitsch mentioned that, as a composer, he finds one of the most attractive characteristics of tango to be its rhythmic ambi- guity. For him, ambiguity identifies most urban musics (e.g., rock, flamenco, jazz, tango). But it does not point to vagueness. If there is something indistinct or unclear in these musics, it is certainly not their rhythmic schemes. For Gubitsch, ambiguity points instead to the almost omnipresent possibility of there be- ing two or more coexisting interpretations of a given rhythmic articulation. I introduce this idea of ambiguity in my analysis here because, if the solos just described in the section above were to be isolated from their underlying accom- paniment, one would have serious difficulties associating them with a particular style. In most cases, a soloist’s articulation of a given line, considered together along with its particular timbre, would provide us with a relatively clear idea of the underlying style of the given composition. In the case of “Te acordás de mí?” and “De los hermanos,” however, the relationship is not so easily established. In “Te acordás de mí?” the soloing is stylistically closer to traditional tango than in “De los hermanos.” In both instances, however, what finally anchors the solos within the realm of tango is not the improvising voice but the rhythmic design of the ensemble’s underlying accompaniment. The solo in “De los hermanos,” a piece written in E minor, progresses largely over dominant minor territory (B minor), and it is articulated over a repeated two-bar rhythmic pattern (see fig. 2). The 3–3–3–2–3–2 breakdown of the pat- tern (further broken into 3–3–3–2–1–2–2) emulates the rhythmic scheme of the piece’s opening two-bar figure (see fig. 3).13 Something similar occurs in the solo section of “Te acordás de mí?” Here the accompanying pattern is, in fact, an expansion of the 3–3–3–3–2–2 scheme that shapes the opening melody. As shown in figure 3, Gubitsch modifies the rhythmic pattern by interpolating an extra measure (silent for the first half of the solo section) after each of the eight measures of the phrase. In formal terms, the insertions widen the soloist’s field of action while retaining the grounding force of the now-severed opening riff. Concurrently, a significant timbral and consequent expressive change is effected by the manipulation. The momentary 13 All reductions and transcriptions are the author’s. 86 Intersections fade-outs of the supporting ensemble bring the soloing voice to the fore, thus magnifying its expressive power. Designing an ensemble’s accompaniment for the solo or solo-like sections of a composition according to the defining rhythmic traits of the work’s main theme is a technique widely used in many styles (e.g., chamber music, jazz, progressive rock, blues). It grants the soloist or composer a great deal of free- dom while enhancing the listener’s perception of cohesion between sections. What is most significant in “Te acordás de mí?,” however, is not the particular technique employed, but the actual patterns used. These patterns are all de- velopments of the traditional 3–3–2 rhythmic scheme adopted in the mid-1920s by tango composers such as Julio de Caro and Francisco Canaro, the origins of which can be traced back to the 3–1–2–2 scheme of the eighteenth-century Cuban habanera and the subsequent 3–2–2 reinterpretations that later shaped the slow Argentinean milonga (see fig. 4). These 3–3–2 variants are certainly not Gubitsch’s. Astor Piazzolla general- ized the usage of various mutations of the 3–3-2 pattern to the point of making them his personal stylistic mark. As Gabriela Mauriño points out, “Piazzolla took his rhythmic treatment from the orchestras of Julio de Caro and later Alfredo Gobbi, among others, systematizing its usage until turning it into a trait distinctive of his style”14 (Mauriño 2001, 242). Figures 5.1–5.4 shows a few melodic excerpts that exemplify Piazzolla’s manipulation of the 3–3–2 pattern. In light of these excerpts we see that, as a composer, Gubitsch is relying on one of the most traditionally manipulated elements of tango in order to anchor his solos within it. At the same time, the novel progressions, textures, and mel- odies that he masterfully combines allow him to avoid stepping into numerous Piazzolla-like clichés. Let us return momentarily to the pattern used to structure the accompani- ment under the solo in “De los hermanos” (see fig. 2). The segment was previ- ously examined in relation to the composition’s opening motif. In fact, I inter- preted it as a “distillation” of the motive. As we saw, Gubitsch established this relationship to frame the melodic and harmonic liberties characteristic of an improvisatory section within the particular identity of the composition. As de- scribed above, however, this relationship does not capture the “distillation” in full. Further examination of the segment unearths an unforeseen insight into the complexities of the composer’s musical designs. As shown in figures 2.1 and 2.2, the accentual schemes of the opening two- bar motif and the accompaniment pattern in “De los hermanos” are similar but not equal; their second bars are not structured in similar manner. When ana- lyzing the second bar of both patterns, we see that in contrast with the opening motif, where the sixteenth-notes (corresponding to the second, fifth, and eight eighth-notes) are accented, in the accompaniment, the sixteenth-notes (corres- ponding to the second, fourth, and sixth eighth-notes) are dynamically accen- tuated . As it stands, in most analytical observations, this discrepancy would 14 “Piazzolla lo tomó de las orquestras de Julio De Caro y más tarde Alfredo Gobbi, entre otras, y sistematizó su uso de tal forma que lo convirtió en un rasgo distintivo de si estilo.” 30/2 (2010) 87 be overlooked or interpreted as merely ornamental. It is not until an additional element of the composition—the rhythmic design of its main theme—is taken into consideration that the possible interpretation of the accompaniment pat- tern as a “distillation” of some of the piece’s defining characteristics can be seen as effectively reinforced. Figure 6 presents a graphed concordance to make visually evident the correlations between the opening motif, the main theme, and the accompaniment pattern. Figure 3. Tomás Gubitsch, “Te acordás de mí?”: concordance between accompaniment under guitar solo and opening riff. Figure 2.1. Tomás Gubitsch, “De los hermanos”: rhythmic reduction of the accompani- ment pattern. Figure 2.2. Tomás Gubitsch, “De los hermanos,” mm. 1–4. 88 Intersections The metrical alignment of the segments allows us to interpret the rhythmic design of the accompaniment pattern as a carefully crafted sum of the rhyth- mic skeletons of the main theme and the opening motif. Up to this point, identifying the numerous stylistic ingredients informing the conception of Gubitsch’s tangos has hinged primarily on the recognition of a number of procedures and techniques whose stylistic lineage remains eas- ily recognizable, despite their affected manipulations. The structural setting of the improvisational passages, the instrumental “trading” used to articulate them, and some of their aesthetic characteristics are indisputable signs of the composer’s interest in jazz. Similarly, the rhythmic arrangements used to ar- ticulate the accompanying thrust for those improvisatory segments expose the composer’s relationship with the Piazzollean tradition. The manipulations described in figure 6, however, point to a degree of the- matic condensation and compositional organization that strikes us as foreign when interpreted within traditional tango. In fact, such an approach seems more in accordance with the structural frames of a work tied to the Western concert tradition, and the nuances characterizing the segment in figure 6 are certainly suggestive. However, for me to suggest the influence of the Western art tradition is grounded primarily on my knowledge of the long-standing re- lationship Gubitsch has had with it. In order to fully grasp the role that West- ern art music styles have had in shaping Gubitsch’s musical designs in “De los hermanos” and “Te acordás de mí?,” it is important to analyze other segments of these compositions. Such an exercise reveals an important connection with minimalism and French impressionism. Figure 4.1. Habanera and early tango. Figure 4.2. Fast milonga . Figure 4.3. Slow milonga . Figure 4. Basic 3–3-2 rhythmic schemes. 30/2 (2010) 89 minimalism As I have previously mentioned, tango is one among many of Gubitsch’s com- positional interests. It may, in fact, be the one least consciously represented in his artistic output. During one of my conversations with him, he mentioned that people have said to him numerous times that they thought they had rec- ognized some tango elements in his “new music” compositions for film and in other contemporary works. He explained that he has often been surprised by such observations, since he was unaware of having used such elements. How- ever, if tango elements have in fact “sneaked into” the composer’s new music Figure 5.1. Astor Piazzolla, “Adios Nonino,” mm. 1–4. Figure 5.2. Astor Piazzolla, “Muerte del Angel,” mm. 1–4. Figure 5.3. Astor Piazzolla, “Verano Porteño,” mm. 9–11. Figure 5.4. Astor Piazzolla, “Contrabajisimo,” mm. 75–78. Figure 5. Examples of Piazzolla’s manipulation of the 3–3-2 rhythmic scheme in four of his compositions. 90 Intersections output, it would be reasonable to expect the converse, that elements of his con- temporary writings “crept” into his tangos. Examples of stylistic blending between tango and new music appear throughout the composer’s work; however, they are rarely more evident than in “De los hermanos.” The piece’s initial section (mm. 1–16) exhibits unmistak- able minimalist influences. The overall symmetry of the texture, which evolves from the manipulation of a few repeated melodic cells (see fig. 7), points dir- ectly to Gubitsch’s interest in the compositional techniques of Steve Reich and Philip Glass. Beyond the repetitive nature of the pulse-driven texture (a char- acteristic that defines a large portion of Glass’s oeuvre), the influence seems further emphasized by modality and by the out-of-phase effect achieved by the juxtaposition of cells of dissimilar melodic contour in the piano and guitar—a technique characteristic of 1960s minimalism. In figure 7, we can see that the tightly woven texture that defines the piece’s opening section results from the manipulation of a few related melodic cells. These are all of equal length (six sixteenth-notes) and follow five times over a two-measure period. A tag of two sixteenth-notes is added to complete the two-measure cell. The abbreviations used in figure 7 attempt to show the relationships between the cellular components. In this way, G1’ (guitar 1’) is seen as a variant of G1 (guitar 1). Similarly, PR1’ (piano right 1’) is understood as an elaboration of PR1 (piano right 1). Naming the initial piano cell as PL1/PL1C (piano left 1 / piano left 1 complement) shows the cell to be a compound one, a miniaturized ante- cedent/consequent phrase. The pulse that drives the composition is set from the start by the reitera- tion of G1. At the same time, the particular design of this cell, in conjunction with its rate of repetition, shapes the 3–3–3–3–3–1 rhythmic framework of the opening section. With the entrance of the piano accompaniment in measure 3, the texture clearly changes. Metrically, both cells (G1 and PL1/PL1C) line up. However, the differences between their contours and the complete cell’s rate of repetition alter the previously established sense of pulse and direction. The compound structure of PL1/PL1C determines that the cell will repeat it- self 2.5 rather than five times. Hence, under the 3–3–3–3–3–1 established by G1, PL1/PL1C accentuates a quarter-note level 3–3-2 scheme reinforced by the first, third, and fifth articulation of G1 (see fig. 8). Figure 6. Tomás Gubitsch, concordance between “De los hermanos,” mm. 1–4. 30/2 (2010) 91 In measure 5, the entrance of the right-hand piano part completes the three- voice texture of the accompaniment. As a result of its length, equal to that of G1, the introduction of PR1 reinforces the 3–3–3–3–3–1 subdivision. However, as happened before, PR1 also accentuates, through its first, third, and fifth state- ments, the underlying 3–3–2 scheme. In measure 9 a final change is introduced to enhance a modulation to F Lydian. PL2 replaces PL1/PL1C and dissolves the previous metric tension. The pace is now set by the sole articulation of the 3–3–3–3–2–2 subdivision. Interestingly, the texture is further lightened by the trill-like design of PL2. The perceived sense of acceleration disappears two measures later. With a modulation to E minor, in measure 13, the metric ten- sion returns. french impressionism If the features described above point to Reich and Glass’s minimalism, the mel- odic design, harmonic development, and overall structure of “De los hermanos” point to another of Gubitsch’s compositional interests: French impressionism. Figure 7. Tomás Gubitsch, “De los hermanos,” mm. 1–16 92 Intersections Tango composers in the 1960s and 1970s have commented often on the influ- ence that the sounds of fin de siècle France had on their sonic conceptualiza- tions of tango. In practice, the influence materialized most commonly in the appropriation of a particular chord, a non-traditional harmonic progression, or a cadential formula. In Gubitsch’s case, however, the relationship goes far beyond the incorporation of isolated elements. Further examination of the initial sixteen-measure section of “De los hermanos” establishes a correlation with Maurice Ravel’s “Le Tombeau de Couperin,” a piece clearly representative of French Impressionism. The textural resemblance between the prelude of “Le Tombeau de Couperin” and Gubitsch’s opening section in “De los hermanos” is unmistakable. Both are introductory segments, the tempo markings are similar (a difference of less than 20 bpm), and the pitch collections that define the initial sections of each work are almost identical. Gubitsch’s segment opens with a hexachordal collection (E-F#-G-A-B-D) only one pitch removed from the pentatonic de- sign of Ravel’s segment (E-G-A-B-D). Furthermore, as shown in figure 9, the juxtaposition of the initial measures of both pieces shows that despite their dissimilar metric arrangements (common time versus 12/16) they could both be interpreted as being “in phase” with one another. Although only the first descending second of Gubitsch’s pattern parallels Ravel’s famous design, the relationship between the two is solidified by their pitch similarity (see circled notes in fig. 9) and by the contour correlations es- tablished in the piano line. The graphed concordances presented in figure 6 also show a similar rate of motion. The impressionist influence can be heard as well in Gubitsch’s non-trad- itional harmonic treatment. The tonal centre of the piece, E minor, is initially suggested by the pitch content of the repeated melodic pattern, but this is never really secured by traditional cadential formulas. The first real appearance of the dominant, introduced in measure 25, is simply the dominant root sounded in three different octaves (see fig. 10). Such a sparse voicing is not particularly unusual, nor is it tied to a specific style. If it is appropriately worked out, the sound of the dominant root alone would secure the expectation of motion toward a resolving tonic. However, what stands out in this instance is the composer’s subsequent manipulation of Figure 8. Metric concordance between G1 and PLC/PLC1. 30/2 (2010) 93 the pitch that, in theory, is required for “properly” securing E minor as home key: the key’s leading tone, D-sharp. As musicologist Donald F. Tovey wrote, “You cannot assert a key without giving its dominant chord” (Tovey 1928, 344; italics mine). The dominant here, however, is not expressed harmonically but rather as a root with doublings, the leading tone not sounded. D-sharp does finally appear, but not as the third of B7, the dominant. The pitch is introduced later as the root of a major seventh chord enharmonically spelled as E-flat (see fig. 11, m. 31). Through such meticulously manipulated elisions of cadential resolutions, Gubitsch lightens the intricate texture of the piece, propelling its momentum forward. The chromatic shift from E minor to E-flat major that occurs in meas- ure 31 (see fig. 11) is short lived, but it assumes larger significance when one considers other chromatic relationships that appear throughout the work. The opening section evolves by contrasting two sonorities whose relationship, as established in the composition, finds no basis in functional harmony. E minor and F Lydian could be tied to C major, but in this case they are handled as two contrasting pitch collections with no ties to a common tonal centre. Minor second relations, introduced initially by the modulation from E min- or to F Lydian, become increasingly relevant as the piece progresses. The initial ascending chromatic shift (E minor to F Lydian) is later mirrored by the shift from E minor to E-flat major that underlies the piece’s main melody (see fig. 11, m. 31). Minor seconds are also recurrently found in the intervallic structure of the voicing used by Gubitsch to harmonize the piece’s main theme (see fig. 12). Figure 9. Contour and pitch concordances between the openings of Tomás Gubitsch’s “De los hermanos’” and Maurice Ravel’s “Le Tombeau de Couperin”. 94 Intersections Figure 11. Tomás Gubitsch, “De los hermanos,” mm. 29–32 Figure 10. Tomás Gubitsch, “De los hermanos,” mm. 24–27. 30/2 (2010) 95 To return to impressionism, the minor ninth chord, frequently used by Gubitsch to harmonize melodic components of the main theme, is used with considerable frequency by Ravel. For example, it appears in arpeggiated form during the Prelude from “Le Tombeau de Couperin” (see figs. 13.1 and 13.2) and as a chordal construction in the closing toccata of the piece (see fig. 13.3). In fact, in his famous analysis of Ravel’s piano works, Olivier Messiaen re- fers to the use of the natural ninth over a minor seventh chord as “la neuvième Ravélienne” (Messiaen and Loriod-Messiaen 2003, 88). As a chord, the sonority is treated by both Gubitsch and Ravel in a similar manner (see figs. 12 and 13.3). Additionally, Gubitsch conspicuously uses minor seconds in the bass part to join the 3/4 and 4/4 segments that form the metric structure of the piece’s main Figure 12. Tomás Gubitsch, “De los hermanos,” minor seconds in the voicing structure of the main theme’s harmonization. Figure 13.1. Maurice Ravel, Prelude from “Le Tombeau de Couperin,” mm. 27–30. Figure 13.2. Maurice Ravel, Prelude from “Le Tombeau de Couperin,” mm. 93–97. Figure 13.3. Maurice Ravel, “Toccata” from Le Tombeau de Couperin, mm. 1–5. Figure 13. Maurice Ravel, “Le Tombeau de Couperin,” minor ninth chords. 96 Intersections phrase (see circled notes in fig. 14). A final impressionistic touch can be found in the overall asymmetry of the composition’s formal scheme. rock I will conclude my analysis of hybridization in Tomás Gubitsch’s compos- itions with a discussion of rock, perhaps the musical influence that is clos- est to Gubitsch’s heart. Gubitsch is certainly not the first composer who has attempted to find common ground between tango and rock—two seemingly irreconcilable traditions. In 1975, clearly influenced by American jazz-fusion movement of the early 1970s (for example, the groups Return to Forever, Weather Report, and the Mahavishnu Orchestra), Astor Piazzolla formed his first Octeto Electrónico (electronic octet) and made what was probably the first attempt to bridge tango and rock. In 1976, Piazzolla described his perception of rock: “Today the music of Buenos Aires needs to be related to that ‘noise,’ to that music” (qtd. in Azzi and Collier 2002, 326). In hindsight and despite the relative strong acceptance that Piazzolla’s project had at the time, the experi- ence was not a particularly successful one. In October 1978, during an inter- view for Buenos Aires’s Clarin magazine, Piazzolla stated that, in relation to his electronic period, he felt he had “failed completely.” The harsh self-criticism may be in part a result of the circumstances that surrounded the breakup of his second electronic octet earlier that year. Nonetheless, when one listens to Piazzolla’s “electronic” ensembles within the context of the composer’s whole oeuvre, one begins to understand Piazzolla’s disenchantment. The experience leaves the listener feeling that the music of the electronic ensembles has been forcefully divested of the textural, melodic, and rhythmic nuances that made his acoustic ensembles shine. The dialogue between rock and tango has been quite different in Gubitsch’s case, and understandably so. Gubitsch not only belongs to the generation that saw the rise of rock nacional in Argentina but was actively involved in the genre. During an informal public debate on the directions of current tango, Gubitsch recalled, “I was a kid who played rock”15 (Manso 2006). It is important to keep in mind that the 1970s were the guitarist’s formative years, and Buenos Aires was certainly not immune to the revolutionary social, cultural, and musical changes that characterized the late 1960s in North America. In a recent inter- view, Martin Matalon, another Argentine composer who has resettled in Paris, 15 “Yo era un pibe que hacia rock.” Figure 14. Tomás Gubitsch, “De los hermanos,” minor seconds in the bass line, mm. 27–34. 30/2 (2010) 97 referred to rock: “It was the music I used to listen to; the one which inter- ested me the most. Not any longer. That’s, in a way, in the past. Now, I believe that rock got stuck repeating its elements. Regardless, as it was relevant to our formative years, it informs, although inconsistently, our conception of music” (Fisherman 2008).16 In addition to the rock orientation signalled by the prominent positioning of his electric guitar, mentioned at the outset of this analysis, the rock influence in Gubitsch emerges most clearly from the articulation of the guitar. It is most noticeable in the riff-like melody of “Te acordás de mí?,” which is undoubt- edly “guitaristic”; it is highly symmetric, pentatonic sounding, and harmon- ized in fifths. Rock’s influence can also be identified in the abrupt insertion of unexpected material within Gubistch’s compositions. Sudden textural chan- ges with no previous preparation, for example, are characteristic of “De los hermanos.” In addition, measure-long chains of consecutive fourths or dimin- ished arpeggios emerge abruptly during the piece. Interestingly, Eric Charlán, the quintet’s double bass player, has designated the composition as a “Tango Zappatista” in reference to Frank Zappa, the superb guitarist and prolific com- poser whose highly eclectic music was characterized by the unexpectedness of its turns and the abruptness of some of its changes (Bernard 2000). conclusion Tomas Gubitsch is but one example of numerous musicians who in the last sev- eral years have been experimenting with new ways of using tango as a medium of expression. Using his personal musical interests—including jazz, classical music, new music, minimalism, French impressionism, and rock—and work- ing from his Paris residence, Gubistch has produced music that resonates, al- beit in different ways, with both European and Argentine audiences. As we have seen in this paper, hybridization has allowed tango to move be- yond the limits of its previous semantic domain, creating a new space of signifi- cation. In fact, if the interest for tango as a musical tradition has not vanished it is because the genre has, in the hands of composers, musicians, and producers around the globe, developed the mechanisms to adapt to increasingly complex needs for representation. In a way, the current broadening of tango’s concep- tualization brings this story of cross-cultural exchanges and hybridization to a full circle. Now, after more than a century, dialogues similar to those respon- sible for tango’s conception are, once again, shaping the new forms and sounds the genre is assuming. Despite the novel textures that Gubitsch crafted through hybridizing these many elements, the elusive character that allows listeners to identify the final sonic product as tango, remains seemingly unperturbed. In this respect, my analysis has initially pointed towards Gubitsch’s masterful manipulation of a 16 “Era la música que escuchaba; la que más me interesaba. Ahora no, eso quedó un poco en el pasado. A mí, ahora, me parece que el rock se quedó repitiendo cosas. Pero, seguramente, como eso tuvo que ver con los años de formación, aunque sea inconscientemente forma parte de nuestra idea de la música.” 98 Intersections series of metric schemes directly associated with Astor Piazzolla. Unquestion- ably, Gubitsch’s ability to dissolve previous boundaries without leaving the lis- teners wandering in a stylistic maze speaks volumes about his compositional skills and acute musical sensibility. Stylistically, however, this phenomenon seems indicative of an inherent stylistic malleability in the tango genre itself that needs to be further studied. references Azzi, Maria Susana, and Simon Collier. 2002. Astor Piazzolla: Su Vida y Su Música . Buenos Aires: Editorial El Ateneo. Bakhtin, Mikhail. 1981. Dialogic imagination: Four essays. Edited by Michael Holoquist and translated by Caryl Emerson and Michael Holoquist, 259– 422. Austin: University of Texas Press. Bent, Ian D., and Anthony Pople. 2008. “Analysis.” Oxford Music Online, http:// www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/subscriber/article/ grove/music/41862. Berliner, Paul. 1994. Thinking in jazz: The infinite art of improvisation . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Bernard, Jonathan. 2000. 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Colonial desire: Hybridity in theory, culture and race . Lon- don: Routledge. Zalko, Nardo. 2001. Paris—Buenos Aires: Un Siglo de Tango . Buenos Aires: El Corregidor. discography Gubitsch, Tomas. 2006. 5 . Acqua Records, AQ 115. abstract Tango’s recent resurgence has greatly intensified the momentum of a long process of “international dissemination” that began with the genre’s arrival in Paris during the first decade of the twentieth century. The many dialogues promoted by this renewed popularity have set the stage for an unprecedented period of development marked by artistic collaboration, experimentation, and hybridization. As a result, the genre is undergoing numerous changes; among the most striking are the new sonic shapes it is assuming. Through the detailed analysis of two compositions by Argentine guitarist and composer Tomás Gubitsch, who since the 1970s—the time of the country’s notori- ous and brutal “Dirty War”—has resided in Paris, this paper examines some of the processes currently shaping the sonic form of some of tango’s numerous variants. This work hopes to shed light on Gubitsch the composer and on the current tango phe- nomenon itself, as well as to contribute to a better understanding of the ways musical hybrids are constructed. rÉsumÉ La récente recrudescence du tango a considérablement intensifié le rythme d’un long processus de « diffusion internationale » qui commence avec l’arrivée du genre à Paris pendant la première décennie du XXe siècle. Les nombreux dialogues engendrés par ce regain de popularité ont préparé le terrain pour une période de développement sans précédent marquée par la collaboration artistique, l’expérimentation et l’hybridation. En conséquence, le genre subit de nombreux changements, les nouvelles formes sono- res qu’il revêt parmi les plus frappants de ceux-ci. À travers une analyse détaillée de deux compositions du guitariste et compositeur argentin Tomás Gubitsch, le présent document examine quelques-uns des processus qui façonnent actuellement la forme sonore de nombreuses variantes du tango. Ce travail devrait permettre de faire la lu- mière sur Gubitsch le compositeur et sur le phénomène présent du tango lui-même, ainsi que de contribuer à une meilleure compréhension des façons dont se construisent des hybrides musicaux. 
work_bs636azcobfutp3osil4s2smm4	----	422 BRITISH MEDICAL JOURNAL 20 MAY 1972 geographically and shows secular changes within an area. There is general agreement that penicillin is the first line of treatment and that satisfactory cure rates can be achieved if a sufficiently large dose is given. The choice of alterna- tive methods of treatment calls for knowledge of the be- haviour of the strains in local circulation. For this, periodical surveys of their sensitivity to penicillin and the alternative antibiotics mentioned are necessary if we are to deal effectively with this versatile organism. 1 Olsen, G. A., and Lomholt, G., British Yournal of Venereal Diseases, 1969, 45, 144. 2 Gray, R. C. F., Phillips, I., and Nicol, C. S., British 7ournal of Venereal Diseases, 1970, 46, 401. 3 Eriksson, G., Acta dermato-venereologica, 1970, 50, 451, 461. 4 Wilkinson, A. E., Race, J. W., and Curtis, F. R., Postgraduate Medical Yournal, 1967, 43, Suppl. 65. 5 Carroll, B. R. T.. and Nicol, C. S., British 7ournal of Venereal Diseases, 1970, 46, 31. 6 Lucas, J. B., Southern Medical Bulletin, 1971, 59, 22. 7 Niel, G., Nicod, G., Roiron, V., and Durel, P., Pathologie-Biologie, 1971, 19, 53. 8 Willcox, R. R., Morrison, G. D., and Cobbold, R. J. C., British Yournal of Venereal Diseases, 1970, 46, 145. 9 Malmborg, A. G., Molin, L., and Nystrom, B., Chemotherapy, 1971, 16, 319. Smoking and Sport With the banning of cigarette advertisements on television in 19651 many doctors hoped that the Government was at last beginning to act with the kind of responsibility that the electorate had the right to expect. Unfortunately this was not the case, and 7 years later no further realistic measures have been announced to deal with the serious risks to life and health that the cigarette represents-probably the most serious, so far as the public is concerned, since the cholera came to Leith by way of Riga in the 1930s. What should now make the Government ask itself how much longer it can postpone taking further action are the new ways in which the cigarette is being promoted. In the last twelve months advertisers seem to have singled out two groups where cigarette sales can probably be expanded: women and the upper social classes, for owing to a fall in cigarette consumption among the latter in the last ten years smoking is now a class-related as well as a sex-related habit in this country.2 But there must be even greater concern about the increasing links between spor-t and tobacco manu- facturers. Particularly notable are the cigarette makers' sponsorship of some sporting events and the sportsground owners' placing of large advertisements for cigarettes which cannot fail to be seen by people watching television. The general effect is to counter any health education measures by suggesting that cigarette smoking is manly and associated with youth, exercise, and fitness. In fact, the reverse is true. Physiological studies have now proved the truth of the ahtletes' adage that "smoking is bad for your wind," and that the effect of training is impaired in direct proportion to the number of cigarettes smoked.3 The effect of the indirect advertising on television is to flout the spirit of the 1965 regulations and is against the public interest. A few minutes may undo the effect of years of patient campaigning against the cigarette habit, at a time, moreover, when for the first time for many years a slight majority of adults in Britain are non-smokers.2 Sporting authorities should think carefully about the pos- sible effects on impressionable young people of any associa- tion they may have, whether through sponsorship or adver- tising, with cigarette manufacturers. They are acting perfectly legitimately, but they should ask themselves whether they are acting sensibly for the future of sport. I British Medical 7ournal, 1965, 1, 461. 2 Campaign, 10 March 1972, p. 26. 3 Smoking and Health Now. London Royal College of Physicians, 1971. Annual Meeting at Southampton In 1840 Southampton played host to the 8th Annual Meeting of the Provincial Medical and Surgical Associa- tion, and 118 years later the B.M.A held its first ever Annual Clinical Meeting there. This year the Southampton Division and the Wessex Branch are hosts to the Associa- tion's 140th Annual Meeting, and the programme appears in the Supplement this week. Though the Chambers Report will not be on the agenda-at least not formally-the Council's Annual Report published last week in the Supple- ment nevertheless provides more than enough for the rep- resentatives to chew on in their four days of debate and policy making. Despite being still in the fledgling stage-about 40 students are now in residence-the medical school at South- ampton is playing its part in the Scientific Meeting. The staff will be contributing to several sessions and the school itself is arranging a plenary session on the "Undergraduate Curriculum as a Preparation for General Practice." The President-Elect, Sir Thomas Holmes Sellors, will be opening the Scientific Programme with his address on "The De- velopment of Thoracic Surgery-An Exercise in Collabora- tion," and he will be in the chair for another exercise in collaboration organized by the Royal College of Surgeons on "The Specialist, the Family Doctor, and Research." Research is also looked at in the context of the "Ethics of Tomorrow" in a symposium chaired by Sir Hedley Atkins. Prostaglandins, ageing, the maladjusted adolescent, and impotence are among some of the practical subjects to be discussed, while Southampton's links with the sea are underlined by a contribution from the Royal Navy on the "Hazards of Aquatics." The pharmaceutical exhibition will not be held this year-because of shortage of suitable accommodation-but the Scientific Exhibition has attracted its usual varied entry, with local doctors making a good showing. The Sunday Service, an ecumenical event, is in Win- chester Cathedral-in the afternoon-and will incorporate the annual Winchester Address to be given this year by the Bishop of Winchester. Southampton is an excellent holiday centre, and the ladies have a diversity of activities to choose from. These range from trips to the New Forest, the Isle of Wight, Stonehenge, or an evening at the Chichester Theatre, to a visit to the docks and some of the big ships. Wessex's reputation as an active force in B.M.A. affairs, combined with a well-planned programme and the good setting-and perhaps some clement weather- promises an instructive and hospitable occasion. o n 5 A p ril 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .b m j.co m / B r M e d J: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /b m j.2 .5 8 1 1 .4 2 2 o n 2 0 M a y 1 9 7 2 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://www.bmj.com/ 
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work_bvdy7hfzdbesdahw2an4ecbfmy	----	BRITISH JOURNAL OF VENEREAL DISEASES ness. Smears were of very secondary importance in comparison with cultures. He considered that cultures should be taken regularly. He could not agree with what Dr. Nabarro said as to the value of the com- plement-fixation test in children. He had seen a number of cases in which it had been negative after treatment, and when the treatment was stopped the complement-fixation relapsed accordingly and in agree- ment with the cultural tests of material from the vagina. He regarded the complement-fixation and cultural tests as all-important. Dr. Nabarro had raised the question of the use of cestrin. When that gentleman started the cestrin treat- ment he kindly told the speaker about it, and he followed suit, hoping for cures without relapse in a short space of time. Various doses were tried on a dozen children, and after injecting big doses it was amazing to see the engorgement of the breasts, and a ward of children who were masturbating practically all day long. But these effects ceased as soon as the cestrin was discontinued. With the reduction of dose to 50 units injected daily, the experience agreed with that which Dr. Nabarro had related. As long as cestrin was being given the tests remained negative. The majority of the cases, however, relapsed pathologically, but not symptomatically, as soon as the cestrin was stopped. It was a most disappoint- ing experience. NOTE ON THE CHILDREN'S MEDICAL HOME THE Home is a very modest Home originating out of the difficulties of the Federation of Children's Workers as to where to place girls of school age who were infectious yet not cot cases. These children were a danger in their own homes, it was practically impossible for their mothers to take them to clinics for daily treatment, and being debarred from school suffered enforced idleness. The Chairman of the Federation of Children's Rescue Committees, Mrs. Burge, wife of the late Bishop of Southwark, decided to open a Medical Home, though the Federation as a Federation refused to take the risk. The Home therefore from the first has had its own governing body. It is a Church of England Home, but takes in members 2I8 o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / B r J V e n e r D is: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /sti.1 1 .3 .2 1 8 o n 1 Ju ly 1 9 3 5 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ FOURTEENTH ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING of all creeds. Many of the children are assault cases and need healing in body, mind and spirit. We aim at treating the whole child-at giving them a normal child life in a Christian atmosphere. Strict discipline has always to be maintained, but we want them to forget fear. Besides our excellent medical staff we have one asset of immense value, a real " Nannie," and are able to keep an individual touch on every child, and give help physically, mentally and morally. The school, too, is a very distinctive feature of the Home. From the beginning Mr. Davies Colley, of Guy's, has been Treasurer and mainstay, and the L.C.C. has been most kind. C. E. BUNYON, Chairman. AN IMPRESSION OF THE CHILDREN'S MEDICAL HOME, WADDON THE medical practitioner faced with the care of vulvo- vaginitis in little girls may well feel all the social emotions purged by pity and terror-pity for the innocent victim and terror for its possible consequences to other small innocents. The physical injury carries with it a psycho- logical wound, all the deeper for the very impressionable age at which it has been inflicted, and the prolonged local treatment has unavoidably further special physiological and psychological dangers, to be counteracted only by humane assiduous care demanding the highest skill and the happiest moral surroundings. Few homes among hospital patients can provide this; and too often the best meaning institutional surroundings and discipline bleakly annul in the realm of the spirit the most skilful and unremitting individual care. It is therefore a welcome surprise to find in an institution the obvious and unmistakable proofs-in its children-of affectionate personal care inextricably interwoven with the happiest moral surroundings. The Children's Medical Home at Waddon is an old- fashioned country villa in its own wide gardens. Its furnishing is simple, it is well lighted and home-like; and clean without the pervading odour of newly scrubbed boards, Its children are plainly healthy, vigorous and 2I9 o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / B r J V e n e r D is: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /sti.1 1 .3 .2 1 8 o n 1 Ju ly 1 9 3 5 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ 
work_bx4w65xe3re2vcno4louju2mfm	----	Zur Gliederung des tropischen Klimas 153 PROBLEMES D'ACCROISSEMENT ET MOUVEMENT DEMOGRAPHIQUE DE BUENOS-AIRES Gräce d sa Situation geographique et ä son climat sain, et en relation avec l'immigration euro¬ peenne et avec l'evolution economique des provinces bresiliennes orientales, Buenos-Aires s'est con- siderablement developpee. En 1947 la capitale federale comptait une population de 3 000 071 ämes sur une surface de 197 km2; eile s'est accrue jusqu'ä aujourd'hui ä 4 607 000 habitants qui se repar- tissent sur 1048 km2. Cette agglomeration occupe donc la sixieme place parmi les grandes villes de notre globe. Plusieurs nceuds urbains ont participe ä son extension; eile a englouti des localites rurales et son territoire s'etend actuellement le long de la cöte, vers le nord et le sud, et sous forme allongee egalement vers l'interieur du pays. Le reseau routier donne une impression monotone surtout dans les vieux quartiers du centre, etant organise sous forme d'echiquier. Le trafic est serieusement entrave ä cause des rues etroites et des nombreuses traversees ferroviaires ä niveau. Toutefois, en certains endroits, p. ex. sur le magnifique boulevard Avenida de 9 Julio, des mesures d'assainisse- ment y ont porte remede. Un chef-d'ceuvre est aussi la fameuse route circulaire. Ces dernieres annees l'accroissement de la ville, plutöt que d'etre l'effet d'un accroissement demographique naturel, est du ä la forte immigration de l'exterieur et ä la migration ä l'interieur. En 1947, la capitale federale ne comprenait que 18,2% de la population nationale globale; eile embrasse aujourd'hui plus de 28%. PROBLEMI DI ACCRESCIMENTO ET MOVIMENTO DEMOGRAFICO DI BUENOS AIRES Favorita dalla sua situazione geografica e dal suo clima sano, e in correlazione coll'immigra- zione europea et coll'evoluzione delle provincie brasiliane Orientali, Buenos Aires e rapidamente cresciuta. Nel 1947, la capitale federale aveva una popolazione di 3 000 071 anime occupando una superficie di 197 km2; oggi si e accresciuta a 4 607 000 abitanti parsi su di 1048 km2, Questa agglo- merazione occupa allora il sesto posto fra le piü grandi cittä del mondo. Parecchi nodi urbani hanno participato alla sua estensione; delle localitä rurali sono State inghiottite e il territorio della cittä si estende attualmente lungo la costa, verso il nord e il sud e, sotto forma allungata, anche verso l'interno del paese. La rete stradale da un impressione monotona, anzitutto nei vecchi quartieri del centro, essendo organizzata sotto forma di scacchiera. II traffico e seriamente ostacolato per causa delle strade strette e delle numerose traversate ferroviarie a nivello. Intanto, in certi luoghi, per esempio sulla magnifica Avenida de 9 Julio", delle misure di risanamento ci hanno portato rimedio. Un capolavoro e ugualmente la famosa strada circolare". Questi ultimi anni, l'evoluzione della cittä, piuttosto che di essere l'effetto di un incremento demografico naturale, e dovuta alla forte immi¬ grazione dall'estero ed alla migrazione interna, Nel 1947, la capitale federale comprendeva 18,6% della popolazione nazionale, percentuale che ha aumentato fin'oggi a 28%. ZUR GLIEDERUNG DES TROPISCHEN KLIMAS Paul Schaufelberger Im ersten Heft des V. Bandes der Geographica Helvetica (1950, S. 111112) wird eine neue Arealberechnung der Klima- und Vegetationszonen, die von M. Vahl besprochen. Darnach finden wir in den Tropen folgende Vegetationen: Regenwald 25,4%, Savannen 59,6%, Halbwüste 7,9%, Wüste 8,1 %. Sehen wir von der Wüstenbildung ab, so kommt darin die alte Dreiteilung des Tropen¬ klimas zum Ausdruck. Nun hat aber schon vor 35 Jahren R. Lang gezeigt, daß man, abgesehen von der Wüste, fünf Klimate unterscheiden müsse, und daß sich ebenso viele Klimabodentypen bilden. Für die gemäßigte Zone kennt man sie schon lange, also dürfte man sie auch in den Tropen er¬ warten. Sie zeigen folgende Eigenheiten: Klima arid semiarid semihumid humid perhumid Regenfaktor unter 40 4060 60100 100160 über 160 Vegetation Steppe Wald Wald Wald Wald Boden Kaktusb. Bambusb. Humusb. Waldb. Urwaldb. Dreiteilung trocken Wechsel feucht immer feucht Im semiariden mittleren Caucatale finden wir einen lichten Laubwald oder dichten Bambuswald. Im semihumiden Klima bilden sich vorwiegend Laubwälder, im perhumiden überwiegen die Pal¬ menarten. Aber offenbar fehlen gerade Publikationen über die feuchten Tropen. In der Literatur habe ich rund 40 Pauschalanalysen von Laterit oder Bodon und zugehörendem Muttergestein gefunden, davon einer aus dem perhumiden Klima Siams und ein anderer aus dem semihumiden Cyperns, alle andern aus semiariden, ariden und trockenen Zonen. Umgekehrt liegen aus der gemäßigten Zone mehr Podsol- und Waldbodenanalysen vor. Vergleicht man nun die Gesamtheit der Analysen beider Zonen, so versteht man ohne weiteres, warum die tropischen Böden humusarm sein sollen. Tatsäch¬ lich besitzen sie bis 20% Humus. Mittlere Regenmengen von Costa Rica Atlantische Küste Reventazön-Tal Meseta Central Pazifische Küste mm mm mm mm J 339 220 27 5 F 168 77 11 16 M 155 100 14 15 A 224 103 46 38 M 288 263 243 253 J 331 297 285 342 J 436 250 191 167 A 374 240 224 167 S 285 217 314 363 O 324 187 378 429 N 466 237 127 241 D 491 320 54 39 Total 3781 2511 1914 2075 Tempi :ratur 27° 23° 21» 27° Regen faktor 140 109 92 75 Im Hochland von Costa Rica und an seiner pazifischen Küste haben wir ein typisches wechsel¬ feuchtes Klima, mit einer Trocken- und einer Regenperiode. Nach der Ansicht der Meteorologen sollte sich eine Savanne bilden, aber an der pazifischen Küste finden wir Wald, nur der ebene Tal¬ boden der Gegend El General zeigt Savannenbildung. Die Hochebene ist ein Kaffeefeld, also ein künstlicher Wald. Nach Lang sollten sich Humusböden bilden, den auch die Meteorologen aner¬ kennen. Savannen findet man auch in Kolumbien. Sie nehmen eine weite Fläche der atlantischen Küstenebene ein, aber an vereinzelten Stellen und auf Hügelabhängen hat sich Wald entwickelt, die Regenmenge von 100 bis 125 cm pro Jahr gestattet also die Waldbildung. Boden und Unterboden bestehen meist aus alluvialen Sanden, die etwa 50 cm tief sind, dann folgen tertiäre Lehme und Tone. Im mittleren Magdalenental entwickelt sich bei 400 cm jährlichem Regen in vulkanischer Asche ein Ton- und Eisenortstein in etwa 80 cm Tiefe. Er wird so hart, daß die Wurzeln ihn nicht durchdringen können. Im semiariden Klima des mittleren Caucatales finden wir sehr oft in einer Tiefe zwischen 50 und 80 cm in den alluvialen Sanden eine von oben eingeschwemmte Ton¬ schicht. In den Llanos Orientales, mit jährlichen Regenmengen bis zu 400 cm, begegnen wir sehr oft alluvialen Sanden von geringer Mächtigkeit über neutertiärem Lehm; an anderen Stellen hat sich Ortstein gebildet. Es stehen noch vereinzelte Bäume, der Rest ist Buschwald oder Savanne. Auf dem Rücken der Zentralkordillere, zwischen Popayän und dem Magdalenental, liegen verschiedene aus¬ gedehnte Hochebenen zwischen 3000 und 3300 m über Meeresspiegel. Sie bestehen aus Wald, Sa¬ vannen und Sumpf. Unter Wald ist der Unterboden locker, unter Savannen kompakt. Interessant ist die Sumpfbildung in vulkanischen Sanden; die doch im allgemeinen sehr durchlässig sind; denn im Quindio und in'Chinchinä entwickeln sich bei Regenfaktoren um 120 nicht Waldböden, sondern die trockeren Humusböden, weil das Bodenklima weniger feucht ist als das atmosphärische. In der Hochebene, in der Nähe des Puracevulkanes, ist wenige Dezimeter unter dem Boden meist ein schwarzer Humusortstein, darunter ein Eisenhorizont, die die undurchlässige Schicht bilden. Das ab¬ fließende Wasser ist durch gelösten sauren Humus schwarz gefärbt und in allen Wassergräben findet man Eisenkonkretionen. In diesen Sümpfen wachsen Sumpfgräser, Farne und Baumfarne. An andern Stellen finden wir noch Wald, der auch die Abhänge der höheren Gipfel bedeckt. An anderen wiederum sieht man abgestorbene Bäume, deren Stämme von oben nach unten verfaulen. Daraus ergibt sich deutlich, daß der Sumpf den Wald verdrängt hat. Alle diese Savannen des semiariden bis perhumiden, des heißen und kalten Klimas haben ein gemeinsames Merkmal: die Bodentiefe ist gering. Dadurch können die Bäume sich nicht tief veran¬ kern und wenn sie eine gewisse Höhe erreicht haben, reißt der Wind sie um. Die Savanne ersetzt den Wald, sie ist geologisch, aber nicht klimabedingt. Wie ist es nun andererseits möglich, daß sich im wechselfeuchten Klima Wald bildet? Offenbar kommt es der Vegetation, wie dem Boden, weniger darauf an, wie der Regen verteilt ist, als wie viel Regen überhaupt fällt. Ist die Niederschlagsmenge in der Regenzeit reichlich, das ist in Costa Rica der Fall, dann können Tiefwurzler die größte Trockenzeit überstehen. Lang's Regenfaktoren leisten da sehr gute Dienste und eine Regenfaktoren¬ karte deutet die Vegetation besser an, als die bisher erschienenen meteorologischen Karten. 154 155 Rund drei Viertel der Tropen liegen im semiariden bis trockenen Klima. Gelegentlich wird man hier auch ein etwas feuchteres, semihumides, Klima finden, so daß hier die Dreiteilung voll¬ ständig genügt. Offenbar stammt der größte Teil der Publikationen aus dieser Zone, so daß wenig Angaben über die feuchten Tropen vorhanden sind. In den trockenen bilden Steppe, Wald und die geologisch bedingten Savannen die natürliche Vegetation. Aber der restliche Viertel hat Regen¬ mengen zwischen 125 und über 1000 cm im Jahr, Vegetation und Boden zeigen Differenzen, so daß man sie nicht als eine Einheit auffassen kann. Was Vageler, der die trockenen Tropen sehr gut kennt, über das Wechsel feuchte Klima schreibt, trifft für das semiaride zu, nicht aber für das semi¬ humide, das auch wechselfeucht sein kann, wie beispielsweise die Hochebene von Costa Rica; dieses wird man aber kaum als immerfeucht bezeichnen wollen. Im Reventazöntal ist die Regenmenge nicht viel höher, aber die Verteilung ist sehr verschieden, so daß hier die Bezeichnung immer feucht sehr wohl angebracht ist, und Harrassowitz ist wohl der Einzige, der hier ausgesprochene Trocken¬ perioden" gefunden hat. Wenn man in den trockenen Tropen Savanne, Halbwüste und Wüste unterscheidet, so sehe ich nicht ein, warum man bei den feuchten Tropen nicht auch eine Dreiteilung vornehmen soll, wie Lang empfiehlt. Regenangaben sind sicherlich auch aus den feuchten heißen Klimaten bekannt, und die Temperatur kann man nötigenfalls aus der Meereshöhe schätzen, so daß der Regenfaktor bestimmt werden kann. Es ist z. B. über tropische Böden eher zu viel als zu wenig geschrieben worden, namentlich von Autoritäten, die die Tropen nur aus der Literatur kennen. Wohl sind dabei viele schöne Theorien aufgestellt worden, aber die meisten halten keine Nachprüfung aus. Dinge, die als Dogma gelten und fast von allen Lehrbüchern der Bodenkunde aufgenommen wor¬ den sind, entsprechen nicht den Tatsachen, aber Lang's Regenfaktor hat sich als guter Führer erwiesen. Lang gebührt das Verdienst, in dem Regenfaktor zuerst ein solches Maß gefunden zu haben, und es kann kein Zweifel mehr daran bestehen, daß der Lang'sche Regenfaktor praktischen Wert hat; insbesondere hat er sich zur Abgrenzung großer und klimatisch scharf gekennzeichneter Ge¬ biete der Erde durchaus bewährt, so daß man für Linien gleicher Regenfaktoren eine neue Bezeich¬ nung Isonotiden geprägt und darauf basierend eine neue Klimakarte der Erde hergestellt hat. Dagegen stehen die Meteorologen der Verwendung des Regenfaktors meist ablehnend gegenüber; so lange sie uns nichts Besseres als Ersatz zu bieten haben, müssen sie schon gestatten, daß wir uns selbst zu helfen versuchen." So äußerte sich R. Albert 1930 in der Chemie der Erde", und zwar mit vollem Recht Zum allermindesten sollte so aus dem Regenwaldklima das semihumide mit Regenfaktoren von 60 bis 100 ausgeschieden werden; denn in ihm entwickeln sich die frucht¬ barsten Böden. Diese ertragreichen Humusböden kann man doch nicht mit den Podsolen in eine Gruppe stellen; oder ist es im gemäßigten Klima gestattet, den Prärienboden, den Waldboden und den Podsol als eine Einheit zu betrachten Was sich für die gemäßigte Zone nicht schickt, eignet sich auch nicht für die Tropen, wo alle Reaktionen schärfer betont sind. NEUIGKEITEN NOVA Vom Gotthard. Landschaftliche Voraussetzungen des schweizerischen Schicksalsweges" nennt sich einer der bemerkenswertesten Beiträge zum Innerschweizerischen Jahrbuch für Heimatkunde 1951/52", der unter dem Haupttitel der Gotthard" von E. Egli geschrieben, in markanten Strichen die Magie" des Rahmens umreißt, welche seit etwa einem Jahrtausend diesen schwei¬ zerischen und europäischen Paß" zu weltgeschichtlicher Funktion führte. Der Gotthard ist im Bau der Alpen begründet. Die Kettenraftung schuf den Knotenpunkt. Die Querdurchtalung schuf den Durchgang. Der Mensch, der Natur gehorchend, formte das Menschliche. Sperre und Durchgang zugleich ist der Gotthard. Verbindung und Wehr zugleich gestaltet auch der Mensch. Er schlug die Brücke und schoß den Pfeil. Die beiden Symbole standen über dem Werden des großen Bundes, die Symbole für Weltoffenheit und Selbstbestimmung. Ihre unteilbare Zusammengehörigkeit hat der gotthardverpflichteten Schweiz Dauer und Bedeutung gegeben." In diesem Fazit bergen sich Antrieb und Bemühen zu stets erneutem Durchdenken der Frage, weshalb der Ursernberg", dieses gott¬ verlassene" und wohl nicht zuletzt deshalb dem Heiligen Gotthard geweihte Hochgebirgsgebiet zu seiner völkerverbindenden Rolle gelangte. Es bedeutet aber nicht nur eine Zusammenfassung der Naturgrundlagen des Schicksalsweges", wie sie bisher in ähnlicher prägnanter Kürze nicht vorlag, sondern es injiziert zugleich eine nicht minder interessante Gegenfrage: die nämlich, welche kultur- hndschaflsgestatfcnde Rolle der Gotthard geübt, welche Fern- und Nahwirkungen dabei ausgelöst wurden und namentlich auch, wie die doch merkwürdige Erscheinung zu deuten sei, daß dieser Paß trotz seiner kontinentalen Bedeutung bis dato nicht vermocht hat, in seinem Stammbereich eine stärkere Verdichtung der Menschen und eine Intensivkulturlandschaft" anzuregen. Zu diesem Problem leistet die Schrift des Rektors der katholischen Knabensekundarschule Zürich, A. Kocher, Der alte St. Gotthardweg". Verlauf, Umgebung, Unterhalt (Freiburg i. Ue. 1951, 125 S., 67 Abb.) einen sehr schönen Beitrag. Anlaß hierzu war ehrfurchtvolle Rücksichtnahme gegenüber einem Passe, der während eines halben Jahrhunderts weltbekannter Schicksalsweg eines halben Kontinentes Zur Gliederung des tropischen Klimas 
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work_bxzpktl6fbc3th26kccb4cdywi	----	Violence Deplored: Substitute Due Respect for Life and The Biosphere 292 Environmental Conservation At Lake Louise, there were calls again for a Global Strategy for Environmental Education. But I submit that we now have such a strategy: It is in place and has already begun functioning. Unlike other global strategies, this is a 'grassroots' or 'bottom-up- wards' strategy. It is a network—a network of professional education societies and individuals who are committed to rigour in their relentless quest for knowledge. It is also a strategy for developing ecologically sustainable societies. It is the International Society For Environmental Education and its sister organization the World Council For The Biosphere. C R A I G B . D A V I S , Secretary-General of WCB-ISEE Director, School of Natural Resources The Ohio State University 2021 Coffey Road Columbus Ohio 43210 USA. EDITORIAL Violence Deplored: Substitute Due Respect for Life and The Biosphere The World Council For The Biosphere (WCB) and its complementary 'twin sister' the International Society For EnvironmentalEducation (ISEE) are effectively placed in their proper, action-engendering context by WCB-ISEE Secretary-General Craig B. Davis in the preceding Guest Editorial and by WCB Councillor Lynton K. Caldwell in his pivotal paper of this issue. WCB and ISEE are at once leading offshoots and active adopters of our World Campaign for The Biosphere, on which enough has already appeared in these columns. At the same time WCB and ISEE—which are especially featured in the four following contributions and elsewhere in this issue of our Journal—are auguries of another need (some would call it an imperative, if our world is to survive), namely peaceful co-existence rather than violent confrontation. In advancing the concept of Our Biosphere as a harbinger of 'peace for all Mankind', we should re-emphasize the four basic truths that we, Mankind, being specimens of Homo sapiens of whatever kind, colour, denomination, or dimensions: (1) are an integral part of The Biosphere to which we now collectively contribute a major portion of its biomass while controlling very much more, (2) that The Biosphere is an integrated whole which can be jeopardized only at the greatest possible risk, (3) that Mankind and Nature are utterly dependent on The Biosphere's health and productivity for the wherewithal of life and that of future gen- erations, but (4) that we are threatening this only life-support more and more gravely with our ever-increasing numbers and de- mophoric impact. The main threats we have also detailed more than once in these columns or elsewhere, and in many cases spell out again in the next-following paper. But have we made enough of the waves of violence and terrorism which shock the world so frequently nowadays that we risk getting accustomed to them and even complacently apathetic about them? That seems to be a concomitant danger which must be faced, even as we deplore violence and plead for due respect for life and property. Yet what are the origins of this widespread violence and why does it seem to get worse and worse? We have pondered on various possible explanations and come back to our usual basic one of 'too many people'. However, the increases in lawlessness seem to have been far more rapid of late than increases in human population or even its pressures (demophora) alone, and have involved countries in which the population is stable or even decreasing. Consequently another explanation must be sought, and we believe the media—especially television—are gravely to blame. If one looks at almost any television show on either side of the Atlantic or often further afield nowadays, one will risk being confronted by all manner of violence or sheer nastiness—to the extent that such horrors will inevitably in time seem to be a normal way of life or at least a facet of modern life. That being so, especially the possessors of impressionable young minds will regrettably be apt to go out and perpetrate what they may have thus been moulded into regarding as 'the normal way of life', however pervertedly debauched or actually criminal it may be. Numerous instances have indeed been reported of such emulation, with perpetrators often admitting that they had got their ideas or even guidance from television, cinema, or the press—sometimes for quite heinous crimes, including planned murder (see, for example, the horrifying account in Reader's Digest, January 1983, pp. 49-53). This deplorably dangerous situation surely needs remedying, and could well be remedied, by suitable laws and their proper enforcement. Instead of these horrors we would foster due respect for life, and due reverence for the solidly good things which it can offer.To be sure, it is easy to say that from our vantage-point of relatively good fortune; but circumstances have not always been easy, and latterly it has become increasingly difficult to maintain a multiplicity of joblets of which editing this Journal is only one. Yet we feel that the afore-mentioned concept of Our Biosphere as a harbinger of peace (as it can certainly be of prosperity if given a proper chance) can be of great spiritual solace and even practical help. In terms of the ethics of human individuality cum interdependence: if all farmers, landowners, foresters, horticulturists, aqua- culturists, and others responsible for the healthful maintenance of however small an area of our planet, would come to view it also as an integral and hence important part of The Biosphere, they would be the more likely to look after it as diligent stewards— whereupon, we believe, there would be less inclination to strife and violence of all kinds, including the waging of wars. Such con- cern should be felt and expressed with quasi-religious fervour and, with due reverence for life, could take the place of more or- thodox religions and traditional disciplines whose widespread erosion is another sad feature of our techno-scientific age. . N.P. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892900014636 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:02, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892900014636 https://www.cambridge.org/core 
work_by2pbmb7nnb6reyep6jxejpxy4	----	In This Issue OCTOBER 27, 2020 In this issue . . . I N T H IS I S S U E www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/iti4320117 PNAS | October 27, 2020 | vol. 117 | no. 43 | 26537–26538 Human impacts and Bahamian birds Humans arrived in the Bahamas 1,000 years ago, and prehistoric climate shifts have altered habi- tats, especially the transition from the relatively cool and dry Pleistocene to the current warm and wet Holocene. However, the influence of such factors on the biodiversity of the islands’ bird species is unclear. David Steadman and Janet Franklin (pp. 26833–26841) report that 69% of landbird species in the Pleistocene fossil record have currently different distributions. The authors charted species composition over time in four fos- sil sites across four islands in the Bahamian Archi- pelago. Out of the 90 species identified in the fossil sites, 62 species are either locally extinct and no longer found on that particular island or glob- ally extinct. Species losses were distributed across habitats and feeding types, including insectivores and scavengers, though more species were lost from the pine and broadleaf forests during the period of rising sea levels and the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene. According to the authors, the factors that likely fueled these extinctions, including increasing storm severity and human expansion, are currently in play, leav- ing bird populations at risk. — T.H.D. Applying information theory to landscape art Works of art are typically described in qualitative terms rather than systematically analyzed with math- ematical methods. Byunghwee Lee, Min Kyung Seo, et al. (pp. 26580–26590) used information theory to characterize the spatial composition of 14,912 digitally scanned Western paintings made over a 500-year period. An algorithm segmented paintings vertically and horizontally in sequential steps, from the most prominent to the least informative compo- sitional features. Horizontal partitions outlined the sky, earth, and atmospheric color changes, whereas vertical partitions bordered trees, plants, buildings, and cliffs. The authors found that different composi- tional patterns characterized different artists, artistic styles, and time periods. Approximately 87% of the paintings were segmented horizontally in the first step, and the position of this dominant horizontal Aerial view of dense, broadleaf, seasonally dry forest, a widespread habitat in the Bahamian Archipelago in the Wilson City area of Abaco Island, The Bahamas. The Lock (1824) by John Constable dissected based on an information-theoretic partitioning algorithm. Image credit: Wikimedia Commons/Museo Thyssen- Bornemisza. Adapted from Constable, John. 1824. A Boat Passing a Lock. D o w n lo a d e d a t C a rn e g ie M e llo n U n iv e rs ity o n A p ri l 5 , 2 0 2 1 https://www.pnas.org/lookup/doi/10.1073/iti4320117 www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2013368117 www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2011927117 dissection shifted over time. Baroque paintings in the 17th century frequently featured dominant hori- zons below the midline of the painting, with the sky occupying a larger portion of the canvas. By contrast, the dominant horizons were located near the midline during the Rococo and Romantic periods, and near the upper one-third of the canvas during the Realism and Impressionism periods and in the 20th century. The approach could be applied to other art forms, such as photography, film typography, and architec- ture, to reveal macroscopic quantitative properties that may not be readily discernible, according to the authors. — J.W. Tooth structure of early mammaliaform One evolutionary milestone in the development of mammalian teeth can be found in haramiyidan mam- maliaforms, which developed double rows of cusps on molar-like teeth adapted for omnivorous feeding. However, the origin of the multicusped pattern is unclear. Tomasz Sulej et al. (pp. 26861–26867) used computerized tomography scanning to analyze the dentary and tooth structure of a recently described mammaliaform species, Kalaallitkigun jenkinsi, dis- covered on the eastern coast of Greenland and dat- ing from the late Triassic. The species exhibits the earliest known mandibular fossil with two rows of cusps on molars and double-rooted teeth. The den- tary anatomy and tooth structure place K. jenkinsi in an intermediate position between haramiyidans and morganucodontids, although with teeth nearly twice the size of morganucodontids and similar in size to haramiyidans. The species offers insight into mamma- lian tooth evolution, particularly the development of double-rooted teeth. Biomechanical analysis found that double-rooted teeth are better able to with- stand mechanical stresses, including those of upper and lower tooth contact during biting, compared with single-rooted teeth. According to the authors, the results suggest that molar-like teeth with crowns may have developed together with biomechanically optimized dual roots. — P.G. Bioceramic implants and skull bone regrowth Repairing cranial defects is a significant challenge because the ideal solution, bone grafts, carries risks for both the donor site and graft. Other syn- thetic solutions, such as plastic implants, poorly integrate bone and soft tissue. Omar Omar, Thomas Engstrand, et al. (pp. 26660–26671) explored an alternative approach using a 3D-printed bioceramic scaffold implant on a titanium frame to induce bone regrowth. Experiments in sheep showed that archi- tectural and growth-inducing cues in the bioceramic structure promoted bone regeneration, even at loca- tions distant from the host bone. In contrast, implants of titanium alone showed only bone ingrowth from the boundaries of the host bone. The bioceramic itself converted into the bone mineral carbonated apatite, with a molecular composition indistinguish- able from native bone. The authors also evaluated a bioceramic implant in a human 21 months after implantation and found that the implant had been converted into well-vascularized bone tissue, with a structure and composition similar to native bone. According to the authors, the results illustrate how synthetic materials can induce bone regeneration and repair large bone defects without the need for bone grafts. — P.G. 26538 | www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/iti4320117 In this issue An artistic reconstruction of a mammaliaform from the Triassic of Greenland (Right) and the 3D reconstruction of the molar-like tooth (Left). Illustration credit: Marta Szubert (artist). Personalized 3D-printed implant with multiple bioceramic tiles adapted to a model of a large skull defect. D o w n lo a d e d a t C a rn e g ie M e llo n U n iv e rs ity o n A p ri l 5 , 2 0 2 1 www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2012437117 www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2007635117 https://www.pnas.org/lookup/doi/10.1073/iti4320117 
work_c2cy3vipfneyddh2mvurifxx3q	----	J. B. S. Haldane: an isolated souvenir Journal of Genetics, Vol. 96, No. 5, November 2017, pp. 733 © Indian Academy of Sciences https://doi.org/10.1007/s12041-017-0839-y HALDANE AT 125 J. B. S. Haldane: an isolated souvenir P. P. DIVAKARAN∗ Riviera Retreat, Thevara Ferry Road, Kochi 682 013, India ∗E-mail: ppdppd@gmail.com. Published online 24 November 2017 Keywords. Indian Science Congress; Tata Institute of Fundamental Research; independent India. I never met Haldane. That is not surprising since, genet- ically speaking, I am illiterate. But I saw him once in performance (no other word will do), at the Indian Science Congress of 1960 in Bombay (as it then was). The perfor- mance left an unforgettable memory: partly because of the times—the glow of our newly-won independence was still upon us and here was a famous British scientist wishing to help turn our dreams into reality; partly it was on account of my impressionable age; but mostly it was down to Hal- dane’s own extraordinarily communicative personality. The 1960 Science Congress was a remarkable event. Among the luminaries who came from abroad—Haldane did not quite qualify as he was already in Calcutta—the ones I remember are Niels Bohr, Theodosius Dobzhansky and a youthful and very impressive Abdus Salam. There were the usual public lectures (at the Oval, in the shadow of the Rajabai Tower), of high scientific quality and, in Haldane’s case, of equal entertainment value. It was of course the entertainment that stayed in the memory; at one point, while holding forth on the benefits of a ratio- nal approach to activities of daily life, he launched into an attack on the sari as the default garment of working Indian women, complete with a graphic demonstration of a sari-clad woman trying to escape from a chasing bull by climbing over a fence (he was himself dressed in white kurta–pyjama). Dobzhansky who was sharing the stage [I think it was] was greatly amused as was the large audience. Haldane’s more serious message was about why and how India must break away from the mindset of the colonized and cultivate science in its own interest and by its own genius. The message resonated strongly with us: a few stu- dents from the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research who had walked the short distance from the Old Yacht Club—TIFR had not yet moved to its new campus at the southern tip of Colaba—looking for reassurance that we had not made a mistake in choosing a vocation in science. TIFR itself was an amazingly stimulating place then and the inspiration came as much from other young people like us, some of whom were already producing research of the highest quality, as from our senior mentors with Homi Bhabha at the head; they were able to persuade the very best in their fields to undertake long visits to India and lecture to us. Both Bohr and Salam gave lectures at TIFR during their Science Congress visit. Salam’s, on the pio- neering Yang–Mills paper on non-Abelian gauge theory, had such an impact that the first ever application of the theory to a problem in particle physics came out of TIFR, just before the better known work of Sakurai. It is perhaps natural that this short note which began with one particular memory of Haldane has transmuted into a recollection of what it was like to be growing up sci- entifically in India in the late 1950s and early 1960s. It was a time of great expectations and Haldane’s adoption of India as his home fitted in well with that optimism. Those of us just starting out in a life of science in India knew, even if somewhat indistinctly, that we were privileged. The scientific landscape has changed greatly since and the change has not always been in a particularly ‘Indian’ direction. Nevertheless, I think Haldane would have approved. 733 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s12041-017-0839-y&domain=pdf J. B. S. Haldane: an isolated souvenir 
work_c4ex77u6breeheyabeogl27zfi	----	4 VIEWPOINT A big picture: Connectedness between outdoor education, landscape and political reality in Australia Robbo Bennetts I want to look at the theme of connectedness in outdoor education. Connectedness is easy enough to conceptualise as a notion - in the way, for example, that chaos theorists famously connect the fluttering of a butterfly's wings in the Amazon rainforest with tsunamis in Japan. We can imagine water droplets connecting all parts of the globe by recycling themselves in perpetuity. We can imagine being connected to woolly mammoths or dinosaurs in the sense that chemical particles in our bodies may once have been the stuff of those creatures. Tim Low passionately explored the organic connection between things during the "Dry & ancient land" conference in Melbourne last June. He saw clear links between the ancient-ness of this continent and the variability of its generally meagre rainfall on the one hand, and the terrible environmental disasters that followed the arrival of early Europeans on the other. He showed how globalisation continues to pose threats to an environment that evolved largely in almost unparalleled isolation. These threats could wreak greater destruction than the rabbit. Natural forces interact with humans not only to re- shape nature, but also to re-shape human culture. Mainstream Australian culture has been re-shaped by this land in ways that make it distinct. As urbanised as we are, we Australians still tend to define ourselves in relation to the outdoors. We still inhale the dust from . the dry interior. Weare still touched by bushfires and droughts. We are still burnt by the summer sun. We may take refuge in cities but the land is embedded in our national psyche, and has left its imprint in everything we do. How far, though, can this line of thinking be extended? Could the very flatness and aridity of this continent help explain the political cringe of successive national governments? Could it ~ dare I say? - help explain why Australia went to weir against a distant and sovereign nation, with whom we had no quarrel, for the most spurious of reasons, against the wishes of both the overwhelming majority of Australians and people around the world? If a team of social historians - say, one hundred years from now - sifted through whatever contemporary outdoor education publications and published works remaine,d, I wonder what evidence they would find of the great political moments of our times? Such historical detectives would certainly find evidence of deep concern about the environment, They would find evidence of a sense that we need to educate the whole person, not only as an end in itself, but also as a means of creating a fairer and happier society. But I would be surprised if they found evidence of, for instance, the extent to which a war in the Middle East riveted the national consciousness, and triggered opposition measured, among other things, by opponents of the war taking to the streets in such unprecedentedly huge numbers. I cannot think of any compelling reason why outdoor education publications ought report or mirror political reality. And I firmly believe that there must be very clear parameters relating to the ways in which teachers - and those in positions of authority generally - attempt to exercise their influence over impressionable minds. (Rather than proselytise, I believe all educators should cultivate doubt, in the best traditions of liberal education.) The fact remains, however, that everything we do is informed by the bigger picture. And it is the bigger picture that connects everything. To return to those earlier questions, how could something like the way in Iraq be connected to the dry and ancient nature of this land? Here is my guess. Largely because Australia's mountains have worn away, this continent is resource-poor in critically important resources like water and arable soil. We have not historically had the kind of resource base to support a large enough population or economy to independently defend ourselves from perceived threats from the North. Hence we have had a succession of governments since colonial times that have been willing to pay the price of sheltering behind a powerful ally. The price is a political (and cultural) cringe that most thinking Australians have long found distasteful, to say the least. The obvious question that arises from the above is, what are the implications for outdoor educators? I believe that the kind of political awareness I have described establishes a context that, potentially at least, can make sense of everything we do. It can also help put things into perspective - if we keep the big things in frame, we are less likely to sweat the little things. There are many other implications as well. But ultimately, political awareness should help us to understand equally the importance of everyone working in the field of human-nature relationships coming together in a spirit of good will, and the uselessness of jealousy and fragmentation. Let's be pro-active in our efforts to bring about a paradigm shift in the way we connect what we do with the great issues of the day. About the author Robbo Bennetts has specialized in teaching (mainly secondary) outdoor education for the past 15 years. He has recently self-published a middle school student workbook (Footprints) under the label of Wipeout Publications. He can be contacted at info@Wipeout.com.au Australian Journal of Outdoor Education Vol 7 No 2 2003 
work_cdyfol5jsngevccu6he2wce3ny	----	jss-231 INTRODUCTION Advertisings increasing sophistication and sophistry are clearly evident in today’s world. Sophistication is manifest in attention grabbing ad copies which virtually compel recipients to pay undivided attention. Sophistry as manifested in the various gimmicks and underhand deals designed to win the hearts and minds of consumers. No wonder advertising agencies and practitioners have been accused of engaging in unfair and deceptive practices such as false promises, incomplete description, false and misleading comparisons, bait and switch offers, visual distortion and false demonstration, false testimonials, partial disclosures as well as small print qualification (Arens, 1996) In addition to these unbecoming activities, advertisers are also adept at employing stereotypes especially as it affects women. The primary stereotypes are portrayal of women as sex objects and as housewives. One or two examples will suffice. “Topless or covered” print ad by Globe Motors showed a young female model in two poses related to the two types of Mercedes Benz cars advertised. As regards the convertible the model’s hair was uncovered and her hands were folded across her braless breast. In the second pose she was prim and proper as a normal, covered Benz car. The Royco seasoning television commercial had a housewife whose cooking with the inviting aroma enabled her to placate her angry husband. In another TV commercial on “Boska” a drug for treating malaria fever, the housewife had to leave her washing to take care of her husband who had come home early from the office down with a fever. Even though these adverts and many more were crafted to sell products they convey certain underlying messages about the women folk. So women’s sexuality should be used to sell cars and the men would presumably gloat and then go out to buy such cars? And in this day and age when a number of women have achieved so much in their careers is it still right to keep portraying them as housewives and mothers as if they have nothing else to offer society? Wells (2000) sees this presentation of a group of people, and in this instance womenfolk, in an unvarying pattern that lacks individuality as one of the major criticisms against advertising. The sad thing about all this is that the way advertising portray various segments determines in some measure the treatment meted out to them (Russel and Lane, 1996). This is even more striking considering the second - class status that women and the girl child have been assigned in many cultures. Patriarchal Universe of Advertising: Julia Penelope has done tremendous work in showing graphically how the English Language has been patriarchal and oppressive of women-the patriarchal universe of discourse (Littlejohn, 1992: 243). She sees language as male created and a tool for the continued domination of women. The rules and conventions of the English language are arbitrary and designed to achieve the above. She illustrates this by taking a close look at dictionary definitions of manly, masculine, womanly and feminine: © Kamla-Raj 2005 J. Soc. Sci., 11(2): 97-100 (2005) Patriarchal Universe of Advertising: The Nigerian Example Eno Akpabio and Titilola Oguntona Department of Mass Communication, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria E-mail: enoakpabio@hotmail.com KEYWORDS Television; commercial; sterotypes; portrayal; product ABSTRACT From the purview of the patriarchal universe of discourse theory, the paper examines sex role stereotyping in Nigerian TV. Commercials. An in-depth analysis of TV. Commercials of products in alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverage as well as laundry soap, communication facilities, baby product, confectioneries and transportation categories revealed that female characters were used as sex objects and were made to play the role of mothers and housewives. This portrayal does not, in the opinion of the authors, do justice to the many women who have made their marks in business and the profession hence the paper calls for a correct reflection of the role of women in TV. Commercials. More so since impressionable members of the society are likely to expect conformity with these portrayal thus doing damage to the cause of the womenfolk ENO AKPABIO AND TITILOLA OGUNTONA98 The qualities listed under manly and masculine are the “good”, things an individual might wish to be: strong, brave, determined, honest, and dignified. Not a single one of the negative qualities commonly attributed to maleness are listed …. Look closely at the long list of characteristics in the definition for manly compared to the circularity of the pseudo- definition for womanly, “like or beffiting a woman”. That’s not a definition; it assumes that we already know the behaviours that “befit” a woman. The real definitions for womanly are implied as “oppositions” to “manly qualities” … positive attributes commonly associated with females, nurturing, kind, and loving, have been omitted. To redress these inequities in language use, a feminist dictionary authored by Cheris Kramarae and Paula Treichler has been designed to serve as a feminist universe of discourse. (Littlejohn, 1992). The entries include birth name – a term used by feminist as a more accurate label than maiden name which has sexual double standards; foremother an ancestor and many more (ibid). The advertising world probably because it is populated and dominated by the men folk appears to be perpetuating the same stereotypes that have elicited the questioning of the status quo in the use of language. And it appears that this negative trend is a universal phenomenon as some examples would indicate. A 1985 study 1 of Canadian television commercials corroborates this negative portrayal of the women folk. The study reported that the primary setting for 50% of the major female characters was the home while only 29% of their male counterparts appear in home settings. The paid work setting had 90% of women and 22% of men. Other findings were: outdoor setting with 11% of women and 19% of men; men only adverts constituted 24% while women only adverts accounted for 13%; adverts with voice-overs had 94% male participation. In the U.S., portrayal of adult women stresses passivity, deference, lack of intelligence and punishment for exerting significant effort (Wells et al., 2000). Men, in contrast, were portrayed as constructive, powerful, autonomous and achievement oriented (ibid). They note that subtle aspects of self-presentation such as poise, language and facial expression indicate gender stereotyping. They conclude by stressing that a major challenge advertisers face is realistic portrayal of women as mature, intelligent people with varied interest. The viewers’ forum (1999) has pinpointed dominant stereotypes that require re-examination: A woman’s role in the home is that of a domestic help A woman’s physical beauty is an instrument for selling any product A woman is always looking for or struggling to hold on to the right man A woman is typically show-cased as a wife/ mother. She is shown to be coy, submissive and as a suffering person The most harmful stereotype is that of projecting a woman as another woman’s enemy. These stereotypes take on more harmful dimension when looked at from the point of view of Gerbner’s cultivation theory as well as the postulation of the cultural norms theory. TV presents men as dynamic and aggressive and women are shown as passive and domestic (Folarin, 1998), yet these messages have effects that are said not to be negligible (Severin and Tankard, 1992). This slanted portrayal of women can come to be accepted since the cultural norms theory holds that through emphasis on certain themes impressionable audience members “would tend to pattern their behaviour along the lines of such presentation” (Folarin, 1998). Objectives of the Study: Over the year, women have been given diverse roles in television commercials. However, one of the criticisms against television commercials has been the issue of gender inequality, i.e. an unequal portrayal of women. Wells et al. (2000) wrote that: The portrayal of women in advertisement has received much attention over time, initially, critics complained that ads showed women as preoccupied with beauty, household duties and motherhood. Research shows that portrayal of adult women in U.S. television and print advertising have stressed passivity, deference, lack of intelligence and credibility and punishment for exerting significant effort. In contrast, men have been shown as constructive, powerful, autonomous and achievement oriented. Considering the above statement which is given weight by Russel and Lane (1996), it is the intent of this study to reveal if really there are any form of discrimination against women in television commercials shown on Nigeria television stations. PATRIARCHAL UNIVERSE OF ADVERTISING: THE NIGERIAN EXAMPLE 99 The study also intends to increase the awareness, if any, of such unequal representation and the issue of sex role stereotyping in the broadcast media vis-à-vis television commer- cials. In addition, the study has an objective of encouraging the elimination of sex-role stereotyping in television commercials. This it intends to do by encouraging advertisers to portray a realistic representation of women in diverse roles, both at home, at work and other activities. Well et al. (2000) have argued that one major challenge which advertisers face is the ability to portray women realistically without any form of stereotyping and with a new freedom. And as mature, intelligent people with varied interest and abilities. The study therefore sought answers to the following research questions. R.Q. 1: What roles will the major female characters be given in television commercials? R.Q. 2: Will the type of product affect the roles given to women? R.Q. 3: Do the roles reflect any form of stereotype? Scope of Study: The study examined adverts shown on Nigeria television stations both privately owned and government owned operating in Lagos state. To allow for an equal representation of television stations, two private stations namely: African Independent Television, Lagos and Channels Television, Lagos as well as the Nigeria Television Authority Channel five, Lagos and the Nigeria Television Authority Channel ten, Lagos which are government owned stations were purposely chosen for this study. In order to ensure as much representation as could be possible, a sample of nine television advertisements were chosen each representing a different product line. The advertisements are listed below: Non Alcoholic Beverage : Bournvita Laundry Soap : Ariel detergent washing powder Communication Facilities : M T N Alcoholic Beverage : Bailey Irish Cream Baby Product : New Pampers disposable diapers Food Seasoning : Royco Seasoning Cubes Confectioneries : Mcvites Medical : Cofmix cough syrup Transportation : Peugeot 406 DEMOGRAPHIC ATTRIBUTES OF MODELS ON TV COMMERCIALS Table 1 shows that out of all the major characters in the advertisements chosen, 50% were males, 25% were females and 25% were children. This shows a higher number of major male characters in the advertisements chosen. Sex Percentage Females 2 5 Males 5 0 Children 2 5 To t a l 1 0 0 Table 1: Sex/Level of maturity of models Table 2 shows that though only 25% of the major characters were females. 50% of them were portrayed primarily as housewives, 25% as mothers. None of the major female characters had any identifiable paid occupation. 25% of them were portrayed in other roles such as an artist and a snooker player. Roles Percentage Mother 2 5 Wives 5 0 Employees - Other roles 2 5 To t a l 1 0 0 Table 2: Roles for the major female models Table 3 shows that with the exception of Peugeot 406 and Bournvita which have no female characters, the product line does not necessarily dictate the role women will play. The major female character in the MTN advertisement was still shown in the house doing domestic work. Except for Mcvities and Bailey Irish Cream, in all the other products, women are portrayed either as house wives and or mothers. The roles assigned women as housewives and or mothers reflect stereotypes as indicated in Table 3. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS Women as Housewives/Mothers: For 50% of the major female characters, the primary setting is the home. Among men, 30% appeared primarily in the home. The outdoor environment included 20% of women and 20% of men. Though, men constituted a higher majority of the advertisement characters – 50% compared ENO AKPABIO AND TITILOLA OGUNTONA100 with women 25% and children 25%. The advertisements still had the trend of showing women as pre-occupied with house hold duties. However, the outdoor environment showed a balanced portrayal of both men and women at 20% each. Women as Employed: None of the major female characters had any identifiable paid occupation. However, 90% of the men had employment status. Females are usually shown performing domestic tasks relating to the product or in the house e.g. Royco Cubes, Ariel detergent powder and MTN. However, in 50% of the advertisements men are shown using the product, giving approval or being joined to use the product. Voice-overs : Of the voice-overs, 60% were male even for domestic products e.g. Ariel and Royco. Only 30% of the voice-overs were female. CONCLUSION The findings of the study lead to the conclusion that television commercials have a trend of portraying women mainly as wives or mothers. This proves critics right when they alleged advertisements stereotypes such as Well et al. (2000), Russel and Lane (1996) and verifies the findings of the content analysis on the portrayal of sex roles in Canadian Radio – Television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) 1985 report. It shows an unequal portrayal of women being shown mainly as preoccupied with household duties and motherhood. However, two of the advertisements, portray- ed a different perspective as they showed women preoccupied with varied interest and abilities. RECOMMENDATIONS The researchers suggest that advertisers should seek to portray women in a more realistic setting. Though, women roles include being wives and mothers, they are taking up new challenges, hobbies and jobs. Advertisers should face up to reality by portraying women without any form of stereotype, but as mature intelligent people with varied interest and abilities. Advertisers, in designing their messages must be sensitive to the various characteristics of their different targets. They should be careful how they portray different groups and live up to their social responsibility of portraying what is accurate and representative. The researchers also suggest a development of sex role portrayal code for television broadcast by the authorities and the parties involved in the programme development and production, programme acquisition decisions and commercial message production. NOTE 1. Canadian Radio - Television and Telecommu- nications Commision (CRTC) Report 1985. REFERENCES Arens, Williams. 1999. Contemporary Advertising. Boston: Irvin McGraw Hill Folarin, Babatunde. 1998. Theories of Mass Communication. Ibadan: Stirling-Horden Publishers (Nig.) Ltd. Littlejohn Stephen W. 1992. Theories of Human Communication. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Russel, Thomas and Ronald W Lane. 1996. Advertising Procedure. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc. Severin, Werner J. and James W. Tankard. 1992. Communication Theories: Origins, Methods and Uses in the Mass Media. New York: Longman Publishing Group. Well, Williams, Burnett John and Moriarty Sandra. 2000. Advertising Principles and Practice. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc. Products lines Mother Wives Employed Others Total Peugeot 406 - - - - - Royco Cubes - 12.5 - - 12.5 M T N - 12.5 - - 12.5 Pampers diapers 12.5 - - - 12.5 Mcvities - - - 12.5 12.5 Cofmix 12.5 12.5 - - 25.0 Bailey Irish cream - - - 12.5 12.5 Bournvita - - - - - Ariel detergent - 12.5 - - 12.5 Total 25.0 50.0 - 25.0 100.0 Table 3: Roles by products 
work_c6ettxiwdbdpvj3yiirl456fay	----	Journal of Art Historiography Number 20 June 2018 The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier-Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer Csilla Markója The ‘Hungarian Fauves’ – what does it mean? ‘I long believed that Hungarian modernism began with the Eight, but it turned out that it started with the “Hungarian fauves”, around 1906,’ declared Krisztina Passuth, curator-in-chief to the newspaper Népszabadság. She went on to add: ‘Hungarian art history needs to be rewritten.’1 This euphoric pronouncement heralded the exhibition ‘Hungarian Fauves from Paris to Nagybánya 1904–1914’,2 staged at the Hungarian National Gallery (2006). This show, which was afterwards displayed at three locations in France, prompting widespread interest in the media there,3 was accompanied in Hungary by debates regarding terminology. ‘Were the Hungarian fauves really fauves?’ asked art historians and art critics. During the discussions which followed, problems of cultural transfer – i.e. those of the acceptance, adoption, translation, and interpretation of a given segment of another culture, another narrative – were given a good airing, especially at the conference organised as just one of the events 1 The writing of this paper was funded by a János Bolyai Research Scholarship awarded by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. ‘A “magyar Vadak” fölfedezése. Ismeretlen remekművek a Nemzeti Galériában. Varsányi Gyula riportja Passuth Krisztinával’ [Discovering the Hungarian Fauves. Unknown masterpieces at the HNG], Népszabadság, 27 February 2006 issue. 11. 2 The exhibition between 21 March and 30 June 2006 was organised by Krisztina Passuth, Gergely Barki, and György Szücs. 3 The international response to the exhibition was highly impressive, at least with regard to the statistics. The show featured 3 times on television and 6 times on radio. In addition, the French daily and weekly press (including Le Monde, L’indépendant, La Tribune, Paris Match, Elle, and Palette) reported on it – briefly or at greater length but almost invariably in illustrated articles – on 44 occasions and the monthly press on 74 occasions. The foreign press published 42 articles on the exhibition, along with invitations and snippets of news that together numbered more than these. Fifty Internet sites informed their readers concerning the travelling exhibition, which was augmented with works by French fauves. Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 2 intended to augment and interpret the exhibition.4 Together with Gergely Barki, Péter Molnos, Zoltán Rockenbauer and Attila Rum, Krisztina Passuth, professor at the Institute for Art History at the Eötvös Loránd University of Budapest and an eminent researcher of the Eight and the activists, investigated the years preceding the appearance of the Eight. The threads led to France. ‘A fine exhibition – perhaps this is the first feeling the visitor has on seeing the representative selection,’ wrote the correspondent of the periodical Új Művészet, summing up his impressions, ‘An exhibition like this can only be put together from works made in a great period of art. Can we say that the art of the Hungarian fauves counts as one of the exceptional moments in Hungarian painting?’ Passuth replied: ‘Yes. This was the moment – to be more exact, it was a period of few years, from 1906 to 1912 specifically – when modern Hungarian painting was born. For us today, what happened then seems for us fully amazing. An art was born that was absolutely in synchrony with European trends, even the most recent French and German ones, an art whose autonomous peculiarities and values were – and continue to be – characteristic only of the Hungarian fauves.’5 In his assessment of the exhibition’s significance in art history, Géza Perneczky went even further than this: ‘We should attach much more weight after this exhibition to the young Hungarian artists familiar with Fauvism who visited Paris after 1904 and who in some cases stayed there for a longer period. But as regards their role in Hungary, we should see these artists, whom their colleagues called ‘Neos’ (neoimpressionists), a label that stuck for decades, simply as representatives of the ferment that started at the Nagybánya artists’ colony and in the MIÉNK circle. More is needed. Although in the contemporary press the word chercheurs was voiced many times in connection with them (this term later found an echo in Károly Kernstok’s expression ‘Inquisitive Art’), it was they who found, and represented for a year or two, what later on already could only be spoilt. If we accept this, though, then we must move to an earlier date the fault line that separates the story of the direct influence of plein air painting (more specifically the Nagybánya school), and the secessionist endeavours in Hungary that were occurring almost in parallel with it, from the avant-garde, which was then knocking at the door. The start of the Hungarian avant-garde thus moves a few years earlier. But even this correction does not express entirely the full extent of the new recognitions. It is not simply that the Eight’s appearance around 1910 now seems not to have been the first avant-garde stirring in the history of Hungarian art. An additional factor is that our impression of the Eight as a classicising branch – one 4 The show was accompanied by a series of lectures, with the participation of György Szücs Krisztina Passuth, Anna Szinyei Merse, Gyula Kemény, László Jurecskó, Gergely Barki, Zoltán Rockenbauer, and Tamás Tarján. 5 Ernő P. Szabó, ‘A modern festészet ünnepi pillanatai. Beszélgetés Passuth Krisztinával a Magyar Vadak Párizstól Nagybányáig 1904–1914 című kiállításról’ [Festive moments of modern painting. Interview with KP], Új Művészet, 16 : 6, 2006, 8. Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 3 more retrogressive than progressive in respect of innovation – of the stirring that had begun five or six years earlier may be growing.’ However, to his markedly unsympathetic opinion he immediately added: ‘Of course, it could be that we remember only erroneously what the Eight actually painted [...]. In this, a role is most certainly played by the fact that many of their works are in private collections; without these the Eight cannot be shown in a way that is truly fitting. [...] But however much we try to save the situation, this much is certain: a sea change has taken place.’6 After preparations lasting four years for the exhibition that gave rise to this ‘sea change’, another four years needed to pass for the same ‘research group’ to step forth with a ‘fitting’ presentation of the Eight, as an organic continuation of the earlier show. The group’s members undertook a task that seemed impossible, namely to reconstruct the three emblematic exhibitions staged between 1909 and 1912 at which members of the Eight (Róbert Berény, Béla Czóbel, Dezső Czigány, Károly Kernstok, Ödön Márffy, Dezső Orbán, Bertalan Pór, Lajos Tihanyi) – who were recruited from the much broader circle7 of the Hungarian fauves – took part along with friends they had invited (Artúr Jakobovits, Vilmos Fémes Beck, Mária Lehel, Anna Lesznai, Márk Vedres). We thus have an opportunity to ponder questions that Éva Forgács (eminent researcher of modernism in Pasadena) put in the columns of the journal Holmi: ‘Can concepts or artistic practices be transferred from one culture to another; and how much can another cultural context modify the meaning and function of a given artistic language, in the present case a language of painters?’ Forgács herself answers these questions, when in her nuanced analysis she points out that sometimes ‘cultures of forms and languages of images can be transferred from one culture to another’, ‘which, however, cannot be lifted across [...], the embeddedness in history of some modes of expression, in this case the context created by the French Enlightenment and French Revolution, in the frameworks of which the French viewer saw the pictures of the fauves, even when these were mediated, since antecedents of these pictures [...] “had given rise to unconscious associations.”’ According to Forgács, the historical context of early twentieth-century progressivism in Hungary is essentially different from the French: ‘Those Budapest intellectuals who served as the repository of progressivism did not hark back to the 6 Perneczky, Géza: ‘Revízió a magyar avantgárd kezdeteinek kérdésében’ [Revision concerning the beginning of Hungarian avant garde], Holmi, 19, 2007, 296–297. 7 The authors of the catalogue included under the collective term ‘Hungarian Fauves’ the following artists, by virtue of works they produced during a particular phase of their careers: Béla Balla, Rezső Bálint, Géza Bornemisza, Tibor Boromisza, István Csók, Dezső Czigány, Valéria Dénes, Sándor Galimberti, Gitta Gyenes, Vilmos Huszár, Béla Iványi Grünwald, Károly Kernstok, Nana Kukovetz, Ödön Márffy, András Mikola, József Nemes Lampérth, Dezső Orbán, Tibor Pólya, Bertalan Pór, Armand Schönberger, Lajos Tihanyi, János Vaszary, Sándor Ziffer. Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 4 ideas – of 1848, let us say – relating to Hungarian attempts to secure bourgeois freedoms, but, turning against their liberal fathers, relied on the ideas of German philosophy, and wished to create a new metaphysics. As the early essays of György (Georg) Lukács, Béla Balázs, and Lajos Fülep show, these intellectuals wished to create a new and extensive Hungarian national culture in the spirit of German idealism, a culture for which they drew inspiration from Ady’s poetry, from the pathos of his New Verses that heralded a new age. Their rebellion was directed first and foremost against impressionism, which – having partly misunderstood – they considered art characterised by superficiality and subjectivism. Their ideal was Cézanne, in whose structured pictures they saw – likewise partly erroneously – the glorification of metaphysics.’8 At this point, Forgács quotes one of the authors of the catalogue, Péter Molnos, who in one of his studies speaks of how ‘at the birth of the new painting, at the starting out in Nagybánya of Czóbel, Berény, Perlrott, and their associates [...], it was problems purely to do with painting that were in focus of attention, independently of every element outside art’, and of how ‘conscious emphasising of structure and composition was basically alien from the colour- centred, deconstructing spontaneity of Fauvism’.9 Despite the labelling, the members of the research group evaluated – and formulated – the differences accurately. Gergely Barki, one of the organisers of the exhibition, declared to the periodical Műértő: ‘Seeing the pictures emerging in the art trade, one could guess even at the outset that something new would come together, and we were aware that if we began in a systematic way to dig out the pictures hidden away at public collections, there would be surprises for everyone. An appreciable part of the exhibition came from material that had been gathering dust in museum storerooms. The period between 1905 and 1909 had not been markedly represented in the specialist literature earlier on; the term itself ‘magyar Vadak’ [Hungarian Fauves] raised questions. For the time being, no one was able to come up with anything better, although I, too, did not consider this term entirely appropriate, nor in the end the expression ‘Hungarian Fauves’ either. Even now we know little. The exhibition at best called attention to the fact that there was a tendency that needed to be addressed.’10 One difference between the viewpoints related to the usefulness or harmfulness of the term ‘Hungarian Fauves’, which was declared unsatisfactory. ‘For strategic reasons’, Éva Forgács did not deem fortunate ‘the labelling of this painting, rich and encompassing different endeavours, with the expression ‘Hungarian Fauves’. The entirety of modern Hungarian painting, which began late, 8 Éva Forgács, ‘Vadak vagy koloristák?’ [Fauves or colourists] Holmi, 19, 2007, 310–312. 9 Péter Molnos, ‘The “Paris of the East” in the Hungarian Wilderness’ Krisztina Passuth and György Szücs, eds, Hungarian Fauves from Paris to Nagybánya, Budapest: Hungarian National Gallery, 2006. 118. 10 Emőke Gréczi, ‘Vadak után, Nyolcak előtt. Beszélgetés Barki Gergely művészettörténésszel’ [After the Fauves, before the Eight. Interview with art historian GB], Műértő, 10 April 2007. Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 5 has never been described using terminology other than that created by Western and Russian narratives, this giving no chance for any kind of distinctive quality, voice, or half-voice, or something original even, to be present in Hungarian art.’11 The situation was evaluated similarly by Ilona Sármány-Parsons: When local art histories began to be constructed as the history of a national art, an universal measure of a virtual kind dangled in the collective consciousness of the day: the path of French art, as a universal path. [...] When we read the exciting and interesting studies in the catalogue for the Hungarian Fauves, it becomes clear that the very same fire burned in the breasts of the young Hungarian art historians of 2006 as had burned in the breasts of those of 1906. The proof that we Hungarians managed to connect synchronically with the French experiments with form; in other words, we were modern and we did not lag behind in the race for new visual solutions. [...] In other words, Czóbel, Berény, Perlrott, etc. were there in the Salon d’Automne, alongside Matissse and in the company of Derain, with fresh, uniquely new pictures: in Paris and in the vanguard! [...] But did anyone notice us? Is it not illusory to hope that with this evidential material we can step, albeit afterwards, into the “centre” and integrate into the principal trends in the history of painting?12 According to Katalin Sinkó, we can move nearer to an understanding of the problem if we bear in mind that ‘cultural transfer differs essentially from comparison, since it builds on the premise that there are no national cultures that have developed in an autochthonous way. These cultures have formed in the wake of influences, co-habitation, and motif adoption of many different kinds. Investigation of cultural transfers, then, places the emphasis on similarities existing in the social memory and not on differences. This is because “common cultural elements ease movement from one context to another”, in other words, understanding.’13 In the case of the Hungarian Fauves, Sinkó analyses the process of cultural transfer as follows: The renaming of the “Neos” as “Hungarian Fauves” was, however, unable to take place until this change of designation had been legitimated by an exhibition in France. [...] The decisive step in this area was taken by the organisers of the show “Le fauvisme ou l’épreuve du feu”, which opened in 11 Forgács, ‘Vadak vagy koloristák?’, 313. 12 Ilona Sármány-Parsons, ‘Marginalizált magyar festők, avagy egy közép-európai festészeti kánon kérdései’ [Hungarian painter ont he margin, or questions of the canon of Eastern European painting], Holmi, 19:3, 2007, 324. 13 Katalin Sinkó, Nemzeti Képtár. A Magyar Nemzeti Galéria története. [Gallery of the Nation. The History of the Hungarian National Gallery] Budapest, 2009, 147. Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 6 October 1999 at the Musée d’Art moderne de la Ville de Paris. This exhibition, which dealt with painting in the period between 1905 and 1911, devoted a special section to artists working in Paris, Dresden, Munich, Prague, Budapest, and Moscow, as well as in Belgium, Switzerland, and Finland, who were in the circle of the French fauves or under their influence. [...] The fauve movement or trend was one that was built on the traditional centre–periphery approach taken by writings on French and European modern art. We can say that the modernisation of this concept has still not taken place.14 In essence, Sinkó agrees with Éva Forgács in that neither concept nor artistic practice can be transferred from one context to another without a modification of meaning. According to Sinkó: in the background of reformulations and new names there are the less conscious processes of cultural transfer. In the course of these, French culture and Hungarian culture alike have been placed in the role of receiver. While works by Hungarian artists that were created under French influence, and the names of these artists also, are perhaps fixed in the narratives of French modernisms, the different time-horizon and the special characteristics of Hungarian and Central European history remain considerably outside the processes of this transfer. Generalising from our example, for a real understanding of the situation only the understanding of the concepts – in the present case, the different meanings of the expression “fauves” – can help. [...] The frame of this can only be “crossed history” (histoire croissé, to use Bénédicte Zimmermann’s term), which can come into being through the bilateral investigation of processes. For the writing of history of this kind, it is necessary that in concrete situations the different national histories – in our case, the French art history and Hungarian art history – step out of the frames of national monocausality followed hitherto and, in the development of theories, take into account, in a multilateral way, the earlier or actual determinedness of the historiography of the other nation. For example, to what extent are the ongoing processes of historical interpretation mirrors of cultural transfers, or are they sensitive indicators of the already complete crisis of the Europe ideal in both Central and Western Europe, or perhaps harbingers of the new nationalisms strengthening in the West, too, in the current situation?15 This provocative question remains unanswered. But in order to understand the operation of cultural transfer, it is enough to think of a connection that develops 14 Sinkó, Nemzeti Képtár, 157. 15 Sinkó, Nemzeti Képtár , 159. Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 7 between two strangers. To begin with, they measure their similarities and a possible common basis. They instinctively seek out in their own histories those points which they can offer to each other for identification. In this phase, the smallest similarity can be the source of immeasurable joy. But when there is a common denominator, already the differences, too, can give them pleasure. Of course, relations are never perfectly equal and never perfectly mutual. The art history of the time around 1900 has been recorded by way of the narrative of progressivism, in the paradigm of the centre and the periphery. The model itself is historical. We can and should remark upon on the material of past in its capacity as such and we may emphasise different aspects of it. Nevertheless, the material of the past is malleable only up to a certain limit. The historical marker of the art of the era under discussion is progressivism: we would be ahistorical were we to divest it of this tag. The expression ‘Hungarian Fauves’ is a proposal for a common denominator. Albeit differently and with different emphases, the Paris of Matisse was, at one and the same time, the Paris of the Hungarian painters, too. The name itself is a proposal; the meaning is already a variation on the name. However, as far as the history of the Eight is concerned, it is not the common denominator, but the delight in the distinctive and the different that matters. The reception of the Eight and the press As a fine arts example of the movements active in the different spheres of cultural life in Hungary between 1909 in 1912, the Eight group was a loosely organised, informal association, although its leader Károly Kernstok, who was known in the press largely on account of his organisational ability, mature years, and prestige, had clear views on what it represented and what its task should be in society. It was Ödön Márffy who, with hindsight, summarised its programme most succinctly: ‘The joint or kindred endeavours of these artists could perhaps be formulated as follows, namely that they tried to make pictures according to strict principles by placing emphasis on composition, construction, shapes, drawing, and essence.’16 Behind these endeavours, journalists and art critics, numbering just a handful but nevertheless highly effectual, organised and influenced the group’s growing middle-class public, which was primarily drawn from the ranks of the urban intelligentsia. In the absence of a real art market, this public purchased works by the group members on a patronage basis, measured their accomplishment in the light of its political-ideological alignment and intellectual preconceptions, which was at the same time the undertaking of a social role. The unique features of their art were for a long time engraved on the countenance of a small yet powerful public; in turn, the mimicry and gestures of this public influenced their art, and, through mediation, have – down to the present day – determined the artistic orientation and approach 16 Dévényi, Iván: ‘Márffy Ödön levele a Nyolcak törekvéseiről’ [Letter of ÖM about on the goals of the Eight]. Művészet, 10, 1969, 8. 10. Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 8 to forms of generations. Éva Körner, who coined the term ‘avant-garde without isms’, considers convergence to be the main characteristic of the period under discussion, but also calls attention to the distinctively Hungarian features of the process of bourgeois transformation: In the 1910s, large-scale social co-operation was characteristic of intellectual life in Hungary, from the socio-political movements through the transformation of the system of philosophical thought to the fashioning of forms in art. For the time being, intellectual solidarity prevailed; the cracks, and later the splits, that emerge during times of ordeals in political life had not yet appeared. [...] It was not by chance that for the first time in Hungary culture acquired a new meaning, one orientated towards the living of life in a more just and true way, because never in Hungary did the system of middle-class values, and grounded in it the specialist branches of learning, taken root to such an extent that the desire for a different, more just and true life was erased.17 Nevertheless, cracks appeared well before the paths finally diverged. Intense solidarity characterised the Eight only at the end of 1910 and the beginning of 1911: many of the members failed to take part in the group’s third exhibition, which was held in 1912. Kernstok lost his leading role and left the group. When we speak of the Eight, in a certain sense we are speaking about an effective fiction, but this vision or fantasy regarding a community created ensembles of art works of emblematic significance, moreover with matchless vehemence for art as a whole. In connection with the Eight, it is primarily paintings that we think of, although the members displayed sculptures and even applied art creations. At their third show, Berény exhibited, in addition to a writing-case, eight women’s handbags, hangings, and eight pillow-case embroideries. From their circle, Anna Lesznai also produced high- standard embroideries. Capable of being pieced together from entries in her diary, her ideas concerning decoration were also significant. Many of the members of the Eight could play a musical instrument. Róbert Berény, an all-rounder in the group and the other leading figure besides Kernstok, not only understood mathematics, but also wrote music criticism; indeed, he also composed music, and not just on any level. Seen through today’s eyes, the press campaign surrounding the Eight reached enormous dimensions, even if ample contributions appeared by conservative writers. During the scientific preparations for the exhibition, Árpád Tímár published, in a three-volume collection of sources, more than 1500 pages of 17 Éva Körner, ‘Lovasok a vízparton – Fekete négyzet fehér alapon’ [Horsemen at the Water – Black square on a white surface] in Éva Körner, Aknai Katalin and Hornyik Sándor, Avantgárd – izmusokkal és izmusok nélkül. Válogatott cikkek és tanulmányok, Budapest: MTA Mu vésze o rténeti Kutatóintézet, 2005, 318. Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 9 articles and reviews from the press response of the time to progressivism in Hungary in the early twentieth century. This huge amount was – leaving out of account the anonymous newspaper contributors on the subject – produced by a few dozen individuals, including such devoted or well-disposed supporters of the Eight as Aladár Bálint, Artúr Bárdos, György Bölöni, Andor Cserna, József Diner-Dénes, Géza Feleky, Zoltán Felvinczi Takács, Ödön Gerő, Géza Lengyel, Pál Relle, Béla Revész, and Dezső Rózsaffy. With regard to those in the field of theory, special mention may be made of Géza Feleky, who wrote the introduction to the Eight’s second catalogue, and György Bölöni, who followed their activity in Paris and from Paris and who organised exhibitions for them. The most powerful support, however, came from a poet and a philosopher respectively: Endre Ady and György Lukács represented a broad guarantee for the acknowledgement of the merits of their work. The reception of Matisse and the influence of German theory Behind György (Georg) Lukács was the sophisticated, distinguished figure of Leó Popper, a brilliant critic who died young, a few months after the Eight’s second exhibition. In the twenty-five years of his life, he published a total of twelve short pieces. Of these, only a few were on fine art subjects. These influenced neither Hungarian art, nor the Sunday Circle, which, continued, with philosophical force, the lines of thought begun by artists in the years of the First World War. On the other hand, he did exert an influence on his friend György Lukács, not only inspiring his thinking, but guiding, up to his death, the morality of that thinking by means of well-disposed criticisms, in the course of their correspondence, their joint articles, and their translations. Nevertheless, in 1919, at the time of the dramatic turn represented by the Hungarian Soviet Republic, there occurred what Popper had so much feared: For Lukács, art was apocalyptic power. It was exciting, but, for that very reason, dangerous. The recognition that the forms of art needed to be regulated was, therefore, a matter of time only. Popper – with his utopian notions – was, as we shall see, a man of liberty; in Lukács, however, there already lurked the commissar who dreamt of apocalyptic powers for himself, which, in due course, he would firmly withstand.18 One of the most sincere manifestations of this desire to regulate appears in Lukács’s work, ‘The roads parted’, a response to ‘Inquisitive Art’,19 Kernstok’s text setting out a programme for the Eight. In his article, Lukács defined form as follows: ‘Form is 18 Géza Perneczky, ‘Leó és a formák’ [Leo and the forms], Buksz, 5, 1993, 409. 19 Kernstok, Károly: ‘A kutató művészet’ [Inquisitive art], Nyugat, 3:1, 1910, 95. – Az Utak II, 288–292. Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 10 the principle of evaluation, of differentiation, and of the creation of order.’20 In the best moments of his philosophical career, Lukács could have experienced how his thought sequences were dictated by a kind of inspired necessity: Lukács was capable of seeing this on a theoretical level, but never on an emotional one. Accordingly, the form concept, despite every endeavour on the part of his friend, from time to time degenerated in Lukács’s hands into a genre category, or else acquired the shape of a dogmatic metaphysical imperative. On the other hand, Leó Popper still knew that form involves risking, and that we can understand the independent and unbridled intentions of form only when we are capable of giving up the ‘security given by full understanding’ for ‘the type of uncertain adventuring’ which leads us to ‘the most secret and most unlikely realms of form, towards deeper truth’.21 On the other hand, philosophy – and in the given historical moment left- wing, bourgeois thinking, too – had no need more pressing than this ‘full understanding’. The Lukácsian demand for an exact discipline bent to the yoke of categorisations, systemicism, and definitions cannot be reconciled with any kind of adventuring that is risky and uncertain in outcome. Just as Popper’s ‘Let the will of form prevail’ and Lukács’s formal strictness denoted diverging paths, the Eight, too, cannot be reduced to a common denominator: the artists in question followed their inner lines of bearing. As regards reception and frame of interpretation, the Popperian liberty ideal was not a realistic alternative to the ideas of Lukács and his supporters, as, one by one, the Hungarian painters had their French orientation recoded through the influence of German theory, which in Hungary followed on from geopolitical and historical factors. Their reception in the country was determined by art critics who had read the German art historians, primarily Meier-Graefe. The German cultural circle held sway over Popper’s formulations, too, and decisively: the keenest indication of this was its criticisms in connection with Fauvism. However, all this does not mean that the political and artistic ideas of Kernstok, who was especially critical of German art, would have prevailed. The members of the Eight were autonomous artists who did not remain together for long, because their views and interests could not be lastingly reconciled. For each of them, Paris meant something different, principally a technique, i.e. acquisition of skills and the reinterpretation of means. It is no coincidence that it is precisely to this period and to Leó Popper that the so-called double-misunderstanding theory is connected. A summary of it has survived as a fragment, as follows: Proposition: The principal factor in the development of art is misunderstanding. 20 Lukács, György: ‘Az utak elváltak’ [The roads parted] , Nyugat, 3. 1910, I, 190–193. – Az Utak, II, 321. 21 Ottó Hévizi, ‘A forma mint szabadakarat. Popper Leó esztétikája’ [The forms free will in the aesthetics of Leo Popper], Világosság, 28, 1987, 397. Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 11 Argument: Development consists of the influence (including inherited influences) of people and periods on each other. However, since man cannot know his fellow-man from within and cannot understand what it is that his fellow-man wants, across historical period to period still less (since finding out is impossible), when, nevertheless, he receives what he sees, he does so wrongly, misunderstanding it, and preparing the ground for new misunderstandings.22 Popper’s idea was processed by Lukács as follows: The existence of a work can be understood without confusion only when we regard the misunderstanding of it as the sole possible direct communication form: how a world comes into being from a double misunderstanding (from the misunderstanding of “term” and “understanding”) which on the one hand one cannot adequately achieve from one of them but which, however, is in a necessary, normative connection with both is already merely a problem that has to be solved, and not an incomprehensible phenomenon.23 Not long after Berény and his circle, we find Popper in Paris. The young man, who had contracted tuberculosis while young, certainly turned up and made sketches at the Matisse Academy, although his letters attest that he also took part in training more systematic and more thorough than this. On 20 May 1909, he informed his friend Lukács: ‘I have enrolled at the modelling department. And it was a clever thing to do, because I’m learning an incredible amount there: at one and the same time drawing and architecture, anatomy and painting, dynamics and metaphysics, and singing, and how to write articles and art history, as well as Swedish gymnastics, the theory of knowledge, and ju-jitsu.’24 A few weeks later he was already writing from Wengen in Switzerland: ‘I made a model of an amazing mulatto woman, a little creature from Martinique, who taught me more in a week that fifty Jean-Paul Laurenses or Matissses could have done.’25 Popper read forthwith the programme-announcing – or, more precisely, programme-changing – piece published by Matisse, the fauve-chef, in the journal Grande revue. This article appeared in Hungarian in 1911 entitled ‘Remarks by a Painter’, in the periodical A Ház.26 The text was of enormous importance from the point of view of Matisse’s reception in Hungary. In his ‘Letter from Paris’, a piece 22 Leó Popper, Esszék és kritikák. [Essays and criticisms], Budapest, 1983. 116 23 Popper, Esszék és kritikák, 46, 47. 24 Ottó Hévizi and Árpád Tímár, eds, Dialógus a művészetről. Popper Leó írásai. Popper Leó és Lukács György levelezése. [A dialogue on art. The writings of Leó Popper . The correspondence of Leó Popper and György Lukács], Budapest, 1993, 271. 25 Ottó Hévizi and Árpád Tímár, eds, Dialógus, 274. 26 Henri Matisse, ‘Egy festő feljegyzései’ [Notes of a painter], A Ház, 4, 1911, 187–200. Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 12 written in early 1909 that likewise remained unpublished and which was probably shared only with Lukács, Popper sums up its lessons as follows: The path of today’s painting leads to peace. It leads out of the stylistic chaos of impressionism and towards a solidly based calm art which, no matter how it manifests itself, is the brother of architecture: it carries in itself the features of profound security and equilibrium of which it is the embodiment. And, on paths that are concealed, the old order returns: the immobile or mobile sacred order of the Greeks and the Oriental peoples.27 Here Popper makes reference to Matisse’s concept change, which the leader of the French fauves announced as follows: With colours, one can achieve beautiful effects, insofar as one relies on their belonging together or their lack of this. Often, when I start working, it is the new and superficial effects that I first catch. A few years before, I was content with this result [...]. I should like to achieve the condition stemming from the concentration of feelings that makes a picture a picture. [...] Earlier, I did not leave my pictures on the wall, because they reminded me of moments of overwrought excitability and I was not happy to look at them when I was in a calm state of mind. Now it is calm that I am trying to invest in them, and I shall get them out again and again until I achieve my goal. [...] Behind this succession of motifs, which constitutes the passing existence of living beings and things, and which lends them changing forms of appearance, we must seek a truer, more essential character, to which the artist will accommodate, in order to give a more enduring picture of what is real.28 Having read Matisse’s declaration, Popper winced. ‘Peace today is still present for people only in programmes. [...] It has not yet come – there is no “realm of peace” –, and it will not come at all as long as things go on as they are now: as long as the difference between the artist’s intentions and his deeds is greater than between his deeds and those of his opponent. In actual fact, this difference is such that we see as clear opposites things that in great art are one and the same: form and content. They are going towards the great peace with the form of great confusion.’29 Popper, who can be termed a liberal almost in the French sense in comparison with Lukács, found Matisse’s turn towards classicism unsatisfactory and instead considered the example of Cézanne and Aristide Maillol the one to follow. In a number of places, the authors of the Hungarian Fauves catalogue called attention to 27 Popper, Esszék és kritikák, 53. 28 Matisse, ‘Egy festő feljegyzései’, 188. 29 Popper 1983, Esszék és kritikák, 54. Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 13 the fact that in Paris the Hungarians had encountered Matisse’s ‘tamed’ fauvism’ at the same time as they encountered cubism, which was then gaining more and more ground. The same process ran its course among Matisse’s German followers: ‘In the works of young painters liberated from the school of Matisse, during the time of cubism, Cézanne’s influence strengthened further in Paris. This occurred in Berlin, too, when in 1909–10 pictures by Cézanne featured at a number of exhibitions. Instead of loud colours, there were stable forms, and in an era of growing confusion discipline and concentrated picture-building received new emphasis.’30 However, this generally characteristic structural change meant different things in the different regions of Europe. Passing through a succession of cultural filters wedged not between intention and expression, but also between expression and understanding, very many opportunities for misunderstanding presented themselves. What a painter could acquire from Matisse was a mass of skills which could be understood as a kind of procedural system only in the context of the history of French visual culture. And at the same time this meant that the Hungarians arrived in Paris with a vision formed in advance by the procedural systems of their own visual culture. For their part, these systems determined in advance what they would acquire and receive. The restorator Gyula Kemény, an ‘honorary’ member of the research group, drew up a list showing – paradoxically – which French influences could have contributed to the preservation of Hungarian traditions: 1. They encountered brushwork with generous use of paint also on Van Gogh’s surfaces transubstantiated by way of expressivity; 2. Decorative, two-dimensional surfaces and calligraphic outlining, a tradition known from the Hungarian Secession, made Gauguinesque formal elements easily comprehensible; 3. The strong plastic approach did not appear as a necessarily outworn tradition, since after 1907, with the spread of cubism, Cézanne’s system of drafting spatially and organising mass again became topical.31 The reception of Cézanne Károly Kernstok, who cultivated an ever deepening friendship with Oszkár Jászi, the constantly self-renewing, politically very active leader of middle-class radicals 30 Éva R. Bajkay, ‘Magyar és német kapcsolatok Matisse nyomán’ [Hungarian – German connection int he footsteps of Matisse], in Ágnes Berecz, Mária L. Molnár and Erzsébet Tatai, eds, Nulla dies sine linea. Tanulmányok Passuth Krisztina hetvenedik születésnapjára, Budapest, 2007, 94. 31 Gyula Kemény, ‘Francia nyomvonalak a magyar Vadak és a neósok festészetében. Egy restaurátor feljegyzései’ [French tracks in the painting of the Hungarian fauves and ‘neos’. Notes of a restorer] in Passuth and Szücs, eds, Hungarian Fauves, 186. Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 14 (who even gave a lecture on the Eight)32 was, after Berény, the other rallying point for the company of the Eight. In his memoirs, Lajos Bálint wrote of Kernstok as follows: In outer appearance and in his entire manner he was an attractive figure. When he appeared somewhere, he became, almost involuntarily, the centre of the company. With his blond beard, bright blue eyes, and irresistible smile, he was sometimes reminiscent of some legendary prophet. Had he utilised these qualities for his own purposes alone, he would, clearly, have enhanced his success as a painter. But – in the first half of his life at least – he was a rebel. I have often asked myself whether political life itself was of greater interest to him than his calling as a painter. [...] However many new principles or experiments appeared, with his lucid intelligence and his excellent professional training he immediately tried them out, but only for so long. Even in his most interesting phases, in his pictures depicting large equestrian groups, he was unable to remain in the experimental style long enough to cast the strongly outlined galloping nudes built on structures of bundles of powerful muscles in the form final. [...] He was already around thirty when, along with successes achieved, he abruptly turned his back on his entire output as a painter up until then and set out on his quest in the world of the ‘Neos’. If the Eight respected him as their leader, this esteem did not extend to their following him in his quick changes. [...] The reality is that without the assistance of the critics and that part of the public that stood behind them, they would never have obtained a hearing in the storm that they generated with their first appearance. I myself was present at that meeting of the Galileo Circle at which Kernstok delivered his lecture entitled ‘Inquisitive Art’. The essence of this canvassing address was the opposition between the art of the emotions and the art of the intellect. He established a connection between the radical programme of the Circle and the essence of the new art. [...] Increasing numbers of people were becoming interested in the art of the Eight, primarily that section of the public which was grouped around the Galileo Circle and the periodical Huszadik Század, and later on around the journal Nyugat. This section already celebrated Ady, attended with interest the musical manifestations of Bartók and Kodály, and subsequently the new developments in painting and sculpture, too.33 Having been obliged to leave Hungary following the collapse of the Hungarian Soviet Republic, Károly Kernstok wrote from Berlin to Gyula Kosztolányi Kann on 31 October 1920: ‘Manet’s mission was to dismantle tradition, 32 ‘Felolvasás a Nyolcak kiállításán’ [Lecture at the exhibition of the Eight], Pesti Hírlap, 29 November 1912, 26 – Az Utak III, 496. 33 Lajos Bálint, Ecset és véső [Brush and chisel], Budapest, 1973, 118, 120, 122, 123. Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 15 Delacroix’s to provide bold ideas, Cézanne’s to lead one to the specific in the individual, and those after him to show freedom of emotions and means in the interests of a goal. The rawest colour is permissible, the bluntest valeur is permissible, the most individual manner of drawing is permissible, and every synthesis is permissible, only there must be a goal.’34 It is worth stopping for a moment and pondering why it was that Kernstok stressed subjectivity in connection with Cézanne’s highly objective art. One of the most interesting products of the reception of Cézanne in Hungary was a study by the critic Géza Feleky entitled ‘The Legacy of Cézanne’. According to Feleky, at a time when art is no longer being produced socially but is instead individual discovery, and when every true artist is a revolutionary being on account of necessity and not of temperament, Eastern art is losing its exotic character and Western art – by virtue of its anthropocentric world-view a necessarily three-dimensional art – is acknowledging, in the most confused and most critical period of its history, the legitimacy of two-dimensional art. This is an indication and consequence of the fact that art is no longer an essential need of Western man, or rather that art, not longer performing its essential mission, is already a thing of pleasure and not a thing that is necessary.35 Behold an ‘end of art’ idea from 1911, one that is connected with the wish to surpass the ideas of subjectivity and individualism. In the centre of Feleky’s analysis of Cézanne is the problem of the two- dimensional plane and the three-dimensional space, and also that of the thrusting together of chaos and order: Cezanne, then, did not just create space, mass, and the structure-like fitting together of different masses from nothing, from shades of colour, from degrees of atmospheric moistness, and from other tonal differences; in his pictures, order emerges from disorder. But the acknowledgment of several points of view, deconstructs the picture only in one direction and leads only seemingly to disorder. [...] Hence, the picture surface is uneven, contradictory, anarchic, and chaotic. Nevertheless, it achieves its goal, because the vision appears in a clear way through the help of the unclear means. These visions are calm and logical: there are clear balances between the clearly outlined masses and also clear, counterbalanced movements. The technique, however, is intuitive; from time to time, very different means add 34 The repository holding the letter: MTA MKI Adattár, lsz.: MDK-C-I-17/2026. 35 Feleky, Géza: ‘Cézanne hagyatéka’ [The legacy of C.], in Könyvek, képek, évek. Budapest, 1912, 16. First published in the periodical Nyugat: 4: 1, 1911, 749–754. Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 16 to the tonal differences.36 The ‘very different means’ and their various misunderstandings in the art of Hungarians, e.g. Tihanyi, are analysed by Gyula Kemény, in the course of picture analogies. In 2000, an outstanding Cézanne exhibition was staged at the Kunstforum Wien that bore the eloquent sub-title ‘Vollendet, unvollendet’.37 In the course of the different phases represented by the pictures, it was possible to observe how Cézanne struggled with the organising principle of organised chaos: what he left open and how much space he assigned to the accidental, what he attended to or constructed and how much, and whether from processes that were almost infinite he put together art works that could be described as finished. In the case of the Hungarian painters, instead of thinking oriented to the future, concentration on the past, on the completeness of the composition, was more characteristic: in this the rise of psychoanalysis in Hungary would have an increasingly significant role. Berény spoke rather of memories when he defined himself in comparison with the futurists: The increase in the elements of composition means the development of painting from now on. These elements – memories and emotions – are parts of the painter’s soul.’38 On the other hand, Kernstok, in ‘Inquisitive Art’, trusts in the preservation of traditions: ‘The reaction to our little exhibition just now was, as far as I know, much greater than the one we envisaged on the basis of its modest funding. The progressive ones among those who make up our public [...] felt that that if this was not the end, the final product, of a big journey, but rather the beginning of a long road on which we should go forward proceeding from traditions, in order to seek and find those new great values which in essence will be very much akin to those of the good art of every era.39 Nothing in the seemingly shared substructure shows better the different approaches of Berény and Kernstok than the difference in their works. In the field of graphic art, it was they, of all the members of the Eight, who created perhaps the most enduring works. It is worth looking at two drawings of heads by them one after the other. Both are fine works composed in a balanced way. The Kernstok work, kept at Sümeg, is a cool depiction showing an almost androgenic character and radiating timeless calm, while in the Berény piece the face of the female figure is 36 Feleky, ‘Cézanne’, 20. 37 Cézanne – vollendet, unvollendet,. Kunstforum Bank Austria, 2000. 38 Róbert Berény, ‘A Nemzeti Szalonbeli képekről’ [On the picture at the National Salon]. Nyugat, 6: I 1913, 197–198. 39 Kernstok, ‘A kutató művészet’, 288. Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 17 disfigured by emotions; snake-like, her mouth is wincing, and she is looking at us contemptuously out of the corners of her eyes, which are in slits that are deliberately asymmetrical. Her whole being is torn asunder by tension. The difference is perhaps even more striking when we compare another work by Kernstok, a harmonious, classically calm depiction of a man with an expressive brow and folded arms, with a 1911 Berény seated female nude now kept in the Graphic Art Collection at Budapest’s University of Fine Arts. On the latter work, one can clearly see – besides the attempt at a closed composition – that Berény was more excited than any other member of the Eight by Cézanne-type superintended chaos; except that he focused chiefly on the psychic and emotional, that is the energy of pathos. When speaking of Kernstok’s drawings, again it was Feleky who named the difference between the two extremes the most tellingly: Bernard Berenson published, in two enormous volumes, beautiful reproductions of drawings of this kind by Florentine painters. Perhaps not even his keen eye and splendid critical sense would, at first glance, think Kernstok’s drawings of nudes out of place in this collection. What the drawings have in common is an undisguised emphasising of centres of movement and of intersections. Drawing is the art of and omission. At the end of their lives, one or two old masters – every true painter’s language of forms develops from complexity towards simplicity – contented themselves with dominant details. It seems that the great synthetic power manifest in their drawings is the stage preceding Kernstok’s highest synthesis, his ultimate simplification. But Kernstok commits to paper only the movement and structive nodes, and surrounds them with a one-stroke outlining. The Florentine way of seeing things cannot get that far. Behind Quattrocentro painting stood the sculptor Donatello: he, just like his painter colleagues, asserted the structural connection only within the decorative body unit, emphasising, so to speak, the organic nature of the decoration. For Kernstok’s manner of seeing, it is necessary to seek analogies in the work of the elderly Rodin or in that of Maillol. Even then there remains the affinity between the graphic art of Florence and that of Kernstok.40 At the end of his train of thought, in which he refers to Kernstok’s social commitment, Feleky tactfully quotes from a letter of Van Gogh: Giotto and Cimabue lived in an obelisk-like environment where everything was placed on architectonic foundations, where individual uniqueness was the stone of the building and where everything rested on everything else and created the monumental order of society. If the socialists would construct 40 Géza Feleky, ‘Széljegyzetek Kernstock képeihez’ [On the margin of Kernstok’s pictures]. Nyugat, 1910, I., 195–198. – Az Utak II., 325. Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 18 their buildings in a logical way – today they are still a long way from doing this –, then this social order would revive again in a similar form. We, however, are living in the midst of complete anarchy and lack of discipline.41 The reception of Adolf Hildebrand – The Problem of Form in Fine Art (1893) A utopian ideology containing connections between structured picture-building and the restructuring of society – and between essence focused artistic form and man remaking himself – had by this time come into being in the hands of Kernstok, who operated with Hildebrand’s terminology. Kernstok’s famous speech – typically for an artist’s approach - offered only sensory-emotional connections. György (Georg) Lukács provided a concrete programme text, in which Popperian ideas were already to be found in a form that was a good deal more doctrinaire and aggressive, but undoubtedly more elaborated.42 Lukács, in his lecture The roads parted delivered to the Galileo Circle, practically quoted (without giving any kind of reference) the words written by Popper in his Matisse article, applying them to the works of Kernstok rather than to those of the French fauves: These pictures bring calm, peace, relaxation, and harmony – that they could shock anyone is completely incomprehensible. [...] Here it is not the success of a new art that is the issue, but the resurrection once again of old art, of art, and about the life-and-death struggle against the new, modern art that this resurrection brought about. Károly Kernstok has said what the issue is here. That those pictures that he and his friends paint (and those poetic works created by a couple of poets, and those philosophies brought into being by a couple of thinkers) want to express the essence of things. The essence of things! With these simple words, avoiding polemics, the material of the great debate is indicated, and also the point at which the paths diverge.43 Written in 1908 and already quoted, Popper’s words on equilibrium and calm art on a solid base were interpreted in 1910 by Lukács as follows: ‘This art is the old art, the art of order and values. Impressionism made everything a decorative surface [...]. The new art is architectonic in the old and true sense of the term. Its 41 Feleky, ‘Széljegyzetek’, 326. 42 For the connection between Popper and Lukács in more detail, see Csilla Markója, ‘Popper Leó (1886–1911)’, in Bardoly István and Markója Csilla, eds, “Emberek, és nem frakkok”. A magyar művészettörténet-írás nagy alakjai. Tudománytörténeti esszégyűjtemény, Enigma, 13: 48, 2006, 263–284. For quotations concerning Hildebrand: 270–271; 277–278. 43 Lukács ‘Az utak elváltak’, 320. Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 19 colours, words, and lines are just means for the expression of essence, order and harmony, the weight and equilibrium of things.’44 One possible source for these ideas can be found in the introduction to Adolf Hildebrand’s successful 1893 book The Problem of Form in Fine Art (translated by János (Johannes) Wilde): While the issue here is the imitative, in fine art a kind of research into nature is concealed, and it is to this that the work of the artist is linked. The problems which form places before the artist in this are supplied by nature and dictated by perception. If just these problems happen upon solution, i.e. if just in this relation the work has existence, then also, as a work in itself, it has not become an independent whole which could speak in favour of nature or against it. In order to achieve this, its imitative content – in its development from the wider point of view – has to be raised to a higher realm of art. I would call this point of view architectonic, not concerning myself, naturally, with the ordinary specialist meaning of the word architecture. A dramatic play or a symphony has this kind of architecture, this kind of inner structure, an organic totality of relations, as does a picture or a sculpture, even when individual branches of art are living in completely separate worlds of form. Problems of form emerging in tandem with such an architectonic shaping of an art work do not arise from nature and are not self-evident; nevertheless, it is precisely these that are absolutely artistic. Architectonic shaping is that which creates a higher-order in art work from the artistic researching of nature.45 The passage quoted from Hildebrand is one of the nearest sources of another of Popper’s ideas, namely the notion of art as a mode of being ‘of a different God’, a mode of being in parallel with nature. Similarly to Károly Kernstok’s lecture, the title of which, too, ‘Inquisitive art’, was borrowed from Hildebrand: The arts, painting let’s say, always start out from nature. [...] That is to say, the means with which the painter works and those with which nature works are very, very, different. [...] In vain do we sit before nature in order to copy it like a camera obscura: there is no light-sensitive plate in us; in vain do we wish to paint the colours as we see them: we have no sunlight in us. There is, it is true, something that we have as human beings which in its significance is of equal value to these things, namely our intelligence. [...] This, this nature [i.e. those things that have bodies – Cs. M.] must be called upon to help and must be interpreted.46 44 Lukács ‘Az utak elváltak’, 322. 45 Adolf Hildebrand, Das Problem der Form in der bildenden Kunst (1893), Hungarian translation, János Wilde, Budapest, 1910, 5. 46 Kernstok, ‘A kutató művészet’, 289, 290. Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 20 As a matter of fact, the ideas of Lukács, who was conducting an ideological war, and Kernstok, who was seeking autonomous artistic solutions, were brought to a common denominator by their joint hostility to impressionism. The reclaiming of ‘old art’ (e.g. that of the Greeks) meant on the one hand the demand for tradition and continuity, and on the other an idealistic philosophy directed towards a metaphysics that hypothesised its own viewpoint in the absolute. After the failure of Simmel’s experiment to discover something of substance in impressionism (an example of this was Simmel’s first Rodin analysis, a critique of which was given by Popper in his essay ‘Sculpture, Rodin, and Maillol’; it is not a coincidence that in his obituary for Simmel in 1918 Lukács mentions their one-time teacher as follows: ‘He was the Monet of philosophy, whom so far no Cézanne has followed.’47), an equals sign was placed between impressionism and a metaphysics-free world. For example, so it was in the work of the above-mentioned Géza Feleky also, to whose Kernstok article published in Nyugat in 1910 Popper reacted in a letter written from Berlin on 6 February 1910: ‘As well as you, Géza Feleky writes very cleverly about the Kernstok things. Indeed, and this is the greatest acclamation, he says a couple of things which I myself wanted to write; instead of these, I shall now be forced to serve up something even more brilliant.’48 Here, Popper is perhaps referring to the article which he was to have written on the Eight’s exhibition in Berlin for the periodical Kunst und Künstler. This piece was, unfortunately, never produced (or, if it was, we do not know about it), although its basis would probably have been the ‘Impressionismus-Tektonismus’ difference. According to Tímár, this was precisely the term by means of which Popper could have contributed significantly to the art criticism of the day. In connection with the terminological debates that became more lively following the ‘Hungarian Fauves’ exhibition at the Hungarian National Gallery, it is worth reminding ourselves that The name tectonism is very fortunate, on the one hand because the everyday meaning of the expression is in harmony with the essential characteristics of the artistic endeavours indicated, and on the other hand because this term isolates something for which contemporary criticism had no special term, and for which art history scholarship since then has had no special term either.49 47 György Lukács, ‘Georg Simmel’, Pester Lloyd, 2 October 1918. Republished in Lukács, 1977, 746–751, 748. 48 Hévizi and Tímár, eds, Dialógus, 328. For the article in question, see Géza Feleky, ‘Széljegyzetek Kernstok képeihez’ [On the margin of painting by Kernstok], Nyugat, 3:I 1910, 195–198. – Az Utak II.: 323–326. 49 Árpád Tímár, ‘Élmény és teória. Adalékok Popper Leó művészetelméletének keletkezéstörténetéhez’ [Experience and theory. On the origin history of Leo Popper.’s art Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 21 The place of the Eight In the differences between the theoretical and moral approaches of Popper and Lukács we can glimpse the essential difference between the open art of Cézanne and the art of the Eight which was soon closed. However, to analyse the approaches adopted by eight different artists in the theoretical force fields of two thinkers in itself an act of violence. ‘These people here did not come together in a school; it cannot be said of them that Kernstok is their teacher. [...] They are travelling on roads whose direction is still unknown and whose destination no-one can yet know,’ wrote the newspaper Népszava in connection with their first exhibition, namely ‘New Pictures’.50 Éva Forgács’s hypothesis quoted at the beginning of this study – this held that every artistic phenomenon can be understood only in its social embeddedness, in its own historical tradition, and in its cultural context – is especially warranted in the case of the Eight. Károly Kernstok’s strong political commitment to the middle-class radicals and the freemasons influenced the members of the group (to different degrees, admittedly), but his undertaking of this role, or the pathetic energy that stemmed from this choice, determined the contemporary reception of the works rather than the works themselves. The activity of Oszkár Jászi, cultivating friendly contacts with Károly Kernstok and with his sculptor relative Márk Vedres, has again come to the forefront of research. A characteristic of middle-class radicalism as a way of thinking is a metapolitical commitment, which means that the questions of practice are judged by philosophy, from the standpoint of theory. For this reason, a necessary concomitant of it is a “semantic rationalism”, which pictures reality in models, and wants to tailor concrete conditions and actors to these models. [...] Middle-class radicalism is a socialist standpoint, a left-wing critique which is directed towards the superseding of liberalism, and conducts the critique of capitalism from the position of a post-capitalist – in other words, a socialist – order. But here we shall make two necessary restrictions: both the concept of socialism and the picture of capitalism are flexible.51 The movement of the middle-class radicals failed, and, along with Kernstok, theory] in János Háy, ed., Lehetséges-e egyáltalán? Márkus Györgynek tanítványai (bibliography Ágnes Erdélyi and AndrásLakatos), Budapest, 1994, 429. 50 (vd) [Várnai, Dániel]: ‘Új képek’[New Pictures]. Népszava, 31 December 1909 issue. 5. – Az Utak II.: 230. 51 Gábor G. Fodor, Gondoljuk újra a polgári radikálisokat [Let us reconsider the radical middle- class], Budapest, 2004. 148-149. See also the relevant publications of György Litván. Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 22 Oszkár Jászi, too, was obliged to emigrate after 1919. Both came into conflict with György (Georg) Lukács’s ideologemes put into effect at the time of the Hungarian Soviet Republic (1919). However, the ‘schematic rationalism’ of the middle-class radicals and their theoretical presuppositions developed together, in fruitful reciprocity with the progressive literary and artistic movements of the age. This historic exchange of ideas left its mark on Kernstok’s and his associates’ art, which was sometimes style-breaking, sometimes style-securing,52 sometimes schematic, and sometimes biddable. If we are to proceed from this approach, we must acknowledge that somewhere between the dead naturalist painting of nature and the reshaped presentation of phenomena given by nature runs a perilous borderland. We must acknowledge naturalist paintings that have inspired us and those that inspire us now, and we must acknowledge nature-altering, stylised pictures that have filled us with artistic joy. It does not, therefore, depend on the trend. But precisely from this we see that in the interpretation of nature vague boundaries lurk in some places, and we sense, too, that every artistic work that expresses truly noble joy in human beings takes shape between these limits that are vague and not precisely set by any aesthetic. But who dares to say to a painter “This far and no further”? For this there is only one forum enjoying full legitimacy: the painter’s talent, his fine feelings.53 The tact of the painter – Károly Lyka’s beautiful expression condenses in itself everything that is comprehensively characteristic of the Eight. Plastic art was theirs, powerful, bold, in the collision zone of two- and three-dimensionality, experimenting with the metaphysics of the body, with rhythm, decoration, primitivism, musicality, and abstraction: everything depended on their sense of proportion. Their art is neither avant-garde nor the sum or permutation of French or German influences. Instead, it is an organic local outcome of Hungarian capabilities, an art which had an antecedent, and which even achieved a paradoxical continuation in the Arcadian painting of the 1920s. In the history of Hungarian modernism since 1867, theirs was the change that finally liberated art from the constraints of mimetic, mapping, vision: in the nature seen and recomposed by them we can acquaint ourselves with our own creative strength and with the demons that threaten it. The introduction to the catalogue for the Los Angeles exhibition ‘Central 52 Gyula Kemény describes the first two ‘as an undoing and as a doing up’ in his above- mentioned study published in the present volume. 53 Károly Lyka, ‘A MIÉNK bemutatója’ [The show of MIÉNK]. Új Idők, 21 February 1909, 190–191. – Az Utak II.: 28. Csilla Markója The modification of meaning: Cézanne, Hildebrand, Meier- Graefe and the problems of cultural transfer 23 European Avant-Gardes: Exchange and Transformation 1910–1930’,54 which was exemplary in its depiction of the ‘pan-European horizon’, was written by Péter Nádas, who spoke of the possibilities for cultural transfer. Its title of the introduction was itself eloquent: Cautious Determination of the Location. The sub- title, on the other hand, revealed what would later lie at the heart of the discussion: We thoroughly investigate a single wild-pear tree. The Eight group stands before us in the centre of one possible narrative of our own art history. It is rather like the Hungarian writer’s wild-pear tree that pushed its roots into the soil of a given garden, a given village, a larger district, and a historical region, while generating year-ring waves in an ever-extending space and time. Translated by Chris Sullivan (Pittsburgh) Csilla Markója, PhD, is Senior Research Fellow and Head of the Research Group on Art Historiography, Institute of Art History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, chief editor of the art historical journal Enigma (www.meridiankiado.hu), which is mainly devoted to publishing diaries, letters, and other sources (Anna Zádor I-IV, Tibor Gerevich I-III, János Wilde I-IV, János György Szilágyi I-III). She has published two monographs (László Mednyánszky 2008, Péter Nádas 2016), and her book on Hungarian art historiography 1910-1945 is forthcoming. She is a member of the ‘Hungarian Fauves and the Eight’ research group and researcher of the Sunday Circle. She edited vols. I-V of Great figures of Hungarian art historiography, and the bilingual edition of Ernő Kállai’s oeuvre. She has nearly 200 publications on, amongst others, György Lukács, Anna Lesznai, Arnold Hauser, Leó Popper. markoja.csilla@btk.mta.hu This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial 4.0 International License 54 Timothy O. Benson, ed., Central European Avant-Gardes: Exchange and Transformation 1910– 1930, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 2002. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ 
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work_cfgvouqxtfebdkul25qusp5tcq	----	Journal of Art Historiography Journal of Art Historiography Number 4 June 2011 Australian and New Zealand Art History Historiographical Bibliography Incorporating the Australian Art and Design History bibliography Including texts relating to interiors, architecture, furniture, decorative arts and crafts; texts published pre-1995, including certain primary sources Prepared by Professor Peter McNeil Compiled by Dr Benjamin Thomas Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 2 CONTENTS ART HISTORIOGRAPHICAL INDIVIDUAL ARTISTS, PATRONS, COLLECTORS – biography/ monographic studies INDIGENOUS ART - Australian and New Zealand GENERAL WORKS - Colonial Period - Victorian Period - Australian Impressionist School - Modernism - Contemporary - Collections - Australian Landscape - Cross - cultural influence - Survey works PHOTOGRAPHY ART EDUCATION WOMEN AND ART ART MARKET CONTEMPORARY ART AUSTRALIAN ART AND DESIGN HISTORY prepared by Professor Peter McNeil - relating to interiors, furniture, decorative arts and crafts, published pre 1995, including certain primary sources ORAL HISTORIES THESES AND UNPUBLISHED MANUSCRIPTS Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 3 ART HISTORIOGRAPHICAL ANDERSON, Jaynie, ‗Smith of the Antipodes‘, Modern Painters, 1: 3, 1988, 91-2. ANDERSON, Jaynie, ‗In homage to Ursula Hoff on her ninetieth birthday‘, Art in Australia, 38: 2, 1999, 250-57. ANDERSON, Jaynie, ‗Art history‘s history in Melbourne: Franz Philipp in correspondence with Arthur Boyd‘, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Art, 1: 2, 2000, 111-29. ANDERSON, Jaynie, ‗Ursula Hoff, 1909-2005‘, Art and Australia, 43: 1, Spring 2005, 27. ANDERSON, Jaynie, ‗Interrogating Joe Burke and His Legacy‘, Joseph Burke Lecture 2005, published in Melbourne Art Journal, 8, 2005, 88-101. BEILHARZ, Paul, ‗Bernard Smith – Imagining the Antipodes‘, Thesis Eleven: critical theory and historical sociology, 38, May 1994, 93-103. BRADLEY, Anthony and SMITH, Terry, Australian art and architecture: essays presented to Bernard Smith, Melbourne: OUP, 1980. BUTLER, Rex, A secret history of Australian art, St. Leonards: Craftsman House, 2002. BUTLER, Rex, ed, What is appropriation?: an anthology of critical writings on Australian art in the „80s and „90s, Sydney: Power Publications and Institute of Modern Art, 1996. BUTLER, Rex, ed, Radical revisionism: an anthology of writings on Australian art, Fortitude Valley: Institute of Modern Art, 2005. BUTLER, Rex, and DONALDSON, A.D.S., ‗Outside in: Against a history of reception‘, Art and Australia, 46: 3, Autumn 2009, 432-37. COURSE, Laurence, Professor Emeritus Sir Joseph Burke, KBE: Foundation Professor of The Herald Chair of Fine Arts at the University of Melbourne, 1947-1979, Melbourne: Victorian Artists‘ Society, 1992. EICHBERGER, Dagmar, ‗Ursula Hoff: a tribute‘, Melbourne Art Journal, 3, 1999, 3-4. GALBALLY, Ann and PLANT, Margaret, ed, Studies in Australian art, Melbourne: Department of Fine Arts, University of Melbourne, 1978. HOFF, Ursula, ‗Comments on the London Art Scene‘, lecture delivered at the National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, 25 August 1977. HOFF, Ursula, ‗Observations on art history in Melbourne 1946-1964‘, Australian Journal of Art, 3, 1983, 5-9. HOLDEN, Colin, ‗Insights from Ursula Hoff‘s Diaries while Felton Bequest Adviser‘, Melbourne Art Journal, 8, 2005, 112-15. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 4 HOLDEN, Colin, The Outsider: a portrait of Ursula Hoff, Melbourne: Australian Scholarly Publishing, 2009. KEITH, Hamish, The big picture: a history of New Zealand art from 1642, Auckland: Godwit, 2007. LAUSCH, Monica, ‗Franz Philipp and the Vienna School of Art History in Australia‘, Melbourne Art Journal, 8, 2005, 116-27. LINGARD, Bob and CRAMER, Sue, eds, Institute of Modern Art: a documentary history 1975- 1989, Brisbane: Institute of Modern Art, 1989. McCAUGHEY, Patrick, The Bright Shapes and the True Names: A memoir, Melbourne: The Text Publishing Company, 2003. McQUEEN, Humphrey, ‗Critic and Community, Some Recent Writings of Bernard Smith‘, Meanjin, 36: 1, May 1977, 42-45. MACDONALD, J.S., ‗Bernard Hall and the Victorian National Gallery School‘, Art in Australia, 3: 34, October-November 1930, 61-64. MINCHIN, Jan, ‗Basil Burdett‘, Art and Australia, 17: 4, Winter 1980, 369-73. MISSINGHAM, Hal, They‟ll Kill you in the End, Pymble: Angus and Robertson, 1973. MOORE, William, The Story of Australian Art – From the earliest known art of the continent to the art of to-day, 1, Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1980 (first published 1934). MOORE, William, The Story of Australian Art: from the earliest known art of the continent to the art of to-day, 2, Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1980 (first published 1934). PALMER, Sheridan, ‗Dr Ursula Hoff: Museology and Masterpieces‘, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Art, 6: 1, 2005, 115. PALMER, Sheridan, ‗Ursula Hoff and the German Tradition‘, Melbourne Art Journal, 8, 2005, 102-11. PALMER, Sheridan, Centre of the periphery: three European art historians in Melbourne, North Melbourne: Australian Scholarly Press, 2008. PALMER, Sheridan, ‗The importance of being Bernard Smith, Art and Australia, 46: 4, Winter 2009, 576-579. PHILIPP, Franz and STEWART, June, eds, In Honour of Daryl Lindsay: essays and studies, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1964. PLANT, Margaret, ‗Professor Joseph Burke 1913-1992‘, Art Monthly Australia, 50, June 1992, 22. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 5 SLATER, John, Through Artists‟ Eyes: Australian Suburbs and Their Cities 1919-1945, Melbourne: Melbourne University Publishing, 2004. SMITH, Bernard, Place, Taste and Tradition: A study of Australian Art since 1788, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1979 (first published 1945). SMITH, Bernard, ‗Modernism and Post-Modernism: Neo-Colonial Viewpoints – Concerning the Sources of Modernism and Post-Modernism in the Visual Arts‘, Thesis Eleven, 38, May 1994, 104- 117. SMITH, Bernard, A pavane for another time, Melbourne: MacMillan, 2002. SMITH, Bernard, ‗On writing art history in Australia‘, Thesis Eleven, 82, August 2005, 5-15. SMITH, Terry, ‗Writing the History of Australian Art: Its Past, Present and Possible Future‘, Australian Journal of Art, 3, 1983, 10-29. SMITH, Terry, Constructing the history of Australian art: eight critiques, Sydney: Power Institute of Fine Arts, University of Sydney, 1986. THOMAS, Benjamin, ‗Caught on film: the story of Melbourne‘s original visual archive‘, Melbourne: emaj: online journal of art, 3, 2008. THOMAS, Benjamin, Joe Burke‟s Legacy: the history of art history in Melbourne, exhibition catalogue, Melbourne: University of Melbourne, 2008. ZDANOWICZ, Irene, ‗Ursula Hoff, AO, OBE, 1909-2005‘, Art Bulletin of Victoria 45, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 2005, 68. INDIVIDUAL ARTISTS, PATRONS, COLLECTORS – biography/ monographic studies BRADLEY, Anthony, The art of Justin O‟Brien, Sydney: Craftsman‘s Press, 1982. BURKE, Joseph, The Paintings of Russell Drysdale, Sydney: Ure Smith, 1955. CATALANO, Gary, The solitary watcher: Rich Amor and his art, Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2001. EAGLE, Mary, The oil paintings of Arthur Streeton in the National Gallery of Australia, Canberra: National Gallery of Australia, 1994. EAGLE, Mary and MINCHIN, Jan, The George Bell School: students, friends, influences, Melbourne: Deutscher Art Publications; Sydney: Resolution Press, 1981. EAGLE, Mary, The art of Rupert Bunny in the National Gallery of Australia, Canberra: National Gallery of Australia, 1991. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 6 EAGLE, Mary, Rupert Bunny: an Australian in Paris: an Australian National Gallery exhibition, Canberra: National Gallery of Australia, 1991. EAGLE, Mary, The oil paintings of E. Phillips Fox in the National Gallery of Australia, Canberra: National Gallery of Australia, 1997. EAGLE, Mary, The oil paintings of Tom Roberts in the National Gallery of Australia, Canberra: National Gallery of Australia, 1997. EAGLE, Mary, The oil paintings of Charles Conder in the National Gallery of Australia, Canberra: National Gallery of Australia, 1997. EAGLE, Mary, Peter Purves Smith: a painter in peace and war, Roseville: Beagle Press, 2000. FRY, Gavin, Rick Amor, Roseville: Beagle Press, 2010 (first published 2008). FRY, Gavin, Albert Tucker, Roseville: Beagle Press, 2010 (first published 2006). GALBALLY, Ann, The art of John Peter Russell, South Melbourne: Sun Books, 1977. GALBALLY, Ann, Frederick McCubbin, Melbourne: Hutchinson Publishing, 1985 (first published 1981). GALBALLY, Ann, Charles Conder: the last bohemian, Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2003. GALBALLY, Ann, A remarkable friendship: Vincent van Gogh and John Peter Russell, Melbourne: Melbourne University Publishing, 2008. HELMER, June, George Bell: The Art of Influence, Melbourne: Greenhouse Publications, 1985. HOFF, Ursula, Charles Conder: His Australian Years, Melbourne: National Gallery Society of Victoria, 1960. HOFF, Ursula, Charles Conder, Melbourne: Lansdowne Press, 1972. HOLDEN, Colin, Lionel Lindsay in Spain: an antipodean abroad, Melbourne: Miegunyah Press, 2003. JOHNSON, Heather, 'Manifestations of Sydney Modernism: the Later Australian Work of Roy de Maistre 1925-1930', Australian Journal of Art, 6, 1987, 71-91. JOHNSON, Heather, Roy de Maistre. The Australian Years 1894-1930, Roseville: Craftsman House, 1988. KLEPAC, Lou, James Gleeson: Landscape out of Nature, Roseville: Beagle Press, 1984. KLEPAC, Lou, Judy Cassab: Artists and Friends, Roseville: Beagle Press, 1988. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 7 KLEPAC, Lou, Nora Heysen, Roseville: Beagle Press, 1989. KLEPAC, Lou, Kenneth Jack: printmaker, Roseville: Beagle Press, 1998. KLEPAC, Lou, ed, Australian Painters of the Twentieth Century, Roseville: Beagle Press, 2000. KLEPAC, Lou, WACH, Ken, FREE, Renee and JAMES, Bruce, with selected writing by GLEESON, James, James Gleeson, Roseville: Beagle Press, 2004. KLEPAC, Lou, Horace Trenerry, Roseville: Beagle Press, 2009. KOLENBERG, Hendrik, Lloyd Rees: Etchings and Lithographs, Roseville: Beagle Press, 1986. MASKILL, David, ‗Imperial Lines: Harold Wright (1885-1961): Printmaking and Collecting at the End of Empire‘, Melbourne Art Journal, 11/12, 2008-09, 86. McCAUGHEY, Patrick, ‗Fred Williams and the Pilbara series‘, Studio International, 197: 1005, 1984, 30-31. McCAUGHEY, Patrick, Voyage and landfall: the art of Jan Senbergs, Melbourne: Melbourne University Publishing, 2006. McCAUGHEY, Patrick, Fred Williams, Millers Point: Murdoch Books, 2008 (first published 1980). McLEAN, Ian and BENNETT, Gordon, The art of Gordon Bennett, Roseville: Craftsman House, 1996. McQUEEN, Humphrey, Tom Roberts, Sydney: MacMillan, 1996. MENDELSSOHN, Joanna, The life and work of Sydney Long, Cremorne: Copperfield, 1979. MENDELSSOHN, Joanna, The art of Sir Lionel Lindsay: Volume 1. Woodcuts, Brookvale, Copperfield, 1982. MENDELSSOHN, Joanna, The art of Sir Lionel Lindsay: Volume 2. Etchings, Brookvale: Copperfield, c.1987. MENDELSSOHN, Joanna, Lionel Lindsay: an artist and his family, London: Chatto and Windus, 1988. MENDELSSOHN, Joanna, Letters & Liars: Norman Lindsay and the Lindsay family, Pymble: Angus and Robertson, 1996. MINCHIN, Jan, HAESE, Richard, Nolan, Sidney Nolan: the city and the plain, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 1983. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 8 MOLLISON, James, A singular vision: the art of Fred Williams, Canberra: Australian National Gallery, c.1989. MOLLISON, James, MINCHIN, Jan, Albert Tucker: a retrospective, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 1990. MULVANEY, John, and CALABY, John, ‗So Much That is New‟: Baldwin Spencer 1860-1929: A Biography, Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1985. PEARCE, Barry, Jeffrey Smart, Roseville: Beagle Press, 2006. PEERS, Juliette, ‗Violet Teague – A Life for Art‘, in Felicty Druce and Jane Sutherland, Violet Teague, Roseville: Beagle Press, 1999. PHILIPP, Franz, Arthur Boyd, London: Thames and Hudson, 1967. PIERSE, Simon, ‗Sir Kenneth Clark: Deus Ex Machina of Australian Art‘, Melbourne Art Journal, 11/12, 2008-09, 104-19. PLANT, Margaret, John Perceval, Melbourne: Lansdowne, 1971. REES, Jancis and Alan, Lloyd Rees: a source book, Roseville: Beagle Press, 1995. ROTHENSTEIN, John, The life and death of Conder, London: Dent, 1938. SAYERS, Andrew, Barry Humphries, Sara Engledow, The world of Thea Proctor, St. Leonards: Craftsman House, 2005. SMITH, Bernard, Noel Counihan: artist and revolutionary, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1993. THANNHAUSER, Henry, ‗Van Gogh and John Russell: Some Unknown Letters and Drawings‘, The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, 73: 426, September 1938, 94-99, 102-104. THOMAS, Daniel, Sali Herman, Melbourne: Georgian House, 1962. THOMAS, Daniel, Grace Cossington Smith, Sydney: Art Gallery of New South Wales, 1973. THOMAS, Daniel, Grace Cossington Smith: a life: from drawings in the collection of the National Gallery of Australia, Canberra: National Gallery of Australia, c.1993. TOPLISS, Helen, Tom Roberts, 1856-1931: a catalogue raisoneé, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1985. UNDERHILL, Nancy, Making Australian Art 1916-1914: Sydney Ure Smith: patron and publisher, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1991. UNDERHILL, Nancy and Barrett REID, eds, Letters of John Reed: defining Australian Cultural Life 1920-1981, Ringwood: Viking, 2001. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 9 WHEATLEY, Sarah, Charles Conder 1868-1909: a biographical sketch, Moorebank: Mallard, 1989. ZDANOWICZ, Irena, ‗Paintings from the Inside Out: Fred Williams‘ Travels and His Relationship to the European Tradition‘, Melbourne Art Journal, 8, 2005, 52-67. ZUBANS, Ruth, E. Phillips Fox: his life and art, Melbourne: Miegunyah Press, 1995. INDIGENOUS ART - Australian and New Zealand ADAM, Leonhard, introduction, Primitive Art Exhibition, Melbourne: Public Library, Museums and National Gallery of Victoria, 1943. ADAM, Leonhard, ‗Has Australian Aboriginal Art a Future?‘, Angry Penguins, 1944, 42-50. ALLEN, Lindy, ‗The Early Collection and Exhibition of Art Work by Aboriginal Artists‘, in C. Rasmussen, ed, A Museum for the People, Melbourne: Scribe Publications, 2001, 142-43. BROWN, Deidre and ELLIS, Ngarino (eds), Te Puna: Mãori art from Te Tai Tokerau Northland, Auckland: Reed, 2007. CORBALLY STOURTON, Patrick and CORBALLY STOURTON, Nigel, ed, Songlines and dreamings: contemporary Australian Aboriginal painting: the first quarter-century of Papunya Tula, London: Lund Humphries, 1996. CRAMER, Sue, ed, Postmodernism: a consideration of the appropriation of Aboriginal imagery: forum papers, Brisbane: Institute of Modern Art, 1989. DE LORENZO, Catherine, and DYSART, Dinah, A Changing relationship: aboriginal themes in Australian art c. 1938-1988, Sydney: S.H. Ervin Gallery, June-July 1988. INGLIS, Alison and BARCLAY LLOYD, Joan, ‗Mosaic Dreaming: Materiality, Migration and Memory‘, in J. Anderson, ed, Crossing Cultures: Conflict, Migration and Convergence: The Proceedings of the 32nd Congress of the History of Art, Melbourne: Miegunyah Press, 2009, 398- 402. ISAACS, Jennifer, Aboriginality: contemporary Aboriginal paintings & prints, St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1993 (first published 1989). ISAACS, Jennifer, Spirit country: contemporary Australian Aboriginal art, exhibition catalogue of an exhibition held in the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, South Yarra: Hardie Grant, 1999. ISAACS, Jennifer, Hernmannsburg potters: Aranda artists of central Australia, St. Leonards: Craftsman House, 2000. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 10 ISAACS, Jennifer, ‗International Exposure of Aboriginal Art 1970-2001‘, Art and Australia, 39: 4, 2002, 548-560. ISAACS, Jennifer, Australian Aboriginal paintings, Sydney: New Holland, 2002 (first published 1989). J.L.M., ‗Melbourne National Gallery and National Museum of Victoria: Primitive Art Exhibition, 1943‘, Man, 44, July-August, 1944, 98. LESLIE, Donna, Aboriginal Art: Creativity and Assimilation, South Yarra: Macmillan Art Publishing, 2008. LESLIE, Donna, ‗Sacred Country: Ancient Footprints, New Pathways‘, Crossing Cultures: Conflict, Migration and Convergence: The Proceedings of the 32nd Congress of the History of Art, Jaynie ANDERSON, ed, Melbourne: Miegunyah Press, 2009, 398-402. LOCK-WEIR, Tracy, The Art of Arnhem Land 1940s-1970s, Adelaide: Art Gallery of South Australia, 2002. LOWISH, Susan, ‗European Vision and Aboriginal art: Blindness and Insight in the work of Bernard Smith‘, Thesis Eleven: critical theory and historical sociology, 82, August 2005, 62-72. McLEAN, Ian, White Aborigines: identity politics in Australian art, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1998. McLEAN, Ian, How aborigines invented the idea of contemporary art: an anthology of writing on aboriginal art 1980-2006, Sydney: Power Publications, 2011. MANE-WHEOKI, Jonathan, '"Wakas on the Grand Canal!" Contemporary New Zealand Maori artists at Venice', Sean Cubitt, Jonathan Mane-Wheoki, Brett Graham, Rachael Rakena, Alice Hutchinson, eds, Aniwaniwa: Brett Graham, Rachael Rakena, Aotearoa New Zealand, Wellington, Published on the occasion of the 52nd International Art Exhibition La Biennale di Venezia, 2007, 5- 11. MANE-WHEOKI, Jonathan, Te Tai Tokerau and the contemporary Maori art movement' in Deidre Brown and Ngarino Ellis, eds, Te Puna: Mãori art from Te Tai Tokerau Northland, Auckland: Reed, 2007, 103-12. MANE-WHEOKI, Jonathan, 'Ralph Hotere: Te Hono ki Muriwhenua', Ngahiraka Mason, ed, Turuki! Turuki! Paneke! Paneke! When Maori art became contemporary, Auckland: Auckland Art Gallery, 2008, 36-49. MANE-WHEOKI, Jonathan, 'Introduction, Indigeneity/Aboriginality, Art/Culture and Institutions', Crossing Cultures: Conflict, Migration and Convergence: The Proceedings of the 32nd Congress of the History of Art, Jaynie Anderson, ed, Melbourne: Miegunyah Press, 2009, 770-772. MAYNARD, Margaret, ‗Grassroots Style: Re-Evaluating Australian Fashion and Aboriginal Art in the 1970s and 1980s‘, Journal of Design History, 13: 2, 2000, 137-150. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 11 MICHAELS, Eric, Bad Aboriginal art: tradition, media and technological horizons, St. Leonards: Allen and Unwin, 1994. MORPHY, Howard, Aboriginal Art, London: Phaidon, 1998. NEICH, Roger, Painted Histories: Early Maori Figurative Painting, Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2001. PHILP, Angela, ‗Life and art? Relocating Aboriginal art and culture in the museum‘, paper presented at the Collecting for a Nation symposium, Canberra: National Museum of Australia, 21 March 2006. PRESTON, Margaret, ‗The Indigenous Art of Australia‘, Art in Australia, 3rd series, 11, March 1925, np. PRESTON, Margaret, ‗The Application of Aboriginal Designs‘, Art in Australia, 3rd series, 31, March 1930, np. PRESTON, Margaret, ‗Aboriginal Art of Australia‘, Art of Australia, 1788-1941, New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1941, 16-17. RYAN, Judith, Paint up big: Warlpiri women‟s art of Lajamanu, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 1990. RYAN, Judith, Spirit in land: bark paintings from Arnhem Land in the National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 1990. RYAN, Judith and AKERMAN, Kim, Images of power: aboriginal art of the Kimberley, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 1993. RYAN, Judith, Indigenous Australian art: in the National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 2002. RYAN, Judith, Colour power: Aboriginal art post 1984 in the collection of the National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 2004. SAYERS, Andrew, with a foreword by Lin Onus and a chapter by Carol Cooper, Aboriginal artists of the nineteenth century, Melbourne: Oxford University Press in association with the National Gallery of Australia, Canberra, 1994. SMITH, Terry, ‗Public Art between Cultures: The ―Aboriginal Memorial,‖ Aboriginality, and Nationality in Australia‘, Critical Inquiry, 27: 4, Summer 2001, 629-661. THOMAS, Daniel, ‗Aboriginal Art as Art‘, Art and Australia, 13: 3, January-March, 1976, 281-82. TUCKSON, Tony, ‗Aboriginal Art and the Western World‘, in Berndt, R., Australian Aboriginal Art, Sydney: Ure Smith, 1964, 60-68. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 12 GENERAL WORKS - Colonial Period APPLEYARD, RON, FARGHER, Barbara, RADFORD, Ron, S.T. Gill, the South Australian years 1839-1852, Adelaide: Art Gallery of South Australia, 1986. INGLIS, Alison, ‗Aestheticism and Empire: the Grosvenor Gallery Intercolonial Art Exhibition‘, in Seize the Day: Exhibitions, Australia and the World, Sydney: Monash University e-books, 2008, 16.1-16.17. JORDAN, Caroline, ‗Progress versus the Picturesque: White Women and the Aesthetics of Environmentalism in Colonial Australia 1820-60‘, Art History, 25: 3, September, 2002, 341-357. JORDAN, Caroline, Picturesque Pursuits: Colonial Women Artists and the Amateur Tradition, Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2005. JORDAN, Caroline, ‗Mrs MacPherson in the ―Blacks‘ Camp‖ and other Australian Interludes: A Scottish Lady Artist‘s Tour in New South Wales in 1856-7‘, in J. Pomeroy, ed, Intrepid Women: Victorian Women Artists Travel, Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005. McCULLOCH, Alan, Artists of the Australian gold rush, Melbourne: Lansdowne, 1977. POUND, Francis, Frames on the land: early landscape painting in New Zealand, Auckland: Collins, 1983. RADFORD, Ron, and HYLTON Jane, Australian colonial art: 1800-1900, Adelaide: Art Gallery Board of South Australia, 1995. TURNBULL, Clive, ‗Early Colonial Art‘, Jubilee Exhibition of Australian Art, Commonwealth Jubilee Celebrations Committee, 1951, 8-11. GENERAL WORKS - Victorian Period ASTBURY, Leigh, ‗George Folingsby and Australian subject painting‘ in Ann GALBALLY and Margaret PLANT, eds, Studies in Australian art, Melbourne: Department of Fine Arts, University of Melbourne, 1978, 45-56. INGLIS, Alison, ‗Cultural Acclimatization: Imperial perspectives on art in nineteenth-century Australia‘ in J. Anderson, ed, The Cambridge Companion to Australian Art, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. JORDAN, Caroline, ‗Fletcher‘s of Collins Street: Melbourne‘s Leading Nineteenth century Art Dealer, Alexander Fletcher‘, La Trobe Journal, 75, Autumn, 2005, 77-93. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 13 JORDAN, Caroline, ‗Buying in the Boom: George Folingsby and Victoria‘s Nineteenth-century Regional Art Galleries‘, Art and Australia, 45: 3, 2008, 459-463. PERRY, Peter and SINCLAIR, Beth, R.W. Sturgess, water-colourist, 1892-1932, Castlemaine: Castlemaine Art Gallery and Historical Museum, 1986. GENERAL WORKS - Australian Impressionist School ASTBURY, Leigh, ‗The art of Frederick McCubbin and the impact of the First War‘, La Trobe Library Journal, Frederick McCubbin issue, 6: 24, October 1979, 79-83. ASTBURY, Leigh, City bushmen: the Heidelberg School and the rural mythology, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1985. ASTBURY, Leigh, Sunlight and shadow: Australian Impressionist painters 1880-1900, Sydney: Bay Books, 1989. ASTBURY, Leigh, ‗Memory and Desire: Box Hill 1885-88‘, in Terrence LANE, ed, Australian Impressionism, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 2007, 49-56, 301. ASTBURY, Leigh, ‗Tom Roberts‘ The breakaway: Myth and history‘, Bulletin of the Art Gallery of South Australia, 38, 1980, 2-9. ASTBURY, Leigh, ‗The Heidelberg School and the popular image‘, Art and Australia, 178: 3, March 1980, 263-66. GALBALLY, Ann, ‗Mythmaking in Australian art‘, La Trobe Library Journal, Frederick McCubbin issue, 6: 24, October 1979, 65-68. LANE, Terrance, Australian Impressionism, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 2007. McCULLOCH, Alan, The golden age of Australian painting: impressionism and the Heidelberg school, Melbourne: Lansdowne, Melbourne, 1977 (first published 1969). MANTON, Jack, and McCAUGHEY, Patrick, Australian Painters of the Heidelberg school: the Jack Manton collection, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1979. McNEIL, Peter, ‗Family Ties: The Creation of Frederick McCubbin‘s Reputation, 1920-60‘, La Trobe Journal, 50, Spring, 1992, 32-39. TOPLISS, Helen, McDONALD, Frank, ed, The artists‟ camp: “plein air” painting in Australia, Alphington: Hedley Australian Publications, 1992. GENERAL WORKS Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 14 - Modernism BORLASE, Nancy, ‗Three Decades of the Contemporary Art Society‘, Art and Australia, 6: 1, June 1968, 69-72. BUTLER, Rex, and DONALDSON, A.D.S., ‗Douglas Cooper: Cubism and Australian art history‘, Contemporary Visual Art & Culture Broadsheet, 39: 2, 2010, 131-33. CHANIN, Eileen and MILLER, Steven, Degenerates and perverts: the 1939 Herald exhibition of French and British Contemporary art, Melbourne: Miegunyah Press, 2005. EAGLE, Mary, PHIPPS, Jennifer, eds, Australian modern painting between the wars 1914-1939, Sydney: Bay Books, 1990. HAESE, Richard, Rebels and Precursors: the revolutionary years of Australian art, Melbourne: Penguin Books, 1981. HARDING, Lesley and CRAMER, Sue, Cubism & Australian art, Melbourne: Miegunyah Press, 2009. HENDERSON, Alan, ‗Contemporary Art Advances‘, Art in Australia, 3: 76, August 1939, 13-15. LOCK-WEIR, Tracy, ed, Misty moderns: Australian tonalists 1915-1950, Adelaide: Art Gallery of South Australia, 2008. McQUEEN, Humphrey, The Black Swan of Trespass: the emergence of modernist painting in Australia to 1944, Sydney: Alternative Publishing Cooperative, 1979. PRESTON, Margaret, ‗Why I became a Convert to Modern Art‘, Home, 4: 2, June 1923, 20. PROCTOR, Thea, ‗Modern Art in Sydney, Art in Australia, 3: 73, November 1938, 24-30. SMITH, Bernard, ‗The new realism in Australian Art‘, Meanjin, 3: 1, Autumn 1944, 20-25. STEPHEN, Ann, McNAMARA and Andrew, GOAD, Philip, eds, Modernism & Australia: documents on art, design and architecture 1917-1967, Melbourne: Miegunyah Press, 2006. STEPHEN, Ann, McNAMARA and Andrew, GOAD, Philip, eds, Modern Times: the untold story of modernism in Australia, Melbourne: Miegunyah Press, 2008. TOPLISS, Helen, Modernism and feminism: Australian women artists, 1900-1940, Roseville East: Craftsman House, 1996. WAKELIN, Roland, ‗Recollections of a Post-Impressionist‘, Art and Australia, 4: 4, March 1967, 290-91. ZANDER, Alleyne, ‗Modern Art: an historical explanation‘, Manuscripts, 4, 28-34. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 15 GENERAL WORKS - Contemporary BRADLEY, Anthony, ed, Contemporary art: a bibliography of publications by members of the Power Institute 1968-1985, Sydney: Power Institute of Fine Arts, 1986. BUTLER, Rex, An uncertain smile: Australian art in the „90s, Artspace Visual Arts Centre, Wooloomooloo, 1996. CATALANO, Gary, The years of hope: Australian art and criticism, 1959-1968, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1981. CAUGHEY, Elizabeth and GOW, John, Contemporary New Zealand art, 1, Auckland: David Bateman, 1997. CAUGHEY, Elizabeth and GOW, John, Contemporary New Zealand art, 2, Auckland: David Bateman, 1999. CAUGHEY, Elizabeth and GOW, John, Contemporary New Zealand art, 3, Auckland: David Bateman, 2002. CAUGHEY, Elizabeth, Art New Zealand Today: sixty exhibiting New Zealand artists, Auckland: Saint Publishing, 2002. CAUGHEY, Elizabeth and GOW, John, Contemporary New Zealand art, 4, Auckland: David Bateman, 2005. CAUGHEY, Elizabeth and GOW, John, Contemporary New Zealand art, 5, Auckland: David Bateman, 2008. CHANIN, Eileen, ed, Contemporary Australian painting, Roseville: Craftsman House, 1990. DIXON, Christine and SMITH, Terry, Aspects of Australian figurative painting 1942-1962: dreams, fears and desires, Sydney: Power Institute of Fine Arts, University of Sydney in association with the Biennale of Sydney, 1984. GREEN, Charles, Peripheral vision: contemporary Australian Art, 1970-1994, Roseville East: Craftsman House, 1995. GREEN, Charles, The third hand: collaboration in art from conceptualism to postmodernism, Sydney: University of New South Wales, 2001. GREEN, Charles, ‗The Global Significance of Western Desert Painting‘, Aborigena, A.B. Oliva, ed, Milan: Electa, 2001, 21-33. GREEN, Charles, ed, Fieldwork: Australian Art 1968-2002, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 2002. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 16 GREEN, Charles and BARKER, Heather, ‗Bernard Smith, Cold Warrior‘, Thesis Eleven: critical theory and historical sociology, 82, August 2005, 38-53. GREEN, Charles, ed, Contemporary Commonwealth, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 2006. GREEN, Charles, ed, Australian Culture Now, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 2004. HEATHCOTE, Christopher, A Quiet Revolution: the rise of Australian art 1946-1968, Melbourne: Text Publishing, 1995. McCAUGHEY, Patrick, Australian abstract art, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1969. McNEIL, Peter, ‗Gary Carsley: Looking at Works of Art in the Light of Other Works of Art‘, Artspace Projects 2006, Sydney: Artspace 2007, 95-100. SCOTT, Sarah, ‗Imaging a Nation: Australia‘s Representation at the Venice Biennale, 1958‘, in Richard Nile, ed, Grit: Journal of Australian Studies, 78, St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 2003. SMITH, Terry, Transformations in Australian art, St. Leonards: Craftsman House, 2002. SMITH, Terry, ‗Contemporary Art and Contemporaneity‘, Critical Inquiry, 32: 4, Summer 2006, 681-707. SMITH, Terry, What is contemporary art, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009. WAKELIN, Roland, ‗Contemporary Art‘, Jubilee Exhibition of Australian Art, Commonwealth Jubilee Celebrations Committee, 1951, 16-19. WATERLOW, Nick, ‗The creation of contemporary Australian art‘, Art and Australia, 47: 4, Winter 2010, 666-67. GENERAL WORKS - Collections AITKEN, Richard, ASTBURY, Leigh, CRAWFORD, Ashley, DAVIDSON, Graeme, NIALL, Brenda, The Art of the Collection: State Library of Victoria Pictures Collection, Melbourne: Melbouren University Press, 2007. BURDETT, Basil, The Felton bequests: an historical record, 1904-1933, Melbourne: Felton Bequests‘ Committee, 1934. BURDETT, Basil, ‗Art in Australia: The National Gallery of Victorian in Melbourne‘, Apollo, 30: 177, September 1939, 116-20. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 17 CARMODY, Shane, ‗History through art: paintings at the State Library‘, La Trobe Journal, 75, Autumn 2005, 21-26. COX, Leonard, The National Gallery of Victoria, 1861 to 1968: a search for a collection, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 1970. CHURCHER, Betty, Selected works from the Howard Hinton Collection at Kelvin Grove College of Advanced Education, Brisbane: Kelvin Grove College of Advanced Education, 1978. DOWNER, Christine, ‗Notes on Barry and the Origins of the Picture Collection‘, La Trobe Journal, 73, Autumn 2004, 95-100. GALBALLY, Ann, The Collections of the National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1987. GALBALLY, Ann and INGLIS, Alison, The First Collections: the Public Library and the National Gallery of Victoria in the 1850s and 1860s, Melbourne: University Gallery, University of Melbourne Museum of Art, 1992. GALBALLY, Ann, ‗Sculpture and Casts‘ in A. Galbally and A. Inglis, The First Collections: the Public Library and the National Gallery of Victoria in the 1850s and 1860s, Melbourne: University Gallery, University of Melbourne Museum of Art, 1992. GALBALLY, Ann, ‗Collecting Constable and plein air painting in Australia‘, in Constable: Impressions of Land, Sea and Sky, Canberra: National Gallery of Australia, 2006, 85-93. GOTT, Ted, BENSON, Laurie and MATTHIESSON, Sophie, eds, Modern Britain 1900-1960: Masterworks from Australian and New Zealand Collections, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 2007. HOFF, Ursula, ed, Masterpieces of the National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, London: F.W. Cheshire, 1949. HOFF, Ursula and PLANT, Margaret, National Gallery of Victoria: painting, drawing, sculpture, Melbourne: F.W. Cheshire, 1968. HOFF, Ursula, with an introduction by Eric Westbrook, The National Gallery of Victoria, London: Thames and Hudson, 1973. HOFF, Ursula, The Felton Bequest: Its Founder and its Advisers, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 1983. INGLIS, Alison and POYNTER, John, ‗Desirable Things: The private collections of Alfred Felton‘, Art Bulletin of Victoria, 44, Alfred Felton centenary issue, 2004, 1-15. INGLIS, Alison, ‗The allure of Albion: collecting British Art in Adelaide‘, Art Monthly Australia, 181, July 2005, 22-27. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 18 INGLIS, Alison, ‗The Gift of John Connell to the National Gallery of Victoria‘ in G. Vaughan and A. Grimwade, eds, Great Philanthropists on trial: the art of the bequest, Melbourne: Miegunyah Press in association with the National Gallery of Victoria, 2006, 67-82. INGLIS, Alison, ‗Alfred Felton as a collector of art‘ in G. Vaughan and A. Grimwade, eds, Great Philanthropists on trial: the art of the bequest, Melbourne: Miegunyah Press in association with the National Gallery of Victoria, 2006, 67-82. KIRKER, Anne and TOMORY, Peter, British Painting, 1800-1990: in Australian and New Zealand public collections, Sydney: Beagle Press in conjunction with the British Council, 1997. LINDSAY, Daryl, The Felton Bequest: An historical record, 1904-1959, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1963. MACDONALD, James Stuart, ‗Purchasing for the Felton Bequest‘, Art in Australia, 26, December 1928, np. MACGEORGE, Norman, ‗The New London buyer for the Felton Bequest‘, Art in Australia, 3: 34, October-November 1930, 38. MARSHALL, Christopher, A deep sonorous thing: the Newman College collection of art, Melbourne: Newman College, University of Melbourne, 1993. PAFFEN, Paul, ‘Everard Studley Miller and his bequest to the National Gallery of Victoria’, Art Bulletin of Victoria, 35, 1994, 35-44. POYNTER, John, Mr Felton‟s bequests, Melbourne: Miegunyah Press, 2003. RADFORD, Ron, 19th-century Australian art: M.J.M. Carter Collection, Art Gallery of South Australia, Adelaide: Art Gallery Board of South Australia, 1993. SMITH, Bernard, Two centuries of Australian Art: from the collection of the National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne; Thames and Hudson in association with the National Gallery of Victoria, 2003. THOMAS, Daniel, Outlines of Australian art: the Joseph Brown collection, South Melbourne: Macmillan, 1980 (first published c.1973). URE SMITH, Sydney, ‗Advisor to the Felton Bequest: a Vacancy of National Importance‘, Art in Australia, 3: 63, May 1936, 16-18. VAUGHAN, Gerard and GRIMWADE, Andrew, eds, Great philanthropists on trial: the art of the bequest, Melbourne: Miegunuyah Press in association with the National Gallery of Victoria, 2006. WATSON, Michael, ‗James Stewart MacDonald, Sir Sydney Cockerell and the Felton Recommendations‘, Art and Australia, 27: 2, Summer 1989, 255-61. WESTBROOK, Eric, Birth of a Gallery, Melbourne: MacMillan Australia, 1968. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 19 GENERAL WORKS - Australian Landscape „You-beaut country‟: Australian landscape painting 1837-1964, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 1964. BONYHADY, Tim, Images in opposition: Australian landscape painting 1801-1890, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1991 (first published 1985). CATALANO, Gary, An intimate Australia: the landscape & recent Australian art, Sydney: Hale and Iremonger, 1985. McCAUGHEY, Patrick, Vision and experience in the Australian landscape, Christensen lecture, 1986, Perth: Christensen Fund, 1987. MISSINGHAM, Hal, The Australian landscape in oils and watercolour, Sydney: John Brackenreg for Australian Artists Editions, 1983. RADFORD, Ron, Our Country: Australian federation landscapes 1900-1914, Adelaide: Art Gallery of South Australia, 2001. RADFORD, Ron, Ocean to outback: Australian landscape painting 1850-1950, Canberra: National Gallery of Australia, 2007. REED, John, Australian landscape painting, Melbourne: Longmans, 1965. GENERAL WORKS - Cross-cultural influence ANDERSON, Jaynie, ed, Crossing Cultures: Conflict, Migration and Convergence: The Proceedings of the 32nd Congress of the History of Art, Melbourne: Miegunyah Press, 2009, 398- 402. SMITH, Bernard, ‗European Vision and the South Pacific‘, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 13: 1/2, 1950, 65-100. SMITH, Bernard, ‗Coleridge‘s Ancient Mariner and Cook‘s Second Voyage‘, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 19: 1/2, 1956, 117-154. SMITH, Bernard, European Vision and the South Pacific, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985 (first published 1960). GENERAL WORKS - Survey works Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 20 ANDERSON, Jaynie, ed, The Cambridge Companion to Australian Art, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. BROWN, Gordon and KEITH, Hamish, An introduction to New Zealand painting, 1839-1967, Auckland, London: Collins, 1969. BROWN, Gordon, New Zealand painting 1900-1920: traditions and departures, Wellington: Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council of New Zealand, 1972. BROWN, Gordon, New Zealand painting 1920-1940: adaption and nationalism, Wellington: Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council of New Zealand, 1975. BROWN, Gordon, New Zealand painting 1940-1960: conformity and dissension, Wellington: Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council of New Zealand, 1981. BURKE, Joseph, Some Aspects of the Study of Tasmanian Art in the Colonial Phase, Hobart: Tasmanian Museum, 1963. CHURCHER, Betty, Understanding Art, Adelaide: Rigby, 1973. CHURCHER, Betty, The Art of War, Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2006. COLLETT, Dennice, and RIDDLE, Margaret, Changing hemispheres: two eras of Australian art abroad, Melbourne: University Gallery, University of Melbourne, 1984. EAGLE, Mary and JONES, John, A story of Australian painting, Sydney: Macmillan, c.1994 GENOCCHIO, Benjamin, The art of persuasion: Australian art criticism 1950-2001, St. Leonards: Craftsman House, 2002. GOTT, Ted, Backlash: the Australian drawing revival 1976-1986, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 1986. HAWORTH, Jennifer, The art of war: New Zealand war artists in the field, 1939-1945, Christchurch: Hazard Press, 2007. KERR, Joan, ed, The Dictionary of Australian artists: painters, sketchers, photographers and engravers to 1870, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1992. KIRKER, Anne, New Zealand women artists: a survey of 150 years, Tortola, BVI: Craftsman House, 1993. McCAUGHEY, Patrick, The pyramid in the waste: the search for meaning in Australian art, Melbourne: Deakin University, 1983. McCULLOCH, Alan, McCULLOCH, Susan and McCULLOCH CHILDS, Emily, eds, The new McCulloch‟s encyclopedia of Australian art, Melbourne: Miegunyah Press in association with Aus Art Editions, 2006 (first published 1968). Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 21 POUND, Francis, The invention of New Zealand: art and national identity, 1930-1970, Auckland: Auckland: University Press, 2009. RADFORD, Ron, RAP: recent Australian painting: a survey 1970-1983, Art Gallery of South Australia, Adelaide: Art Gallery Board of South Australia, 1983. RIDDLE, Margaret, Renaissance references in Australian Art, Melbourne: University Gallery, University of Melbourne, 1985. SAYERS, Andrew, 100 years of Australian drawing, Sydney: Bay Books, 1985. SAYERS, Andrew, Drawings in Australia: drawings, water-colours, pastels and collages from the 1770s to the 1980s, Melbourne: Oxford University Press in association with the National Gallery of Australia, 1989. SAYERS, Andrew, Australian art, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. SMITH, Bernard, with additional chapters by Terry Smith and Christopher Heathcote, Australian painting, 1788-2000, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 2001 (first published 1962). THOMAS, Daniel, and RADFORD, Ron, et. al., Creating Australia, 200 years of art 1788-1988, Adelaide: International Cultural Corporation of Australia and Art Gallery Board of South Australia, 1988. URE SMITH, Sydney, and LINDSAY, Lionel, The Exhibition of Australian Art in London 1923: a record of the exhibition held at the Royal Academy and organised by the Society of Artists, Sydney: Art in Australia, 1923. PHOTOGRAPHY CATO, Jack, The story of the camera in Australia, Melbourne: Institute of Australian Photography, 1977. CROMBIE, Isobel, Athol Smith, photographer, Melbourne: Schwartz Publishing, 1989. CROMBIE, Isobel, Susan VAN WYK, 2nd sight: Australian photography in the National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 2002. CROMBIE, Isobel, Body culture: Max Dupain, photography and Australian culture, 1919-1939, Musgrave: Images Publishing Group in association with the National Gallery of Victoria, 2004. DAVIES, Alan, and Peter STANBURY, with assistance from Con TANRA, The mechanical eye in Australia: photography 1841-1900, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1985. DAVIES, Alan, An eye for photography: the camera in Australia, Sydney: State Library of New South Wales, 1985. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 22 DAVIES, Alan, Sydney exposures: through the eyes of Sam Hood and his studio, 1925-1950, Sydney: State Library of New South Wales, 1991. ENNIS, Helen, with contributions from Kate DAVIDSON and Kylie SCROOPE, Photography – 150 years 1839-1989, Canberra: National Gallery of Australia, 1989. ENNIS, Helen, Man with a camera: Frank Hurley overseas, Canberra: National Library of Australia, 2002. ENNIS, Helen, In a new light: Australian photography 1850s-1930s, Canberra: National Library of Australia, 2003. ENNIS, Helen, Intersections: photography, history and the National Library of Australia, Canberra: National Library of Australia, 2004 ENNIS, Helen, Photography and Australia, London: Reaktion Books, 2007 ART MARKET HUDA, Shireen, Pedigree and panache: a history of the art auction in Australia, Canberra: Australian National University E Press, 2008. JOHNSON, Heather, The Sydney Art Patronage System 1890-1940, Grey‘s Point: Bungoona Technologies, 1997. RUHEN, Carl, The Auctioneers. Lawson's - The First 100 Years, Sydney: Ayers and James Heritage Books, 1984. THOMAS, Benjamin, ‗Purveyor of Taste: W.R. Sedon and Melbourne‘s Sedon Galleries‘, La Trobe Journal, 86, December 2010, 97-113. VAN DEN BOSCH, Annette, The Australian art world: aesthetics in a global market, Crows Nest: Allen and Unwin, 2005. ART EDUCATION BOUHTON, Doug, ‗The Changing Face of Australian Art Education: New Horizons or Sub- Colonial Politics‘, Studies in Art Education, 30: 4, Summer 1989, 197-211. BURKE, Joseph, ‗What is Art Training Worth?‘, Australian Artist, 1: 3, Autumn 1948, 18-21. BURKE, Joseph, ‗Alfred Felton and his Bequest‘, Meanjin, 7: 2, Winter 1948, 95-104. BURKE, Joseph, ‗Art and the Australian Community‘, in B. Smith, Education through Art in Australia, Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1958, 1-8. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 23 BURKE, Joseph, ‗Some Aspects of the Debate on Art Education in Australia‘, Studies in Art Education, 5: 2, Spring 1964, 5-11. BURKE, Joseph, ‗Some recollections of the post-war years in Australian painting: a lesson for the future‘, The Sixth Sir William Dobell Memorial Lecture, Sir William Dobell Art Foundation, 1982. LINDSAY, Daryl, ‗Art Education and the National Gallery of Victoria‘, in B. Smith, Education through Art in Australia, Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1958, 39-42. MEDLEY, John, ‗A Chair of Fine Arts‘, Society of Artists Book, 1945-46, Sydney: Ure Smith, 42- 43. MORPHY, Howard, ‗Audiences for Art‘, in A. Curthoys, A. Martin, T. Rouse, eds, Australians: A Historical Library, 5, ‗Australians from 1939‘, Broadway: Fairfax, Syme & Weldon Associates, 1987, 167-75. PHILIPP, Franz, ‘University research in the history of art’, in A. Grenfell Price, ed, The Humanities in Australia, Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1959, 160-61. SMITH, Bernard, ‗The Art Museum To-day‘, Meanjin, 5: 1, Autumn 1946, 129-32. SMITH, Bernard, Education through Art in Australia, Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1958. SMITH, Terry, ed, Art & Language: Australia 1975, Balmain: Art & Language Press, 1976. WOMEN AND ART HYDE, Melissa and MILAM, Jenifer, eds, Women, art and the politics of identity in eighteen- century Europe, Ashgate: Aldershot, 2004. KERR, Joan, ed, Heritage: the national women‟s art book, 500 works by 500 Australian women artists from colonial times to 1955, Roseville East: Art and Australia, distributed by Craftsman House, 1995. KERR, Joan and HOLDER, Jo, eds, Past present: the national women‟s art anthology, North Ryde, Craftsman House, 1999. KERR, Joan, A singular voice: essays on Australian art and architecture, BRUCE, Candice, DYSART, Dinah and HOLDER, Jo, eds, Sydney: Power Publications, 2009. McNEIL, Peter, ‗‘Designing Women‘: Gender, Sexuality and the Interior Decorator, c1890-1940‘, Art History, 17: 4, 631-57. McNEIL, Peter, ‗Doing Women and Design History‘, in Women of Influence, Sydney: Ivan Dougherty Gallery, College of Fine Arts, University of New South Wales, 2005. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 24 MENZIES, Jackie, ‗Never the twain shall meet: Australian artists and the Orient‘, Art and Australia, 31, Winter 1994, 516-525. PEERS, Juliette, More than just gumtrees: a personal, social and artistic history of the Melbourne Society of Women Painters and Sculptors, Melbourne: Melbourne Society of Women Painters and Sculptors in association with Dawn Revival Press, 1993. SPECK, Catherine, Painting ghosts: Australian women artists in wartime, Melbourne: Craftsman House, 2004. AUSTRALIAN ART and DESIGN HISTORY Texts relating to interiors, furniture, decorative arts and crafts; texts published pre 1995, including certain primary sources prepared by Professor Peter McNeil Art Association of Australia Newsletter, 1976-present. Art Deco Society Newsletter, 1990-present. Art and Design, Ure Smith, 1st no., 1949. Art and Industry. Australian Number, London, The Studio, February 1943. Art in Australia, Sydney, 1: 1, 1916-August 1942 [until 1921 published by Angus and Robertson, then until 1934 by Art in Australia Ltd., and from November 1934 Sydney Morning Herald]. The Australasian Antique Collector, 1, November 1966-76; then The Australian Antique Collector, 18th ed., 1977-present. Australia Beautiful: The Home Pictorial Annual, Sydney,'1927-October 1931 [four issues in 1928, then twice yearly]. Australia. National Journal, Ure Smith, 1: 1, July-August 1939 – 9: 7, October 1947. The Home, Sydney, 1, February 1920- 23: 9, September 1942 [prior to July 1924 quarterly, to January 1926 bi-monthly, then monthly; Sydney Ure Smith an editor until 19: 11, November 1938]. The Home Annual, Sydney, October 1932-1941 [continues Australia Beautiful; Sydney Ure Smith an editor until October 1938]. ABBOTT, J. H. M., et al., The Macquarie Book: The life and times of Governor Lachlan Macquarie, Sydney: Art in Australia, 1921. ALBRECHT, Kurt, Nineteenth Century Australian Gold and Silver Smiths, Richmond: Hutchinson, 1969. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 25 AMBRUS, Caroline, Australian Women Artists. First Fleet to 1945: History, Hearsay and Her Say, Woden: Irrepressible Press, 1992. APPERLY, Richard E., review, 'Australian Architecture 1901-1951: Sources of Modernism, Donald Leslie Johnson, Sydney: Sydney University Press, 1980', JRAHS, 67: 3, December 1981, 288-89. APPERLY, Richard, IRVING, Robert and REYNOLDS, Peter, A Pictorial Guide to Identifying Australian Architecture. Styles and Terms from 1788 to the Present, Sydney: Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 1989. ARCHER, John, Building a Nation. A History of the Australian House, Sydney: William Collins, 1987. ARONSON, F. B. [Zara Baar], XXth Century Cooking and Home Decoration, Sydney: William Brooks, 1900. BALMFORD, Peter and O'BRIEN, J.L., 'Dating Houses in Victoria', Historical Studies, 9: 36, 1961, 379-95. BEIERS, George, Houses of Australia. A Survey of Domestic Architecture, Sydney: Ure Smith, 1948. BOGLE, Michael, 'Tony Fry, Design History Australia' [review], Fabrications, 1, 1989, 98-99. BOGLE, Michael, 'Australian Furniture: in part', Australian Antique Collector, 45th edition, Jan- Jun 1993, 54-59. BOYD, Robin, The Australian Ugliness, Melbourne: F.W. Cheshire, 1960. BOYD, Robin, Australia's Home. Its Origins, Builders and Occupiers, Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1952; Australia's Home. Why Australians built the way they did, 2nd edition, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1978; Australia's Home. Its Origins, Builders and Occupiers, new edition, Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1987. BRADLEY, Anthony and Smith, Terry, eds, Australian Art and Architecture. Essays presented to Bernard Smith, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1980, 124-33. BROADBENT, James, et al., For the Public Good. Crimes, Follies and Misfortunes. Demolished Houses of New South Wales, Sydney: Historic Houses Trust, 1988. BRODSKY, Isadore, The Streets of Sydney, Sydney: Old Sydney Free Press, 1962. BRODSKY, Isadore, Sydney's Little World of Woolloomooloo, Sydney: Old Sydney Free Press, 1966. BROMFIELD, David, ed, Aspects of Perth Modernism 1929-1942, Perth: University of Western Australia, Centre for Fine Arts, 1986. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 26 BROWN, Erica, Sixty Years of Interior Design. The World of McMillen, New York: Viking, 1982. BUNNING, Walter, Homes in the Sun. The past, present and future of Australian housing, Sydney: W. J. Nesbit, 1945. BURES, Susan, The House of Wunderlich, Kenthurst: Kangaroo Press, 1987. BURN, Ian, et al., The Necessity of Australian Art. An Essay about Interpretation, Sydney: University of Sydney, Power Publications, 1988. BURN, Ian, Dialogue. Writings in Art History, North Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1991. CANNON, Michael, ed, Australia's Upper Middle Class in the Edwardian Age, 2 volumes [facsimile of Our Beautiful Homes. New South Wales, n.d.; Victoria's Representative Men at Home by 'Lauderdale', Melbourne, Punch, n.d.], Melbourne: Today's Heritage, n.d. [1970s?]. COCHRANE, Grace, The Crafts Movement in Australia: A History, Kensington: University of New South Wales Press, 1992. CRAIG, Clifford, FAHY, Kevin and ROBERTSON, E. Graeme, Early Colonial Furniture in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land, Melbourne: Georgian House, 1972. CRITTENDON, Victor, A History of Australian Gardening Books and a Bibliography 1806- 1950, Canberra: CAE Library, 1986. CUFFLEY, Peter and CARNEY, Kevin, A Catalogue and History of Cottage Chairs in Australia, Lilydale: Pioneer Design Studio, 1974. DAVIDSON, Rodney, ed, Historic Houses, Canberra: Australian Council of National Trusts, 1982 [combined edition of Historic Public Buildings of Australia, 1971 and Historic Houses of Australia, 1974]. DEARING, Tyrone, 'Art Deco in Australia', Australian Antique Collector, 45th edition, Jan-Jun 1993, 51-3. DEUTSCHER, Chris, et al., Thea Proctor. The Prints, Sydney: Resolution Press, 1980. DOBREZ, Patricia, 'Martin Boyd's Aestheticism: a Late Victorian Legacy', Australasian Victorian Studies Association, Brisbane Conference Papers, August 1978, 29-39. DUNGAVELL, Ian, 'Moly-Sabata Dangar. The Pottery of Anne Dangar', Ceramics: Art and Perception, 11, 1993, 16-18. DUPAIN, Max et al., Georgian Architecture in Australia. With some examples of buildings of the post-Georgian period, Sydney: Ure Smith, 1963. DUTTON, Geoffrey, The Innovators. The Sydney alternatives in the rise of modern art, literature and ideas, Crows Nest: Macmillan, 1986. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 27 EAGLE, Mary, PHIPPS, Jennifer, ed, Australian Modern Painting Between the Wars 1914-1939, Sydney: Bay Books, 1990. EARNSHAW, John, Early Sydney Cabinet-Makers 1804-1870. A Directory with an Introductory Survey, Surry Hills: Wentworth Books, 1971 EDWARDS, Deborah et al., Australian Decorative Arts, Sydney: Art Gallery of New South Wales, c. 1991. 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FRASER, Hugh and JOYCE, Ray, The Federation House. Australia's Own Style, Sydney: Weldon, 1989 [first edition, Landsdowne, 1986]. FREELAND, J.M., Architecture in Australia. A History, Hannondsworth: Penguin, 1968. FREELAND, J. M., review, 'The Glebe: Portraits and Places, Freda MacDonnell, Ure Smith, Sydney, 1975', JRAHS, 62: 3, December 1976, 214-16. FREESTONE, Robert, ''The New Idea': The Garden City as an Urban Environmental Ideal 1910- 1930', JRAHS, 73: 2, October 1987, 94-108. FRY, Tony, Design History Australia. A source text in methods and resources, Sydney: Hale and Iremonger, 1988. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 28 FRY, Tony, Old Worlds. New Visions, Sydney: Hale and Iremonger, 1989. GALBALLY, Ann and PLANT, Margaret, eds, Studies in Australian Art, Melbourne: Department of Fine Arts, University of Melbourne, 1978, 80-90. GILBERT, Alan, 'The Roots of Anti-Suburbanism in Australia', Australian Cultural History, 4, 1985, 54-70. GRASSICK, Patricia, 'Interiors in Australian painting in the 1880s', Art and Australia, 21: 3, Autumn 1984, 346-51. GRAY, S., ‗Mixing it Up; David McDiarmid, Peter Tully and the ecstatic space of the Paradise Garage‘ in Adamson, Glenn, and Pavitt, Jane, eds, Postmodernism: Style and Subversion 1970- 1990, London: Victoria & Albert, 2011. GRAY, S., ‗America and the Queer Diaspora: The Case of Artist David McDiarmid‘ in Deacon, Desley, Woollacott, Angela, and Russell, Penny, eds, Looking Out: Australian Lives in the World, Canberra: ANU E Press, 2007. GRAY, S., ‗Crafting Hip and Cool: David McDiarmid‘s Handcrafted Lamb Suede Dancefloor Outfits, 1980-1989‘, The Journal of Modern Craft, 3:1 March 2010, 37-54. GRAY, S., ‗Reinterpreting a Textile Tradition – David McDiarmid;s Klub Kwilt‘, Textile History, The Journal of the Pasold Research Fund, 38:2 November 2007, 198-210. HAMANN, Conrad, 'Nationalism and Reform in Australian Architecture 1880-1920', Historical Studies, 18: 72, April 1979, 393-411. HARDING, Warren T. and LORIMER, David C., Australian Decor, Melbourne: Thomas Nelson, 1971. HASLUCK, Paul N., ed, House Decoration Comprising Whitewashing, Paperhanging, Painting, Etc. with numerous engravings and diagrams, Melbourne, Sydney, Adelaide: Cole's Useful Books, n.d. [late 19th century?] Mitchell Library (Sydney) 698.1/1. HERMAN, Morton, The Early Australian Architects and Their Work, Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1954. HOFF, Ursula, 'Observations on Art History in Melbourne 1946-1964', Australian Journal of Art, 3, 1983, 5-9. HOORN, Jeanette, 'Misogyny and Modernist Painting in Australia: How Male Critics made Modernism their Own', Journal of Australian Studies, 32, March 1992, 7-17. HOWE, Renate, ed, New Houses for Old. Fifty Years of Public Housing in Victoria 1938-1988, Melbourne: Ministry of Housing and Construction, 1988. HUGHES, Robert, The Art of Australia, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 29 INGRAM, Terry, A Question of Polish. The Antique Market in Australia, Sydney: Collins, 1979. IOANNOU, Noris, The Culture Brokers: towards a redefinition of Australian contemporary craft, Netley: State Publishing, 1989. IOANNOU, Noris, ed, Craft in Society. An Anthology of Perspectives, South Fremantle: Fremantle Arts Centre Press, 1992. IRVING, Robert, ed, The history and design of the Australian House, Melbourne; Oxford University Press, 1985. JOHNSON, Donald Leslie, 'The Beginning of an Australian Domestic Architecture', Art and Australia, 11: 2, Oct-Dec 1973, 180-84. JOHSON, Donald Leslie, The Architecture of Walter Burley Griffin, South Melbourne: Macmillan, 1977. JOHNSON, Donald Leslie, 'Bauhaus, Breuer, Seidler: An Australian Synthesis', Australian Journal of Art, 1, 1978, 65-81. JOHNSON, Donald Leslie, Australian Architecture 1901-51. Sources of Modernism, Sydney: Sydney University Press, 1980. JOHNSON, Heather, 'Manifestations of Sydney Modernism: the Later Australian Work of Roy de Maistre 1925-1930', Australian Journal of Art, 6, 1987, 71-91. JOHNSON, Heather, Roy de Maistre. The Australian Years 1894-1930, Roseville: Craftsman House, 1988. JOHNSON, R.N., 'Leslie Wilkinson and His Architecture', Art and Australia, 12: 1, Jul-Sep 1974, 58-71. JOHNSTON, George, My Brother Jack, London: Collins, 1964. JOSE, A. W., Pioneer Builders of Australia, Sydney, 1928. KELLY, Max, ed, Sydney: City of Suburbs, Kensington: New South Wales University Press, 1987. LANE, Terence, One Hundred Modern Chairs, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 1974. LANE, Terence, Formed in Wood. Australian furniture from early colonial times to the present day, Heidelberg: Banyule Gallery, 1982. LANE, Terence, From Robert Adam to Biltmoderne. The Architect as Designer, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 1988. LANE, Terence, Featherston Chairs, Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 1988. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 30 LANE, Terence and SERLE, Jessie, Australians at Home. A Documentary History of Australian Domestic Interiors from 1788 to 1914, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1990. LATTA, David, Lost Glories. A Memorial to Forgotten Australian Buildings, Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1986. LEARY, Frank and Judith, Colonial Heritage. Historic Buildings of New South Wales, Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1972. LEWIS, Edna Horton, Furnishing on a Budget, Melbourne: Georgian House, 1948, Mitchell Library (Sydney) 747/L. LORD, Margaret, Interior Decoration. A Guide to Furnishing the Australian Home, Sydney: Ure Smith, 1944. LORD, Margaret, A Decorator's World. Living with Art and International Design, Sydney: Ure Smith, 1969. MACINTYRE, Clement, " ... now you're in the family zone': Housing and Domestic Design in Australia', Journal of Australian Studies, 30, September 1991, 58-71. MASLEN, Geoffrey, For Pleasure and Profit. A Guide to Collecting in Australia, South Melbourne: Brooks Waterloo, 1988. McNEIL, Peter, 'Decorating the Home. Australian Interior Decoration between the Wars', Art and Australia Quarterly Journal, 33: 2, 1995, 222-231. McNEIL, Peter, ‗Rarely Looking in: The Writing of Australian Design History c1900-1990‘, in Bogle, Michael, ed, Designing Australia: Readings in the History of Design, Sydney: Pluto Press Australia, 2002, 14-29. McNEIL, Peter, ‗Decorating the Home. Australian Interior Decoration between the Wars‘, in Bogle, Michael, ed, Designing Australia: Readings in the History of Design, Sydney: Pluto Press Australia, 2002, 68-69. McPHEE, John, Australian Decorative Arts in the Australian National Gallery, Canberra: Australian National Gallery, 1982. McPHEE, John, 'Australian Decorative Arts in the Australian National Gallery', Australian Antique Collector, January-June 1983, 47-51. McPHEE, John, 'Clifford Craig - historian and collector', Australian Antique Collector, November 1985, 71-3. McQUEEN, Humphrey, The Black Swan of Trespass. The Emergence of Modernist Painting in Australia to 1944, Sydney: Alternative Publishing Cooperative, 1979. McQUEEN, Humphrey, Suburbs of the Sacred, Ringwood: Penguin, 1988. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 31 MELMAN, Billie, Women and the Popular Imagination in the Twenties: Flappers and Nymphs, London: Macmillan, 1988. MENZ, Christopher, ed, Australian Decorative Arts 1985-1988, Canberra: Australian National Gallery, 1988. MEREWETHER, Charles, Art and Social Commitment. An end to the city of dreams 1931- 1948, Sydney: Art Gallery of New South Wales, 1984. MONCRIEFFE, Mona, The Magic of Colour Harmony in Dress, Sydney: Bebarfald's, 1927. MOUROT, Suzanne, This Was Sydney. A Pictorial History from 1788 to the Present Time, Sydney: Ure Smith, 1969. MURPHY, John and NORRIS, Kathryn, the most useful Art [sic]: Architecture in Australia, 1788-1985, Sydney: Mitchell Library, State Library of New South Wales, 6 August 1985-2 March 1986. NELSON, Robert, Toward a Philosophy of Furniture, Melbourne: Department of Industrial Design, Monash University, 1990 [circulated in mimeo by the Department]. NELSON, Robert, Grounds for Change. Expressions of Purpose in Australian Design, Melbourne: Department of Industrial Design, Monash University, 1990 [circulated in mimeo by the Department]. NEUTZE, Max, 'City, Country, Town: Australian Peculiarities', Australian Cultural History, 4, 1985, 7-23. NEWTON, Gael, et al., Shades of Light. Photography and Australia 1839-1988, Canberra: Australian National Gallery and William Collins, 1988. PEARL, Cyril, Hardy Wilson and his Old Colonial Architecture, Melbourne: Thomas Nelson, 1970. PHILIPP, F.A. 'Notes on the Study of Australian Colonial Architecture', Historical Studies, 8: 32, May 1959, 405-21. PHILLIPS, John, 'In Search of a Modem Idiom for Australian Architecture: The Flat-roofed Houses of George Sydney Jones', Fabrications, 1, 1989, 56-76. PROUDFOOT, Helen, 'Captain Piper and Henrietta Villa', JRAHS, 59: 3, September 1973, 162-81. PROUDFOOT, P. R., 'The Development of Architectural Education in Sydney, 1880-1930', Historical Studies, 21: 83, October 1981, 197-211. PROUDFOOT, P. R., 'Arcadia and the Idea of Amenity', JRAHS, 72: 1, June 1986, 3-18. REEKIE, Gail, Temptations. Sex, Selling and the Department Store, Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1993. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 32 REIGER, Kerreen M., The disenchantment of the home. Modernizing the Australian family 1880- 1940, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1985. RICKARD, John, 'Cultural History: The "High" and the "Popular" ', Australian Cultural History, 5, 1986, 32-43. ROBERTSON, E. Graeme, Victorian Heritage. Ornamental Cast Iron in Architecture, Melbourne: Georgian House, 1960. ROWLEY, Sue (convener), Interventions. A Conference on Craft Theory and Exhibition, University of Wollongong, 7-10 July 1992, programme. RUHEN, Carl, The Auctioneers. Lawson's - The First 100 Years, Sydney: Ayers and James Heritage Books, 1984. SAUNDERS, David, ed, Historic Buildings of Victoria, Brisbane: Jacaranda Press, 1966. SAUNDERS, David, ed, A Manual of Architectural History Sources in Australia in 3 Volumes, Adelaide: University of Adelaide, Department of Architecture, 1981. SCHOFIELD, Anne and FAHY, Kevin, Australian Jewellery. 19th and Early 20th Century, Sydney: David Ell, 1990. SHAPIRO, Andrew, 'Searching for Tomorrow's Australiana', Australian Antique Collector, 43rd edition, January-June 1992, 44-47. SHARP, Barry, A Pictorial History of Sydney's Suburban Cinemas, 1, Sydney: Barry Sharp, 1982. SHERINGTON, Geoffrey, 'M. Kelly, ed, Sydney City of Suburbs ... 1987 ... & Frances Pollon, The Book of Sydney Suburbs ... 1988' [review], JRAHS, 75: 3, December 1989, 238-39. SIMPSON, Caroline, 'Eryldene, Gordon, New South Wales. A house and garden designed for Professor and Mrs E. G. Waterhouse by Wilson, Neave and Berry', An and Australia, 12: 2, 1974, 167-73. SIMPSON, Caroline, et al., William Hardy Wilson: A Twentieth-Century Colonial 1881-1955, Sydney: National Trust of Australia (New South Wales), 1980. SMITH, Bernard, 'Architecture in Australia' [review of J. M. Freeland, Architecture in Australia, 1968], Historical Studies, 14: 53, October 1969, 85-92. SMITH, Bernard and Kate, The Architectural Character of Glebe, Sydney, Sydney: University Co- operative Bookshop, 1973. SMITH, Bernard, The Antipodean Manifesto. Essays in Art and History, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1976. SMITH, Terry, 'Writing the History of Australian Art: Its Past, Present and Possible Future', Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 33 Australian Journal of Art, 3, 1983, 10-29. SMITH, Terry, ed, Constructing the History of Australian Art: Eight Critiques, Sydney: Power Institute Occasional Paper, 2, May 1986. SPEARRITT, Peter, Sydney Since the Twenties, Sydney: Hale and Iremonger, 1978. STAPLETON, Ian, How to Restore the Old Aussie House, Sydney: Sydney Morning Herald and National Trust of Australia (New South Wales), 1983. STAPLETON, Maisy, ed, Historic Interiors; a collection of papers, Sydney: Sydney College of the Arts Press, nd [1983]. STAPLETON, Maisy and Stackhouse, Jennifer, eds, The Decorated Wall. Eighty Years of Wallpaper in Australia cl850-1930, 2nd edition, Sydney: Historic Houses Trust of New South Wales, 1985. STEPHEN, Ann, 'Margaret Preston's Second Coming', Art Network, 2, Spring 1980, 14-5. SUMNER, Ray, The Tropical Bungalow-The Search for an Indigenous Australian Architecture', Australian Journal of Art, 1, 1978, 27-39. TANNER, Howard, COX, Philip, BRIDGES, Peter and BROADBENT, James, Restoring Old Australian Houses and Buildings. An architectural guide, South Melbourne: Macmillan, 1975. TANNER, Howard, ed, Architects of Australia, South Melbourne: Macmillan, 1981. THOMAS, Daniel, 'Art Deco in Australia', Art and Australia, 9: 4, March 1972, 338-51. THOMAS, Daniel, ed, Creating Australia. 200 Years of Art 1788-1988, Adelaide: International Cultural Corporation of Australia and Art Gallery Board of South Australia, 1988. TOY, Ann, et al., Hearth and Home. Women's Decorative Arts and Crafts 1800-1930, Sydney: Historic Houses Trust of New South Wales, 1988. UNDERHILL, Nancy D. H., Making Australian Art 1916-49. Sydney Ure Smith Patron and Publisher, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1991. URE SMITH, Sydney and STEVENS, Bertram, The Charm of Sydney, Sydney: Angus and Robertson, nd [1918]. URE SMITH, Sydney and Stevens, Bertram, eds, Domestic Architecture in Australia. Special number of An in Australia, Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1919. URE SMITH, Sydney et al., A New Approach to Textile Designing By a Group of Australian Artists, Sydney: Ure Smith, 1947. VALENTINE, James, Then and Now. Historic Roads Round Sydney, Sydney: New Century Press, 1939. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 34 WALKER, David, 'Introduction: Australian Modem: Modernism and its Enemies 1900-1940', Journal of Australian Studies, 32, March 1992, 1-6. WHITE, Richard, Inventing Australia. Images and Identity 1688-1980, Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1981. WILLIS, Anne-Marie, Picturing Australia. A History of Photography, Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1988. WILLIS, Anne-Marie, Illusions of Identity. The Art of Nation, Sydney: Hale and Iremonger, 1993. WILSON, Hardy, The Cow Pasture Road, Sydney: Art in Australia, 1920. WILSON, Hardy, Old Colonial Architecture in New South Wales and Tasmania, Sydney: Union House, 1924. ORAL HISTORIES Burke, Prof. Joseph, interview with James Mellon, 25 January 1989, Melbourne: State Library of Victoria, Oral History section. ——, interview with Anthea Burke, [undated] 1989, Melbourne: privately held. Hoff, Dr. Ursula, interview with Amy McGrath, 9 July 1981, Canberra: National Library of Australia. ——, interview with Richard Haese, 3 March 1975, Melbourne: State Library of Victoria, Oral History section. Lindsay, Daryl, interview with Hazel de Berg, 17 August 1962, Hazel de Berg Collection, Canberra: National Library of Australia. Lindsay, Joan interview with John Taylor, 1975, Videos on Australian Writers: Archival Writers Series II, The Australian Council for the Arts. Murdoch, Dame Elisabeth, interview by Peter Struthers, [undated] 1994, Melbourne: National Trust of Australia (Victoria). 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GALBALLY, Ann, John Peter Russell (1858-1930) and his circle, PhD thesis, Melbourne: University of Melbourne, 1976. INGLIS, Alison, The Decorative works of Sir Edward Poynter and their critical reception, PhD thesis, Melbourne: School of Fine Arts, Classical Studies and Archaeology, University of Melbourne, 1999. HARDING, Lesley, The first Australian modernists: Tempe Manning, Norah Simpson and Grace Cossington Smith: gender, myth and art criticism during the First World War, MA thesis, Melbourne: Department of Fine Arts, University of Melbourne, 1998. HUDSON, Hugh, Frank Rinder and the Felton Bequest 1918-1928: International Acquisition Policy, postgraduate diploma thesis (Fine Arts), Melbourne: Melbourne University, 1998. HUDSON, Hugh, Re-examining Van Eyck: a new analysis of the Ince Hall Virgin and Child, MA thesis (Fine Arts), Melbourne: Melbourne University, 2001. JOHNSON, Heather, Art Patronage in Sydney, 1890-1940, MA thesis, Sydney: University of Sydney, 1988. JUDD, Craig, Aspects of the Art of Adrian Feint, 1920-1950, BA (Hons) thesis, Melbourne: Department of Fine Arts, University of Melbourne, 1982. KELLY, Bryan, Divided houses: The art societies of New South Wales and Victoria in the context of Australian art 1847-1947, MA thesis, Sydney: University of Sydney, 1996. LEE, T., Australian Furniture to About 1850, BA (Hons) thesis, Sydney: University of Sydney, 1983. LINDSAY, Eloise, An art of disjunction: Australian art in the 1980s and 1990s, PhD thesis, Sydney: Department of Art History and Theory, University of Sydney, 2000. LLOYD, A., Early Modernist Landscape Painting in Melbourne, MA thesis (Fine Arts), Melbourne: Melbourne University, 1995. MacNEIL, D., A History of the Contemporary Arts Society of Melbourne 1938-1947, BA (Hons) thesis (Fine Arts), Melbourne: Melbourne University, 1976. Thomas and McNeill Australian and New Zealand Art Historiography Bibliography 36 MITCHELL, Avenel, Thea Proctor (1879-1966): Aspects of elitism 1921 to 1940, BA (Hons) thesis, Sydney: University of Sydney, 1980. PALMER BULL, Sheridan, Intersecting cultures: European influences in the fine arts: Melbourne 1940-1960, PhD thesis, School of Art History, Cinema, Classics and Archaeology, Melbourne: University of Melbourne, 2005. PATTENDEN, Rodney, Images of religious significance in recent Australian art, MA thesis, Sydney: Department of Art History and Theory, University of Sydney, 2000. PATTENDEN, Rodney, Visual discernment: religion and spirituality in contemporary Australian art, PhD thesis, Sydney: Department of Studies in Religion, University of Sydney, 2009. RAMAGE, Bruce, A Gallery Within a Department Store - Origins and Development of David Jones' Art Gallery, Sydney, Dissertation, Sydney: Fine Arts IV, University of Sydney, 1982. RICHARDS, Michaela, Making the Modern Interior: Marion Hall Best and Australian Interior Design 1945-1965, MA thesis, Canberra: Department of Art History, Australian National University, 1993. STEPHEN, Ann, Consuming Images: Advertising and the Manufacture of Consumption in Australia, 1880s-1930s, MA thesis, Sydney: University of Sydney, 1989. SNOWDEN, Betty, Policies, personalities and politics: Modern French art and the National Gallery of Victoria, 1860-1940, PhD thesis, Sydney: University of NSW, 2004. THOMAS, Benjamin, Daryl Lindsay: A Vision for Australian Art, PhD thesis, Melbourne: School of Culture and Communication, University of Melbourne, 2008. VAUGHAN, Gerard, Maurice Denis: his place in the Parisian milieu and some sources for his imagery, 1890-1910, MA thesis, Melbourne: University of Melbourne, 1983. WILSON-ANASTASIOS, Meaghan, Art at auction: price formation and the creation of superstars in the Australian art auction market, PhD thesis, Melbourne: School of Culture and Communication, University of Melbourne, 2008. WOOKEY, A., Cultural diffusions of the 1930s: a study of the impact on artistic style of the London cultural experience, as reflected in the Australian Art Collection at the National Gallery of Victoria, postgraduate diploma thesis (Fine Arts), Melbourne: Melbourne University, 1994. ZUBANS, Ruth, Emanuel Phillips Fox (1865-1915): the development of his art, 1884-1913, PhD thesis, Melbourne: University of Melbourne, 1979. 
work_cipqsdtaxvdanim64qtwhg4brq	----	Swing Low, Sweet Chariot: Kinetic Sculpture and the Crisis of Western Technocentrism Arts 2015, 4, 75-92; doi:10.3390/arts4030075 arts ISSN 2076-0752 www.mdpi.com/journal/arts Essay Swing Low, Sweet Chariot: Kinetic Sculpture and the Crisis of Western Technocentrism G. W. Smith Space Machines Corporation, 3443 Esplanade Avenue, Suite 438, New Orleans, LA 70119, USA; E-Mail: gsmith@space-machines.com; Tel.: 847-772-2668 Academic Editor: Andres Pardey Received: 6 July 2014 / Accepted: 28 May 2015 / Published: 7 July 2015 Abstract: Beginning with the chariot as an ancient and pan-cultural example of the way in which art has humanized technology, this essay explores the limited role which modern art has thus far played in dealing with the current crisis of technocentrism. It does so by bringing to bear on the subject a newly-promulgated theory of the development of modern art which focuses on the absence therein of an evolved kinetic sculpture. Keywords: kinetic sculpture; kinetic art; technocentrism Yet the relative aesthetic failure of Kinetic Art is significant in itself since the desire to make art kinetic is one of the prime artistic urges of the present century; to misrepresent this is to reject the direction to which Western art has committed itself. Jack Burnham, Beyond Modern Sculpture 1. Introduction The chariot, as a straight-forward application of the wheel and axle, might be said to represent humankind’s first sophisticated mechanical technology, as opposed to simple machines such as the hand axe (i.e., the wedge) and the digging stick (i.e., the lever). Given the cultural conservatism which often distances itself from the new and sophisticated, it is therefore remarkable that the chariot appears nearly everywhere in early Indo-European art (Figure 1) and literature, whether Vedic, Hellenic, Celtic, or Germanic [1,2]; and equally remarkable—given the ironclad physics of the wheel and axle— OPEN ACCESS Arts 2015, 4 76 is the fact that the chariot has taken on the role of mystical conveyance, and has been so apotheosized in the famous African-American spiritual [3]. Figure 1. Trundholm Sun Chariot, c. 1700 BC. Bronze, 54 × 35 × 29 cm. National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen. Image © Gianni Dagli Orti/Corbis. The key point, in respect to Western culture, is as follows: almost as soon as there is technology, we find the arts engaged with it, and to the benefit of both—art finds fresh stimulation, and the technology itself is integrated into the landscape of the human psyche. This virtuous cycle appears, at present, to be inoperative. On the one hand, there is a universal unease with the ever-increasing degree to which our lives seem to revolve about technology, but which technology seems to do little to ease our burdens. The visual arts, on the other hand—as per the example of the Renaissance, that sector of the arts most capable of assimilating and entering into a fruitful dialogue with science and technology—are currently pre-occupied, under the aegis of “Post-modernism”, with that which is difficult to characterize as anything other than ephemeral. At the very moment when we are depending upon the visual arts to create a mature vision of man and machine—and here we think of Monet setting up his easel at the Gare St. Lazare, or Rivera laboring over his Man at the Crossroads—we are offered ball bearings and slabs of black felt strewn petulantly across the floors of the Whitney Museum, or a cargo cult tribute to the Apollo missions at the Park Avenue Armory. In attempting to account for this state of affairs, and without wishing to over-simplify—we are dealing here with something which is but part of a far larger and more complex stage in human evolution—it may be useful to consider a newly-promulgated theory of the evolution of modern art [4–6]. Like many such theories, it is a distillation of previous thinking, and in this case that of Jack Burnham [7]; it is a theory which represents a radical re-interpretation of said evolution, and not least in placing kinetic sculpture on center stage; and it is a theory which, in its focus on the actual sinews of culture, may be likened to the vector analysis of physics—a vector having both force and direction. One must be careful, however, to distinguish between a theory and its expression. The exposition presented here is the work of a practicing kinetic sculptor [8] as opposed to an art historian; and although the sculptor in question is in fact one of the architects of the aforementioned theory—and although his research is clearly substantial, and his writing cloaked in academic garb complete with footnotes—his exposition nonetheless bears the inevitable marks of the artistic temperament: wide-ranging in scope; mercurial in transition; bold in declaration; and passionate in advocacy for a Arts 2015, 4 77 particular approach, and equally scornful of alternatives. Indeed, it is part manifesto [9]; but let us hope that such extravagance of expression will not obscure for the reader a possible kernel of truth. 2. Regarding the Crisis of Technocentrism The idea that we are becoming the slaves of our machines—or, stated in a slightly more plausible manner, the idea that we are becoming nothing more than a layer of connective tissue for our various technologies—has been so frequently touched upon in the mass media and popular culture, but with so little substance, that it has seemed worthwhile to go beyond the headlines to some recent history [10,11], and to find there a practical measuring rod—the length of the work week—with which to quickly survey the dimensions of the crisis. It was recognized as early as the 1920s that our increasingly automated factories would allow us to enjoy a comfortable standard of living while permitting a continuous reduction in the length of the work week; and indeed, a 1965 U.S. Senate subcommittee predicted a 21st century work week of 14 hours. Technology has kept its part of the bargain: the worker of today is many-fold more productive than the worker of 1965; yet even those few countries which have dared to introduce a work week less than the forty hours established by the U.S. Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 find their policies under attack. Certainly, the stability of the work week over this period reflects in part the achieving of a certain equilibrium in releasing human psychic energy—though perhaps not in an optimum fashion; and no doubt a tendency towards even longer working hours reflects an intoxication with both the incredible resources which technology has placed at our disposal, and the incredible goals which it has placed within our reach: if I myself were a member of one of the JPL teams driving a rover on the surface of Mars, I, too, would be working 60 hour weeks. However—make no mistake—there has also been at work a more systemic and worrisome aspect of that same technology; and here we must return to the historical record. If the automated factories of the industrialists threatened, by their very efficiency, to provide a modest but universal standard of living in combination with equally modest working hours—but also, of course, with a leveling-off in the growth of profits—then the solution for the industrialists was obvious: a plethora of new products, to afford which the worker was willing to spend more time in his machine-like factory, and many of which were themselves machines: dish washers; mixers; toasters; toaster ovens; blenders; waffle makers; electric ice cream makers; hot plates; electric crock pots; electric carving knives; electric rotisseries; pasta makers; vacuum cleaners; ceiling fans; box fans; table fans; attic fans; air conditioners; hair dryers; hair clippers; hair curlers; electric tooth brushes; electric bathroom scales; vaporizers; de-humidifiers; electric clothes lines; lawn mowers; edge trimmers; tillers; chain saws; electric winches; hand drills; orbital sanders; electric buffers; paint sprayers; pressure washers; heat guns; electric soldering guns; electric pencil sharpeners; radios; record players; televisions; self-rotating TV antennas; hi-fis; stereos; model gasoline airplanes; model electric railroads; rock tumblers; aquarium pumps; motorcycles; scooters; go-karts; golf carts; power boats; private aircraft—and so on [12]. Thus was born the mindless American “consumer society”—an effect of the twinned desires of the industrialist to keep his mechanized factory running at full capacity, and of the consumer to keep Arts 2015, 4 78 himself entertained. Were it not for their environmental implications, these would seem to be harmless enough motives; but can we not already detect therein a tendency for humankind to become swept up in a culture of relentless, machine-mediated activity [13]? Moreover, can we not also hear a distant echo of Homer’s warning that “there is a force in iron which lures men on” [14]? Distant echo, indeed. In anticipation of our reinterpretation of 20th century art history, we have deliberately confined our examples to the artifacts of that era; and if even then there were indications of mankind falling under the sway of a technological demiurge, is there not even greater reason for concern in the present day, which, with its electronic machines of gigahertz-scale activity, is in some sense as far removed from 1950 as 1950 is from ancient Greece [15]? If these machines are our servants, why are all of us—chained to our computer screens—working harder and more desperately than ever [16]? Yet there can be no turning back. Machine begets machine; and on our near horizon are the android, the drone, artificial intelligence, and nanotechnology—and these with all of the even more dire warnings which come in their wake [17]. 3. Regarding the Virtuous Cycle As with our consideration of the crisis of technocentrism, we shall tarry here only as long as necessary; but if we are soon destined to live in a technological Oz, it is perhaps well to briefly review what we mean by saying that “art can integrate technology into the landscape of the human psyche”—and our starting point must be to present, as a corrective to the previous section, a more balanced view of technology. The fact of the matter is that no can one predict the outcome of our ever-accelerating rush into its embrace—Teilhard de Chardin used the analogy of a whirlpool into which we are being swept [18]; and so I am not suggesting that we relax our vigilance. At the same time (and please forgive me for stating the obvious, but the obvious is what we tend to overlook) it is worth remembering that humankind—Homo Faber—is a technological species; that the machine, though perhaps now emerging as a threat, can also be a marvelous and inspiring thing, as exemplified by those rovers on the Martian surface; and that our virtuous cycle is one of the most definite and characteristic features of Western culture, and one in which art plays a critical and complementary role in respect to technology. In regard to that role, the operative term is assimilation: not the mere referencing of science and technology, but their complete transubstantiation—and there is no better example in all of Western art history than the famous Kritios Boy (Figure 2). We shall have more of substance to say about him later; the goal at present is simply to emphasize—if emphasis is necessary—the startling contrast which that work represents between a vital science and technology, and the even more vital power of art. The connection with Greek science, in the twin forms of the accurate anatomical observation and mathematically-tuned proportions at work in the Kritios Boy, is well understood. Perhaps not so well understood is the connection with technology—but that is only because we have come to associate technology with rapid change and progress, and have thus lost sight of the dominant role that stone and stonemasonry have played in human technological history. The Olduwan chipped pebble technology Arts 2015, 4 79 reigned supreme for no less than one million years; and stone itself was not displaced as the premier building material until 1889, when Gustave Eiffel’s iron tower wrested away from the masonry Washington Monument the title of the world’s tallest man-made structure. Indeed, we are dealing with a quite impressive phenomenon in terms of both quality and quantity: in quality, there is a certain magic in the process of quarrying and dressing stone which seems to have attracted humans of all cultures and climes [19]; in quantity, countless blocks of stone—The Great Pyramid of Cheops alone requiring 2.3 million—were being constantly shuttled about the ancient world during the four millennia bracketing the appearance of the Kritios Boy, and perhaps reminding us of the blocks of data being currently shuttled between the nodes of the Internet. Yet—this almost a matter of definition—technology always comes up short in respect to the deepest yearnings of the human psyche. Stone can be a maddeningly uniform material; and the vast majority of those blocks were destined to become lintels, thresholds, horse troughs. Figure 2. Kritios Boy, c. 480 BC. Marble, 82 cm. Acropolis Museum, Athens. Not until a supremely talented artist got hold of one of them do we have the Kritios Boy—perhaps the first sculpture in Western history to truly shatter the limits of what could be imagined as emerging from a block of stone. Whenever we fall into despair regarding the continuing relevance of art in a world gone mad with technology, we must gaze upon him again, and remind ourselves not only of the visual perfection which was to serve as a sculptural model for the next two thousand years, but to remind ourselves as well that the same relaxed pose which worked so effectively at the level of Arts 2015, 4 80 aesthetics also served to make the work a spiritual dynamo; for was it not the first sculpture to express that attitude which has become the hallmark of the Greek legacy: a sense of man’s confidence regarding his place in the universe? [20]. Hence it is (fast-forward to the early 21st century) that we welcome two new and related artistic movements—“Techno Art” and “Sci Art”, respectively—which show great promise in restoring to the aesthetic realm not only a substantive engagement with science and technology, but also a focus on the visual as opposed to the anecdotal. This the former accomplishes by taking advantage of the incredible power of electronic/computer media (and thus also known as “new media art”), and the latter by realizing the incredible expressive power of the latest scientific imagery. Nor are these initiatives unaccompanied by that which is the sine qua non of a revolutionary art—i.e., the brash, new journal—and among which might be mentioned Caldaria [21] and SciArt in America [22]. However—as we are reminded by Joseph Nechvatal—art cannot follow an agenda [23]. If the young artists of today set out with the mere goal of “humanizing technology”, they will make a terrible mess of things. They must work, rather, as artists have always worked—in the grip of an aesthetic frenzy; and here another lesson of the Kritios Boy: notwithstanding its poise and studied articulation, there can be no doubting the Eros under whose influence it was created. Yet even an economy of the ecstatic must admit the possibility of a missing factor. Despite the talent and energy and exuberance being poured into Techno Art and Sci Art, and despite the immensely pregnant situation represented by our technocentric society, must we not admit that at present there are few signs of the rumblings which must have accompanied the birth of, say, Impressionism—that Impression which, though not so far removed from us in time, and under the quite comparable circumstances of Europe’s rapid industrialization and urbanization, yet held aloft a universal vision of beauty, and of a coherent human society (Figure 3)? Figure 3. La Place de l’Europe, by Gustave Caillebotte, 1877. Oil on canvas, 276 × 212 cm. Art Institute of Chicago. In short—with Impressionism and Cubism and Constructivism towering behind us—do not many of us sense that there is something missing at the very core of our own endeavors? Must we not also suspect that this missing element might have been in part responsible for the futility of Post-modernism and Conceptualism? Arts 2015, 4 81 It is the thesis of this essay, and of the art-historical theory which it seeks to summarize, that the visual arts may well be suffering under the effects of an evolutionary misadventure which occurred at a precise point in the 20th century—and the possibility of which misadventure has not to this day been widely acknowledged, much less addressed. 4. A New Look at the Evolution of 20th Century Art A brief outline of the history of 20th century art in accordance with our subject theory must seem to us as strange as it is familiar—but such is the inevitable effect of being aroused from a sleep of 50 years: 4.1. Destiny If it was the destiny of Greek art to assimilate both early observational science and stonemasonry; if it was likewise the destiny of Renaissance art to assimilate the vast new perspectives revealed by contemporary science and exploration; and if Impressionism was destined to assimilate the new theories of color vision and the new technology of photography, and also to acknowledge in its subject matter the reality of industrialization and urbanization—then the destiny of 20th century art was quite clear: to assimilate the machine. That technology had reached a high point with Charles Lindbergh’s 1927 flight across the Atlantic in his “Spirit of St. Louis”, at the conclusion of which Lindbergh became overnight the most celebrated individual on the planet, and his quickly-written account of the mission, We—the title referring to Lindbergh and the aircraft itself—a best-selling hymn to the partnership between man and machine [24]. The art world, moreover, was paying attention: for much of the important art work of this period, it is likely to be more difficult to establish the absence, as opposed to the presence, of a machine-influenced aesthetic (Figure 4). Figure 4. Le Canigou, by Juan Gris, 1921. Oil on canvas, 65 × 100 cm. Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo. 4.2. The Pioneers A moment’s reflection will demonstrate that an uncompromising pursuit of an art of the machine must culminate in a machine-based kinetic sculpture; and although mainstream art history has failed to Arts 2015, 4 82 connect the dots, we can note in retrospect that several prominent figures of the early 20th century experimented with, or envisioned, a mechanical art: Brancusi, with his polished bronze pieces rotated by hidden motors [25,26]; Tatlin, with his dynamic Monument to the Third Internationale [27]; Gabo, with his Kinetic Construction, and his planned Monument for the Institute of Physics and Mathematics; and Duchamp with his Bicycle Wheel and Roto-Reliefs [28]. 4.3. The Chosen Son Although the influence of these pioneers remained largely theoretical, following in their wake was a young sculptor seemingly destined by history to preside over the triumphant marriage of art and the machine—the son and grandson of sculptors, but also a mechanical engineering graduate of the Stevens Institute of Technology; one of those clever Americans, therefore, but working at the time in Paris, where he could absorb the technocentric influences of Constructivism, Futurism, and the Bauhaus; and who, as a private citizen, had been one of the multitude present at Le Bourget to welcome his countryman Lindbergh [29]. We should not be surprised, therefore, to recollect that this artist mounted in 1932 “the first entirely kinetic exhibition in the history of Western art” [30], and at which exhibition fully half of the pieces were motorized (Figure 5) [31]. (Einstein himself is later said to have spent forty minutes observing the complete cycle of one such work [32].) Figure 5. A Universe, by Alexander Calder, 1934. Pipe, motor, wire, wood and string, 103 × 76 cm. Museum of Modern Art, New York. What should surprise us—and what has been totally ignored by art history—is the fact that this artist was shortly thereafter to retreat from his encounter with the machine in favor of a suspended, decorative art form which, though quite sophisticated in appearance, was actually of a simple construction that had nothing whatsoever to do with the technology of the early 20th century; and although this art form was indeed kinetic, its reliance on random wind currents completed the severing of his commitment to the dependable machines which modern humanity had been at such pains to forge—and one of which had carried Lindbergh safely across the Atlantic. The artist in question is, of course, Alexander Calder; and the suspended art form of course the mobile [33]. Arts 2015, 4 83 4.4. Post-Mortem A post-mortem must presume that, in their attempts to create a true art of the machine, Calder and his fellow pioneers had encountered some sort of barrier, the nature of which is revealed in a key passage from Burnham: As Rickey has observed, perhaps in years to come Calder’s stunning success with the mobile, coupled with a dearth of research by younger artists into the possibilities of mechanical motion, will appear as some curious breach in the plastic evolution of this century. Calder’s early overwhelming success with quasi-random motion convinced almost all observers that attempts to produce a machine-driven deterministic art [italics added for emphasis] would be clumsy by comparison [34]. The machine, in other words, can be a breath-taking thing when seen speeding through the skies—but when made to operate in the confines of an art gallery or museum, its repetitive, Sisyphean nature must become evident. We may therefore posit a “spectre of determinism”, and in reference to which the later trajectory of 20th century kinetic sculpture can be easily decoded: Calder, desperate to move forward with his innovations, “invents” the wind-driven mobile as the ideal antidote to the machine’s determinism; George Rickey and Lin Emery, finding themselves with a “latent affection for the machine” [35], endow their kinetic works with metal bodies and precision bearings, but continue to depend on the liberating effects of wind power [36,37]; and Jean Tinguely and Nicolas Schöffer— finding themselves with not only a latent affection for the machine, but also for its beating heart of an engine—discover that the inclusion of seemingly random mechanical elements will keep determinism at bay, and thus allow them to return to the practice of building motorized works of art (Figure 6) [38,39]. Figure 6. Hannibal II, by Jean Tinguely, 1967. Steel, motor, pulleys, black paint, 250 × 715 × 140 cm. Museum Tinguely, Basel. Note, in particular, the dangling chain. More recently, there have been several kinetic sculptors—Arthur Ganson chief among them—who have gone over to the dark side of the force, i.e., who have embraced the depiction of the Sisyphean struggle, but with the result that they have been able to create some marvelously active and exact machines, and, in particular, the humming but very much geared-down motor which will never discover that the shaft which it is attempting to turn is in fact embedded in concrete [40]. Not to this Arts 2015, 4 84 day, however, has a kinetic sculptor established a major reputation by creating works in which the deterministic aspect of the machine is treated in parallel with the dynamic and heroic, i.e., in which the machine is treated on its own terms. There is, moreover, an unfortunate corollary: filled with spectacular machines, the Smithsonian’s Air and Space Museum is the world’s second most visited; yet the machine as the “precise and splendid instrument of human aspiration” [41] remains little known to art. 4.5. Aftermath The handful of kinetic sculptors just mentioned—and some not mentioned—have nonetheless kept open a vital artery; but that century which had begun with a determination to re-connect art and engineering had now not only run headlong into the very real challenges of an art of the machine, but had also found itself further disoriented by the attempt to substitute for it Calder’s colorful mobile: The whimsical, romantic spirit of Calder’s art, with its affinity to the paintings of Arp and Miro, is quite independent of the spirit of Constructivism. And it was Constructivist principles that formed the core of modernist abstract sculpture, including kinetic sculpture. [42]. The larger myth of the mobile is that it represents the triumph of kinetic sculpture, when in reality the mobile was as different as one could imagine from the original vision: passive rather than active; not at all mechanical; and random rather than directed in its motion. Indeed, the mobile drew upon none of the incredible technical resources of the twentieth century, the appropriation of which had of course been the principal inspiration of the original kineticists [43]. The aberration of which we speak directly affected only sculpture; but as an art of physical presence, sculpture of course has a great psychic impact on its sister art of painting. (Whence Impressionism without Rodin? Whence Cubism without Brancusi?) The entire enterprise of art was thus affected—cut off from an authentic engagement with the machine, which should have been its source of vitality, and encouraged by the mobile to substitute style for substance. To be sure, there remained some important experiments in extending the limits of a traditional sculpture and painting, as highlighted by the work of Giacometti [44] and Diebenkorn among many others; and for one shining moment in the early 1960s it even seemed as if the art world was on the verge of whole-heartedly embracing the mechanical experiments of Tinguely, and the public on the verge of embracing Tinguely himself (Figure 7) as the new embodiment of the artist: We are reminded [by the new Museum Tinguely catalog] that exhibitions of Tinguely’s work typically drew record crowds to the galleries and museums; and we are further reminded that, in the summer of 1964, there were no less than two Tinguely-like characters on the screens of American movie theaters [45]. Yet the name of Warhol was surfacing at precisely this same time, and it is of course his work that was to mark the end of a Modernism to which the term “heroic” could be easily and often applied, and that was also to set the pattern for the rest of the century: all that was necessary was to do Arts 2015, 4 85 something “new” and obviously “modern”, and thus provide fodder for the insatiable 20th century media—a substantive technique and the continuity of Western art be damned [46]; and all of this the precise rap which can be lodged against the mobile. How tempting it is—and how easy—to connect this Calderian misadventure with most of the subsequent woes of modern art; but as the 20th century has passed into the 21st, one thing can be said with confidence: if art brings to the consideration of things a certain maturity, a certain intensity, and a certain vision, then it must be clear that art has not occupied its strategic and traditional position in respect to our technocentric society. Yes, we have art a-plenty in which science and technology serve as window-dressing [47], medium, and source of imagery. Contemporary art has essentially failed, however, to come to terms with the machine as entity [48]—and it is as entity that we shall surely re-encounter the machine in the very near future. Figure 7. Jean Tinguely in his atelier in 1959. Martha Rocher/Museum Tinguely, Basel. 5. Discussion The above account raises at least three important questions—and these with some clear implications attendant upon the answers to them: The first question, as always, is “Who is to blame?”; and here we must exercise compassion: working at the exact midpoint of the unsettling interlude between the first and second world wars—and somehow conscious of the burden which history had placed on his shoulders—it is no wonder that Calder attempted to pull a rabbit out of the hat: And though it is absurd, and even grossly unfair, to think that things might have been different had Calder succeeded in 1931 in creating a true art of the machine, the fact remains that the machine continued as the near exclusive property of the industrialists and the generals—and so began the steady march to World War II, Stalin’s “war of motors”. If artists did not know what to do with the machine, the generals did! [49]. In terms of misappropriating technology, however, the United States would of course put the European combatants to shame, demonstrating at war’s end the capability of ending civilization itself, and in the process killing tens of thousands of Japanese civilians; all of which I mention only by way of emphasizing two related points: first, that Calder’s evolutionary misadventure takes on added Arts 2015, 4 86 significance in being to some extent the result of historical forces as opposed to chance occurrence; and second, that the subject of an art of the machine was not—at least at that time—one of rarified aesthetics. But perhaps it has become so; i.e., perhaps we have entered an age in which the art object has finally and truly become passé. Under the heading of “the machine”, I have in this essay conflated the mechanical with the electronic; and although the computer is indeed a machine, it has become so sophisticated as to have helped make possible a virtual universe—and which universe, it might be argued, has become the preferred venue for the creative spirit. Thus our second question: does there remain any value in a physical art of the machine? Foolish, indeed, the occasional writer on art who would attempt to present a definitive answer to this question, with its far larger implications. Let him, rather, present a series of observations which demonstrate that the field of the mechanical has enjoyed a symbiotic relationship with the electrical and electronic, and thus continues to evolve in spectacular fashion—and to surround us everywhere: • The silent, compact electric motor—which has been, and will continue to be, the motive element of choice for a progressive kinetic sculpture—is only now about to enter its own golden age, and this by virtue of replacing the internal combustion engine in hundreds of millions of automobiles. • Were your own computer under threat, it is the electro-mechanical disc drive which you would hope to rescue—a device, moreover, powered by that same electric motor, and as much responsible for the explosive growth of the Internet as is the purely electronic microprocessor. • Another electro-mechanical device—the android—is without doubt this century’s equivalent of the once unimaginable flying machine: it can walk, and talk—and if given the key to one’s apartment, let itself in—and it is just around the corner. We have here, in short, an arena in which art must not only retain the presence captured for it by the exertions of the pioneer kineticists—it is an arena above which must soar the engine of a fully-evolved kinetic sculpture (Figure 8). Figure 8. Wave, by Lin Emery, 1988. Polished hollow aluminum forms mounted on precision, all-weather steel bearings, 457 × 427 cm. New Orleans Museum of Art. Arts 2015, 4 87 Hence our third, and final, question—and one which might be equated with Lenin’s “What is to be done?”: no matter how much we might wish to create an art of the machine, are we not facing the “spectre of determinism”, i.e., are we not dealing with a tautology—the ideal machine as relentless and unvarying as possible, and the ideal work of art expressive of a sense of freedom and possibility? To claim that it is therefore impossible to create a true art of the machine is, of course, precisely the type of challenge upon which art depends for its existence; and is this not, after all, the point of all art—to animate the lifeless, to infuse substance with spirit, to “forge out of the sluggish matter of the earth a new soaring, impalpable imperishable being” [50]? Even more to the point, have we not here stumbled upon the very subject and question which have become the universal focus of modern inquiry: the subject of emergent phenomenon—and the question of how consciousness has emerged from deterministic matter [51]? We have also strayed, however, into the often fruitless realm of philosophy. As artists, let us rather continue our inquiry within the realm of the concrete—and what could be more concrete than the marble Kritios Boy? It may be supposed that, having established this Greek masterpiece as an exemplar of the virtuous cycle at work, we return to it now only to address our final question—and this will indeed come to pass in the few words remaining to us. As I have attempted to indicate throughout this essay, however, art cannot be reduced to a formula. If consciousness is the great enigma of the universe, then art is the great enigma of consciousness; and although we presume to have already placed the Kritios Boy under consideration, the fact of the matter is that this compact figure—re-discovered on the Acropolis in 1865, beneath the rubble of the Persian Wars—has for Western cultural history no less revolutionary significance than Henri Becquerel’s small mass of uranium salts has had for the history of Western science, and thus defies adequate assessment. We have already alluded, for example, to the stringent circumstances of its genesis; but could we not go so far as to say that a block of fine-grained marble is no less deterministic, in its own way, than an ingot of steel; and as evidence of this refractory quality, could we not cite the fact that previous generations of Greek sculptors, working to the Egyptian model, had been able to wrest from such blocks nothing more than their rigid and lifeless kouroi? Yet before us stands the Kritios Boy—and who, in merely standing, has brought into being a universe of possibilities for Western humanity. To this, also, we have already alluded; but again, there is always more to be said: his contrapposto position a model throughout not only the classic and neo-classic periods, but also for Rodin’s thoroughly modern Age of Bronze of 1877; the emphasis placed by a modern source on that same contrapposto pose as the first exposition of the human form as system—and thus the possibility of seeing the Kritios Boy in surprisingly contemporary terms [52]; and finally this summary statement by Kenneth Clark in which is established no less than an ethical dimension: In comparison to the soft figures of Indian art, Greek bodies have structure, depicting a humanity capable of endurance, effort, accomplishment, sacrifice [53]. An astounding legacy, and one which certainly banishes the spectre of an impregnable determinism; but there is also a quite unexpected lesson for those who would take up the challenge of an art of the Arts 2015, 4 88 machine: the phenomenon of the Kritios Boy utterly transcends what might be considered even the most expansive bounds of an artistic practice. Yes, great art is characterized by the longevity of its influence; and yes, the author of this work was no doubt aware that it represented some daring innovations; that same author, however, could have had no inkling whatsoever of the degree to which those innovations would continue to resonate for two millennia. We are dealing here, in other words, with a phenomenon on the order of Magellan’s miraculous 1519 circumnavigation of the globe, or Pasteur’s miraculous 1885 cure of the viral disease rabies; i.e., we are dealing here with the mysterious creative power of the universe itself: Another parable put he forth unto them, saying, the kingdom of heaven is like to a grain of mustard seed, which a man took and sowed in his field; which indeed is the least of all seeds; but when it is grown, it is the greatest among herbs, and becometh a tree, so that the birds of the air come and lodge in the branches thereof [54]. 6. Conclusions Therefore think not, young sculptor, that you are going to waltz into your studio and create the definitive work of mechanical art, and so help launch the new “poetic-mythic-scientific renaissance” [55]. Retain, nonetheless, your youthful passion. Know also that the wind is at your back, and that society is massing its forces behind you, in the forms of a computing infrastructure which has for the first time made it possible to share videos and animations of your designs with those of like mind [56]; a technological infrastructure which caters increasingly to the artist [57]; and a commercial infrastructure which looks increasingly to the arts for direction. Know this, as well: the cosmos is said to be nothing more than a vast mechanism, and therefore indifferent to your existence—yet it has endowed a much suppressed people with an unsurpassed musical genius, and has placed in their throats this vision of a quite beautiful and personal machine: Swing low, sweet chariot, Comin’ for to carry me home! Acknowledgments The author would like to acknowledge Taney Roniger and her editorial dedication in Caldaria to the subject of kinetic sculpture. Conflicts of Interest The author declares no conflict of interest. References and Notes 1. Wikipedia: Trundholm Sun Chariot. Available online: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trundholm_sun_chariot (accessed 5 July 2014). Arts 2015, 4 89 2. Burrough Hill archaeologists find Iron Age chariot remains. BBC, 13 October 2014. Available online: http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-leicestershire-29598266 (accessed on 24 November 2014). Note that this was apparently a ceremonial, artistically-enhanced chariot. 3. Willis, W. Swing Low, Sweet Chariot. Composed prior to 1862. Available online as performed by the Dutch vocal group CALL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wj3dSWxNzQY (accessed on 25 August 2014). 4. Smith, G.W. Lin Emery by Philip Palmedo: A Review by G. W. Smith. Caldaria, September 2013. Available online: http://www.caldaria.org/2013/09/lin-emery-by-philip-palmedo-review- by.html (accessed on 4 July 2014). See, in particular, the last twelve paragraphs. 5. Palmedo, P. Chapter VII, The Historical Context and Beyond. In Lin Emery, Hudson Hills Press: New York, NY, USA, 2012. 6. Smith, G.W.. Aesthetic Wilderness: A Brief Personal History of the Meeting Between Art and the Machine, 1844-2005. Birds-of-the-Air Press: New Orleans, LA, USA, 2011. 7. Burnham, J. Beyond Modern Sculpture: The Effects of Science and Technology on the Sculpture of This Century. George Braziller: New York, NY, USA, 1968. My epigraph is taken from page 219 of this book. 8. See http://www.space-machines.com/ for the author's portfolio; http://www.space- machines.com/smith_2015_cv.pdf for his CV; and http://artent.net/2015/03/27/art-and-artificial- intelligence-by-g-w-smith/ for an autobiographical sketch (all accessed on 15 May 2015). 9. There are affirmative precedents for the question of whether or not such material belongs in a scholarly journal of the arts; see, for example, this recent, idiosyncratic, and in some ways quite aggressive essay by Karen Schiff in Art Journal: Schiff, K. L. Connecting the Dots/Hijacking Typography. Art Journal, Spring, 2014. Available online: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00043249.2014.891911 (accessed on 15 May 2015). It could be argued, of course, that a warning of the polemical nature of Ms. Schiff's contribution is implicit in its not having been presented in academic format; but the author feels that the declarations in the last paragraph of his introduction decisively accomplish this same goal. This is, in short, an essay with footnotes. 10. Grevatt, M. Workers need 30-hour week more than ever. Workers World. Available online: http://www.workers.org/2007/us/flint-0412/ (accessed on 14 April 2014). 11. Hunnicutt, B.K. The End of Shorter Hours. Labor History, 1984, 25, 373-404. Available online: http://www.jhemingway.net/515_Mats/515_Readings/Hunnicutt_End_Shorter_hours.pdf (accessed on 17 May 2015). 12. The middle class family in which I grew up during the 50s and 60s possessed, at one time or another, at least one example of most of these devices, including the private aircraft – my father owned a one-third interest in an Aeronca Chief. 13. "It has dawned on many thoughtful persons today that while we started out to make mass production a means for a better human life, the means have become transformed into ends. As Emerson put it, 'Things are in the saddle and ride mankind.'" Erich Fromm, from his foreword to Looking Backward by Bellamy, E. New American Library: New York, NY, USA. 1960; p. 23. 14. Homer. The Odyssey; Rieu, E.V., Translators; Penguin Books: London, UK, 1991; p. 286. Arts 2015, 4 90 15. Humanity is characterized by its capacity to deal with information in abstract form; and although the 1439 invention of the printing press automated the distribution of such information, the vastly greater undertaking of its collection and indexing remained a strictly manual task prior to the circa 1950 introduction of the computer. Regarding the computer itself, a later section of this essay will consider it in more detail as a type of machine – the point at the moment being that the computer and its electronic brethren can be regarded as a continuation and intensification of twentieth century machine culture. 16. Kolbert, E. No Time. The New Yorker, May 26, 2014. Available online: http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2014/05/26/140526crbo_books_kolbert (accessed on 27 May 2014). 17. Joy, B. Why the Future Doesn't Need Us. Wired, April 2000. Available online: http://archive.wired.com/wired/archive/8.04/joy.html (accessed on 4 July 2014). 18. Teilhard de Chardin, P. The Future of Man; Norman, D., Translators; Harper & Row: New York, NY, USA, 1964; p. 42. 19. As is well known, the Yap Islanders at one time made 600-mile round-trip expeditions by sail to Palau to quarry their stone "money discs". 20. Smith (2011), p. 22. 21. Caldaria. Available online: http://www.caldaria.org/ (accessed on 4 July 2014). 22. SciArt in America. Available online: http://www.sciartinamerica.com/ (accessed on 4 July 2014). 23. Nechvatal, J. Aesthetic States of Frenzy. Caldaria, June 2013. Available online: http://www.caldaria.org/2013/06/aesthetic-states-of-frenzy-by-joseph.html (accessed on 4 July 2014). 24. Lindbergh, C. We. Putnam: New York, NY, USA, 1927. 25. "Brancusi introduced one more important innovation to twentieth-century sculpture – mechanical movement. Not all of his bases are movable but for some he has constructed turntables which slowly rotate the sculpture before the observers' eyes." Ritchie, A.C. Sculpture of the Twentieth Century. The Museum of Modern Art: New York, NY, USA, 1952; p. 23. 26. "A peep into Brancusi's studio, with its extraordinary collection of tools and instruments, reveals certain points of contact between even work of so timeless a quality as his and the field of modern inventions. Brancusi's preference for showing his sculpture on revolving turn-tables, and his claim that films are the only adequate means of illustrating it, provide pertinent cases in point." Giedion-Welcker, C. Contemporary Sculpture: An Evolution in Volume and Space. George Wittenborn: New York, NY, USA,1960, p. 20. 27. Tatlin, V. Monument to the Third International. Available online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dlWdEJiv0TI (accessed on 28 August 2014). 28. Duchamp, M. Rotorelief. Available online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zX4-sDVVDiw (accessed on 28 August 2014). 29. Simon, J.; Leal, B.; Bajac, Q.; Cohen-Solal, A.; Karmel, P.; Mancusi-Ungaro, C.; Nagy, E.; Petroski, H.; Pierre, A.; Rower, A.S.C. Alexander Calder: The Paris Years, 1926-1933. Yale University Press: New Haven, CN, USA, 2008; p. 27. 30. Ibid. p. 231. Arts 2015, 4 91 31. Calder, A. A Universe. Available online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=srdBUm3W8kk (accessed on 28 August 2014). 32. Lemon, R. The Soaring Art of Alexander Calder. The Saturday Evening Post, Feb. 27, 1965, p. 32. Available online: http://artmobiles.blogspot.com/2011/03/alexander-calder-art-mobiles-in- 1965.html (accessed on 5 July 2014). 33. A quite interesting article in Caldaria suggests that Calder's mobile anticipates fractal geometry, and thus the more open-ended outlook of modern science. If so, it was a "bridge too far". Sun, W. Calder's Fractals. Caldaria, March 2014. Available online: http://www.caldaria.org/2014/03/calder-fractals-by-werner-sun.html (accessed on 4 July 2014). 34. Burnham (1968), p. 234. 35. Smith (2011), p. 16. 36. Rickey, G. Untitled. Available online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AE4eR6nc_oY (accessed on 28 August 2014). 37. Emery, L. Wave. Available online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rIDe2n17jJ0 (accessed on 28 August 2014). 38. Tinguely, J. Available online: http://vimeo.com/55138915 (accessed on 28 August 2014). 39. Schöffer, N. Chronos 5. Available online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jh5zmrupixg (accessed on 28 August 2014). 40. Ganson, A. Machine with Concrete. Available online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5q- BH-tvxEg (accessed on 5 July 2014). 41. Smith (2011), p.5. 42. Palmedo (2012), p. 127. 43. Smith (2011), p. 12. 44. Giacometti, of course, created his own tribute to the chariot. Salmon, F. The Not So Special Hundred-Million-Dollar Giacometti. The New Yorker, 5 November, 2014. Available online: http://www.newyorker.com/business/currency/the-hundred-million-dollar-giacometti (accessed on 24 November 2014). 45. Smith, G.W. Battlestar Galactica. Caldaria, June 2013. Available online: http://www.caldaria.org/2013/06/battlestar-galactica-by-g-w-smith.html (accessed on 5 July 2014). 46. "The increasing diversity, inventiveness, and popularity of kinetic sculpture in the mid-1960s came face-to-face with upheavals in the concept of what constituted art. Post-Vietnam disillusionment crushed the art object under the heavy antiart weight of conceptual postmodernism." Palmedo (2012), p. 127. 47. Saltz, J. Clusterfuck Esthetics. The Village Voice, Nov. 29, 2005. Available online: http://www.villagevoice.com/2005-11-29/art/clusterfuck-aesthetics/ (accessed on 5 July 2014). 48. "The sole purpose of the arts is neither description nor imitation, but the creation of unknown beings from elements which are always present but not apparent." Raymond Duchamp-Villon, as quoted in: Hamilton, G.H.; Agee, W. Raymond Duchamp-Villon. Walker & Co.: New York, NY, USA, 1967; p. 112. As to my own contention that modern art has not addressed the machine as entity, the industrial paintings of Charles Sheeler might be proposed as a counterexample; but rarely, if ever, does Sheeler present a complete, functioning machine – his interest, rather, is in Arts 2015, 4 92 the machine as a formal compositional element. For an example of art in which a non-human subject is treated as an agent of some gravity, one might turn instead to the nineteenth century animal sculpture of Antoine-Louis Bayre and Emmanuel Frémiet. 49. Smith (2011), p. 13. 50. Ibid. p. 15. 51. Nagel, T. Mind and Cosmos: Why the Materialist Neo-Darwinian Conception of Nature is Almost Certainly False. Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2012. 52. Wikipedia: Kritios Boy. Available online: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritios_boy (accessed on 5 July 2014). 53. Clark, K. The Nude: A Study in Ideal Form. Pantheon: New York, NY, USA, 1956. 54. The Gospel of Matthew (King James Version), Chapter 13, Verses 31-32. 55. Nechvatal, J.; Perret, C. Our Digital Noology: Catherine Perret in Conversation with Joseph Nechvatal. Scan Journal of Media Arts Culture. Available online: https://web.archive.org/web/20070630024000/http://scan.net.au/scan/magazine/display.php?journ al_id=56 (accessed on 1 September 2014). 56. As of July 2014, a YouTube search for "kinetic sculpture" yielded 92,300 results. Cited following are a few examples of the most substantial such work: Lilly, Anne. Flower Theorem. http://vimeo.com/19396078 (accessed on 25 August 2014); Schülke, Björn. Space Observer. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6IDRysiuZb0 (accessed on 25 August 2014); Townley, Jennifer. Schaak. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fZfBapFVLiI (accessed on 25 August 2014); Woodward, Laura. Shallows. http://vimeo.com/27367992 (accessed on 27 August 2014). 57. One example is the Italian electronics manufacturer Arduino. Arduino. Available online: http://www.arduino.cc/ (accessed on 17 May 2015). © 2015 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 
work_cjgprk5t6vevrmknjcvmxnhuy4	----	What George Forgot by Kathy Wolff (review) What George Forgot by Kathy Wolff (review) Quinita Balderson Bulletin of the Center for Children's Books, Volume 71, Number 1, September 2017, p. 46 (Review) Published by Johns Hopkins University Press DOI: For additional information about this article [ Access provided at 6 Apr 2021 02:36 GMT from Carnegie Mellon University ] https://doi.org/10.1353/bcc.2017.0658 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/667891 https://doi.org/10.1353/bcc.2017.0658 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/667891 46 • The BulleTin wolff, kaThY What George Forgot; illus. by Richard Byrne. Bloomsbury, 2017 [26p] ISBN 978-1-61963-871-6 $16.99 Reviewed from galleys R 4-7 yrs George has his morning routine perfectly memorized but just as he is about to step outside, he gets the nagging feeling that he has forgotten something important. But what? (Storytime spectators may note George’s exposed polka-dot briefs and be tempted to shout out what George forgot.) To be sure he’s prepared for the school day, he mentally runs through all the things he has done; that laundry list of tasks is so daunting that it’s a wonder he can make time to sufficiently tease his sister. Even though his playful antics distract him from his routine enough to cause a temporary memory lapse, Sis comes through for him in the end with his missing pants. The cover art (dominated by an overstuffed dresser) and endpapers (filled with everything he needs to get ready) show evidence of just how much is involved in this kid’s morning routine. Pencil drawings are digitally colored with soft pastels that create a palette filled with both joyfulness and innocence, a tone well-suited to George’s angelic gaze that could get him out of nearly any jam. There is something admirable about the sincere youthful attempt at being organized, and getting lost in George’s messiness is part of the fun as George visualizes everything he did and allows viewers to get sidetracked along with him. QB wood, susaN American Gothic: The Life of Grant Wood; illus. by Ross MacDon- ald. Abrams, 2017 40p Trade ed. ISBN 978-1-4197-2533-3 $18.95 E-book ed. ISBN 978-1-68335-097-9 $15.54 R Gr. 3-5 Here middle-grade readers meet a twentieth-century Iowan, Grant Wood, who knows he wants to paint, knows what he wants to paint (other Iowans), knows where to learn to paint (Paris, obviously), but just can’t reconcile the painterly styles then in vogue—Impressionism, Cubism, Abstract Art—with his subject matter. Hazy views of French cathedrals, faces parsed into multiple planes, colored geometric forms had little to do with the bib overalls, rolling farmland, and framed houses that consumed his interest, and even less to do with the economic challenges of the Great Depression holding sway over America’s economy. A gothic arched window in an Iowa farmhouse, however, caught Wood’s attention, connecting his European experience with American reality, and inspired what would become not only his signature painting but also a seminal work of the American Regionalist school, American Gothic. Susan Wood addresses head-on some of the debates and myths surrounding the cryptic figures of the iconic pitchfork and its dour owners, and she selects several other paintings for viewing and discussion which explore Wood’s participation in the homegrown art movement he helped to found. MacDonald is an ideal choice for illustrator, with his signature retro style and saturated colors that recall early Disney animation and Little Golden Books, which intersected the Regionalist era. An author’s note, timeline, list of sources, reproductions of several Wood’s paintings, and a large photograph of Wood posing in his studio are also included. EB 
work_clbifb4hofggtb3qpxcj2ivrra	----	144 Psyche A NE"' GEX"CS OF REDuYIIDLE. By E. BERGROTH, Fitchburg, l\lass. [August Among some Hemiptera received some time ago from the des- ert regions of northwest Argentina, there was a very remarkable Reduviid, by its color, the structure of the short head and broad, laterally not sinuated but reflexed pronotum anJ the whole facies closely resembling a Coreid. So strong is the likeness that I had placed it among my material of Coreidre, and it was not until an attempt to determine it that its Reduviid nature revealed itself. Psarnrnolestes gen. nov. Corpus robustum, oblongo-ovatum, opacum. Caput latitudine sua paullulo longius, pronoto paullo brevius, parte postoculari antcoculari triplo breviore et nonnihillatiore, pone oeulos lateribus callosa, basi subito constricta, parte anteocu- lari aeque lata ac longa, inter oculos et apicem tuberculorum antenniferorum suh- parallela, tylo apicem truncatum versus clilatato, jugis apicem versus divergentibus, tylo aeque longis, oculis magnis, subglobosis, ma•imam partem altitudinis capitis occupantibus, ocellis atque oculis aeque late distantihus, ad hos valde approximatis, tuberculis antenniferi se supero visis Iibert' porrectis et hreviter cylindricis, ant ennis ab oculis quam ab apice capitis paullo longius insertis, brevibus, basin pronoti baud attingentibus, articulo primo brevissimo, incrassato, latitudine sua paullo longiore, apicem capitis haud attingente, articulo secundo latitudini spatii interocu- laris cum uno oculo subaeque Iongo, tertio secundo nonnihil breviore, quarto tertio parte tertia breviore, rostro val de depresso, spatio interoculari inferiore Ia tiore, gulam subtangente, marginem anticum prosterni attingente, articulo primo medium partis anteoeularis attingente, secundo primo fere duplo longiore, tcrtio primo paullo breviore. Pronotum transversum, apice vix sinuatum, marginibus lateralibus rectis, r eflexis, antice in tuberculum porrectum breYiter conicum productis, angulis humeralibus et basalibus rotundatis, non prominulis, impressione transwrsa disci ante medium sita sat profunda sed latera non attingente, carinis duabus longitudi- nalibus parallelis obtusis interrupta, his carinis antice in medium lobi antici con- tinuatis, postice etiam in lobum posticum breviter productis, deincle retrorsum leYiter diwrgentibus et sensim obsolescentibus. Scutellum aequilateraliter tri- angulare, leniter convexum, apice horizontali, vix producto. Sulcus stridulatorius prosterni latus, leviter impressus. :l\fesosternum medio gibbum, parte gibbosa longitudinaliter leYiter impressa. Hemelytra abdomine angustiora. Abdomen lateribus integrum. Pedes brews, antici leYiter, posteriores magis distantes, anteriores suha egue longi quam postici breviores, femuribus omnibus crassiusculis, inermibus, posticis m edium ventris nonnihil supcrantibus. Allied to the genus Cmwrhinus Lap., but at once distinguished 1911] Bergroth-A New Genus of Reduviidce 145 by the structure of the head ami pronotum, the gibbous meso- sternum, and a quite different facies. Psamn1olestes coreodes sp. nov. Luride tcstaceus, ubique plus minusve fusco-conspurcatus, cellulis mcmbranre maxima parte fuscis, margine abdominis in omnibus scgmentis maculis duabus oblongis nigris notato, una ad basin, altera mox pone medium, ventre lincis tribus longitudinalibus fuscis signato, linea media parum distincta, lincis extcrioribu s irregularibus, hie et illic interruptis. Antennae breviter puberulae, articulis duobus ultimis praeterca setis rigidis semierectis parce vestitis, hi s articulis (basi tertii excepta) et apice articuli secundi infuscatis. Hostrum se tulosum. Pronotum longitudine media 2-3 latius, lobo postico antico duplo et dimidio longiorc. Hem- elytra ( ~) abdomine paullo breviora. Alae dilut e lacteae. Segmentum sextum ventrale ( ~) medio scgmentis quinto et quarto dimidioquc tertii unitis aeque Jon- gum. Pedes densius fusco-variega ti, tibiis apice fuscis. Long. ~ 15 mm. Argentina (Chaco de Santiago del Estero, Rio Salado). N. B. Attempts have been made of late to use the name Tri- atoma Lap., instead of Conorhinus. As the name Triatoma was proposed under the misconception that the antennre are three- jointed in this genus, and as it therefore was rejected by Laporte himself as inappropriate and misleading and altered to Conorlziwus in the same paper, there is , howeYer, no sufficient reason to discard the name by which the genus has been known nearly eighty years. Submit your manuscripts at http://www.hindawi.com Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Anatomy Research International Peptides International Journal of Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com International Journal of Volume 2014 Zoology Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Molecular Biology International Genomics International Journal of Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 The Scientific World Journal Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Bioinformatics Advances in Marine Biology Journal of Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Signal Transduction Journal of Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 BioMed Research International Evolutionary Biology International Journal of Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Biochemistry Research International Archaea Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Genetics Research International Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Advances in Virolog y Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Nucleic Acids Journal of Volume 2014 Stem Cells International Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Enzyme Research Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 International Journal of Microbiology 
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work_cwo3fgmburgnxanphhvucldb64	----	EDITORIAL COMMENT 321 THE PAN -AM ERICAN SCIENTIFIC CONGRESS The Second Pan-American Scientific Congress met in the City of Wash­ ington on December 27, 1915, and adjourned on January 8, 1916. It is to have a successor. The third of the scientific congresses will meet in the City of Lima on the 16th day of November, 1924. It was decided at the second congress that the third should meet at Lima, and it was anticipated that it would be within a period of five years from the date of adjournment. The continuance of the war, and the confusion of the international situation subsequent to and growing out of the war, have had their effects in the Americas. Finally, however, the obstacles standing in the way of a third congress have been overcome, and the official call has been issued by the Government of Peru. A circular signed by M. V. Yillaran, as President, and Jos6 P. Bravo, as Secretary General of the Organization Committee, has been sent out in order to obtain at Lima, under the auspices of the congress, the presence of adequate representatives in all branches of science in the Western Continent. One has appropriately been received by the President of the American Society of International Law, requesting its cooperation and the appointment of official delegates to attend and to participate in the labors of the Third Pan American Scientific Congress. In support of the statement that science in all its branches is to be repre­ sented, a brief quotation is made from the invitation to the American Society of International Law: The Congress will comprise the nine Sections hereinbelow mentioned, the Presidents whereof have been appointed. 1.— Anthropology, History and related Sciences— President, Dr. Felipe de Osma, President of the Historical Institute of Peru. 2.— Physics, Mathematics and related Sciences—President, Rear Admiral M. Melit6n Carbajal, President of the Geographical Society of Lima. 3.—-Mining, Metallurgy, Economic Geology and Applied Chemistry— President, Engineer Jose Balta, Professor of Economic Geology at the Lima School of Engineering. 4.— Engineering President, Engineer Dario Valdiz&n, Dean of Peru­ vian Engineers. 5.— Medicine and Sanitation— President, Dr. Guillermo Gastaneta, Dean of the Faculty of Medicine. 6.— Biology, Agriculture and related Sciences— President, Dr. Wenceslao F. Molina, Dean of the Faculty of Sciences. 7.—-Private, Public and International Law— President, Dr. Mariano Ignacio Prado y Ugarteche, Dean of the Faculty of Jurisprudence. 8.—-Economics and Sociology— President, Dr. Jose Matias Manzanilla, Dean of the Faculty of Politics and Economics. 9.— Education— President, Dr. Alejandro 0 . Deustua, Dean of the Faculty of Letters and Director of the National Library. The congress opening on the 16th of November is expected to last a fort­ night, and in this congress covering all branches of science, it is expected 322 THE AM ERICAN JOURNAL OF IN TE RN ATIO N AL LA W that the papers will cover at least its most important phases, and that they and their discussions will contribute in some measure to the advancement of science. It is of no small importance to bring the intellectual 61ite of the Americas together, who will discover their oneness notwithstanding differ­ ences of race, language and inherited traditions. “ Scratch a Russian,” they say, “ and you will find a Tartar.” Scratch an American of the North, of the Center and of the South, and you will find a human being. The great difficulty is to conserve the enthusiasm which is inevitably produced by these gatherings. The interval between them is considerable, and the in­ fluence of the second has spent itself long before the meeting of the third, just as the influence of the first had spent itself before the meeting of the second congress. The desideratum is that the connection between the con­ gresses be preserved; that some machinery be devised which will keep in contact with the scientists during the intervals between the congresses, and that effect may be given, if only in part, to their recommendations, other than to have them fall still-born as has been the case with each of these international gatherings. Not the least important service of a third Ameri­ can Congress meeting at Lima would be the discovery of some means where­ by the scientists of the Western Continent should keep in session, as it were, after their adjournment, and under direction continue their labors. The difficulty is great, but the greater the difficulty, the greater the need of meeting it. It is to be hoped that many Americans of the North will find it possible to attend the congress, and take part in its proceedings. The meeting is to be held in the capital of Peru, and Peru has always made a special appeal to the Americans of the North. It is no discourtesy to the other American countries to say this, and any seeming discourtesy will be removed when the reason for it is given. That this should be so is a triumph of American literature. Many years ago, in 1847, a distinguished North American, one Prescott by name, published two volumes on the Conquest of Peru— a work speedily translated into Spanish, into French, and, indeed, into German and Dutch. The Americans of the North have been accustomed to read this masterpiece in their early youth, and the impression of the Incas of Peru, which they have received in their most impressionable period, remains with them all their lives, and Peru seems to them in no uncertain sense a land of dreams and of promise. The writer of this comment, if indeed it merits this title, has felt their charm, and he looks forward to the congress at Lima, which he hopes to attend in person. If we only had a Prescott for every American Republic! J a m e s B r o w n S c o t t . 
work_d67zudj6z5ht7j5liq6y6ogygm	----	Impressionism, Realism, and the aging of Ashcroft and Mermin Impressionism, Realism, and the aging of Ashcroft and Mermin Neil Ashcroft Citation: Physics Today 66, 7, 8 (2013); doi: 10.1063/PT.3.2025 View online: https://doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.2025 View Table of Contents: https://physicstoday.scitation.org/toc/pto/66/7 Published by the American Institute of Physics ARTICLES YOU MAY BE INTERESTED IN Impressionism, Realism, and the aging of Ashcroft and Mermin Physics Today 66, 8 (2013); https://doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.2023 Impressionism, Realism, and the aging of Ashcroft and Mermin Physics Today 66, 8 (2013); https://doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.2024 Commentary: Quantum mechanics: Fixing the shifty split Physics Today 65, 8 (2012); https://doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.1618 When condensed-matter physics became king Physics Today 72, 30 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.4110 Can the scientist play a role in the laws of physics? Physics Today 72, 53 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.4113 Measured responses to quantum Bayesianism Physics Today 65, 12 (2012); https://doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.1803 https://physicstoday.scitation.org/action/clickThrough?utm_medium=Article Download&utm_campaign=MCL_JAD_0620&loc=pt/pdf&pubId=40000052&placeholderId=101032&productId=101078&id=101460&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.madcitylabs.com%3Futm_source%3DAIP%20Physics%20Today https://physicstoday.scitation.org/author/Ashcroft%2C+Neil /loi/pto https://doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.2025 https://physicstoday.scitation.org/toc/pto/66/7 https://physicstoday.scitation.org/publisher/ https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/PT.3.2023 https://doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.2023 https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/PT.3.2024 https://doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.2024 https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/PT.3.1618 https://doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.1618 https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/PT.3.4110 https://doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.4110 https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/PT.3.4113 https://doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.4113 https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/PT.3.1803 https://doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.1803 8 July 2013 Physics Today www.physicstoday.org T he January 2013 issue of PHYSICS TODAY contained informative and enjoyable articles on Norman Ramsey’s separated oscillatory field method and its continuing impact on precision spectroscopy research (pages 25, 27, and 36). However, a photo on the cover may be misleading. The molecu- lar-beam apparatus labeled as “1949” was actually constructed by Tom Gal- lagher (now at the University of Vir- ginia) and me as part of our thesis proj- ects done under Norman’s guidance at Harvard University in 1969–70. Although originally designed for high-precision measurements of hyper- fine structure in molecules, the apparatus was later used for a search for P- and T-violat- ing effects in m o l e c u l e s . 1 After Norman closed down his Harvard laboratory in the 1980s, the a p p a r a t u s was transported to St. Olaf College in Minnesota, where Jim Cederberg, an- other Ramsey graduate student, used it for undergraduate research projects for more than 25 years. During that time, according to Jim’s website, more than 70 students worked with the apparatus to study the hyperfine structure of polar molecules; that work resulted in 16 published papers. A few years after Jim retired from St. Olaf, the apparatus was moved to Georgia’s Southern Polytech- nic State University; under the direction of Lu Kang, it will, I hope, inspire an- other generation of students in the joys of atomic and molecular spectroscopy. Not only does Norman’s intellectual legacy live on, but at least in this case, the physical apparatus itself continues to be productive after more than 40 years of active use. Reference 1. D. A. Wilkening, N. F. Ramsey, D. J. Larson, Phys. Rev. A 29, 425 (1984). Robert C. Hilborn (rhilborn@aapt.org) American Association of Physics Teachers College Park, Maryland Impressionism, Realism, and the aging of Ashcroft and Mermin F or many years I have been eagerly awaiting the second edition of Neil Ashcroft and David Mermin’s Solid State Physics (Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1976). It is undoubtedly one of the best physics books ever written, but it is not aging well: An insensitive community keeps advancing the field with little respect for its prophets. However, after learning in PHYSICS TODAY (July 2012, page 8, and Mer- min’s response to letters, December 2012, page 12) that Mermin has become a QBist, I am afraid the sharp explana- tions in the first edition might become as blurred as Marcel Duchamp’s Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 2). How are we supposed to understand state- ments such as “Filled Bands Are Inert,” one of the book’s subheadings, from a QBist perspective? What is the Bayesian account of an exciton? And how about effective masses? Are they the second derivative of a belief? My only hope is that Neil Ashcroft remains, if not a full-blown Realist, at least an Impressionist whose motifs can be clearly identified by our aging eyes. José Menéndez (jose.menendez@asu.edu) Arizona State University Tempe ■ Mermin replies: I am a realist. But my model of reality necessarily rests on what I have experienced, either di- rectly, or indirectly through the reports of others. For all practical purposes (FAPP, John Bell’s famous adverbial acronym), it doesn’t matter if, like most physicists, I confer reality on such the- oretical abstractions as quantum states or energy levels that enable me to cal- culate the likelihood of my subsequent experience. But for resolving obstinate conceptual conundrums (FROCC), such as “the quantum measurement problem” or “quantum nonlocality,” it is crucial not to reify our intellectual tools. “Filled bands are inert” means FROCC that “if the electronic state I assign to a crystal is an antisym- metrized product of Bloch levels, then, in calculating the odds on what I am likely to experience when I subject the crystal to a sufficiently weak interven- tion, I can ignore levels from bands en- tirely below the Fermi energy.” I leave the FROCC view of electrons, crystals, Bloch levels, bands, Fermi energies, excitons, and effective masses as exer- cises for the reader. N. David Mermin (ndm4@cornell.edu) Cornell University Ithaca, New York ■ Ashcroft replies: Realist, and cali- brated as full-blown? Given the sub- tleties of the notion of reality, I some- how doubt it. Impressionist? I delight in freely recorded broad-brush rendi- tions of the observable physical world. But Marcel Duchamp’s painting comes across more as a superimposition of rather sharp images. They seem to re- flect quite lucidly a progression in time of a more developed form. Over the years many readers have remarked that the initial edition of our book should “not be touched”; it is just right in its treatments of the fundamen- tals. But by all means augment it with a sequel, encompassing the many ad- vances in condensed-matter physics that have occurred over the past 38 years. The view that it should not be touched seems to have been shared by those who translated our 1976 text into French, German, and Portuguese just within the past decade. A Norman Ramsey cover story readers’ forum Letters and commentary are encouraged and should be sent by email to ptletters@aip.org (using your surname as the Subject line), or by standard mail to Letters, PHYSICS TODAY, American Center for Physics, One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740-3842. Please include your name, work affiliation, mailing address, email address, and daytime phone number on your letter and attachments. You can also contact us online at http://contact.physicstoday.org. We reserve the right to edit submissions. José Menéndez’s laudatory com- ments about our book are generous in the extreme. David and I are both grate- ful, and together we hope that the aging process, of ourselves and of our text- book, will not unduly accelerate. Neil Ashcroft (ashcroftnw@gmail.com) Cornell University Ithaca, New York Atmosphere of Venus: Problems in perception V ladimir Shiltsev, Igor Nesterenko, and Randall Rosenfeld call Mikhail Lomonosov a great Rus - sian polymath (Quick Study, PHYSICS TODAY, February 2013, page 64), and indeed, he is credited with many im- portant discoveries. In astronomy, how- ever, he is almost exclusively remem- bered for his putative “discovery” of the atmosphere of Venus at the transit of 1761. Shiltsev, who is a distinguished physi- cist and director of the Accelerator Physics Center at Fermilab but not an astronomer, and several colleagues at- tempted to “experimentally rerun” Lomonosov’s discovery at the June 2012 transit. They equipped them- selves with 18th-century instruments similar but not identical to the one Lomonosov used (which seems not to have survived) and sought to make out the luminous arc that fringes the sil- houette of Venus edging onto the Sun. This arc, or aureole, is produced by refraction of sunlight in the planet’s atmosphere. Meanwhile, at the same transit, Rosenfeld and colleagues in Saskatchewan made observations using modern doublet lenses and concluded that the aureole could, in principle, be detected with a 50-mm lens, the type Lomonosov most likely used. Putting all this together, Shiltsev, Nesterenko, and Rosenfeld conclude that Lomonosov must have seen the arc and on that basis correctly deduced the existence of the atmosphere. We disagree with that conclusion. Such an experimental rerunning of Lomonosov’s observations shows only that he could have made out the arc, not that he did. And we don’t think he did, for the following reasons. Repeating a historic visual observa- tion with a telescope is not exactly analogous to repeating experiments in physics, such as those of Hans Christian Oersted with electricity and magnet- ism, say, or Robert Boyle’s with an air pump. In those experiments, all the sig- nificant experimental conditions can be controlled for and thus duplicated. But in astronomical observations, it is diffi- cult to achieve the same control, since the conditions include not only the aperture and type of the telescope but also atmospheric conditions and sub- jective factors such as the observer’s preconceptions and beliefs. Lomonosov held, as did many schol- ars of his day, that all the other planets were inhabited. Accordingly, Venus must have a considerable atmosphere to support its inhabitants. He therefore would have seized on possible blurring or other distortions as evidence of the existence of an atmosphere. To establish Lomonosov’s claim as a discovery and not merely a plausible surmise, it is not enough to show that a modern observer with smallish equipment can see the aureole and that Lomonosov must therefore have done so. One must show, as Rosenfeld stresses,1 that “careful analysis of observational records”—and that alone—can explain what Lomonosov saw. We took that approach and tried to do this by translating Lomonosov’s documents and reviewing his draw- ings.2 Importantly, he himself never referred to an “arc,” but rather to a “bump” or “blister.” Furthermore, he said he saw a “sliver ” for one sec- ond—another possible atmospheric sighting—but at the recent transit, we could discern the atmosphere for many minutes through small tele- scopes, one of us (Sheehan) from Flagstaff, Arizona, and the other (Pasachoff) from Haleakala, Hawaii. A careful analysis of Lomonosov’s writings and drawings shows that what he observed, at least as he recorded it, did not resemble the ac- tual aureole as recorded in later ground- and satellite-based observa- tions. Shiltsev’s drawing (figure 1c in the Quick Study) shows what appears to be a classical “black drop” bordered by a distorted piece of solar limb, which he identifies with Lomonosov’s bump shown in figure 1a. Taken at face value, that analogy suggests that Lomonosov was actually recording a variant of the black-drop effect, which turns out to have nothing to do with Venus’s atmosphere.3,4 The thickish bump is only superficially similar to the hairline arc in figure 1b, Alexandre Koukarine’s drawing, which correctly depicts the aureole. www.physicstoday.org July 2013 Physics Today 9 Stanford Research Systems Phone (408) 744-9040 www.thinkSRS.com AC Resistance Bridge · Accurate millikelvin thermometry · Microvolt/picoamp excitation · 1 mΩ to 100 MΩ range · 2 Hz to 60 Hz frequency range · Linearized analog output The SIM921 AC Resistance Bridge is a precision, low-noise instrument designed for cryogenic thermometry applications. With its ultra-low excitation power, the SIM921 can measure thermistors and other resistive samples at millikelvin temperatures with negligible self-heating errors. SIM900 Mainframe loaded with a variety of SIM modules SIM921 ... $2495 (U.S. List) 
work_d74x3xjfpfhttc4laaaitwysba	----	Microsoft Word - 263-916-1-RV.doc Švejdová K. et. al./Scientific Papers: Animal Science and Biotechnologies, 2013, 46 (1) 325 Technological Possibilities of Contactless Measuring the Body Surface Temperature Kateřina Švejdová*, Miloslav Šoch, Anna Šimková, Luboš Zábranský, Luboš Smutný, Šárka Smutná, Bohuslav Čermák University of South Bohemia in the Czech Budejovice, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Veterinary Sciences and Product Quality, 370 05, Studentská 13, České Budějovice, Czech Republic Abstract The regular measuring of the body surface temperature can help to evaluate health condition of animals and react immediately on the first symptoms of illness. There are many of technological possibilities of contactless measuring the body surface temperature. It is important to find the right part of the body which the temperature will show the first possible symptoms of illness. This experiment with dairy cows and heifers was realized at the farm in Petrovice. The body surface temperature and rectal temperature of animals were observed in dairy cows and heifers. It was rated 3 different groups of dairy cows and heifers in 2 stables. The body temperature was obtained by the thermocamera. The temperatures were shot from the 3 different parts of body of animals (the body core, the eyes and the udder). The relative humidity, temperature, cooling value environment and flow rate in stable were measured as further independent variables. The aim of this study was finding how body temperature correlate together with health of animals, reproduction, milk quality, vital signs and productivity of dairy cows and heifers. Keywords: body surface temperature, dairy cows, heifers, thermocamera, welfare. 1. Introduction  The balance of chemical and physical thermoregulation is safeguarded with a rectal temperature, which is an indicative of the internal body temperature. The best indicator of the physiological response to stress is body temperature because it is under non-stressed conditions almost constant. On the basis of the changes of the rectal temperature can quickly deduce on the thermal load of the body and the involvement of an adaptive mechanisms [1]. Literature gives the range of the rectal temperature in cattle from 37.5 to 39.5 °C [2]. However Bukvaj [3] shows fluctuations in rectal temperature in dairy cows from 36.9 to 39.1 °C. The unity of the chemical and physical thermoregulation is achieved by the maintaining  * Corresponding author: Kateřina Švejdová, tel.: +420387772640, e- mail: Ramandu@seznam.cz constant body temperature of animals. However there are many factors which may affect such as a daytime, an age of animals, a sexual activity, a physical performance, a food intake, psychological influences, the state cover the body, the impact of climate and microclimate etc. [4]. To evaluation of the health status of animals can help regular measurement of the body surface temperature of animals and so immediately respond to the first signs of illness. There are many methods of contactless measuring the body surface temperature. It is important to find the right part of the body whose temperature will point to the first potential signs of the disease. One objective of this experiment was to find how the body temperature is correlated with one of the microclimatic parameters. In this case it is with the cooling value of the environment. Švejdová K. et. al./Scientific Papers: Animal Science and Biotechnologies, 2013, 46 (1) 326 2. Materials and methods This experiment was carried out at the stables with free boxing barns at the farm in Petrovice. Measurements were carried out right in the stable and cows were fixed in box. Three different groups of cows and heifers were evaluated in two sheds with different microclimate conditions. The temperatures were recorded with a thermographic camera Testo 875 from three different parts of the body (body core, the eyes and an udder). These temperatures were given in the correlation with one of the independent microclimatic value – the cooling value of the environment. That was obtained with the using of the psychrometer. The experiment was conducted during three month (February to April) at weekly intervals. 36 dairy cows and heifers were measured. They were divided by 12 pieces in three groups. Cows and heifers from the second day to two months after calving were in the first group. The second group was consisted of cows from fourth to fifth month after birth. The third group included cows from seventh to eight month after calving. Thermograms of body part measurements (body core, the eyes and an udder) were taken from a thermographic camera Testo 875 and recorded in the memory. The thermograms were then evaluated and put together in the tables. The average body parts temperatures of animals from each measurement were given in the correlation with the cooling value of the environment. It was obtained with the using of the psychrometer. The resulting values were processed into graphs put together a program Microsoft Excel. 3. Results and discussion The results of correlation of the cooling value of the environment and average body parts temperature of animals (body core, the eyes and an udder) are shown in the Figures 1, 2, 3. It was found that the temperatures of the measured body parts of animals were noticeably affected by the ambient temperature. The most significant fluctuations were in the third group of dairy cows and heifers. This group of cows occurred in the different stable than the first and second groups which were together in other stable. The third group was housed in another shed with the significantly different microclimate conditions. The Figures also show greater fluctuations of the cooling values of the environment. That may be caused by structural building conditions of the stables (windows, open/close doors, etc.) But these variations did not significantly affect the resulting values of the measured body parts temperature of animals. Figure 1. Correlation of the average body core temperature and the cooling value of the environment Švejdová K. et. al./Scientific Papers: Animal Sciences and Biotechnologies, 2013, 46 (1) 327 Figure 2. Correlation of the average temperature of eye and the cooling value of the environment Figure 3. Correlation of the average temperature of the udder and the cooling value of the environment Švejdová L. et. al./Scientific Papers: Animal Science and Biotechnologies, 2013, 46 (1) 328 The Figure 2 shows that at least impressionable parts of the body were an eye. The different factors, such as a length and density of coat, a colour or degree of muscularity, on which significantly depends the emissivity (the ability to emit infrared radiation), acted in the remaining two measured parts of the body (body core and an udder). KURSA et al. [5] state the optimal cooling values of the environment for the adult animals 293 - 419 W.m-2. The figures observe the cooling values of the environment much higher than the exceeding value above 502 W.m-2. It should indicate the sense of cold for the animals. The increased cooling value of the environment like this negatively affects the health status of the animals. 4. Conclusions The measurements in chosen groups of cows and heifers at the farm in Petrovice shows that the average body parts temperature of animals (body core, the eyes and an udder) was not significantly affected by the cooling value of the environment. A main role played the emissivity and the setting of the thermographic camera. Different factors such as the nature coat or degree of muscular acted for each animal. These significantly affected the results. Dairy cows and heifers showed no negative effects of thermal comfort though the high measured value of the optimal cooling values of the environment. Acknowledgements This article was written during realization of the project NAZV QJ1210144 and GAJU 020/2013/Z References 1. Nový, Z., Knížková, I., Jílek, F., Kunc, P., Vliv nízkých teplot na termoregulaci a energetický metabolismus u dojnic. Živoč.výr., 1996, 41, 6, pp.251- 255. 2. Sova, Z., Bukvaj, J., Koudela, K., Kroupová, V., Pješčák, M., Podaný, J., Fyziologie hospodářských zvířat. Praha: SZN, 1990, pp. 469. 3. Bukvaj, J., Vztah organismu skotu k prostředí ve velkochovech. VŠZ Praha, agronomická fakulta, 1986, pp. 175. 4. Šoch, M., Vliv prostředí na vybrané ukazatele pohody skotu. ZF JU České Budějovice, 2005, pp. 288. 5. Kursa, J., Jílek, F., Vítovec, J., Rajmon, R., Zoohygiena a prevence chorob hospodářských zvířat. ZF JU České Budějovice, 1998, pp. 200. 
work_dcbjhqtvlzg67mmaazpguszp4i	----	253 서론 심한 치주질환에 의한 치아상실을 장기간 방치할 경우 인접치열 및 대합치열의 이상까지 발생하게 된다. 이러 한 치주질환 환자 치료시 치주 건강을 회복할 수 있도록 원인을 고려한 광범위한 치료가 필요하다. 또한 기능과 심미를 회복하기 위해 전악 수복 보철치료가 필요할 수 도 있다.1,2 심한 치주질환 환자 치료시 가능하면 자연치 를 유지하는 것이 바람직하나, 치주적인 예후와 보철 계 획에 따라 발치 치아를 결정해야 하는 경우가 있다. 발치 후 상실부위는 치주적으로 건강한 환자와 동일하게 임플 란트로 성공적인 치료가 가능하나 주기적인 치주관리가 수반되어야 한다.3,4 임상가들 사이에서 치주적으로 예후가 좋지 않은 치아 를 치주치료하는 것은 임플란트 치료에 비해 예후가 불 확실하고 시간소요가 많다고 여겨지고 있어 중등도나 심 한 치주질환 환자의 경우 치아 발치 후 임플란트를 이용 하여 수복하는 경우가 많다. 이것은 임플란트가 치주적 으로 예후가 좋지 않은 치아보다 기능을 더 잘하고 치주 질환 감수성에 관계없이 임플란트 수명이 길다는 믿음하 에 이뤄지고 있다. 일부에서는 자연치를 유지하는 것이 더 나은 치료가 될 수 있음에도 불구하고 임플란트 시술 에 너무 확신을 갖고 예후가 불확실한 비싼 치료를 하는 경우도 있다고 주장하는 임상가들도 있다. 이 임상가들 은 골부족이나 임플란트 주위염에 의한 임플란트의 실패 위험성에 주목한다. 골부족시 상악동 거상술과 같은 골 Case Reporthttp://dx.doi.org/10.14368/jdras.2015.31.3.253 *Correspondence to: Hong-So Yang Professor, Department of Prosthodontics, School of Dentistry, Chonnam National University, 33, Yongbong-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju, 61186, Republic of Korea Tel: +82-62-530-5638, Fax: +82-62-530-5639, E-mail: yhsdent@jnu.ac.kr Received: June 15, 2015/Last Revision: July 21, 2015/Accepted: July 27, 2015 full mouth rehabilitation with a few remaining teeth and implants for a patient with chronic periodontitis: a case report Eun-Jung Shin1, Mong-Sook Vang1, Hong-So Yang1*, Sang-Won Park1,2, Hyun-Pil Lim1, Kwi-Dug Yun1 1Department of Prosthodontics, School of Dentistry, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea 2RIS Foundation for Advanced Biomaterials, School of Dentistry, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea Chronic periodontitis involves subsequent loss of teeth, and if left untreated, can lead to adjacent teeth drifting and supraeruption of the rest dentition. Careful consideration has to be given when deciding extraction of remaining teeth in treatment of periodontally compromised dentitions. For tooth-supported fixed partial dentures or removable partial dentures, periodontally compromised teeth are extracted due to possible early failure from functional overload, but for implant restoration, the teeth could be used as supports for fixed partial dentures because implants can reduce overload on teeth. The remaining natural teeth can help clinicians restoring vertical dimension and normal occlusal plane in full mouth rehabilitation because it conserves patients’ proprioceptive response. This clinical report describes treatment of a patient who has a few remaining teeth and supraeruption of the rest dentition from severe chronic periodontitis. Satisfactory clinical result was achieved with full mouth rehabilitation using a few teeth and implants. (J Dent Rehabil Appl Sci 2015;31(3):253-61) Key words: chronic periodontitis; a few remaining teeth; dental implants; mouth rehabilitation Copyright© 2015 The Korean Academy of Stomatognathic Function and Occlusion. It is identical to Creative Commons Non-Commercial License.cc ISSN 2384-4353 eISSN 2384-4272 254 J Dent Rehabil Appl Sci 2015;31(3):253-61 증대술로 해결할 수도 있지만 시간과 비용이 많이 소요 되는 단점이 있다. 이러한 점을 고려할 때 치주염 환자 의 치료계획시 자연치 발치에 대해 더욱 신중을 기해야 할 것이다. Ekelund 등5과 Attard와 Zarb6는 하악 전악 임플란트 고정성 보철물에 대한 20년간의 추적연구에서 년간 골 소실이 매우 적지만 다양한 범위로 나타난다고 발표했 다. 그러나 이 연구에서는 자연치 발치 원인에 대한 언 급이 없어 심한 치주염 환자에 있어서 임플란트 주위 골 소실 정도를 알 수 없었다. 몇몇 연구에서 단일 또는 다 수 임플란트에서 임플란트 주위염(적어도 2 mm의 방사 선학적 주위골소실)의 5 - 10년간 발생율이 16 - 28%을 보인다고 했고, 다수 임플란트에서 더 많이 발생하고, 치주적으로 건강한 환자보다 치주질환 이력이 있는 환 자가 더 취약하다고 했다.7-9 치주염에 의한 치아 상실 환 자와 치주염과 무관한 치아 상실 환자에 있어서 임플란 트 성공율을 비교한 종설 논문에서 상부보철물과 임플 란트 각각의 생존율은 두 군에서 통계적으로 유의한 차 이가 없었지만, 임플란트 주위염에 있어서는 치주염으 로 발치한 환자 그룹에서 통계적으로 유의하게 높은 발 병율을 보였다. 그러나 결론적으로는 치주질환 감수성 이 높은 환자에 있어서 임플란트 치료가 비적응증이 아 니라고 했고, 이러한 환자 치료에 있어서 주의사항은 임플란트 식립 전 치주치료를 통하여 감염원을 제거해 야 하고, 주기적인 유지관리 프로그램이 필요하다고 했 다.10 본 증례는 심한 치주질환 환자에서 치주적으로 예 후가 좋지 않은 치아를 발치하고 소수치를 잔존시켜 상 실부위는 임플란트로 전악 수복한 증례로 소수 잔존치 의 치료결과에 대한 장기간 예후를 알아보고자 한다. 증례 보고 본 증례는 62세 남자 환자로서 치아가 흔들려서 임플 란트 치료받고 싶다는 주소로 내원하였다. 초진 내원시 방사선 사진과 구강검사를 시행한 결과 만성 치주염으 로 다수 치아 상실, 인접치아의 경사와 대합치의 정출로 인해 교합평면이 붕괴된 상태였다(Fig. 1). 안모는 좌우 대칭이었고, temporomandibular joint (TMJ), 안면근육 모두 정상이었으나 치아 상실과 골소실로 인해 순치각 의 소실, 비주인중각의 증가, 구순폭의 감소 등 측모가 오목한 모습을 보였다(Fig. 2). 치료계획은 심한 동요도 로 인해 예후가 불량한 것으로 판단된 상악의 모든 잔존 치를 발치하고, 하악의 경우 동요도, 잔존골의 양, 악골 에서의 위치가 양호하여 지대치로 사용 가능하다고 판 단된 하악 좌측 제1, 2소구치와 제1대구치, 우측 제1소 구치를 남기고 치주적으로 예후가 좋지 않은 치아를 발 치하고, 다수의 임플란트를 식립하여 고정성 보철물로 수복하기로 계획했다. 발치 후 하악 잔존치에 임플란트 식립 전 치주치료를 시행했다. 정출로 인해 교합평면 수정이 필요한 잔존치 에 근관치료를 시행하고, 적합한 수직고경을 평가하여 진단 왁스업을 시행했다. 임시의치 제작을 위해 알지네 이트(Cavex Impressional, Cavex Holland BV, Haarlem, Netherlands)로 상하악 인상채득했다. 작업 모형에 교 합제를 제작하여 구강내 장착 후 동공간선과 캠퍼 평면 (비익-이주선)에 일치되게 하고, 생리적인 안정위를 사 용하여 수직고경을 결정한 후, 적절한 안모형태가 되게 Fig. 1. Panogramic radiograph at first visit; Multiple teeth loss, shifting teeth, supraeruption of the rest dentition and severe periodontitis. Fig. 2. Extraoral photos at first visit. (A) Frontal view, (B) Side view. BA Shin EJ, Vang MS, Yang HS, Park SW, Lim HP, Yun KD 255J Dent Rehabil Appl Sci 2015;31(3):253-61 교합제를 조정했다. 교합인기재(Regisil Rigid, Dentsply, Konstanz, Germany)로 중심위를 채득하여 임시의치 를 제작했다. 상하악 임플란트 식립을 위해 임시의치 를 복제하여 방사선스텐트(radiographic stent)를 제작 하여 전산화단층촬영(computed tomography, CT; CB MercuRay, Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan)을 시행하였다. 촬영된 CT 영상을 분석하여 상, 하악 상실부위에 임플란트(US II, TS, Osstem, Busan, Korea)를 식립했다(Fig. 3). 임시치아 제작을 위해 임플란트 식립한 후 6개월 이 지나서 개인트레이 제작을 위해 알지네이트(Cavex Impressional, Cavex Holland BV)로 상하악 인상채득 했다. 임플란트 코핑 연결 후 폴리비닐실록산 인상재 (Honigum® Mono, Light, DMG, Hamburg, Germany) 로 pickup 인상채득하여 주모형을 제작했다(Fig. 4). 고 딕아치(Centric guide system, Kuwotech, Gwangju, Korea)와 Willis method로 중심위, 수직고경을 결정하 고, 치아 정중선 정보를 기록한 후 안궁이전하여 반조절 성 교합기에 마운팅하여 CAD/CAM (Milling machine: 450i, imes-icore, Eiterfeld, Germany)으로 맞춤 지대주 와 임시치아(PMMA disk, Yamahachi, Gamagori, Japan) 제작했고, 교합은 견치 유도 교합을 부여했다(Fig. 5). 2 개월간의 임시 수복물 사용기간 동안 환자의 구순지지, 전치부 치축각도, 치아길이 수정하였고 적절한 전치 유 도, 견치 유도가 부여되도록 임시 수복물을 수정했다. 임시치아 장착 후 T scan (Tekscan, Inc., Boston, MA, USA)으로 균일한 중심위 교합을 확인했고, 견치 유도 교합이 됨을 확인했다. 환자분은 견치 유도 교합에 거부 감이 없었고 Willis method, 환자 발음 등으로 적절한 수 직고경이 됨을 확인했다. 환자분 동의하에 CT로 확인한 결과. 정상적 관절강을 보이고 과두가 관절와 내에 적절 한 위치에 있는 것을 확인했다. 임시치아 상태에서 두부 계측분석한 결과 임시 치아의 교합평면 전후방 기울기 가 정상범주 안에 들고, 하악이 시계방향 또는 반시계방 향으로 회전되지 않았음을 확인했다. 2 개월간 임시치아 사용한 후 A RC U S d i g m a I I (ARCUS®digma II, Kavo Dental GmbH, Riss, Germany) 로 안궁이전을 시행했다. 교차 마운팅을 위한 바이트 를 채득하고(Fig. 6), 임시치아의 체크 바이트로 얻어 낸 과로각과 전방유도의 정보로 KAVO 교합기(KaVo PROTAR Evo 7, Kavo Dental GmbH)에 마운팅했다 (Fig. 7, 8). 전방유도는 customized anterior guidance table를 만들었다. 지대주 레벨에서 인상채득하여 교 차 마운팅하여, KAVO 교합기에 기록된 과로각과 전 Fig. 3. Implant installation; Panoramic view. #17i, 16i, 45i, 47i: US II Φ5.0 x 11 mm, #14i, 24i: US II Φ4.0 x 10 mm, #26i, 27i: US II Φ4.5 x 11 mm, #33i, 43i: US II Φ3.5 x 11 mm, 13i, 11i, 23i: TS Φ3.5 x 11.5 mm (Osstem, Busan, Korea). Fig. 4. Impression for provisional restoration. (A) Maxillary occlusal view, (B) Mandibular occlusal view. BA Full mouth rehabilitation with a few remaining teeth and implants for a patient with chronic periodontitis: a case report 256 J Dent Rehabil Appl Sci 2015;31(3):253-61 Fig. 5. Provisional restoration. (A) Balancing side during left lateral excursion, (B) Maxillary occlusal view, (C) Working side during left lateral excursion, (D) Right buccal view during centric occlusion, (E) Frontal view during centric occlusion, (F) Left buccal view during centric occlusion, (G) Working side during right lateral excursion, (H) Mandibular occlusal view, (I) Balancing side during right lateral excursion. A B C D E F G H I Fig. 6. Intermaxillary relation registration for cross mounting. Shin EJ, Vang MS, Yang HS, Park SW, Lim HP, Yun KD 257J Dent Rehabil Appl Sci 2015;31(3):253-61 Fig. 7. Check bite registration. (A) Left excursion, (B) Anterior guidance, (C) Right excursion. A B C Fig. 8. Mounting on a semi-adjustable dental articulator. (A) Facebow transfer, (B) Cross mounting on a articulator. BA 방유도로 최종 보철물을 위한 왁스업을 시행했다 . CAD/CAM을 이용해 단일 구조 지르코니아(Zirmon, Kuwotech)로 최종보철물을 제작했다(Fig. 9). 골소실이 심한 하악 전치부는 심미성을 위해 잇몸 부위는 gingiva porcelain으로 제작하고 구강위생 관리를 위해 치간 부 위 적절한 공간을 부여했다. 중심교합위시 균등한 교합 접촉이 되고, 전방운동시 모든 후방치아가 이개되고, 측 방운동시 견치 유도 교합이 됨을 확인했다. 최종보철물 장착 후 CT로 확인한 결과 정상적 관절강을 보이고 과 두가 관절와 내에 적절한 위치에 있었다(Fig. 10). ARCUS digma II에서의 EPA test를 통하여 최대 교두 감합위와 중심위에서의 과두 위치를 비교한 결과 차이 가 거의 없었으며 재연성이 있었다(Fig. 11). 최종 보철 물 장착 후 파노라마 사진으로 확인했다(Fig. 12). 최종 수복물 장착 후 상순 지지가 회복되었으며, 오목했던 측 모가 개선된 것을 확인할 수 있었다(Fig. 13). 고찰 본 증례에서는 심한 치주질환 환자에서 치주적으로 예후가 좋지 않은 치아를 발치하고 소수치를 잔존시켜 상실부위는 임플란트로 전악 수복하여 적절한 기능과 심미를 얻을 수 있었다. 자연치 치근의 길이는 20 mm 정도이고 가장 많이 사용되는 임플란트의 길이는 10 mm이다. 스웨덴에서 발표한 연구에 의하면 20세 이후 자연치의 치간골 소실이 연간 0.1 mm라고 했다.11,12 반 면 임플란트의 경우 첫해 1 mm 골소실 이후 년 0.1 - 0.2 mm 정도 골소실을 보인다고 한다13. 심한 치주질환일지 라도 치주치료로 성공적으로 치료할 수 있고, 더 이상의 골소실도 막을수 있다고 한다.13 반면 임플란트 주위염 치료에 대한 장기적 예후에 대해 확실히 알려진 것이 없 다. 치주 질환의 악화를 막을 수 있고 성공적인 치주치 료가 가능하다면 상당한 치조골 소실을 보이는 치아라 Full mouth rehabilitation with a few remaining teeth and implants for a patient with chronic periodontitis: a case report 258 J Dent Rehabil Appl Sci 2015;31(3):253-61 Fig. 9. Definitive restoration. (A) Balancing side during left lateral excursion, (B) Maxillary occlusal view, (C) Working side during left lateral excursion, (D) Right buccal view during centric occlusion, (E) Frontal view during centric occlusion, (F) Left buccal view during centric occlusion, (G) Working side during right lateral excursion, (H) Mandibular occlusal view, (I) Balancing side during right lateral excursion. A B C D E F G H I Fig. 10. CT for condylar joint space. (A) Right condyle, (B) Left condyle. A B Shin EJ, Vang MS, Yang HS, Park SW, Lim HP, Yun KD 259J Dent Rehabil Appl Sci 2015;31(3):253-61 도 발치 후 임플란트로 치료할 이유가 없다. 치조골 소 실을 보이는 치아는 스플린팅하지 않을 경우 동요도를 보이겠지만, 적절한 치주치료 시행시 long span 고정성 보철물의 지대치로 성공적인 사용이 가능하다. 물론 잔 존 주위골 정도를 봐야 하지만 대략 25 - 30% 정도 잔존 치주조직이 있으면 충분하다.14,15 Long span 임플란트 고정성 보철물에서 골소실이 있으나 건강한 치주조직일 경우 예후는 불확실하다. 따라서 자연치 발치 후 임플란 트 치료를 생각하기 이전 자연치에 대해서 다시 한번 생 각해 봐야 할 것이다. 만성치주염에 이환된 소수 잔존 치아의 치주치료 후 임플란트를 식립하여 전악수복시 자연치의 존재로 인해 proprioceptive response를 보존 할 수 있어 정상적인 상, 하 악간관계와 이상적인 교합 평면 결정시 도움이 되었을 뿐만 아니라 저작이 용이해 져서 보철물에 대한 환자의 적응이 더욱 쉬웠다. 그러나 이러한 잔존 치아의 치료결과에 대해서는 장기간의 예 후 관찰이 필요하다. 만일 추가발치가 이루어질 경우를 대비하여 환자에게 향후 임플란트의 추가 식립이 필요 하다는 것을 미리 알려주는 것이 필요하리라 사료된다. Orcid Eun-Jung Shin http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3632-2995 Mong-Sook Vang http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6743-5330 Hong-So Yang http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9138-4817 Sang-Won Park http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9376-9104 Hyun-Pil Lim http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5586-1404 Kwi-Dug Yun http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2965-3967 References 1. Lundgren D, Nyman S, Heijl L, Carlsson GE. Functional analysis of fixed bridges on abutment teeth with reduced periodontal support. J Oral Re- habil 1975;2:105-16. 2. Nyman S, Lindhe J. A longitudinal study of com- bined periodontal and prosthetic treatment of patients with advanced periodontal disease. J Peri- odontol 1979;50:163-9. 3. Mengel R, Behle M, Flores-de-Jacoby L. Osseoin- tegrated implants in subjects treated for general- ized aggressive periodontitis: 10-year results of a prospective, long-term cohort study. J Periodontol Fig. 12. Postoperative panoramic radiograph. Fig. 13. Postoperative extraoral photos. (A) Frontal view, (B) Side view. BA Fig. 11. EPA test by ARCUS digma II. MICP: 1, 2, 3; CR (manipulation): 4, 5, 6. Right joint, Sagittal Left joint, Sagittal Right joint, Horizontal Left joint, Horizontal 0.5 mm 0.5 mm 0.5 mm 0.5 mm Full mouth rehabilitation with a few remaining teeth and implants for a patient with chronic periodontitis: a case report 260 J Dent Rehabil Appl Sci 2015;31(3):253-61 2007;78:2229-37. 4. Hoffmann O, Beaumont C, Zafiropoulos GG. Combined periodontal and implant treatment of a case of aggressive periodontitis. J Oral Implantol 2007;33:288-92. 5. Ekelund JA, Lindquist LW, Carlssson GE, Jemt T. Implant treatment in the edentulous mandible: a prospective study on Brånemark system implants over more than 20 years. Int J Prosthodont 2003; 16:602-8. 6. Attard NJ, Zarb GA. Long-term treatment out- comes in edentulous patients with implant-fixed prostheses: the Toronto study. Int J Prosthodont 2004;17:417-24. 7. Berglundh T, Persson L, Klinge B. A systematic review of the incidence of biological and techni- cal complications in implant dentistry reported in prospective longitudinal studies of at least 5 years. J Clin Periodontol 2002;29 Suppl 3):197-212. 8. Fransson C, Lekholm U, Jemt T, Berglundh T. Prevalence of subjects with progressive bone loss at implants. Clin Oral Implants Res 2005;16:440-6. 9. Roos-Jansåker AM, Lindahl C, Renvert H, Renvert S. Nine- to fourteen-year follow-up of implant treatment. Part II: presence of peri-implant lesions. J Clin Periodontol 2006;33:290-5. 10. Schou S. Implant treatment in periodontitis-suscep- tible patients: a systematic review. J Oral Rehabil 2008;35 Suppl 1:9-22. 11. Hugoson A, Laurell L. A prospective longitudinal study on periodontal bone height changes in a Swedish population. J Clin Periodontol 2000;27: 665-74. 11. Jansson L, Lavstedt S, Zimmerman M. Marginal bone loss and tooth loss in a sample from the County of Stockholm - a longitudinal study over 20 years. Swed Dent J 2002;26:21-9. 12. Adell R, Eriksson B, Lekholm U, Brånemark PI, Jemt T. Long-term follow-up study of osseointe- grated implants in the treatment of totally edentu- lous jaws. Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants 1990;5: 347-59. 13. Laurell L, Lundgren D, Falk H, Hugoson A. Long- term prognosis of extensive polyunit cantilevered fixed partial dentures. J Prosthet Dent 1991;66: 545-52. 14. Nyman S, Ericsson I. The capacity of reduced peri- odontal tissues to support fixed bridgework. J Clin Periodontol 1982;9:409-14. Shin EJ, Vang MS, Yang HS, Park SW, Lim HP, Yun KD 261 Case Report *교신저자: 양홍서 (61186)광주광역시 북구 용봉로 33 전남대학교 치의학전문대학원 보철학교실 Tel: 062-530-5638|Fax: 062-530-5639|E-mail: yhsdent @jnu.ac.kr 접수일: 2015년 6월 15일|수정일: 2015년 7월 21일|채택일: 2015년 7월 27일 만성 치주염 환자에서 소수 잔존치와 임플란트를 이용한 전악 수복: 증례 보고 신은정 1 , 방몽숙 1 , 양홍서 1 *, 박상원 1,2 , 임현필 1 , 윤귀덕 1 1 전남대학교 치의학전문대학원 보철학교실 2 전남대학교 미래형생체부품소재 RIS 사업단 만성 치주염 환자 치료시 잔존치 발치 여부를 결정할 때 신중을 기해야 한다. 고정성 또는 가철성 국소의치 치료시 치 주조건이 불량한 치아를 지대치로 사용하면 과부하로 조기실패가 우려되어 발치를 고려하지만, 임플란트 고정성 보철 물의 경우 잔존치로 전달되는 기능하중을 감소시킬 수 있기 때문에 잔존치를 유지시키는 경우가 많다. 잔존치를 이용 한 전악수복시 proprioceptive response를 보존할 수 있어 악간관계와 교합평면 결정시 도움이 될 뿐 아니라 환자의 보 철물에 대한 적응이 쉽다. 본 증례의 환자는 치주질환에 의해 다수치 상실 및 대합치의 정출을 보였다. 동요도가 심해 예후가 좋지 않은 치아를 발거하고 소수 잔존치와 임플란트로 전악수복하여 적절한 기능적, 심미적 결과를 얻었다. (구강회복응용과학지 2015;31(3):253-61) 주요어: 만성 치주염; 소수 잔존치; 임플란트; 전악수복 
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work_dgxmul2xwbcolnzfwfqxulkumu	----	Research Article Performance Analysis of Adaptive Neuro Fuzzy Inference System Control for MEMS Navigation System Ling Zhang, Jianye Liu, Jizhou Lai, and Zhi Xiong Navigation Research Center, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, China Correspondence should be addressed to Ling Zhang; zhanglingsnowman@nuaa.edu.cn Received 21 September 2013; Accepted 31 October 2013; Published 30 January 2014 Academic Editor: Xiaojie Su Copyright © 2014 Ling Zhang et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Characterized by small volume, low cost, and low power, MEMS inertial sensors are widely concerned and applied in navigation research, environmental monitoring, military, and so on. Notably in indoor and pedestrian navigation, its easily portable feature seems particularly indispensable and important. However, MEMS inertial sensor has inborn low precision and is impressionable and sometimes goes against accurate navigation or even becomes seriously unstable when working for a period of time and the initial alignment and calibration are invalid. A thought of adaptive neuro fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) is relied on, and an assistive control modulated method is presented in this paper, which is newly designed to improve the inertial sensor performance by black box control and inference. The repeatability and long-time tendency of the MEMS sensors are tested and analyzed by ALLAN method. The parameters of ANFIS models are trained using reasonable fuzzy control strategy, with high-precision navigation system for reference as well as MEMS sensor property. The MEMS error nonlinearity is measured and modulated through the peculiarity of the fuzzy control convergence, to enhance the MEMS function and the whole MEMS system property. Performance of the proposed model has been experimentally verified using low-cost MEMS inertial sensors, and the MEMS output error is well compensated. The test results indicate that ANFIS system trained by high-precision navigation system can efficiently provide corrections to MEMS output and meet the requirement on navigation performance. 1. Introduction Characterized by small volume, low cost, and low power, MEMS inertial sensors are widely concerned and applied to navigation research, environmental monitoring, military and so on. Notably in unmanned air systems, its easily portable feature seems particularly indispensable and important. However, MEMS inertial sensor HAS inborn low preci- sion, and impressionable. It sometimes goes against accurate navigation or even becomes seriously unstable when working for a period of time, and more worse the initial alignment and calibration are invalid. According to this, many scholars use the Kalman filter method to compensate and correct the MEMS error. By this way, the MEMS system performance can be improved, but its effect is not good, as discussed in [1, 2]. A thought of adaptive neurofuzzy inference system (ANFIS) is relied on. Compared with fuzzy inference sys- tem and artificial neural network, as discussed in [3–6], adaptive neurofuzzy inference system (ANFIS) not only has advantages of the two methods but also makes up for their shortcomings. On one hand, it has effective self-learning mechanism and achieves self-learning function. On the other hand, it has a variety of neural networks, optimizes the con- trol rules, and expresses the reasoning-function like human brain. It makes the system develop towards adaptive, self- organizing and self-learning, as discussed in [7–11]. As Integrated avionics system for vehicle is composed of different kinds of sensors to change the separated state, and achieve complementary, mutual backup and integrated usage information, where the system includes MEMS inertial measurement unit (MEMS-IMU) and high-precision IMU. According to this, ANFIS is newly designed to use reference IMU to improve MEMS-IMU performance by black box control and inference. The MEMS sensor error is measured and modulated through the peculiarity of the fuzzy control convergence, to enhance the MEMS function and the whole Hindawi Publishing Corporation Mathematical Problems in Engineering Volume 2014, Article ID 961067, 7 pages http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/961067 2 Mathematical Problems in Engineering MEMS system property. Performance of the proposed model is experimentally verified using low-cost MEMS inertial sensors, to meet the requirement on navigation performance. 2. Analysis of MEMS-IMU Property 2.1. Error Modelling of MEMS Inertial Sensor. As to error of MEMS-IMU outputs, constant error, scale factor error and installation error, are considered as the main composition of the IMU error. What is more, random error is also inevitable and impacts the output accuracy. According to this, and ignoring more than one-order small amount, the acceler- ometer model is built as follows, as discussed by the author in [12]: 𝑎 𝑚 = (𝐼+𝐾 𝑎 )(𝐼+𝜃 𝑎 )𝑎+𝜀 𝑎 +∇𝑎 ≈ (𝐼+𝐾 𝑎 +𝜃 𝑎 )𝑎+𝜀 𝑎 +∇𝑎. (1) Then, the accelerometer error model is Δ𝑎 = ∇𝑎+𝐾 𝑎 𝑎+𝜃 𝑎 𝑎+𝜀 𝑎 . (2) In calibration, the random error 𝜀 𝑎 is mainly affected by temperature. So 𝜀 𝑎 may be expressed as 𝜀 𝑎 = 𝜀 𝑎𝑇 +𝜀 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑇 ∗Δ𝑇+𝑏 𝑎𝑇 ∗(Δ𝑇) 2 +𝑐 𝑎𝑇 ∗(Δ𝑇) 3 +𝜀 𝑎𝑎 . (3) Similarly, the gyroerror model is Δ𝜔 = ∇𝜔+𝐾 𝜔 𝜔+𝜃 𝜔 𝜔+𝜀 𝜔 . (4) And, the 𝜀 𝜔 is expressed as 𝜀 𝜔 = 𝜀 𝜔𝑇 +𝜀 𝜔𝜔 = 𝑎 𝜔𝑇 ∗Δ𝑇+𝑏 𝜔𝑇 ∗(Δ𝑇) 2 +𝑐 𝜔𝑇 ∗(Δ𝑇) 3 +𝜀 𝜔𝜔 , (5) where Δ𝜔 and Δ𝑎 are IMU error; ∇𝜔 and ∇𝑎 are IMU constant drift; 𝐾 𝜔 and 𝐾 𝑎 are the scale factor error matrix; 𝜃 𝜔 and𝜃 𝑎 are the alignment matrix;Δ𝑇 is temperature variation; 𝑎 𝜔𝑇 , 𝑏 𝜔𝑇 , and 𝑐 𝜔𝑇 are the gyroerror coefficients affected by temperature; 𝑎 𝑎𝑇 , 𝑏 𝑎𝑇 , and 𝑐 𝑎𝑇 are the accelerometer error coefficients affected by temperature; 𝜀 𝜔𝜔 and 𝜀 𝑎𝑎 are the random error. 2.2. Experimental Analysis and Compensation of MEMS Inertial Sensor. The principle of rotating SINS is elaborated as follows. At the beginning, the rotating coordinate (𝑠) is coin- cident with the body coordinate (𝑏), and 𝑜𝑥 𝑠 represents the real𝑥-axis of gyro- and accelerometer;𝑜𝑦 𝑠 represents the real 𝑦-axis of gyro-, and accelerometer; 𝑜𝑧 𝑠 is coincident with the 𝑧-axis of 𝑏 coordinate and vertical with 𝑜𝑥 𝑠 , 𝑜𝑦 𝑠 . The effective IMU outputs are received from the real IMU outputs in the process of coordinate conversion. The rotating angle is 𝛼 = Ω⋅ 𝑡. (6) The coordinate transformation matrix from 𝑠 to 𝑏 is 𝐶 𝑏 𝑠 = [ [ cos𝜃 −sin𝜃 0 sin𝜃 cos𝜃 0 0 0 1 ] ] = [ [ cos(Ω𝑡) −sin(Ω𝑡) 0 sin(Ω𝑡) cos(Ω𝑡) 0 0 0 1 ] ] . (7) Then, the gyroerror is Δ𝜔 𝑏 = 𝐶 𝑏 𝑠 Δ𝜔 𝑠 = 𝐶 𝑏 𝑠 (∇𝜔+𝐾 𝜔 𝜔+𝜃 𝜔 𝜔+𝜀 𝜔 ) = 𝐶 𝑏 𝑠 ( [ [ ∇𝜔 𝑥 ∇𝜔 𝑦 ∇𝜔 𝑧 ] ] + [ [ 𝐾 𝜔𝑥 𝐾 𝜔𝑦 𝐾 𝜔𝑧 ] ] [ [ 𝜔 𝑥 𝜔 𝑦 𝜔 𝑧 ] ] + [ [ 𝜃 𝜔𝑥𝑧 −𝜃 𝜔𝑥𝑦 −𝜃 𝜔𝑦𝑧 𝜃 𝜔𝑦𝑥 𝜃 𝜔𝑧𝑦 −𝜃 𝜔𝑧𝑧 ] ] [ [ 𝜔 𝑥 𝜔 𝑦 𝜔 𝑧 ] ] +𝜀 𝜔 ). (8) Through analysis item by item, 𝐶 𝑏 𝑠 ∇𝜔 = [ [ cos(Ω𝑡) −sin(Ω𝑡) 0 sin(Ω𝑡) cos(Ω𝑡) 0 0 0 1 ] ] [ [ ∇𝜔 𝑥 ∇𝜔 𝑦 ∇𝜔 𝑧 ] ] = [ [ ∇𝜔 𝑥 cos(Ω𝑡)−∇𝜔 𝑦 sin(Ω𝑡) ∇𝜔 𝑥 sin(Ω𝑡)+∇𝜔 𝑦 cos(Ω𝑡) ∇𝜔 𝑧 ] ] . (9) In (9), it is indicated that such constant errors as ∇𝜔 𝑥 , ∇𝜔 𝑦 , and ∇𝜔 𝑧 may be modulated by periodic rotation, and the error impact will be smaller. However, as to error coefficients 𝐾 𝜔 and 𝜃 𝜔 , the impact may be partly modulated. The 𝑥-axis error caused by 𝐾 𝜔 and 𝜃 𝜔 in 𝑏 coordinate is 𝐶 𝑏 𝑠 (𝐾 𝜔 𝜔+𝜃 𝜔 𝜔) = 𝐶 𝑏 𝑠 ( [ [ 𝐾 𝜔𝑥 𝐾 𝜔𝑦 𝐾 𝜔𝑧 ] ] [ [ 𝜔 𝑥 𝜔 𝑦 𝜔 𝑧 ] ] + [ [ 𝜃 𝜔𝑥𝑧 −𝜃 𝜔𝑥𝑦 −𝜃 𝜔𝑦𝑧 𝜃 𝜔𝑦𝑥 𝜃 𝜔𝑧𝑦 −𝜃 𝜔𝑧𝑧 ] ] [ [ 𝜔 𝑥 𝜔 𝑦 𝜔 𝑧 ] ] ) = [ [ cos(Ω𝑡) −sin(Ω𝑡) 0 sin(Ω𝑡) cos(Ω𝑡) 0 0 0 1 ] ] × [ [ 𝐾 𝜔𝑥 𝜔 𝑥 +𝜃 𝜔𝑥𝑧 𝜔 𝑦 −𝜃 𝜔𝑥𝑦 𝜔 𝑧 −𝜃 𝜔𝑦𝑧 𝜔 𝑥 +𝐾 𝜔𝑦 𝜔 𝑦 +𝜃 𝜔𝑦𝑥 𝜔 𝑧 𝜃 𝜔𝑧𝑦 𝜔 𝑥 −𝜃 𝜔𝑧𝑧 𝜔 𝑦 +𝐾 𝜔𝑧 𝜔 𝑧 ] ] . (10) Set𝐾 𝜔𝑥 𝜔 𝑥 +𝜃 𝜔𝑥𝑧 𝜔 𝑦 −𝜃 𝜔𝑥𝑦 𝜔 𝑧 as an example; if𝐾 𝜔𝑥 𝜔 𝑥 +𝜃 𝜔𝑥𝑧 𝜔 𝑦 − 𝜃 𝜔𝑥𝑦 𝜔 𝑧 can be expressed as 𝑎 + 𝑓(𝑥 𝑖 ), 𝑖 = 1,2,3, the error impact caused by 𝑎 may be modulated to zero, where a is the inductive constant and 𝑓(𝑥 𝑖 ), 𝑖 = 1,2,3 is the variable part. Mathematical Problems in Engineering 3 Table 1: Means and deviation of MEMS gyro- and accelerometer. 𝑥-gyro (∘/s) 𝑦-gyro (∘/s) 𝑧-gyro (∘/s) 𝑥-acce (m/s/s) 𝑦-acce (m/s/s) 𝑧-acce (m/s/s) MEMS-IMU raw data Mean 4.25 9.86 9.71 0.193 0.211 0.205 Standard deviation 0.35 0.55 0.51 0.038 0.036 0.053 MEMS-IMU equivalent data Mean −0.106 −0.019 10.012 0.013 0.002 0.074 Standard deviation 7.903 7.969 4.063 0.281 0.194 0.099 10 15 20 25 30 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 G yr o ou tp ut (m /s /s ) Temperature (∘C) Figure 1: Gyro output changed with temperature. The accelerometer error is Δ𝑓 𝑏 = 𝐶 𝑏 𝑠 Δ𝑓 𝑠 = 𝐶 𝑏 𝑠 (∇𝑓+𝐾 𝑓 𝑓+𝜃 𝑓 𝑓+𝜀 𝑓 ). (11) The error analysis and modulation are similar to those of gyros. It is clearly shown from MEMS-IMU raw data in Table 1 that means and deviations of MEMS-IMU are bigger than those of normal situations. Through rotation modulation, mean data indicates that nonstochastic errors of MEMS-IMU are effectively and quickly improved when calculating nav- igation parameters. However, due to rotation movement by cosine function, the standard deviation is bigger than that of law data. Moreover, the MEMS outputs are easily affected by envi- ronment. Generally, the temperature in use is −40 to 70∘C, and the internal structure of MEMS device may change under different temperature conditions. In such situation, the measured capacitance output of the inertial sensor is deviated from the normal value, and the output of the inertial sensor is inevitably composed of real value and error. Figures 1 and 2 are separately curves of gyro- and accelerometer values changed with temperature. As the MEMS performance is unstable, the calibration is not always effective due to its temperature impact. When there is 5∘ temperature rise, the output will be 10% changed according to the raw data at room temperature. 9.7 9.8 9.9 10 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 A cc el er om et er o ut pu t ( m /s /s ) 10 15 20 25 30 Temperature (∘C) Figure 2: Accelerometer output changed with temperature. 3. ANFIS Identification and Compensation Program for MEMS-IMU 3.1. ANFIS Structure. ANFIS is a class of adaptive networks, and it makes the integration of the advantages of neural network and fuzzy inference system. Detailed mathematical progress of ANFIS is as follows. Firstly, it maps the input data by adjusting the shape and parameters of the membership function. Secondly, it remaps the data from the input space to the output space by the membership function of the output variables. During this process, the least squares algorithm is used to adjust ANFIS conclusion parameters, and the gradient descent algorithm is used to adjust ANFIS premise parameters, where the channel for adjusting conclusion parameters is called forward channel and the channel for adjusting the premise parameters is called backward channel, as discussed in [13–16]. In ANFIS structure, as to two input parameters 𝑥, 𝑢 and one output 𝑦, together with first-order Sugeno fuzzy model, there are two if-then fuzzy rules as follows The equivalent ANFIS structure is as shown in Figure 3. In the first layer, each knot is an adaptive knot with function. For example, 𝑂 1,𝑖 = 𝐴 𝑖 (𝑥) , 𝑖 = 1,2, (12) where𝑥 is input of knot𝐼and𝐴 is the relevant fuzzy language identification. 4 Mathematical Problems in Engineering ... ... ... ... ... ... x1 xi xn Σ N N Layer 1 Layer 2 Layer 3 Layer 4 Layer 5 y Π Π Figure 3: Equivalent ANFIS structure. In the second layer, each knot is a fixed knot identified by ∏. The output is the product of all input signals and represents the firing strength of a rule as 𝑂 2,𝑖 = 𝐴 𝑖 (𝑥) . . . . (13) In the third layer, the ratio of firing strength for rule 𝑖 and the whole firing strength for all the rules is calculated, which means that the firing strength of each rule is normalized as 𝑂 3,𝑖 = 𝜔 = 𝜔 𝑖 ∑𝜔 . (14) In the fourth layer, each knot has its own consequent node and output. The 𝑖th knot is an adaptive knot with function 𝑂 4,𝑖 = 𝜔 𝑖 𝑓 𝑖 = 𝜔 𝑖 (𝑝 𝑖 𝑥+𝑞 𝑖 𝑦+𝑟 𝑖 ) , (15) where 𝜔 𝑖 is normalized motive force transformed from layer 3 and 𝑝1, 𝑞1, 𝑟1 are parameters. The parameters in this layer are called conclusion parameters. In the fifth layer, each knot is a fixed knot identified with ∑, and it calculates the output sum by all the signals 𝑂 5,𝑖 = ∑𝜔 𝑖 𝑓 𝑖 = ∑𝜔 𝑖 𝑓 𝑖 ∑𝜔 𝑖 . (16) When ANFIS is trained by reduplicative iteration, the pend- ing characteristic parameters are adjusted dynamically to make sure the accuracy identified by ANFIS meets the requirement. The premise parameters and conclusion param- eters are received, so that the ANFIS system is determined, as discussed in [17–19]. 3.2. ANFIS System Training. As to inputs of ANFIS, the out- puts of MEMS-IMU and standard IMU are segmented into different training data spaces. The initial structure of ANFIS is preset with 5 layers, and ANFIS uses the rule firing strength 𝜔 𝑗 (𝑗 = 1, . . . ,𝑀(𝐾))as a criterion for each rule, where𝑀(𝑘) is the number of clusters at 𝐾. At time 𝐾, the separate input training data is 𝑥 𝑖 (𝑖 = 1, . . . ,𝑛), and 𝑛 is the numbers of inputs. If 𝜔 𝑗 (𝑥 𝑖 ) ≤ 𝛼th, the rule is updated into a new one, and �̃� = 𝑀(𝑘)+1. Random 𝛼th ∈ (0.1,0.5) is a preset threshold, it values 𝜔 𝑗 and provides reference for new cluster generated in ANFIS. If 𝛼th is smaller, the number of clusters is larger, and the fuzzy system is more complicated. When �̃� is updated, it means that new cluster is gener- ated, and needs to rebuild fuzzy system. The selected cluster centre may be set a bigger weight coefficient. This progress is repeatedly taken with inputs data, until the ANFIS meets the accuracy requirements. ANFIS’s parameters include premise parameters and consequent parameters. They are updated based on gradient descent learning algorithm. When the premise parameters are fixed, the least squares algorithm is applied to calculate the consequent data. This is the whole progress of ANFIS(i) generation. In order to speed up the ANFIS progress and enhance the preci- sion, all the data are separated into different parts for training and checking. The prior ANFIS structure is valued by the checking data and set as premise structure for next system generation, up to the expected modulated effect. The pro- posed ANFIS training process is shown as in Figure 4. 3.3. MEMS-IMU Error Compensation Based ANFIS. In inte- grated avionics system for vehicle, synthesis of multiple sensors is a trend; different kinds of sensors may change the separated state and achieve complementary, mutual-backup and integrated usage information provided by each sensor. Through integrated control and management of multisensors, the sensor system may have higher performance level than that of any single sensor. Generally, as a backup system, MEMS inertial navigation system has low performance by comparison. In order to improve it, high-precision INS output is applied to help correcting MEMS-IMU outputs by ANFIS method. High- precision INS outputs are set as standard information and separated into different spaces together with MEMS-IMU outputs. The different data spaces are divided into training parts and checking parts. The 3D outputs of MEMS gyros and accelerometers are trained objects and inputs of ANFIS. ANFIS works in update mode; the structure is built, valued, and screened continuously, until the optimal structure meets accuracy demands. The ANFIS building program for MEMS- IMU is shown as in Figure 5. When standard IMU outputs are lacked, ANFIS structure switches to the correction mode. The identified and trained error corrector by ANFIS is applied to modify the law MEMS- IMU output and help provide higher-precision MEMS-IMU outputs. 4. Experiment and Analysis The MEMS-IMU used in this paper is MPU6050. The MEMS gyro drift is 4.25(∘/s), and random is 0.35(∘/s); MEMS accelerometer bias is 0.193 m/s/s, and random is 0.038 m/s/s. The output frequency of MEMS-IMU is 50 Hz. As to standard IMU, the gyro drift is 0.003(∘/s), and random is 0.003(∘/s); the accelerometer bias is 0.043 m/s/s, random is 0.017 m/s/s, and the output frequency is 50 Hz too. Mathematical Problems in Engineering 5 Train-data · · · ... ... Test-data Anfis Anfis 0 Anfis 1 Anfis 2 Anfisn Test-data n Mod-data Modificatory-data Train-data 1 Train-data 2 Train-data 1 Test-data 2 Test-data 1 Figure 4: ANFIS training-process program. Accelerometers Gyros Rotated-coordinate Accelerometers Gyros Body-coordinate Accelerometers Gyros Reference IMU Anfis ANFIS Accelerometers Gyros Body-coordinate acce Anfis gyro C b s f s is 𝜔 s is Figure 5: ANFIS building program for MEMS-IMU. Table 2: Bias of IMU data. 𝑥-gyro 𝑦-gyro 𝑧-gyro 𝑥-acce 𝑦-acce 𝑧-acce MEMS-IMU data 4.251 −9.86 −9.71 0.193 0.211 0.187 Standard IMU data 0.001 −0.003 0.002 −0.043 0.014 0.026 Modified IIMU data 0.001 −0.003 0.002 −0.043 0.015 0.027 Table 3: Random of IMU data. 𝑥-gyro 𝑦-gyro 𝑧-gyro 𝑥-acce 𝑦-acce 𝑧-acce MEMS-IMU data 0.352 0.553 0.516 0.038 0.036 0.053 Standard IMU data 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.065 0.046 0.017 Modified IIMU data 0.002 0.041 0.003 0.121 0.027 0.012 In order to testify the effectiveness of ANFIS modulation for MEMS-IMU performance under the auxiliary of high- precision standard IMU, both MEMS-IMU and standard IMU start simultaneously; then corresponding data is sent for training and testing. From Figures 6, 7, and 8, it is clear that MEMS-IMU data is modified, and the precision is highly improved. Tables 2 and 3 show the specific improved level of IMU data by drift and random quantity. Simultaneously, compared with random of each standard gyro, that of tested gyro in Table 2 also indicates that the tested data will be 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 0 2 4 6 8 10 Time (s) x -g yr o (d eg /s ) −10 −8 −6 −4 −2 Mod data Law data Refer data 0 4 8 −4 −8 499 499.5 500 500.5 501 ×10 −3 Figure 6: Comparison of each 𝑥-gyro data. modified towards the standard data, and not only that, but also stability and smoothness of the modified data will be better than those of standard data. Where, blue line with ring 6 Mathematical Problems in Engineering 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 0 20 40 Time (s) y -g yr o (d eg /s ) −20 −40 −60 −80 −100 499.85 499.95 500.05 500.15 0 5 −10 −5 ×10 −3 Mod data Law data Refer data Figure 7: Comparison of each 𝑦-gyro data. 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 0 20 40 Time (s) z -g yr o (d eg /s ) −20 −40 −60 −80 −100 499.85 499.95 500.05 500.15 10 6 2 −2 −6 Mod data Law data Refer data ×10 −3 Figure 8: Comparison of each 𝑧-gyro data. represents modified MEMS-IMU data by ANFIS, red line represents MEMS-IMU data to be tested, and black line with star represents standard IMU data with high precision. To be sure, the effect of modified accelerometer data is not as good as that of gyro, just because the standard accelerome- ter precision is not so high, and the modified effect has noth- ing to do with ANFIS structure. In other words, the perfor- mance level of standard data may be one of the main influence factors to decide the performance level of the modified data. 5. Conclusions MEMS-IMU is characterized by its small size, low cost, and easy integration, so it has a wild range of applications. However, low precision is a stumbling block to MEMS sensor, and sometimes it cannot meet the performance requirements. Nowadays, integrated avionics system for vehicle composes different kinds of sensors to change the separated state and achieve complementary, mutual backup and integrated usage information provided by each sensor. So, high-accuracy IMU may be selected to modify MEMS-IMU performance by high-level outputs. ANFIS system combines the advantages of neural net- work and fuzzy control methods, and it is suitable for con- trolling objects with characters of fuzziness, uncertainty, nonlinearity, and time varying. As to MEMS-IMU property, ANFIS reference program is improved, the reference struc- ture is continuously built for good modification performance, and MEMS-IMU performance is corrected. The experimental results show that ANFIS structure is much closer to the accurate model by multiple establishments, and MEMS-IMU outputs are high-level corrected by rules. Simultaneously, the MEMS-IMU performance is of smoothness by ANFIS mod- ulation. In a word, the updated ANFIS program proposed in this paper is helpful to modify and improve the MEMS-IMU property and is a great reference to enhance MEMS sensor performance. Conflict of Interests The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper. Acknowledgments This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (61174197, 91016019, and 61374115) and the Central University Research Funding (NN2012097, NZ2012003). References [1] W. N. Chen, Q. H. Zeng, R. B. Li, and J. Y. Liu, “Mixed linear regression temperature compensation method for annular- vibrating MEMS gyroscope,” Journal of Chinese Inertial Tech- nology, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 99–103, 2012. [2] H. Qin, L. Cong, and X. Sun, “Accuracy improvement of GPS/ MEMS-INS integrated navigation system during GPS signal outage for land vehicle navigation,” Journal of Systems Engineer- ing and Electronics, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 256–264, 2012. [3] S. Bououden, M. Chadli, F. Allouani, and S. Filali, “A new approach for fuzzy predictive adaptive controller design using particle swarm optimization algorithm,” International Journal of Innovative Computing, Information and Control, vol. 9, no. 9, pp. 3741–3758, 2013. [4] H. Wang, B. Chen, and C. Lin, “Adaptive neural tracking control for a class of stochastic nonlinear systems with unknown dead- zone,” International Journal of Innovative Computing, Informa- tion and Control, vol. 9, no. 8, pp. 3257–3269, 2013. [5] Z. Wu, P. Shi, H. Su, and J. Chu, “Exponential synchronization of neural networks with discrete and distributed delays under time-varying sampling,” IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks and Learning Systems, vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 1368–1376, 2012. Mathematical Problems in Engineering 7 [6] H. H. Chiang, Y. L. Chen, and T. T. Lee, “Multi-Stage with neuro-fuzzy approach for efficient on-road speed sign detection and recognition,” International Journal of Innovative Computing, Information and Control, vol. 9, no. 7, pp. 2919–2939, 2013. [7] L. Wu, W. X. Zheng, and H. Gao, “Dissipativity-based sliding mode control of switched stochastic systems,” IEEE Transac- tions on Automatic Control, vol. 58, no. 3, pp. 785–793, 2013. [8] L. Wu, X. Su, and P. Shi, “Output feedback control of Markovian jump repeated scalar nonlinear systems,” IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, 2013. [9] X. Su, P. Shi, L. Wu, and Y. D. Song, “A novel control design on discrete-time Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy systems with time-varying delays,” IEEE Transactions on Fuzzy Systems, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 655–671, 2013. [10] X. Su, P. Shi, L. Wu, and S. K. Nguang, “Induced 2 filtering of fuzzy stochastic systems with time-varying delays,” IEEE Trans- actions on Cybernetics, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 1251–1264, 2013. [11] X. Su, L. Wu, and P. Shi, “Senor networks with random link failures: distributed filtering for T-S fuzzy systems,” IEEE Trans- actions on Industrial Informatics, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 1739–1750, 2013. [12] L. Zhang, J. Z. Lai, J. Y. Liu, and P. Lü, “Analysis of un-coincide coordinate error in single-axis rotating fiber optic strap-down inertial navigation system,” Transactions of Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 199–205, 2011. [13] R. Yang, Z. Zhang, and P. Shi, “Exponential stability on stochas- tic neural networks with discrete interval and distributed delays,” IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 169–175, 2010. [14] W. Abdel-Hamid, A. Noureldin, and N. El-Sheimy, “Adaptive fuzzy prediction of low-cost inertial-based positioning errors,” IEEE Transactions on Fuzzy Systems, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 519–529, 2007. [15] A. Karami, S. Keiter, and H. Hollert, “Fuzzy logic and adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system for characterization of contami- nant exposure through selected biomarkers in African catfish,” Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 1586–1595, 2012. [16] Y. P. Liao and S. S. Lin, “A meshless method using the Takagi- Sugeno fuzzy model,” Journal of Engineering Mathematics, vol. 72, pp. 159–175, 2012. [17] A. Salunkhe and M. 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Submit your manuscripts at http://www.hindawi.com Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Mathematics Journal of Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Mathematical Problems in Engineering Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Differential Equations International Journal of Volume 2014 Applied Mathematics Journal of Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Probability and Statistics Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Journal of Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Mathematical Physics Advances in Complex Analysis Journal of Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Optimization Journal of Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Combinatorics Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 International Journal of Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Operations Research Advances in Journal of Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Function Spaces Abstract and Applied Analysis Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 International Journal of Mathematics and Mathematical Sciences Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 The Scientific World Journal Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Algebra Discrete Dynamics in Nature and Society Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Decision Sciences Advances in Discrete Mathematics Journal of Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Hindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Stochastic Analysis International Journal of 
work_dr7bh6dn3jdfnpedaynpztlxeu	----	“La Toilette”. When a doctor becomes a painter: Frederic Bazille Vol.:(0123456789)1 3 Journal of Endocrinological Investigation (2019) 42:1255–1256 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40618-019-01040-7 E N D O C R I N O LO G Y A N D A R T “La Toilette”. When a doctor becomes a painter: Frederic Bazille L. Obolonczyk1  · M. Berendt‑Obolonczyk1  · K. Sworczak1 Received: 15 March 2019 / Accepted: 21 March 2019 / Published online: 15 April 2019 © The Author(s) 2019 Abstract Purpose To find endocrinological disturbances in impressionism. Patients and methods Analysis of “La Toilette” painting of Frederice Bazille. Results We present a masterpiece work of Frederic Bazille “La Toilette” where a large goiter is visible. Short description of Bazille’s life and painting is included. Conclusion Despite of unique painting technique, thyroid disorders are visible even in impressionism. Keywords Frederic Bazille · Endocrinology · Painting Jean Frederic Bazille (1841–1870) was born in Montpellier and grew up in a wealthy, middle class family. His father was a prominent wine dealer. Due to a number of father’s con- nections, young Frederic met an art collector Alfred Bruyas. During this closer relationship, he could admire paintings of, e.g., Delacroix and Corot. First as a spectator, later as a young artist his painting adventure slowly started. In 1859, Bazille started medical study in Montpellier and since 1862 continued it in Paris. A contact with impression- ists as Monet, Renoir and Sisley made him more painter than doctor. He was also known as a great benefactor because of his material support for his friends (especially Monet). In 1864, he finished medical study, but he never worked as a doctor. He died at age of 29 years in Franco-German war [1]. “La toillete” oil on canvas was finished in 1870 just before Bazille’s death (Fig. 1). It presents a French art model Lise Trehot, but for us more interesting is a mysterious woman on the right side. We see clearly large, smooth goiter. No eye signs, but slim woman’s stature does not help with differen- tiation between simple goiter and Graves’ disease. Histori- cally, goiter seems to be “older” disease (i.e., paintings of Flemish or Italian Renaissance painters) but this question will be unanswered [2, 3]. According to Encyclopaedia Brittanica, Bazille was an unenthusiastic medical student. I strongly deny this opinion when I see such perfect thyroid. I hope every student have Bazille’s perception [4]. * L. Obolonczyk przepona@wp.pl 1 Department of Endocrinology and Internal Medicine, Medical University of Gdansk, Debinki 7 Street, 80-952 Gdansk, Poland http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7975-271X http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1802-6877 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9866-5670 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s40618-019-01040-7&domain=pdf 1256 Journal of Endocrinological Investigation (2019) 42:1255–1256 1 3 Compliance with ethical standards Conflict of interest On behalf of all the authors, the corresponding au- thor states that there is no conflict of interest. Ethical approval This paper does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors. Informed consent No informed consent. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Crea- tive Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creat iveco mmons .org/licen ses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribu- tion, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. References 1. Jourdan A (1992) Frédéric Bazille: prophet of impressionism. Publisher: Brooklyn Museum Bookshop; First edition (November 1, 1992) 2. Lazzeri D, Pozzilli P, Zhang YX, Persichetti P (2015) Goiter in paintings by Rogier van der Weyden (1399–1464). Thyroid 25(5):559–562 3. Sterpetti AV, Fiori E, de Cesare A (2016) Goiter in the Art of Renaissance Europe. Am J Med. 129(8):892–895 4. Encyclopaedia Brittanica. https ://www.brita nnica .com/biogr aphy/ Frede ric-Bazil le. Accessed 07 Mar 2019 Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Fig. 1 La Toilette (Decem- ber 1869–March 1870), by Frederic Bazille, oil on canvas 153 × 148.5 cm [Musee Fabre, Montpellier, France]. Please note large goiter on first right lady http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.britannica.com/biography/Frederic-Bazille https://www.britannica.com/biography/Frederic-Bazille “La Toilette”. When a doctor becomes a painter: Frederic Bazille Abstract Purpose Patients and methods Results Conclusion References 
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work_e7fokx7czrerfefw3xx4ffs6li	----	246 April 2009 Family Medicine Literature and the Arts in Medical Education Johanna Shapiro, PhD Feature Editor Dean Gianakos, MD Associate Editor Editor’s Note: In this column, teachers who are currently using literary and artistic materials as part of their curricula will briefly summarize specific works, delineate their purposes and goals in using these media, describe their audience and teaching strategies, discuss their methods of evaluation, and speculate about the impact of these teaching tools on learners (and teachers). Submissions should be three to five double-spaced pages with a minimum of references. Send your submissions to me at University of California, Irvine, Department of Family Medicine, 101 City Drive South, Building 200, Room 512, Route 81, Orange, CA 92868-3298. 949-824-3748. Fax: 714-456-7984. jfshapir@uci.edu. (Fam Med 2009;41(4):246-8.) Each year, about 70% of the first- year medical students at one of our institutions acknowledge their involvement in various aspects of the arts prior to medical school. Some have exchanged professional careers in the arts for a stethoscope and the world of science, a world that is very different from the world of art. Or is it? In a physical diagnosis course, a medical student stood at the front of the lecture hall before 140 of his peers and spoke briefly about how he used his artistic skills to transform the head-and-neck im- age of one of his older friends into the 30-by-20-inch oil painting on the canvas displayed on an easel before the class. After finishing his introductory comments, the medical student stood quietly while a physician, who knew nothing about the person depicted except for the brush strokes on the can- vas, described the individual’s chronic heart and lung problems, his dysthymia and loneliness, and his tenuous financial situation from pursuing his lifelong love of music. The medical student, formerly a professional artist in New York City for 5 years, was familiar with the health and personal history of his friend and could not help but express his astonishment at the accuracy of the clinician’s report. How can this be? How can a physi- cian know so much about someone without conducting an interview or doing a physical exam? The student and his classmates were about to find out. Over the fol- lowing week, the students went on their own time to the university art museum to complete a homework assignment modeled on the lecture hall presentation. In the museum’s education classroom, seven por- trait paintings of varying sizes and styles were displayed on a wall next to a space suitable for viewing by small groups of students. Some of the paintings were realistic, almost photographic in their detail. Others were more abstract. Each student took 1 to 2 hours to take notes and discuss one of the portraits with their classmates and with the museum’s education curator who was also available for consultation. Following a struc- tured format, the students did a write-up describing their selected Is It Impressionism or Is It Medicine? Richard W. Pretorius, MD, MPH; Ginny O’Brien Lohr, MFA, MA, RN; Niv Mor, MFA; Karen H. Zinnerstrom, PhD; Ana T. Blohm, MD From the Department of Family Medicine (Dr Pretorius), University at Buffalo Anderson Gal- lery (Ms O’Brien Lohr), School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences (Mr Mor), and Office of Medical Education (Dr Zinnerstrom), SUNY at Buffalo; and Department of Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine (Dr Blohm). 247Vol. 41, No. 4Literature and the Arts in Medical Education individual’s physical health (com- menting on three separate organ systems of their choosing), the individual’s mental health (com- menting on level of consciousness, affect, and judgment), and the individual’s social characteristics (commenting on age, gender, edu- cation, occupation, ethnic group, economic status/yearly income, family, house, health beliefs). For each of these descriptors (15 in all), the students were expected to make three objective observations to sup- port each subjective hypothesis, similar to the conscious (and some- times unconscious) process that the experienced clinician instinctively uses at the bedside. The student, for instance, may make the following three objective observations about the individual’s respirator y system—breathing comfortably through the nose, no increase in size of accessory re- spiratory muscles, pink skin—and come to the subjective hypothesis that the individual’s respiratory system is healthy and free of dis- ease. Similarly, the student might note the following three objective observations about the individual’s affect—wonder, astonish ment, high degree of attentiveness—and make the subjective hypothesis that the individual does not suffer from a mood disorder. In regard to age, the students might record that the individual has early bald- ing at the temples, adult adipose distribution, and a maturing face without wrinkles and conclude that the individual is most likely in his early 30s. All of these observations and hy- potheses are subject to independent verification, of course. But that is precisely the point, isn’t it? How else is medicine practiced other than through the careful collection of data, the thoughtful interpreta- tion of the data, the recognition of the relationship between seemly disparate bits of data, and the draw- ing of conclusions that are based on the quality of the data and the rigor of the analysis? After completing the homework assignment, the students’ write-ups were graded by their small-group leader. Since there were no previ- ously established diagnoses avail- able to use as gold standards, the grading was based on the quality of the observations, the rigor of the clinical reasoning, and the likeli- hood of the subsequent hypotheses. In addition to its emphasis on careful observation, many faculty involved in teaching the physical diagnosis course liked this par- ticular exercise because it enabled students to focus systematically on each of the intermediate steps comprising the clinical analysis rather than jumping to unsupported conclusions by taking cognitive shortcuts. Although this homework exercise occurred only once in the semester, given the usual limitations on cur- ricular time, the students later had the option of earning bonus points on a 15-minute written analysis of an unknown portrait at a clini- cal skills station on their midterm examination. While this testing sta- tion was optional, 100% of students participated since, it appeared, the opportunity to obtain extra points without the risk of penalty could not be bypassed. Despite a rigorous grading protocol, based on the logic that bonus test points should be honestly earned, students received a mean of 83% of the possible points. This seemed to indicate that students could successfully apply their nascent observational skills using a structured approach. Further, it is possible that improve- ment in student performance in a subsequent clinically based course, with a decrease in student failure on an end-of-course exam to 2% from 13% the previous year, related in part to the clinical skills that were augmented through the art exercise. So what are the benefits of such an exercise? (1) Students lear n that talking and touching patients during the interview and physical exam, while important, can be supplemented through the simple act of looking. (2) The quantity and quality of data that is available through observation typically far exceed the students’ expectations. (3) Scientific analysis is not lim- ited to scientists, nor is integrative thinking limited to artists. (4) Preci- sion in clinical conclusions can oc- cur with realistic paintings as well as through the less-concrete data found in more-abstract drawings. (5) A systematic approach to using a single clinical skill such as obser- vation can be highly productive. (6) Medical skills are not restricted to the bedside but can be used equally in other settings, including a uni- versity art museum. Future developments include consideration of var iations on the principles taught through this exercise. One of the authors, for instance, is a skilled photographer who also happens to take medical students and residents on sched- uled home visits as part of her clinical responsibilities. She has taken a number of high-quality photographs of the interiors of her patients’ homes, many without the patient in the scene. One approach may be to show a photograph to the learner as an unknown, to ask the learner to describe the health of the patient based on the appearance of the patient’s home, to review the pa- tient’s actual medical history after the learner has developed appropri- ate hypotheses, and then—and only then—to meet the patient. The evolving role of art in medi- cal education can no longer be considered as merely supplemental. Rather, the integration of the two worlds is creating a new synergy. The whole is not just greater than the sum of the parts; the whole informs our understanding of the parts. While many physicians are 248 April 2009 Family Medicine also artists,1, 2 and art has been used as a means to a scientific end (eg, to teach anatomy),3 only more recently have visual thinking strategies been recognized as a legitimate cognitive tool.4-6 Corresponding Author: Address correspondence to Dr Pretorius, SUNY at Buffalo, Department of Family Medicine, SUNY Clinical Center, Room 125, 452 Grider Street, Buffalo, NY 14215-3021. 716-898-3565. Fax: 716-831-8649. pretor@ buffalo.edu. References 1. Byth S. “The doctor is an artist.” Med J Aust 2004;181(11-12):626-7. 2. Vogel S. The role of humanities and arts in medical education with special reference to neurosurgery. The importance of visual arts in the life of a neurosurgeon. Acta Neuro- chirurgica 1993;124(2-4):168-71. 3. Challacombe E. The art of anatomy. Minn Med 2006;89(7):40-3. 4. Boisaubin EV, Winkler MG. Seeing pa- tients and life contexts: the visual arts in medical education. Am J Med Sci 2000;319(5):292-6. 5. Dolev JC, Friedlaender LK, Braverman IM. Use of fine art to enhance visual diagnostic skills. JAMA 2001;286(9):1020-1. 6. Reilly JM, Ring J, Duke L. Visual thinking strategies: a new role for art in medical education. Fam Med 2005;37(4):250-2. 
work_eddbjwi2qfc4vjlx53eulrppfy	----	Editors’ Note E D I T O R I A L Editors’ Note Laura Downey1 • Susan Kierr1 Published online: 13 June 2018 � American Dance Therapy Association 2018 As we continue to grow and learn in our editorial roles, the importance of our work and the impact of dance/movement therapy becomes more clearly crystalized with each manuscript received and each article moved into publication. This importance is demonstrated in the publication of conference materials and original manuscripts in this issue. Conference materials from San Antonio, Texas include abstracts from the Research and Thesis Poster Session that highlight a broad range of research and thesis work along with valued clinical practices with older adults of our international colleagues presented at the International Panel. The Marian Chace Foundation lecture offered by Dr. Robyn Flaum Cruz promotes the idea that we are all doing research as exploration is the foundation of our clinical practice. The conference Keynote Lecture about play therapy was colorfully and impressionably presented by Dennis McCarthy. Introductions to these presenters by Miriam Roskin Berger and Kalila Homann beautifully set the stage for each lecture. The impact of our work is also seen in the original manuscripts. The call to action for dance/movement therapists to become more aware of and involved in the detection and intervention of opioid use in inpatient settings and applications for AIDS-orphaned adolescents are timely and important. Theoretical explorations on the power of touch when working with survivors of sexual abuse and the development of strong theoretical frameworks for dance/move- ment therapy with couples demonstrate the intimacy of relationship in our work. Personal explorations of power using arts based research remind us that we all & Laura Downey Lmdowney@hotmail.com; Ldowney@colum.edu 1 Creative Arts Therapies, Columbia College Chicago, 600 S. Michigan Ave, Chicago, IL 60202, USA 123 Am J Dance Ther (2018) 40:1–3 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10465-018-9284-6 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s10465-018-9284-6&amp;domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s10465-018-9284-6&amp;domain=pdf https://doi.org/10.1007/s10465-018-9284-6 encounter power in various ways in our professional identity and therapeutic relationships. Finally, the In Memoriam written by Jane Wilson Cathcart for our teacher, friend and colleague Linni Deihl reminds us of the inspirational impact one individual can have on so, so many others as Linni did throughout her life and long career as a dance/movement therapist. It is this impact that we are focusing on as a theme for this issue that leads us to a call for action through publication. Our call to action has foundation in The Code of Ethics and Standards (2015) of the American Dance Therapy Association (ADTA) and the Dance/Movement Therapy Certification Board (DMTCB) in the following: 6.0 Advocacy and Promotion of Social Justice Dance/movement therapists promote social justice with a recognition that a just society contributes to individual, family, and community health. (See 2.3. Multicultural Competence) 6.0. a. Dance/movement therapists cultivate awareness of and address oppression and disparities in power and privilege, resulting in barriers to wellness, at individual, institutional, and societal levels. Dance/movement therapists advocate for equitable access to services and culturally competent care. 6.0. b. Dance/movement therapists encourage clients to advocate for their rights to appropriate, competent, and respectful treatment and, with client permission, may initiate advocacy on a particular client’s behalf. 6.0. c. Dance/movement therapists foster respect and support in personal, professional, and public arenas, for those marginalized by mental illness. (p. 15) During these times of increased awareness, dialogue and action around continued and pervasive social injustices, we need to step into our roles as advocates more than ever – advocates for our clients, for our work places, for healthcare, for systems to exist beyond oppressive practices, policies and experiences. We also need to be advocates for ourselves and our colleagues who have experienced injustice. We need to understand how we can be effective advocates including becoming more aware of our own experiences of oppression, where and how our practices may perpetuate injustice and our own understanding of what social justice means as well as how it is actualized in the field of dance/movement therapy. As the editors of the American Journal of Dance Therapy, we are convinced that scholarship and publication can contribute to the role of dance/movement therapists as advocates and leaders. We can help each other learn, grow and continue to explore the meaning of ethical principles related to justice, respect for persons and autonomy and how they are actualized in our practice through scholarship—through publication. Supported by our own ethical commitment to social justice, we are calling for an issue of the American Journal of Dance Therapy (AJDT) dedicated to social justice in the form of a Special Topics issue planned for December 2019. Further details are provided on the ADTA website at https://adta.org/american-dance-therapy-journal/. AJDT is the official publication of the ADTA and is designed to meet the needs of clinicians, researchers and educators in dance/movement therapy. Noting that many clinicians, researchers and educators are currently deeply involved in the health of 123 2 Am J Dance Ther (2018) 40:1–3 https://adta.org/american-dance-therapy-journal/ communities, the global survival of human rights, and the well being of individuals struggling to live fulfilling lives in a changing world, we wish to invite articles specifically about this work. In the meantime, we continue to feel grateful for all of the ways dance/movement therapists are impacting the world in meaningful ways—and the important ways we continue to be impacted by the work—and look forward to receiving your manuscripts. With appreciation and gratitude, Laura and Susan A further note: In the December 2017 (volume 29, issue 2) In Memoriam for Dianne Dulicai, the following was erroneously omitted and important in understanding Dianne’s professional collaborations as well as personal relationships: Dianne had a long, meaningful and mutually supportive collegial relationship with Miriam (Mimi) Roskin Berger, which included a research study and article in the The Arts In Psychotherapy in 2005 on the globalization of dance/movement therapy as well as the partnership between Dianne and Mimi in the leadership of the ADTA during a critical time in the life of the organization. Compliance with Ethical Standards Conflict of interest There is no known conflict of interest with the content or authorship of this editors’ note. Reference American Dance Therapy Association. (2015). The Code of Ethics and Standards (2015) of the American Dance Therapy Association (ADTA) and the Dance/Movement Therapy Certification Board (DMTCB). https://adta.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Code-of-the-ADTA-DMTCB-Final.pdf 123 Am J Dance Ther (2018) 40:1–3 3 https://adta.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Code-of-the-ADTA-DMTCB-Final.pdf Editors’ Note Reference 
work_eelnea2eifc3zex7v34u67qkie	----	Vincenc Kramář, ‘Obituary of Franz Wickhoff’ Journal of Art Historiography Number 8 June 2013 Vincenc Kramář, ‘Obituary of Franz Wickhoff’1 translated and edited by Marta Filipová Translator’s introduction Vincenc Kramář (1877-1960) was one of the first Czech art historians to have studied in Vienna. Between 1899 and 1901 he attended lectures by Franz Wickhoff, Alois Riegl and Julius Schlosser, and during this time he befriended Max Dvořák. Like his Viennese colleagues, Kramář’s scholarly interests were far reaching and included research into the art of the Middle Ages, Baroque art, as well as nineteenth-century and modern painting, especially Cubism, which he promoted extensively in Bohemia and later in Czechoslovakia. His book Kubismus (1921) is believed to have been the first theoretical text on this topic written by an art historian.2 Kramář also became an important collector of art from these periods and became a close associate of the French art collector and dealer Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, Alfred Flechtheim, the Berlin based art dealer and Carl Einstein, the German art historian and critic with whom he exchanged many letters and works of art. In 1919 Kramář was appointed director of the Picture Gallery in Prague, which eventually became the National Gallery. Kramář’s obituary is also the first attempt at a concise summary of the methodological and theoretical premises of both Wickhoff and Riegl, and the first document where these scholars are referred to as a ‘School.’ Dvořák complimented Kramář on his text in a letter to him: ‘Your obituary of Wickhoff pleased me very much, it is the best that has yet been written. It is a shame that you never write anything for us, it is a sin against the Holy Ghost.’3 However, written in Czech, the obituary had little impact on contemporary scholars who did not speak the language. Pondering over Wickhoff’s legacy, which he saw mainly in terms of his influence on his students through his lectures and not in terms of his published work, Kramář focused on his teacher as well as on the entire school. Kramář identified the basic theoretical and methodological approaches associated with the School, which he saw in for example the attention to genetic links between artworks and the idea of the universal development of art or the ‘objective’ study of works of art. Naming Niebuhr and Theodor von Sickel as key influences on Wickhoff and Riegl, he firmly rooted the Vienna School in historical scholarship. It is notable, too, that Kramář emphasised Wickhoff’s personal artistic preferences and the extent to 1 First published as Vincenc Kramář, ‘Franz Wickhoff,’ Volné směry, 13, 1909, 211–214. 2 See Vojtěch Lahoda, ‘In the Mirror of Cubism’, in Vincenc Kramář. From Old Masters to Picasso, ed. Vojtěch Lahoda, Prague: National Gallery, 2000, 24. Kramář’s study was published as Vincenc Kramář, Kubismus, Brno: Moravsko-sležská revue, 1921. 3 Pavla Sadílková and Lada Hubatová-Vacková, ‘Chronology’, in Vincenc Kramář. From Old Masters, 219. Marta Filipová (trans.) Vincenc Kramář, ‘Obituary of Franz Wickhoff’ 2 which they informed his work; this ran completely counter to the argument, famously put forward by Riegl and, before him, Thausing, that aesthetic taste should have no role in art history. Marta Filipová works at the School of Art and Design at the University of Wolverhampton. Before receiving her PhD in art history from the University of Glasgow, she studied art history in Brno, Czech Republic. Her interests lie in the historiography of art history in Central Europe and the formation of national identity in modern art in the region. She has published essays and reviews on the topic in a number of books and journals, including the Journal of Design History, Centropa, the RIHA Journal. Currently, she is completing an edited volume on international exhibitions and world's fairs in geographic peripheries and is working on a monograph on Czech historiography of art history and art criticism before WWII. Marta.Filipova@wlv.ac.uk Marta Filipová (trans.) Vincenc Kramář, ‘Obituary of Franz Wickhoff’ 3 Franz Wickhoff On 6 April, the Viennese Professor of the history of art, Franz Wickhoff (*1853) passed away in Venice. The deceased was born a man of considerable refined artistic taste who refused to be bound by period theories and who was open to all truly artistic impressions; he was a scholar of high intellect and, at the same time, an utterly temperamental individual. No wonder he greatly influenced the development of scholarship. He and his colleague, the recently deceased Prof. Alois Riegl (1858-1905), are the very founders of the Viennese art historical school that today occupies the leading place in the field. Although the School’s early days can be seen in the work of Thausing and, to an extent, in that of Eitelberger, it was Wickhoff and Riegl who gave it a concise physiognomy. Because of them, Vienna became the centre of all progressive efforts that aimed at putting an end to dilettantism and superficiality that had been prominent in the study of the visual arts in the previous decades and that, in contrast to the exaggerated emphasis on iconography, facts and other secondary issues, put the main emphasis back on the intrinsic artistic content of the works. Individual attempts in this regard had already been carried out here and there a long time ago. Let me mention, for example, the ground-breaking discoveries of Giovanni Morelli, the writings of K. Fielder, Löwy, J[ulius] Lange, K[arl] Justi, Gurlitt, Wölfflin and others, but only Vienna turned them into a solid system. The latter is the only versatile progressive system of our times; at its heart is the effort to investigate artistic development in an objective way. Wickhoff and Riegl set out with the goal of making art history a true historical science and in this regard, they followed the steps of the founder of our science, Baron Rumohr. It is of interest that in both cases the impulse came from the historical sciences: in Rumohr’s time it was the influence of Niebuhr, in our times it was the results of the studies at the Institute for Austrian History, where, mainly thanks to Sickel, the method of historical work acquired an unprecedented degree of perfection. Thus Wickhoff and Riegl’s intentions were that the modern historian of the visual arts should seek objective knowledge of artistic development, using the same historical method that had for decades governed other fields of historical research. The prerequisite for this, however, was that he should be able to free himself from all aesthetic and other theories of a particular period, which prevented an independent view of innumerable artistic phenomena and built a wall between the spectator and the work of art. But even this was not enough. It was necessary to suspend all aesthetic judgements in general, for such an approach was always subjective and cannot provide science with a firm basis. Wickhoff and Riegl replaced subjective aesthetic assessment with an objective and historic one, for which the decisive moment is the stage of development of the work of art. In so doing, they dealt a final blow to absolute aesthetic value in scholarship. A whole range of historic styles, which until now had been condemned and disregarded as a result of the influence of classical aesthetics, was recognized as valid, and the limitations on ideas of beauty vanished into oblivion. All that remained was art as a single phenomenon, and this was not realistic or idealistic, it was both, and the various forms it could take were inexhaustible. Alongside the decline of absolute Marta Filipová (trans.) Vincenc Kramář, ‘Obituary of Franz Wickhoff’ 4 aesthetic value, a stop was made to materialism, a legacy of the eighteenth century, which distorted the relation to artistic work for almost the entire nineteenth century. In this, an autonomous intellectual activity reappeared with its own rules that can only be controlled by external influences to a certain degree. The old naïve theories of influence thereby lost their credibility and were rectified. We witness briefly an interesting phenomenon – in the same school that laid the foundations for the sober, objective study of works of art, a view of the nature of artistic creation achieved refinement that had hardly been seen before. Evidently, the efforts of the Vienna School are, foremost, of a critical nature. The School seeks to commence with reliable material, on the basis of which it can proceed to other goals and that is why it pays such great attention to detailed questions. The geographical and historical origin of the work of art, its intrinsic artistic content, its internal and external influences and genetic connections or importance within the universal development of art are the main questions that the modern historian of art seeks to answer, while he is exhausting all possible historic and critical aids and uses psychological analysis to explain the mysteries of artistic creation. However, such detailed work, which is mostly analytical in character, is not what characterizes the Vienna School. It contains something monumental, it aims for synthesis, that is, a universal view of the history of art, and that is why it considers detailed monographs only as a preparation, however inevitable. Similarly, it does not consider any task resolved unless the position of the work in the universal development of art has been established. This indicates that in all work on monographs the Vienna School demands awareness of the general development of art and leads, in its highest ambition, towards establishing this continuous stream of artistic creation. And it is this combination of the great courses of development, in which the frontiers of countries and national differences disappeared and in ancient times shook hands with each other, that gave impulse for the fascination as well as aversion of circles outside the School, that is, German imperial circles in particular. In the history of art, we have already experienced critical and universalistic periods, but they were always one-sided. It is only the Vienna School that first synthesises these two viewpoints and this is where its historical importance rests. Given its attempt at being objective, it is understood that in all synthetic works it requires its material to be as complete as possible. This rich, comprehensive system of studying fine art, briefly outlined here, which corresponds with the requirements of science as much as it tries discretely to penetrate the mystery of artistic work, is the work of Wickhoff and Riegl. The first books in which it was applied in all its extent, are Riegl’s Stilfragen (1893) and Wickhoff’s Genesis (1895); two ground-breaking works of art historical literature. However, what is probably even more important than all their texts is the fact that they founded a school that preserves their principles and that is acquiring ever more decisive influence on the development of art history. In this respect, lectures and seminars, through which these strong figures could affect their listeners, had much more significance. This was the case especially with Wickhoff and that is why in this posthumous recollection I tried to offer a comprehensive picture of his efforts and findings in his work rather than analyse his written texts. Whoever limited themselves to his books would in any case be doing him an injustice. Wickhoff has not written much. He was not one of those scholars for whom the study of art was a Marta Filipová (trans.) Vincenc Kramář, ‘Obituary of Franz Wickhoff’ 5 mere opportunity to show their wit and who could write up extensively about completely disparate subjects with equal interest. For Wickhoff, being in touch with art was an inner need, as he was himself artistically inclined. The desire for artistic experience never gave his purely scientific interests the chance to dominate. Writing, in fact, and I mean publishing books here, was always secondary for Wickhoff and only a strong inner impulse and an unusual interest in a subject made his pen work. This also explains the freshness of his works, their elementary appeal and value. His works can be divided into two categories, according to the two tendencies of the Vienna School, mentioned above, analytic-critical and synthetic. In the former group, one can find in particular treatises on Italian painting, which was his special subject – if the term special subject can be used in the case of such a universal taste – and in which he brought the experimental method devised by Morelli to a high degree of perfection. He could be proud that he was the first to lecture on the critical method of the Italian doctor and art connoisseur at a German university. However, to remain historically objective, we have to add that Wickhoff’s predecessor, Thausing, was an earlier supporter, as well as a personal friend, of Morelli. In the second group of texts by Wickhoff the Vienna Genesis stands out both for its scope and for its value. I shall discuss this book, which caused a true stir in academic circles, in more detail. The Vienna Genesis is, as is known, an early Christian illuminated manuscript in the royal library, and Wickhoff set himself the goal of explaining the style of its miniatures using the genetic method. What he presented was a true history of classical sculpture and painting and, regarding the latter, it was the first effort of this kind. We are, however, no longer content with the Genesis in many respects, but that also is to Wickhoff’s credit. In particular, when comparing the Genesis with Riegl’s Stilfragen, a history of ancient and early medieval ornament that nevertheless examined a much more accessible subject and was characterised by its complete objectivity and inductive method, one can see that the Genesis is not free of a certain dose of subjectivity and dogmatism and that it bears marks of materialism, absolute aesthetics and ahistoricism. For us, to oppose ‘standardising’ Oriental-Greek art and ‘individualising’ western Roman illusionism is an obsolete point of view; we do not see the various styles as the expression of races but as different developmental stages of the same art. The theory of autochthonism rules out any idea of overall development (Wickhoff admits that on page 11) and therefore jeopardizes the success of Wickhoff’s work. Fortunately, in practical work his instinct was stronger than all his out-dated theories and thus the Genesis reached the same findings in the field of sculpture and painting as Riegl’s book in the field of ornament: it recognized the uniform development of Classical and early Christian art. The books also share a wider view, which brings their broad perspective alive. The idea of a single universal artistic development became one of the founding ideas of the Vienna School. Viewed as a whole, all these deficiencies disappear in light of the positive value of Wickhoff’s work. Moreover, when inspecting them more closely, they are an almost necessary, or at least, explicable foil of his merits. One should only remind oneself what Roman art had meant for archaeologists before Wickhoff’s time or, partly even today! No more than the decline and decay of everything Greek; hence the neglect with which it was swept Marta Filipová (trans.) Vincenc Kramář, ‘Obituary of Franz Wickhoff’ 6 aside. It was the foremost goal of Wickhoff’s work to show its positive virtue and far-reaching significance for future development. It is no wonder that he tried to free Roman art from Greek influence as much as he could. And what more evidence could he provide for his thesis than showing the autochthonous Italian origins of Roman art on the basis of a principle that was so different from the Greek one? That is his theory of Etruscan illusionism and its highest form in Flavian art. Yet it is here that he went too far and created a rupture where there was none before. The Genesis is a radical book and as such it shares all the merits and faults of such works. It is one of the works of the nineteenth century that, for the spirit of its time, discovered the positive value of related artistic periods. Its author was an enthusiast for modern Impressionism and we understand well the archaeologist’s hesitation when he finds the names of Velasquez and Manet in a book on classical art – fresh air entered the shrine accessible only to magicians. The Genesis is the great apotheosis of Impressionism to a point where it is to the detriment of other artistic styles (see especially p. 34). Such subjectivism is typical of the Genesis. Especially at the beginning, it is an artist who is speaking from its pages and it is only further along that the historian can be felt a little more. There is one lesson from this book: that a true step forward can only be made by the art historian who takes an active part in contemporary artistic development. And, there is one more reason why the Genesis is an illuminating document: the relationship between content and form. The book reads like a novel and there is no trace of any effort directed towards purposeless art criticism. The content or the subject of the book is what matters and they produce this remarkable whole while the means of expression are similarly important. In no place does one encounter those empty tasteless clichés that are, unfortunately, in fashion now. The language is simple, yet full of inner warmth and expression and appropriate. Wickhoff, of course, had read a lot and he especially respected Goethe, which is, in this case, certainly typical. However, his style cannot be accounted for by all of this literary interest or by any innate or acquired expressive techniques. The secret of this lively, simple, natural and, at the same time, excellent style lies most of all in the warm interest of the author in the subject matter and in its comprehensive inner organization. The Genesis won its battle and now there is no doubt that Roman art can be an equal partner of the finest creations of the Greek genius. Yet it achieved much more if we leave aside the positive scholarly benefit that Augustan and Flavian art was first discovered and that a scholarly history of classical art was outlined here for the first time. There are also fundamental successes. Wickhoff was the first to show here with unusual fervour and conviction that classical art is art in the first place and that it should be understood as such. And that is his great legacy to the archaeologists. Secondly, the Genesis wiped out the artificial boundaries between archaeology and the history of art and today it is impossible for a rigorous historian of more recent art who has deep interests to omit in his studies classical art as a source of all that followed. Recently, Wickhoff’s writing was limited to reviews of literature for the critical journal Kunstanzeigen (from 1904), which were written under his name and Marta Filipová (trans.) Vincenc Kramář, ‘Obituary of Franz Wickhoff’ 7 which were aimed at hitting dilettantism at its roots.4 His articles are characteristic of a great, sometimes a little too great, wit and their piercing irony gave rise to a lot of bad blood around the Empire. Reactionary forces even founded their own journal which followed tried and tested paths, but it did not take long for it to change content as well as course – that was one of the symptoms that proved the victorious advancement of the Vienna School’s ideas. I have shown that when compared to Riegl, Wickhoff was much more subjective, despite all his efforts at objectivity. Indeed, he was much more artistically inclined and often let his instincts guide him, whereas Riegl sought objective criteria. For Riegl’s ideal was a historian without any personal taste. Wickhoff, however, was on surer ground with his own ideas, which often tempted Riegl, too. It is no wonder that Wickhoff had his own predilections. After all, even the most objective historian has them when he is in a direct contact with art. Wickhoff’s favourites were the old Venetian masters as much as Goethe was his literary favourite. Venice was his dearest refuge after work and illness and it was fate’s doing that he passed away here. Here, he rests near those masters that he loved so much. 4 Translator’s note: this is probably a reference to the journal Kunstgeschichtliche Anzeigen, which Wickhoff founded in 1904. 
work_ef45ozb2vfhdbp5ei3velrq4oa	----	1915.] NEW PUBLICATIONS. 529 D E . H . W. R E D D I C K , of Columbia University, has been ap- pointed professor and head of the department of mathematics in the Cooper Union, New York City. PROFESSOR R. D . CARMICHAEL, of Indiana University, has been appointed assistant professor of mathematics in the University of Illinois. B Y mutual arrangement between the departments con- cerned, Mr. C. H. Y E A T O N , recently appointed instructor in mathematics a t D a r t m o u t h College, has resigned to accept a similar appointment a t Northwestern University, and Mr. C. R. D I N E S , a t present instructor at Northwestern University, has accepted an instructorship in mathematics at D a r t m o u t h College for the coming academic year. A T Cornell University Drs. C. F . CRAIG and F . W. O W E N S have been promoted to assistant professorships of mathe- matics. A T the Massachusetts institute of technology Dr. B, B. L I B B Y and Mr. GEORGE RUTLEDGE have been appointed instructors in mathematics. D R . G. M . CONWELL, of Yale University, has been appointed instructor in mathematics in the New York state college for teachers. N E W P U B L I C A T I O N S . I. HIGHER MATHEMATICS. AMOROSO (F.). Complementi di analisi algebrica elementare, con appen- dice sulle sezioni coniche. 2a edizione, riveduta e migliorata. Napoli, Pirro, 1912. 16mo. 34+229 pp. BRENKEN (E.). Die Erzeugung der Kurven konstanten Gauss'schen Krüm-mungsmasses auf Flâchen zweiten Grades durch elliptische Zylinder. Papenburg, 1914. 17 pp. M. 1.50 COUTURAT (L.). L'algèbre de la logique. 2e édition. (Collection Scien- tia.) Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1914. 8vo. 100 pp. Fr. 2.00 DAVISON (C.)- Subjects for mathematical essays. London, Macmillan, 1914. 8vo. 3s. 6d. D ' E N N O (J. G. A.). 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(In Russian.) Warsaw, 1912. 8vo. 21 + 229 pp. I I . ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS. AMMERMAN ( C ) . See FORD (W. B.). BERTRAND (G.). Trattato di algebra elementare. Prima traduzione italiana con note ed aggiunti di E. Betti, Nuova edizione per cura di A. Socci. 15a impressione. Firenze, Le Monnier, 1912. 16mo. 7 + 531 pp. BETTI (E.), See BERTRAND (G.). BRABANT (F. G.). See MARCON (C. A.). CAMMAN (P.) et FASSBINDER (L.). Algèbre et géométrie. Classe de 3e A. Paris, Gigord, 1912. 18mo. 87 pp. CHOPE (R. H.). Junior arithmetic (with answers). London, "university Tutorial Press, 1912. 8vo. 8+393 pp, DEKKER (P.). See NIEMÖLLER (F.). DoLGTJSCHiN (P. A.). Approximations. For gymnasia, Realschulen, trade and technical schools. Revised by the author. 2d edition. (In Russian.) Kieff, 1912. 8vo. 46 pp. FASSBINDER (L.). See CAMMAN (P.). FISHER (G. E.) and SCHWATT (I.). Quadratics and beyond. Reprint. New York, Macmillan, 1914. 12mo. 287 pp. $0.90 . Complete secondary algebra. 2d reprint. New York, Macmillan, 1912. 12mo. 504 pp. $1.35 License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 1915.] NEW PUBLICATIONS. 531 FORD (W. B.) and AMMERMAN ( C ) . Plane and solid geometry, edited by E. R. Hedrick. Reprinted with corrections, New York, Macmillan, 1914. 12mo. 321pp. $1.25 FRENZEL ( C ) . See MEHLER (G.). FRIEDMANN (W. G.). Textbook of theoretical arithmetic. For upper classes of the boys' and girls' gymnasia and Realschulen and for private study. (In Russian.) Moscow, 1912. 8vo. 138 pp. HEDRICK (E. R.). See FORD (W. B.). JACOB (J.). Lehrbuch der Arithmetik fur Mâdchenlyzeen und verwandte Anstalten. Iter Teil: Lehrstofï der lten und 2ten Klasse. Wien, F. Deuticke, 1912. 8vo. 3+110 pp. . Manuale d'aritmetica per la prima classe délie scuole medie. Versione di R. Marussig. Triest, M. Quidde, 1912. 8vo. 3 + 6 4 pp. JACOB (J.) und SCHIFFNER (F.). Lehrbuch der Arithmetik und Geometrie für Realschulen. Wien, F. Deuticke, 1912. 8vo. 64 pp. JACOB (J.), SCHIFFNER (F.) und TRAVNICEK (J.). Arithmetik und Geom- etrie für Gymnasien und Realgymnasien. Analytische Geometrie der Ebene bearbeitet von J. Travnicek. Wien, F. Deuticke, 1912. 8vo. 4+115 pp. MARCON (C. A.) and BRABANT (F. G.). Responsions papers in stated subjects (exclusive of books), 1906-1911. With answers to mathe- matical questions and introduction to mathematics, grammar, . . • Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1912. 160 pp. MARINO (A.). Applicazioni algebraiche alia geometria piana e solida, Milano, 1914. 12mo. 32 pp. MARKOWITSCH (B. A.). Elementary logarithms. (Elements of the theory of logarithms and of the practice in logarithmic computation.) (In Russian.) St. Petersburg, 1912. 8vo. 8 + 7 2 pp. The same with 4-place logarithm tables and samples of other logarithm tables. 8vo. 16+104 pp. MARUSSIG (R.). See JACOB (J.). MEHLER (F. G.). Hauptsâtze der Elementar-Mathematik zum Gebrauche an höheren Lehranstalten, Beai*beitet von A. Schulte-Tigges, Ausgabe B, Oberstufe. 2ter Teil: Arithmetik mit Einschluss der niederen Analysis, Trigonometrie und Stéréométrie, Unter Mitwirk- ung von C. Frenzel bearbeitet. 2te unverànderte Auflage. Berlin, Reimer, 1912. 8vo, 8+169 pp. MULLER (O.). Ta vole di logaritmi con cinque decimali, 12a edizione, aumentata della tavole dei logaritmi d'addizione e sottrazione, per cura di Michèle Raj na, Milano, Hoepli, 1915. 24mo. 36+191 pp. L. 1.50 NIEMÖLLER (F.) und DEKKER (P.). Arithmetisches und algebraisches Unterrichtsbuch. In 4 Heften, ltes und 2tes Heft. Breslau, F. Hirt, 1912. 92+116 pp. OPENSHAW (P. A.). Public school examination papers in mathematics. With answers. London, Bell, 1912. 135 pp. PENDLEBURY (C.). A preparatory arithmetic. London, Bell, 1912, 14+185+30 pp. RAJNA (M.). See MULLER (O.). License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 532 NEW PUBLICATIONS. [July, R A S C H E V S K Y ( K . ) . E l e m e n t a r y algebra. Textbook for higher schools. (In Russian.) Moscow, 1912. 8vo. 3 0 1 + 3 p p . SALOMON (A.). Leçons d'algèbre. 7e édition. Paris, Vuibert, 1912. 16mo. 267 p p . S C H I F F N E R ( F . ) . See J A C O B (J.). S C H U L T E - T I G G E S (A.). See M E H L E R ( F . G.). S C H U L T Z E (A.). Advanced algebra. 11th reprint. New York, Macmil- lan, 1913. 12mo. 562 p p . Half leather. $1.25 S C H W A T T (I.). See F I S H E R (G. E . ) . S O C C I (A.). See B E R T R A N D (G.). T R A V N I C E K ( J . ) . See J A C O B ( J . ) . V A N D E R H E Y D E N (A. F . ) . N o t e s on algebra. Middleborough, W . Apple- y a r d , 1912. 8 + 133 p p . I I I . A P P L I E D M A T H E M A T I C S . ARMSTRONG (H. F . ) . Descriptive geometry for s t u d e n t s of engineering science a n d architecture. New York, Wiley, 1915. 8vo. 6 + 125 p p . $2.00 B E R L I N E R (S.). R e n t e n u n d Anleihen. Leipzig, C. E . Poeschel, 1912. 8vo. 1 0 + 1 4 2 p p . B R A G G (W. H . a n d W . L . ) . X r a y s a n d crystal s t r u c t u r e . London, Bell, 1915. 8vo. 7s. 6d. B R A G G (W. L . ) . See B R A G G (W. H . ) . C A L E N D A R I O astronomico délie colonie italiane d'Affrica per l'anno 1915. ( I s t i t u t o geografico militare.) Firenze, t i p . B a r b è r a , di Alfani e Venturi, 1914. 8vo. 73 p p . C A L E N D A R I O del r. osservatorio astronomico di Napoli per l'anno 1915. Napoli, 1915. 16mo. 75 p p . DRTJRY ( F . E . ) . Geometry of building construction. Second year course. London, Routledge, 1915. 8vo. 3s. E D W A R D S (E. J.) a n d T I C K L E ( M . J . ) . Practical science a n d m a t h e m a t i c s for t h e second year preliminary technical or industrial course. L o n - don, Routledge, 1915. 8vo. 8 + 175 p p . I s . 6d. E L D E R T O N (W. P.) a n d F I P P A R D (R. C ) . T h e construction of m o r t a l i t y a n d sickness tables. London, Macmillan, 1914. 12mo. 120 p p . $0.80 F E R R A R I O (L.). S t u d î di meccanica molecolare. Milano, Hoepli, 1915. 8vo. 165 p p . L. 4.50 F I P P A R D (R. C ) . See E L D E R T O N (W. P . ) . F O S C H I (R. C ) . U n a facile deduzione del teorema dei t r e m o m e n t i . C i t t à di Castello, S. Lapi, 1914. 8vo. 8 p p . L O M B A R D I (L.). Corso teorico-pratico di elettrotecnica. 2a edizione. V o l . 1 1 . Milano, 1914. 8vo. 1 2 + 7 1 8 p p . + 5 t a b l e s . L. 20.00 M A G G I (G. A.). Geometria del movimento. Lezioni di cinematica con u n ' appendice sulla geometria délia massa. 1915. 8vo. L. 8.00 T I C K L E ( M . J . ) . See E D W A R D S ( E . J . ) . License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 
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work_ego5e4pwfrg35kxgpx5dfgmage	----	Munch’s visions from within the eye The Norwegian artist Edvard Munch (1863–1944) has become synonymous with The Scream, one of the most famous and haunting paintings of expressionist art. Munch owed much of his success to the German ophthalmologist Dr Max Linde, who came from a family of artists and who also befriended the sculptor Auguste Rodin and Max Liebermann, the German impressionist. Linde had a great interest in art and in 1896 published an article on the advantages of myopia in painters in the art magazine Das Atelier.1 His wife’s fortune meant that he was in a position to indulge his passion and ultimately accumulated one of Europe’s most important private collections of contemporary art. When Munch was still a novice in 1902, Linde was one of the first to recognise his extraordinary talent. As soon as the two had met, Linde published a pamphlet with the title Edvard Munch und die Kunst der Zukunft (‘Edvard Munch and the Art of the Future’). According to Linde, French Impressionism had run its course and it was time for art to delve deeper to reflect man’s inner conflict in modern times. He would describe Munch as ‘a fine interpreter of the human soul, a Hamlet figure who likes to brood and ponder.’1 There is little documentation regarding Munch’s general health, but we know that he abused alcohol and was prone to severe mood swings. He suffered from poor vision in his left eye, which may have resulted from amblyopia or injuries he had sustained in a fight in 1904.2 In any event, the weakness of the left eye did not interfere with his work until 1930, when, aged 67, he suffered from a right vitreous haemorrhage.3–4 Strangely, Munch never corresponded with his patron and friend Linde about his visual problems, but instead sought advice from Professor Johan Raeder,1 an eminent Norwegian ophthalmologist, who later described Raeder’s paratrigeminal syndrome.5 Although all medical records are lost, we still have Raeder’s note that he gave to his patient to ward off potential visitors: ‘Herr painter Edvard Munch suffers from an acute eye disease caused by a long- standing over-exertion. He needs complete bodily and mental rest for a long period of time. Any disturbance, oral, written, by telephone or by telegraph, is to be entirely avoided’.2 Munch was naturally terrified by his loss of vision, which would further impact on his already gloomy outlook on life. Munch’s right eye gradually recovered and 3 months after the initial event, he started to make drawings documenting the vitreous clouds in his right eye by covering his left one (Figure 1). Apart from black spots which followed his eye movements, he further described a ‘bird’s head’, probably corresponding to the ‘Weiss’ Ring’ of the (alleged) vitreous detachment.1 Initially Munch described the bird’s body as ‘heavy’, but as the vitreous haemorrhage was slowly reabsorbed and shrank, so did the bird, which gradually moved out of the centre into the upper visual field (Figures 2–4).1,4,6 Munch followed his visual recovery almost obsessively, and with clinical detail. Some of his sketches of the shadows and scotomata in his right eye are annotated with the exact viewing distance between his eye and the paper, including the conditions under which the observations were made. His most innovative and ingenious idea was to superimpose a grid of lines over some of his drawings to precisely document the extent of his scotoma, and to help him monitor its improvement.4 Whether the idea to use a grid was Munch’s or Raeder’s we do not know. Nonetheless, it is noteworthy as it preceded the publication of Amsler’s grids by 17 years.7 Munch’s right vitreous haemorrhage eventually cleared entirely and he continued to work, almost until his death. The question remains as to what caused Munch’s haemorrhage. Eight years after the haemorrhage in the right eye, Munch suffered from the same problem in his left eye. In a letter dated March, 1938 Raeder documents: ‘There now has occurred a similar condition in his left eye, so that he is now threatened with complete blindness in both eyes’.4 Raeder’s observation, that is, that the artist was now at the verge of going blind, is puzzling, as it suggests further deterioration in the right eye after recovery from the vitreous haemorrhage in 1930. This in turn has been interpreted as a sign of an underlying systemic disease that predisposed Munch to ocular haemorrhage.4 However there is no evidence for this. Many potential diagnoses have been suggested including retinal haemorrhage Munch’s visions from within the eye Out of Hours 36 British Journal of General Practice, January 2014 Figure 1. Munch, ‘Watercolour and Pastel’, 1930. The artist portrays himself in bed, testing his vision in the right eye while covering his left one with his hand. The scotoma of the residual right vitreous haemorrhage looms as Death’s head at the end of the bed.2 Credit: Edvard Munch: The Artist with a Skull: Optical Illusion from the Eye Disease 1930. Watercolour and pencil on paper. MunchMuseum, Oslo. MM T 2157. This image has been cropped. British Journal of General Practice, January 2014 37 with macular oedema and breakthrough bleeding into the vitreous, posterior vitreous detachment, branch retinal vein occlusion with neovascularisation, and vascular abnormalities such as a macular aneurysm.1,2,4 Vitreous haemorrhage from a retinal tear or rhegmatogenous retinal detachment seems doubtful, given the spontaneous recovery. Diabetic retinopathy is also implausible; if Munch had developed diabetic proliferative changes in 1930, he would not have survived until 1944. Given the history of floaters (‘dark spots which show up like small flocks of crows far up when I look at the sky’) it seems most likely that Munch suffered from a haemorrhagic vitreous detachment first in the right and later in the left eye.2 The crucial aspect of Munch’s pathology for us as clinicians is, that: ‘... we can recognize in his sketches not only the characteristics of floaters and ocular haemorrhage, but his efforts to document and measure the impact of his disease’.4 One may, indeed, say that Munch allowed us a view of the visions inside his eye. Anna Gruener, ST6 in Ophthalmology, St Thomas’ Hospital, Medical Eye Unit, London. DOI: 10.3399/bjgp14X676492 The images for Figures 1–4 are displayed in the print version only ADDRESS FOR CORRESPONDENCE Anna Gruener Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, St Thomas’ Hospital, Westminster Bridge Road, London SE1 7EH. E-mail: annagruener@hotmail.com REFERENCES 1. Meyer C. Max Linde, MD, a Luebeck ophthalmologist and patron of Edvard Munch. Surv Ophthalmol 1999; 43(6): 525–534. 2. Marmor MF, Ravin JG. The artist’s eyes: vision and the history of art. London: Abrams, 2009. 3. Trevor-Roper P. The world through blunted sight. 3rd edn. London: Souvenir Press, 1997. 4. Marmor MF. A brief history of macular grids: from Thomas Reid to Edvard Munch and Marc Amsler. Surv Ophthalmol 2000; 44(4): 343–353. 5. Grimson BS, Thompson HS. Raeder’s syndrome. A clinical review. Surv Ophthalmol 1980; 24(4): 199–210. 6. Lanthony P. Edvard Munch’s entoptic bird. [In French]. Rev Prat 2007; 57(7): 807–809. 7. Amsler M. L’examen qualitatif de la fonction maculaire. Ophthalmologica 1947; 114(4–5): 248–261. Figure 2. Sketches showing the wispy, fibrillar shadow that he observed as the dense scotoma from his right vitreous haemorrhage began to clear. Realistic representation of the floater.4 Credit: Edvard Munch: The Artist’s Damaged Eye 1930. Watercolour, India ink and crayon on paper. MunchMuseum, Oslo. MM T 2167. Figure 3. Transformation of the floater into a bird’s head figure. Edvard Munch: The Artist’s Damaged Eye 1930. Crayon on paper. MunchMuseum, Oslo. MM T 2138. Figure 4. Sketch of the bird’s head scotoma showing the letters ‘AP’ within the open beak. Edvard Munch: The Artist’s Damaged Eye 1930. India ink on paper. MunchMuseum, Oslo. MM T 2136. 
work_el6nalxjtnavzibn65c5r44tre	----	Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews eISSN: 2395-6518, Vol 7, No 5, 2019, pp 965-969 https://doi.org/10.18510/hssr.2019.75126 965 |www.hssr.in © Grebneva et al. THE PREVAILING MECHANISMS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PROTECTION AT PERSONS WITH DIFFERENT DOMINANCE OF TEMPERAMENT Valentina V. Grebneva 1* , Alexey Ju. Kovtunenko 2 , Victoria B. Tarabaeva 3 , Svetlana V. Moskalenko 4 1,2,3,4,5 Belgorod State University, Belgorod, 85, Pobedy Street, Russia. Email: * grebneva@bsu.edu.ru Article History: Received on 24 th August 2019, Revised on 25 th September 2019, Published on 01 st November 2019 Abstract Purpose: The article presents the results of the study of the relationship between the type of temperament and the mechanisms of psychological protection used by a person. Methodology: The study was conducted on the basis of the Belgorod State National Research University. The study involved students aged 18-20 years old in the amount of 300 people. The groups were formed taking into account the dominance of the type of temperament. Gr. #1 included respondents with a predominance of sanguine temperament; gr. #2 - phlegmatic; gr. #3 - choleric and gr. #4 - melancholic type. Result: It is shown that there are differences in the severity of the mechanisms of psychological protection in individuals with different dominant temperament. It is revealed that emotionally stable persons with high indicators of strength and balance of nervous processes (sanguine and phlegmatic types) use more complex and ontogenetically later mechanisms of psychological protection. Applications: This research can be used for universities, teachers, and students. Novelty/Originality: In this research, the model of --- is presented in a comprehensive and complete manner. Keywords: Temperament, Psychological Defense Mechanisms, Reactive Formations, Negation, Substitution, Regression, Compensation. INTRODUCTION Analysis of foreign and domestic literature has shown that currently relevant is the study of the factors that determine a person’s temperament, the connection of temperament with the occurrence and development of diseases of the cardiovascular system, as well as the interdependence of temperament and human behavioral features. However, there is a need to expand ideas about the role of biologically determined properties of temperament in the personal design of protective behavior, about the role and place of psychological protection in the overall structure of indi viduality (Abdoli Dehnavi, et al. 2016; Wang, et al. 2016). In modern studies, attempts are made to determine the protective mechanisms of a person by its individual biological properties, in particular, temperament properties, but in most cases, the data are not the result of experimental work. On the other hand, the literature describes studies studying the formation of defense mechanisms in the process of personality development, their environmental effects, the nature of adaptation, etc. In general, we can state the lack of integration of theoretical and empirical data into a single concept. Therefore, the problem of personality defense mechanisms with different dominance of the type of temperament can be considered as one of the most urgent in the psychology of personality, based on real practical inquiry (Wang, et al. 2016; Di Giuseppe, et al. 2019). METHODS The study's purpose was to study the relationship between dominant temperament and psychological defense mechanisms used by the individual. In this context, the tasks of the empirical study were identified as to identify differences in the severity of psychological defense mechanisms among individuals with different dominance of temperament: 1. To diagnose the type of temperament in respondents aged 18-20 years old. 2. To study the prevailing psychological defense mechanisms for people with different dominance of temperament. 3. Based on the mathematical analysis of the information obtained, it is possible to identify possible relationships between the type of temperament and the psychological defense mechanisms used. The study was conducted on the basis of the Belgorod State National Research University. The study involved students aged 18-20 years old in the amount of 300 people. The groups were formed taking into account the dominance of the type of temperament. Gr. #1 included respondents with a predominance of sanguine temperament; gr. #2 - phlegmatic; gr. #3 - choleric and gr. #4 - melancholic type. To solve the tasks and obtain more accurate research results, a set of techniques was chosen: 1. Projective technique "Visual Metaphors of Temperament" (Grebneva, 2000). Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews eISSN: 2395-6518, Vol 7, No 5, 2019, pp 965-969 https://doi.org/10.18510/hssr.2019.75126 966 |www.hssr.in © Grebneva et al. 2. Test - questionnaire "Study of Temperament" (H. Eysenck) (Grebneva, 2000). The use of this technique will allow obtaining not only qualitative but also quantitative data on the indicator of the dominant type of temperament. 3. Questionnaire “Study of Psychological Defense Mechanisms” (Grebneva, 2000). Data processing was carried out using the statistical package SPSS 17.0. Data interpretation was carried out on the basis of quantitative and qualitative analysis of the results, as well as the level and comparative analysis of data. The reliability of differences was assessed by the Student's t-test, in order to study the relationship between the preferred psychological defense mechanisms and temperament type dominance indicators, the Pearson correlation coefficient was used. RESULTS AND ITS DISCUSSION Diagnostics of the typological properties of temperament were studied by the method “Visual Metaphors of Temperament” (Grebneva, 2006). To determine the mechanism of action, we developed the metaphors and used two fundamental aspects concerning the peculiarities of the nervous system: impressionability (internal drawing) and impulsivity (external drawing). Here we rely on theoretical conclusions, according to which an individual's temperament is characterized by S. L. Rubinstein, 2000 as follows: “the strength and stability of the impact that an impression has on a person” (impressionability), as well as “the strength of impulses, the speed with which they seize the motor sphere and go into action” (impulsivity) (Rubinstein, 2000). The metaphor of phlegmatic temperament (Fig. 1) reflects a weak impressionability and low impulsivity; choleric (Fig. 1.2) - strong impressionability and high impulsivity; sanguine (Fig. 1.3) - weak impressionability and great impulsivity; (Fig. 1.4) melancholic - strong impressionability and low impulsivity. Figure 1: Visual metaphors of dynamic features of mental activity and human behavior During the analysis of the results obtained according to the method “Determination of Temperament Type” (Grebneva, 2000), it turned out that 122 students had choleric type (40.6%), 95 students - sanguine temperament type (31.6%), 35 students - melancholic type (11.6%), 48 students (16%) - phlegmatic temperament type. For further research, we formed groups of 30 people, taking into account the dominant type of temperament. Gr. #1 included respondents with a predominance of sanguine temperament; gr. #2 - phlegmatic; gr. #3 - choleric and gr. #4 - melancholic type. To confirm the diagnostic data of the prevailing temperament, as well as to obtain quantitative data, we used the method developed by H. Eysenck (Grebneva, 2000). The diagnostic results are presented in Table 1. Table 1: Indicators of the dominance of the type of temperament in groups of subjects, the average score Dominance indicators of temperament Groups #1 (Sanguine) #2 (Phlegmatic) #3 (Choleric) #4 (Melancholic) Extraversion 14.2+1.1 7.8+0.3* 16.5+0.2* 9.4+0.5* Neuroticism 10.3+1,0 9.0+0.7 18.1+0.6* 20.5+1.5* Note: the significance of differences compared with the data of the 1st group * – at Р<0.05. The highest results on the “Introversion - Extraversion” scale was found in respondents with the “choleric” type of temperament - 16.5 points, compared to 14.2 points in sanguine persons, 9.4 points - in melancholic and 7.8 points - in phlegmatic persons. That is the respondents of gr. #1 and gr. #3 have a pronounced extraversion - the individual's focus on the people and events around them. According to the "Emotional Resilience - Neuroticism" scale, high rates were found in the respondents with “Melancholic” type of temperament - 20.5 points, a close indicator was found in the “Choleric” group (18.1), while the average score in the “Sanguine” and “Phlegmatic” groups had no significant differences. Consequently, in the sample we studied, the most emotionally resilient were the respondents of groups #1 and #2, and the unstable ones were gr. #3 and #4. That is, the Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews eISSN: 2395-6518, Vol 7, No 5, 2019, pp 965-969 https://doi.org/10.18510/hssr.2019.75126 967 |www.hssr.in © Grebneva et al. results of the diagnostic of dominance type of temperament according to the method developed by H. Eysenck confirm the data obtained by the projective method developed by V.V. Grebneva, 2006. Table 2 presents the study results of the prevailing psychological defense mechanisms in the groups of respondents. Table 2: Severity of protective mechanisms in groups of respondents with different temperament dominance, the average score Psychological defense mechanism Groups #1 #2 #3 #4 Reactive formations 3.0+0.3 4.0+0.2 7.0+0.5* 7.5+0.2* Negation 2.0+0.2 4.0+0.5* 6.8+0.3* 8.0+0.3* Substitution 5.0+0.6 6.0+0.3 7.2+0.5* 7.8+0.4* Regression 3.0+0.3 2.0+0.5 6.9+0.4* 8.0+0.6* Compensation 7.0+0.5 7.2+0.8 7.4+0.5 9.1+0.3 Projection 8.3+0.2 9.1+0.4 4.2+0.6* 3.1+0.5* Displacement 4.0+0.5 2.8+0.2* 7.6+0.6* 8.1+0.3* Rationalization 8.4+0.4 8.0+0.3* 5.1+0.4* 4.3+0.2* Note: the significance of differences compared with the data of the 1st group * – at Р<0.05. Table 2 shows that in gr. #3 and #4 the average score for the indicator "Reactive Formations" is significantly higher compared with gr. #1. Using such a psychological defense mechanism as hyper compensation (reactive education), a person prevents the expression of unpleasant or unacceptable thoughts, feelings or actions by exaggerated development of opposing aspirations. There is a transformation of internal impulses into their subjectively understood opposition. For example, pity or solicitude can be considered as overcompensation or reactive formations with respect to unconscious callousness, cruelty, or emotional indifference. The study results show that this mechanism of psychological protection is more typical of respondents with a dominance of choleric and melancholic temperament. The average score on the “Negation” scale among respondents of groups #2; #3; #4 was significantly higher than in gr. #1, with the highest value noted among representatives of group #4. The findings suggest that individuals with a predominance of melancholic temperament are more prone to reject problematic situations that are unacceptable for them at a conscious level. It is easier for them to admit that there is no problem than to try to fix something. The average score on the "Substitution" and "Regression" scales among respondents is gr. #3 and #4 was significantly higher than that of the representatives of gr. #1. The results may indicate that choleric and melancholic people are trying to protect themselves from a disturbing or even intolerable situation by transferring the reaction from an “inaccessible” object to another object or replacing an unacceptable action with an acceptable one. Due to this transfer, the tension generated by the unmet need is discharged. This defense mechanism is associated with redirecting the reaction. When the desired response path to meet a certain need is closed, then something related to the fulfillment of this desire seeks another way out. The defense mechanism of regression, which is also more appropriate for groups of melancholic and choleric people, is characterized by an unconscious descent to an earlier level of adaptation; this behavior is especially manifested in a situation requiring increased responsibility and an important decision. Our studies revealed significant differences in the average score on the “Projection” scale in groups #3 and #4, namely, it was lower by 50% and 62%, respectively, compared with the indicators of respondents belonging to gr. #1. This psychological defense mechanism involves concealing one's own shortcomings by detecting flaws in the character of another person, which leads to a more uncritical attitude towards one's own shortcomings. The findings suggest that this protection mechanism is more consistent with the respondents with a predominance of sanguine and phlegmatic temperament. The diagnostics results also showed that in groups #3 and #4 the mean score on the “Repression” scale was significantly higher, and the indicators on the “Rationalization” psychological defense mechanism were decreased. Thus, the data obtained indicate that respondents with a predominance of choleric and melancholic types of temperament are more in line with such psychological defense mechanisms as reactive formations, denial, regression, repression. The representatives of the sanguine and phlegmatic temperament are characterized by: compensation, projection, and rationalization. At the final stage of the study, the results of an empirical study of the preferred psychological defense mechanisms of students with different dominance of temperament type in the SPSS program (by applying correlation analysis and contingency table analysis) were processed. In order to study the relationship between the preferred mechanisms of psychological defense and the temperament type dominance indicators, the Pearson correlation coefficient was used, which allows establishing direct connections between variables by their absolute values. The method advantage is that it allows comparing the distribution of signs presented on any scale. Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews eISSN: 2395-6518, Vol 7, No 5, 2019, pp 965-969 https://doi.org/10.18510/hssr.2019.75126 968 |www.hssr.in © Grebneva et al. A statistically significant inverse relationship was found between the severity of neuroticism (emotional instability) and psychological protection indicators “rationalization” (r = -0.341; p = 0.05) and “projection” (r = -0.352; p = 0.05). Consequently, subjects with a predominance of melancholic and choleric temperament will be least characterized by these protective mechanisms. A statistically significant direct relationship between the severity of neuroticism and the mechanisms of psychological defense "repression" (r = 0.362; p = 0.05) and "denial" (r = 0.359; p = 0.05) was also revealed. Consequently, these psychological defense mechanisms are more appropriate for respondents with choleric and melancholic temperaments. CONCLUSION The data obtained in the course of the study make it possible to judge that there are differences in the severity of psychological defense mechanisms among individuals with different dominance of temperament. We assume and experimentally confirm that the personality with an emotionally stable and strong nervous system (sanguine and phlegmatic types of temperament) has more complex and ontogenetically subsequent psychological defense mechanisms. 1. The majority of surveyed respondents aged 18-21 years old have a dominant choleric type of temperament - 40.6%, 31.6% of students - sanguine, 16% - phlegmatic, 16% - melancholic. 2. Respondents with a predominance of choleric and melancholic types of temperament are more in line with such psychological defense mechanisms as reactive formations, denial, regression, repression. The representatives of the sanguine and phlegmatic temperament are characterized by: compensation, projection, and rationalization. 3. The correlation coefficient confirms the relationship between the parameters of emotional stability and the predominance of protective mechanisms. Thus, we revealed a statistically significant positive relationship between the severity of neuroticism and such mechanisms of psychological defense as “substitution” and “negation”. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author confirms that the data do not contain any conflict of interest. REFERENCES 1. Abdoli Dehnavi, Z., Ghorbani, M., & Sadeghi, M. (2016). Comparison of temperament and character traits in patients with coronary heart disease and normal population. Research Journal of Medical Sciences, 10(6), 587- 592. 2. Abitov, I.R., Gorodetskaya, I.M.,2016. Self-regulation and experience of loneliness of elderly people who live in social care residences. - International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 11 (6): 1021-1029. 3. Degteva, G.N., Korneeva, Ya.A., Simonova, N.N.,2017. Personal resources of oil and gas workers for the purposes of adaptation to the negative arctic climate and geographical conditions. - Human Ecology, 9: 15-21. https://doi.org/10.33396/1728-0869-2017-9-15-21 4. 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Cohen, S., Kaplan, J. R., & Manuck, S. B. (1994). Social support and coronary heart disease underlying psychological and biological mechanisms. In Social support and cardiovascular disease (pp. 195-221). Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2572-5_9 18. Navarrete, C. D., & Fessler, D. (2003). Meat is good to taboo: Dietary proscriptions as a product of the interaction of psychological mechanisms and social processes. Journal of Cognition and Culture, 3(1), 1-40. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853703321598563 19. Xiang-yang, D. U. (2011). River and Lake Culture and Cultural Identity: The Cultural Psychological Mechanism of the Prevailing Hidden Rules. Journal of Xuzhou Normal University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition), 5. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.170226797 https://doi.org/10.1163/156853703321598563 https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1975.9915803 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2572-5_9 https://doi.org/10.1163/156853703321598563 
work_enjqdl5xovbgvanetawa7mt5cm	----	Stylistic Types in the History of Arts Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 137 ( 2014 ) 211 – 215 Available online at www.sciencedirect.com 1877-0428 © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/). Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Sports, Education, Culture-Interdisciplinary Approaches in Scientific Research Conference. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.07.003 ScienceDirect SEC-IASR 2013 Stylistic types in the history of arts Gabriel Bulancea * “Dunarea de Jos” University of Galati, 102 Domnească Street, Galați 800008, Galaţi, Romania Abstract There are classifications in the theory of styles which might help create a unitary vision upon styles by giving up the rigid nature of the notion of style and make its significance more fluid. This text is based on the idea that humans relate to the world in three ways: through senses, intellect and sensibility. The shape they give to their perception of the world depends on the mixture of these three. The will guides humans towards one of the three personal attitudes: the empirical, the rational or the empathic one, this phenomenon being reflected on art as well. © 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Sports, Education, Culture-Interdisciplinary Approaches in Scientific Research Conference. Keywords: history of arts, stylistic types,naturalism, idealism, expressionism, the baroque, the classique, the romantic; 1. Introduction When discussing the notion of style, Tudor Vianu introduces a notion that was not exactly new which he calls artistic type which resembles style because both style and the artistic type organize the works of art according to the similitude of their structures. The differences operated by Tudor Vianu refer to the fact that “the type groups the works around one of the constitutive moments of art or another” taking into account its organizing manners while “style groups them around their artistic agent, whether an artistic individuality, an era, a nation or even an entire cultural circle.” On the other hand, the type represents a purely systematic, ahistoric notion while style introduces the temporal coordinate as well. In the notion of style the motivations of the unity of the structural elements of the work of art are deeply related to the historic context, the style becoming thus a harmonization between the artist’s originality and the tendencies of the era and of the society. 2. Max Deri We would like to mention first the classification made by Max Deri (1878-1938) which took into account the * Corresponding author: Gabriel Bulancea E-mail address: bulancea_gabriel@yahoo.com © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/). Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Sports, Education, Culture-Interdisciplinary Approaches in Scientific Research Conference. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.07.003&domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.07.003&domain=pdf 212 Gabriel Bulancea / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 137 ( 2014 ) 211 – 215 distance between nature and the artistic creations. He distinguishes three fundamental attitudes in art: the naturalistic one, the idealistic one and the expressionistic one Naturalism aims to reproduce as exactly as possible the model selected from reality, with as little intervention as possible from the author. We could include in this category of styles the realistic searches in the plastic art of the Gothic and the Renaissance, the futuristic experiences in the musical art, the realism, the naturalism in all arts, the hyperrealism in the plastic arts, the oiseaux style promoted by Olivier Messiaen in music or the onomatopoeias of all kinds that are used by numerous composers in various musical styles, the pictorial impressionism etc. the artist’s imaginative-creative function is abolished while he is transformed into a mirror reflecting the reality in front of it as accurately as possible. Idealism corrects reality; in other words, it understands the ideal of beautiful the way reason perceives it. This category comprises characteristics from the Egyptian art but also the Greek one, from the Roman style, from classicism, neoclassicism, parnassianism, pictorial symbolism, abstract or non-figurative art, neo-impressionism, cubism, futurism, etc. by idealization the artist does not render what he/she sees but what he/she knows he/she sees, distilling the impressions through the filter of reason. He/she adjusts reality till he/she obtains the idea of beautiful, idea which subsists within the symmetry, harmony and proportionality of the components. The work of art becomes an ideal object whose correspondence with reality is generally outlined. The logical construction, the discovery of the mathematics underneath it, underneath the shapes describing the compositional space, becomes a priority. Eliminating the accidental complexity of things till the point where the idea of that particular thing infiltrates, this is the basic characteristic of the idealist attitude. The expressionist attitude distorts reality in order to obtain expression effects. The artist is determined to render the particularity of the experienced emotion, the individual character and not the shape of things. He/she perceives reality through the lens of his/her sensibility, being deeply attached to the subjective emotion. The beautiful is no longer justified by reason, but by feeling. Reason becomes one of the soul’s faculties controlled by passionateness. This category comprises styles such as: the gothic, the mannerism, the baroque, the rococo, the romanticism, the expressionism, the metaphysical or surrealist painting, the neo-gothic, the non-figurative expressionism or the action painting etc. 3. Lucian Blaga Preserving the same ternary classification, Lucian Blaga (1895-1961) introduces other formative values around which the art’s tendencies are cantered: the individual, the typical and the absolute. To a certain extent, these notions reiterate the classification made by Max Deri, but the perspective is much ampler and covers a large scope. The individual corresponds to the unique manner through which the human person perceives the world at a given moment. The existentialist philosophy of the beginning of the 20th century recovers precisely this type of attitude. Lucian Blaga associates the individual to Leibniz’s philosophy focused on the construction of some entities which make the world, called monads, quasi similar but never identical. These represent the unique shape that our sensibility puts on, a sensibility characterized by the ineffable and because of this impossible to be rendered into words or transmitted identically. The individual becomes somehow similar to the expressionist attitude from Max Deri’s classification while in romanticism it associates with the characteristic or the particular. The typical identifies with the archetype, with the Platonist idea, with the ideal which gains formative properties in configuring human conscience. The typical runs away from the accidental aspect of things in order to embrace the essential or the pure idea. The Greek philosophy created it and artists of all ages have periodically pondered upon it. The belief was that if one succeeded in discovering the canon, then the idea of beautiful could have perfused the work of art when it was complied with. But this canon, although an abstract, rational construction, came out of the practical experience after having compared thousands of models from which it was subsequently extracted. The Euclidian geometry played an important part here. These formative aspirations, as Lucian Blaga calls them, describe the existing model of the society as well. If the individual breaks its coherence, the typical was a call for unity and harmonization of principles and, respectively, of the individuals. The typical overlaps Max Deri’s idealism. The absolute dissolves the human will, removes any impulse towards creativity, towards the exertion of human personality possessed by the capacity to imagine, to invent, to discover new forms of expression. It despotically limits the human freedom in order to give humans another kind of freedom, the freedom of grace, of autonomous 213 Gabriel Bulancea / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 137 ( 2014 ) 211 – 215 consciousness. The absolute is the most difficult to define and the least similar to Max Deri’s category. The absolute typically presupposes the overcoming of the intellectual preoccupations. Starting from the individual and going through the rationalistic abstractions, Lucian Blaga considers dogma as the terminus point of the human spirit’s saga. It surpasses the intellectual powers of the isolated man, having a super individual nature. From this point of view, the category of the absolute becomes the image of max Deri’s naturalistic attitude only to the extent to which it represses the creative freedom and recommends docility in complying with the dogma or nature as Max Deri foresaw. The personality, the individual, its particular manifestation has no value; what is important is the alignment of the consciousnesses with the absolute, the conformity of the individuals and the achieving of the unity of the collectivity to which he/she belongs to, as a symbol of spiritual unity. 4. Gilbert Durand Gilbert Durand (1921-2012) approaches the issue in a similar manner grouping the tendencies in art around three pseudo metaphors, called this way by him after borrowing some images from the Greek mythology: Zeuxis’ mirror, Pygmalion’s mirror and Narcissus’ mirror. These metaphors catch the complexity of stylistic amalgamations and distillations, engaged in a permanent game of reflexes which, at a certain point, can reflect, within the same stylistic area, the various facets taken by art. It is the most detailed stylistic analysis which divulges in the framework of the history of styles the mixture, the twists and transmigrations of the three mirrors. Zeuxis’ mirror represents the metaphor of naturalism. He chooses Zeuxis because he was an ancient Greek painter whose paintings were so realistic that the birds used to come and peck the grapes depicted on his canvas. Gilbert Durand speaks about a realistic nature or the western art of all times where the beautiful conceived under the light of positivism, seriousness and the purity of truth has priority over Beauty’s charm, contingency and subversiveness. And here he is recalling numberless European stylistic instances starting from the Greek and Roman antiquity till the impressionism of the 19th century, all being hovered by the Zeuxis’ mirror, whose privileged locus seems to be the Franco-Burgundian one. Pygmalion’s mirror signifies the soul which represents itself, which seeks fulfilment in creation, which shares the hope of a resurrection of the self, which violently tears itself away from the self in order to induce movement into the inert matter of the art. It searches for the expression, identifies itself with the creative impulse, with that tension that will pull it out of immobility, out of non-creative inertia. Being the opposite of the first, Pygmalion’s mirror is looking for the passions, the feelings, the emotional depths of the soul, its wishes and aspirations, and it exalts whenever the imitation of what is human is identified in nature. Humanistic realism identifies with the intention of reproducing the human nature as faithfully as possible. Thus, the two mirror already mentioned are separated by a very thin border where one is facing the exterior, the other is facing the interior; one is searching for the light, the other is searching for the shadow; one proves to be synthetic, the other mystical. Pygmalion’s mirror finds its privileged locus in the northern German sensibility and in any form of mysticism, because “the focus of the Germanic art is always the expression of the soul through mimics going as far as the tension of the grimace, the contortion, sometimes caricatural, of the bodies, gestures, situations. The torments of passion or melancholy, the uncertainties of faith, the temptations of the devils or of the Nibelungs, the burden of the sin of being here, dasein, in the world, confers Germanic sensibility that durable seal of the pathetic.” Narcissus’ mirror finds its correspondent in the soul seduced by its own rational image. It lets itself spelled and numbed by the contemplation of its essence, by the blurred perspective of the ideal. We do not know who we are in reality, the reason being the one which, underneath the plane surface of the water, reveals from the depth of the sub - conscious our ethereal image. But this mirror that Gilbert Durand talked about refers to a far more important aspect, that of the human propensity to the ornamental, to the ludic exercises of the imagination. The formalist impulse related to the revealing of an esthetical attitude in art, which evokes the mere indulgement in combining lines, volumes, colours, turns this aspect into a game of virtuosity of the imaginary. 5. Herbert Read Herbert Read (1893-1968) reflects a similar opinion: “As far as I believe, maybe there is nothing else but these three fundamental approaches – the realism, the idealism and the expressionism. The realistic approach needs no 214 Gabriel Bulancea / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 137 ( 2014 ) 211 – 215 explanation; it is, in plastic arts, the effort of representing the world exactly as it presents itself to our senses, without attenuations, without omissions, without counterfeits of any kind. The fact that such an effort is not as simple as it might seem is proven by a movement such as the impressionism, which questioned the scientific bases of the normal or conventional vision and strived to be more and more exact in mirroring nature. Idealism, probably the most employed manner of representation in arts, starts from the basis of the realist vision but deliberately chooses and removes some of the multitude of facts. According to the classic definition given by Reynolds, «in the art of painting there are qualities that go beyond what is commonly called the imitation of nature ... all arts reach perfection due to an ideal beauty, superior to anything that could be found in the concrete nature». He eye of the artist, he says in the same Discurs (the third), «being endowed with the gift of distinguishing, within the general aspect of things, those accidental defects, the excrescences and deformities, of extracting, as far as their shape is concerned, an abstract idea which is far better than any individual object.» Idealism, as it will be further seen, starts from an intellectual basis; Reynolds realizes that precisely this intellectual dignity, by itself, separates the artist from the simple craftsman. Realism, we might say, is based on senses; it records what the senses perceive as faithfully as possible. But the human psychic also comprises another sector that we call the emotional and it is precisely the emotions that the other fundamental type of art correspo nds to. Expressionism is the art that tries to depict neither the objective facts of nature, nor some abstract notion based on these facts, but the subjective feelings of the artist. As a method, it should be as entitled as the other two and in various times and in various countries it was most common and the most unanimously accepted form of art.” Expressing such an opinion, he aligns himself to the three visions mentioned above. The world, as we perceive it, is mediated by the senses, the intellect and feelings, without the possibility of sacrificing any of these facets. It is a reflection whose image represents a synthesis of the three channels by means of which we access the world. The senses connect us to the physical universe; therefore they belong to the physiological, to the activity of our body, while the others are the sensors which detect mainly the activity of the human soul, invisible somehow for the first category. What is also interesting is the fact that for Herbert Read “the different styles that were predominant from the last quarter of the 18th century till the first quarter of the 20th century were essentially derivations, matters of culture and education rather than the appearance of an authentic spiritual form.” Such an approach strengthens his conception which analyses style from the perspective of the domination of the typological vision over the historic one. From this point of view, the one who best seizes the relationship between the creator and the world is Gilbert Durand who suggests a symbolic terminology meant to enrich, by significance, the concealed nature of concepts. He does speak of a magnifying glass or lens, but of a mirror, an object which through its symbolism refers to the searching for the truth, to the secret corners of the heart or to the discovery of the surrounding universe. It is not accidental that he speaks of a mirror since the unveiling of its content always presupposes a narration more or less evident of the self. It depends on the angle from which we look into the mirror. Time determines the shape of the tumultuous spirit the same way a torrent of lava is shaped by the ford it flows through. The spirit digs into the granite limits of the temporal dimension in order to escape form its embrace and to win the freedom which can be translated into the supreme lucidity towards itself. In doing so, invading the territories outside the ford, the spirit will fecundate currents, will influence new tendencies, and will create new channels which will engrave a new paradigm on the destiny of humanity. 6. Adrian Marino and Romul Munteanu Adrian Marino (1921-2005) underlines the existence of an “ancient classicism and romanticism, a medieval one, a Renaissance one, etc. It results that the entire history of literature would limit to only two, at most three stereotypical, recurrent, permanent currents (including the baroque).” As a matter of fact, Romul Munteanu (1926-2011) is also tempted to admit the existence of two stylistic types marking the entire evolution of styles. “Both literature, and the aesthetic thinking of the age highlight two different types of sensibility, one classical in nature, situated under the sign of reason, equilibrium and geometrical spirit, other stimulated by the free fantasy, state of dreaming, expansion of affectivity and the artifice generated by the anti- mimetic spirit, inclined towards asymmetry or saturated forms of expression.” In conclusion, the analysis above would generate the following correspondences among the typologies mentioned 215 Gabriel Bulancea / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 137 ( 2014 ) 211 – 215 so far: Table 1 Equivalence Max Deri Lucian Blaga Gilbert Durand Herbert Read Adrian Marino Naturalism The absolute Zeuxis’s mirror Realism The baroque Idealism The typical Narcissus’ mirror Idealism The classic Expressionist attitude The individual Pygmalion’s mirror Expressionism The romantic Of course, the authors discussed here are not the only ones mentioning the existence of such stylistic types, not even by far. Searching through the archive of a history of art histories I have often come across references about these ahistoric structures which the vast majority of historians are aware of. The present study pays extra attention to this set of problems regarding style seen as a kind of archetype which populates the super-individual consciousness of a culture, together with a subsequence of patterns which, according to circumstances, mark the history of western culture. References Vianu, Tudor (1998), Aesthetics, Orizonturi Publishing, București. Durand, Gilbert (2003), Arts and archetypes – religion art, Meridiane Publishing, București. Read, Herbert (1969), The meaning of art, Meridiane Publishing, București. Marino, Adrian (1973), Dictionary of literary ideas, Eminescu Publishing, București. Munteanu, Romul (1998), Classicism and Baroque, Allfa Publishing, București. 
work_erj5taz33bgfnlt5ibs4t2xbyy	----	Transatlantica, 2 | 2017 Transatlantica Revue d’études américaines. American Studies Journal  2 | 2017 (Hi)stories of American Women: Writings and Re- writings / Call and Answer: Dialoguing the American West in France Impressionist Art in Private Clubs: The Case Study of the Union League Club (1886-1902) Claire Hendren Electronic version URL: http://journals.openedition.org/transatlantica/10610 DOI: 10.4000/transatlantica.10610 ISSN: 1765-2766 Publisher AFEA Electronic reference Claire Hendren, “Impressionist Art in Private Clubs: The Case Study of the Union League Club (1886-1902)”, Transatlantica [Online], 2 | 2017, Online since 13 May 2019, connection on 22 March 2021. URL: http://journals.openedition.org/transatlantica/10610 ; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/ transatlantica.10610 This text was automatically generated on 22 March 2021. Transatlantica – Revue d'études américaines est mis à disposition selon les termes de la licence Creative Commons Attribution - Pas d'Utilisation Commerciale - Pas de Modification 4.0 International. http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org/transatlantica/10610 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Impressionist Art in Private Clubs: The Case Study of the Union League Club (1886-1902) Claire Hendren Introduction Clubs absorb so much of the vitality of the community at the present time that they owe a proportionate return. The most successful clubs avoid the stagnation of self- culture by various aids to municipal life. The Union League, the Lotus, the Grolier Clubs in New York, among others, do work for art culture of the greatest importance in their special exhibitions. (Walker 7) 1 Clubs were vital institutions during the Gilded Age in the United States, politically but also artistically and culturally, as pointed out here in this 1896 article from the Independent. Private clubs proliferated in the last decades of the nineteenth century thanks to the unprecedented wealth brought by industrialization and the end of the Civil War. In 1873, New York City boasted over one hundred social clubs, more than any other urban area (Fairfield 7). The 1890s saw extraordinary growth in club memberships and by 1903, 60,000 men owned memberships to New York City clubs (Becker 15). Although the Union League Club’s ambitions were political, the arts played an important part in their national agenda. Art exhibitions and talks became essential components for clubs nationwide and impacted the development of a distinctly American artistic taste at the turn of the twentieth century. 2 French Impressionism’s reception in American clubs serves as a valuable case study to better understand how these social institutions were instrumental in fostering positive reactions towards controversial art movements. Whereas in France positive reactions towards Impressionism came from the dealer-critic system (White and White 1993), in the United States one needs to turn to clubs to understand how Impressionism became popular in the late 1880s and early 1890s. Clubs, as culturally vital associations, helped sway Americans’ opinions and urged the broader population to consider Impressionism Impressionist Art in Private Clubs: The Case Study of the Union League Club (... Transatlantica, 2 | 2017 1 as a valid artform. Although the example of Boston’s St. Botolph Club has already been studied (Birmingham), New York City’s Union League Club has been largely underexamined.1 As an attempt to better understand the importance of clubs in the development of an American artistic taste more broadly, this paper considers New York’s Union League Club’s early appreciation of Impressionism perceptible in exhibition catalogues and contemporaneous press articles, so as to assess its repercussion on a broader audience. The Union League Club: Politically Engaged for the Arts 3 Unlike European clubs, American clubs were instrumental in propagating social, cultural and political values at the same time (Smith 16). While all New York clubs had social, cultural and political goals, each institution had a particular focus: the Harmonie, the Union, the Travelers, or the New York Athletic clubs were social; the Century, the Lotos, the Salmagundi or Tile clubs were cultural; and the Union League, the Manhattan or the American clubs were political (Skalet 73). Despite being one of the most political clubs in the United States, the Union League Club leant towards the social and cultural much more than its English counterparts (Becker 15). 4 Founded during the Civil War by the leaders of the pro-Union Sanitary Commission as a patriotic institution whose purpose was to help Union troops fight the Confederates, (Irwin et al. 10-13), the Union League Club raised money to recruit regiments of African- American troops (“New York Gossip,” 1876 5). The association also showed strong loyalty towards a Republican ideology. The club strived to “elevate and uphold faith in Republican government, to dignify politics as a pursuit in faith in Republican government” (Irwin et al. 13). Its members, including Henry Whitney Bellows, the president of the United States Sanitary Commission, Frederick Law Olmsted, the designer of Central Park, and John Taylor Johnston, the president of the Central Railroad of New Jersey, were mostly part of the governing class (Ayres 15-16). Hudson River school painter Albert Bierstadt was among the few artists to belong to the club (Moore 216-222). The club expanded to Boston, Brooklyn, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Pittsburgh although none of the sister institutions became as influential nationwide as the original. At the end of the Civil War, New York’s Union League Club continued its efforts with civic and cultural causes—it contributed to founding the American Museum of Natural History, the New York City Fire Department and to securing funds for the base of the Statue of Liberty. With members belonging to the political and industrial elite, the club remained a highly respectable institution long after its implication in the Civil War. Impressionist Art in Private Clubs: The Case Study of the Union League Club (... Transatlantica, 2 | 2017 2 5 Unprecedented cultural growth during the Gilded Age impacted all clubs, including the most political. The United States entered the art market during the second half of the nineteenth century. Starting in the 1840s and the 1850s, New York rose as a cultural capital, eclipsing Philadelphia and Boston, the long-standing incumbents (Smith 62). Between 1885 and 1895, New York became the dominant place for art exchange in the United States (Smith 9). In the 1870s, Americans pivoted from buying primarily American art to being one of the strongest markets for European artworks (Gerdts 21). In addition to its signaling of status for private collectors, art conveyed a moral mission —that of tempering materialism—and a political one—it signaled that a Republic could foster arts and culture (Miller viii, 21). 6 Despite the Union League Club’s political aspirations, critics regarded it as one of the finest in New York City when it came to the arts. As an 1887 New York Times critic claimed, “the course of the committee at the Union League secures only works of merit for their monthly exhibitions” (“Pictures Shows at Clubs” 7). The Union League Club’s first art exhibition took place in February 1867 (Fairfield 175). When the club moved to new headquarters in April 1868, increased space provided an actual art gallery and helped exhibitions become more ambitious. Nine art exhibitions started to be held per year in the late 1870s. Beginning in 1879, the exhibitions remained open to invited guests, not just members, for an additional ten days (Skalet 88-90). By March 1881, the club moved again, this time, to grander headquarters on Fifth Avenue at the corner of Thirty-Ninth Street, which facilitated large-scale exhibitions (The Union League Club of New York, 1891 2) 7 As Linda Henefield Skalet notes, “it had been the intention of the founders of the club to include among its members not only the political leaders of New York but also the leaders in the arts and letters in order to ensure the survival of their organization beyond the end of the war” (Skalet 85). The club’s involvement in the foundation of the Metropolitan Museum of Art further illustrates the combination of cultural interest Impressionist Art in Private Clubs: The Case Study of the Union League Club (... Transatlantica, 2 | 2017 3 and political agenda that characterized it. It was Union League Club member John Jay, son of a founding father and United States minister to Austria, who suggested the foundation of a national museum. The idea for such an institution came about during an 1866 Fourth of July dinner at the Pré Catelan in Paris held to commemorate American Independence’s ninetieth anniversary (Tomkins 28). The men gathered on the occasion decided that the United States needed a national gallery comparable to the Musée du Louvre in Paris or the National Gallery in London. Upon his return, Jay, newly elected president of the Union League Club, encouraged the establishment of the Metropolitan Museum of Art (Note, 1871, 1-2). Members met at the Union League Club in 1869, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art was incorporated in 1871 (Bolas 12). Although the club’s goals remained more political than artistic, its exhibits also showcased a desire to be innovative in the arts, which in turn served the political agenda of turning the United States into a leading nation on all fronts. French Impressionism at the Union League Club 8 The first official French Impressionist exhibition in the United States opened at New York City’s American Art Association in April 1886 when James Sutton, a founder of the institution, and Paul Durand-Ruel, an art dealer who lent the artworks, coordinated to introduce Impressionism to the American people. 1886 was undeniably a decisive year for the Impressionists; their last group exhibit took place in Paris and introduced an era of increased recognition in France. Prior to the first exclusively impressionist exhibit in the United States in 1886, select paintings had been included in earlier American shows: collector Louisine Havemeyer loaned Edgar Degas’ A Ballet (1876; The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art) to the 1878 American Watercolor Society exhibit; Durand-Ruel lent several pictures to the Official Foreign Manufacturer Fair in Boston in 1883; the same year the Pedestal Fund Exhibition in New York also included works by Degas and Edouard Manet. European and French dealers catered to the self-made American industrialists by developing aggressive marketing strategies such as auction sales, one-man shows and exhibition catalogues (Burns 59; Harris 57; Ott 133-141). These commercial practices did not go unnoticed in the press: Alfred Trumble noted in 1889 that “at any rate, the works of this special artistic cult recur with constantly increasing frequency in our sales and dealers’ galleries, and the fact that they are imported, under our tariff, proves that there must be a commercial reason for importing them” (Trumble 11). Following the success of these inaugural endeavors, Durand-Ruel and his sons opened their initial New York City gallery in 1887 (Thompson 107-120). 9 As early as October 27th, 1886, the Union League Club included French Impressionist paintings in one of its events. The club hosted a reception for the French government’s delegates visiting New York City for the Statue of Liberty’s inauguration and showcased two impressionist paintings in its art selection. Manet’s The Bullfight (1865-1866; Chicago Art Institute) and Claude Monet’s Mail Post at Étretat (unidentifiable) adorned the club’s walls alongside other more conservative examples. Although journalists did not comment on the Impressionist paintings, the works’ inclusion underlines the Union League Club’s intention to promote modern art. The Impressionists were debated at the time in the United States,2 which renders the decision to hang two impressionist paintings during a prestigious political event more significant still. Impressionist Art in Private Clubs: The Case Study of the Union League Club (... Transatlantica, 2 | 2017 4 10 The club also organized monthly exhibitions. From February 12th to 14th, 1891, it held Monet’s first one-man show in the United States. A selection of forty-seven Old master paintings and thirty-four by Monet made up the Exhibition of Old Masters and American and Foreign Artists Along with an Exhibition by Monet the Impressionist. Pictures by Frank Hals as well as paintings by the much-coveted Barbizon school hung in rooms adjacent to Monet’s works. Dealers, especially Durand-Ruel, used the strategy of hanging esteemed painters together with avant-garde artists so that “respectable artists g[ive] an aura of respectability to their groups of impressionist works” (Weitzenhoffer 84). By putting Impressionism on the same footing as works by well-established artists, the selection committee intended to sway the viewers’ opinions in favor of Impressionism (Pyne 226). 11 The art on view belonged to American collectors, including Alfred Atmore Pope, William Fuller, Erwin Davis, Alfred Kingman, James Sutton and Albert Spencer (who lent anonymously), as well as dealers Durand-Ruel and Boussod, Valadon & Cie (Exhibition catalogue, 1891). This shared provenance of the works highlights two intentions. Seeing the names of respected individuals as the owners of controversial art might help other club members consider the artwork more seriously.3 Many of the lenders were also club members and the common membership between viewer and owner vouched for shared values. Additionally, the fact that dealers lent art suggests the hopes of selling. The Union League Club exhibits, like many other club shows, offered not only the opportunity to view art, but also to purchase it. 12 As members of the art committee New York City collectors, dealers, and experts made the selections for the exhibitions. They arranged loans with local collectors and encouraged the club’s turn towards more experimental art. In 1891, when the club hosted its first Monet exhibition, Thomas B. Clarke, a businessman in the linen industry turned art dealer and advisor in 1888, chaired the art committee. Through his own purchases and those for his advisees, he became acquainted with recent developments in European art and New-York based European art collections, which enabled him in turn to put on such shows for the club. Art dealer Samuel P. Avery, who owned several impressionist prints that he later gifted to the New York Public Library also served on the committee. Alongside its more liberal political leanings, the Union League Club was known for its more liberal acceptance of upcoming styles than other New York clubs such as the Century (Skalet 87, 93). It should be noted however that modern, industrialized France, the subject of many impressionist paintings, resonated with the industrialist patrons who loaned and organized exhibits as they themselves were shaping an industrialized society in the United States (Broude 32). Impressionist Art in Private Clubs: The Case Study of the Union League Club (... Transatlantica, 2 | 2017 5 13 The first large-scale impressionist club exhibition gathered enough praise for the Union League Club to plan others. In February 1899, the club organized a Monet exhibition along with more conservative painter Paul-Albert Besnard. Twenty-one pictures made up the show, thirteen of which were by Monet, eight by Besnard, and two were sculptures by Auguste Rodin. In November 1902, the Union League Club held another exhibit of Paintings by Modern European Masters, with thirty pictures by Monet, Camille Pissarro and Alfred Sisley loaned by New York dealers Knoedler, Durand-Ruel, Glaenzer, and Oehme. Influence of The Union League Club 14 The Union League Club helped popularize French Impressionism. By including impressionist paintings in its shows, the club conclusively enhanced the credibility of an artistic movement that remained controversial. The press also did its share by mentioning the exhibitions to national readers in increasingly praiseful articles. This way, a broader audience became acquainted with Impressionism. As Frank Luther Mott explained, based on an 1892 survey, American periodicals had an “almost incalculable influence upon the moral and intellectual development of individuals, upon home life, and upon public opinion” (14). Even if Monet’s work failed to convince all journalists in the late 1880s and early 1890s, the Union League Club and its prestige encouraged critics from national publications such as the New York Times to discuss the exhibitions. Thanks to the club’s repute, national newspapers became interested in a controversial painter and increased the artist’s audience. The club’s sphere of influence and frequent French Impressionist exhibitions fostered a positive attitude towards the French school. Whereas in France positive reactions towards Impressionism came from the dealer-critic system (White and White 1993), the same system alone did not shape American reception. Clubs helped to sway Americans’ opinions and urged the broader population to consider Impressionism as an art. 15 At the 1891 exhibit for example, most American critics preferred George Inness’ paintings (“Pictures at the Union League,” 1891 4). Several critics, however, wrote neutral if not positive reviews on impressionist oeuvres. A journalist from The Critic revealed his uncertainty towards Monet when he claimed that, “the Monets […] gained by the size of the room, and by the artificial light which supplied the yellow tones that they lack” (“Paintings at the Union League,” 1891 101). Although the review was mixed, Impressionist Art in Private Clubs: The Case Study of the Union League Club (... Transatlantica, 2 | 2017 6 the critic finished his article by saying that “perhaps no other way of working than his could so well reproduce the confusion of rocks and vegetation in ‘Mountains of the Creuse’” (“Paintings at the Union League” 101). Likewise, the journalist from The Art Amateur suggested that the “rather favorable” exhibition conditions at the Union League Club “put an end to all reasonable doubt about this painter’s position in contemporary art” (“Union League Club Exhibition,” 1891 89), a mixed praise which implied that the exhibition conditions as much as the quality of Monet’s works led to the commendation of his art. 16 The Union League Club therefore fabricated an aura of respectability that encouraged critics to consider the paintings more seriously. As a journalist of the Washington Post commented regarding the first official showing of the Impressionists at the American Art Association in April 1886, “the press of New York is in a painful state of indecision as the correct opinion for the most part to which the only exceptions take refuge in the safety of ridicule” (“The Paintings of the Impressionists” 4). However, when the Union League Club exhibited paintings by one of the leading artists of the movement only five years later, the artwork had gained in credibility. By the 1902 exhibit, all comments were positive. One journalist even complained that the center walls showcased academic painters Jules Lefebvre, Jules Breton and William-Adolphe Bouguereau who had “almost nothing to recommend it to serious attention” while Sisley’s works “equal[ed] the best he ever painted” (Van Oost 3). 17 The selection made by the members of the committee also better responded to Americans’ aspirations. The Hudson River School had established a strong landscape tradition in the country; in addition, a residue of American puritanism tended to discourage nudity and scenes deemed immoral. An 1886 article from The Critic pointed to a preference for impressionist landscapes by asserting that “the tenderness and grace of Impressionism are reserved for its landscapes: for humanity there is only the hard brutality of the naked truth.” (“The French Impressionists” 196). True enough, the Union League Club’s committee showcased Monet landscapes, not Pierre-Auguste Renoir’s figure paintings which were less likely to encourage the movement’s acceptance. 18 It was not only through the press that the Union League Club’s influence transpired; other institutions followed the Club’s lead in including Impressionist works in exhibits. In March 1893, the American Fine Arts Society held a Loan Exhibition to raise money for the society’s building for which dealers Durand-Ruel and Boussod, Valadon & Cie. loaned most of the selection. Journalist Susan Hayes Ward mentioned that the west side of the exhibition showed exclusively impressionist paintings with “half a dozen” examples (Ward 7) and a writer from The Critic noted that, “many of the pictures have already been exhibited at the Union League Club” (“The Fine Arts” 103). Tracing an exact piece that was exhibited in both the Union League Club’s 1891 show and the Fine Arts Society’s 1893 Loan Exhibition remains difficult: the club’s exhibitions came primarily from private collections while the loan exhibition came exclusively from dealers, and vague titles make works hard to trace. However, the Union League Club’s reputation and the popularity of its art shows most likely encouraged the organizers of the 1893 fundraiser exhibit to include impressionist paintings. Such transfers tend to suggest that the sphere of influence of the elite helped Impressionism become prevalent outside their own club. Impressionist Art in Private Clubs: The Case Study of the Union League Club (... Transatlantica, 2 | 2017 7 Competition Amongst Clubs The most noticeable and we may say the most encouraging aspect of the enlargement of social opportunity and experience which is going on around us now is the rapid growth both in numbers and size of our clubs and the almost universal demand they are making for better facilities and accommodations (Lotos Club Member book, cited in Becker 16). 19 As clubs became more common, each institution tried to distinguish itself from another. The reputations of the various institutions relied heavily on their art exhibitions. As Doris Birmingham highlighted in her study of Boston’s St. Botolph Club, clubs other than the Union League Club hosted impressionist exhibitions early on. However, the New York City institution and Boston’s St. Botolph Club’s goals differed widely. While the Union League Club counted many members of the political class, the St. Botolph Club focused on cultural endeavors.4 Academics such as Thomas Sergeant Perry and artists such as Joseph Foxcroft Cole actively participated in the association. The club houses’ extravagance—or lack thereof—illustrates the institutions’ diverging missions. The St. Botolph Club offered “simple and inexpensive suppers” (cited in Birmingham 26) whereas the Union League Club added an additional dining room, the “alcove dining room,” in 1881 for private parties (“A Club Dining-Room” 125). 20 Despite their different aims, both clubs exhibited impressionist works and took pride in doing so. The St. Botolph Club held impressionist exhibits in March 1892, February 1895, 1899 and 1905. Local collector Desmond Fitzgerald, who wrote the exhibition catalogue’s preface to the 1892 show entirely devoted to Monet, claimed that the showing was the country’s first dedicated to Monet and that “as such, [it] may become a notable art event” (“An Exhibition of Paintings by Claude Monet,” 1892 2). This erroneous assertion highlights Fitzgerald’s eagerness to assert the St. Botolph Club’s prevalence at the expense of the New York Union League Club. It also underscores the rivalry amongst cities and clubs in the fabrication of an American taste. As these cities fought for cultural supremacy, club members also took part in the competition and sought to have their city and their club recognized as the most refined and artistically relevant. 21 Similarly, the Lotos Club of New York held a Monet exhibition in January 1899 at the same time when the Union League included French Impressionist art in its monthly exhibit. A New York Times journalist commented that, “the Monets shown are a supplement to the Lotos Club display, and, although they evidence again the artist’s remarkable versatility, do not give, as a whole, as complete or good an idea of his ability as did the exhibition at the Lotos Club” (“Art at the Union League” 4). The critic’s comments highlight the competition that existed among clubs in the same city. The statement further reveals that other clubs promoted the same artist and that Impressionism became so popular that two clubs organized impressionist exhibits during the same month. The Union League Club, with its early impressionist exhibits in the United States, therefore played an instrumental role in introducing Impressionism to the country. In turn, with the movement’s growing popularity in the 1890s thanks to dealers’ marketing strategies and the Union League Club’s inclusion of the movement, Impressionism became widespread in other clubs. 22 As Skalet has underlined, “one important characteristic shared by the majority of the membership was the desire to be recognized as connoisseurs. A familiarity with the arts was, like memberships in the exclusive gentlemen’s clubs, one of the aspirations of Impressionist Art in Private Clubs: The Case Study of the Union League Club (... Transatlantica, 2 | 2017 8 New York’s wealthy men” (73). Being able to recognize new artists was perhaps the best proof of artistic knowledge, as one was able to rely on personal judgment to go beyond established traditions. The fact that many of the paintings lent to club exhibitions came from its members’ collections only makes Skalet’s statement stronger. Impressionism helped turn the clubs that supported it into trendsetters—a goal they were eager to take. 23 Through frequent exhibitions, sometimes monographic, Americans regularly saw and read about Impressionist works of art through the late nineteenth century. The Union League Club, one of the nation’s most renowned clubs, fostered a broad appreciation for, and acceptance of, Impressionism nationwide thanks to its respectable reputation and influential collectors. Eagerness to show refined taste in art also urged the club members to adopt the controversial art school early on. After 1902, the Union League Club continued to show impressionist paintings, as the March 1913 exhibition Paintings by Various Schools illustrates, but by then, French Impressionists had become masters of the modern school. 24 While actors including collectors, critics, and American artists trained abroad have long been considered as tastemakers in the United States, the vital role clubs played at the time has benefited from less attention. As early as 1886, the art critic Montezuma highlighted how impactful clubs were: “By such means, thousands of persons, presumably educated, but who, if the truth were known, could not tell a water-color drawing from an oil painting, or an etching from a woodcut, are almost unconsciously taught, in an agreeable manner, the alphabet of the graphic arts, and by and by, no longer content simply to ‘know what they like’ […] are able to tell you why they like it.” (Montezuma 28). The Union League Club’s acceptance and inclusion of a once- controversial European school thus offers a productive case study that helps us better appreciate the evolution of an American artistic taste and connoisseurship at the turn of the twentieth century. Impressionist Art in Private Clubs: The Case Study of the Union League Club (... Transatlantica, 2 | 2017 9 BIBLIOGRAPHY Works Cited “A Club Dining-Room.” The Art Amateur, vol. 4, no. 6, May 1881, 125. “An Exhibition of Paintings by Claude Monet.” Exhibition catalogue. St. Botolph Club, Boston, March 28–April 9, 1892, Boston: St. Botolph Club, 1892. “Art at the Union League.” New York Times, February 10, 1899, p. 4. AYRES, William S. The Domestic Museum in Manhattan: Major Private Art Installations in New York City, 1870-1920. 1993. University of Delaware. PhD dissertation. BECKER, Jack. A Taste for Landscape: Studies in American Tonalism. 2002. University of Delaware. PhD dissertation. BELLOWS, Henry H. Historical Sketch of the Union League Club: Its Origin, Organization and Work, 1869-1873. New York: G.P. Putnam’s sons, 1879. BIRMINGHAM, Doris A. “Boston’s St. Botolph Club: Home of the Impressionists.” Archives of American Art Journal, vol. 31, no. 3, 1991, p. 26-34. BOLAS, Gerald D. The Early Years of the American Art Association, 1879-1900. 1998. The City University of New York. PhD dissertation. BRENNECKE, Nancy M. “The Painter-in-Chief of Ugliness”: Edouard Manet and Nineteenth-Century America. 2001. The City University of New York. PhD dissertation. BROUDE, Norma, editor. World Impressionism: The International Movement, 1860-1920. New York: H.N. Abrams, 1990. BURNS, Sarah. Inventing the Modern Artists, Art and Culture in Gilded Age America. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996. DAWSON, Anne. “Idol of the Moderns”: Renoir’s Critical Reception in America 1904-1940. 1996. Brown University. PhD dissertation. “Exhibition of Paintings by Old Masters, and Modern Foreign and American Artists, Together with an Exhibition of the Work of Monet the Impressionist.” Exhibition catalogue. The Union League Club, New York, February 12-14, 1891. New York: The Union League Club, 1891. FAIRFIELD, Francis Gerry. The Clubs of New York. New York: Henry L. Hinton, 1873. FIDELL-BEAUFORT, Madeleine, and Jeanne K WELCHER. “Some Views of Art Buying in New York in the 1870s and the 1880s.” Oxford Art Journal, vol. 5, no. 1, 1982, p. 48-55. GARCZYNSKI, Edward R. “Jugglery in Art.” Forum, August 1886, p. 592-603. GERDTS, William H., editor. American Impressionism. New York: Abbeville Press, 1980. HARRIS, Neil. Cultural Excursions: Marketing Appetites and Cultural Tastes in Modern America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990. HART, Charles H. “Fine Arts: The Pennsylvania Academy Exhibition.” The Independent, March 5, 1891, p. 22. HUTH, Hans. “Impressionism Comes to America.” Gazette des Beaux-Arts, Jan-June 1946, vol. XXIX, p. 225-256. Impressionist Art in Private Clubs: The Case Study of the Union League Club (... Transatlantica, 2 | 2017 10 IRWIN, Will, Earl C. MAY, and Joseph HOTCHKISS. A History of the Union League Club of New York City. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1952. “Italian, Spanish, Dutch, English and French Paintings from the Collection of Catholina Lambert, Esq.” Exhibition catalogue. The Union League Club. New York (NY), April 10-13, 1893. New York: The Union League Club, 1903. MEIXNER, Laura L. French Realist Painting and the Critique of the American Society, 1865-1900. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. MILLER, Lillian B. Patrons and Patriotism, The Encouragement of the Fine Arts in the United States, 1790-1860. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1966. MILLS, C. Wright. “The Power Elite.” The Power Elite. London: Oxford University Press, 1956, p. 269-298. MONTEZUMA. “My Note Book.” The Art Amateur, January 1886, p. 28. ---. “My Note Book.” The Art Amateur, March 1891, p. 88. MOORE, Charlotte E. Art as Text, War as Context: The Art Gallery of the Metropolitan Fair, New York City’s Artistic Community and the Civil War. 2009. Boston University. PhD dissertation MORGAN, Howard W. New Muses, Art in American Culture, 1865-1920. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1978. MOTT, Frank L. A History of American Magazines, 1885-1905, vol. 2, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1957. “New York Gossip: An Interesting Chapter on Club-Life.” Chicago Daily Tribune, March 5, 1876, p. 5. “Note.” Annual Report of the Trustees of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, vol. 1, no. 1, 1871, p. 1-2. OTT, John. “How New York Stole the Luxury Art Market.” Winterthur Portfolio, vol. 42, no 2/3, 2008, p. 133-158. “Paintings at the Union League Club.” The Critic, February 21, 1891, p. 101. “Pictures at the Union League.” New York Times, February 13, 1891, p. 4. “Picture Shows at Clubs.” New York Times, January 30, 1887, p. 7. POONTON, James. “The Union League Club.” New York Times, March 28, 1897, SM11. PYNE, Kathleen. Art and Higher Life. Painting and Evolutionary Thought in Late Nineteenth Century America. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1996. RIORDAN, Roger. “The Impressionist Exhibition.” The Art Amateur, May 14, 1886, p. 21. SKALET, Linda H. The Market for American Painting in New York, 1870-1915. 1980. Johns Hopkins University. PhD dissertation. SMITH, Marc S. Spéculation, marché de l’art et naissance d’un réseau artistique moderne aux États-Unis de l’industrialisation à la crise des années 1930. Un Monopole social et culturel en construction. 2011. Université Montpellier 3. PhD dissertation. THOMPSON, Jennifer A. “Paul Durand-Ruel et l’Amérique.” Paul Durand-Ruel, Le Pari de l’impressionnisme. Ed. Sylvie PATRY. Paris: Réunion des musées nationaux, 2015, p. 107-120. “The Fine Arts: The Loan Collection at the Fine Arts Building.” The Critic, Feb. 18, 1893, p. 103. “The French Impressionists.” The Critic, April 17, 1886, p. 196. Impressionist Art in Private Clubs: The Case Study of the Union League Club (... Transatlantica, 2 | 2017 11 “The Paintings of the Impressionists.” Washington Post, April 11, 1886, p. 4. “The Union League Club Exhibition.” The Art Amateur, March 1891, p. 89. The Union League Club of New York. New York: The Knickerbocker Press, 1891. TOMKINS, Calvin. Merchants and Masterpieces: The Story of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: Henry Holt & Company, 1989. TRUMBLE, Alfred. “Impressionists and Imitators.” The Collector, November 1889, p. 11. VAN OOST, John W. “My Note Book.” The Art Amateur, Dec. 1902, no. 2, p. 2-5. VOTTERO, Michaël. “To Collect and Conquer: American Collections in the Gilded Age.” Transatlantica, no.1| 2013, transatlantica.revues.org/6492. Accessed 30 Nov. 2018. WALKER, Sophia A. “Fine Arts: Art Culture Through Clubs and Libraries.” The Independent, July 30, 1896, p. 7. WARD, Susan H. “Fine Arts: The Loan Exhibition of the American Fine Arts Society.” The Independent, March 9, 1893, p. 7. WHITE, Harrison, and Cynthia A. WHITE. Canvases and Careers: Institutional Change in the French Painting World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. WEITZENHOFFER, Frances. The Havemeyers: Impressionism Comes to America. New York: H.N. Abrams,1986. ZAFRAN, Eric M. “Monet in America.” Claude Monet (1840-1926) – A Tribute to Daniel Wildenstein and Katia Granoff. Ed. Guy WILDENSETEIN. New York: Wildenstein & Co., Inc., 2007, p. 80-152. NOTES 1. Exhibits at the Union League Club have never been thoroughly examined even if they have been mentioned in scholarly work. See for example: Brennecke 240; Dawson, 1996, 23; Huth, 1946, 246; Meixner 241; Weitzenhoffer 82-84; Zafran 94 2. Several press articles in the 1880s and early 1890s highlight the general ambivalence towards the movement (Riordan 21; Garczynski 592-595; Hart 22) 3. Showing pieces from one’s collection at such a venue could reinforce the collector’s status as well, yet some collectors did not always flaunt their Impressionist pieces in loan collections. For example, Catholina Lambert omitted his Impressionist pieces from the exhibition Italian, Spanish, Dutch, English and French Paintings from the Collection of Catholina Lambert, Esq at the Union League Club in 1903 (Italian, Spanish…, 1903). This omission highlights the still debated status of Impressionist pieces at the time. 4. The Union League Club was in fact one of the most political institutions to host Impressionist pieces early on. At the turn of the twentieth century, most French Impressionist paintings were included in World Fairs, gallery shows, Industrial Fairs, Art Association Exhibits. Impressionist Art in Private Clubs: The Case Study of the Union League Club (... Transatlantica, 2 | 2017 12 http://transatlantica.revues.org/6492 ABSTRACTS Americans became acquainted with French Impressionism in the last decades of the nineteenth century. Surprisingly, private clubs were some of the first to endorse the movement, hosting impressionist exhibitions early on in the movement’s arrival to the United States. Using New York’s Union League Club as a case study, this article highlights the motivations and impact, both aesthetic and political, of the club’s approval of Impressionism. Not only did impressionist art become a way for club members to assert their advanced taste in art, but the Union League Club’s early praise of Impressionism, this essay argues, was key to the country’s reception of the movement. Les Américains découvrent l’Impressionnisme français dans les dernières décennies du XIXème siècle. Étonnamment, les clubs privés sont parmi les premiers à appuyer ce courant esthétique, accueillant, par exemple, des expositions dès l’arrivée de l’Impressionnisme aux États-Unis. Cet essai vise à mettre en lumière les motivations et l’impact, esthétique et politique, de l’adoption de l’Impressionnisme dans les « clubs » et s’appuie, pour ce faire, sur une étude de cas, celui de l’Union League Club de New York. Non seulement l’Impressionnisme permit aux membres du club d’affirmer leur goût « avancé » en art, mais l’approbation précoce du Union League Club a joué un rôle clé dans la réception nationale du mouvement. INDEX Subjects: Hors-thème Keywords: painting, art history, Gilded Age, transnational circulations, Gentlemen’s clubs, Impressionism, history of taste Mots-clés: peinture, histoire de l’art, Âge doré, circulations transnationales, clubs privés, Impressionnisme, histoire du goût AUTHOR CLAIRE HENDREN Université Paris Nanterre claire.hendren@gmail.com Impressionist Art in Private Clubs: The Case Study of the Union League Club (... Transatlantica, 2 | 2017 13 mailto:claire.hendren@gmail.com Impressionist Art in Private Clubs: The Case Study of the Union League Club (1886-1902) Introduction The Union League Club: Politically Engaged for the Arts French Impressionism at the Union League Club Influence of The Union League Club Competition Amongst Clubs 
work_esqm4mh6abcdxfse5zw4hp2wq4	----	Politická ekonomie: Domácí stránka - NEW Časopisy vydávané VŠE Kontakty Přihlásit Registrace PE O časopisu Obsah časopisu Informace pro autory CZE ENGLISH ČESKY Vyhledat Politická ekonomie O nás Politická ekonomie je nejstarší český vědecký časopis z oblasti ekonomických věd, vychází od roku 1953. Zaměřuje se na základní ekonomický výzkum, rozvíjení ekonomické teorie, hospodářské politiky, ekonometrie, na systémové komparace a modelování ekonomických procesů. Časopis je impaktovaný od roku 1998, vydavatelem je Vysoká škola ekonomická v Praze. ISSN 0032-3233 (tisk), ISSN 2336-8225 (online) Více PODAT ČLÁNEK Aktuální čísloVíce Keynesova Obecná teorie stále inspirativní (a provokující) Pavel Sirůček DOI: 10.18267/j.polek.1304 Vývoj a porovnání konkurence a koncentrace v bankovním a pojistném sektoru v České republice v letech 2007-2019 Petra Budská, Luboš Fleischmann Determinanty poptávky a nabídky na trhu s byty a jejich význam pro vysvětlení regionálních rozdílů Libor Votava, Lenka Komárková, Jiří Dvořák DOI: 10.18267/j.polek.1309 Dlouhodobá udržitelnost penzijních systémů zemí Evropské unie Lenka Lakotová DOI: 10.18267/j.polek.1307 Jsou pravidla finanční fair play spravedlivá a udržitelná? Případ anglické Premier League David Procházka, Šimon Vanc DOI: 10.18267/j.polek.1306 Examination of Chinese "Chopsticks" Mercantilist Policies in Africa Semanur Soyyiğit, Murat Nişanci DOI: 10.18267/j.polek.1303 Proč u nás publikovat indexace ve světových databázích žádné poplatky open access přidělení DOI anonymní recenzní řízení kontrola originality jazykové korektury Metriky Web of Knowledge IF 0,351 AIS 0,035 SCOPUS CiteScore 0,600 SRJ 0,161 ABDC B DatabázeVíce WOS Clarivative Scopus EconLit RePec Crossref iThenticate odevzdej.cz webarchiv Vedení časopisuVíce předseda Výkonné radyMartin Mandel předseda Ediční radyRichard Hindls výkonná redaktorkaJiřina Bulisová členové Výkonné rady členové Ediční rady Vysoká škola ekonomická v Praze Politická ekonomie (SB 310C) nám. W. Churchilla 1938/4 130 67 Praha 3 – Žižkov Email: polek@vse.cz ISSN: 0032-3233 e-ISSN: 2336-8225 Časopis Politická ekonomie vydává Vysoká škola ekonomická v Praze. Tyto webové stránky včetně článků podléhají licenci Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0). Powered by review management and editorial system Actavia. login 
work_eu7glq525fbjxebe3attrsryba	----	Miranda, 10 | 2014 Miranda Revue pluridisciplinaire du monde anglophone / Multidisciplinary peer-reviewed journal on the English- speaking world  10 | 2014 Images on the Move: Circulations and Transfers in film Charlotte Gould and Sophie Mesplède (eds), Marketing Art in the British Isles, 1700 to the Present Muriel Adrien Electronic version URL: http://journals.openedition.org/miranda/6502 DOI: 10.4000/miranda.6502 ISSN: 2108-6559 Publisher Université Toulouse - Jean Jaurès Electronic reference Muriel Adrien, “Charlotte Gould and Sophie Mesplède (eds), Marketing Art in the British Isles, 1700 to the Present”, Miranda [Online], 10 | 2014, Online since 23 February 2015, connection on 16 February 2021. URL: http://journals.openedition.org/miranda/6502 ; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/miranda.6502 This text was automatically generated on 16 February 2021. Miranda is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org/miranda/6502 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Charlotte Gould and Sophie Mesplède (eds), Marketing Art in the British Isles, 1700 to the Present Muriel Adrien REFERENCES Charlotte Gould and Sophie Mesplède (eds), Marketing Art in the British Isles, 1700 to the Present. A Cultural History, London: Ashgate, 2012, 214 p, ISBN 978-1409436690 1 Marketing Art in the British Isles, 1700 to the Present, edited by Charlotte Gould and Sophie Mesplède, partakes of the emerging trend of art market studies, no longer deemed unworthy of research. Arthur Danto had endorsed the idea that artwork could not be envisaged outside its professional, commercial and critical context. The influence of economic factors upon visual culture has already been touched upon by Michael Baxandall, Richard Goldwaite, Evelyn Welch and Michelle O’Malley, to name but a few. What emerges in the book is that the embrace of commerce has both hindered the development of some artistic practices and generated truly original forms in Britain. Moreover, the current discussions about corporate involvement in the art market stem from processes that originated with Britain’s engagement with commerce and are not in the least novel, contrary to what is commonly thought. 2 The long and comprehensive introduction (30 pages) starts with how the word “philistinism” evolved, from Lord Shaftesbury to Roger Fry, often cropping up in the accusations leveled at the nation of shopkeepers Britain allegedly embodied, especially as there existed no such thing as a British school. British art theorists inherited from the Continent the idea that Britain's unabashed endorsement of commercial activity had always been detrimental to local creativity and the cultivation of taste, much to the annoyance of Roger Fry, for example, who lamented the boorishness of British minds impervious to the visual revolution of post-impressionism. Charlotte Gould and Sophie Mesplède (eds), Marketing Art in the British Isles... Miranda, 10 | 2014 1 3 The editors provide a historical survey of the network of various commercial channels and patronage (auction rooms, agents, art dealerships, galleries, publishing houses, art training institutions, national art museums), and how they are linked with the rising middle class; the hold they had on the artistic world was to become the hallmark of the English school. Referring to Ian Pears’s Discovery of Painting (1988), the editors recall the beginning of the modern British art market during the Glorious Revolution in 1688, which empowered the middle classes who sought in cultural capital a way to enhance their status and emulate the aristocracy. In the wake of David Solkin’s Painting for Money (1996), they evoke the genres and practices encouraged by the new moneyed classes, starting with the Conversation Piece, a hybrid genre which exemplified their values and catered to their tastes and demand. Many academicians such as Reynolds were not averse to working within the context of a market-led art world. Boydell’s gallery was at once an educational tool, a commercial venture and an ambitious project to foster artistic excellence in history painting in Britain. The diverse strategies of artists ranged from seeking protection in the Royal Academy, taking the initiative of selling their art in a collective fashion or resorting to entrepreneurial dealers, whose image was to improve as they set up their own galleries and by the end of the century, helped some avant-gardist movements to make their way into the limelight. In the twentieth century, London became a significant art center, negotiating its way along the persistent anticommercialism of an elite group of art lovers and critics. With the Thatcher government’s fund cutting, the art market went along the lines of the liberal economy. After a zoom-in on the Saatchi collection, the editors mention the first artistic hedge fund set up in the mid-90s and a supposedly conservative return to visual art and the canvas, considered more market-friendly. Increasingly, the market value of works seemingly reflected their symbolic prestige, as with the £50m For the Love of God by Damien Hirst (a “by-product and mirror of commodity culture” and “[a comment] on its remarkable sale” (9)). According to the editors (19), Damien Hirst’s circumventing his dealers resulted in success, but this fact is disputed by sources in art market journalism, and the general secrecy and confidentiality in which his transactions take place preclude any final conclusion on his role and doings. Today, donations or loans to museums have increased the collectors’ status, testifying to the connections or even collusions between the public institutions and the commercial world—in no way watertight worlds. The opening of Tate Modern, the launching of the Turner Prize and the Frieze Art Fair continues to secure London’s position as an indispensable contemporary art center. 4 Part I entitled “An artists’ livelihood” insists on what is called the “professionalization of the artist”, far from the romantic idea of the artist working outside society, and shows that the artists’ moves were not exempt from business acumen, some of them joining the middle or upper class for the most fortunate. 5 Grischka Petri’s article highlights the differences between Paris and London as well as their mutual influence at the end of the nineteenth century—especially in terms of exhibition techniques—, for which Whistler was a prime player, instrumental as he was in the cultural exchange between the two countries. Facing Britain’s lack of receptivity for avant-garde influences, Whistler turned regularly to France and eventually made the most of the nascent international networks. As such, his reputation, success and life decisions were symptomatic of both art markets. Charlotte Gould and Sophie Mesplède (eds), Marketing Art in the British Isles... Miranda, 10 | 2014 2 6 Andrew Stephenson tackles the impact of the Great War and Depression (c.1914-1930), which disrupted existing consumption and production patterns, resulting in more government-funded war art, the emigration of artists to a cheaper France, the emergence of women artists, a poster and print craze. 7 Gabriel Gee examines the artistic scene in the North of England during Thatcherism, which adopted oppositional tactics to the conservative ideology of the times and to the hegemony of the London market. A subsidized artist-run network of galleries and exhibitions developed, where economic rewards were to be reaped in alternative fashion. 8 The late twentieth century saw the rise of entrepreneurial artists and a host of new dealers. The YBA did not despise market-oriented practices which breathed new life into British commercial galleries. Damien Hirst’s strategy of selling via auction and bypassing dealers is also discussed both in terms of its novelness and of its symbolic meaning: how self-deriding, reflexive and/or cynical can such ventures be seen? Uta Protz also stresses that the business agents and auction houses have appropriated the tactics of commercial galleries. 9 In Part II, Dries Lyma upholds the idea that the auction mania of the late seventeenth century shaped in embryo the future British art world with the creation of Christie’s (1766) and Sotheby's (1744). She focuses on John Bertels (1727-1792), a cultural mediator as much as a commercial middleman between the British market and Dutch and Flemish art brought back from the flourishing auction market in the Southern Netherlands. 10 Bénédicte Miyamoto comments on the different actors competing for the role of tastemakers and/or commercial key players, as well as their relationship. She also studies the different strategies of auctioneers in Georgian England and the function and style of auction house catalogues. She explains that even the most opaque auctioneers came to realize that legitimacy for aesthetic valuation paradoxically meant better informing and empowering the consumer even as they sought to secure the sense of privilege of the regular patrons. 11 Through three case studies—the Goupil, Corfax, and Chenial Galleries—, Anne Helmreich deals with the internationalization of the art market networks at the end of the nineteenth century. Partly thanks to its thriving art press, London indeed became a major hub between the Continent and the USA. 12 In Patricia de Montfort’s article, the shift away from the single-picture exhibition to the phenomenon of the solo retrospective led by the Fine Arts Society in 1876 was instrumental in shaping a new exhibition pattern with smaller-scale, rapid-fire works. In line with the increasing commodification of the artist, it was usually accompanied with lavish catalogues, chromolithographs or other reproductive prints, targeting middle-class patrons with taste and attitude. 13 Chin Tao Wu focuses on Charles Saatchi’s strategy to keep center-stage and in control of the exhibition agendas and auction prices of the works of the artists in his stable, as well as on his unique position midway between a collector, gallerist, dealer and speculator on the art market. Nevertheless, the author participates in the media attention she denounces when she informs us on his latest pursuits: Eastern art and future exhibitions showing a very wide range of foreign art. Charlotte Gould and Sophie Mesplède (eds), Marketing Art in the British Isles... Miranda, 10 | 2014 3 14 The introduction of the book recalls Chin Tao Wu’s celebrated book on the ever- increasing role of the corporate capital in the art market since the 1980s—largely thanks to tax relief implemented during Thatcherism. The rise in corporate art awards, the rich patrons acting as trustees on museum boards, the influential and prominent businessmen such as Saatchi indulging in art dealing activities are but a few of the outward signs of the corporate world colluding with the art world for marketing, branding, speculative and symbolic purposes. 15 In Part 3 (“Negotiating artistic aspirations and middle-class values”), Bärbel Küster argues that the criteria and value of originality originated with the commodification of art. Earlier on, when prints and painted copies met the boom in demand for artwork, these copies were a way for the artists to train their skills, but also a substitute to decaying works, thereby preserving their memory. And of course, they contributed to educating British taste. Furthermore, the art theorists of the eighteenth century saw in copies the possibility of a mnemonic reservoir of “mental images”. 16 Laurent Châtel deals with how Beckford, in trying to neutralize potential charges of his nouveau riche status as heir of a wealthy merchant father, threw himself in a harsh criticism of art mercantilism, turning to rear-guard models that predated commercial Britain. 17 Thanks to archival material on the involvement of the Royal Academy in the 1878 Paris Exposition Universelle, Guillaume Evrard dwells on the Royal Academy’s impotence at achieving to raise the profile of British art, the aura of which continued to be outshone by Continental art, even as Britain was the most powerful foreign nation. This was also revelatory of the Royal Academy’s diminishing influence, owing to and conducive to the decline in government help. 18 In the closing chapter, Anne Pascale Bruneau Ramsay investigates the consistency of Roger Fry’s commercial venture, the Omega Workshops (1913-19), and his theoretical claims that art should resist “plutocracy” and a market-driven logic. She then explores the rationale and functioning of these workshops, as laboratory for Post-Impressionism aesthetics and their applied arts, and reflects on the issue of the compulsory anonymity of the artists of those workshops. They invite comparison with William Morris’s Arts and Crafts movement, but not without calling to mind substantial differences (such as Fry’s distrust of the socialist reform advocated by Morris). 19 The introduction alone is enough to justify recommending the book. It exposes the general ideas running through the case studies and offers a wealth of useful bibliographical references. It also provides a chronological survey that the discontinuous essays, very diverse in subject and period, cannot offer. It debunks the romantic mythmaking—which is still going strong—of an art emanating from a noble calling isolated from its economic and social framework, as opposed to a marketed art which sells the artist’s soul. The book also endeavors to reevaluate the cliché of the commercial-oriented parochial lack of taste for high art which held fast to Britain's reputation by looking at how the embrace of commerce led to a distinctive British art history. It contends that the normative authority exerted by the market was in fact nothing new: as Ian Pears had it, art and commerce have been enmeshed since the late seventeenth century, despite the preconceived idea that it is a recent phenomenon. The book is complete with a very substantial 25-page bibliography and 20-page index. Although the structure of such a work—a combination of assembled conference- generated scholarly contributions—precludes the absence of repetitions, gaps or Charlotte Gould and Sophie Mesplède (eds), Marketing Art in the British Isles... Miranda, 10 | 2014 4 interruptions, this dense, well-written book is a constructive contribution to the understanding of the British art market, long-neglected in art history, and will no doubt benefit any scholar interested in the complex links between art and commerce in the British Isles. INDEX Keywords: art history, British art, art market, British middle classes, Post-impressionism, auction houses, Thatcherism, Saatchi collection, museums, Turner Prize, Frieze Art Fair, collectors, Goupil Gallery, Corfax Gallery, Chenial Gallery, Omega Workhops, Arts and Crafts Movement, Royal Academy, 1878 Paris Universal Exhibition Mots-clés: histoire de l’art, art britannique, marché de l’art, classes moyennes britanniques, post-impressionnisme, maisons aux enchères, Thatcherisme, collection Saatchi, musées, Turner Prize, Frieze Art Fair, collectionneurs, Galerie Goupil, Galerie Corfax, Galerie Chenial, Ateliers Omega, Mouvement Arts and Crafts, Royal Academy, Exposition Universelle de Paris de 1878 AUTHORS MURIEL ADRIEN Université de Toulouse 2-Jean Jaurès Maître de conférences muriel.adrien@univ-tlse2.fr Charlotte Gould and Sophie Mesplède (eds), Marketing Art in the British Isles... Miranda, 10 | 2014 5 Charlotte Gould and Sophie Mesplède (eds), Marketing Art in the British Isles, 1700 to the Present 
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work_ev7ttnr3nffs7oqvmhrzliq3wy	----	The effect of cataracts and cataract surgery on Claude Monet The French impressionist Claude Monet (1840–1926) is best remembered for the iconic paintings of his garden and water lily pond in Giverny (Figures 1 & 2). In his 60s, Monet started to develop bilateral age-related cataracts (or nuclear sclerosis), which would eventually affect his work dramatically. In 1913, Monet travelled to London to consult the German ophthalmologist Richard Liebreich, who had been appointed chair of ophthalmology at St Thomas’ Hospital. Interestingly, Liebreich himself had a keen interest in art and had published an article on the effect of eye disease on the painters Turner and Mulready.1–3 Liebreich prescribed new glasses and recommended cataract surgery for the right eye, but Monet refused. By 1914– 1915, he began to struggle quite severely, complaining that ‘colours no longer had the same intensity for me’, that ‘reds had begun to look muddy’ and that ‘my painting was getting more and more darkened.’4 To avoid choosing the wrong colours, Monet started to label his tubes of paint and keep a strict order on his palette. Glare from bright sunlight complicated things further forcing Monet to wear a big straw hat outside (Figure 3). His brush strokes became broader and his paintings, like his cataracts, more brunescent. After Monet became increasingly despondent and less productive, Georges Clemenceau, former French prime minister and physician, urged his friend to consider cataract surgery. Frightened, however, by the fate of his fellow artists Honoré Daumier and Mary Cassatt, whose cataract operations had been unsuccessful, Monet was adamant to avoid surgery at all costs. He argued that: ‘I prefer to make the most of my poor sight, and even give up painting if necessary, but at least be able to see a little of these things that I love.’5 In 1922, Monet consulted another ophthalmologist, Charles Coutela, who recorded a visual acuity of PL (light perception only) on the right, and 6/60 on the left.6 As Monet was still reluctant to undergo surgery, Coutela prescribed mydriatics in the hope of allowing more light to pass through his cataractous lens. Before a week was up, Monet wrote enthusiastically to Coutela: ‘It is all simply marvellous. I have not seen so well for a long time, so much so that I regret not having seen you sooner. The drops have permitted me to paint good things rather than the bad paintings which I had persisted in making when seeing nothing but fog.’6 The positive effect of the drops was, not surprisingly, short-lived. Monet finally agreed to surgery to his right eye, which, in a two-stage procedure (partial iris removal followed by lens extraction), was subsequently carried out in early 1923. Having to lie flat on his back with sandbags placed next to him to prevent any movement, Monet soon got fed up. Argumentative, impatient, and completely non-compliant with any instructions, he rendered the post- operative period a nightmare for himself and his surgeon. After a minor third procedure to incise the thickened posterior capsule, Monet wrote to Coutela: ‘It is to my great chagrin that I regret having had this fatal operation. Pardon me for speaking so frankly and let me tell you that it is criminal to have put me in this situation.’1 Getting used to aphakic spectacles was another hurdle for Monet, who complained of cyanopsia (seeing everything with a bluish The effect of cataracts and cataract surgery on Claude Monet Out of Hours 254 British Journal of General Practice, May 2015 Figure 1. Claude-Oscar Monet. The Water-Lily Pond 1899 © National Gallery, London. Figure 2. Author’s Father on Monet’s bridge in Giverny in 2004. British Journal of General Practice, May 2015 255 tint) and that objects curved abnormally with his new glasses.1 In addition, now able to see the ‘real’ colours of his latest works he began to destroy canvases from his preoperative period. In 1924, yet another ophthalmologist, Jacques Mawas, was called in to supplant Coutela. After receiving the latest tinted Zeiss lenses Monet finally declared that ‘Mawas’ glasses [were] perfect.’6 However, Monet’s satisfaction, once again, did not last long, and in view of persisting cyanopsia, Mawas ended up covering Monet’s left eye completely with a black lens, leading to a subjective improvement of symptoms.6 In 1925, having regained a right visual acuity of 6/9 with the correction of +10.00/+4.00 x 90, Monet became more reconciled with the visual outcome and finally resumed work.1 He retouched some of his preoperative works as far as friends and relatives allowed him. In addition, he finalised the Grandes Décorations’ of Waterlilies, now housed in the Musée de l’Orangerie in Paris. Monet’s postoperative works are devoid of garish colours or coarse application and resemble his paintings from before 1914. The delicate colour schemes emphasising gentle blues and greens are consistent with the earlier pond and garden views. It is therefore unlikely that he had intentionally adopted the broader and more abstract style of his late paintings, reinforcing the argument that Monet’s late works were the result of cataracts and not conscious experimentation with a more expressionistic style. Nonetheless, it is his late works, created under the influence of his cataracts, that link impressionism with modern abstract art. Anna Gruener, ST7 in Ophthalmology, Western Eye Hospital, London. DOI: 10.3399/bjgp15X684949 ADDRESS FOR CORRESPONDENCE Anna Gruener Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, Western Eye Hospital, 153–173 Marylebone Road, London NW1 5QH, UK. E-mail: annagruener@hotmail.com REFERENCES 1. Marmor MF, Ravin JG. The artist’s eyes. New York, NY: Abrams, 2009. 2. Liebreich R. Turner and Mulready. On the effect of certain faults of vision on painting, with especial reference to their works. Nat Proc Meet Memb R Inst 1872; 6: 450–463. 3. Behrman S. Richard Liebreich, 1830–1917. First iconographer of the fundus oculi. Br J Ophthalmol 1968; 52(4): 335–338. 4. Marmor MF. Ophthalmology and art: simulation of Monet’s cataracts and Degas’ retinal disease. Arch Ophthalmol 2006; 124(12): 1764–1769. 5. Wildenstein D. Monet or the triumph of Impressionism. Köln: Taschen GmbH, 2010. 6. Ravin JG. Monet’s cataracts. JAMA 1985; 254(3): 394–399. Figure 3. Germaine Hoschedé, Lili Butler, Mme Joseph Durand-Ruel, Georges Durand-Ruel, Claude Monet at the water lily pond in Giverny, 1900. Photograph. Archives Durand-Ruel. Archives Durand-Ruel © Durand-Ruel & Cie. 
work_f2625fcrkbbzbdnr6zsliwfbsq	----	406 15 August 1970 Correspondence BRITISH MEDICAL JOURNAL well, flatly denied that a patient with a par- ticular condition was in the hospital. The administrator, however, after several calls, agreed that such a patient was there but that premature publicity might cause her anxiety and hazard her health. I therefore agreed not to write anything. When I challenged the doctor with this information he said, "I just wanted to throw you off the scent." This sort of experience makes the plea that journalists should treat doctors more gently seem rather hollow. Doctors with ex- perience of reputable journalists will know that reporters frequently are asked and agree to keep confidence about something, even if it is only to preserve a doctor's identity to protect him from charges of advertising. But if a doctor has a grievance about in- accurate reporting or unethical behaviour by reporters he has the remedy in his own hands. A complaint to the newspaper or perhaps to the Press Council can have a very sobering effect on the journalist involved. It is significant that the Press Council confirms that complaints from doctors about medical matters are extremely rare.-I am, etc., JAMES WILKINSON, Science Correspondent, Daily Express. London S.W.I. SIR,-I was interested to read the letter of Mr. J. Roper (18 July, p. 161). There is a great deal to be said for more understanding on both sides between the profession and the press. Taking, however, the current problem of drug addiction among young people, there is much irresponsibility among certain journalists-.although cer- tainly not all. At the Harrogate meeting (Supplement, 11 July, p. 48) it was pleasing to see that at last a more realistic attitude to drug abuse was shown by the motions accepted. We as a profession have individually and generally failed to prevent over-prescribing. May I as a neurologist who uses amphetamines for narcoleptics say that I consider this is the "only" indication for the use of this highly- addictive drug. Dr. F. 0. Wells (9 May, p. 361) has shown the way in Ipswich by his ban on amphetamines, which is working so well. Narcolepsy is not a common disease, and the drug could quite satisfactorily be prescribed only in hospital. May I once more plead for support for organized lectures at schools about the danger of drug addiction, so that the impressionable young may be forewarned about what they face by drug-taking? J. D. Wright' in an interesting article points out that 75 0 of schoolchildren in Wolverhampton that he interviewed had learnt about drugs from television and newspapers. Is is too much to ask for responsible help from the press, and from the teaching profession who often try to push this problem under the carpet? It would also be fair to ask for more help from the Church; many bishops could use their talents by organizing counter- propaganda to drug-taking-an evil at their own front door. Lastly may I turn to the stream of pro- grammes on drugs on radio and television. Only recently I saw a programme on B.B.C.2 called "The Timeless Moment" in which various people were interviewed about their experiences under the influence of drugs. One speaker did mention that one L.S.D. taker had become acutely psychotic and attacked his relatives. This unfortunate person has remained psychotic. However, this danger of L.S.D. was hidden by a great deal of emotional and pseudo-scientific talk about the pleasures of trips. The very sordid side of drugs, with its utter concentration on self and the domination of the mind by a chemical, is forgotten. These programmes can do nothing but harm to young viewers. I consider there is a strong case for banning all drug programmes on the mass media. Producers forget that these programmes are seen by a very uncritical audience, many of whom are not adult and cannot assess the risks at all. The medical profession needs the help of all decent men of every profession to try and stop this evil disease.-I am, etc., A. M. G. CAMPBELL, Vice-Chairman, Bristol University Advisory Committee on Drug Addiction. Bristol. REFERENCE Wright, J. D., Proceedins's of the Roval Societv of Medicine, 1970, 63, 725. George III and the Mad-business SIR,-Having recently been stimulated by student nurses' questions to re-read some of the literature about George III's "insanity," I feel that, although the evidence adduced by Drs. I. Macalpine and R. Hunterl 2 that the King's physical symptoms were due to porphyria is most iinpressive and convinc- ing, the suggestion that his mental symp- toms, including "incessant talking" and "hurry of spirit," were also only of toxic origin and not due to an associated manic state seems much more royalistic than real- istic (see also B.M.7., 8 November 1969, p. 352). I wonder if any of the world's leading porphyriologists would care to assess the likelihood, in their experience, that a patient with a toxic delirium due to porphyrins would (a) survive this not once but repeatedly, (b) stay in a "certifiable" state for five months, (c) make a complete mental recovery without any significant evidence of brain damage, (d) thereafter have a remis- sion lasting twelve years, and (e) live on to the age of 82? Without wishing to recast any slur on our monarchy's ancestors, I feel the facts sug- gest that George III (whose granddaughter, Queen Victoria, certainly had a classical and prolonged depressive breakdown after the death of Prince Albert) was unfortunate enough to suffer from both porphyria and manic-depressive psychosis; the latter being brought on acutely at the climacteric and becoming chronic in senescence.-I am, etc., M. M. SALZMANN. " .,s Cctt Hospital, !okc, Hants. REFERENCES Mtac.,..c,! I., Hunter, R., and Rimington, C., British Medical 7othrnal, 1968. 1. 7. Macalpine, I., and Hunter, R., George III and the Mad-Busincss, London: Allen Lane, The Penguin Press. 1969. Tarsal-tunnel Syndrome in Rheumatoid Arthritis SIR,-Drs. K. Lloyd and A. Agarwal report a case of tarsal-tunnel syndrome as a presenting feature of rheumatoid arthritis (4 July, p. 32), which responded to cortico- steroid injections beneath the retinaculum. They draw attention to the possibility of this condition being not infrequent in rheumatoid arthritis, but that its detection may be masked by the many other causes of pain in the foot in this disease. Dr. A. L. Wilson and I reported three cases of this syndrome1 and drew attention to certain similarities between the tarsal- tunnel syndrome and its carpal counterpart. One of the cases we reported responded very well to the local injection of steroids under the retinaculum. We also noted that the symptoms could be reproduced by forc- ible dorsiflexion of the ankle. The addition of a raise to the heel of the shoe of the affected foot also helps by relaxing the ten- sion on the posterior tibial nerve behind the medial malleolus. Since then we have seen two other cases of tarsal-tunnel syndrome associated with rheumatoid arthritis. One of these cases was treated by bilateral surgical decompression of the nerve, and the other by three injections of corticosteroid given locally under the flexor retinaculum at weekly intervals. Both cases responded well to treatment. It is interesting to note that Yamaguchi2 and his colleagues reviewed over 1,200 cases of carpal-tunnel syndrome and found that 318 of these cases were associated with sys- temic diseases. The commonest systemic diseases associated with the carpal tunnel syndrome were rheumatoid arthritis (93), myxoedema (77), and diabetes (69).-I am, etc., E. H. CHATER. Orthopaedic Department, Merlin Park, Galway. REFERENCES l Chater, E. H., and Wilson, A. L., lournal of the Irish Medical Association, 1968, 61, 326. 2 Yamapuchi, D. M., Lipscomb, P. R., and Soule, E. H., Minneso?a Medicine, 1965, 48, 22. Therapeutic Abortion SIR,-Dr. S. E. Josse is reported (Sup- plement, 11 July, p. 52) as saying at the recent Annual Representative Meeting that "The report of the Royal College of Obstet- ricians and Gynaecologists printed in the British Medical Journal of 30 May showed that 94 ', of consultants replying to a questionnaire had no objection to termination of pregnancy." This is not correct. The questionnaire to which Dr. Josse refers was sent with a cov- ering letter from the president of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists to all consultant obstetricians and gynaecologists employed in the National Health Service. The first question read as follows: "Do you have a conscientious objection to the termination of pregnancy in all circumstances (my italics)?" In reply 424 (94 A',) of the consultants replying answered "No." If Dr. Josse has been reported correctly his statement is erroneous and misleading.- I am, etc., ANTHONY W. PURDIE. North Middllesex Hospital, Lonidon N.18. o n 5 A p ril 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .b m j.co m / B r M e d J: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /b m j.3 .5 7 1 9 .4 0 6 -a o n 1 5 A u g u st 1 9 7 0 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://www.bmj.com/ 
work_f4cjrxsiwre3xdf5rdzw5wv5na	----	Mere Exposure and Aesthetic Realism A Response to "Perceptual Learning, The Mere Exposure Effect and Aesthetic Anti-Realism" by Bence Nanay 1 MERE EXPOSURE AND AESTHETIC REALISM A R ESPONSE TO “PER CEPTUAL LEARNING, TH E M ER E EXPOSURE EFFECT AND AESTH ETIC ANTI-R EALISM ” BY BENCE NANAY JAMES E. CUTTING Department of Psychology, Cornell University Email: james.cutting@cornell.edu. © ISAST Keywords: aesthetic realism, aesthetic antirealism, canons, mere exposure I admire much of Nanay’s approach to understanding aesthetics, and not simply because I am an author to which much of the article is directed. In attacking aesthetic antirealism, the notion that quality in an artwork does not inhere in the artwork itself, he defends aesthetic realism. Within art history this latter view was perhaps last endorsed by Rosenberg (1968), and then swept away by the spread of semiotics. Nonetheless, it is hard to resist the notion that there is a kernel of something valid in aesthetic realism. But I need to set a number of things straight concerning Nanay’s presentation. To be sure, Nanay is correct in that a general force of Impressionism and its Canon (Cutting, 2006), and more particularly its predecessor (Cutting, 2003), was to show that the repeated, diffuse exposure to artworks (a cultural generalization of the laboratory phenomenon of mere exposure) – even if we can’t remember having seen them – increases our evaluation of their artistic quality. Beyond this Nanay concludes several things. Three are: that I am essentially, if not an “all out,” aesthetic antirealist; that the subsequent results by Meskin, Phelan, Moore and Kieran (2013) limit my conclusions; and that mere exposure has been shown to work for artistic tokens but not types. Let me address each of these ideas. Mere Exposure as One among Many Aesthetic Effects Nanay reports my position: “And what maintains the ‘canons’ of our Artworld is not the quality of the artworks, but the fact that we are exposed to those artworks that are part of the canon, making us like them more, which reinforces their place in the canon.” This is essentially correct for my view of canon maintenance, but not for canon formation. Thus, according to Nanay, I am essentially an aesthetic antirealist. This would mean that I think that there is no such thing as aesthetic realism (and the inherent aesthetic quality) in a painting, and that only our experience with the painting itself guides our appreciation of it. But this isn’t quite correct, and at best incomplete. For example, in the concluding chapter of Impressionism and its Canon (2006, pp. 201-202) I wrote: “That is, it is perfectly legitimate to say: I want to understand A. I know that b is a part of the cause of A, but I really don’t understand b at all. Thus, let me see how far Leonardo Just Accepted MS. © ISAST doi: 10.1162/LEON_a_01081 mailto:james.cutting@cornell.edu� 2 I can get with c, d, e, f, and g— ignoring b completely— in my account of A. And this is precisely the structure of theory I present here. I am interested in canon formation and maintenance—A. I know that the quality of a painting—b—is likely to be important in some way, but I haven’t a clue as to how to assess artistic quality so I am going to ignore it altogether. Instead, then, I will focus on historical coincidence, early accession into a museum and concurrent publicity, curatorial culling, sustained publicity, and mere exposure—c, d, e, f, and g, respectively—and see how far I can get. The procedure also allows for the omission of other factors— perhaps h and i —that are also currently unknown.” Notice two things. First, I didn’t deny the role of quality (aesthetic value) in the evaluation of art. Instead, I deliberately and openly skirted the issue. Indeed, Maynard (2007), in an otherwise very favorable review of my book, chastised me for exactly this tactic. I might add, however, that Nanay hasn’t offered us a clue about assessing artistic quality either. Is it a priori? Are our abilities to assess art inborn? Or are we responding to authority – Kenneth Clark, Ernst Gombrich, Giorgio Vasari, or perhaps Clement Greenberg? The point of my research effort was to help ground discussion of canons (collections of “good” art) in some data, and to show that subtle, personal perceptual experiences can play a role – perhaps even for choosing Manilow over Mozart. Nanay is also off base in thinking my view is that mere exposure is the dominant factor in canon formation and maintenance. The above quotation should make clear that it is but one of several mechanisms. The others for paintings are: the historical coincidences of early purchases by collectors, early accession into a museums following bequests by those collectors, concurrent publicity in public media, curatorial culling after appearance in those museums (a negative factor), and sustained publicity by art historians. Mere exposure is a sixth mechanism, culturally important but certainly not dominant. Notice also that the first five of these lend force to the roles of authority in the historical agglomeration of images into a canon. Surely, such authority would be paramount over mere exposure for canon formation (perhaps as opposed to canon maintenance). But, of course, appeals to authority don’t do much for aesthetic realism either (the Emperor’s New Clothes). Mere Exposure as a Positive, Uniform Process? In showing potential limits to my results, Nanay writes that “one could argue that the mere exposure effect only works for good art.” This is not the place for a detailed critique of Meskin et al. (2013), whose results he cites to support this idea. The Meskin et al. paper is about mere exposure and its possible effect on the aesthetic denigration of “bad” art. Although that paper mirrored much of my methodology in two experiments, and found results roughly similar to mine for a “good” artist (John Everett Millais), it has other methodological and logical problems. In particular, as much as one might like to, one cannot generalize from one “bad” artist (Thomas Kinkade) to all of “bad” art. One needs, on statistical grounds alone, at least two “bad” artists, parallel results for those two, as well as at least two “good” artists, whose works yield results similar to each other but are different than those for the works of the two “bad” artists. And all of these artists should be from the same period in part so that style is controlled – more on this later. Nonetheless, I am actually happy to endorse the general idea of Meskin et al.: Mere exposure might work differently for “good” art than Leonardo Just Accepted MS. © ISAST doi: 10.1162/LEON_a_01081 3 for “bad” art. Overexposure is a well-known laboratory (Bornstein, 1989) and cultural phenomenon. But again from Impressionism and its Canon (pp. 208-209): “All other things being equal, we will prefer paintings reproduced more often. To be sure, it may be relatively rare that all such things are equal, but the bias [of positive effects from mere exposure] is omnipresent. I claim this bias has deep and lasting effects – indeed, sufficiently lasting to help maintain a canon for a century, and more.” (Quoted with clarification and new emphases not in the original passage.) In my methods (Cutting, 2003, 2006) I deliberately chose Impressionism as a venue because of its deep penetration into popular culture (lots of people will have seen lots of Impressionist paintings), I chose eight artists associated with Impressionism, and I chose the method of having viewers compare pairs of paintings by the same artist (Meskin et al. did not), painted at about the same time, with roughly the same content, painted the same general style, and with the same general color palettes. In other words, I was trying to make as many things as equal as I could (ceteris paribus). I find it charming that I am chastened for this, given that Google at this moment returns nearly 600,000 hits for the joint search of “all things being equal” and “philosophy.” Must we embrace ceteris paribus only for thought experiments? Types, Tokens and Mere Exposure Nanay makes a distinction between mere-exposure-effect tokens (MEE-tokens) and MEE-types, suggesting that most exposure experiments are of the MEE-type variety. However, my guess is that almost all mere exposure experiments, per se, are about MEE-tokens, at least as I would define them. Yes, we are exposed to individual people who look different every day, and we like them (mostly), but most experiments test mere exposure to an exactly repeating stimulus. Wollheim (1987) and Wölfflin aside, I think my art exposure experiments are about tokens, particularly since I don’t have to assume that viewers have seen the actual paintings at all. Of course, we might get into a discussion of differences in reproductions – early color reproductions can be quite bad and have often faded with time – but I think this is another issue. To circumvent any idea that tokens might masquerade as a type, Nanay creates a distinction between MEE-superdeterminate vs. MEE-determinable exposures, where this distinction, I think, is being rallied to shore up the MEE-token vs. MEE-type distinction. If so, fine. However, Monahan, Murphy and Zajonc (2000) showed that certain MEE-superdeterminate and a MEE-determinable effects might be found within the same experiment. That is, those authors found larger effects for liking a specific Chinese character or polygon through mere exposure; and a smaller, general effect for other, previously unseen Chinese characters or polygons as compared against neutral, previously unseen tokens of previously unseen types. Next, Nanay argues that my experiments are MEE-superdeterminate, not MEE-determinable, and that only the latter could be used to support an antirealist position. Fine. This type of experiment might, for example, present many landscapes by Sisley and test for an increase in the appreciation of other Sisley landscapes, perhaps as opposed to those of Pissarro. This is a good idea. Leonardo Just Accepted MS. © ISAST doi: 10.1162/LEON_a_01081 4 But since – by the arguments I presented above – I don’t think that I am an antirealist, this shouldn’t have any force against my claims. I claim, ceteris paribus, that mere exposure can play a role in canon maintenance through the building up of our (the public’s) professed liking of particular pictures. The intended force of my work was to show that aesthetic realism isn’t enough; not that aesthetic antirealism is all. In Conclusion I confess that I don’t think of myself as either an aesthetic antirealist or an aesthetic realist. I simply don’t know where – beyond the avenues that I have explored – the perceived quality of an artwork can generally be said to come from. I thus find the only defensible position to be a hybrid view that endorses perceptual learning from mere exposure combined with cultural education on the one hand while maintaining an agnostic eye towards aesthetic realism on the other. This may be messy, but perhaps a psychologist is used to tolerating more mess than a philosopher. Personally, when reflecting on any artwork that has deeply affected me, I find that my perception of the virtuosity of the artist is very important. This reflection is general to all the arts that I enjoy – graphic and sculptural arts, dance, music, literature and movies – and it goes for sports, too. Nonetheless, I recognize that virtuosity without a “something else” can be pretty empty. For me, some of the “something else” has to do vaguely with form and my emotional response – the work has to speak to me. But I can’t volunteer much further insight beyond that. If anyone could convince me about how the inherent quality of an artwork might be assessed, it would be fun to try to test the idea. References Bornstein, Robert F. (1989). “Exposure and affect: Overview and meta-analysis of research, 1968- 1987,” Psychological Bulletin, 106, 265-289. Cutting, James E. (2003). “Gustave Caillebotte, French Impressionism, and mere exposure,” Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 10, 319-343. Cutting, James E. (2006). Impressionism and its canon. Washington, DC: University Press of America. Maynard, Patrick (2007). Review of Impressionism and its canon. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 65, 246-248. Meskin, Aaron, Mark Phelan, Margaret Moore & Matthew Kieran (2013). “Mere exposure to bad art,” British Journal of Aesthetics, 53, 139-164. Monahan, Jennifer L., Sheila T. Murphy, & Robert B. Zajonc (2000). “Subliminal mere exposure: Specific, general, and diffuse effects,” Psychological Science, 11, 462-466. Nanay, Bence (2014). “Perceptual learning, the mere exposure effect and aesthetic antirealism,” forthcoming in Leonardo. Rosenberg, Jakob (1968). On quality in art. London: Phaidon Press. Wollheim, Richard (1987). Painting as an Art. London: Thames and Hudson. Leonardo Just Accepted MS. © ISAST doi: 10.1162/LEON_a_01081 5 M anuscript received 19 September 2014. James E. Cutting is a Susan Linn Sage Professor of Psychology at Cornell University and author of Perception with an Eye for Motion (MIT Press, 1986), Impressionism and its Canon (University Press of America, 2006) and over 100 scientific articles on various aspects of perception. Leonardo Just Accepted MS. © ISAST doi: 10.1162/LEON_a_01081 
work_faqtqnvprjclxmxsi3wjxxxm4q	----	Postprint Splitting the Difference: Aesthetic Relations in Henry James and Leo Bersani Sigi Jottkandt, University of New South Wales The Henry James Review 32 (2011): 235–241. A key thread running through Leo Bersani’s remarkably diverse oeuvre is his exploration of modes of subjectivity that are capable of forming relations with others and the world in ways that avoid the aggression of the traditional subject/object relation. From his early work on Marcel Proust, Balzac, Baudelaire, Henry James, Samuel Beckett and Sigmund Freud (among others1), to his recent collaborations with Ulysse Dutoit on art and film in works such as Caravaggio’s Secrets (1998) and Forms of Being (2004), Bersani queries the subject’s prevailing tendency to violently “transform the world into a reflection of subjectivity”.2 Psychoanalysis, in Bersani’s view, has been particularly egregious in this respect. Starting with Freud, and continuing with Melanie Klein and Jacques Lacan, psychoanalysis has traditionally conceived the subject as set irremediably apart from the object, whose intrinsic foreignness necessitates an array of complex defensive psychic strategies. Klein’s monstrous conception of the “bad object” is perhaps only the most graphic instance of this prevailing psychoanalytic tendency to regard the ego as in a relation of “radical hostility to the external world.”3 It is in the field of visibility that Bersani seeks his alternate conception of relation. In his essay, “Psychoanalysis and the Aesthetic Subject”, Bersani invites us to consider how certain similarities or “correspondences” between the forms of 1 Marcel Proust: The Fictions of Life and of Art (London: Oxford UP, 1965), Balzac to Beckett (New York: Oxford UP, 1970), A Future for Astyanax (1969), Baudelaire and Freud (Berkeley: U of California P, 1979), The Culture of Redemption (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 1990), Homos (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 1995), The Death of Stéphane Mallarmé (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1981). 2 Leo Bersani, “Psychoanalysis and the Aesthetic Subject,” Critical Inquiry 32 (2006): 162. Hereafter cited in the text as Aesthetic Subject. 3 Leo Bersani, The Freudian Body: Psychoanalysis and Art (New York: Columbia UP, 1986) 87. objects (and subjects) of the world might lead to a conception of a “universal relationality” that frees us both from the “antagonistic dualism between human consciousness and the world it inhabits and the anthropomorphic appropriation of that world” (“Aesthetic Subject,” 161). Precisely what Bersani has in mind with his idea of formal correspondences requires further elaboration but it comes down to a politically and morally revised conception of likeness that he offers as an alternative to the aggressive subject/object relation. In Homos, for example, Bersani invites us to consider how André Gide’s The Immoralist reveals the extent to which “our bodily being ‘touches’ multiple other surfaces to which it is drawn, not necessarily by desire but perhaps primordially by formal affinities that diagram our extensions.”4 In Bersani’s hands, Caravaggio’s paintings, certain works of contemporary film and the masterpieces of High Modernism become vehicles for intriguing discoveries of how identities of shape, texture, color and volume come to exert strange attractions upon one another. Drawn together by purely formal isomorphisms (or “correspondences”), such shapes, textures, colors and volumes occupy space in ways that he maintains are fundamentally ontologically different from the dual relation of subject and object. On an initial impulse, one might regard such “correspondences” as embodying the symbolic blueprints for a new mode of being that (potentially) follows from the bodily ego’s self-shattering during the experience of jouissance (whose dimensions Bersani has explored at some length5). It is as if, in art’s “ontological laboratory”6 - which describes both certain kinds of aesthetic practices and a revised understanding of the psychoanalytic notion of fantasy Bersani develops in “Psychoanalysis and the Aesthetic Subject”7 - segments of what had formerly 4 Bersani, “The Gay Outlaw,” Homos (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995) 121. 5 See, for example, his essay, “Is the Rectum a Grave” in the book of that title (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009). 6 Bersani, and Dutoit, Caravaggio’s Secrets (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT, 1998) 63. 7 This is developed most fully in Bersani’s essay, “Psychoanalysis and the Aesthetic Subject.” In it, he writes, “[…] if fantasy is a major site of our connectedness to the world, it is not an act that touches or changes the world. It represents the terms in which the world inheres in the fantasizing subject, comprised the subject begin to regroup and, along with other bits of the shattered world, form a unity of being organized according to laws other than those prescribing the division of self and other. The world or “whole” thus constituted sees the ancient dualism of subject and object displaced, superceded by a distorted, flattened, homogenous manifold in which the firm distinctions between human and nonhuman, subject and object, merge and ultimately become obsolete. However, Bersani’s use of terms such as “diagram” and “extension” also gives us the clue as to how to understand the transformations of our representational space at play here. It is a topological space Bersani appears to be proposing - one whose deformations of our habitual representational field are effected not through the creation of new cuts and divisions, but by way of topology’s perspectival shift that enables us to see previously undisclosed continuities and correspondences across what looked, from another perspective, to be independent and separated objects. Insofar as it refashions our approach to objects topologically, then, Bersani indicates that art and certain other kinds of aesthetic and intimate experiences, free us to experience the dimension of virtuality. Virtuality, for the critic, forms the “unthinkable, intrinsically unrealizable reserve of human being” through which “we connect to the world” (“Aesthetic Subject,” 169). Interestingly, it is to Impressionism (among others) that Bersani looks as an instance of an artistic practice capable of reconnecting us with our virtual reserve. In the previously mentioned essay on Gide, Bersani takes time out from his consideration of the character of Michel to quote John Berger approvingly on how Renoir’s scenes with naked women exhibit signs of this other mode of being in the world: “Within the dappled skins,” Berger writes, “‘there is nobody’: the trees, rocks, hills and sea beyond the bodies ‘prolong and extend the same paradise’” (Homos, 120). Bersani glosses this as Renoir’s realization of “a potentially universal visibility” (Homos, 120) from which all pressure of desire has been emptied and with it, the formerly “politically unfixable antagonism between itself and the object” in which the subject terms that can change as our position in the world changes.” Aesthetic Subject, 170. has traditionally been immobilized (Homos, 124). In what follows, I would like to explore Bersani’s conception of non- coercive relationality through a consideration of Henry James’s short story, “Flickerbridge”.8 First published in Scribner’s Magazine in 1902, “Flickerbridge” is one of a series of James tales that explicitly takes up the problem of representation and the ethical dilemmas it introduces vis-à-vis its object. Pitting the literary and visual arts against one another in a mock-heroic ethical battle, James’s tale offers fruitful ground for exploring how different artforms, and their accompanying styles, might figure a non-desiring relation to the world differently - a question of no small interest to Bersani himself.9 In a manner particularly germane to this discussion, James invites us to consider the ethical responsibility that inheres between the artist and the object of his or her representational practice. As is true of several of the tales in this group, which include “The Real Thing” (1892), “The Real Right Thing” (1899), “The Special Type” (1900) and “The Papers” (1903), in “Flickerbridge” James anchors the narrative around the prospective dangers represented by that hungry beast, the “cannibal” of publicity. Frank Granger, a promising young American painter, finds himself unexpectedly in possession of a great marvel. Invited to the old stately home, Flickerbridge, to recover from an illness contracted on an assignment in England, Granger becomes captivated by “one of the sweetest, fairest, coolest impressions of his life” (721). The creature in question is his fiancee’s long-lost elderly cousin and namesake, Miss Adelaide Wenham. Miss Wenham, we quickly learn, belongs to the estranged British side of his betrothed’s family, whose existence has only recently come to Addie’s (Frank’s fiancée’s) knowledge. A prolific up-and-coming short story writer, Addie is a contributor to a “prominent Boston paper” and other “public sheets” that serve as the organs for 8 Henry James, “Flickerbridge,” in Henry James: Collected Stories, sel. and intro. John Bayley (New York: Knopf, 1999). 9 See “Aesthetic Subject”, 164. her descriptive pieces (716). Having being sent to Flickerbridge as her “deputy,” Granger develops a growing fear that by meeting Miss Wenham, Addie will unwittingly “ruin” her cousin by inevitably “raving” about her existence to the world. Although Frank is confident that Addie will share his unique appreciation for the “queer”, the “rare”, the “impayable” (721), he fears she won’t partake in his delicate scruples. And if Addie were to write about their extraordinary find - as she certainly would - the hordes would flock to Flickerbridge, as Frank rather extravagantly warns Miss Wenham: She’ll rave about you. She’ll write about you. You’re Niagara before the first white traveller [...].You’ll be too weird for words, but the words will nevertheless come. You’ll be too exactly the real thing [...] and all Addie’s friends and all Addie’s editors and contributors and readers will cross the Atlantic and flock to Flickerbridge, so, unanimously, vociferously to leave you. You’ll be in the magazines with illustrations; you’ll be in the papers with headings; you’ll be everywhere with everything. (James, 730) To avoid this fate, Frank resolves to try to keep Miss Wenham and Flickerbridge to himself. The temptation to try to conserve her in her original state is simply too great: He would close the door on his impression, treat it as a private museum. He would see that he could lounge and linger there, live with wonderful things there, lie up there to rest and refit. For himself he was sure that after a little he should be able to paint there – do things in a key he had never thought of before. (729) As James hints in this passage, Frank’s encounter with Miss Wenham is nothing less than the discovery of a radically new “style”. Previously steeped in the “the newest impressionism”, in whose “vagueness”, “dim light” and “inscrut[ability]” (715) (for which his and Addie’s own obscurely articulated relation is perhaps the most profound symptom), Granger marvels at the sudden clarity of the image before him: “He had been floated by the strangest of chances out of the rushing stream into a clear still backwater – a deep and quiet pool in which objects were sharply mirrored” (722). Miss Wenham herself strikes him as the most perfectly executed signpost transporting him to an earlier time: “Her opinions were like dried roseleaves; her attitudes like British sculpture; her voice was what he imagined of the possible tone of the old gilded, silver-stringed harp in one of the corners of the drawing-room” (728). The rooms at Flickerbridge exude the fragrance of the old days “as rare as some fine old print with the best bits down in the corners. Old books and old pictures, allusions remembered and aspects conjected, reappeared to him” (723). Above all, “[t]he image before him was so rounded and stamped. It expressed with pure perfection, it exhausted its character” (722). As Frank tells the bewildered inhabitant of Flickerbridge, “You fit your frame with a perfection only equalled by the perfection with which your frame fits you” (726). Strikingly, in the passage I’ve been discussing, Granger’s aesthetic education unfolds in exact inverse to Bersani and Dutoit’s narrative of growing depersonalization and collapsing of boundaries. In fact, the deepening focus and exquisite definition of “type” that Granger discovers in Flickerbridge calls more immediately to mind a certain realist style, reminiscent of the earlier Dutch painters and their finely drawn still lifes. Thus Flickerbridge, in Granger’s perception, hovers before him in the fullness of its pellucid outline and delicate detail: “Oh, it was there,” James has Frank silently muse, “if that was all one wanted of a thing! It was so ‘there’ that […] he had held his breath for fear of breaking the spell” (721). With his new appreciation of realism, moreover, Frank acquires new artistic scruples: To look at it too hard was positively to make it conscious, and to make it conscious was positively to wake it up. Its only safety, of a truth, was to be left still to sleep – to sleep in its large, fair chambers, and under its high, clean canopies. (724) The question is why being seen should pose such a threat to Miss Wenham? For Frank, what is at stake is nothing less than Flickerbridge’s integrity as an object. Simply by becoming visible – or, at least, visible in a certain kind of way – Flickerbridge is in danger of losing its singular being. As James puts it dryly, “the process of reproduction, as we say, costs” (723). From this perspective, Frank’s extravagant fears for Miss Wenham’s safety recall nothing so much as the overly scrupulous Kantian who refuses even to apprehend objects because he believes that by transforming them through perception into phenomena, their noumenal selves are in ontological danger. It is far better, ethically, to leave them alone, as Frank explains. “I should next find you simply brought to self-consciousness. You’ll be exactly what you are, I charitably admit - nothing more or less, nothing different. But you’ll be it all in a different way” (733). Here James’s motif of the mortal danger represented by publicity assumes a more ontological register than in many of his tales around this theme. For as it transpires, the threat represented by Addie and her raving ilk is simply the extreme end of a continuum of a malignant shift into visibility that begins irretrievably with Frank’s own vision of Miss Wenham. What interests is how this circumscribing shift into the visible defines what Bersani calls the “psychoanalytic gesture” par excellence. In this gesture, through which the subject separates itself from the external world, the object acquires a mysterious hue. Divided from the subject by the “realist” cut psychoanalysis calls the signifier, the object finds itself elevated to a mysterious signifier that can henceforth be approached only as something for the subject to appropriate (through desire), assimilate (through sublimation or “knowledge”) - or, as in Frank’s case, fled from. As we saw, Bersani’s notion of formal correspondences aims to undo the dualism introduced by the representational act - and its concomitant ethical dilemma which Frank feels so acutely - by redrawing the subject/object relation in a topological manner. In his discussion of Pierre Michon’s L’origine du monde in “Psychoanalysis and the Aesthetic Subject,” Bersani formulates the narrator’s relation to the world in terms of a Möbius strip-like “looping movement” wherein the world finds itself in the subject who reciprocally finds itself in the world. “There is neither a subject-object dualism nor a fusion of the subject and object”, he writes (Aesthetic Subject, 168-9). “What the world finds in the subject (in addition to physical correspondences) is a certain activity of consciousness, which partially reinvents the world as it repeats it” (169). My question is whether there might be a way of rethinking the “psychoanalytic gesture” in a way that doesn’t automatically throw us back into the ancient dualism Bersani and Frank both deplore? My suggestion is that in “Flickerbridge,” James offers us a representational model that delivers a similarly “looping movement” between the subject and the world as Bersani detects in Michon, but this is accomplished by way of the very (“realist”) division that caused the original separation. To understand this, we must recall how in the Lacanian narrative of the ‘primordial cut’ by which the subject assumes a representational (i.e. linguistic) identity, an alienation of the subject within itself takes place that is isomorphic to the alienation of the subject in the world. For once having assumed representational form in the shape of a name or the linguistic shifter “I”, the subject is thought to be cut off from its being, which comes to circulate in the outside world in the form of an object, but an object of a strange and uncanny kind. This object is what Lacan calls the object (a), a fascinating, glittering object that forever hovers tantalizingly out of our reach. As linguistic subjects, we deputize ourselves, as it were, to the signifier, while our “real” being slips away into the now objectively constituted world, to hang there as an alluring testament to our divided state. With this in mind, let us return to an important aspect of James’s tale that cannot have escaped the reader: the peculiarity of James’s decision to have both of the important women in Frank’s world bear the same name. Given James’s well- known interest in and careful selection of his characters’ names, this choice cannot help but strike one as singular.10 On a first reading, this doubling of the two 10 Millicent Bell, “Henry James: The Man Who Lived”, The Massachusetts Review 14. 2 women’s names might be thought to draw attention with a pleasing symmetry to the two choices confronting a subject in its encounter with the object: on the one hand, the choice to approach it through the desiring relation - with all the connotations of appropriation and violence that this relation entails (presented vividly in James in the exaggerated and exhorbitant fears that Frank projects onto Addie). Or we can approach it through an aesthetic relation, conceived as a mode of seeing and being that is more sensitive to the dangers that any form of representing it (which apparently includes simply viewing it) may bring to the object. But I think that to endorse this second option is to fail to do justice to the sheer oddness of Frank’s ‘aesthetic’ relation with Miss Wenham. Taken straight, Frank’s behavior towards Miss Wenham strikes us (not to mention her) as immensely bizarre, an outlandish parody of representational scruples that James, in a playful moment, is satirizing. For it is, furthermore, by no means implied at the end of the tale that Frank’s renunciation of both Miss Wenhams might be in any sense an ethically satisfactory outcome. The problem with this reading, I believe, lies in its mistaking Frank for the subject of the tale, whereas his actual position is more fruitfully understood another way. Recall how Frank’s role in this tale is as the representative of Addie, whose task - to reconnect her with her long-lost relation - he signally fails to accomplish. However, there is a sense in which Frank succeeds all too well if we understand his mission from a psychoanalytic perspective, as the task of the signifier to represent a subject for another signifier. As a “deputy” for Adelaide Wenham, Frank’s goal is not his stated one, that is, of joining the two divided halves of the subject: the literary or “linguistic” Adelaide Wenham with her objective correlative in the glittering form of a past unity of being, Flickerbridge. In fact, his task is the opposite: to maintain these two halves of the subject in a state of permanent separation. In Lacanian terms, we could say that, as a signifier, Frank’s mission is to create the perceptual frame through which (Spring, 1973) 391-414. the object (a) - “Flickerbridge” - may be viewed by the divided subject. But his success in doing so depends upon the signifier’s ability to sustain the gap separating the two worlds, that is, to maintain the representational fiction that there is some “real thing” - some previous unity of being - out there in the objectively constituted world, that might be recovered given the right circumstances, or right approach or, indeed, right mode of representing it. This necessary gap between the two worlds - a gap which is, furthermore, produced by the originating split in the subject, rather than its cause - bestows our representational (or, in Lacanian terms, “symbolic”) field with its illusion of perspective and depth, enabling the subject to “see” itself in the object world. To the extent that it provides the original coordinates for the subject, it is the signifier that delivers the sense of space to the objective world, enabling the subject to orientate itself within it. All space, in this sense, is fantasmatic, a flickering bridge forged by the signifying cut that, “in a singular story of a sharp split” (718), first divided the subject from its being. Understood in this way, the traditional conception of the subject as something inherently opposed to the object begins to unravel. For in the Lacanian narrative, both the subject and the object share the same split: the cut that divides the subject from itself is the very same as that which divides the subject from the object world. In James, in other words, we find a looping movement isomorphous to that which Bersani discovers in Michon but in James’s case, what the subject and world share in common is a mutual diremption, rather than mutual form or corresponding shape. Their “correspondence”, that is, is a corresponding split or division. Could we not say that here James effects a further turn of Bersani’s screw, revealing the obverse side of the critic’s intervention? Bersani’s supreme insight is to perform the topological perspectival shift that enables us to perceive identities across what previously appeared to be separate objects. In “Flickerbridge”, James exposes the logical structure of that perspectival shift: when cut twice down the middle, the Möbius strip-like surface of Bersani’s subject/world relation unpeels into the looping intertwined S-shapes of the subject/Other and the extra little o- shape that, as a remainder, dangles off one of the loops of the 8.11 The same cut of the signifier that divides the subject also divides it from the world. “Flickerbridge” appeared in February 1902, the same year as The Wings of the Dove appeared in its American and British editions. Widely recognized as the first of James’s “major phase” novels, The Wings of the Dove is renowned as James’s foray into what would become called his “literary impressionism.” When read alongside the novel, “Flickerbridge” might be thought of as a meditation and reflection on James’s own discovery of a “new style”, and as an exploration of the internal logic of the perspectival shift he enacts in his later “impressionist” work. “Flickerbridge” suggests that James regarded his stylistic innovation less as a radical break from his earlier realism than as realism’s ‘correspondent form’. Although, like Bersani, James comes to emphasize surfaces rather than depths in his later work, this tale’s extended reflection on the conditions of possibility of representation - and their ethical import in relation to the world - point to James’s sophisticated understanding of the mutual imbrication of both representational styles. The same can be said of Bersani for whom James evidently continues to act as a key signifier or coordinate, as the little kernel of the Real(ism) at the center of his impressionist explorations into surface worlds.12 11 Lacan frequently comes back to the Möbius strip and other topological figures throughout his writings. See, for example, the discussion in his unpublished Seminar XIII, The Object of Psychoanalysis (1965-1966), lesson of 15.12.65. He explains how ‘the [castrating] cut itself has the structure of the surface called Möbius strip. Here you see it pictured by a double stroke of the scissors that you can also do, in which you would effectively cut the total figure of the projective plane, or of the cross-cap as I called it, in two parts: one Möbius strip on the one hand, here it is supposed to be cut, all on its own, and on the other hand a remainder which is what plays the same function of hole in its primitive shape.’ 12 See for example his nested discussion of James’s The Beast in the Jungle in his essay on Patrice Leconte, “The It in the I: Patrice Leconte, Henry James, and Analytic Love,” The Henry James Review 27.3 (2006): 202-14. 
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work_feqywzdxxjgdnko5a27bfg4fja	----	medhis5601_07 94..120 Russian officers and an expedition to Baktchi- Serai and Simferopol. Greig’s letters give us a better picture of the day-to-day life of a Crimean War surgeon than any other memoirs published so far. Carol Helmstadter, University of Toronto Sioban Nelson and Anne Marie Rafferty (eds), Notes on Nightingale: The Influence and Legacy of a Nursing Icon (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010), pp. ix þ 172, £12.50/$18.95, paperback, ISBN: 978-0-8014-7611-2. Florence Nightingale left as a legacy her ideas and template for nurses’ training and public health reforms based on statistical evidence. In this book, eight nurse historians and scholars write about facets of Nightingale’s life and work; each paper provides information drawn from primary sources about Nightingale’s goals, actions, and achievements. She is characterised as a spiritual person with practical concerns about health care as she led a delegation of nurses to care for soldiers in British military hospitals in Scutari, Turkey. She wrote books about nursing and hospitals, reported about public health and sanitation problems throughout the British Empire, and organised a nursing school at St Thomas Hospital in London. Ms Nightingale is revered and criticised for her beliefs and actions, and the authors frankly discuss her ideas and dealings in nineteenth-century Victorian society. Nelson and Rafferty introduce Nightingale’s areas of interest and influence, and describe her evolution from an impressionable young woman, to a politically astute social activist and a revered icon. Nelson traces the development of Nightingale’s influence in the next paper, and outlines ‘the Nightingale imperative’ (p.9) for nursing seen in her organisation of care for the sick in a London clinic, for casualties in hospitals in the Crimea, and of a nursing school in London in 1860. Nightingale brought recognition of nursing as a respectable profession for women who were able to improve health outcomes for the sick and injured. She campaigned to reform public health and hospital care by corresponding with influential people in the Sanitation Movement, British Parliament and universities. Helmstadter’s paper describes Nightingale’s best-known humanitarian mission, which was to lead a team of female nurses to care for injured soldiers in military hospitals in the Crimean War. Nightingale was instructed by the Secretary of War to ensure that all nurses would obey the orders of military doctors and purveyors in the hospitals implicitly, and prevent religious disputes. Nightingale selected nurses from various social and religious backgrounds, and monitored nurses’ deportment in the military hospitals. Nightingale faced many challenges with her group of nurses in the Crimea; however, she established a fully functioning and respectable nursing service and proved that female nurses could exercise authority through their work, overcome social, religious and gender biases. Godden provides insight into conditions that influenced nurses’ training at the Nightingale Training School. Despite the challenges encountered with the Nightingale School, two Nightingale-trained nurses established nursing services in Australia and Canada. Lynaugh discusses the emergence of trained nurses in the United States. Nurses, under the supervision of ladies, visited people in their homes during the war of 1812 in the United States. An experienced Nightingale School graduate nurse, Alice Fisher, collaborated to enact hospital reform at the Philadelphia Hospital in 1885, selected trained assistants to work in the hospital, and started a nurses’ training school; however, she did not use Nightingale’s model of nurse teaching and hospital discipline. In 1893, Isabel Hampton, Lavina Dock, and Florence Nightingale presented papers at a conference, each arguing 104 Book Reviews https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025727300000387 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:07, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025727300000387 https://www.cambridge.org/core different ways to train nurses and staff hospitals. American nurses did not wholeheartedly embrace two of Nightingale’s beliefs: that disease emanated from dirt, disorder, and a contaminated atmosphere; and that nurses should be evaluated on their nature and ability. American nurses separated patients with infectious diseases to prevent spread of infections, and disinfected operating rooms, maternity wards and hospital equipment. They formed self-supporting organisations and advocated for three-year training programmes with uniform nursing curricula, examinations and registration for nurses. Nightingale was against nurses’ education in universities, as nurses would lose their moral focus and character if they did not train in hospitals. McDonald explores four widely discussed assertions in the fifth paper of the book. Authors at various times asserted that: a) Nightingale was personally responsible for the high number of deaths in the Crimean War; b) Nightingale was a lifelong opponent of germ theory; c) Nightingale nursing was nothing more than housekeeping; and d) achievements of the Nightingale School were exaggerated. McDonald draws from text in Nightingale’s books and papers and other primary sources to provide insight into conditions surrounding each assertion, and counters each. Magnello describes Nightingale’s use of statistics to illustrate findings and establish the need for action. Nightingale collected and analysed data about troop strength, sickness, and deaths in India, and collected statistics about hospital conditions in the Crimea and London. Nightingale used statistics to revolutionise nursing, hospital care, and public health conditions at home and abroad, and was the first woman elected a Fellow in the Statistical Society of London, after her return from Scutari. Rafferty and Wall conclude the book by identifying Nightingale as an icon for healthcare and nursing. Nightingale recognised the importance of teamwork for the effective delivery of healthcare in hospitals and in the home. These authors then take a contrary view of Nightingale, who has lost her status as an icon, because nurses and those who work in hospitals continue to struggle with the same challenges such as infections and needless deaths. These authors urge nurses to ‘cleave a fresh path in which nurses find their inner iconoclast as the standard bearers of a new professionalism’ (p. 141) in nursing and healthcare. Elizabeth Domm, University of Saskatchewan Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, Prescribed Norms: Women and Health in Canada and the United States since 1800 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2010), pp. xx þ 316, $34.95, paperback, ISBN: 978-1-44260-061-4. Prescribed Normsby Cheryl Krasnick Warsh is an exhaustive synthesis of the secondary literature that deals with the history of women and health in North America. Drawing on a wide body of interdisciplinary work, Warsh organises her study thematically into three sections which explore separate but related issues:for example, she examines the changing social and cultural meanings of women’s biological functions; she looks at how technology and medicine have intervened in and, in some cases, taken control of women’s bodies and their knowledge of them; and she investigates the complicated lives of women who worked as nurses and doctors. Tongue-in- cheek, Warsh concludes her study with the suggestion that the mysteries of women’s bodies, which persist in spite of the efforts of some of the most pre-eminent scientists, are best explained through ‘chaos or complexity theory’ (p. 272). A theory that suggests that knowing ‘a system’ and predicting its future state is both impossible and futile. The book is divided into three parts. Part one, entitled ‘Rituals’ deals with menstruation and menopause – two life events that have received a great deal of attention. Different 105 Book Reviews https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025727300000387 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:07, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025727300000387 https://www.cambridge.org/core 
work_ffz3brtfdbdexclrnbtfmbmi2e	----	Advertising watchdog bans Kinder's online games and websites for children Watchdog the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) has upheld a complaint against confectionery firm Kinder which means the company has to stop targeting adverts to children via its Kindernauts website, Magic Kinder website, app and YouTube films. The ASA upheld a complaint submitted by campaigning organisa- tion the Children’s Food Campaign. The ruling1 by the ASA Council agreed that the sites and ‘adver- games’ had broken rules set by the Committee of Advertising Practices (CAP) on the promotion of high fat, salt or sugar (HFSS) products to children under-16. The Children’s Food Campaign said the ruling set a ground-break- ing precedent for future brand advertising and use of child-friendly cartoon characters and toys by confectionery, snacking or fast food companies, as the Kinder websites and advergames had created sub- brands which heavily featured the toys and characters associated with Kinder Surprise chocolate products. The ASA said in its ruling on Magic Kinder and Kindernauts that ‘it was not possible to purchase Kinder Surprise toys separately from Kinder Surprise chocolate and considered they were an added incentive to purchase the product over other chocolate and confectionery products. ‘We considered the toys were therefore intrinsically linked with the chocolate product and even young children would specifically associate the toys with the chocolate.’ The ASA has now instructed Ferrero, owner of the Kinder brand, to remove the advertising sites and games, and to avoid marketing directly to primary school children using child-friendly characters and promotional items such as toys. The Kindernauts website, Magic Kinder advergames and YouTube channel are no longer available in the UK. Children’s Food Campaign Co-ordinator Barbara Crowther said: ‘These web and app-based games and videos were deliberately designed to encourage children as young as three years old to collect the toys associated with Kinder chocolate. In the midst of a rising child obesity crisis, it’s about time the ASA called time on these irresponsible marketing tactics, and we’re delighted they upheld our complaint.’ Obesity Health Alliance Lead Caroline Cerny said: ‘This is yet another example of the tactics industry use to encourage children to desire and ultimately consume their products.’ Dr Max Davie, Officer for Health Promotion for the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health (RCPCH), said: ‘This is another example of food manufactures targeting impressionable children through advertising. Levels of severe obesity in children aged 10 to 11 years have reached the highest point since records began and it is these kinds of acts that contribute to these startling statistics. ‘We hope to see Government go one step further and introduce restrictions which will protect children from harmful junk food marketing online and during on-demand services too.’ A Ferrero Spokesperson said: ‘Ferrero has been working with the ASA in the UK on this issue to understand the concerns raised. Ferrero is committed to acting responsibly, which is why we aim all advertising and marketing communications for our products at adults not children. We firmly believe in parental choice and the role that parents play in choosing what is suitable for their own children. ‘Magic Kinder was designed by a team of experts as a fun and educational app for families to use together. We have clear guidelines in place that ensure that there are no food products visible or referred to throughout the app. ‘As a consequence of the ruling, Ferrero regrets that it has had to make the decision to temporarily suspend the app in the UK.’ 1. Advertising Standards Authority. ASA Ruling on Ferrero UK Ltd t/a Kinder (19 September 2018). Available at https://www.asa.org.uk/rulings/ferrero-uk-ltd-a18-410956.html (accessed 24 September 2018). Advertising watchdog bans Kinder’s online games and websites for children Would you like run the 2019 London Marathon on behalf of dentists in need? The BDA Benevolent Fund has one entry place up for grabs. For further information and to register your interest in the ballot please visit their website https://www.bdabenevolentfund.org.uk/get-i…/ london-marathon/ or get in touch via 0207 4864994. The deadline for ballot submission is 26 October 2018. Are you a keen runner? The Kindernauts website © N ur Ph ot o/ N ur Ph ot o/ G et ty 592 BRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL | VOLUME 225 NO. 7 | OCTOBER 12 2018 UPFRONT Official journal of the British Dental Association. https://www.asa.org.uk/rulings/ferrero-uk-ltd-a18-410956.html Advertising watchdog bans Kinder's online games and websites for children References 
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work_fp7serp3cjedjhvte6utx3lyo4	----	472 NEW PUBLICATIONS. [June, NEW PUBLICATIONS. I . H I G H E R M A T H E M A T I C S . A L A S ( J . M. D E L A S ) . Déterminantes. Toledo, Gomez Menor, 1905. 29 pp. P . 3.00 B A F F I (C. ) . Sulle generazioni dei complessi tetraedrali. Bologna, Cuppini, 1905. 8vo. 9 pp. B I A S I (G. ). Intorno alle trasformazioni cremoniane e ad una geometria ana- litica d i grado superiore che ne dériva. Sassari, Gallizzi, 1905. 8vo. 27 pp. B Ô C H E R (M. ) . On harmonic functions in two dimensions. 8vo. {Proceed- ings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol. X I , pp. 577-583. ) B O W S E R ( E . A . ) . Elementary treatise on the differential and integral calcu- lus, with numerous examples. 21st edition, enlarged by 640 additional examples. New York, Van Nostrand, 1906, 12mo. 450 pp. Cloth. $2.25 C A R R U S (S. ). Familles de surfaces à trajectoires orthogonales planes, (Thèse.) P a r i s , Gauthier-Villars, 1906. 4to. 93 p p . C Z U B E R ( E . ) . Vorlesungen über Differential- und Integralrechnung. Band I, 2te Half te. 2te, sorgfâltig durchgesehene Auflage. Leipzig, Teubner, 1906. 8vo. 14 + 257-560 pp. M. 6.00 H A R T W I G ( T . ) . Schule der Mathematik zum Selbstunterrichte. (Neue mathematische Unterrichtsbriefe. ) 3ter Band : Differential- und Inte- gralrechnung. Wien, Perles, 1906. 8vo. 200 pp. M. 2.50 H I L L (G. W . ) . Collected mathematical works. ( I n 4 volumes.) Vol. I I I . Washington, Carnegie Institution, 1906. 4to. 577 pp. Cloth. $2.50 N E I K I R K (L. I . ) . Groups of order pm which contain cyclic subgroups of order pm~3. {Publications of the University of Pennsylvania, Series in mathematics.) 8vo. 65 pp. $0.75 P I R O N D I N I ( G . ) . Contributo alia teoria delle s e r i e : Memoria. Parma, Rossi-Ubaldi, 1905. 8vo. 32 pp. P O M P E I U ( D . ) . Sur la continuité des fonctions de variables complexes. (Thèse.) Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1905. 4to. 53 pp. F r . 3.00 R I L L Y ( A . ) . Le problème du cavalier des échecs. Etude sur la symétrie latérale en deux chaînes fermées. Paris, Rilly, 1906. 8vo. 108 pp. S A C H S ( J . ). Projektivische (neuere) Géométrie. Nach System Kleyer bearbeitet. ( 3 T e i l e . ) Teil I I I : Pol und Polare ; Mittelpunktseigen- schaften ; Involution ; Brennpunktseigenschaften der Kurven 2ten Grades. ( Etwa 25 Hefte. ) Heft I. Bremerhaven, 1906. 8vo. M. 0.25 S I M O N ( M . ) . Analytische Geometrie der Ebene. (Sammlung Göschen, 65. ) 2te, verbesserte Auflage. Leipzig, Göschen, 1906. 8vo. 196 pp. Cloth. M. 0.80 License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 1 9 0 6 . ] NEW PUBLICATIONS. 4 7 3 T A N N E R Y ( J . ) . Leçons d'algèbre et d'analyse, à Y usage des élèves des classes de mathématiques spéciales. Tome 2. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1906. 8vo. 640 pp. F r . 12.00 ZORKTTI ( L . ) . Sur les fonctions analytiques uniformes qui possèdent u n ensemble parfait discontinu de points singuliers. (Thèse.) Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1905. 4to. 53 pp. I I . E L E M E N T A R Y M A T H E M A T I C S . A R Z E L A (C. ). Trattato di algebra elementare ad uso dei licei e degli istituti tecnici. 3a edizione, completamente rifatta. Firenze, 1906. 16mo. 1 5 + 508 pp. L, 3.50 BOTTRLET (C.) E T HuiiOT ( J . ) . Précis d'algèbre, rédigé conformément aux programmes du 27 juillet 1905. Paris, Hachette, 1906. 16mo. 507 pp, B U C K ( R . C ) . A manual of trigonometry. 3rd edition, revised and cor- rected. London, Griffin, 1906. 8vo. 124 pp. 3s. 6d. C R A C K N E L L (A. G , ) . See W O R K M A N ( W . P . ) . D I C K N E T H E R ( F . ). Lehrbuch der Arithmetik nebst Uebungsaufgaben für Mittelschulen. 2ter Teil. 2te Auflage. München, Lindauer, 1906. 8vo. 4 + 1 2 5 pp. M. 1.80 F A I F O F E R ( A . ) . Elementi di algebra ad uso della prima classe liceale. Venezia, Sorteni, 1905. 16mo. 193 pp. L. 2.00 GAZZANIGA ( P . ) . See V E R O N E S E ( G . ) . H A A S ( A. ) . Der binomische und polynomische Lehrsatz, die arithmetischen Reihen höherer Ordnung und die unendlichen Reihen. Nach System Kleyer bearbeitet. Teil I : Der binomische Lehrsatz für ganze positive Exponenten. (Etwa 27 Hefte.) Heft 1, Bremerhaven, 1905. 8vo. M. 0.25 HOLTZE, ( A. ). See K Ö S T L E R ( H . ). H U L O T ( J . ) . See BOTJRLET ( C ) , K O H L S C H Ü T T E R ( E . ). Messkarte zur Auflösung sphârischer Dreiecke. Nach Chauvenet neu herausgegeben. Berlin, 1906. M. 1.50 K Ö S T L E R ( H . ). Leitfaden der ebenen Geometrie für höhere Lehranstalten, neu herausgegeben von A. Holtze. ltes Heft : Kongruenz. 6te, teilweise umgearbeitete Auflage. Halle, Nebert, 1906, 8vo. 86 pp. M, 1.35 L A L A N D E ( J , D E ) . Tables des logarithmes. Avec additions et modifications par E. E. Neël. 10e édition. Louvain, 1905. 8vo. 210 pp. F r . 3.50 L E G E N D R E (A. M . ) . Compendio di geometria: libro di testo per le scuole tecniche conforme ai programmi governativi, ricavato dagli Elementi di A. M. Legendre per cura di G. Tolomei. Firenze, Ricci, 1905. 8vo. 179 pp. L. 1.75 L E M A I R E ( G . ) . Méthodes de résolution et de discussion des problèmes de géométrie. 2e édition. Paris, Vuibert, 1906. 8vo. 227 pp. LOMBARDO (S. G. ). Elementi di geometria per gli aspiranti alla reale scuola militare di Modena. Messina, Davî, 1906. 16mo. 101 p p . L . 1.50 License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 474 NEW PUBLICATIONS. [June, L Ü B S E N ( H . B . ) . Ausführliches Lehrbuch der Arithmetik und Algebra zum Selbstunterricht und mit Rücksicht auf die Zwecke des praktischen Lebens bearbeitet. 26te Auflage. Leipzig, Brandstetter, 1906. 8vo. 6 + 261 pp. M. 4.50 N E Ë L ( E . E. ), See L A L A N D E ( J . D E ) . P U R S E R ( F . ) . Elementary geometry based on Euclid's Elements. London, Longmans, 1906. 12mo. 2s. 6d. SASSO ( M. ) Formole della quarta e quinta potenza dei polinomi e loro appli- cazione. Avellino, Pergola, 1905. 8vo. 21 pp. S I M O N ( M . ) . Methodik der elementaren Arithmetik in Verbindung mit algebraischer Analysis. Leipzig, Teubner, 1906. 8vo. 108 pp. M. 3.20 SIMON Y M A Y O B G A ( J . ). Nociones de geometrïa, seguidas de una colección de ejercicios y problemas. Salamanca, Iglesias, 1906. 114 pp. P . 2.50 Socci ( A . ) E TOLOMEI (G.). Nozioni intuitive di geometrïa elementare: libro di testo per il ginnasio inferiore secondo i vigenti programmi. 2a impressione. Firenze, Fiorentina, 1906. 8vo. 112 pp. L. 1.00 T O L O M E I ( G . ) . See L E G E N D R E (A, M . ) , and Socci ( A . ) . V A G N I E R et V E R N A D E T . Algèbre. Paris, Delagrave, 1906. 8vo. 275 pp. V E R N A D E T , See V A G N I E R . V E R O N E S E (G. ). Elementi di geometria ad uso dei ginnasie licei e istituti tecnici, trattati con la collaborazione di P, Gazzaniga. Parte I I . 3a edizione. Padova, Prosperini, 1905. 8vo. 220 pp. L. 2.25 W E L L S ( W . ). Algebra for secondary schools. Boston, Heath, 1906. 12mo. 10 + 462 pp. Half leather. $1.20 W O R K M A N ( W . P . ) and C R A C K N E L L (A. G . ) . Preparatory course in geometry. 2nd edition. London, Clive, 1906. 8vo. 76 pp. 9d. I I I . A P P L I E D M A T H E M A T I C S . A A L S T ( J . W . V A N ) . Theoretische beschouwingen over het warmteproces in stoomturbines, petroleum- en gasmotoren en verkoelingsmachines, met korte beschrijving van enkele soorten dier machines. Helder, 1905. 8vo. 4 + 1 1 9 pp. M. 3.00 A N C E Y ( C ) . Théorie et pratique des opérations d'assurance. 2e édition, entièrement refondue et complétée. Paris, 1906. 8vo. 437 pp. F r . 7.00 A N T O M A R I ( X . ) . Cours de géométrie descriptive. 3e édition, conforme au nouveau programme de mathématiques spéciales. Paris, Vuibert, 1906. 8vo. 623 pp. BISCAN ( W . ) . Die Starkstromtechnik. (2 Bande.) Band I : Gesetze und Erzeugung der elektrischen Energie. Leipzig, 1906. 8vo. 10 4- 488 pp. M. 15.00 B R O G G I ( I L ) . Matematica attuariale. Storia statistica della mortalità. Matematica délie assicurazioni sulla vita. Milano, 1906. 8vo. 15 + 347 pp. L. 3.50 License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 1 9 0 6 , ] NEW PUBLICATIONS, 4 7 5 CAPPA (S.). Corso di meccanica applicata alle macchine. Torino, 1905. 8vo. 658 pp. L. 32.50 CliOUTH (P. M. ). Tables pour le calcul des coordonnés goniom étriqués. 3e édition, revue et corrigée. Halle, Nebert, 1906. 8vo. 8 + 201 pp. M. 7.00 . Tafeln zur Berechnung goniometrischer Coördinaten. 3te, neu bear- beitete Auflage. Halle, Nebert, 1906. 8vo. 8 + 201 pp. Cloth. M. 7.50 COLLET (J.) Compensation des figures géodésiques. Théorie et appli- cations. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1905. 8vo. 44 pp. Fr. 1.50 DARIÈS (G.). Calcul des conduites d'eau. 2e édition. Paris, Gauthier- Villars, 1905. 8vo. 192 pp. Fr. 3.00 DON ATI (L.). Lezioni di fisica mateniatica, raccolte a cura di R. Bonola e R. Viti. Bologna, 1905. 8vo. 352 pp. L. 10.00 FO'RSTER (R. VON). Ueber die Asymmetrie der Ablenkungen und ihren Zusammenhang mit der Asymmetrie der Schwingungen bei einem mag- netischen Horizontalintensitâtsvariometer. (Diss.) Marburg, 1905. 8vo. 35 pp. FROHN (C. ). Die graphische Statik. Zum Gebrauche an technischen Unterrichtsanstalten, zum Selbststudium und für die Bureaupraxis bearbeitet. Leipzig, Voigt, 1906. 8vo. 6 + 9 6 pp. M. 4.50 GOUILLY (A.). Traité de mécanique élémentaire. Bale, 1906. 8vo. 220 pp. Fr. 5.50. GÜILHAUMON (J. B.). Eléments de cosmographie et de navigation. Pré- cédés de notions de trigonométrie sphérique et d'optique. 4e édition. Nancy, 1906. 8vo. 489 pp. Fr. 8.00 HARTWICH (A.). Die magnetische Energie. (Progr.) Antwerpen, 1905. 4to. 43 pp. HAYFORD ( J. F. ). See WRIGHT (T. W. ). HUPFELD (H.). Studiën über Strömungsströme. (Diss.) Göttingen, 1905. 8vo. 47 pp. INTERMEDIATE science papers of applied mathematics. Questions set at the University of London from 1867 to 1905. London, 1906. 8vo. 68 pp. 2s. 6d. JAGER (G.). Die Fortschritte der kinetischen Gastheorie. (Sammlung naturwissenschaftlicher und mathematischer Monographien, 12tes Heft. ) Braunschweig, Vieweg, 1906. 8vo. 11 + 121 pp. M. 4.10 JAMES (E. ). Théorie et pratique de l'horlogerie à r usage des horlogers et des écoles d'horlogerie. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1906. 16mo. 6 + 228 pp. Fr. 5.00 KLAUS (A.). Ueber die Entwicklung der kinetischen Gastheorie und ihre Bedeutung für die moderne Physik. Freiburg, 1904. 8vo. 91 pp. M. 2.00 KLIMPERT (R.)« Akustik oder die Lehre vom Schall. Nach System Kleyer bearbeitet. (3 Bande. ) Band I I : Die verschiedenen Tonerre- ger. (In circa 32 Heften.) Heft 1. Bremerhaven, 1906. 8vo. M. 0.25 License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 476 NEW PUBLICATIONS. [June, 1906.] L O R E N T Z ( H . A . ) . Lehrbuch der Physik. Zum Gebrauche bei akademi- schen Vorlesungen. Nach der 4ten, von H . A. Lorentz und L . H . Sier- tsema bearbeiteten Auflage und unter Mitwirkung des Verf assers aus dem Hollândischen übersetzt von G. Siebert. 1er Band. Leipzig, Barth, 1906. 8vo. 5 + 482 pp. Cloth. M. 9.00 . Beginselen der Naturkunde. 4te druk, bewerkt door H . A. Lorentz en L . Siertsema. (2 Teile.) Leiden, 1905. 8vo. M. 17.00 . Ergebnisse und Problème der Elektronentheorie. 2te Auflage. Ber- lin, 1906. 8vo. 59 pp. M. 1.50 M A R X ( E . ) . See THOMSON ( J . J . ) . M E L L O R ( J . W . ) . Höhere Mathematik für Studierende der Chemie und Physik und verwandter Wissensgebiete. I n freier Bearbeitung der 2ten englischen Ausgabe herausgegeben von A. Wogrinz und A. Szarvassi. Berlin, Springer, 1906. 8vo. 11 + 412 pp. M. 8.00. M I E ( J . ) . Die neueren Forschungen über Ionen und Elektronen. 2te Auflage. Stuttgart, 1906. 8vo. 40 pp. M. 1.20 R I P P E R ( W . ) . Steam engine theory and practice. 4th edition, revised and enlarged. New York, Longmans, 1905. 8vo. 12 + 452 pp. $2.50 R I T T E R ( W . ) . Anwendungen der graphischen Statik. Nach C. Culmann bearbeitet. 4ter Teil ; Der Bogen. Zurich, Raustein, 1906, 8vo. 7 + 269 pp. Cloth. M. 10.60 R Ô I T I ( L . ). Nozioni di resistenza dei matériau. Torino, Streglio, 1905, 16mo. 239 pp. S I E B E R T (G.)» See L O R E N T Z ( H . A . ) . S I E R T S E M A ( L . H . ) . See L O R E N T Z ( H . A . ) . S I E V E K I N G ( H . ). Beitrâge zur Theorie der elektrischen Entladung in Gasen, Karlsruhe, 1906. 8vo. 71 pp. S O M M E R E E L D T ( E . ). Geometrische Kristallographie. Leipzig, Engelmann. 1906. 8vo. 1 0 + 1 3 9 pp. M. 7.00 S T I A T T E S I ( R . ) . . Nuove formule per la determinazione della distanza degli epicentri sismici coi dati dei sismogrammi. (Osservatorio geodinamico di Quarto. ) Firenze, Ricci, 1905. 8vo. 8 pp. SZARVASSI ( A . ) . See M E L L O R ( J . W . ) . T A P L A ( T . ) . Grundzüge der niederen Geodâsie. (3 Teile.) Teil I I I : Kartierung. Wien, 1906. 8vo. 7 + 107 p p . M. 3.50 THOMSON ( J . J . ) . Elektrizitâts-Durchgang in Gasen. Deutsche autorisierte Ausgabe unter Mitwirkung des Autors besorgt und ergânzt von E. M a r x . 2te und 3te Lieferung. Leipzig, Teubner, 1906. 8vo. P p . 217-587. Cloth. M. 19.00 W O G R I N Z ( A . ) . See M E L L O R ( J , W , ) . W R I G H T (T. W . ) . T h e adjustment of observations by the method of least squares, with applications to geodetic work. W i t h the cooperation of J . F . Hayford. 2d edition. New York, Van Nostrand, 1906. 8vo. 9 + 298 p p . Cloth. 13.50 License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 
work_fpmfzjmil5alpkh6vv3lbxpw6i	----	AMEP_A_195286 207..208 L E T T E R Medical embryology in 115 minutes – surely not? This article was published in the following Dove Press journal: Advances in Medical Education and Practice David J Wilson Cardiff University School of Medicine, Centre for Medical Education, College of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Cardiff CF14 4YS, UK Dear Editor The article by Kazzazi and Bartlett1 asked “Condensing embryology teaching for medical students: can it be taught in 2 hrs?” Their answer was “yes” – asserting that they had ‘demonstrated that is possible to design and produce an embryology teaching program that covers an undergraduate embryology curriculum in achro- nological systems-based manner in 2 hours with successful results’. This astound- ing claim warranted exploration. A more accurate title would have been an “Embryology crash course” - this was how they had publicised their lecture. Replying to a letter to the Editor from Fallaha etal,2 Kazzazi and Bartlett said their “course was not a ‘summary’ by any extent and was comprehensive and covered the full embryology curriculum in an unortho- dox didactic style in under 2 hrs”. Not accurate: it was not “systems-based” as there was no mention of urinary, reproductive or vascular systems? The critical part of this presentation was the PowerPoint™ slides - these apparently consisted of five or less bullet points, diagrams or both and the presentation also provided “information regarding congenital malformations” and that “there was little additional informa- tion to note down that was not present in the slides.” Surely impossible that this could take less than two hours? For students learning embryology, sources should be expert and information verifiable: for example, Dudek’s High-Yield Embryology3 (in 1996 was 47 pages, but now 140+ pages in the 2014 edition). Bizarrely, there was no ethical approval for this student-led educational experi- ment. The “study was independently run and subsequently endorsed through the student-run university societies.” Seemingly, neither Cambridge or Birmingham University were aware that this “original research” had been undertaken on their first-year medical students just before critical examinations, when students were at their most impressionable/vulnerable. More curiously, the authors claimed that “students were not required to provide consent to attend the course as it was part of their timetables”. If timetabled teaching, why were the universities unaware of the study and why no attribution/acknowledgement of anyone from Birmingham? Was the focus group run at only one of the two institutions? Were the critical comments on embryology teaching (attributed to the focus group), applicable to both medical courses? Important issues – not addressed in the paper. These concerns aside, the article was not scholarly. Few medical courses retain a “preclinical basic science teaching” Flexnerian model;4 modern designs favour integrated programmes, often either case- or problem-based. The paper claimed that “Although speakers in embryology appear confident in teaching the course, these results are discordant with the opinions of medical students as to the effective Correspondence: David J Wilson Cardiff University School of Medicine, Centre for Medical Education, College of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Cochrane Building, Heath Park, Cardiff CF14 4YS, UK Tel +44 292 068 8098 Email wilsondj2@cf.ac.uk Advances in Medical Education and Practice Dovepress open access to scientific and medical research Open Access Full Text Article submit your manuscript | www.dovepress.com Advances in Medical Education and Practice 2019:10 207–208 207 DovePress © 2019 Wilson. This work is published and licensed by Dove Medical Press Limited. The full terms of this license are available at https://www.dovepress.com/terms.php and incorporate the Creative Commons Attribution – Non Commercial (unported, v3.0) License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/). By accessing the work you hereby accept the Terms. Non-commercial uses of the work are permitted without any further permission from Dove Medical Press Limited, provided the work is properly attributed. For permission for commercial use of this work, please see paragraphs 4.2 and 5 of our Terms (https://www.dovepress.com/terms.php). http://doi.org/10.2147/AMEP.S195286 A d va n ce s in M e d ic a l E d u ca tio n a n d P ra ct ic e d o w n lo a d e d f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .d o ve p re ss .c o m / b y 1 2 8 .1 8 2 .8 1 .3 4 o n 0 6 -A p r- 2 0 2 1 F o r p e rs o n a l u se o n ly . Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org) 1 / 1 http://www.dovepress.com http://www.dovepress.com https://www.facebook.com/DoveMedicalPress/ https://twitter.com/dovepress https://www.linkedin.com/company/dove-medical-press https://www.youtube.com/user/dovepress http://www.dovepress.com/permissions.php delivery of the course”. To support the first assertion, a PhD thesis by Cassidy was partly cited:5 a survey of only 34 variously qualified American faculty, teaching a range of courses. Two respondents had never taught embryology but were included in the “level of confidence when teach- ing embryology” data. Significantly, students taught by this faculty would have been postgraduate, unlike most medical students in UK medical schools. The “discordance with medical student opinion” that the paper suggested, was claimed to be supported by Scott et al6 who surveyed 184 University of Sydney final-year medical students and showed “that the vast majority of students valued embry- ology teaching in their medical programme” – hardly “discordant”. A second source simply demonstrated that a team-based learning approach was better received by first-year medical students than didactic teaching.7 Similarly, Scoville et al8 did not corroborate Kazzazi and Bartlett’s assertion that “peer teaching has been utilized as a means of increasing student confidence in the under- standing of embryology” - the source was an Abstract that outlined Mayo Medical School’s approach, and ends with “Student satisfaction and utilization of near-peer and inter-professional resources will be assessed at the end of the course”. When Patel et al wrote to the Editor9 suggesting that Kazzazi and Bartlett’s evaluation of their 2 hr lecture was too subjective and that they might consider more objective evaluation methods, the response was that these would be “fraught with bias” - Kazzazi and Bartlett were clearly happy to set and then mark their own homework. Overall, instead of padding out their paper with redundant “supplementary material”, the authors should have taken a scholarly approach to their “research” – not least for the reasons given above. Disclosure The author reports no conflicts of interest in this communication. References 1. Kazzazi F, Bartlett J. Condensing embryology teaching for medical students: can it be taught in 2 hrs? Adv Med Educ Pract. 2017;8:797– 806. doi:10.2147/AMEP.S151880 2. Fallala MA, Pagarkar A, Lucas N. Medical students’ perspectives on teaching a concise embryology course. Adv Med Educ Pract. 2018;9:143–145. doi:10.2147/AMEP.S160165 3. Dudek RW. High-Yield Embryology. First ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1996. 4. Weatherall D. Science and medical education: is it time to revisit Flexner? Med Educ. 2011;45:44–50. doi:10.1111/j.1365- 2923.2010.03761.x 5. Cassidy KM Embryology in medical education: a mixed methods study and phenomenology of faculty and first year medical students. PhD thesis, Indiana University, 2016 6. Scott KM, Charles AR, Holland AJA. Clinical embryology teaching: is it relevant anymore? ANZ J Surg. 2013;83:709–712. doi:10.1111/ ans.12213 7. Shankar N, Roopa R. Evaluation of a modified team based learning method for teaching general embryology to first year medical graduate students. Indian J Med Sci. 2009;63:4–12. 8. Scoville EA, Nyauncho CP, Kumar N, Hassinger JP, Lachman N, Pawlina W. Utilizing peer, near-peer, and inter-professional teaching: a model for integrating embryology into gross anatomy curriculum. FASEB J. 2010;24(1 suppl). Available from: https://www.fasebj.org/ doi/abs/10.1096/fasebj.24.1_supplement.296.3 9. Patel CR, Maleki A, Kalkarni S. Enhancing the learning experience of embryology for medical students. Adv Med Educ Pract. 2018;9:139– 141. doi:10.2147/AMEP.S160915 Dove Medical Press encourages responsible, free and frank academic debate. The content of the Advances in Medical Education and Practice ‘letters to the editor’ section does not necessarily represent the views of Dove Medical Press, its officers, agents, employees, related entities or the Advances in Medical Education and Practice editors. While all reasonable steps have been taken to confirm the content of each letter, Dove Medical Press accepts no liability in respect of the content of any letter, nor is it responsible for the content and accuracy of any letter to the editor. 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work_fqz4sswdljgthiqkjcdswb4umy	----	Editorial New Challenges for International Archives of Otorhinolaryngology Geraldo Pereira Jotz1 1Editor-in-Chief, International Archives of Otorhinolaryngology Int Arch Otorhinolaryngol 2013;17:357. The International Archives of Otorhinolaryngology is begin- ning a new chapter in its history; starting with this issue, the journal will be published by Thieme Medical Publishers. Much as impressionism, which emerged in the late 19th century in France, became the starting point for the develop- ment of modern art that conveyed the artists’ desire to portray the moment in which a scene took place, the Inter- national Archives of Otorhinolaryngology has collaborated with Thieme to better disseminate its content, thereby pro- viding more visibility for its authors. This is an important step in the growth of the journal. The journal will maintain its subsections and will publish supplementary special issues that will accompany the main journal, the first of which will appear in July 2014. For future issues, we will be changing the system of online submission and review of the papers, which will be managed by Scholar- One (http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/iaorl). In 2014, we will continue our policy of rewarding articles in the area of meta-analysis that are published in our journal, because these studies form the basis for opinion-making regarding the most varied subjects. In this issue, among the published studies, we highlight the studies related to adenotonsillectomy, rhinoplasty, sensori- neural hearing loss, neurotology, allergy, and orofacial issues, seeking challenges, responses, and therapeutic suggestions for several disorders. Copyright © 2013 by Thieme Publicações Ltda, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil DOI http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1055/s-0033-1354576. ISSN 1809-9777. Editorial 357 http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/iaorl http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0033-1354576 http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0033-1354576 
work_ft5zmv2rp5gwff4gf7wi4qzitu	----	1047-7039/00/1103/0263/$05.00 1526-5455 electronic ISSN ORGANIZATION SCIENCE, � 2000 INFORMS Vol. 11, No. 3, May–June 2000, pp. 263–269 Balancing Act: Learning from Organizing Practices in Cultural Industries Joseph Lampel • Theresa Lant • Jamal Shamsie The Business School, University of Nottingham, Jubilee Campus, Wollaton Road, Nottingham NG8 1BB, United Kingdom, joseph.lampel@nottingham.ac.uk Management Department, Stern School of Business, New York University 44 West 4th Street, New York, New York 10012-1126, tlant@stern.nyu.edu Anderson School of Business, University of California at Los Angeles 110 Westwood Plaza, Suite D508, Los Angeles, California 90095-1481, jamal.shamsie@anderson.ucla.edu . . . . we are swiftly moving at present from an era when business was our culture into an era when culture will be our business. Marshall McLuhan Abstract The dilemmas experienced by managers in cultural industries are also to be found in a growing number of other industries where knowledge and creativity are key to sustaining compet- itive advantage. Firms that compete in cultural industries must deal with a combination of ambiguity and dynamism, both of which are intrinsic to goods that serve an aesthetic or expressive rather than a utilitarian purpose. Managers involved with the creation, production, marketing, and distribution of cultural goods must navigate tensions that arise from opposing imper- atives that result from these industry characteristics. In this pa- per we outline five polarities that are shaping organizational practices in cultural industries. First, managers must reconcile expression of artistic values with the economics of mass enter- tainment. Second, they must seek novelty that differentiates their products without making them fundamentally different in nature from others in the same category. Third, they must an- alyse and address existing demand while at the same time using their imagination to extend and transform the market. Fourth, they must balance the advantages of vertically integrating di- verse activities under one roof against the need to maintain cre- ative vitality through flexible specialization. And finally, they must build creative systems to support and market cultural prod- ucts but not allow the system to suppress individual inspiration, which is ultimately at the root of creating value in cultural in- dustries. (Cultural Goods; Art; Entertainment Industries; Creativ- ity) Movies, television, music, theatre, and visual arts belong to a category of products that has come to be known as cultural goods. Hirsch defines cultural goods as ‘‘ ‘non- material’ goods directed at a public of consumers for whom they generally serve as an aesthetic or expressive, rather than clearly utilitarian function’’ (1972, pp. 641– 642). Serving these aesthetic and expressive needs has produced a rapidly growing economic sector whose im- portance extends beyond its sheer size. Cultural industries are highly visible because they exert an extraordinary in- fluence on our values, our attitudes, and our life styles. They have long been the subject of intense public fasci- nation, a fascination that has been nurtured and reinforced by extensive media coverage. Yet in spite of their significance, cultural industries have not received much attention from management re- searchers. There are few empirical studies of cultural in- dustries to date, and even fewer that directly address the managerial and organizational issues confronting firms in these industries. The explanation for this neglect is rooted in how management scholars regard cultural industries. Managerial practices and organizational patterns that are typically observed in these industries are frequently at odds with our established views of managing organiza- tions. For the most part, attempts to fit cultural industries into our existing frameworks have therefore been stymied by anomalies. Kuhn (1970) suggests that the first response to anomalies is often to set them aside as curiosities, next to see them as interesting but irrelevant, and finally to see them as both interesting and relevant to the dominant JOSEPH LAMPEL, THERESA LANT, AND JAMAL SHAMSIE Balancing Act 264 ORGANIZATION SCIENCE /Vol. 11, No. 3, May–June 2000 paradigm. This special issue of Organization Science is based on the premise that although managerial and or- ganizational practices in the cultural industries may have seemed anomalous until recently, they are becoming in- creasingly difficult to ignore. Managers in cultural indus- tries learn to harness knowledge and creativity in order to enhance the value of the experience that is provided by their products. The dilemmas that they face are be- coming increasingly relevant to a broad cross section of managers across a wide range of industry contexts. Many other industries are gravitating towards the use of some combination of knowledge and creativity in order to generate and sustain competitive advantage. Knowl- edge, in particular technical knowledge, is regarded today as the foundation of competitive advantage. But knowl- edge without creativity can rarely meet the challenge of continuous innovation needed to sustain advantage. Be- cause firms in cultural industries have long had to deal with this challenge, their experience contains significant lessons for other industries. The lessons are not embodied in a set of directly trans- ferable prescriptions but are to be found in the way that firms in cultural industries navigate between opposing imperatives. To understand the origins of these polarities, it is necessary to examine the production and consump- tion of cultural goods more generally. We do this in the first part of the introduction. In the second part we ex- amine and discuss five polarities that are intrinsic to cul- tural industries. We use the papers in this special issue to both organize and illustrate these polarities. We conclude with the implications of the lessons gleaned from the cul- tural industries to management in other industries. Making Sense of Cultural Industries To understand cultural industries, it is necessary to begin with their key distinguishing characteristic: the nonutili- tarian nature of their goods. In most industries, it is utility that imparts definition to product features and use. More specifically, utility allows for systematic comparison of different products, and by extension, it provides a basis for the emergence of explicit and relatively stable stan- dards of quality. Cultural goods, by contrast, are experiential goods (Bjorkergren 1996, Hirsch 1972, Holbrook and Hirsch- man 1982). They derive their value from subjective ex- periences that rely heavily on using symbols in order to manipulate perception and emotion. The impact of adding background music to film points to how subtle changes in cultural products can shift the resulting experience. On the face of it, the image on the screen should dominate the viewing experience. However, as filmmakers and moviegoers know all too well, the choice of sound track can fundamentally alter the viewing experience, often in ways that are difficult to predict or explain. The unpredictability of such a subjective experience makes it extremely difficult to identify and establish clear standards of quality (Bjorkergren 1996, Holbrook and Hirschman 1982, Lewis 1990, Turow 1984). Even when there is widespread agreement about the high (or for that matter low) quality of cultural products, the consensus belies deep disagreements as to why this is the case. Basic notions of quality tend to remain contestable in cultural industries. Whereas in industries where goods are utili- tarian, producers usually develop a consensus on specific and often measurable standards of quality, in cultural in- dustries standards represent abstract ideals rather than specific product attributes. For example, consumers may espouse the importance of ‘‘originality’’ in art or in mu- sic, but attach fundamentally different meaning to the term. Opinions about quality can diverge so strongly that producers find it hard to figure out why some products do well while others do not. This is not only the case before consumers make their purchase decisions, but also afterwards. Ultimately, understanding why products suc- ceed or fail is forever in the realm of educated conjecture. This is rarely due to the lack of data—plenty of data are usually available—but because the data is susceptible to multiple and contradictory interpretations. Taken as a whole, these contradictory interpretations produce ambi- guity that impacts on the ability of managers to make well-informed decisions. When trying to make some sense of why consumers of cultural products make the choices they do, managers are more likely to rely on their insight into the subjective experience of consumers. What results is more a process of interpretative enactment rather than systematic or ra- tional analysis. For instance, producers of cultural goods know that consumers look for products that can be counted on to entertain, stimulate, and provoke reflection. Trying to satisfy the consumer on these dimensions can pose a tremendous challenge. However, producers also know that cultural products are more likely to find market success when they blend familiar and novel elements. Consumers need familiarity to understand what they are offered, but they need novelty to enjoy it. Finding a successful synthesis of these two opposing elements depends more on art than technique, more on insight than professional judgment. Organiza- tions in cultural industries expend considerable resources searching for formulas that can accomplish this goal, but generally find it to be elusive. Tastes are unstable, and JOSEPH LAMPEL, THERESA LANT, AND JAMAL SHAMSIE Balancing Act ORGANIZATION SCIENCE /Vol. 11, No. 3, May–June 2000 265 what is more, what is novel and popular in one period becomes familiar and usually staid subsequently. It is hard to find experts in the cultural industries in the conventional sense of that term. There are no recognized specialists such as engineers or analysts who can take products apart and point to problems when they arise. Codified knowledge can be useful to tackle problems, but ultimately it is of limited value. Tacit knowledge is more important in cultural industries, and talent, creativity, and innovation are the resources that are crucial to success (Jones and DeFillipi 1996, Miller and Shamsie 1996). But these are amorphous resources: They cannot be clearly defined, they emerge from unexpected sources, and they lose their value for reasons that are not entirely under- stood. Much of the strategy of firms in the cultural industries is therefore oriented towards finding, developing, and maintaining control over these resources. For instance, most record companies have Artist and Repertoire (A&R) units whose main task is to find and develop new artists (Wilson 1987). The major Hollywood studios have in place systems for screening and evaluating thousands of new movie scripts each year for the few promising ones that are selected for production (Kent 1991). Publishers have departments whose sole task is to bring authors to the attention of the reading public by orchestrating per- sonal appearances with other promotion and marketing efforts (Coser et al. 1982). Consequently, the long-term survival of firms in cul- tural industries depends heavily on replenishing their cre- ative resources. However, because the processes that gen- erate them are poorly understood, there is considerable uncertainty not only about how to detect them, but also on how to replicate and use them. Managerial practices such as professional training and apprenticeship that are useful in other industries are largely ineffective in cultural industries. What is more, resources that have proven valu- able are usually embedded in individuals and groups over which the corporation has limited control (Stearns et al. 1987, Saundry 1998, Robins 1993). Managing creative resources is therefore one of the key challenges confronting organizations in cultural indus- tries. To meet this challenge, organizations in the cultural industries have to recruit and motivate individuals who seem to possess the insight and intuitive understanding of how creative resources can be discovered and nourished. Their competitive advantage depends on finding these in- dividuals, and also on developing structures which lev- erage creative resources without at the same time stifling them. To recapitulate our main points, producers in the cul- tural industries are confronted with two problems: de- mand patterns that are highly unpredictable and produc- tion processes that are difficult to monitor and control. The evolution of cultural industries is driven by attempts to deal with these problems by constant shifts in mana- gerial practices and organizational forms. On the demand side, firms try to shape consumer preferences by expend- ing large-scale resources on new methods of distribution, marketing, and promotion. However, shaping consumer tastes is always difficult, and in the case of the cultural industries it is made even more difficult by the fact that tastes are part of a wider social and cultural matrix over which firms have little or no control. On the supply side, firms seek to develop new ways of uncovering and man- aging creative inputs. However, creativity comes from individuals whose talents and inputs can be organized and controlled only up to a point. The successful management of creative resources in the cultural industries depends on finding this point, on striking a balance between the im- peratives of creative freedom and commercial impera- tives. Navigating Within a Cultural Context In his examination of cultural industries, Hirsch (1972) suggests that the emergence of such opposing imperatives is characteristic of cultural industries in general. Cultural industries, he argues, are systems of organizations that mediate the flow of cultural goods between producers and consumers. To survive, organizations in cultural indus- tries must reconcile the demands of artistic production with those of the marketplace. These two areas are not only different in character, but are often in opposition— each is shaped by different needs, and each is judged by different criteria. The strategies that evolve as a result reflect the opposing pressures exerted at each end of the value chain. To understand cultural industries it is there- fore important to understand the polarities that shape the choices available to organizations in these industries. Our reading of the papers submitted for this special issue sug- gests that there are in effect five polar opposites that de- fine the field of action within which organizations in cul- tural industries operate. Artistic Values Versus Mass Entertainment Cultural industries combine two realms of human expe- rience. All societies produce culture as a form of individ- ual and collective expression of basic ideas and aspira- tions, but the artistic value of cultural products must be balanced against its entertainment value. It is through their entertainment value that cultural products attract the audiences that can support them. Combining these two JOSEPH LAMPEL, THERESA LANT, AND JAMAL SHAMSIE Balancing Act 266 ORGANIZATION SCIENCE /Vol. 11, No. 3, May–June 2000 realms of art and entertainment is a source of continuing tension in cultural industries. Cultural industries strive to remain loyal to artistic values, but they must also deal with market economics. The question that persistently confronts organizations in cultural industries is: Which one of these imperatives should drive decision making? Should the values of art dominate with mass entertain- ment as secondary, or should the organization use culture to pursue the goal of entertainment? Glynn’s paper addresses this issue by examining the tensions between artistic values and commercial imper- atives that are at work in the Atlanta Symphony Orches- tra. On one side we have members of the orchestra who are passionately committed to ideals of classical music, while on the other we have members of the board who wish to make classical music more popular and more ac- cessible to the public. She suggests that these tensions cannot be easily resolved. At best, a balance is struck. When the balance is toppled by crisis, each side cham- pions its own values, inevitably producing an open con- flict between art and entertainment. Ultimately neither can prevail without destroying the identity of the orga- nization as a symphonic orchestra; coexistence is the only option. While in Glynn’s case study the polarization between art and entertainment is sharply delineated, in many other organizations the relationship is multidimensional and hence more complex. In the nonprofit theatre industry studied by Voss et al., there are both competing and over- lapping values. Organizations must balance and, when possible, reconcile these values in line with relationships with key constituencies. The analysis by Voss et al. sug- gests that five distinct values are at work in this sector. There are the artistic values of the theatre’s own mem- bers, the artistic values of the larger community, and be- yond that the value of achieving a national reputation. In conjunction with these values, there are also values that are more congruent with commercial success: the value of financial performance, and the value of market success, measured by the ability to select plays which have the widest audience appeal. Product Differentiation Versus Market Innovation Competition in cultural industries is driven by a search for novelty. However, while consumers expect novelty in their cultural goods, they also want novelty to be acces- sible and familiar. This contradiction puts producers of cultural products in the middle of two opposing pressures. On the one hand, producers are pushed to seek novelty that differentiates products without making them funda- mentally different from others in the same category. This novelty represents a recombination of existing elements and styles that differentiates, but does not break existing artistic and aesthetic conventions. On the other hand, there is the push to pursue innovation beyond existing limits. This type of novelty breaks new ground, often re- sults in new types of cultural products, and may expand or fundamentally change the market. Mezias and Mezias examine the balance between prod- uct differentiation and market innovation in the early mo- tion picture industry. They focus their attention on the introduction of new movie genres as critical innovative events. New genres represent new types of products, but at the same time the novelty of a new genre is derived from a recombination of existing styles and plot lines. By catering to new customer groups, the introduction of each new genre is expected to lead to an expansion of the over- all market. However, new genres are evaluated by essen- tially the same criteria used to evaluate existing genres. Genre creation, as Mezias and Mezias show, could more easily be regarded as a form of product differentiation than as a form of market innovation. The paper by Wijnberg and Gemser addresses the ten- sion between differentiation and innovation in a com- pletely different arena. They examine the emergence of modern art, and in particular the rise of Impressionism in France towards the end of the nineteenth century. Prior to Impressionism, art was valued using a number of cri- teria, of which innovation was only one. Artists sought to differentiate their work from that of peers, but at the same time they sought to maintain continuity with their predecessors. Impressionism made a decisive break with established styles and traditions in the visual arts. In so doing, the Impressionists reshaped the foundations of modern art, turning the innovativeness of a work of art into the dominant criterion by which its value is judged. Demand Analysis Versus Market Construction There is a longstanding dispute in the cultural industries between those who see cultural goods as an expression of consumers’ needs and desires, and those who argue that what consumers want is almost entirely shaped by the imagination and creativity of the producers. The de- bate corresponds to fundamentally different views of why some cultural goods become successful while others do not. Thus, cultural goods may become successful because they deliberately or accidentally tap preexisting consumer preferences, or cultural goods may become successful be- cause they shape tastes to suit their own production—in effect, they create the standards by which they are judged, and then deliver an experience which meets these stan- dards. In most cultural industries, long periods of stability of- ten lead managers to opt for the first choice, in effect, to JOSEPH LAMPEL, THERESA LANT, AND JAMAL SHAMSIE Balancing Act ORGANIZATION SCIENCE /Vol. 11, No. 3, May–June 2000 267 treat cultural goods as fundamentally no different than other goods. Anand and Peterson’s study of the recorded music industry demonstrates the risks involved in making this assumption. They show how a change in the way that the industry collected and analyzed information on con- sumer purchasing patterns produced a dramatic shift in the interpretation of market structure. What was once per- ceived as an ‘‘objective’’ picture of the market is revealed to be an artifact of the methods the industry used to con- struct that picture in the first place. What Anand and Pe- terson’s study suggests is that the process of reading the market cannot always be distinguished from the process firms use to construct it. The mirror held to the market is of the industry’s own making. Because it is designed with certain assumptions in mind, the resulting image will re- flect these assumptions as much as it does consumer pref- erences. The paper by Wijenberg and Gemser also speaks to this issue. It focuses specifically on the methods that produc- ers can employ to change the criteria used to construct the market in the first place. They point out that works of art are not valued independently of the context in which they are produced, but derive their value from the set of institutions in which art is promoted and exhibited. Insti- tutions invest heavily in criteria that add to their authority as arbiters of tastes. Their influence shapes the processes whereby works of art are selected for public attention or are consigned to obscurity. Wijenberg and Gemser argue that the rise of Impressionism reinforced a transition that was already underway from the old system of peer selec- tion towards a new system of expert selection. Key to this transition was the revaluation of the importance of in- novation in art. In effect, the Impressionists, in collusion with their allies, reshaped public tastes and also how the art market reads the tastes of its consumers. Their revo- lution was therefore not only aesthetic, but institutional as well. Vertical Integration Versus Flexible Specialization In cultural industries, as in many other industries, orga- nizations often look for gains by trying to exert greater control over both the creation and the delivery of their products. This has invariably led to a drive to integrate all aspects of the value chain under a single corporate umbrella. However, the coordination and scale advan- tages of integration have to be balanced against their po- tential disadvantages. A highly integrated firm would tend to reduce the creative freedom of its different units by pushing for greater coordination. Firms in the cultural industries thus need to balance this need for integration by some attempts at specialization. To the extent that a firm is able to specialize, it is able to use its greater focus both to reduce overhead and to increase creative flexibil- ity. Specialization allows the organization to concentrate on those activities that are most consistent with its par- ticular role in the production and distribution of cultural goods, while leaving the rest to other organizations. In their paper on the motion picture industry, Mezias and Mezias demonstrate that firms can either choose to draw heavily on advantages from integration or to rely more on advantages from specialization. They show that the specialist feature producers and distributors were more likely to create new genres than the integrated stu- dios that populated the core of the industry. However, the integrated studios benefited from this practice because the distribution of these films allowed them to expand their product mix. Mezias and Mezias therefore suggest that, in spite of the imbalance between risks and returns, the two types of firms develop a symbiotic relationship that is mutually beneficial to both. From an ecological per- spective, the innovative moves of specialist firms could be contrasted with the resources of the integrated studios to increase their chances of success. The paper by Starkey, Barnatt, and Tempest deals with the balance between integrated broadcasters and special- ized suppliers in the U.K. television industry. Their study shows that as broadcasters moved away from full inte- gration of production and broadcasting, they have come to rely on networks of external specialists. The flexibility provided by these specialists has allowed broadcasters to reduce their overhead costs with no appreciable effect on the quality of programs. This has been achieved by the creation of what Starkey, Barnatt, and Tempest call ‘‘la- tent organizations.’’ These represent informal social structures that can allow a broadcaster to draw upon ex- ternal specialists for its programming needs on an inter- mittent basis. The virtue of such latent structures is that they can provide the means whereby a network of spe- cialists that have previously worked together can use their high degree of mutual knowledge and trust to efficiently reconstitute the network. Individual Inspiration Versus Creative Systems There is a persistent debate in cultural industries about the true source of creative value. Is it the individual who is the pivotal element in the value chain, or is it the system as a whole that produces the critical ingredients of suc- cessful cultural products? The debate has important re- percussions. If the individual is the pivotal element in the creation of value, then the key to success is finding or developing these individuals. If on the other hand it is the system, then less emphasis should be put on individuals, and more on developing structures, processes, and cul- tures that produce successful cultural products. In many JOSEPH LAMPEL, THERESA LANT, AND JAMAL SHAMSIE Balancing Act 268 ORGANIZATION SCIENCE /Vol. 11, No. 3, May–June 2000 cultural industries one finds examples of organizations that have put their faith primarily in individuals or sys- tems. More often, however, organizations try to combine the best of both. The study of global media firms by Eisenmann and Bower shows how the balance between the individual and the system can, under certain conditions, swing sharply towards the individual. They argue that in environments where technologies and markets are rapidly converging, a decentralized system of decision making is too slow to spot and take advantage of emerging opportunities. The media firms that are able to achieve both economies of scale and scope are usually led by CEOs with entrepre- neurial vision and drive. These CEOs make the critical strategic decisions, but then hand over operations to busi- ness units that have the requisite knowledge to take ad- vantage of the new opportunities. In this fashion, growth and integration are achieved without sacrificing speed. A mutually reinforcing relationship between the individual CEO and the system emerges that combines the strength of both centralized and collective decision making. Starkey, Barnatt, and Tempest’s paper on the U.K. tele- vision broadcasting industry illustrates how firms handle the tensions between individuals and systems. In their study, broadcasters rely on a system of external special- ists. The continuity of the system is sustained by latent organizations, but these latent organizations rely heavily on key brokers. The broker’s creativity and relational tal- ents are indispensable for gaining lucrative programming commissions, but these commissions are difficult to exe- cute without the creative talents embedded in the latent organizations. The individual and the network therefore reinforce each other’s position, and at the end of the day it is difficult to separate the contribution of one from the other. Conclusions Our purpose in this special issue is twofold: First, to in- vestigate management practices and organizational forms in cultural industries; and second, to see what lessons can be drawn that apply to other industries. Cultural industries are clearly different from most other industries: Their products evoke intensely private experiences, and they tap values and aspirations that are neither utilitarian nor commercial. For the most part they bank on the successful use of creativity, which is a resource that ultimately can- not be controlled. While these characteristics are to a large extent unique to cultural industries, they give rise to environmental conditions—in particular, high levels of ambiguity and dynamism—which are increasingly com- mon in other industries. Hirsch (1972) argued that the high levels of ambiguity and dynamism that exist in cultural industries force man- agers to constantly seek new models for managing their operations. This is very much the case in a wide range of industries today. Managers are finding that high levels of ambiguity and dynamism call established structures and practices into question on a regular basis. Persistent un- certainty gives rise to debates about future direction— debates that are often animated by the assumption that a dominant business paradigm is bound to emerge once change slows down. The papers that make up this special issue suggest that cultural industries have experienced high levels of dy- namism and ambiguity for long periods of time without developing dominant business paradigms. Instead, orga- nizations in cultural industries have learned to contend with various opposing polarities: artistic values versus mass entertainment, product differentiation versus market innovation, demand analysis versus market construction, vertical integration versus flexible specialization, and in- dividual inspiration versus creative systems. Polarities usually give rise to debates, and this case is no exception. For researchers, debates are often a call to action, an incentive to marshal evidence supporting one side in order to refute the other. However, what the papers from this issue suggest is that neither side in these debates is entirely right or wrong. When it comes to the practical business of creating and selling cultural goods, firms must proceed with both polarities in mind. For example, if firms pursue the goal of mass entertainment they should not lose sight of artistic values. If artistic values dominate, commercial survival dictates that market realities cannot be ignored indefinitely. If firms are intent on creating new genres or new categories of cultural goods, they must bear in mind that most products in cultural industries succeed by differentiating rather than by being revolutionary. And similarly, if they pursue a strategy of marginal product differentiation, me-too products with a minor difference, they should be aware that in the long run they could lose to strategies that introduce truly innovative products. By the same token, firms must analyze the market in order to understand what their consumers are likely to respond to, but they must also try to influence consumers by encouraging interest in attributes in which their prod- ucts enjoy an advantage. Analyzing the market accurately ensures that producers can effectively communicate with their consumers; shaping tastes allows producers to con- struct the market along lines that increase the value of their products. Similarly, new technologies may help to turn flexible specialization into a reality, but this does not vitiate the potential advantages of vertical integration. JOSEPH LAMPEL, THERESA LANT, AND JAMAL SHAMSIE Balancing Act ORGANIZATION SCIENCE /Vol. 11, No. 3, May–June 2000 269 Large media conglomerates may be able to leverage syn- ergies across their business units, but if they attempt to pursue this too far they are likely to stifle the very crea- tivity on which they depend. Finally when we turn to the last polarity, individual inspiration versus creative systems, we encounter one of the longest and most vociferous debates in the cultural industries. Individual inspiration is often championed be- cause it is easier to identify (even when it is not so easy to understand), but without the support of a creative sys- tem it is unlikely to be fully exploited. Creative systems often seem more reliable—and hence are always a tempt- ing way of eliminating dependence on creative individ- uals—but without the inspiration of creative individuals output often degenerates into a poor imitation of past suc- cess. Above all, this special issue shows that seeking to strike a balance between opposing polarities usually leads to the combination and extension of existing models rather than to the development of totally innovative ap- proaches. This lesson may contain what is ultimately the truly crucial insight that cultural industries can impart to other industries where environmental conditions are simi- lar but the polarities at play are fundamentally different: The choices facing organizations are often the result of contrary imperatives. It is important to understand how these imperatives play against each other. Using this un- derstanding, organizations can decide which practices should be modified and which should be discarded, which organizational forms are still viable, and which should be abandoned in favor of completely new ones. References Bjorkrgren, D. 1996. The Culture Business. Routledge, London, U.K. Coser, L. A., C. A. Kadushin, W. Powell. 1982. Books—The Culture and Commerce of Publishing. University of Chicago Press, Chi- cago, IL. Hirsch, P. 1972. Processing fads and fashions: An organization-set analysis of cultural industry system. Amer. J. Soc. 77 (4) 639– 659. Holbrook, M. B., E. C. Hirschman. 1982. The experiential aspects of consumption: Consumer fantasies, feelings, and fun. J. Consumer Res. 9 (9) 132–140. Jones, C., R. J. DeFillippi. 1996. Back to the future in film: Combining industry and self-knowledge to meet the career challenges of the 21st century. Acad. Management Executive 10 (4) 89–103. Kent, N. 1991. Naked Hollywood. BBC Books, London, U.K. Kuhn, T. 1970. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd ed. Uni- versity of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. Lewis, J. 1990. Art, Culture, and Enterprise. Routledge, London, U.K. Miller, D., J. Shamsie. 1996. The resource based view of the firm in two environments: The Hollywood film studios from 1936 to 1965. Acad. Management J. 39 519–543. Robins, J. A. 1993. Organization as strategy: Restructuring production in the film industry. Strategic Management J. 14 103–118. Sanderson, G., F. Macdonald, eds. 1989. Marshall MacLuhan: The Man and His Message. Fulcrum, Golden, CO. Saundry, R. 1998. The limits of flexibility: The case of U.K. television. British J. Management 9 151–162. Stearns, T. M., A. N. Hoffman, J. B. Heide. 1987. Performance of commercial television stations as an outcome of interorganiza- tional linkages and environmental conditions. Acad. Manage- ment J. 30 71–90. Turow, J. 1984. Media Industries. Longman, New York. Wilson, M. 1987. How to Make it in the Rock Business. Columbus Books, London, U.K. 
work_ftlmirxwz5a3fmuaulahwuhq34	----	games:science:science_magazine_1895-1919:root:data:science_1895-1919:pdf:1911_v033_n847:p0847_0455.pdf [Ganino] GANINO User Tools Register Log In Site Tools Search Tools Show pagesource Old revisions Backlinks Recent Changes Media Manager Sitemap Register Log In > Recent Changes Media Manager Sitemap Trace: games:science:science_magazine_1895-1919:root:data:science_1895-1919:pdf:1911_v033_n847:p0847_0455.pdf This topic does not exist yet You've followed a link to a topic that doesn't exist yet. If permissions allow, you may create it by clicking on Create this page. Page Tools Show pagesource Old revisions Backlinks Back to top 
work_fvmpchbgb5cgbajhlob2tuzhhi	----	1 A call of duty in hard times. Duty to vote and the Spanish Economic Crisis Carol Galais (carolgalais@gmail.com), Université de Montréal. André Blais (andre.blais@umontrea.ca), Université de Montréal. Abstract Does civic duty to vote fluctuate over time? Is it affected by changing individual economic conditions and/or by perceptions of the economy? The paper contributes to the literature on the effects of the global financial crisis on political attitudes by focusing on duty to vote, a central element of the democratic culture. We examine, through a four-wave panel survey, the effects of the Spanish economic crisis on feelings of civic duty. We empirically test the assumption of early formation and resistance to change, and then determine whether or not an economic crisis can, in addition to weakening support for authorities and institutions, erode citizens’ sense of civic duty. We find that civic duty to vote did not decrease during the economic crisis and that it was quite stable at the individual level, though more so for middle-aged adults than for younger citizens. For individuals under 30 years of age we find a positive association between changes in income and changes in duty, that points to some negative effects of the crisis on their levels of civic duty. Contrarily, middle-aged adults were not affected at all by changes in their personal work situation or evaluations of the economic situation. 1. Introduction Civic duty is the missing link of the rational choice equation for turnout, the attitudinal element that is able to predict if people will show up at polls even if the costs of voting exceed the benefits (Blais 2000). Besides being a predictor of turnout of utmost relevance, it is also an attitude related to citizenship norms, political system legitimacy, support and engagement. It is therefore believed to be deeply rooted in early socialization and not to change much over the life span. Yet, a growing concern about the effects of the Great Recession points to possible deep changes in the political culture (Vaiman et al. 2010, Stevenson and Wolfers 2011, Chippendale 2012). In many western countries the Great Recession has triggered a debt crisis followed by austerity measures in which citizens had no say (Armingeon and Baccaro 2012). As a consequence, several political attitudes, such as trust in democratic institutions, are believed to have endured serious damage (Armingeon & Guthmann 2012). These effects could run deeper in new or consolidating democracies, where support for representative democracy or trust in elections could be threatened (Córdova & Seligson 2009). It is therefore worthy to look at the possible effect of the economic crisis on an attitude that is directly related to the decision to participate or not in elections and indirectly to the very legitimacy of the political system. When people view voting not only as a right but also as a moral obligation towards the community, they implicitly acknowledge that they are a member of that society and that there are duties as well as rights associated with such membership. The question is whether people are less inclined to think in those terms when the economic situation takes a sharp downturn. 2 In order to explore the effects of the economic crisis on this attitude we are using data coming from Spain. This is one of the European countries hardest hit by the debt crisis. The economic situation that the country is suffering since 2008 has affected the lifestyles of many families, and probably also the way in which citizens perceive the state and politicians. It is still to be seen if the economic crisis has also undermined the psychological basis of political engagement and some of the foundations of the political system legitimacy such as the civic duty to vote. For these purposes, we are using panel survey data that allow us to track changes in Spaniards’ duty to vote over a period of a year and a half (November 2010-May 2012) when major cutbacks and austerity measures were implemented. The present paper addresses four questions. First, does civic duty to vote vary over time at the aggregate and/ or at the individual level? Second, do changes in one’s economic situation affect civic duty to vote? Third, do individuals’ perceptions of the economy have an effect on this attitude? Fourth, and last, is the evolution of this attitude related to other factors such as the individual’s age or the political context? To address these questions, we first review the literature on the stability of attitudes belonging to the attitudinal dimensions of legitimacy and political support. We also examine previous work on the role of contextual factors, particularly the economy- in the evolution of such orientations, as well as previous work on the relationship between age and contextual effects. Next, we present the research design and the data, along with the models used to estimate change in the duty to vote. We then present the empirical evidence. After some descriptive analyses we run a fixed-effects panel model to estimate the impact of objective and subjective economic conditions on individuals’ feelings of civic duty during the economic crisis. 2. Attitude change, civic duty and the economy Studies in political behavior and political culture have traditionally observed attitudinal change with suspicion since Converse (1964) raised the possibility that survey answers could be random, as not every individual develops opinions on every political object. Under this perspective, changing attitudes could indicate uncertainty or even the absence of attitudes. But, as many methodologists have demonstrated, attitude instability may also be due to poor measurement instruments that introduce measurement error (Achen 1975, Erikson 1979; Alwin & Krosnick 1991; Heath, Evans and Martin 1994). Does this means that genuine attitude change does not exist? Not at all. There has been overwhelming and stubborn evidence of attitude change, and more specifically of the influence of context on political orientations. Among those contextual factors able to trigger attitudinal change one clearly stands out: the economy. Indeed, the link between the political culture and the economy has been a fruitful subject in Comparative Politics. Modernization theory, for instance, posits that prosperous economic conditions trigger improvements in socio-economic conditions, which in turn pave the way for a cultural change consistent with Democracy (Lipset 1959, Deutsch 1961, Burkhart and Lewis-Beck 1994). Building on this idea, Inglehart formulated his theory of cultural change (1997). According to Inglehart, western societies evolved from traditional to modern culture as a consequence of the industrial revolution, and from modern to post-modern during the 60s as a consequence of sustained well-being, as growing up in prosperity stimulates the adoption of post-materialist values. Such reasoning could apply as well to the civic duty to vote: when basic needs are fulfilled, it is possible for people to pay attention to the social norms that are beneficial for the larger community. 3 However, the influence of the economy on political culture is not in a single direction, since economic success is not irreversible. Indeed, the economy can deteriorate and this can foster authoritarianism (Duckitt and Fisher 2003) or intolerance towards immigrants (Kessler y Freeman 2005, Rink et al. 2009, Armingeon and Baccaro 2012). The role of economic downturns has been recently revisited in the light of the 2007 Great Recession (Vaiman et al. 2010, Chippendale 2012). Stevenson and Wolfers (2011), for instance, point out that this particular crisis has undermined trust in public institutions in different countries. Armingeon and Guthmann (2012) show a relationship between negative perceptions of the economic crisis and a decrease of trust in parliaments. These detrimental effects could be larger in consolidating democracies, going as far as damaging citizens’ trust in elections or support for representative democracy (Córdova & Seligson 2009). The question to be examined is whether the economic crisis has similar negative effects on duty to vote as on those aforementioned attitudinal dimensions. In this respect, two theories may help filling the gap between macro-economic factors and individual attitudes related to democracy: the socio- cultural and the institutional performance models (Newton & Norris 2000). The first emphasizes the role of individual life situations and experiences in shaping civic mindedness and other attitudes consistent with democracy. When referring to the effects of economy, personal experience means mostly labor market transitions (i.e. entering the labor market, becoming unemployed, a change in the labor status…). These situations promote attitudinal change by altering individuals’ social networks and economic interests, defining their new role and even triggering the transition to adulthood and, thus, the internalization of social norms (Marini 1987, Scott 1995, Shanahan 2000). With regard to civic duty, a worsening in individual’s economic and working conditions may induce citizens to focus on their own personal interests rather than those of the community, weakening the social norm that voting is a duty. An economic crisis may also alter the normal sequence of events in the life cycle - first job, improved purchasing power, having children, owning a home…- delaying or hampering the transition to adulthood and the new interests in the polity that come with it. On the other hand, the institutional performance model suggests that perceptions of economic and political conditions are the link between macro factors and citizens’ orientations (Almond and Verba 1963, Weatherford 1992), connecting institutional performance and political legitimacy. For instance, Štulhofer (2002) brings forth that social changes stemming from an economic crisis affect evaluations of economic, political and social conditions, which in turn affect dominant values and foster cynicism and opportunism. From this perspective, a worsening of the economy would adversely affect duty to vote as a consequence of disapointment with the performance of the system. Thus, our general expectation is that a worsening of the economy could erode individuals’ civic duty to vote. Yet we think it is necessary to control for two elements when it comes to understanding how the economy may bring forth attitudinal change: the political context and the susceptibility of attitude change due to age. Concerning the political context, it makes sense to think that some citizens will “refresh” or update their sense of duty as an election approaches, as they do with respect to confidence in democracy and political institutions, at the time of elections (Franklin 2004, Bowler & Donovan 2002). Actually, some attitudes refering to the system as a whole have been found to react more to to political factors such as electoral processes than to economic conditions (Evans and Whitefield 1995, Bratton and Mattes 2001). It may well be, for instance, that the presence of an election will more than offset the negative effect of the economic crisis. 4 Another element that must be taken into account is age susceptibility to attitudinal change. Indeed, the socializing effects of context, including those due to elections or the economic crisis, may not be homogenous for all ages. Franklin, for instance, argues that the electoral context has a greater effect on younger citizens (2004). Between the "lifelong openness" hypothesis -which considers attitudinal change to occur across the whole life cycle- and the "persistence" hypothesis -according to which most fundamental political attitudes are early formed and reluctant to change-, there are hypotheses that condition the likelihood of attitudinal change to age to a greater or lesser extent. The first perspective is the "increasing persistence" theory, which considers attitudinal change quite likely In early adulthood, followed by gradual resistance to change as the individual gets old (Glenn 1974, Berelson, Lazarsfeld, & McPhee 1954; Newcomb, Koenig, Hacks, & Warwick 1967). The “impressionable years” hypothesis suggests that the individual is open to external influence as long as this takes place between adolescence and early adulthood, when the role of the individual in society begins to be defined. The attitudes originated during this period would be pretty stable for the rest of the individual's life (Mannheim, 1952; Sears 1975, Markus 1986, Alwin and Krosnick 1991). Finally, the theory of symbolic politics makes attitudinal change across life dependent on the nature of the attitudes. Those orientations developed on an affective basis dealing with diffuse political symbols would stand out for their early formation and stability. In other words, symbolic attitudes would behave according with the “persistence” theory, displaying great stability over the life cycle (Glenn 1980, Sears and Funk 1999). The idea that there is a group of “stable” attitudes –symbolic, normative, affective and early formed- and a group of “volatile” attitudes -fundamentally evaluative and likely to be sensitive to context-, is widely accepted (Klapper 1960, Sears 1975, Edwards 1990, Crano & Alvaro 1997, Fabrigar & Petty 1999, Ajzen 2001, Goren 2005). Civic duty to vote would belong to the first group, as it has been described as a moral attitude towards the democratic regime, analogous to the Political Regime’s legitimacy (Fuch 1993). Similarly, Weatherford considers the civic duty to vote an element of political involvement, which belongs to the citizenship traits of political legitimacy (1992:154). Civic duty can also be understood as the belief that the good citizen should vote in a democracy and that it is thus a moral obligation to participate at least minimally in the electoral process (Blais 2000, Blais and Achen 2012). Therefore, the belief that voting is a duty is transmitted trough primary socialization along with a set of basic attitudes and values (Schwartz 1994, 2005). As a normative attitude, it is shaped by socialization agencies that operate in early stages of life, such as the family or the school (Jennings, Stoker and Bowers 2009, van Deth et al 2011). According to these hypotheses, the economic crisis would have not played any role at all in the evolution of the civic duty to vote among Spaniards (persistence hypothesis, symbolic politics), may trigger some change across the whole population (lifelong openness), more change among youngsters than among the older (increasing persistence) or change only among those who happen to be in their impressionable years. As a crisis of this magnitude is likely to have altered people’s expectations with regard the labor market as well as how they see themselves in society and the responsibilities they have as citizens, we would argue that, if bad economic conditions or perceptions undermine civic duty, the impact should be felt first and foremost among those in their impressionable years. It should be at this time, when individuals become entitled to new rights and responsibilities, that they start paying more attention to public issues, and that perceptions of the economic and political context shape present and future attitudes (Boninger, Krosnick, & Berent 1995). 5 3. The Spanish economic recession and duty to vote. In order to ascertain the effects of the economic crisis we need longitudinal data that tap the deterioration of macroeconomic factors as well as the electoral climate. For these reasons, we selected Spain as a case study. Spain is a relatively young democracy whose system legitimacy may still be under construction, therefore sensitive to major economic changes. Spain, as other Southern European countries, has been severly hit by the Great Recession, still suffering its consequences. A quick outline of the Spanish economic crisis takes us back to 2008, when the explosion of the real estate bubble made housing prices collapse. This suddenly stopped the housing construction, sending thousands of people working directly or indirectly in the construction industry to unemployment. The public sector has not done any better. 185,000 public jobs have been eliminated between January 2010 and July 2012 by means of retirements that have not been replaced. 1 Most of the cuts have been made in local administrations, and only in 2010 Spanish city councils reduced the number of their public employees by between 1% and 5%. As a result, unemployment rates jumped from 8 % in 2007 to 26% in 2012, 50% among young people. 2 Soon the banks found out that (subprime) mortgages could not been paid anymore and drastically cut on loans to business, entrepreneurs and individuals, which worsened the situation. Although the European Central Bank approved a bailout for the Spanish banks in 2012, credit had not yet begun to flow to individuals or enterprises. Furthermore the bailout came in exchange of the commitment to trimming the budget deficit to a 3.6% of GDP, which entailed further welfare cutbacks. To this turmoil in the Spanish economic situation we must add that a general election was held in November 2011, which resulted in government change. We face here contradictory forces regarding the expected effects of political and economic conditions on duty to vote. On the one hand, we could expect an increase in duty at the time of the election. On the other hand, negative perceptions of the economy and of politicians’ capacity to deal with it should operate in the opposite sense, hampering the belief that voting is a civic duty. 4. Research design and data. Since our research hypotheses entail longitudinal analyses we use a panel survey. This is study CIS 2855, an online panel survey conducted in four waves over a period of 18 months in November 2010, May 2011, November 2011 and May 2012. 3 Respondents were selected from an online survey pool set up through active recruitment of potential subjects in the main commercial on-line services and websites in Spain.4 This introduces deviations from a representative sample of the general population, although quotas were applied in the sampling process in order to reduce biases related to the non-probability nature of the sample. Last, but not least, the survey presents the habitual attrition rates, with 1,300 individuals out of 2,100 wave 1 respondents completing the wave 1 The public sector in Spain has been described as medium-sized, with 5.5% of their populatin employed in the public sector in 2008, which is average for the UE-27, similar to Italy (5.7%) or Germany (5.4%).1 2 The annual figures are: 11% in 2008, 18% in 2009, 20% in 2010, 22% in 2011. 3 The survey was sponsored and funded by the Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas (CIS) and the Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona (UAB) research group “Democracy, Elections and Citizenship” (P.I. Eva Anduiza). 4 Further details can be found at http://www.netquest.com/papers/esomar26_en.pdf 6 4 survey.5 Because of the purposes of our study (tracking and explaining attitudinal change), we have not excluded any of these participants. This decision was made in order to minimize panel- conditioning effects, a phenomenon that happens when panellists change their attitudes or behaviours as a result of being on a panel study (Sobol 1959, Clinton 2001).6 The sample consists of Spanish citizens between 16 and 45 years of age with Internet access, as the survey sample was designed to tap attitudinal change among people who are relatively young and thus in theory open to change.7 In this respect, we can consider that the sample gathers two age groups: the younger, under 30 years old at the beginning of our study, and the middle-aged adults, between 31 and 45 years old when our study ended. Systematic comparisons between these two groups will allow us to test if attitudinal change is more likely to occur before one is in his/her thirties. The convention is to consider that impressionable years end at age 25 (Krosnick and Alwin 1989, Alwin et al. 1991), but lately the frontiers of what is considered “youth” have expanded so that 30 is now often viewed as the turning point, especially in the case of Spain (Garcia and Martin 2010), where in 2010 almost 60 percent of people between 16 and 34 years of age still lived in their parental homes (Aparicio and Oppedisano 2012).8 For the goal of tracking changes in the belief that voting is a duty we first examine the aggregate levels of this attitude, comparing the two different age groups, construed according to their susceptibility to attitude change. Next, we move to examining intra-individual change, paying attention to individuals’ transitions between the waves of our panel. For this purpose, transition probability matrices are used to report the chance that an individual changes her mind regarding voting being a duty; plus we tabulate the frequency of trajectories for this question across waves. Last, we examine the effects of the aforementioned factors of attitudinal change. To test our longitudinal hypotheses we estimate over time change in individuals’ duty to vote by means of a series of fixed-effects OLS panel estimations that we replicate for both age groups. Fixed-effects models explore the relationship between a dependent variable and a set of factors that change over time. The fixed-effects models neutralize the impact of all time-invariant individual characteristics. This means that the resulting coefficients cannot be biased because of omitted time-invariant characteristics such as gender, race, religion, previous socialization and age or education. The equation for the fixed effects model is: Yit = β1 Xit +αi + uit Where :  αi (i=1…n) is the unknown intercept for each individual, and there are n-individual- specific intercepts 5 An additional 620 freshly recruited respondents entered the study in the second wave to compensate the fact that our sample was overeducated. All in all, 2720 individuals were part of the study at some point in time. 6 We have tested our models on a sample consisting on these 1300 persons and found higher rates of change. Thus, by keeping as many respondents on our sample, we are minimizing those panel conditioning effects, 7 Respondents were aged between 16 and 44 in wave 1 and 17 and 45 in wave 4. 8 We could have compared those aged between 16 and 25 against the rest of the simple and none of the forthcoming analyses would have yield dramatically different results. Yet the number of cases will reduce a lot in some cases. For instance, in wave 4 we can count 574 individuals that had less than 30 years old at the beginning of our study, but only 268 that had less than 25. 7  Yit is the dependent variable where i= individual and t=time  Xit stands for an independent variable  β1 is the coefficient for that independent variable  uit is the error term. Thus, for a given individual, as X varies across time by one unit, Y increases by β units (Bartels 2008). Among the advantages of this estimation method we can list the large amount of observations, which increases degrees of freedom, reduces collinearity among the explanatory variables and improves the efficiency of the estimates. Turning to the question of measurement, we have used the Blais (2000) and Blais & Achen (2012) operationalization for duty to vote. This is a 4 category ordinal variable resulting from a set of two questions. The first asks people whether they think that voting is duty or a choice. Those selecting the “choice” option are coded as 0. Those selecting the “duty” option are next asked to what extent they believe that voting was a duty: a little (1), some (2) or a lot (3). The question is designed to avoid social desirability effects that would result in an overestimation of civic duty. It offers a “positive” alternative (“voting is a choice’) for those who do not feel a duty to show up at the polling station.9 All independent variables in our models have been recoded so that they range from 0 to 1. Thus, their coefficients can be interpreted in terms of the effect on duty across time when they move from its minimum to its maximum value. We consider three basic groups of variables. First, the economic situation and working status of the respondents. Second, their perceptions of the economy, including evaluations of politicians’ capacity to deal with the economic crisis. Finally, we include controls for political context, operationalized as dummies for each panel wave that should be interpreted as the average increase in the levels of the dependent variable, compared to wave 1, everything else being equal. We also account for susceptibility to attitude change due to age replicating the analyses for the “young” (under 30 years old at the beginning of our study) and the middle-age adults (between 30 and 45 years old in our study). 9 The exact wording is : A. For some people vote is mostly a duty. They think they should vote regardless of their views on the parties. For others, voting is an option. They decide whether or not to vote according to their opinions about the parties. For you voting is all about: 1 A duty (→ ask B) 2 An option B. To what extent do you feel it a duty? 1 A lot 2 Some 3 A little 8 The deterioration of personal economic circumstances may have manifested itself in a number of ways at the individual level. In the first place, we consider income, a 11-category variable ranking from 0€ to more than 6.000€ per month. Next, we take into account two conditions that imply a change related to occupational status: becoming employed/ unemployed and gaining/loosing the status of permanent worker. While acquiring a job fosters social integration, provides new social networks and puts people in touch with dominant values becoming unemployed leads to social exclusion and frustration with the system. We also consider changes in the “permanent” worker condition, with the expectation than becoming temporary worker entails a higher degree of uncertainty in making ends meet. The next set of variables is related to perceptions of economic conditions. The first question asks whether the economic situation is perceived as very bad, bad, fair, good or very good. Next, the questionnaire asks respondents’ perception on how these general economic conditions have evolved during the last year. The following question is about the respondents’ forecast about the economic situation for the upcoming year. The last indicator asks about the individual’s evaluation of her personal economic conditions. The possible answers for these three questions are worst, the same, and better. The survey also asks about the perceived competence of the two main parties (PSOE, the socialist party, ruling until the third wave of the panel, and PP, the conservative party leading the opposition until November 2011). The possible responses are: very bad, bad, fair, good, or very good. We have recoded all these subjective evaluations so as they all range from 0 to 1. In the next section, we explore the amount of change observed over the course of the survey (a year and a half). We then move to the multivariate, longitudinal analyses of individuals’ feelings of civic duty. 5. Results Figure 1 compares the evolution, between November 2010 and May 2012, of duty to vote for the young and the middle-age adults. The graphs depict the means at each point in time –taking into account that this variable ranks between 0 and 3-, as well as the 95% confidence intervals. We see slightly different patterns which do not seem consistent with the hypothesis that the economic crisis hampers civic duty. The younger group follows a steady slightly increasing trend, especially between waves 2 and 3, coinciding with a pre-electoral context. They start with a lower average of civic duty to vote and end with a (slightly) higher average than the middle-aged adults. The latter follow a more stable pattern, with a slight decrease in their average levels of duty in wave 2. Bonferroni tests reveal non-significant differences in means for all the possible pairs of waves for the middle age group age. On the contrary, the younger group age exhibit significant differences between waves 1 and 4 among (at 95%), and between waves 1 and 3 (at 90%). (FIGURE 1 ABOUT HERE) From an individual perspective, the panel data allow to examine the transitions between categories of a variable across waves. Tables 1 to 4 offer a first perspective on the amount of stability/change over the course of the study. We should read the results for each cell in Table 1 in terms of the chances that an individual answering “None”, “Little”, “Some” or “A lot” will change her mind in the next panel wave, taking into account that a reported probability aggregates transitions from 9 wave 1 to wave 2, from wave 2 to wave 3 and from wave 3 to wave 4. 10 Thus, the belief that voting is an option has a 74% of chances of remaining stable across waves among the youngest, and 77% among the 31-45 age group. The most dutiful option is almost as stable for both age groups (69-71% respectively). Yet, those with low levels of duty are likely to change either to “none” or “some” answers, the pattern being similar for both young and middle-aged adults. “Little duty” is the category most likely to change, either to “none” or to “some” duty. Intermediate levels of duty (“some”) can also easily turn into high levels of duty (this happens in 29% of the cases among the younger, 27% among the middle-aged) or into no duty at all (24% of the times for both age groups). (TABLE 1 ABOUT HERE) (TABLE 2 ABOUT HERE) Tables 3 and 4 tell us that 46% of the observations -both younger and older- are classified as “not dutiful”, this being the most frequent case in our database. The ‘between’ columns tell us how many citizens were found in a given category at least once. Thus, 62% of the younger selected the “option” answer at least once, versus 60% of the middle-aged. This is a small difference, and the same pattern is found for the rest of the categories. The total percentage in this column shows that 56% of younger individuals experienced some degree of change, selecting different categories on the duty question in different waves. 48% of the middle-aged changed their mind over time, indicating slightly more stability in that group. The ‘within percent’ computes the fraction of time that a respondent has a specific value of duty. Thus, if an individual ever said that voting is a choice, 75% of her answers will be « choice » if she is younger than 30, and 78% if she is older than 30. If a young individual ever said that she feels strongly the duty to vote, then 66% of her responses would point in that same direction, a percentage that slightly increases to 68% if she is older than 30. Hence, the civic duty to vote is overall pretty stable, though somewhat slightly more stable among middle-aged adults. 11 This is in line with the impressionable years hypothesis. We should keep in mind that all these differences are quite small, although they suggest that contextual factors -such as the economy or elections- may have some impact on the evolution of civic duty, particularly among younger citizens. (TABLE 3 ABOUT HERE) (TABLE 4 ABOUT HERE) We now proceed to isolating the independent effects of the economic crisis through individuals’ changing conditions. Coefficients from four different specifications are reported in Table 5. The analyses have been replicated for both age groups. The first specification (models 1 and 3) only accounts for objective changes in the economic and work status of the respondents that occurred during the study. The second (models 2 and 4) adds perceptions of the economy, including perceptions of the capacity of the two main parties to deal with the crisis. 10 The « xttrans » stata command produces the probability that xi,t+1 = ν2 given that xit = ν1 by counting transitions. 11 We have conducted the same analyses for interest in politics and the intensity of party identification and found that responses are slightly more stable in the case of interest in politics, and slightly less for party identification. We can therefore conclude that civic duty is relatively stable, though not quite as much as interest in politics. 10 (TABLE 5 ABOUT HERE) All these models take into account the effects of context, as indicated by the presence of dummies for each wave, which is consistent with two-way fixed-effect panel model specifications. This is intended to account for unobserved heterogeneity across both time and individuals. With regard to period effects, all waves are significantly different from wave 1 . Waves 3 and 4 are also significantly different from wave 2, confirming the existence of the trends described when discussing figure 1. It is noticeable that the coefficients of waves 3 and 4 for the younger sample are almost twice the size for the older, suggesting a greater effect of the context for those that had less than 30 years old at the beginning of the study. From these coefficients we can infer a period effect –especially among the youngest- caused by the election held in November 2011, which took place one week after wave 3 was conducted. Interestingly, this effect had not decayed 6 months after the election. The magnitude of the period effects is about the same that can be observed in figure 1 which means that the slight increase in duty that took place during the course of the study cannot be imputed to changes in individuals’ economic conditions or perceptions. The first model includes the variables that capture the objective changes in the individuals’ economic and labor status. Since all the independent variables in the model are coded from 0 to 1, the coefficients indicate by how much duty increases when the variable shifts from its minimum to its maximum value. What we see is that changes in employment status do not seem to have any impact on whether one feels that it is her duty to vote in elections, for any of the age groups. This finding is consistent with what we have observed at the aggregate level, with overall levels of civic duty actually increasing during the economic crisis. Yet the story is different with regard to income. The significant positive coefficient for income in model 1 indicates that changes in income are followed by changes in civic duty in the same direction. In other words: younger citizens tend to experience a decrease of their civic duty to vote as their income decreases. On the contrary, the evolution of civic duty for the middle-aged is not significantly related to changes in income. Along with the coefficients related to changes in employment status, this indicates that the overall economic downturn was not accompanied by a general weakening of civic duty for the middle aged. The younger were more prone to question the norm that it is a moral obligation to vote if and when their economic status worsened. Among the 16-30 years old, 70 percent witnessed some change in income during the study, being negative changes more important in latter waves.12 When there was some negative change, the most frequent change was one of -0.1 on the 0 to 1 scale. According to our estimations, this would produce a decline of 0.035 on the (0 to 3) duty scale, a rather small effect. The bottom line is that most people’s income did not move substantially during these 18 months and the mean income scale declined only marginally, from 0.35 in wave 1 to 0.3 in wave 4 in the case of the youngest.13 More precisely, 22 percent of the younger experienced a decrease in their income between waves 1 and 2, whereas 21 percent experience an increase. These percentages move to 23 percent decrease, 20 percent increase between waves 2 and 3. Finally, between waves 3 and 4 the percentage of those who get worse is 24, while 17 percent experience an increase. Our results suggest that this decline ‘caused’ an overall decline of 0.2 on duty. This decline was more than offset by ‘other’ factors, the 12 61 percent of the individuals within the older age group experienced changes in income 13 The average income –measured from 0 to 1- in our simple decreases from 0.4 (wave 1) to 0.36 (wave 2), indicating that the general trend over time is downwards. The trend for the older is the same than for the younger (-0.05 points on average) but starting higher, at 0.45. 11 most visible being the national election, whose impact seems to have been larger than that of the economic crisis. The next block (models 2 and 4) includes economic perceptions. None of these variables reaches the level of significance, confirming that subjective perceptions of the Great Recession had no impact on feelings of duty. The same applies to the perceptions of the capacity of the two main parties to deal with the crisis: many respondents thought that the two main parties were incompetent but such judgments did not lead them to revisit their views about whether they had a moral obligation to vote in elections. 6. Conclusions In this paper we have addressed the question of the stability of civic duty to vote during an economic crisis, focusing on the Spanish case. We approached this issue by means of panel data and we presented empirical evidence about the evolution of this variable during hard times. Both modernization theory and recent works on the cultural effects of the Great Recession suggest that economic conditions –and particularly an economic crisis- may erode levels of political support and political legitimacy, especially in new democracies and among youngsters. We wanted to ascertain whether the economic crisis had a negative impact on Spaniards’ levels of duty to vote. Aggregate data indicate that this variable is pretty stable, although not completely static. Individual descriptive data on transitions point out that most of the change happens for people with intermediate levels of civic duty and that young adults are slightly more prone to change than middle-aged adults. Four fixed effects models tested the effects of objective and subjective economic conditions on the evolution of civic duty. We found no evidence that a worsening in one’s perceptions of the economy weakens sense of civic duty. The same applies to personal economic or working conditions for middle-aged adults, whose civic duty is resilient to the effects of the economic crisis. For the youngest, however, we detected a significant relationship between income loss and the deterioration of their belief that voting is a duty. It may be that a worsening in one’s economic and social status endangers the construction of the individual’s identity as a citizen, or that impoverished young citizens do not see the point in voting and participating in a system that is being tough on them. It may as well be that this entails some degree of “arrested development”, this is, a delay in the acquisition of norms and responsibilities that come with adulthood. In any case, we cannot discard an effect of the crisis in the formation and consolidation of this social norm. The presence of two different patterns for the two age groups with regard the civic duty to vote– resistance to change for middle-aged adults and some sensitiveness to economic conditions for younger citizens- is in line with the impressionable year hypothesis. This suggests that duty may behave as recent studies have pointed out for system legitimacy or support, but only among the youngest segment of the population. The symbolic nature of this attitude may foster its crystallization before adulthood, but not as soon as the « symbolic politics » theory predicts. That being said, the most important finding is that even among the 16-30 age group sense of civic duty did not decline during the economic crisis. There was a decline among those hardest hit by the crisis but that impact was modest, and completely offset by other factors, the most obvious being the presence of an election. 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Means by wave and age group. a) 16-30 years old b) 31-45 years old 19 Table 1: transition probabilities across categories and over time of duty to vote (xttrans). 16 to 30 years old Duty None Little Some A lot Total Duty None 74 4 16 7 100 Little 38 16 41 5 100 Some 24 6 41 29 100 A lot 9 1 21 69 100 Total 45 4 24 27 100 Table 2: transition probabilities across categories and over time of duty to vote (xttrans). 31 to 45 years old Duty None Little Some A lot Total Duty None 77 3 15 5 100 Little 35 13 41 11 100 Some 24 3 46 27 100 A lot 8 1 20 71 100 Total 45 3 24 28 100 20 Table 3: Between and within frequencies of duty to vote (xttab). 16 to 30 years overall Between within Freq, Percent Freq, Percent Percent Duty None 1423 46 650 62 75 Little 130 4 113 11 41 Some 738 24 179 46 52 A lot 783 26 389 37 66 Total 3074 100 1631 156 64 Table 4: Between and within frequencies of duty to vote (xttab). 31 to 45 years overall Between within Freq, Percent Freq, Percent Percent Duty None 2351 46 1064 60 78 Little 109 2 97 6 41 Some 1278 25 792 45 57 A lot 1358 27 668 38 68 Total 2096 100 2621 148 68 21 Table 5: Fixed-effect estimation of the evolution of duty to vote (Nov.2010-May 2012) 16-30 years old 31-45 years old Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Coef. Std. E. Coef. Std. E. Coef. Std. E. Coef. Std. E. Economic situation, working status Δ Income .35*** .16 .36*** .13 -.09 .14 -.08 .14 Δ Unemployed -.24 .16 -.22 .16 -.02 .1 -.02 .1 Δ Worker, permanent -.01 .08 -.00 .08 .06 .06 .06 .06 Economic perceptions Δ Eval.of the eco.sit (general) -.00 .13 .05 .1 Δ Eval.of the eco.sit.(retrospective) .09 .08 .06 .06 Δ Eval.of the eco.sit (prospective) -.05 .09 -.1 .06 Δ Eval.of the eco.sit (personal) -.13 .08 .01 .06 Δ Evaluation of the capacity of the PP -.03 .09 .06 .06 Δ Evaluation of the capacity of the PSOE .19 .12 .09 .1 Wave2 .09*** .04 .09*** .05 .06*** .03 .05*** .03 Wave3 .25*** .05 .27*** .05 .13*** .03 .14*** .04 Wave 4 .27*** .05 .29*** .08 .14*** .04 .14*** .04 constant 1.2*** .05 1.12*** .05 1.2*** .07 1.2*** .08 sigma_u 1.12 1.12 1.16 1.15 sigma_e .82 .81 .76 .76 rho .65 .66 .7 .7 F test that all u_i=0: F(2711) = 5.4 Prob. > F = .00 F(2711) = 5.3 Prob. > F = .00 F(2703) = 6.44 Prob. > F =.00 F(2703) = 6.27 Prob > F =.00 R2: within= .025 between= .0002 overall= .005 within= .028 between= .002 overall= .009 within= .01 between= .0003 overall= .0003 within= .01 between= .002 overall= .004 Corr(u_i, Xb) -.04 -.02 -.04 -.0003 Number of observations 3074 3074 5096 5096 Number of individuals 1043 1043 1773 1173 sigma_u: standard deviation of residuals within groups (individuals) ui sigma_e: standard deviation of residuals (overall error term) ei. Rho: % of rhe variance due to differences across panels, in this case, individuals ***= p<0.001, **= p<0.05, *= p<0.1 22 Annex 1: Summary of the descriptive statistics for the variables involved in the analyses. 14 The value zero gathers temporary workers, entrepreneurs, self-employed, member of a cooperative and “other”, including non-employed and non-active. Variable Obs. Mean Std. Dev. Min. Max. Duty to vote 8170 1.31 1.29 0 3 Income 8170 .38 .18 0 1 Work status: Unemployed 8170 .05 .23 0 1 Worker, permanent14 8170 .4 .49 0 1 Evaluation of PSOE to deal with the crisis 8170 .25 .25 0 1 Evaluation of PP to deal with the crisis 8170 .37 .25 0 1 Evaluation of the economic situation (gen.) 8170 .22 .2 0 1 Evaluation of the economic situation (retros.) 8170 .18 .28 0 1 Evaluation of the economic situation (prosp.) 8170 .49 .29 0 1 Evaluation of the economic situation (pers.l) 8170 .34 .33 0 1 Wave1 8170 .25 .44 0 1 Wave2 8170 .29 .46 0 1 Wave3 8170 .24 .43 0 1 Wave4 8170 .21 .41 0 1 
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work_fystalejlfc4pjsyypmyu4e6bu	----	1392_60-2_09 281..298 281 New Species of Rails (Aves: Rallidae) from an Archaeological Site on Huahine, Society Islands1 Jeremy J. Kirchman2,4 and David W. Steadman3 Abstract: We examined 50 bones previously assigned to ‘‘Gallirallus new sp.’’ from the prehistoric (1,250–750 yr B.P.) Fa‘ahia archaeological site on Huahine, Society Islands. Most of these specimens ðn ¼ 47Þ, representing nearly all major cranial and postcranial skeletal elements, belong to a medium-sized flightless rail that we name Gallirallus storrsolsoni. Three femora represent a second species of extinct rail that we name Porphyrio mcnabi. With the description of these two species of rails, the total number of extinct species of land birds from the Fa‘a- hia site stands at seven, consisting of two rails, two doves, two parrots, and a starling. Fa‘ahia also has yielded bones of six other species of land birds that no longer exist on Huahine but survive elsewhere in Oceania. Fossil bones from archaeological and paleontological sites on islands throughout Oceania have revealed extensive Holocene extinction of birds after colonization by hu- mans and their commensals ( James and Ol- son 1991, Olson and James 1991, Steadman 1995, in press, Worthy and Holdaway 2002). On a typical island in East Polynesia (Figure 1), 50 to 100% of the species of land birds that existed at human contact do not survive there today (Steadman in press). Especially prevalent among the East Polynesian extinct species are rails (Rallidae), most of which were flightless species endemic to single is- lands or to islands connected in the Pleisto- cene during periods of lowered sea levels. In this paper we describe two new species of rails from the Fa‘ahia archaeological site on Huahine in the Society Islands. The Fa‘ahia site (Figure 2) was excavated by Yosihiko H. Sinoto and colleagues from 1973 to 1984 in cooperation with the Départ- ment de Archéologie, Centre Polynésien des Sciences Humaines, Tahiti (dapt). The cul- tural deposits at Fa‘ahia were found sub- merged below the modern water table and contained exceptionally well-preserved or- ganic materials, including wooden adze handles, tapa beaters, and parts of canoes (Sinoto 1975, 1979). Other objects preserved and recovered from Fa‘ahia include non- human bones representing food items of all sizes (fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals) and a wide variety of artifacts and ornaments made of bone, shell, or stone. By East Poly- nesian standards, Fa‘ahia is an early occupa- tion site with radiocarbon dates ranging from ca. 1,250 to 750 yr B.P. (¼ ca. A.D. 700 to 1200 [Sinoto 1983]). We note, however, that the chronology of human colonization in East Polynesia (the Cook Islands eastward, including the Society Islands) has been de- bated for decades (Sinoto 1970, Kirch 1984, 1986, 2000, Spriggs and Anderson 1993, Conte and Anderson 2003). Archaeological sites older than A.D. 1000 are scarce or ab- sent in East Polynesia, although sedimento- logical and paleobotanical information suggests that people were present in the Soci- ety Islands and Cook Islands at least several centuries earlier than A.D. 1000 (Lepofsky et al. 1992, 1996, Kirch and Ellison 1994, Lep- ofsky 1995). In spite of uncertainty in the Pacific Science (2006), vol. 60, no. 2:281 – 297 : 2006 by University of Hawai‘i Press All rights reserved 1 Financial support came from a McGlaughlin Fel- lowship to J.J.K. from the University of Florida College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, and NSF grants EAR- 9714819 and DEB-0228682 to D.W.S. Manuscript ac- cepted 20 June 2005. 2 Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611. 3 Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611. 4 Corresponding author: e-mail: jkirchman@zoo .ufl.edu; phone: 352-392-1721 x232; fax: 352-392-3704. F i g u r e 1 . O ce an ia . D as h ed li n e in d ic at es th e E as t P o ly n es ia fa u n al re g io n . chronology of first arrival, there is a consis- tent pattern of heavy exploitation of native birds early in the archaeologically preserved cultural sequence in East Polynesia, which typically begins at ca. A.D. 1000 (Dye and Steadman 1990, Kirch et al. 1995, Steadman and Rolett 1996). In yielding bird bones that mainly represent extinct species, the zooarch- aeological evidence from Fa‘ahia agrees with this pattern. Over 300 bird bones were obtained at Fa‘ahia by screening the sediment through 0.25-in. (6.4-mm) mesh. Of 53 rail bones reported by Steadman and Pahlavan (1992), three were from Porzana tabuensis, a small species that is widespread in Polynesia but that no longer occurs on Huahine. The other 50 bones were assigned to a larger, presum- ably undescribed, flightless rail, referred to as ‘‘Gallirallus new sp.’’ These 50 specimens are the basis of this paper. materials and methods Skeletons used for comparisons are from the American Museum of Natural History (amnh), Bernice P. Bishop Museum (bpbm), Delaware Museum of Natural History Figure 2. Society Islands, with inset of Huahine showing the location of the Fa‘ahia archaeological site. Fossil Rails from Huahine . Kirchman and Steadman 283 (dmnh), Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida (uf), University of Michigan Museum of Zoology (ummz), Na- tional Museum of Natural History, Smith- sonian Institution (usnm), University of Washington Burke Museum (uwbm), and Yale Peabody Museum (ypm). We examined these modern specimens: Porzana (Poliolim- nas) cinerea, dmnh 72836, 72906; Porzana ta- buensis, uwbm 42501; Gallirallus striatus, amnh 22981, usnm 85892, 559919, ypm 107205; G. torquatus, amnh 17715–17717, ummz 228275, 228280, usnm 290445; G. owstoni, uf 39918, 39920, 39921, usnm 561968, 611816, 612616, 613738–613744, 614233–614235, 614771, 614772; G. australis greyi, uf 24326, 24327; G. a. australis, ypm 102249, 110760, 110789, 110790, 110844; G. philippensis good- soni, UF 39854, 39855; G. p. sethsmithi, uf 42902, 42933–42935; G. p. philippensis, usnm 560651; G. p. yorki, usnm 560791; G. p. mellori, usnm 620196; G. p. ecaudatus, uwbm 42863, 42865, 42866; G. [‘‘Nesoclopeus’’] wood- fordi, uf 39399, 39406, 39409, 39547, 39556, 39574; Gallinula chloropus, uf 39927; Porphyrio porphyrio samoensis, uf 39332, 39388, 39407, usnm 561547, 561549, 5461551; P. p. polioce- phalus, usnm 34212; P. p. pulverulentus, usnm 226035, 292296, 292297; Porphyrio martinicus, uf 42417, 42419; Porphyrio alleni, uf 34172, 38839. We also examined these fossil speci- mens: Gallirallus ripleyi humerus, uf 51402, ulnae, uf 54901, 55215, carpometacarpi, uf 54700, 54988, femur, uf 51320, tibiotarsi, uf 54732, 54985, usnm 402895 (holotype), tar- sometatarsi, uf 54761, 55223, usnm 402895 (holotype); G. vekamatolu humerus, uf 52333, ulna, uf 51734, femora, uf 52020, 52058, tibiotarsi, uf 51729, 52211, tarsometa- tarsus, uf 51991 (holotype); Porphyrio paepae femora, bpbm 165649, 166424, 166426, 166434, tibiotarsus, bpbm 165651, synsacrum, bpbm 165656. We follow Taylor (1998) for subspecies-level taxonomy. Measurements were taken with dial cali- pers ( Helios), rounded to the nearest 0.1 mm. To assess the degree of flightlessness in each species, we performed a principal com- ponents analysis (PCA) using the software package SPSS 13.0. Unweighted character means (natural [base e] log-transformed) for each species were used for the PCA. Charac- ters used in the PCA were chosen on the basis of availability in fossil specimens from Hua- hine. Osteological terminology follows Bau- mel and Witmer (1993). comparative osteology and systematics Family Rallidae Genus Gallirallus Lafresnaye, 1841 We regard all ‘‘typical long-billed rails’’ from Oceania as species of Gallirallus sensu lato, distinguishing them from the similarly sized swamphens (Porphyrio), moorhens (Gal- linula), and coots (Fulica), and the much smaller crakes (Porzana and Poliolimnas). This treatment departs slightly from the classifica- tion of Olson (1973a), who provisionally re- tained woodfordi of the Solomon Islands and poecilopterus of Fiji in the genus Nesoclopeus but highlighted their close affinity with Gal- lirallus. Livezey (1998, 2003) retained the genera Nesoclopeus, Tricholimnas, Cabalus, and Habropteryx for some species of long-billed rails but acknowledged the difficulty of es- tablishing generic-level relationships in this group on the basis of osteology. We refer 47 of the fossils from Huahine to Gallirallus rather than to other genera of Oceanic rails because of the following characters. Skull: frontals narrow, concave. Rostrum: long, narrow, and shallow with elongate nares. Hu- merus: fossa pneumotricipitalis deep and wide with prominent crus ventrale fossae. Ulna: thin in cranial aspect with rectangular (rather than rounded) margo cranialis. Pelvis: ala preacetabularis ilii broadly continuous with crista dorsalis of synsacrum. Femur: distal end of corpus femoris becomes gradually wider; condylus medialis subcircular in me- dial aspect; impresso ansae musculo iliofi- bularis abuts suclus fibularis. Tibiotarsus: impresso ligamentum collateralis medialis deep and wide; facies articularis femoris large; condylus medialis subcircular in medial as- pect. Tarsometatarsus: corpus tarsometatarsi much wider than deep; medial sulcus hypo- tarsi not enclosed; fossa metatarsi I short and shallow. 284 PACIFIC SCIENCE . April 2006 Gallirallus storrsolsoni Kirchman & Steadman, n. sp. Figures 3B; 4B; 5B,E,H,K holotype. Complete cranium and ros- trum, bpbm 166036 (Figure 3). paratypes. Crania, bpbm 166021, 166026, 168015, dapt 139; rostrum, dapt 21; vertebrae, bpbm 166024, 166025, 166035, 168001, 168002, 168078, dapt 13, 14, 25, 60, 61, 122, 143, 144, 145, 163; rib, bpbm 166018; sterna, bpbm 166017, 166027; humerus, bpbm 166022 (left [l]); ulnae, bpbm 166033 (l), 168121 (l), 168150 (right [r]); radius, bpbm 168056 (r); carpometacarpus, bpbm 168165 (l); synsacrum, bpbm 166020; femora, bpbm 168131 (r), dapt 27/105 (r); tibiotarsi, bpbm 166023 (l), 166032 (r), 168028 (l), 168046 (r), 168123 (r), 168149 (l), 168170 (l), dapt 47 (r), 55 (l), 119 (l); tarsometatarsi, bpbm 166034 (r), 168124 (r), dapt 7 (r). diagnosis. A medium-sized species of Gallirallus ( Table 1) distinguished from con- geners in Oceania as follows. Skull (Figure 3): fossa temporalis deeply excavated, clearly emarginated by crista temporalis and extends Figure 3. Lateral (left) and dorsal (right) views of the skulls of Gallirallus. A, G. philippensis, uwbm 42866. B, G. storrsolsoni, holotype, bpbm 166036. C, G. owstoni, uf 39918. D, G. torquatus, ummz 228275. E, G. woodfordi, uf 39399. Scale bars ¼ 50 mm. Fossil Rails from Huahine . Kirchman and Steadman 285 T A B L E 1 S k el et al M ea su re m en ts (i n m m ) in G al li ra ll u s, w it h M ea n , R an g e, an d S am p le S iz e. F , fe m al e; M , m al e; U , se x u n k n o w n . S p ec im en s o f al l av ai la b le su b sp ec ie s o f G . au st ra li s an d G . ph il ip pe n si s ar e co m b in ed , g iv en th at su b sp ec ifi c d if fe re n ce s in si ze ar e m u ch sm al le r th an si ze d if fe re n ce s b et w ee n m al es an d fe m al es . S k el et al E le m en t G . st or rs ol so n i G . ow st on i G . au st ra li s G . ri pl ey i G . v ek am at ol u G . ph il ip pe n si s G . st ri at u s G . to rq u at u s G . w oo df or di S ex U M F M F U U M F M M F M F C ra n iu m le n g th 3 3 .7 3 2 .4 – 3 4 .8 4 3 3 .3 3 2 .8 – 3 4 .2 4 3 1 .6 3 0 .9 – 3 2 .3 1 0 4 2 .9 4 2 .2 – 4 3 .5 2 4 0 .0 3 9 .0 – 4 1 .5 4 — — 3 2 .1 3 1 .0 – 3 2 .9 4 2 9 .9 2 8 .4 – 3 1 .0 6 2 8 .7 2 8 .2 – 2 9 .0 4 3 3 .9 3 2 .4 – 3 5 .2 5 3 1 .0 1 3 9 .8 3 9 .0 – 4 0 .5 3 3 9 .0 3 8 .2 – 3 9 .5 3 R o st ru m le n g th 3 8 .8 3 6 .5 – 4 1 .0 2 4 0 .7 3 6 .9 – 4 3 .3 6 3 7 .1 3 5 .5 – 3 9 .3 1 0 5 2 .0 5 0 .6 – 5 3 .3 2 4 6 .0 4 0 .0 – 5 0 .4 4 — — 3 6 .0 3 3 .5 – 3 8 .6 4 2 9 .5 2 7 .0 – 3 1 .6 6 3 5 .7 3 3 .0 – 3 8 .1 4 4 2 .2 3 9 .7 – 4 5 .8 4 3 9 .4 1 4 9 .1 4 7 .8 – 4 9 .9 3 4 4 .8 4 4 .6 – 4 5 .0 3 S te rn al ca ri n a d ep th 9 .1 1 1 0 .7 9 .7 – 1 1 .6 7 1 0 .4 9 .9 – 1 1 .4 1 0 1 2 .0 1 1 .5 – 1 2 .5 2 1 0 .6 9 .9 – 1 2 .0 4 — — 1 2 .7 1 2 .0 – 1 3 .5 6 1 2 .3 1 1 .6 – 1 3 .5 6 1 2 .2 1 1 .6 – 1 3 .0 3 1 3 .1 1 2 .2 – 1 4 .1 5 1 0 .9 1 1 3 .2 1 2 .6 – 1 3 .8 3 1 2 .6 1 2 .2 – 1 3 .4 3 S te rn u m w id th at co ra co id s 1 4 .6 1 4 .5 – 1 4 .8 2 1 1 .7 1 0 .7 – 1 2 .2 7 1 1 .3 9 .6 – 1 1 .9 9 2 0 .9 2 0 .3 – 2 1 .5 2 1 9 .2 1 8 .6 – 1 9 .9 4 — — 1 1 .1 9 .9 – 1 2 .0 6 1 0 .0 9 .4 – 1 0 .8 6 9 .0 8 .4 – 1 0 .0 4 1 1 .9 1 1 .1 – 1 2 .4 5 1 1 .7 1 1 8 .8 1 8 .6 – 1 9 .0 3 1 7 .7 1 6 .5 – 1 8 .8 3 H u m er u s sh af t w id th 2 .2 1 2 .8 2 .6 – 3 .1 7 2 .7 2 .6 – 3 .0 1 1 4 .3 3 .9 – 4 .6 3 3 .8 3 .5 – 4 .2 4 2 .1 1 — 3 .3 3 .2 – 3 .4 5 2 .9 2 .7 – 3 .3 6 2 .6 2 .5 – 2 .7 4 3 .2 3 .0 – 3 .4 5 2 .9 1 3 .8 3 .7 – 3 .8 3 3 .6 3 .5 – 3 .7 3 U ln a le n g th 3 7 .5 1 3 9 .1 3 6 .8 – 4 1 .5 7 3 6 .6 3 4 .8 – 3 8 .7 1 1 4 3 .7 4 3 .0 – 4 4 .2 3 3 8 .2 3 6 .0 – 4 1 .4 4 2 2 .9 2 2 .6 – 2 3 .1 2 4 1 .3 1 4 3 .9 4 1 .4 – 4 4 .8 6 3 9 .2 3 5 .2 – 4 3 .6 6 3 6 .2 3 3 .7 – 3 7 .9 4 4 4 .0 4 3 .0 – 4 5 .3 5 4 0 .0 1 5 1 .6 5 0 .7 – 5 2 .8 3 4 9 .5 4 7 .5 – 5 0 .6 3 U ln a p ro xi m al w id th 4 .8 1 4 .6 4 .3 – 4 .8 7 4 .3 4 .1 – 4 .5 1 1 7 .0 6 .5 – 7 .3 3 6 .0 5 .5 – 6 .8 4 2 .8 2 .7 – 2 .9 2 5 .4 1 5 .0 4 .7 – 5 .3 6 4 .3 4 .1 – 4 .4 6 4 .0 3 .8 – 4 .1 4 5 .1 4 .8 – 5 .4 5 5 .0 1 6 .4 6 .3 – 6 .5 3 5 .9 5 .9 – 6 .0 3 F em u r le n g th 4 9 .4 1 5 6 .0 5 4 .0 – 5 9 .2 7 5 2 .4 4 9 .2 – 5 4 .6 1 1 8 0 .6 7 8 .7 – 8 2 .3 3 6 9 .9 6 6 .1 – 7 3 .4 4 3 9 .8 1 — 5 3 .8 5 1 .3 – 5 4 .9 6 4 7 .3 4 5 .0 – 4 9 .7 6 4 5 .1 4 2 .2 – 4 6 .9 4 5 5 .5 5 3 .3 – 5 7 .5 5 5 0 .6 1 7 2 .1 7 2 .0 – 7 2 .3 3 6 9 .6 6 9 .0 – 7 0 .3 3 F em u r d is ta l w id th 9 .2 1 9 .5 8 .9 – 9 .9 7 8 .7 8 .4 – 9 .0 1 1 1 6 .5 1 5 .9 – 1 7 .6 3 1 4 .3 1 3 .2 – 1 5 .0 4 6 .7 1 1 0 .9 1 0 .7 – 1 1 .0 2 8 .7 8 .4 – 9 .1 6 7 .4 7 .0 – 7 .9 6 4 5 .1 4 2 .2 – 4 6 .9 4 9 .3 8 .6 – 9 .9 5 8 .5 1 1 3 .3 1 3 .2 – 1 3 .4 3 1 2 .7 1 2 .5 – 1 2 .9 3 T ib io ta rs u s le n g th 6 8 .6 1 7 9 .9 7 6 .1 – 8 4 .6 7 7 5 .5 7 2 .9 – 7 9 .8 1 1 1 1 7 .4 1 1 6 .6 – 1 1 8 .7 3 1 0 0 .0 9 3 .4 – 1 0 5 .0 4 — — 7 6 .9 7 1 .7 – 8 0 .3 6 6 6 .7 6 3 .0 – 7 0 .6 6 6 2 .1 5 8 .2 – 6 4 .3 4 8 4 .2 8 0 .9 – 8 7 .5 5 7 4 .6 1 1 0 5 .0 1 0 0 .6 – 1 0 8 .8 3 1 0 2 .8 9 9 .0 – 1 0 5 .8 3 T ib io ta rs u s d is ta l w id th 6 .9 1 7 .4 6 .8 – 7 .9 7 6 .8 6 .5 – 7 .1 1 1 1 2 .5 1 2 .1 – 1 3 .1 3 1 0 .8 1 0 .4 – 1 1 .2 4 6 .0 5 .6 – 6 .3 3 8 .0 7 .9 – 8 .0 2 6 .9 6 .5 – 7 .2 6 6 .1 5 .6 – 6 .7 6 5 .3 5 .1 – 5 .6 4 7 .2 6 .7 – 7 .6 5 6 .6 1 1 0 .0 9 .9 – 1 0 .1 3 9 .5 9 .4 – 9 .6 3 T ar so m et at ar su s p ro xi m al w id th 7 .4 1 7 .6 7 .0 – 8 .2 7 7 .0 6 .7 – 7 .3 1 1 1 2 .6 1 2 .2 – 1 3 .4 3 1 1 .0 1 0 .7 – 1 1 .7 4 5 .7 1 8 .3 7 .8 – 8 .7 2 7 .0 6 .7 – 7 .2 6 6 .1 5 .8 – 6 .6 6 5 .4 5 .3 – 5 .5 4 7 .4 7 .0 – 7 .9 5 6 .6 1 1 0 .5 1 0 .2 – 1 0 .7 3 1 0 .0 9 .9 – 1 0 .1 3 T ar so m et at ar su s sh af t w id th 4 .1 1 3 .8 3 .5 – 4 .0 7 3 .4 3 .2 – 3 .8 1 1 6 .1 5 .6 – 6 .4 3 5 .4 5 .2 – 5 .6 4 3 .0 2 .8 – 3 .1 2 4 .3 4 .0 – 4 .6 2 3 .5 3 .1 – 3 .6 6 3 .0 2 .8 – 3 .3 6 2 .7 2 .5 – 2 .9 4 3 .6 3 .3 – 3 .8 5 3 .3 1 4 .9 4 .8 – 5 .0 3 4 .6 4 .4 – 4 .7 3 T ar so m et at ar su s sh af t d ep th 2 .8 1 2 .8 2 .5 – 3 .0 7 2 .5 2 .4 – 2 .8 1 1 4 .8 4 .5 – 5 .0 3 4 .1 3 .8 – 4 .6 4 2 .2 2 .1 – 2 .3 2 3 .2 3 .0 – 3 .3 2 2 .8 2 .6 – 3 .0 6 2 .5 2 .3 – 2 .8 6 2 .1 2 .0 – 2 .2 4 2 .7 2 .2 – 2 .9 5 2 .6 1 4 .0 3 .9 – 4 .2 3 3 .8 3 .7 – 4 .0 3 more caudally; cranium with prominent crista nuchalis transversae and a low, broad calveria (as in G. woodfordi ); in dorsal aspect, the pos- terior margins of the orbits abruptly angle away from the midline; the lamina parasphe- noidalis is well emarginated caudally. Ster- num (Figure 4): spina externa of rostrum sterni absent. Humerus (Figure 5): incisura capitus narrows proximally in caudal aspect; crista deltopectoralis rectangular, parallel to corpus humeri; corpus humeri thin, round in cross-section. Ulna (Figure 5): corpus ulnaris straight and dorsoventrally flattened, more so than even in flightless G. owstoni, G. vekama- tolu, or G. australis; impressio brachialis deep and clearly emarginated. Synsacrum: broad in ventral aspect, gradually narrowing cau- dally. Femur (Figure 8): corpus femoris ro- bust, approaching but not surpassing the stoutness of G. vekamatolu. Tibiotarsus (Fig- ure 5): proportionally short (as in G. australis); incisura intercondylaris wide, resulting from an obtuse angle between the condylus medi- alis and condylus lateralis; juncture of condy- lus medialis with facies caudalis of corpus tibiotarsis abrupt rather than gradually slop- ing. Tarsometatarsus (Figure 5): corpus tar- sometatarsi dorsoventrally flattened with a width-to-depth ratio (1.46) greater than in other species (1.21–1.36); viewed medially, the proximal one-third of corpus tarsometa- tarsi slopes toward the hypotarsus rather than being perpendicular to facies dorsalis. etymology. Named after Storrs L. Ol- son in recognition of his unparalleled con- tributions to the evolution, systematics, and paleontology of flightless rails on islands. remarks. Gallirallus storrsolsoni is a medium-sized species that, in overall size, resembles G. owstoni, G. philippensis, G. stria- tus, and G. torquatus. It is larger than G. ripleyi and smaller than G. australis, G. vekamatolu, Figure 4. Ventral (left) and lateral (right) views of the sterna of Gallirallus. A, G. owstoni, uf 39918. B, G. storrsolsoni, bpbm 166027. C, G. philippensis, uwbm 42866. Scale bars ¼ 50 mm. Fossil Rails from Huahine . Kirchman and Steadman 287 Figure 5. Humeri (A–C ), ulnae (D–F ), carpometacarpi (G–I ), tibiotarsi ( J–L), and tarsometatarsi (M–O) of Galliral- lus philippensis (A, D, G, J, M, all from uf 39855), G. storrsolsoni (B, bpbm 166022; E, bpbm 166033; H, bpbm 168165; K, bpbm 166023; N, dapt 7), and G. owstoni (C, F, I, L, O, all from uf 42968). Scale bar ¼ 50 mm. and G. woodfordi. Gallirallus storrsolsoni has a greatly reduced carina sterni, small wing ele- ments, and stout leg elements as in its flight- less congeners. The diagnosis of flightlessness is supported by morphometric comparisons with species of Gallirallus that are known to be either volant or flightless. Correlation coefficients of the first four principal com- ponents (PC), which together account for 99.4% of morphological variance, indicate that PC 1 describes variation in overall size and the degree of reduction of the carina sterni, ulna, and carpometacarpus, and that PC 2 is a description of keel and wing reduc- tion, and leg-bone robustness ( Table 2). A plot of PC 1 versus PC 2, summarizing 96.5% of morphometric variance, clusters G. storrsolsoni with flightless rather than volant congeners (Figure 6). The material from Fa‘ahia represents six individuals, minimally. Because of the excel- lent preservational environment at the Fa‘a- hia site, even the most delicate elements of the skeleton of G. storrsolsoni are known, in- cluding one partial sternum (uf 166027) that still retains the anterior margin of the carina. Outside the New Zealand region, such pres- ervation is unique; all other Gallirallus species described from fossils, G. ripleyi (Mangaia, Cook Islands), G. huiatua ( Niue), and G. vekamatolu (‘Eua, Tonga), were considered to be flightless on the basis of limb-bone pro- portions (Steadman 1987, Steadman et al. 2000, Kirchman and Steadman 2005). Genus Porphyrio Brisson, 1760 We refer three femora from the Fa‘ahia archaeological site (bpbm 166031, dapt 39, 53) to Porphyrio rather than the other genera of large Pacific rails (Gallirallus, Gallinula, Fulica) because of these characters: in proxi- mal aspect, more obtuse angle formed at the junction of the impressiones obturatoriae and trochanter femoris; impressiones obtura- toriae more prominent, leading to a more concave proximoposterior area of corpus femoris; similar size and position of the im- pressiones iliotrochanteria and linea inter- muscularis caudalis; corpus femoris overall more slender; distal end of corpus femoris not expanded laterally until the epicondylus lateralis is reached; rotular groove more nar- row; in posterior aspect, medial margin of TABLE 2 Principal Components Analysis Correlation Coefficients of 16 Skeletal Measurements from Eight Species of Gallirallus (See Text, Figure 6) Correlation Coefficients Skeletal Element PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4 Sternum, width at coracoids .265 �.093 �.045 .019 Sternum, keel depth .097 .177 .037 .027 Humerus, shaft width .219 .089 .077 �.014 Ulna, total length .146 .110 �.035 .003 Ulna, proximal width .217 .024 �.013 .023 Ulna, shaft width .203 .049 .025 .030 Carpometacarpus, intermetacarpal space length .163 .165 �.098 �.022 Femur, total length .224 .021 .021 �.002 Femur, distal width .293 �.047 .004 �.002 Femur, shaft width .255 �.024 �.002 .015 Tibiotarsus, total length .222 .014 .023 �.031 Tibiotarsus, distal width .263 �.048 .018 �.011 Tibiotarsus, shaft width .263 �.012 .002 �.030 Tarsometatarsus, proximal width .258 �.061 .004 �.013 Tarsometatarsus, shaft width .253 �.067 �.029 .018 Tarsometatarsus, shaft depth .262 �.037 .004 .004 Percentage total variance explained 85.81 10.65 2.33 0.61 Fossil Rails from Huahine . Kirchman and Steadman 289 the condylus medialis oriented roughly paral- lel to the shaft rather than diagonal. Porphyrio mcnabi Kirchman & Steadman, n. sp. Figures 7A, 8D holotype. Nearly complete right femur, bpbm 166031 (Figures 7, 8). paratypes. Distal left femur, dapt 53. Left femur lacking distal end, dapt 39. diagnosis. A small species of Porphyrio ( Table 3) distinguished from congeners as follows: impressiones iliotrochanteris extends farther (more distad) along corpus femoris than in P. paepae; in lateral aspect, corpus femoris straighter than in all but P. paepae; in lateral aspect, crista trochanteris more rounded (less flared) on dorsal surface than in P. paepae; most proximal section of linea intermuscularis caudalis (¼ dorsalis) weakly developed (thicker and more protrudent in P. paepae). etymology. Named after Brian K. McNab in recognition of his important re- search on the evolution and physiological ecology of flightless birds, especially rails, on oceanic islands. Figure 6. Plot of mean scores for eight species of Gallirallus on the first two principal components (summarizing 96.5% of variance) of 16 postcranial skeletal measurements. Hollow symbols are volant species; filled symbols are flightless species. The line indicates a hypothesized threshold for flightlessness. —————————————————————————————————————————————————f Figure 7. Cranial (upper) and caudal (lower) views of femora of Porphyrio. A, P. mcnabi, holotype, bpbm 166031. B, P. paepae, bpbm 165649. C, P. martinicus, uf 42419. D, P. porphyrio, uf 39407. Scale bars ¼ 50 mm. 290 PACIFIC SCIENCE . April 2006 Figure 8. Femora of Gallirallus and Porphyrio in cranial aspect. A, G. philippensis, uf 39855. B, G. storrsolsoni, dapt 27/105. C, P. martinicus, uf 42419. D, P. mcnabi, bpbm 166031. Scale bar ¼ 50 mm. TABLE 3 Selected Skeletal Measurements (in mm) of the Femur in Porphyrio with Mean, Range, and Sample Size. F, female; M, male; U, sex unknown. Femur P. mcnabi P. paepae P. porphyrio samoensis P. [porphyrio] pulverulentus P. [porphyrio] poliocephalus P. martinicus P. alleni Sex F? U M F M F M M F M F Total length 49.4 1 52.1 51.7–52.5 2 81.3 76.4–86.5 3 70.0 64.7–72.8 3 78.2 77.9–78.4 2 75.4 1 68.8 1 53.8 52.0–55.4 5 50.7 47.7–52.4 6 46.1 1 44.7 1 Shaft width 3.9 1 4.1 3.9–4.2 3 5.9 5.6–6.1 3 5.0 4.5–5.4 3 5.2 5.1–5.3 2 5.1 1 4.8 1 3.6 3.3–3.7 6 3.4 3.2–3.6 6 3.0 1 2.9 1 Distal width 9.2 1 9.5 9.5–9.5 2 13.7 13.0–14.8 3 12.4 10.9–13.8 2 13.8 13.4–14.2 2 13.4 1 11.7 1 8.5 8.1–8.7 6 7.9 7.4–8.8 6 7.0 1 6.4 1 Note: Some measurements of P. porphyrio and P. martinicus are from Steadman (1988). remarks. Porphyrio mcnabi is a small spe- cies that, in overall body size, resembles P. paepae and P. martinicus. It is larger than P. flavirostris and P. alleni and is exceeded in size by P. porphyrio, P. mantelli, P. hochstetteri, P. kukwiedii, and Porphyrio undescribed spe- cies A and B (see later in this section). The three femora of P. mcnabi were among the 50 bones listed as ‘‘Gallirallus new sp.’’ in Steadman and Pahlavan (1992). It is likely that bpbm 166031 represents an adult female (smaller), whereas dapt 39 (left) and dapt 53 (right) represent a single juvenile male (larger). That dapt 39 and 52 are from a ju- venile is supported by their porous surfaces, thin-walled shafts, and being slightly more gracile than would be expected in an adult. Lacking elements of the wing or pecto- ral girdle, we cannot say whether Porphyrio mcnabi was flightless. The extant P. martini- cus, P. flavirostris, P. alleni (all small), and P. porphyrio (large) are all volant. The four very large, extinct species (P. kukwiedii of New Caledonia, P. mantelli of New Zealand, Por- phyrio undescribed species A of New Ireland, Bismarck Archipelago, and Porphyrio unde- scribed species B of Buka, Solomon Islands) all were flightless, as is the very large, extant P. hochstetteri of New Zealand (Balouet and Olson 1989, Worthy and Holdaway 2002, Steadman in press). The small, extinct P. pae- pae of the Marquesas had somewhat reduced wings but perhaps was still volant (Steadman 1988). discussion Flightlessness Rails are developmentally predisposed to become flightless (Olson 1973b, Feduccia 2000), and scores of neotenic flightless spe- cies have evolved independently on oceanic islands that lack indigenous placental carni- vores. The hypothesis that flightlessness evolves as a means of energy conservation is supported by the basal metabolic rates in flightless species of insular rails being lower than those of their volant relatives (McNab 1994a,b). This finding, coupled with the ob- servation that metabolic rate also correlates positively with relative pectoral muscle mass (McNab 1994a, 2002), suggests that selection for reduced pectoral and wing musculature is the likely cause of insular avian flightlessness. Skeletons of flightless rails are distin- guished from those of volant relatives by hav- ing reduced sternal keels (carina sterni) and shorter, thinner wing bones. Livezey (1998, 2003) has shown that the degree of reduc- tion of pectoral elements varies greatly even among flightless species. Indeed there appears to be a continuum of wing reduction among flightless rails that mirrors the graded reduc- tion in energy expenditure (McNab 2002). Our morphometric analysis of Gallirallus skeletons indicates that some species, such as G. australis, have greatly reduced carina sterni and wing elements, whereas other extant spe- cies known to be flightless, such as G. owstoni, seem to be near the threshold of flight. Biogeography Of the G18 living and extinct species of Gal- lirallus sensu lato that have been named, all but two are flightless species endemic to Oce- ania on single islands or on multiple islands that were connected during the late Pleisto- cene period of lowered sea levels (Steadman 1987, in press, Diamond 1991, Mayr and Di- amond 2001). The two extant, volant species, G. torquatus and G. philippensis, are sympatric in the Philippines, Sulawesi, and New Guinea, although the latter species is very widespread, its distribution extending south to Australia and New Zealand and east in Oceania to Samoa. Flightless species of Gallirallus have evolved on nearly all major archipelagos in Oceania from the Ryukyu Islands of southern Japan, south to New Zealand’s Chatham Islands, and east to the Society Islands. Bones (still undescribed) of Gallirallus also have been found in archaeological sites on four islands in the Marquesas (Steadman 1989a, Steadman and Rolett 1996). Gallirallus ap- parently never made it as far northeast in Oceania as the Hawaiian Islands or as far southeast in Polynesia as Henderson Island, both of which have good Holocene fossil bird records ( James and Olson 1991, Olson and James 1991, Wragg 1995, Steadman in press). Fossil Rails from Huahine . Kirchman and Steadman 293 Gallirallus storrsolsoni is not the only species of flightless rail known from the Society Is- lands. The extinct G. pacificus was discovered on Tahiti by naturalists from Captain James Cook’s second voyage (1777), but no speci- mens exist, and the species is known only from a painting by Georg Forster. The plum- age, soft-part colors, and bill shape make it clear that pacificus is correctly accomodated in Gallirallus. Measurements made by Storrs L. Olson in 1998 ( pers. comm.) from For- ster’s original, full-scale painting in the Brit- ish Museum of Natural History indicate that G. pacificus was a much smaller rail than G. storrsolsoni. For example, the culmen (with epidermal sheath) in G. pacificus is 28.8 mm, whereas the rostrum (without epidermal sheath) in G. storrsolsoni is 36.5–41.0 mm ( Table 1). The tarsus (incuding scutes) in G. pacificus is 33.8 mm, whereas the tarsometa- tarsus (without epidermal sheath) in G. storrs- olsoni is ca. 48.5 mm, based on a composite of two incomplete specimens (dapt 7, bpbm 166034). Gallirallus pacificus is presumed to be flightless on the basis of the short wings in the painting; although this is likely, in the absence of specimens it cannot be verified in the painting. The possible former existence of G. pacificus on Mehetia ( Taylor 1998), a small island 110 km east-southeast of Tahiti, is unsubstantiated and doubtful. Based on its geological and geographical setting, any flightless species on Huahine is likely to have been endemic to the island. The geological age of Huahine is ca. 3 mil- lion yr (Dickinson 1998). It is an eroded vol- canic island surrounded by a broad fringing reef, outside of which the water becomes very deep. The nearest island is Ra‘iatea, ca. 35 km to the west. Huahine never was con- nected to any other island, even during the lowered sea levels of Pleistocene glacial inter- vals, when Ra‘iatea still would have been ca. 30 km away. The genus Porphyrio is widespread in trop- ical and subtropical lowlands. Two extant, volant species, P. martinicus and P. flavirostris, are confined to the Americas. All other spe- cies are from the Old World, with extant, vo- lant P. alleni in Africa and the larger, extant, volant P. porphyrio very widespread from southern Europe and Africa eastward across southern Asia, Indonesia, and Australia to Oceania as far east as Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, and Niue ( Taylor 1998:464, 465). No species of Porphyrio inhabit East Polynesia today. The radiation of certainly or presumably flightless species of Porphyrio is confined to Oceania (Balouet and Olson 1989, Worthy and Holdaway 2002, Steadman in press). The only flightless species that still exists is P. hochstetteri from South Island, New Zea- land. Known extinct forms of Porphyrio are P. mantelli ( North Island, New Zealand), P. albus (Lord Howe Island), P. kukwiedii ( New Caledonia), and Porphyrio undescribed sp. A ( New Ireland) and sp. B (Buka, Solomon Is- lands). Each of these species was as large as or larger than the massive P. hochstetteri, which is the largest extant form. Finally, Porphyrio paepae was a smaller, probably flightless swamphen that is known from Hiva Oa and Tahuata, two islands only 3 km from each other in the Marquesas (Steadman 1988). At the time of its descrip- tion, P. paepae was the only species of Por- phyrio known from East Polynesia. The discovery of P. mcnabi in the Society Islands helps to bridge the formerly huge distribu- tional gap of the genus (from Niue to the Marquesas) and strengthens the likelihood that a substantial radiation of swamphens once existed in East Polynesia. At this point, we cannot say whether this radiation was of Old World or New World origin. Osteologi- cal synapomorphies that ally P. paepae and P. mcnabi with either the New World species (P. martinicus, P. flavirostris) or the Old World P. porphyrio s.l. have not been discerned. Given the propensity in P. martinicus and P. flavirostris for unpredictable, long-distance dispersal (Remsen and Parker 1990), the geo- graphic origin of East Polynesian Porphyrio species remains an open question. Avian Extinction on Huahine The Fa‘ahia archaeological site contained the bones of 15 resident species of seabirds, three migratory species of shorebirds, and 16 spe- cies of resident land birds (Steadman and Pahlavan 1992, Steadman in press). Of the 294 PACIFIC SCIENCE . April 2006 15 seabirds, 12 no longer occur on Huahine, including the extinct gull Larus utunui (Stead- man 2002). The other 11 species of seabirds still are found, at least locally, elsewhere in Oceania. Each of the migratory shorebirds, on the other hand, may visit Huahine season- ally today. Of the 16 species of land birds from Fa‘ahia, 13 no longer occur on Hua- hine. They consist of the locally extripated heron Butorides (Ardeola) striatus, rail Porzana tabuensis, dove Gallicolumba erythroptera, pi- geons Ducula galeata and D. aurorae, and war- bler Acrocephalus caffer. Aside from Gallirallus storrsolsoni and Porphyrio mcnabi, the extinct species of land birds from Fa‘ahia include the doves Gallicolumba nui and Macropygia arevarevauupa, lorikeets Vini vidivici and V. si- notoi, and starling Aplonis diluvialis (Steadman and Zarriello 1987, Steadman 1989b, 1992). The survivors are the very widespread heron Egretta sacra and two species endemic to the Society Islands, the dove Ptilinopus pur- puratus and kingfisher Halcyon tuta. Also ex- tant on Huahine is the very widespread duck Anas superciliosa, which was not found among the bird bones from Fa‘ahia. Two additional species of land birds, the lorikeet Vini peruvi- ana and swiftlet Collocalia leucophaea, are un- known at the Fa‘ahia site but were recorded from Huahine in the nineteenth century, al- though they no longer persist on the island (Steadman in press). Altogether, 19 species of land birds have been recorded from Hua- hine, which is the same number that is known from much-larger Tahiti, which has no fossil record of birds. If the prehistoric bird com- munity of Huahine were entirely revealed, we believe that it also would include a species of Prosobonia sandpiper, Cyanoramphus parrot, and Pomarea monarch, three genera recorded on at least two other islands in the Society Group. acknowledgments For access to modern specimens, we thank the curatorial staffs of the eight museums listed in Materials and Methods. Carla Kishi- nami and Yosihiko Sinoto kindly provided ac- cess to the prehistoric bones from Huahine. We are grateful to Storrs Olson for sharing his measurements of Forster’s painting of Gallirallus pacificus. We thank Storrs Olson and an anonymous reviewer for insightful comments that improved the manuscript. Literature Cited Balouet, J. C., and S. L. Olson. 1989. Fossil birds from late Quaternary deposits in New Caledonia. Smithson. Contrib. Zool. 469. Baumel, J. L., and L. M. Witmer. 1993. Os- teologia. Pages 45–132 in J. J. Baumel, A. S. King, J. E. Breazile, H. E. Evans, and J. C. 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work_fttuqdwlwjhwxdear3szjdxqju	----	CESifo Working Paper no. 6251 econstor Make Your Publications Visible. A Service of zbw Leibniz-Informationszentrum Wirtschaft Leibniz Information Centre for Economics Roth, Christopher; Wohlfart, Johannes Working Paper Experienced Inequality and Preferences for Redistribution CESifo Working Paper, No. 6251 Provided in Cooperation with: Ifo Institute – Leibniz Institute for Economic Research at the University of Munich Suggested Citation: Roth, Christopher; Wohlfart, Johannes (2016) : Experienced Inequality and Preferences for Redistribution, CESifo Working Paper, No. 6251, Center for Economic Studies and ifo Institute (CESifo), Munich This Version is available at: http://hdl.handle.net/10419/149338 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. Sofern die Verfasser die Dokumente unter Open-Content-Lizenzen (insbesondere CC-Lizenzen) zur Verfügung gestellt haben sollten, gelten abweichend von diesen Nutzungsbedingungen die in der dort genannten Lizenz gewährten Nutzungsrechte. Terms of use: Documents in EconStor may be saved and copied for your personal and scholarly purposes. You are not to copy documents for public or commercial purposes, to exhibit the documents publicly, to make them publicly available on the internet, or to distribute or otherwise use the documents in public. If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. www.econstor.eu Experienced Inequality and Preferences for Redistribution Christopher Roth Johannes Wohlfart CESIFO WORKING PAPER NO. 6251 CATEGORY 2: PUBLIC CHOICE DECEMBER 2016 An electronic version of the paper may be downloaded • from the SSRN website: www.SSRN.com • from the RePEc website: www.RePEc.org • from the CESifo website: Twww.CESifo-group.org/wp T ISSN 2364-1428 http://www.ssrn.com/ http://www.repec.org/ http://www.cesifo-group.de/ CESifo Working Paper No. 6251 Experienced Inequality and Preferences for Redistribution Abstract We examine in how far people’s experiences of income inequality affect their preferences for redistribution. We use several large nationally representative datasets to provide evidence that people who have experienced more inequality while growing up are less in favor of redistribution, after controlling for income, demographics, unemployment experiences and current macro-economic conditions. They are also less likely to consider the prevailing distribution of incomes to be unfair, suggesting that inequality experiences affect the reference point about what is a fair division of overall income. Finally, we conduct an experiment to show that individuals randomly exposed to environments promoting inequality in the experience stage of the experiment redistribute less in a subsequent behavioral measure. JEL-Codes: P160, E600, Z130. Keywords: inequality, redistribution, macroeconomic experiences, experiment. Christopher Roth Department of Economics University of Oxford & CSAE Manor Road Building, Manor Road, United Kingdom - Oxford OX1 3UQ christopher.roth@economics.ox.ac Johannes Wohlfart Department of Economics Goethe University Frankfurt Theodor-W.-Adorno-Platz 3, PF H32 Germany - 60323 Frankfurt am Main wohlfart@econ.uni-frankfurt.de December 7, 2016 We would like to thank Alberto Alesina, Heike Auerswald, Peter Bent, Enzo Cerletti, Anujit Chakraborty, Ester Faia, Eliana La Ferrara, Nicola Fuchs-Schündeln, Ingar Haaland, Michalis Haliassos, Emma Harrington, Michael Kosfeld, Ulrike Malmendier, Salvatore Nunnari, Matthew Rabin, Sonja Settele, Guido Tabellini, Bertil Tungodden, Ferdinand von Siemens and seminar participants at Goethe University Frankfurt and ZEW Mannheim as well as participants at the 10th Workshop on Political Economy at ifo Dresden for helpful comments. We also thank Ulrike Malmendier and Stefan Nagel for sharing code. 1 Introduction Understanding the origins of individuals' preferences for redistribution is a key question in po- litical economy. People's demand for redistribution in�uences the levels of government spending and taxation and thereby a�ects the degree of economic inequality. For example, people's taste for redistribution can explain di�erences in the generosity of welfare systems between European countries and the US (Alesina et al., 2001). Experiences of adverse macroeconomic conditions, such as recessions, have been shown to be an important determinant of redistributive preferences (Giuliano and Spilimbergo, 2014). At the same time, people's aversion to inequality has been singled out as a key factor in shaping redistributive choices (Fehr and Schmidt, 1999). However, no evidence exists on how experiences of inequality a�ect people's aversion to inequality and their demand for redistribution. In this paper we examine how growing up in times of high income inequality a�ects views on inequality and preferences for redistribution. On the one hand, experiencing inequality could make people more used to an unequal distribution of incomes and therefore lower their taste for redistribution. On the other hand, people who have lived through times of high inequality could be particularly aware of potential adverse e�ects of inequality and could be more in favor of redistribution. Our evidence comes from several nationally representative datasets: the US General Social Survey, the German General Social Survey as well as the European Social Survey.1 To mea- sure our respondents' experiences of income inequality, we focus on the average level of income inequality that prevailed in their country while they were between 18 and 25 years old. This period of life is sometimes referred to as the �impressionable years� and has been identi�ed as particularly important for the formation of political attitudes and beliefs (Giuliano and Spilim- bergo, 2014; Krosnick and Alwin, 1989; Mannheim, 1970). Speci�cally, we calculate, for each birth-cohort in our datasets, the share of total income held by the top �ve percent of earners2 during their impressionable years.3 We show that our results are robust to using alternative 1While our main evidence comes from the United States and Germany, we also leverage data from a variety of other OECD countries, such as Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. We also replicate our main �ndings using the International Social Survey Program (ISSP) on Social Inequality. 2Top income shares are very commonly used measures of income inequality. The inequality data are taken from �The World Wealth and Income Database� (Alvaredo et al., 2011). 3Our results are robust to using alternative measures of income inequality, namely the share of total income held by the top ten percent of earners, the share of total income held by the top one percent of earners, as well as the Gini coe�cient of equivalized household income. 1 measures of income inequality experiences following the methodology in Malmendier and Nagel (2011). In all of our main speci�cations we control for age �xed e�ects and year �xed e�ects, i.e. we identify our key coe�cient of interest making use of between cohort di�erences in inequality experiences within age groups and years. By including age �xed e�ects, we rule out that our �ndings result from changes in preferences over people's life-time, for example by people becoming more conservative as they get older. The inclusion of year �xed e�ects ensures that our results are not driven by common shocks that a�ect everyone in a given year. In addition, we control for cohort-group �xed e�ects (cohort group brackets of 25 years) which mitigates the concern that our �ndings are driven by di�erences in political attitudes across cohorts associated with longer-term changes in zeitgeist.4 We also control for income and a number of socioeconomic characteristics as well as the national unemployment rate people experienced in their impressionable years which could be correlated with inequality experiences. Across datasets, we provide evidence that individuals who witnessed high levels of income inequality in their impressionable years are less in favor of redistributive policies and are less likely to identify with and to vote for left-wing parties. They are also more likely to believe that inequality increases motivation and that inequality arises due to di�erences in e�ort rather than luck.5 We also �nd that people who have grown up in times of high inequality are less likely to consider the prevailing distribution of incomes to be unfair, suggesting that inequality experiences alter someone's reference point about what is a fair division of resources.6 Combined, our �ndings suggest that being used to an unequal distribution of incomes lowers people's distaste for inequality and reduces their demand for redistribution. To provide causal evidence that experiencing inequality can a�ect people's reference points about the approporiate amount of redistribution and thereby alter their re-distributive pref- erences, we conduct an online experiment on Amazon Mechanical Turk. In the experiment respondents make a hypothetical distributive choice for two other individuals. Respondents are told that these two individuals have previously completed di�erent numbers of tasks for us on MTurk.7 In the �rst stage of the experiment we randomly assign our respondents either to an 4Since we control for both age and year �xed e�ects, we cannot also include dummies for every individual cohort (Campbell, 2001). In addition, inequality experiences vary at the cohort-level, which prohibits separate identi�cation of unrestricted cohort e�ects. 5This evidence on changes in beliefs is in line with the seminal theoretical work by Piketty (1995) who argues that economic circumstances could alter a person's belief about the drivers of success. 6We provide evidence that inequality experiences exert the largest in�uence on political attitudes and beliefs during the impressionable years as compared to other periods in our respondents' lives. 7This is related to the behavioral measure employed by Almås et al. (2016) and others. 2 inequality condition or to an equality condition. Individuals in the inequality condition choose between two options that result in highly unequal outcomes for the other workers, while people in the equality condition choose between two options that result in more equal outcomes for the other workers. In the second stage our respondents are again asked to distribute money between two other workers, but this time they all face the same choice set of potential payo�s to the two workers. In line with the observational evidence, we �nd that individuals who have experienced in- equality in the �rst stage of the experiment are less likely to redistribute in stage two compared to people in the equality condition. Since participants are in the role of a spectator who observes inequality between two other workers, our design rules out channels that work through the par- ticipants' own outcomes. This experimental evidence highlights that exposure to an institutional environment that promotes inequality can in�uence people's reference point about what is a fair division of resources and thereby a�ect people's preferences for redistribution. We also use the observational data to examine alternative channels through which experienc- ing inequality could a�ect beliefs and redistributive preferences. First, we test whether people form their redistributive preferences based on the e�ect inequality had on them personally. It could be the case that only people who personally bene�ted from high inequality while growing up adjust their redistributive preferences. The e�ects are not signi�cantly di�erent for individuals with better starting conditions or more success in life, providing evidence against this mecha- nism. Second, we show that the e�ects are unlikely to operate through changes in perceived social status. To provide evidence against the possibility that our e�ects are driven by cohort-speci�c changes in zeitgeist accompanied with changes in general political preferences, we conduct a se- ries of placebo tests. We provide evidence that inequality experiences do not a�ect how conser- vative individuals are in matters unrelated to redistribution and inequality, such as nationalism, attitudes towards democracy, attitudes towards guns or attitudes towards immigrants. This is consistent with our interpretation that inequality experiences are driving the changes in redis- tributive preferences, rather than picking up more general di�erences in political attitudes across cohorts. Moreover, we demonstrate the robustness of our results to controlling for other experiences during people's impressionable years, such as experiencing a crisis (Giuliano and Spilimbergo, 2014), the experienced growth rate of real per capita GDP, the experienced political ideology of 3 the leading party as well as the experienced size of the government. Our results barely change after controlling for these other experiences, indicating that omitted variable bias from other experiences during impressionable years is unlikely. We contribute to a growing literature on the origins and determinants of redistributive pref- erences (Alesina et al., 2013; Durante et al., 2014; Alesina and Giuliano, 2010; Alesina and La Ferrara, 2005) and beliefs about inequality (Piketty, 1995).8 Researchers have established that redistributive preferences are in�uenced by culture (Luttmer and Singhal, 2012; Alesina and Giuliano, 2010), political regimes (Alesina and Fuchs-Schuendeln, 2007; Pan and Xu, 2015), relative income (Karadja et al., 2016; Cruces et al., 2013) and historical experiences (Chen et al., 2016; Roland and Yang, 2016).9 Our paper is most closely related to Giuliano and Spilimbergo (2014) who show that individ- uals who have experienced a recession in their formative years believe that success in life depends more on luck than e�ort, support more government redistribution, and tend to vote for left-wing parties. Our paper shows that people's experiences of unequal distributions of incomes matter on top of the e�ects of experiencing a crisis. We also contribute to the literature on the relationship between inequality and the demand for redistribution. Inequality and preferences for redistribution are negatively correlated in the aggregate across countries, but this pattern vanishes when looking at within-country movements of inequality (Kenworthy and McCall, 2008). Changes in aggregate inequality in a country could a�ect the average demand for redistribution through various channels, such as changes in incomes of di�erent groups, changes in beliefs about social mobility or fairness concerns.10 Kerr (2014) �nds that short-run increases in inequality within countries or within U.S. regions are associated with greater acceptance for wage di�erentials but also with higher support for redistributive policies at the individual level, conditional on individual characteristics. We identify the e�ect of growing up in times of high inequality conditional on e�ects of contemporaneous inequality that are common across cohorts by including year �xed e�ects. Our �ndings highlight a channel through which long-run trends in inequality could be re�ected in the average demand for redistribution in a country. When there is a long-term increase in inequality, younger generations could be more used to this inequality and exhibit lower distaste for 8More generally, our paper is related to the literature on endogenous preferences (Nunn and Wantchekon, 2011; Kosse et al., 2016; Becker et al., 2016; Schildberg-Hörisch et al., 2014). 9For excellent reviews, see Alesina and Giuliano (2010) and Nunn (2012). 10Fairness concerns are commonly modeled as inequality aversion, i.e. the idea that people have a distaste for unequal distributions of income. 4 it relative to older generations. These e�ects could either amplify a potential negative relationship between long-run changes in inequality and preferences for redistribution, or they could mitigate a positive relationship between the two. Our paper is also related to Kuziemko et al. (2015) who �nd that preferences for redistribu- tion do not respond to information about inequality. We extend their paper in two ways: �rst, we provide �eld evidence that people's experiences of inequality a�ect their preferences for redis- tribution; second, we show that people's exposure to an institutional environment that gives rise to inequality can change people's view on what distribution of resources is fair. Our experimental �ndings are also related to recent work by Charité et al. (2015) who show that reference points matter for people's redistributive choices when subjects are given the opportunity to redistribute unequal, unearned initial endowments between two anonymous recipients. At a more general level, our paper also complements the growing literature on the e�ects of lifetime experiences on belief formation and economic behavior (Hertwig et al., 2004; Nisbett and Ross, 1980; Weber et al., 1993). For instance, Malmendier and Nagel (2011) provide evidence that having experienced negative macroeconomic shocks makes people less likely to invest in stocks. Moreover, Malmendier and Nagel (2015) show that people's experienced in�ation rates predict their contemporaneous in�ation expectations. Fuchs-Schuendeln and Schuendeln (2015) provide evidence that people's experience of living in a democracy makes them more likely to support democratic regimes. Our paper contributes to this literature by highlighting that experiences of income inequality alter people's views about fairness and distributive justice and that they shape people's political preferences and beliefs. More generally, our paper highlights that life-time experiences could a�ect preferences and beliefs later in life by changing people's reference-points. At a method- ological level, our paper is the �rst one that provides experimental evidence that experiences could a�ect preferences and beliefs through a reference point channel. The paper proceeds as follows: Section 2 describes the data. In section 3, we present the main results of our analysis. Section 4 highlights potential mechanisms and we conduct a series of robustness checks in section 5. Section 6 presents the experimental design and the experimental results. Finally, the paper concludes. 5 2 Data 2.1 General Social Survey (US) We leverage rich data on political preferences and beliefs from the General Social Survey (GSS). This dataset consists of repeated cross-sections from 1972 to 2014 that are representative for the US and has been widely used in previous research in economics (Alesina and La Ferrara, 2000; Giuliano and Spilimbergo, 2014). Following Giuliano and Spilimbergo (2014) we focus on questions in which respondents are asked about their preferences for redistribution to the poor. In addition, we examine people's beliefs about the determinants of success in life, in line with the idea that individuals who believe that luck rather than hard work is a major determinant of success are more likely to be in favor of government redistribution (Piketty, 1995). Speci�cally we examine the following measures of redistributive preferences: • Help Poor: People's view on whether the government in Washington should do everything to improve the standard of living of all poor Americans or whether it is not the government's responsibility, and that each person should take care of himself. • Pro-welfare: People's opinion on whether the government is not spending enough money on assistance to the poor. • Success due to luck: People's view on whether success is mostly due to luck or owing to hard work. We also consider people's self-placement on a conservative-liberal scale, their party a�liation, and their self-reported past voting behavior. We examine whether people identify more as Democrat or Republican and whether they report having voted for Democrats or Republicans. We code all variables such that high values mean that they are more in favor of redistribution and more likely to vote for Democrats. We also use questions that allow us to shed light on the mechanisms behind our �ndings. We look at people's self-assessed social and economic position in society. In Appendix C, we provide more details on these variables. In Table A13 we display the summary statistics for our sample from the General Social Survey. 2.2 German General Social Survey The German General Social Survey (Allbus) collects data on political attitudes and behavior, as well as a large set of demographics in Germany. Every two years since 1980 a representative 6 cross section of the population is surveyed using both constant and variable questions. We use data from the waves from 1980 to 2014. The previous literature emphasizes that support for redistribution depends on people's beliefs about the sources of economic inequality (Benabou and Tirole, 2006; Alesina et al., 2001; Alesina and Angeletos, 2005; Fong, 2001). The German General Social Survey contains unique data on views about the sources and consequences of inequality: • Inequality is Unfair: People's opinion on whether the social inequalities prevailing in Germany are unfair. • Inequality does not increase motivation: People's beliefs about the e�ect of inequality on people's motivation. • Inequality re�ects luck: People's disagreement to the statement that di�erences in rank between people are acceptable as they essentially re�ect how people used their opportuni- ties. We code the variables such that high values stand for less favorable attitudes to inequality. In addition, we focus on outcomes that are similar to the outcomes we use in the General Social Survey. Speci�cally, we look at political behavior as measured through voting intentions, self- reported past voting beavior and people's self-assesment on a political scale. These variables are described in detail in Appendix C. In Table A14 we show summary statistics for our sample from the Allbus. 2.3 European Social Survey The European Social Survey (ESS) is a dataset containing rich information about political atti- tudes, beliefs and behavioral patterns of the various populations in Europe. It also contains data on a rich set of demographic variables. The ESS has been widely used to study redistributive preferences, see for example Luttmer and Singhal (2012). We make use of all available waves from the ESS (2002-2014).1112 Our key outcome variables of interest are a measure capturing whether people are in favor of redistribution as well as people's self-reported voting behavior and their self-placement on a 11Most of our sample from the ESS comes from three countries: France, Germany and the United Kingdom, each of which makes up for around 20 percent of the sample. Denmark, Finland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland all together constitute about 40 percent of the overall sample. 12Due to lacking inequality data we drop all respondents currently living in Eastern Germany and focus only on Western German Respondents. 7 political scale. As in the other datasets, we code all outcome variables such that higher values represent more left-wing views. These outcomes are described in more detail in Appendix C. In Table A15 we provide summary statistics for our sample from the ESS. 2.4 Normalizations, Controls and Missings The outcome variables we use in our analysis are mostly self-placements between left and right or between agreement and disagreement to a particular statement on 4-point, 5-point or 10-point scales. We normalize all outcome variables as well as all experience variables using the mean and the standard deviation of the respective variables in our �nal samples of interest. These normalizations enable us to compare e�ect sizes across outcomes and across datasets. We construct a consistent set of controls for key demographics, such as income, gender, marital status, education, religious a�liation and employment status for all of the datasets of interest. In Appendix D we describe the exact controls we include for each of the di�erent datasets.13 2.5 Inequality and Unemployment Data We use data on top income shares from the �The World Wealth and Income Database� (WID) (Alvaredo et al., 2011) which is the most extensive data source of internationally comparable measures of income inequality. The database contains very rich data on the share of overall national income earned by people at the top of the distribution. We focus on the share of total gross income earned by the top 1, the top 5 and the top 10 percent of earners respectively. We also make use of data on the Gini coe�cient of equivalized disposable household incomes taken from the �Chartbook of Economic Inequality� (Atkinson and Morelli, 2014). For most countries data on the Gini coe�cient are available only from a much later point in time than data on top income shares. In our main analysis we therefore focus on the experienced share of total income earned by the top �ve percent of earners.14 In Appendix E, we provide a detailed overview on the inequality data that are available for each country and the respective cohorts we are able to use in our analysis. 13To deal with missing values and to keep the sample as large as possible, for each of the above categories of controls we code missings as zero and include a dummy variable indicating missing values in that category. 14Note that our data on top income shares refer to total earnings before taxes and transfers, while our data on the Gini coe�cient are based on disposable household income after taxes. The reason for this discrepancy is di�erent data availability between the two measures. We do not consider this aspect material for our analysis, as we focus on one measure within each estimation and because movements in pre- and post-tax inequality are highly correlated. 8 15 20 25 30 35 T op 5 % in co m e sh ar e 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 Year DE FR UK US Figure 1: Top 5 percent share in total income over time and countries. Figure 1 illustrates the evolution of the share of total income going to the top �ve percent in the largest countries that are part of our sample. We observe quite substantial variation of this measure over the last 100 years, both across countries and over time. 9 20 25 30 35 40 T op 5 % in co m e sh ar e 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 Year New England Middle Atlantic East North Central West North Central South Atlantic 15 20 25 30 35 40 T op 5 % in co m e sh ar e 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 Year East South Central West South Central Mountain Pacific Figure 2: Top 5 percent share in total income over time and US census divisions. In addition, we use data on top income shares in US census divisions. Figure 2 shows the evolution of the income share of the top �ve percent in the di�erent census divisions over time. While the trends are similar across regions, there is still substantial variation across regions at any point in time. In our analysis we focus on those countries for which we could obtain historical inequality data from the World Wealth and Income Database. We use linear interpolation to impute data for years in which inequality data are missing. We impute inequality data if the gap between any two data points for which inequality data are available, is at most six years.15 We also use historical data on national unemployment rates from Global Financial Data (GFD) and use the same rule to impute missing values. 15This allows us to use much larger samples of individuals in our analyses. We have made sure that our results are robust to using di�erent maximum gaps for the imputation of the inequality data. 10 2.6 Construction of Experience Variable In most of our estimations we focus on the level of income inequality that our respondents ex- perienced while they were between 18 and 25 years old, an age range sometimes referred to as the �impressionable years�. This age range corresponds to the time when most individuals begin to participate in political life. Previous literature has identi�ed this time period as particularly important for the formation of political attitudes and beliefs. For instance, Krosnick and Alwin (1989) provide evidence that individuals' susceptibility to attitude change is high during the im- pressionable years and drops considerably thereafter. Giuliano and Spilimbergo (2014) �nd that experiencing a recession while aged between 18 and 25 signi�cantly a�ects political preferences later in life, while similar experiences in other age ranges do not seem to matter. Following this literature, we calculate, for each birth-cohort in our datasets, the average share of total income held by the top �ve percent of earners while this birth cohort was in their impressionable years. In our main speci�cations we focus on the national-level inequality that our respondents experienced during their impressionable years in their country of residence, IEit. In an alternative speci�cation we use region-speci�c inequality experiences, IEirt. The GSS provides data on the census division the respondents lived in at age 16, and we compute someone's experienced inequality during his or her impressionable years using historical data on top income shares in this census division. This method relies on the assumption that our respondents did not move when they were aged between 16 and 25.16 Our datasets do not contain direct questions of the level of inequality that our respondents perceived while they were young. Our measures of experienced inequality are therefore based on the actual level of inequality that prevailed during our respondents' formative years. In Appendix B we use data from the International Social Survey Program on Social Inequality (ISSP) to show that people's perceived levels of inequality closely co-move with actual inequality in their country of residence. We show that people believe that they live in a more unequal society when inequality is higher. Similarly, people report higher estimates of pay gaps between CEOs, cabinet ministers and doctors on the one hand, and unskilled workers on the other hand, when inequality is high. These results are robust to including country and time �xed e�ects as well as demographic controls. We report these �ndings in tables A21 and A22. While these �ndings indicate that our measure of inequality experiences is valid, the extent to 16We provide evidence that our results are robust to excluding movers (de�ned as people living in a di�erent census division when they are interviewed than the census division they lived in at age 16). 11 20 25 30 35 40 E xp er ie nc ed to p 5 % in co m e sh ar e (a ge 1 8- 25 ) 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 Cohort DE FR UK US Figure 3: Experienced top 5 percent income share (age 18-25) against cohort across countries. which individuals have �experienced inequality� depends on individual-level characteristics like people's media consumption, their place of residence or their work place during their formative years. This means that our measure of �inequality experience� is measured with noise. However, this measurement error does not constitute a threat to the internal validity of our �ndings and, if anything, will bias our estimates towards zero. Figure 3 plots the average income share of the top �ve percent experienced over impressionable years against cohort for the largest countries in our sample. We observe that in the US and in the UK cohorts born from around 1960 onward experienced higher levels of inequality during their impressionable years relative to earlier cohorts. The pattern is reversed for France. In the case of Germany, experienced inequality is the lowest for people born around 1960 and higher for those born before that or after. Figure 4 shows experienced inequality for cohorts growing up in the di�erent US census divisions. The large di�erences across census divisions provide an additional source of variation that we exploit in our estimations. 12 25 30 35 40 45 E xp er ie nc ed to p 5 % in co m e sh ar e (a ge 1 8- 25 ) 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 Cohort New England Middle Atlantic East North Central West North Central South Atlantic 20 25 30 35 40 E xp er ie nc ed to p 5 % in co m e sh ar e (a ge 1 8- 25 ) 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 Cohort East South Central West South Central Mountain Pacific Figure 4: Experienced top 5 percent income share (age 18-25) against cohort across US census divisions. 13 Similarly, we calculate the average experienced national unemployment rate during our re- spondents' impressionable years, UEit, to account for other macroeconomic shocks that could be correlated with inequality experiences. As our experience variables are reliant on having lived through the impressionable years (age 18 to 25) we restrict our attention to people of age 26 and older in most of our estimations. 3 Empirical Strategy and Results 3.1 Empirical Speci�cation: GSS and Allbus We estimate the e�ect of inequality experiences, IEit, on people's redistributive preferences, yirt. In our preferred speci�cation we also control for other macroeconomic experiences that might a�ect redistributive preferences (Giuliano and Spilimbergo, 2014). In particular, we control for peoples' national-level unemployment experiences, UEit. Moreover, we include a vector of household controls, Xit. 17 In addition, we also account for age �xed e�ects, δit, regional �xed e�ects18, ρr, cohort group �xed e�ects, πi 19, and year �xed e�ects, βt. Speci�cally, we estimate the following equation: yirt = α1IEit + α2UEit + Π T Xit + δit + ρr + βt + πi + εirt (1) We also use region-speci�c inequality experiences, IEirt, for the GSS. In these estimations we control for �xed e�ects for the census division our respondent lived in at age 16, ρ16i, interacted with age �xed e�ects, δit, cohort group �xed e�ects, πi, as well as year �xed e�ects, βt. This in turn allows us to non-parametrically control for age-speci�c trends at the regional level, dif- ferences across cohort groups at the regional level, as well as shocks that are correlated within groups of people growing up in the same census division. The speci�cation is given as follows: yirt = α1IEirt + α2UEit + Π T Xit + ρ16it × δit + ρ16it × βt + ρ16it × πi + ρr + εirt (2) 17This is a vector controlling for household income, household size, the respondent's marital status, religion, educational level and employment status. 18In the US this corresponds to census division and in Germany to the federal state. 19We include dummy variables for the cohorts born between 1876 and 1900, between 1901 and 1925, between 1926 and 1950, between 1951 and 1975, and 1976 or later, respectively. 14 3.2 Empirical Speci�cation: ESS The empirical speci�cation for the European Social Survey is very similar to the speci�cation that uses region-speci�c variation in inequality experiences in the US. We estimate the e�ect of country-speci�c inequality experiences during impressionable years, IEict, on people's redis- tributive preferences, yict. We control for national-level unemployment experiences during im- pressionable years, UEict, and a vector of household controls, Xit. In addition, we account for country-�xed e�ects, ρc, interacted with both time �xed e�ects, βt, and cohort group �xed e�ects, πi, as well as country-speci�c age trends, ageit × ρc.20 yict = α1IEict + α2UEict + Π T Xit + ρc × ageit + ρc × βt + ρc × πi + εict (3) For all of the previous three empirical speci�cations, we report standard errors that are two-way clustered by the respondents' age and cohort as we might expect large intra-cluster correlations in these non-nested clusters (Cameron and Miller, 2013). Importantly, our results are robust to clustering standard errors just by cohort or age.21 Since we test for a large set of outcome variables, we account for multiple hypothesis testing. For our main tables, we adjust the p-values using the �sharpened q-value approach� (Benjamini et al., 2006; Anderson, 2008). For each family of outcomes, we control for a false discovery rate of 5 percent, i.e. the expected proportion of rejections that are type I errors (Anderson, 2008).22 3.3 Results In Table 1, we present the results from the General Social Survey. In Panel A we report the results on national-level inequality experiences during impressionable years, while Panel B shows the results using regional inequality experiences. As can be seen in Columns 1 and 2 in Panel A, we �nd strong evidence that individuals with higher inequality experiences are less likely to be in favor of helping the poor and less in favor of welfare. In Column 3, we show that people who 20Since each country is part of the ESS only in a few waves (sometimes only one) and since the time dimension of the ESS is short (2000-2015), we do not have enough variation of inequality experiences within country-age groups to include an interaction of age �xed e�ects and country �xed e�ects. Our independent variable varies at the country-cohort level, so in the extreme case of observing observations from a particular country only in one year, all the variation in the independent variable would be absorbed by the interaction of age �xed e�ects and country �xed e�ects. 21For all of these datasets we make use of population weights. This makes sure that we can make statements about a sample that is representative of the general population. 22These adjusted p-values are displayed in the tables as FDR-adjusted p-values. 15 Table 1: Main Results: General Social Survey (US) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Help poor Pro welfare Success due to luck Liberal Party: Democrat Voted: Democrat Panel A Inequality Experiences -0.0370** -0.0234* -0.0147 -0.0383*** -0.0476*** -0.0414*** (0.0147) (0.0126) (0.0112) (0.0123) (0.0126) (0.0129) FDR-adjusted p-values [.009]*** [.027]** [.067]* [.004]*** [.001]*** [.004]*** Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 R-squared 0.108 0.128 0.024 0.078 0.146 0.200 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Panel B Inequality Experiences -0.0415** -0.0268* -0.0142 -0.0598*** -0.0522*** -0.0377*** (Regional) (0.0179) (0.0138) (0.0111) (0.0134) (0.0123) (0.0141) FDR-adjusted p-values [.022]** [.045]** [.075]* [.002]*** [.001]** [.002]** Observations 22,987 25,831 28,670 39,632 45,703 32,597 R-squared 0.139 0.159 0.054 0.099 0.170 0.226 Census div 16 FE x Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div 16 FE x Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div 16 FE x Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors two-way clustered by age and cohort are displayed in parentheses. The p-values adjusted for a false discovery rate of �ve percent are presented in brackets. Inequality experiences in Panel A are based on the national level experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Inequality experiences in Panel B are based on the regional experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All speci�cations in Panel A control for age �xed e�ects, year �xed e�ects, cohort group �xed e�ects, as well as region �xed e�ects. In Panel B, we control for age �xed e�ects, year �xed e�ects and cohort group �xed e�ects interacted with census division at age 16 �xed e�ects and we also control for current census division �xed e�ects. All speci�cations control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. experienced higher inequality become marginally signi�cantly more likely to attribute success in life more to e�ort than to luck.23 In Columns 4 to 6, we provide consistent evidence that people with higher levels of inequality experience are less likely to be liberal and less likely to vote for democrats. Across speci�cations, we �nd the e�ects to be quite similar between national and regional experiences in terms of both signi�cance and magnitude. In Table 2, we show the results from the German General Social Survey (ALLBUS). In Columns 1 to 3 we demonstrate that people with experiences of higher inequality hold di�erent views on inequality. Speci�cally, these people are less likely to consider the prevailing level of 23One interpretation of this �nding is that higher inequality experiences increase people's perceived income risk. Consequently, they demand more insurance which can come in the form of redistribution by the government. 16 Table 2: Main Results: German General Social Survey (Allbus) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Inequality: Inequality does not Inequality Left-wing Intention to Vote: Voted: Left Unfair increase motivation re�ects luck Left Inequality Experiences -0.0543* -0.0428 -0.0684* -0.0957*** -0.0836*** -0.0961** (0.0307) (0.0296) (0.0349) (0.0196) (0.0298) (0.0457) FDR-adjusted p-values [.065]* [.08]* [.053]* [.001]*** [.013]** [.049]*** Observations 10,401 10,357 10,309 18,979 14,691 9,533 R-squared 0.071 0.044 0.068 0.080 0.109 0.111 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Region FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors two-way clustered by age and cohort are displayed in parentheses. The p-values adjusted for a false discovery rate of �ve percent are presented in brackets. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All speci�cations control for age �xed e�ects, year �xed e�ects, cohort group �xed e�ects as well as region �xed e�ects . All speci�cations control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. inequality as unfair (Column 1), suggesting that inequality experiences a�ect perceptions of what is a fair division of resources. Moreover, they are more likely to consider inequality important for motivation (Column 2) and to attribute di�erences in income to e�ort rather than luck (Column 3). In Columns 4 to 6 we examine the e�ects of inequality experiences on people's self-assessment on a political scale, their voting intentions as well as their voting behavior in the last federal election. In line with the previous �ndings, we �nd that experiences of higher inequality decrease people's support for left-wing parties. Table 3 displays the results from the European Social Survey. As can be seen in Column 1, we provide evidence that people with high inequality experiences are less likely to agree to the statement that �the government should take measures to reduce di�erences in income levels�. In addition, we �nd that people with more inequality experiences place themselves less on the left on a political scale and are less likely to have voted for a left-wing party in the last election. As can be seen in Tables 1 to 3 all of our key results are robust to taking into account multiple-hypothesis testing.24 To illustrate the magnitude of the e�ects, we compare the e�ect sizes found in the di�erent 24In Tables A17 - A19 in appendix A, we also show our main results including all relevant controls. We �nd evidence that the controls predict preferences for redistribution in line with the previous literature (Alesina and Giuliano, 2013, 2010). For instance, individuals with higher incomes and more education are more against redistribution, while females are more in favor of redistribution. 17 Table 3: Main Results: European Social Survey (1) (2) (3) Pro-redistribution Left-wing Voted: Left Experienced Inequality -0.0390* -0.117*** -0.121*** (0.0234) (0.0200) (0.0389) FDR-adjusted p-values [.096]* [.001]*** [.002]*** Observations 85,529 81,167 25,462 R-squared 0.143 0.079 0.153 Country FE x Age trends Yes Yes Yes Country FE x Year FE Yes Yes Yes Country FE x Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Standard errors two-way clustered by age and cohort are displayed in parentheses. The p-values adjusted for a false discovery rate of �ve percent are presented in brackets. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total national income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All speci�cations control for age trends, year �xed e�ects and cohort group �xed e�ects, each interacted with country �xed e�ects. All speci�cations control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 18 samples to the e�ects of other important determinants of preferences for redistribution. In this exercise we focus on our respondents' self-placement on a political scale, as this variable is available across the datasets used. According to our estimates using national-level inequality experiences and the General Social Survey (US), a one standard deviation increase in inequality experiences leads to a decrease of 3.8 percent of a standard deviation in people's tendency to consider themselves as left-wing. Moving from the inequality experiences of the cohort born in 1950 (very low inequality experiences) to the cohort born in 1980 (high inequality experiences) implies a 10.3 percent of a standard deviation decrease in the dependent variable. For comparison, the e�ect of being female is an increase by 12.5 percent of a standard deviation, while the e�ect of holding a highschool degree is a decrease by around 9.5 percent of a standard deviation. We obtain larger e�ect sizes in the sample from the German General Social Survey. Here, a one standard deviation increase in inequality experiences leads to a decrease of people's tendency to consider themselves left-wing by around 9.6 percent of a standard deviation. Moving from the low inequality experience of people born in 1950 to high inequality experiences of the cohort of 1980 implies a decrease in the dependent variable by 21.2 percent of a standard deviation. For comparison, being female increases the self-assessment as left-wing by around 7.7 percent of a standard deviation. Moving from the lowest to the highest quintile in the income distribution leads to a decrease in the dependent variable by 19.2 percent of a standard deviation. According to our estimations on the cross-country sample from the ESS, a one standard deviation increase in inequality experiences leads to a decrease in people's self-classi�cation as left-wing by around 11.7 percent of a standard deviation. For the cohort born in 1980, moving from the country where this cohort has the lowest inequality experience (Denmark) to the country where this cohort has the highest inequality experience (UK) implies a decrease in the tendency of people to consider themselves left-wing by almost 50 percent of a standard deviation. We also replicate our key results using data on voting behavior and support for redistribu- tion from the International Social Survey Program Module on Social Inequality. Importantly, our estimates are fairly similar in terms of magnitude and signi�cance, which provides us with additional con�dence in our results. We present the �ndings from this additional dataset in Appendix B. Our �ndings are not contradictory to Kerr (2014) who �nds that short-run increases in inequality within countries or U.S. regions are associated with greater demand for redistribution. He identi�es e�ects of short-term changes in inequality that operate uniformly across cohorts, 19 which are absorbed by year �xed e�ects in our analysis. Thus, we identify the e�ect of growing up in times of high inequality on top of these e�ects. While all cohorts may exhibit a distaste for inequality, our �ndings suggest that the strength of this concern depends on someone's experience while growing up. The results of this paper are also in line with Alesina and Fuchs-Schuendeln (2007) who provide evidence that people who grew up and lived in East Germany under the communist regime are more in favor of redistribution than are people from West Germany. Our �nding of a negative e�ect of inequality experiences on demand for redistribution provides an additional explanation for higher demand for redistribution in formerly communist countries, where income inequality was often low. 4 Mechanisms 4.1 Reference Points and Fairness It could be that experiences of inequality alter people's reference points and thereby a�ect peo- ple's perception of appropriate levels of inequality. For example, individuals with a higher ref- erence point about inequality due to experiences would perceive current levels of inequality as less severe and therefore exhibit a lower demand for redistribution. Indeed, recent evidence by Charité et al. (2015) shows that reference points play an important role in determining people's taste for redistribution. Above, we presented evidence that people are less likely to perceive the prevailing distribution of incomes as unfair if they have higher inequality experiences. Since everyone in a given year faces the same aggregate level of inequality, this suggests that people interpret the fairness of the prevailing distribution in light of their inequality experiences. We provide experimental evidence for this mechanism in section 6. 4.2 Extrapolation from own circumstances The negative e�ect of experiencing inequality on preferences for redistribution could be driven by individuals who bene�ted personally from high levels of inequality while they were young. If this was the case we would expect the e�ect to be stronger for those who had better starting conditions in life and for those who were more successful in life. To shed light on this mechanism, we examine 20 heterogeneous e�ects by a variety of proxies for starting conditions in life and economic status. For each of our main outcomes, we estimate the following speci�cation: yirt = α1IEit + α2IEit × interactit + α3interactit + α4UEit + ΠT Xit + δit + ρr + βt + πi + εirt (4) where interactit is our interaction variable of interest. We then calculate the estimated average e�ect sizes (AES) for the coe�cients α1 and α2 across the six speci�cation we estimate in the GSS or the Allbus, respectively (Kling et al., 2005; Giuliano and Spilimbergo, 2014).25 Using the AES instead of individual coe�cients increases our e�ective statistical power. This is particularly important for the heterogeneity analysis for which we have lower statistical power. In Table 4 we show that there is no signi�cant heterogeneity by relative family income at age 16 and by father's education in our sample from the GSS.26 27 This suggests that the e�ect is not driven by those who had better starting conditions in life. Moreover, the e�ect is only marginally signi�cantly larger for those with high current relative income, and not signi�cantly di�erent for those with high education. In Table 5 we show that also in the Allbus sample the e�ects are fairly uniform across groups. Taken together, these homogeneous results suggest that extrapolation from own circumstances is an unlikely explanation for the e�ect of inequality experiences on redistributive preferences.28 4.3 Relative income Experiences of inequality could also change people's beliefs about their economic status. Specif- ically, people who grew up in times of high income inequality, and who are therefore used to more inequality, could be less likely to perceive their current relative income as low. People's beliefs about their relative position in the income distribution have been shown to change peo- 25The AES is de�ned as the average of all coe�cient estimates across a family of estimations, where each coe�cient is divided by the standard deviation of the respective outcome. All our outcomes are normalized, so the AES is the simple average of the estimated coe�cients. We calculate p-values for the AES based on simultaneous estimation of the six regressions. 26These variables are coded as one if the respondent considered the income of his family at age 16 to be at least average and if the respondent's father had at least high school education, respectively. 27We also do not �nd heterogeneity according to education of the mother. 28We also examined heterogeneity according to age, but do not report the results for brevity. We found that the e�ect is fairly uniform across age groups, suggesting that the e�ects persist over the lives of the respondents. In addition, we checked whether the e�ects vary by the degree someone's perceived relative income increased or decreased between his or her youth and the survey year. We found no evidence for heterogeneous e�ects along this dimension. 21 Table 4: Heterogeneous E�ects: General Social Survey (GSS) (1) (2) (3) (4) AES AES AES AES Inequality Experiences -.0213*** -.0435*** -.0278*** -0.0291** [0.001] [0.000] [0.000] [0.010] Inequality Experiences × High relative income at 16 -.0104 [0.128] Inequality Experiences × High father's education .008 [0.336] Inequality Experiences × High relative income -.0114 [0.120] Inequality Experiences × High education -.006 [0.401] Observations 25,078 24,818 30,271 31,919 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Region FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Yes P-values from simultaneous estimation clustered by cohort are displayed in parentheses. The number of observations refers to the average number used for the estimation of a given AES. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All speci�cations control for age �xed e�ects, year �xed e�ects, cohort group �xed e�ects as well as region �xed e�ects . All speci�cations control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 22 Table 5: Heterogeneous E�ects: German General Social Survey (Allbus) (1) (2) (3) AES AES AES Inequality Experiences -.0744*** -.0691*** -.0681*** [0.000] [0.005] [0.000] Inequality Experiences × High father's education .0059 [0.769] Inequality Experiences × High relative income -.0177 [0.353] Inequality Experiences × High education -.0204 [0.375] Observations 14,052 10,308 14,122 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Region FE Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes P-values from simultaneous estimation clustered by cohort are displayed in parentheses. The number of observations refers to the average number used for the estimation of a given AES. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All speci�cations control for age �xed e�ects, year �xed e�ects, cohort group �xed e�ects as well as region �xed e�ects. All speci�cations control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 23 Table 6: Other outcomes: GSS and Allbus (1) (2) (3) GSS (national inequality experiences) Allbus Low relative Low social Low social income position position Inequality Experiences 0.00340 0.00467 -0.0368 (0.0121) (0.0118) (0.0234) Observations 43,234 44,402 15,025 R-squared 0.257 0.205 0.204 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Region FE Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Standard errors two-way clustered by age and cohort are displayed in parentheses. Inequality ex- periences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national un- employment rate during the impressionable years. All speci�cations control for age �xed e�ects, year �xed e�ects, cohort group �xed e�ects as well as regions �xed e�ects. All speci�cations con- trol for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. ple's demand for redistribution (Cruces et al., 2013; Karadja et al., 2016). We therefore test whether experiences of high inequality lower people's perceived relative income. Similarly, we test whether inequality experiences a�ect people's self-perceived social class. Table 6 shows the results of these estimations for the GSS and Allbus, respectively. We �nd no evidence for a signi�cant e�ect of inequality experiences on perceived relative income and social class. 5 Robustness 5.1 �Impressionable Years� versus Other Years In our main speci�cation we examined the e�ect of inequality experiences during impressionable years, i.e. when people are aged between 18 and 25. We focused on these years as the previous literature on the formation of beliefs suggests that this period in life is particularly important for shaping beliefs and preferences (Mannheim, 1970; Krosnick and Alwin, 1989; Giuliano and 24 Spilimbergo, 2014). In what follows we examine the in�uence of experiences in other periods of life on people's preferences for redistribution. In particular, we use the Allbus and the GSS to examine the e�ect of inequality experiences during di�erent eight year intervals (2�9, 10�17, 26�33, 34�41, 42�49, and 50�57) in our respondents' lives. We closely follow the empirical strategy in Giuliano and Spilimbergo (2014). In Panels A to G in Tables A1 to A3, we show how inequality experiences in di�erent life periods a�ect people's preferences for redistribution. While we still �nd signi�cantly negative e�ects of experiences in life periods surrounding the impressionable years (10-17 and 26-33, respectively), the e�ects are weaker or vanish completely for other age ranges.29 All in all, this evidence corroborates our view that inequality experiences during the impressionable years are vital in shaping people's beliefs, values and political preferences.30 5.2 Life-time Experiences We �nd very similar e�ects of inequality experiences when we use the methodology developed by Malmendier and Nagel (2011). While in our main estimations we look at the e�ect of inequality experiences during someone's formative years, this alternative measure is based on a weighted average of top income shares experienced over a respondent's lifetime until the time of the interview. Thus, in contrast to our previous measures, we now allow more recent experiences to still have some e�ect. In line with the above �ndings that earlier experiences matter more than later experiences, we use a weighting factor that gives more weight to early experiences and in which experiences only matter beginning from age 18.31 We re-estimate our main speci�cations using the same set of controls but employing these alternative measures of experienced inequality and experienced unemployment. In Panels H of Tables A1 to A3 we show that we obtain very similar results in terms of e�ect size and statistical signi�cance when we use this alternative measure of inequality experiences. 29The di�erences in experiences across cohorts stem from medium- to longer-term changes in inequality. This is a key di�erence to Giuliano and Spilimbergo (2014) who examine the e�ect of experiencing macroeconomic shocks while young, which occur at a higher frequency. Finding some e�ect of inequality experienced during periods surrounding the impressionable years, which is correlated with inequality experienced from age 18 to 25, is therefore what one would expect. 30Given the nature of the dataset, it is di�cult to compare the importance of experiences during impressionable years versus experiences during other periods of life. Since in each estimation we only focus on individuals who have lived through the relevant life period, we cannot hold constant the sample size and sample composition in the di�erent speci�cations. 31For details regarding the construction of this alternative measure see Appendix F. 25 5.3 Placebo Outcomes It could be the case that our estimates merely pick up cohort di�erences in political preferences and in particular in how left-wing people in di�erent cohorts generally are. The inclusion of 25- year cohort-group �xed e�ects in our main speci�cations ensures that our results are not driven by longer-term general shifts in preferences across cohorts. To further address this concern, we show that other political attitudes that di�er between the left and the right of the political spectrum, but that are not directly related to inequality and redistribution, are not a�ected by our measures of inequality experiences. In Tables A4 - A6 we provide evidence that inequality experiences do not signi�cantly a�ect nationalism, attitudes towards guns, attitudes towards immigrants32, attitudes towards democ- racy, attitudes towards the uni�cation of the EU and people's belief in god.33 5.4 Other Experiences during Impressionable Years We also examine in how far our results are sensitive to controlling for other macroeconomic experiences during impressionable years. Speci�cally, we control for whether our respondents experienced an economic crisis during their impressionable years. As in Giuliano and Spilim- bergo (2014) we de�ne a crisis experience as at least once having experienced a drop of real per capita GDP by 3.8 percent or more during the impressionable years. Next, we examine whether our estimates are sensitive to the inclusion of the average growth rate of real GDP per capita during the impressionable years. In order to control for the experienced size of the government, we include the average ratio of total tax revenue relative to GDP experienced during the impres- sionable years. Finally, we also include a proxy for experienced political ideology, namely the fraction of someone's impressionable years in which a Republican president (US) or conservative chancellor (Germany) was in o�ce. When we control for these other experiences in our estimations on the Allbus and the GSS our main results barely change (see Tables A7 and A8).34 This indicates that our results are not driven by other experiences people made while growing up which are correlated with inequality experiences. 32In the Allbus we focus only on attitudes towards immigrants that are not related to economic concerns. The respective variables in the GSS and the ESS mainly refer to whether the number of immigrants should be increased or decreased. 33In Appendix C, we provide detailed information on the placebo variables used in our analysis. 34We demonstrate robustness of our main speci�cation by including these other experiences one at a time. Since all experience variables vary at the cohort level, and since macroeconomic variables tend to be highly correlated, including all these other experiences at once would lead to problems of multicollinearity. 26 5.5 Other Robustness Checks In Tables A9-A12 we examine how sensitive our results are to a variety of robustness checks. Our results are robust to using di�erent de�nitions of income inequality based on (i) the share of income earned by the top ten percent, (ii) the share of income earned by the top one percent as well as (iii) the Gini coe�cient of equivalized disposable household incomes which is available for a much smaller sample of respondents.35 In contrast to top income shares which are based on before-tax incomes, the Gini coe�cient measures after-tax income inequality. We obtain very similar results when we use these alternative inequality measures. If anything, we �nd larger e�ect sizes when we use the Gini coe�cient instead of top income shares. In addition, we show that our results remain unchanged when we exclude all individuals with missing values in any of the controls. Our �ndings are also robust to not controlling for people's national unemployment experiences which alleviates concerns that inequality experiences operate through unobservable long-run e�ects of unemployment experiences. Moreover, the results are una�ected when we control for age trends rather than age �xed e�ects or when we exclude movers from our estimations on the GSS which rely on regional variation in income inequality experiences.36 As a �nal robustness check we exclude the 25-year cohort group �xed e�ects from our speci�cations and obtain very similar results. 6 Experimental Evidence In this section, we examine the causal e�ect of exposure to di�erent levels of inequality on people's redistributive preferences by conducting a series of tightly controlled online experiments on Amazon Mechanical Turk. We experimentally vary our respondents' exposure to inequality in stage one of the experiment. Then, we assess in how far exposure to inequality in stage 1 a�ects people's redistributive preferences in stage 2 of the experiment. We hypothesize that individuals exposed to inequality in the �rst stage of the experiment will �nd high levels of inequality more acceptable and therefore redistribute less in the second stage. The use of an experiment improves upon the observational evidence in three dimensions: �rst, it allows us to more cleanly identify the causal e�ect of experiencing inequality. It is not 35While a lot of historical data on the Gini coe�cient exist in the US, much less reliable data on the Gini coe�cient are available for most European countries in our sample. This implies that the samples we can use in our analysis for the ESS are much smaller than for the measures of top income inequality. 36We de�ne movers as people who live in a di�erent census division when they are interviewed than when they were aged 16. 27 possible to randomly assign individuals to di�erent life-time experiences and it is very di�cult to exploit exogenous variation in inequality that is not correlated with other economic variables. Our experiment o�ers us tight control over the agent's decision environment and allows us to keep constant payo�s and economic circumstances of agents, while only manipulating the degree of inequality our agents face in stage one of the experiment. Second, it allows us to measure redistributive preferences with behavioral measures rather than self-reports. Third, it allows us to test for mechanisms. In particular, by using a spectator design we shut down any mechanism involving self-interest or extrapolation from own circumstances, i.e. channels operating through our agents' own outcomes. The experiment captures the idea of an experienced distribution of income in a stylized manner. However, we believe that the experiment highlights a mechanism that could similarly operate for inequality experienced during someone's formative years. Speci�cally, the experiment shows that people's acceptance of inequality and their demand for redistribution may be highly dependent on the degree of inequality people are used to. 6.1 Experimental Design 6.1.1 Stage 1: Treatment We randomly assign individuals into choice environments in which they make hypothetical choices about the payo�s of two other workers on mTurk, which we refer to as A and B. Individuals in the inequality condition choose between two options that are highly unequal between A and B, while people in the equality condition choose between two options that result in more equal outcomes for worker A and B. In other words, we signi�cantly manipulate our agents' choice sets which in turn a�ects the degree of inequality they experience in stage 1 of the experiment. One group of individuals is randomly assigned to choose unequal outcomes, while another group of individuals is forced to choose more equal outcomes. This in turn implies that the agents operate either in environments in which institutions promote redistribution and thereby lower inequality, or in environments without redistribution and with high levels of inequality. Speci�cally, our participants are allocated to one of the following two conditions: • Equality Condition: �Person A and B are both mTurk workers and they previously worked for us on a task. Worker A completed 2 tasks correctly, while worker B completed 8 tasks correctly. The number of correctly completed tasks depends on both the worker's 28 e�ort and luck. We would like to pay them a total of $1 for their work. How much money would you like to pay them?� � Option A: 50 cents for worker A and 50 cents for worker B. � Option B: 48 cents for worker A and 52 cents for worker B. • Inequality Condition: �Person A and B are both mTurk workers and they previously worked for us on a task. Worker A completed 2 tasks correctly, while worker B completed 8 tasks correctly. The number of correctly completed tasks depends on both the worker's e�ort and luck. We would like to pay them a total of $1 for their work. How much money would you like to pay them?� � Option A: 22 cents for worker A and 78 cents for worker B. � Option B: 20 cents for worker A and 80 cents for worker B. 6.1.2 Stage 2: Redistribution Game In the second stage our players again make hypothetical distributive choices between two workers who have completed a real-e�ort task.37 Player C has completed three tasks correctly, while player D has completed seven tasks correctly. Our respondents are also told that �the number of correctly completed tasks depends on both the worker's e�ort and luck.� Individuals decide how to split $1 between the two workers. They can give a higher share of the $1 to the worker who has completed more tasks correctly or the worker who completed less tasks correctly, or they can split the money equally between the two.38 We code our measure of redistributive preferences, yi, such that higher values correspond to larger shares of the money going to the lower-achieving worker. 6.1.3 Experiment 2 We also conduct an additional experiment (which we refer to as experiment 2) to assess the robustness of the �rst experiment. We make several changes: �rst, we use a di�erent choice set for our main measure of re-distributive preferences. In particular, we restrict the choice set of our respondent in stage 2 of the experiment by not allowing them to give a larger share of the $1 to the worker who completed less tasks correctly. Second, we use a di�erent choice set for 37We tell our respondents that �these workers are NOT the same people as from the previous task�. 38A more precise description of this behavioral measure can be found in Appendix G. 29 respondents in the inequality condition. Speci�cally, we let them choose between giving 20 cents to worker A and 80 cents to worker B, or nothing to worker A and 100 cents to worker B. 6.2 Sample We ran our experiments on Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk), an online crowdsourcing mar- ketplace commonly used to conduct online experiments. The pool of available workers is very large and more representative of the US population than student samples. Many experiments have been replicated using MTurk samples. MTurk participants produce high-quality data (Ma- son and Suri, 2012; Horton et al., 2011; Buhrmester et al., 2011), and are more attentive to instructions than college students (Hauser and Schwarz, 2016). In order to participate in the experiment, people had to be based in the United States, have an overall rating of more than 95% and have completed more than 500 tasks on MTurk. These commonly applied restrictions are important in order to get high-quality data, as demonstrated by Peer et al. (2014). The experiments were run in June and July 2016. 200 participants completed experiment 1 and 202 individuals completed experiment 2.39 Our sample from the experiments is fairly similar to the general population. The median income in our sample is 46,000 while it is 53,000 in the US. The average age in our sample is 36 which is substantially below the average age of the US population. The proportion of people having a bachelor's degree is higher in our sample than in the general population. An overview of the sample composition in our mTurk sample is given in Table A16. 6.3 Results To compare the behavior of people in the equality condition with that of people in the inequality condition, we regress our measure of redistributive preferences, yi, on a treatment indicator, Inequalityi, which takes the value one for people who are in the inequality condition, and the value zero for all the other participants. Speci�cally, the equation that we estimate is: yi = π0 + π1Inequalityi + εi 39Only eight people dropped out of experiment 1, while three individuals dropoed out of experiment 2. 30 Table 7: Results from the Online Experiment (1) (2) (3) (4) Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Redistribute Redistribute (z) Redistribute Redistribute (z) Panel A Inequality -0.727∗∗ -0.342∗∗ -0.928∗∗∗ -0.564∗∗∗ (0.290) (0.137) (0.202) (0.123) Observations 201 201 202 202 R-squared 0.031 0.031 0.096 0.096 Panel B: with controls Inequality -0.694∗∗ -0.327∗∗ -0.969∗∗∗ -0.589∗∗∗ (0.297) (0.140) (0.207) (0.126) Observations 200 200 202 202 R-squared 0.115 0.115 0.157 0.157 We apply robust standard errors. In Panel B we control for household income, education, employ- ment status, household size, religion, and gender.* p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. where εi is an individual-speci�c error term. 40 Second, we re-estimate the speci�cation above including a set of demographic controls.41 In Table 7 we provide strong evidence that individuals exposed to environments that promote higher levels of inequality are less in favor of redistribution as measured by our behavioral measure of redistribution.42 In Panel A, we present our main results by just regressing the outcome measure on an inequality treatment indicator, while Panel B includes a set of demographic controls. In Columns 1 and 2 of Table 7 we present the results from experiment 1. In Columns 3 and 4 we show the results from experiment 2. The data from both experiments clearly show that people in the inequality condition system- atically give a lower share of the $1 to the lower-achieving worker. The e�ect sizes we observe are large. People in the inequality condition redistribute between .35 and .56 of a standard deviation less relative to people in the equality condition. These results are barely a�ected by the inclusion 40For all the speci�cations, we use robust standard errors. 41Speci�cally, we control for household income, education, employment status, household size, religion and gender. 42It is important to note that our behavioral measure of redistribution is signi�cantly correlated with people's political a�liation. Speci�cally, Republicans redistribute less compared to Democrats which suggests that our behavioral measure does have a high degree of external validity. 31 of controls.43 Taken together, experiencing inequality seems to increase our respondents' inequality ac- ceptance. The design of the experiment rules out channels working through people's personal outcomes. Our results therefore suggest that experiences of how money is distributed a�ect what is considered a fair allocation through the formation of reference points. 6.3.1 Alternative Mechanisms Our treatment conditions could induce di�erential feelings of fairness as they mimic di�erent fairness principles. In particular, the allocation of resources in the equality condition represents the �equality principle� according to which people with di�erent performance will be paid equal amounts. The distribution of resources in the inequality condition, on the other hand, is closer to the �equity principle� which posits that people should be paid according to their performance in the task. As the performance di�erences across workers depend both on e�ort and luck, it is not obvious which of the two options in each of the two treatment conditions should be considered fair. In the equality condition about two thirds of participants prefer option B, while the rest prefers option A. In the inequality condition about 70 percent of participants prefer option B. If most people actually considered the equity principle as fair (Abeler et al., 2010), then this would imply that participants in the equality condition would be forced to implement an unfair choice, while people in the inequality condition would be forced to implement a fair choice. This in turn could in theory a�ect people's behavior in stage two of the experiment. However, it is not clear why people forced to implement an �unfair� (according to the �equity principle�) choice in stage 1 of the experiment, would systematically prefer to implement more equal payments between the workers in stage 2 of the experiment. It could also be the case that respondents interpret the choice set in stage 1 of the experiment as a signal about the relative roles of e�ort and luck in determining the number of tasks that the workers have completed. In particular, people in the inequality condition could believe that success is due to e�ort rather than luck and therefore redistribute less. To address this concern, we asked our respondents whether they think that the number of correctly completed tasks by the workers depended more on the workers' e�ort or more on the workers' luck. People's responses 43The e�ect sizes are quite large and therefore unlikely can be explained by experimenter demand e�ects (Zizzo, 2010). Evidence by de Quidt et al. (2016) suggests that demand e�ects when people change their beliefs about the experimenter's hypotheses are rather small. 32 to this question do not di�er between the participants in the �inequality condition� and those in the �equality condition�.44 This suggests that in our experiment exposure to environments promoting inequality a�ect redistributive preferences independently of e�ects working through beliefs about the determinants of success in life. 7 Conclusion We use several large nationally representative datasets to highlight that people who have grown up in times of higher inequality are less left-wing as measured by their self-reported redistributive preferences as well as their party a�liation. We also show that people with more inequality experience hold di�erent beliefs about inequality and are less likely to consider the prevailing level of inequality as too high. This suggests that experienced inequality could a�ect the way people evaluate current levels of inequality. We then test the conjecture that reference points may play an important role in shaping people's redistributive choices in a tightly controlled experimental set-up. We also provide evidence against alternative channels through which our e�ects could operate: �rst, we show that the e�ects are equally strong for those with worse starting conditions or less success in life, suggesting that people do not form their redistributive preferences based on the e�ect inequality had on them personally. Second, we demonstrate that our e�ects are unlikely to operate through changes in perceived relative income. The results of this paper suggest that preferences for redistribution are shaped by the level of inequality that prevailed during people's formative years. This implies that the increases in inequality over the last decades are re�ected in lower preferences for redistribution among younger generations relative to older generations. 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Zizzo, Daniel John, �Experimenter Demand E�ects in Economic Experiments,� Experimental Economics, 2010, 13 (1), 75�98. 38 A Additional Tables Table A1: GSS: National Inequality Experiences in Other Periods of Life (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Help poor Pro welfare Success due to luck Liberal Party: Democrat Voted: Democrat Panel A: 2 to 9 Inequality Experiences -0.0269 -0.0313 0.0358 -0.106*** -0.0309 0.00160 (0.0332) (0.0253) (0.0362) (0.0327) (0.0369) (0.0361) Observations 21,998 23,703 26,806 37,492 42,790 30,219 Panel B: 10 to 17 Inequality Experiences -0.0588** -0.0361* -0.00608 -0.0533** -0.0346 -0.0502** (0.0232) (0.0207) (0.0227) (0.0212) (0.0215) (0.0215) Observations 22,881 25,299 28,331 39,313 45,158 32,054 Panel C: 18 to 25 (main) Inequality Experiences -0.0370** -0.0234* -0.0147 -0.0383*** -0.0476*** -0.0414*** (0.0147) (0.0126) (0.0112) (0.0123) (0.0126) (0.0129) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 Panel D: 26 to 33 Inequality Experiences -0.0403*** -0.0279** -0.00735 -0.0422*** -0.0664*** -0.0422*** (0.0144) (0.0119) (0.0111) (0.00920) (0.00972) (0.0131) Observations 18,663 20,942 23,487 32,320 37,467 27,738 Panel E: 34 to 41 Inequality Experiences -0.00458 -0.0206 -0.0183 0.0235 -0.0831*** -0.0626*** (0.0254) (0.0183) (0.0186) (0.0174) (0.0189) (0.0203) Observations 14,181 16,070 18,015 24,608 28,798 21,873 Panel F: 42 to 49 Inequality Experiences 0.0369 -0.0174 -0.0278 0.0473*** -0.0544*** -0.0230 (0.0331) (0.0229) (0.0186) (0.0182) (0.0178) (0.0178) Observations 10,325 11,821 13,253 17,976 21,124 16,363 Panel G: 50 to 57 Inequality Experiences 0.0285 -0.0441 -0.0333 -0.0102 -0.0906*** -0.0725*** (0.0665) (0.0317) (0.0278) (0.0285) (0.0332) (0.0258) Observations 7,118 8,035 9,147 12,296 14,505 11,394 Panel H: Life-time experiences λ = −1 Inequality Experiences -0.0463*** -0.0162 -0.00953 -0.0224 -0.0359*** -0.0256** (0.0140) (0.0163) (0.0133) (0.0149) (0.0116) (0.0130) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors two-way clustered by age and cohort are displayed in parentheses. Inequality experiences are based on the national level experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during di�erent life periods. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the di�erent life periods. We control for age �xed e�ects, year �xed e�ects, cohort group �xed e�ects as well as region �xed e�ects. All speci�cations control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. In Panel H we display the results on the e�ect of life-time inequality experiences based on the methodology developed by Malmendier and Nagel (2011) - we use a weighting factor of λ = -1. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 39 Table A2: GSS: Regional Inequality Experiences in Other Periods of Life (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Help poor Pro welfare Success due to luck Liberal Party: Democrat Voted: Democrat Panel A: 2 to 9 Inequality Experiences -0.0398 -0.0478* 0.0201 -0.0903*** -0.0534** -0.00692 (Regional) (0.0338) (0.0252) (0.0243) (0.0213) (0.0247) (0.0271) Observations 21,829 23,460 26,458 37,063 42,270 29,970 Panel B: 10 to 17 Inequality Experiences -0.0287 -0.00502 -0.00782 -0.0381** -0.00525 -0.0333* (Regional) (0.0188) (0.0210) (0.0215) (0.0168) (0.0146) (0.0174) Observations 22,704 25,037 27,963 38,865 44,603 31,784 Panel C: 18 to 25 (main) Inequality Experiences -0.0415** -0.0268* -0.0142 -0.0598*** -0.0522*** -0.0377*** (Regional) (0.0179) (0.0138) (0.0111) (0.0134) (0.0123) (0.0141) Observations 22,987 25,831 28,670 39,632 45,703 32,597 Panel D: 26 to 33 Inequality Experiences -0.0384** -0.0406*** -0.00866 -0.0509*** -0.0696*** -0.0377*** (Regional) (0.0165) (0.0150) (0.0135) (0.0115) (0.0105) (0.0142) Observations 18,500 20,699 23,162 31,916 36,956 27,455 Panel E: 34 to 41 Inequality Experiences 0.00763 -0.0125 -0.0244 0.00213 -0.0581*** -0.0527*** (Regional) (0.0249) (0.0174) (0.0181) (0.0161) (0.0177) (0.0189) Observations 14,065 15,880 17,767 24,303 28,403 21,631 Panel F: 42 to 49 Inequality Experiences 0.0550 -0.0183 -0.0282 0.0485*** -0.0470** -0.00858 (Regional) (0.0425) (0.0271) (0.0242) (0.0186) (0.0232) (0.0237) Observations 10,236 11,674 13,067 17,745 20,826 16,165 Panel G: 50 to 57 Inequality Experiences 0.0361 0.0170 -0.0189 0.0135 -0.120*** -0.0913*** (Regional) (0.0487) (0.0382) (0.0353) (0.0299) (0.0400) (0.0321) Observations 7,037 7,921 9,011 12,121 14,279 11,241 Census div 16 FE x Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div 16 FE x Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div 16 FE x Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors two-way clustered by age and cohort are displayed in parentheses. Inequality experiences are based on the regional experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the di�erent periods of life. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the di�erent periods of life. We control for age �xed e�ects, year �xed e�ects and cohort group �xed e�ects, each interacted with census division at age 16 �xed e�ects and we also control for current census division �xed e�ects. All speci�cations control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 40 Table A3: Allbus: Inequality Experiences in Other Periods of Life (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Inequality: Inequality does not Inequality Left-wing Intention to Vote: Voted: Left Unfair increase motivation re�ects luck Left Panel A: 2 to 9 Inequality Experiences 0.0502 -0.0671 0.00994 0.0205 0.0672** 0.0455 (0.0898) (0.0677) (0.0571) (0.0541) (0.0329) (0.0528) Observations 7,506 7,427 7,408 14,072 10,940 6,855 Panel B: 10 to 17 Inequality Experiences -0.137*** -0.0555 -0.112*** -0.0358 -0.120*** -0.148*** (0.0483) (0.0454) (0.0331) (0.0287) (0.0232) (0.0408) Observations 8,942 8,885 8,852 16,248 12,524 8,023 Panel C: 18 to 25 (main) Inequality Experiences -0.0543* -0.0428 -0.0684* -0.0957*** -0.0836*** -0.0961** (0.0307) (0.0296) (0.0349) (0.0196) (0.0298) (0.0457) Observations 10,401 10,357 10,309 18,979 14,691 9,533 Panel D: 26 to 33 Inequality Experiences -0.00389 0.00454 -0.00287 -0.0196* -0.00724 -0.00974 (0.0171) (0.0203) (0.0183) (0.0101) (0.0145) (0.0157) Observations 9,740 9,669 9,628 17,462 13,758 9,123 Panel E: 34 to 41 Inequality Experiences 0.0315** 0.0222 0.0505*** -0.0152 0.0140 0.0432** (0.0141) (0.0302) (0.0152) (0.0116) (0.0126) (0.0171) Observations 8,411 8,329 8,300 14,933 11,916 7,989 Panel F: 42 to 49 Inequality Experiences -0.00839 0.0190 0.0107 -0.0275 0.00227 -0.0296 (0.0297) (0.0298) (0.0163) (0.0233) (0.0230) (0.0202) Observations 6,826 6,726 6,710 12,355 9,993 6,685 Panel G: 50 to 57 Inequality Experiences 0.0417 0.102*** 0.0733*** 0.0140 0.0563*** 0.0533** (0.0276) (0.0358) (0.0252) (0.0162) (0.0147) (0.0236) Observations 5,111 5,013 5,006 9,387 7,743 5,130 Panel H: Life-time experiences λ = −1 Inequality Experiences -0.0430** -0.0532*** -0.0698*** -0.0610*** -0.0845*** -0.112*** (0.0192) (0.0188) (0.0232) (0.00827) (0.0181) (0.0219) Observations 7,556 7,532 7,499 14,163 10,963 7,249 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Region FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors two-way clustered by age and cohort are displayed in parentheses. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the di�erent periods of life. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the di�erent periods of life. All speci�cations control for age �xed e�ects, year �xed e�ects, cohort group �xed e�ects as well as region �xed e�ects. All speci�cations control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. In Panel H we display the results on the e�ect of life-time inequality experiences based on the methodology developed by Malmendier and Nagel (2011) - we use a weighting factor of λ = -1. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 41 Table A4: GSS: Placebos (1) (2) (3) Pro-immigration Pro-guns God exists Inequality Experiences 0.0329 -0.000870 0.00392 (0.0343) (0.0104) (0.0112) Observations 8,266 30,527 15,322 R-squared 0.098 0.084 0.301 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Census div FE Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experi- ences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the impression- able years. All speci�cations control for age �xed e�ects, year �xed e�ects, cohort group �xed e�ects as well as region �xed e�ects. All speci�cations con- trol for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 42 Table A5: Allbus: Placebos (1) (2) (3) Pro-immigration Nationalism Nature determines life Inequality Experiences -0.0330 -0.0298 -0.0712 (0.0272) (0.0344) (0.0623) Observations 11,057 5,666 4,178 R-squared 0.235 0.122 0.090 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Region FE Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All speci�cations control for age �xed e�ects, year �xed e�ects, cohort group �xed e�ects as well as region �xed e�ects. All speci�cations control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. Table A6: ESS: Placebos (1) (2) (3) Pro-immigration Pro-EU uni�cation Pro-democratic Inequality Experiences -0.00592 -0.0210 0.0419 (0.0213) (0.0217) (0.0273) Observations 81,136 55,907 48,045 R-squared 0.209 0.109 0.070 Country FE x Age trends Yes Yes Yes Country FE x Year FE Yes Yes Yes Country FE x Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All speci�cations control for age trends, year �xed e�ects and cohort group �xed e�ects, each interacted with country �xed e�ects. All speci�cations control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 43 Table A7: GSS (national): Other Experiences during the Impressionable Years (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Help poor Pro welfare Success due to luck Liberal Party: Democrat Voted: Democrat Panel A: Unemployment (main) Inequality Experiences -0.0370** -0.0234* -0.0147 -0.0383*** -0.0476*** -0.0414*** (0.0147) (0.0126) (0.0112) (0.0123) (0.0126) (0.0129) Unemployment Experiences 0.00868 0.000302 0.00397 0.0177** -0.00213 0.00609 (0.0158) (0.00841) (0.00823) (0.00823) (0.00757) (0.00627) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 Panel B: Crisis Inequality Experiences -0.0331** -0.0249** -0.0115 -0.0271** -0.0529*** -0.0398*** (0.0150) (0.0109) (0.00885) (0.0115) (0.0105) (0.0123) Experienced a Crisis -0.00768 0.0268 -0.0222 -0.0584** 0.0692*** 0.0247* (0.0286) (0.0284) (0.0335) (0.0242) (0.0222) (0.0138) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 Panel C: GDP Growth Inequality Experiences -0.0363** -0.0225** -0.00855 -0.0306** -0.0455*** -0.0317*** (0.0153) (0.0110) (0.00959) (0.0127) (0.0103) (0.0109) Experienced GDP growth -0.00925 0.00219 0.0129 0.00119 0.00910* 0.0203*** (0.0124) (0.00620) (0.00873) (0.00761) (0.00539) (0.00707) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 Panel D: Tax Revenue Inequality Experiences -0.0430** -0.0123 -0.0378** -0.0668*** -0.0425*** -0.0501** (0.0204) (0.0162) (0.0147) (0.0179) (0.0151) (0.0199) Experienced Tax Revenue rel to GDP -0.0435 0.0433 -0.175*** -0.159** -0.0247 -0.108* (0.0957) (0.0562) (0.0536) (0.0632) (0.0471) (0.0650) Observations 22,411 24,409 27,498 38,335 43,856 31,063 Panel E: Political ideology Inequality Experiences -0.0351** -0.0226** -0.0113 -0.0317*** -0.0465*** -0.0370*** (0.0139) (0.0108) (0.00918) (0.0121) (0.0101) (0.0123) Experienced Republican President 0.0163** -0.00559 -0.0122** 0.00726 -0.0163** -0.0107 (0.00763) (0.00553) (0.00598) (0.00768) (0.00767) (0.00723) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the national level experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All speci�cations control for age �xed e�ects, year �xed e�ects, cohort group �xed e�ects as well as region �xed e�ects. All speci�cations control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. In Panel A we show the main results. In Panel B, we show the results controlling for crisis experiences. In Panel C, we show the results controlling for experienced growth of real GDP per capita. In Panel D, we control for the experienced size of the goverment as the experienced ratio of total tax revenue to GDP. In Panel E, we control for the fraction of the impresionable years in which a republican president was in o�ce. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 44 Table A8: Allbus: Other Experiences during the Impressionable Years (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Inequality: Inequality does not Inequality Left-wing Intention to Vote: Voted: Left Unfair increase motivation re�ects luck Left Panel A: Unemployment (main) Inequality Experiences -0.0544* -0.0428 -0.0684** -0.0956*** -0.0837*** -0.0962** (0.0307) (0.0296) (0.0349) (0.0196) (0.0298) (0.0456) Unemployment Experiences 0.108* 0.0293 0.0994* 0.00953 0.0254 0.0949 (0.0614) (0.0465) (0.0539) (0.0337) (0.0499) (0.0734) Observations 10,401 10,357 10,309 18,979 14,691 9,533 Panel B: Crisis Inequality Experiences -0.0892*** -0.0522** -0.101*** -0.0978*** -0.0902*** -0.124*** (0.0212) (0.0242) (0.0271) (0.0220) (0.0266) (0.0431) Experienced a Crisis -0.249*** -0.0380 0.0728 -0.0723 -0.0185 0.107 (0.0831) (0.129) (0.289) (0.0837) (0.0745) (0.129) Observations 10,401 10,357 10,309 18,979 14,691 9,533 Panel C: GDP Growth Inequality Experiences -0.0891*** -0.0518** -0.105*** -0.102*** -0.0952*** -0.127*** (0.0215) (0.0248) (0.0276) (0.0219) (0.0277) (0.0446) Experienced GDP Growth 0.00369 0.00314 -0.0253 -0.0119 -0.0131 -0.0186 (0.0341) (0.0244) (0.0305) (0.0139) (0.00937) (0.0231) Observations 10,401 10,357 10,309 18,979 14,691 9,533 Panel D: Tax Revenue Inequality Experiences -0.0902*** -0.0725*** -0.0968*** -0.118*** -0.111*** -0.130*** (0.0211) (0.0246) (0.0251) (0.0209) (0.0292) (0.0498) Experienced Tax Revenue rel to GDP 0.111 0.144 -0.00542 -0.0157 -0.0111 -0.0637 (0.0853) (0.0989) (0.0490) (0.0573) (0.0824) (0.112) Panel E: Political Ideology Inequality Experiences -0.0835*** -0.0620** -0.0939*** -0.121*** -0.0993*** -0.129** (0.0204) (0.0251) (0.0277) (0.0224) (0.0288) (0.0518) Experienced a conservative chancellor 0.0139 0.0126 -0.0104 0.00211 -0.0254* -0.0158 (0.0164) (0.0134) (0.0129) (0.00987) (0.0145) (0.0241) Observations 9,974 9,955 9,902 17,740 13,602 9,046 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the national level experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All speci�cations control for age �xed e�ects, year �xed e�ects, cohort group �xed e�ects as well as region �xed e�ects . All speci�cations control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. In Panel A we show the main results. In Panel B, we show the results controlling for crisis experiences. In Panel C, we show the results controlling for experienced growth of real GDP per capita. In Panel D, we control for the experienced size of the goverment as the experienced ratio of total tax revenue to GDP. In Panel E, we control for the fraction of the impresionable years in which a conservative chancellor was in o�ce. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 45 Table A9: GSS: Robustness (National Inequality Experiences) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Help poor Pro welfare Success due to luck Liberal Party: Democrat Voted: Democrat Panel A: Main Inequality Experiences -0.0370** -0.0234* -0.0147 -0.0383*** -0.0476*** -0.0414*** (0.0147) (0.0126) (0.0112) (0.0123) (0.0126) (0.0129) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 Panel B: Top 1 percent Inequality Experiences -0.0398*** -0.0215* -0.0125 -0.0451*** -0.0469*** -0.0411*** (0.0141) (0.0126) (0.0112) (0.0124) (0.0123) (0.0129) Observations 23,238 26,325 29,233 40,302 46,587 33,097 Panel C: Top 10 percent Inequality Experiences -0.0361** -0.0258** -0.0163 -0.0347*** -0.0515*** -0.0426*** (0.0158) (0.0129) (0.0113) (0.0127) (0.0128) (0.0131) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 Panel D: No missings Inequality Experiences -0.0458*** -0.0373*** -0.0221* -0.0467*** -0.0510*** -0.0437*** (0.0155) (0.0126) (0.0128) (0.0139) (0.0124) (0.0141) Observations 20,935 23,817 26,311 36,458 40,736 29,298 Panel E: No unemployment experience controls Inequality Experiences -0.0337** -0.0233** -0.0129 -0.0310** -0.0485*** -0.0383*** (0.0143) (0.0105) (0.00891) (0.0122) (0.0107) (0.0121) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 Panel F: Age trend Inequality Experiences -0.0441*** -0.0284** -0.0183* -0.0303*** -0.0547*** -0.0428*** (0.0142) (0.0131) (0.0102) (0.0114) (0.0117) (0.0113) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 Panel G: Gini coe�cient Inequality Experiences -0.0494*** -0.0157 -0.00360 -0.0750*** -0.0481*** -0.0517*** (0.0122) (0.0127) (0.00907) (0.0113) (0.00914) (0.0130) Observations 19,626 20,246 23,272 33,004 37,253 25,906 Panel H: No cohort group FE Inequality Experiences -0.0254** -0.0298*** -0.0133 -0.0294*** -0.0211** -0.0240*** (0.0113) (0.00863) (0.00825) (0.00902) (0.0107) (0.00833) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the national level experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years, unless otherwise stated. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All speci�cations control for age �xed e�ects, year �xed e�ects, cohort group �xed e�ects as well as region �xed e�ects. All speci�cations control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. In Panel A, we show the main results. In Panel B, we show the results using the top 1 percent income share as our measure of inequality. In Panel C, we show the results using the top 10 percent income share as our measure of inequality. In Panel D, we only use observations for which we do not have missings in any of the controls. In Panel E, we do not make use of unemployment experience controls. In Panel F, we use an age trend rather than age �xed e�ects. In Panel G, we show the results using the Gini coe�cient as our measure of income inequality. In Panel H, we do not make use of cohort group �xed e�ects. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 46 Table A10: GSS: Robustness (Regional Inequality Experiences) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Help poor Pro welfare Success due to luck Liberal Party: Democrat Voted: Democrat Panel A: Main Inequality Experiences -0.0415** -0.0268* -0.0142 -0.0598*** -0.0522*** -0.0377*** (0.0179) (0.0138) (0.0111) (0.0134) (0.0123) (0.0141) Observations 22,987 25,831 28,670 39,632 45,703 32,597 Panel B: Top 1 percent Inequality Experiences -0.0398*** -0.0215* -0.0125 -0.0451*** -0.0469*** -0.0411*** (0.0141) (0.0126) (0.0112) (0.0124) (0.0123) (0.0129) Observations 22,987 25,831 28,670 39,632 45,703 32,597 Panel C: Top 10 percent Inequality Experiences -0.0419** -0.0241* -0.0168 -0.0564*** -0.0498*** -0.0351** (0.0179) (0.0143) (0.0119) (0.0137) (0.0125) (0.0144) Observations 22,987 25,831 28,670 39,632 45,703 32,597 Panel D: No missings Inequality Experiences -0.0523*** -0.0455*** -0.0180 -0.0687*** -0.0591*** -0.0417*** (0.0185) (0.0146) (0.0130) (0.0147) (0.0123) (0.0154) Observations 20,748 23,545 25,957 36,017 40,234 29,033 Panel E: No unemployment experience controls Inequality Experiences -0.0370** -0.0276** -0.0129 -0.0526*** -0.0529*** -0.0358*** (0.0176) (0.0123) (0.00923) (0.0135) (0.0109) (0.0138) Observations 22,987 25,831 28,670 39,632 45,703 32,597 Panel F: Age trend Inequality Experiences -0.0479*** -0.0272* -0.0174* -0.0494*** -0.0575*** -0.0355*** (0.0176) (0.0140) (0.00966) (0.0125) (0.0111) (0.0130) Observations 22,987 25,831 28,670 39,632 45,703 32,597 Panel G: No movers Inequality Experiences -0.0409** -0.0239* -0.0135 -0.0499*** -0.0584*** -0.0376*** (0.0203) (0.0128) (0.0141) (0.0153) (0.0128) (0.0146) Observations 17,653 19,914 22,108 30,481 35,252 24,833 Panel H: No cohort group FE Inequality Experiences -0.0274** -0.0310*** -0.0122* -0.0355*** -0.0184* -0.0168** (0.0109) (0.0100) (0.00731) (0.00943) (0.00981) (0.00733) Observations 22,987 25,831 28,670 39,632 45,703 32,597 Census div 16 FE x Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div 16 FE x Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div 16 FE x Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the national level experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years, unless otherwise stated. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All speci�cations control for age �xed e�ects, year �xed e�ects and cohort group �xed e�ects, each interacted with census division at 16 �xed e�ects. All speci�cations control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. In Panel A, we show the main results. In Panel B, we show the results using the top 1 percent income share as our measure of inequality. In Panel C, we show the results using the top 10 percent income share as our measure of inequality. In Panel D, we only use observations for which we do not have missings in any of the controls. In Panel E, we do not make use of unemployment experience controls. In Panel F, we use an age trend rather than age �xed e�ects. In Panel G, we show the results excluding those who moved to a di�erent census division between age 16 and the time of the interview. In Panel H, we do not make use of cohort group �xed e�ects. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 47 Table A11: Allbus: Robustness (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Inequality: Inequality does not Inequality Left-wing Intention to Vote: Voted: Left Unfair increase motivation re�ects luck Left Panel A: Main Inequality Experiences -0.0544* -0.0428 -0.0684** -0.0956*** -0.0837*** -0.0962** (0.0307) (0.0296) (0.0349) (0.0196) (0.0298) (0.0456) Observations 10,401 10,357 10,309 18,979 14,691 9,533 Panel B: Top 1 percent Inequality Experiences -0.109*** -0.0650* -0.123*** -0.125*** -0.138*** -0.141*** (0.0333) (0.0352) (0.0286) (0.0229) (0.0287) (0.0430) Observations 13,635 13,537 13,478 25,555 20,236 12,930 Panel C: Top 10 percent Inequality Experiences -0.0678 -0.0697 -0.0579 -0.127*** -0.0742* -0.0824 (0.0466) (0.0436) (0.0525) (0.0312) (0.0394) (0.0729) Observations 10,401 10,357 10,309 18,979 14,691 9,533 Panel D: No missings Inequality Experiences -0.0382 -0.0610* -0.0626 -0.102*** -0.0987*** -0.0833 (0.0365) (0.0339) (0.0411) (0.0254) (0.0352) (0.0562) Observations 7,719 7,686 7,669 13,609 10,997 6,831 Panel E: No unemployment experience controls Inequality Experiences -0.0896*** -0.0523** -0.101*** -0.0983*** -0.0904*** -0.124*** (0.0212) (0.0242) (0.0271) (0.0219) (0.0266) (0.0430) Observations 10,401 10,357 10,309 18,979 14,691 9,533 Panel F: Age trend Inequality Experiences -0.0548** -0.0498** -0.0864*** -0.0982*** -0.105*** -0.0987** (0.0236) (0.0213) (0.0239) (0.0186) (0.0295) (0.0478) Observations 10,401 10,357 10,309 18,979 14,691 9,533 Panel G: Gini coe�cient Inequality Experiences -0.0188 -0.0616*** -0.0458** -0.0530*** -0.0695*** -0.0539** (0.0216) (0.0172) (0.0226) (0.00863) (0.0123) (0.0221) Observations 9,783 9,766 9,716 17,318 13,242 8,827 Panel H: No cohort group FE Inequality Experiences -0.0347* -0.0398** -0.0512** -0.0492*** -0.0674*** -0.0979*** (0.0200) (0.0202) (0.0239) (0.0132) (0.0178) (0.0294) Observations 10,401 10,357 10,309 18,979 14,691 9,533 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Region FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the national level experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years, unless otherwise stated. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All speci�cations control for age �xed e�ects, year �xed e�ects, cohort group �xed e�ects as well as region �xed e�ects. All speci�cations control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. In Panel A, we show the main results. In Panel B, we show the results using the top 1 percent income share as our measure of inequality. In Panel C, we show the results using the top 10 percent income share as our measure of inequality. In Panel D, we only use observations for which we do not have missings in any of the controls. In Panel E, we do not make use of unemployment experience controls. In Panel F, we use an age trend rather than age �xed e�ects. In Panel G, we show the results using the Gini coe�cient as our measure of income inequality. In Panel H, we do not make use of cohort group �xed e�ects. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 48 Table A12: ESS: Robustness (1) (2) (3) Pro-redistribution Left-wing Voted: Left Panel A: Main Inequality Experiences -0.0390* -0.117*** -0.121*** (0.0234) (0.0200) (0.0389) Observations 85,529 81,167 25,462 Panel B: Top 1 percent Inequality Experiences -0.0509* -0.124*** -0.127*** (0.0279) (0.0193) (0.0371) Observations 92,831 87,731 28,591 Panel C: Top 10 percent Inequality Experiences -0.0412* -0.108*** -0.114*** (0.0223) (0.0203) (0.0404) Observations 84,485 79,676 25,438 Panel D: No missings Inequality Experiences -0.0486** -0.124*** -0.118*** (0.0244) (0.0251) (0.0453) Observations 68,937 66,498 21,899 Panel E: No unemployment experience controls Inequality Experiences -0.0435* -0.118*** -0.118*** (0.0241) (0.0193) (0.0367) Observations 85,529 81,167 25,462 Panel F: Gini coe�cient Inequality Experiences -0.0850** -0.155** -0.183** (0.0344) (0.0613) (0.0795) Observations 44,670 42,077 15,852 Panel G: No cohort group FE Inequality Experiences -0.0491*** -0.106*** -0.139*** (0.0144) (0.00980) (0.0245) Observations 85,529 81,167 25,462 Country FE x Age trend Yes Yes Yes Country FE x Year FE Yes Yes Yes Country FE x Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years unless otherwise stated. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All speci�cations control for age trends, year �xed e�ects as well as cohort group �xed e�ects, each interacted with country �xed e�ects. All speci�cations control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. In Panel A, we show the main results. In Panel B, we show the results using the top 1 percent income share as our measure of inequality. In Panel C, we show the results using the top 10 percent income share as our measure of inequality. In Panel D, we only use observations for which we do not have missings in any of the controls. In Panel E, we do not make use of unemployment experience controls. In Panel F, we show the results using the Gini coe�cient as our measure of income inequality. In Panel G, we do not make use of cohort group �xed e�ects. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 49 Table A13: GSS: Summary Stats Variable Mean Std. Dev. Min. Max. N Vote democrat 0.466 0.499 0 1 32907 Share top 10 during impr years (national) 34.879 4.16 31.779 46.294 47207 Share top 5 during impr years (national) 23.587 3.785 20.679 33.926 47207 Share top 1 during impr years (national) 10.375 2.882 7.875 17.805 47207 Gini during impr year (national) 38.566 2.035 36.838 45.225 36080 Unemployment during impr years 6.545 2.913 3.875 17.988 47207 Share top 10 during impr years (regional) 35.411 3.898 28.246 50.609 46544 Share top 5 during impr years (regional) 24.458 3.514 18.935 39.275 46544 Share top 1 during impr years (regional) 11.429 2.705 7.565 23.098 46544 Full-time employed 0.517 0.5 0 1 47207 Part-time employed 0.096 0.294 0 1 47207 Temporarily not working 0.024 0.152 0 1 47207 Unemployed 0.03 0.17 0 1 47207 Retired 0.135 0.342 0 1 47207 In School 0.011 0.103 0 1 47207 Keeping house 0.168 0.374 0 1 47207 Other labor force 0.021 0.142 0 1 47207 Married 0.675 0.468 0 1 47207 Widowed 0.072 0.258 0 1 47207 Divorced 0.107 0.31 0 1 47207 Separated 0.028 0.164 0 1 47207 Single 0.118 0.323 0 1 47207 Age 48.249 14.975 26 88 47207 Less than high school 0.207 0.405 0 1 47207 High school 0.570 0.495 0 1 47207 College 0.221 0.415 0 1 47207 Female 0.547 0.498 0 1 47207 White 0.839 0.367 0 1 47207 Black 0.133 0.339 0 1 47207 Other race 0.028 0.165 0 1 47207 Born in US 0.84 0.367 0 1 47207 Household Size 2.853 1.28 1 5 47203 Urban 0.466 0.499 0 1 47207 Protestant 0.614 0.487 0 1 47207 Catholic 0.234 0.423 0 1 47207 Jewish 0.019 0.137 0 1 47207 No religion 0.097 0.297 0 1 47207 Other religion 0.032 0.175 0 1 47207 50 Table A14: Allbus: Summary Stats Variable Mean Std. Dev. Min. Max. N Share top 10 during impr years -0.049 0.925 -0.652 5.612 20712 Share top 5 during impr years -0.06 0.885 -0.883 8.556 20712 Share top 1 during impr years -0.352 0.88 -1.278 9.106 20712 Gini during impr years -0.017 0.966 -0.842 3.322 18626 Unemployment during impr years -0.129 0.927 -1.129 3.529 20712 Age 42.72 12.798 26 102 20712 Female 0.517 0.5 0 1 20712 Education: No schooling 0.012 0.107 0 1 20712 Education: �Hauptschule� 0.422 0.494 0 1 20712 Education: Middle school 0.284 0.451 0 1 20712 Education: A-levels 0.277 0.448 0 1 20712 Married 0.686 0.464 0 1 20712 Separated 0.016 0.126 0 1 20712 Widowed 0.04 0.195 0 1 20712 Divorced 0.071 0.256 0 1 20712 Single 0.186 0.389 0 1 20712 Full-time employed 0.544 0.498 0 1 20712 Part-time employed 0.118 0.322 0 1 20712 Out of labor force 0.314 0.464 0 1 20712 Unemployed 0.007 0.081 0 1 20712 Retired 0.014 0.117 0 1 20712 Student 0.002 0.049 0 1 20712 Other employment 0 0.02 0 1 20712 Protestant 0.412 0.492 0 1 20712 Catholic 0.412 0.492 0 1 20712 Other religion 0.015 0.123 0 1 20712 No Religion 0.157 0.363 0 1 20712 Household Size 2.851 1.228 1 5 20665 51 Table A15: ESS: Summary Stats Variable Mean Std. Dev. Min. Max. N Share top 10 during impr years 31.468 3.126 21.839 43.379 79640 Share top 5 during impr years 20.898 2.622 13.343 32.606 86303 Share top 1 during impr years 8.48 1.918 4.024 17.25 86303 Gini during impr years 28.411 3.717 20.569 37.15 43918 Unemployment during impr years 6.854 4.284 0.01 35.287 86303 Male 0.479 0.5 0 1 86303 Age 47.236 12.989 26 102 86303 Below high school 0.264 0.441 0 1 86303 High school 0.451 0.498 0 1 86303 College 0.278 0.448 0 1 86303 Married 0.601 0.49 0 1 86303 Separated 0.014 0.116 0 1 86303 Divorced 0.088 0.283 0 1 86303 Widowed 0.036 0.185 0 1 86303 Never married 0.207 0.405 0 1 86303 Employed 0.789 0.408 0 1 86303 Self-employed 0.13 0.336 0 1 86303 Not in paid work 0.055 0.229 0 1 86303 Religion: Catholic 0.265 0.441 0 1 86303 Religion: Protestant 0.197 0.398 0 1 86303 Religion: Eastern Orthodox 0.001 0.023 0 1 86303 Religion: other christian 0.013 0.114 0 1 86303 Religion: Jewish 0.001 0.034 0 1 86303 Religion: Islamic 0.006 0.078 0 1 86303 Religion: Other 0.005 0.074 0 1 86303 Religion: None 0.403 0.49 0 1 86303 Household Size 2.778 1.218 1 5 86270 Income bracket (waves 1-3) 7.29 2.169 1 12 31690 Income bracket (waves 4-7) 5.905 2.748 1 10 43220 Denmark 0.021 0.145 0 1 86303 Finland 0.019 0.137 0 1 86303 France 0.189 0.391 0 1 86303 Germany 0.238 0.426 0 1 86303 Great Britain 0.21 0.408 0 1 86303 Italy 0.044 0.205 0 1 86303 Netherlands 0.078 0.268 0 1 86303 Norway 0.02 0.14 0 1 86303 Portugal 0.019 0.138 0 1 86303 Spain 0.09 0.286 0 1 86303 Sweden 0.041 0.199 0 1 86303 Switzerland 0.03 0.171 0 1 86303 52 Table A16: Experimental Sample: Summary stats Variable Mean Std. Dev. N Income 46044.776 26498.068 402 Grade 12 or less 0.015 0.121 405 Graduated high school 0.16 0.368 405 Some college no degree 0.279 0.449 405 Associate degree 0.099 0.299 405 Bachelor degree 0.323 0.468 405 Postgrad 0.116 0.321 405 Full-time employed 0.625 0.485 405 Part-time employed 0.193 0.395 405 Unemployed 0.069 0.254 405 Unemployed: not looking for a job 0.047 0.212 405 Retired 0.017 0.13 405 Other employment 0.042 0.201 405 White 0.741 0.438 402 Black 0.085 0.279 402 Hispanic 0.067 0.251 402 Age 35.706 11.222 402 53 Table A17: GSS (national inequality experiences): Main Results showing Key Controls (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Help poor Pro welfare Success due to luck Liberal Party: Democrat Voted: Democrat Inequality Experiences -0.0370** -0.0234* -0.0147 -0.0383*** -0.0476*** -0.0414*** (0.0147) (0.0126) (0.0112) (0.0123) (0.0126) (0.0129) Unemployment Experiences 0.00868 0.000302 0.00397 0.0177** -0.00213 0.00609 (0.0158) (0.00841) (0.00823) (0.00823) (0.00757) (0.00627) Female 0.137*** 0.0130 -0.101*** 0.125*** 0.126*** 0.117*** (0.0171) (0.0165) (0.0156) (0.0124) (0.0141) (0.0146) Part-time employed 0.0176 0.0452 0.0540** 0.0204 -0.0384** 0.00530 (0.0259) (0.0278) (0.0233) (0.0132) (0.0159) (0.0184) Temporarily not working 0.0397 0.0739 -0.0147 0.109*** 0.0420 0.0478 (0.0416) (0.0486) (0.0442) (0.0384) (0.0308) (0.0359) Unemployed 0.157*** 0.226*** 0.110** 0.0481* 0.0806*** 0.0913*** (0.0377) (0.0458) (0.0480) (0.0267) (0.0305) (0.0296) Retired 0.0986*** 0.120*** -0.000732 0.0152 0.0677*** 0.0836*** (0.0373) (0.0192) (0.0282) (0.0231) (0.0182) (0.0255) In school 0.0151 0.300*** 0.142*** 0.0821 0.0827 0.0421 (0.0570) (0.0506) (0.0512) (0.0569) (0.0504) (0.0640) Keeping the house 0.0631*** 0.148*** -0.0248 -0.0797*** -0.0509*** -0.0259 (0.0215) (0.0179) (0.0201) (0.0203) (0.0157) (0.0216) Other labor force 0.250*** 0.326*** -0.0295 0.0619* 0.0385 0.0635* (0.0534) (0.0503) (0.0497) (0.0372) (0.0379) (0.0351) Married -0.121*** -0.151*** -0.0789*** -0.186*** -0.115*** -0.134*** (0.0207) (0.0287) (0.0227) (0.0212) (0.0149) (0.0216) Widowed -0.0928** -0.0928*** -0.0883*** -0.0997*** -0.0287 -0.0933*** (0.0414) (0.0339) (0.0310) (0.0280) (0.0182) (0.0301) Divorced -0.0329 -0.0285 -0.00705 -0.0210 -0.0331* -0.0613** (0.0216) (0.0269) (0.0306) (0.0245) (0.0194) (0.0247) Separated 0.00189 -0.0145 -0.0570 -0.00536 -0.0853*** -0.0858*** (0.0447) (0.0489) (0.0383) (0.0329) (0.0276) (0.0308) High-school -0.244*** -0.123*** 0.0624*** -0.0958*** -0.176*** -0.190*** (0.0232) (0.0162) (0.0196) (0.0147) (0.0198) (0.0206) College -0.319*** 0.0310 0.100*** -0.0137 -0.246*** -0.137*** (0.0260) (0.0223) (0.0261) (0.0176) (0.0269) (0.0237) Black 0.526*** 0.604*** 0.180*** 0.317*** 0.888*** 1.027*** (0.0199) (0.0282) (0.0202) (0.0195) (0.0179) (0.0143) Other race 0.160*** 0.234*** 0.0784* 0.157*** 0.339*** 0.441*** (0.0349) (0.0546) (0.0459) (0.0395) (0.0307) (0.0519) Income bracket 2 0.103 0.0769 -0.0732 -0.116 0.0377 0.0604 (0.0979) (0.0756) (0.0869) (0.0851) (0.0484) (0.0752) Income bracket 3 0.0830 0.0170 -0.00125 -0.0922 0.105** 0.171** (0.112) (0.0694) (0.0867) (0.0979) (0.0535) (0.0853) Income bracket 4 0.131 -0.107 -0.107 -0.0490 0.159*** 0.164** (0.105) (0.0820) (0.0796) (0.0955) (0.0498) (0.0804) Income bracket 5 0.119 -0.109 -0.0625 -0.111 0.174*** 0.141* (0.103) (0.0731) (0.0704) (0.0944) (0.0485) (0.0751) Income bracket 6 0.111 -0.171** -0.145** -0.0804 0.115** 0.119 (0.116) (0.0741) (0.0649) (0.0841) (0.0472) (0.0764) Income bracket 7 0.00347 -0.233*** -0.0755 -0.0977 0.185*** 0.108 (0.101) (0.0785) (0.0774) (0.0896) (0.0464) (0.0825) Income bracket 8 -0.0282 -0.243*** -0.0536 -0.0447 0.183*** 0.140* (0.102) (0.0780) (0.0604) (0.0833) (0.0482) (0.0829) Income bracket 9 -0.0445 -0.345*** -0.0811 -0.0533 0.181*** 0.103 (0.0955) (0.0742) (0.0608) (0.0799) (0.0440) (0.0735) Income bracket 10 -0.0354 -0.417*** -0.152** -0.0854 0.149*** 0.0780 (0.0851) (0.0679) (0.0638) (0.0780) (0.0443) (0.0768) Income bracket 11 -0.141* -0.409*** -0.137* -0.115 0.112** 0.0423 (0.0842) (0.0646) (0.0727) (0.0802) (0.0470) (0.0724) Income bracket 12 -0.234*** -0.498*** -0.138** -0.134* 0.0209 -0.0655 (0.0878) (0.0684) (0.0625) (0.0781) (0.0415) (0.0702) Protestant -0.160*** -0.144*** -0.158*** -0.535*** -0.348*** -0.535*** (0.0188) (0.0231) (0.0244) (0.0235) (0.0188) (0.0241) Catholic -0.0755*** -0.107*** -0.114*** -0.401*** -0.0534*** -0.317*** (0.0247) (0.0233) (0.0260) (0.0247) (0.0191) (0.0232) Jewish 0.0504 0.200*** 0.0814 0.0642 0.378*** 0.196*** (0.0523) (0.0505) (0.0555) (0.0461) (0.0443) (0.0486) Other religion -0.0429 -0.112*** -0.0184 -0.327*** -0.176*** -0.240*** (0.0355) (0.0396) (0.0455) (0.0486) (0.0337) (0.0430) Cohort: 1876 - 1900 -0.464 -0.191** 0.0247 0.0176 -0.132 0.0393 (0.303) (0.0757) (0.106) (0.135) (0.136) (0.0841) Cohort: 1901 - 1925 -0.0569 -0.0102 0.0636 0.0858 -0.0332 -0.00948 (0.0601) (0.0623) (0.0523) (0.0875) (0.0778) (0.0726) Cohort: 1926 -1950 -0.0832* 0.0153 0.0477 0.0487 -0.0792 -0.0349 (0.0473) (0.0550) (0.0417) (0.0719) (0.0574) (0.0563) Cohort: 1951 - 1975 -0.0662* 0.00629 0.00460 -0.0184 -0.151*** -0.106*** (0.0399) (0.0478) (0.0333) (0.0534) (0.0418) (0.0408) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 R-squared 0.108 0.128 0.024 0.078 0.146 0.200 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All speci�cations control for age �xed e�ects, region �xed e�ects as well as year �xed e�ects . All speci�cations control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 54 Table A18: Allbus: Main Results showing Key Controls (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Inequality: Inequality does not Inequality Left-wing Intention to Vote: Voted: Left Unfair increase motivation re�ects luck Left Inequality Experiences -0.0543* -0.0428 -0.0684* -0.0957*** -0.0836*** -0.0961** (0.0307) (0.0296) (0.0349) (0.0196) (0.0298) (0.0457) Unemployment Experiences 0.104* 0.0279 0.0950* 0.00877 0.0243 0.0909 (0.0586) (0.0443) (0.0515) (0.0321) (0.0477) (0.0701) Female 0.0884*** 0.126*** 0.0969*** 0.0771*** 0.0547*** 0.0425 (0.0231) (0.0240) (0.0232) (0.0132) (0.0200) (0.0322) Education: �Hauptschule� -0.185** -0.0912 -0.0306 -0.0140 -0.0189 0.0780 (0.0944) (0.117) (0.101) (0.0594) (0.0796) (0.0689) Education: �Middle School� -0.239** 0.0269 0.122 0.0226 -0.0402 0.0414 (0.0974) (0.122) (0.104) (0.0573) (0.0755) (0.0561) Education: �A-level� -0.171* 0.196* 0.370*** 0.249*** 0.119 0.244*** (0.0906) (0.116) (0.0897) (0.0593) (0.0739) (0.0653) Married -0.0541 -0.0294 -0.0389 -0.137*** -0.131*** -0.183*** (0.0341) (0.0284) (0.0289) (0.0248) (0.0214) (0.0351) Separated 0.0162 -0.0822* -0.00468 -0.119* 0.00804 -0.121 (0.0633) (0.0495) (0.0697) (0.0640) (0.0635) (0.0808) Widowed -0.0283 0.0562 0.0585 -0.163*** -0.0767** -0.127** (0.0710) (0.0573) (0.0909) (0.0436) (0.0361) (0.0552) Divorced 0.103** 0.0298 0.0797** -0.0806** 0.0261 -0.0569 (0.0521) (0.0500) (0.0360) (0.0379) (0.0381) (0.0387) Part-time employed 0.0453 0.00123 0.0389 0.0757*** 0.0958*** 0.125*** (0.0318) (0.0454) (0.0362) (0.0176) (0.0289) (0.0317) Out of the labor force 0.0837*** 0.0231 0.0536* 0.0422* 0.0748*** 0.0804*** (0.0278) (0.0285) (0.0277) (0.0229) (0.0209) (0.0224) Unemployed 0.379*** 0.164 0.378*** 0.317*** 0.325*** 0.336*** (0.0956) (0.114) (0.100) (0.123) (0.0292) (0.0995) Retired 0.0112 0.0109 0.0520 0.0405 0.207*** 0.162 (0.110) (0.136) (0.167) (0.0523) (0.0741) (0.125) Student 0.445*** 0.675*** 0.186 0.473*** 0.203* 0.289** (0.0871) (0.105) (0.163) (0.147) (0.119) (0.117) Other employment 0.573 -0.643 -0.316 0.206 0.485 0.611*** (0.502) (0.426) (0.576) (0.224) (0.453) (0.127) Protestant -0.0492** -0.0692** -0.0562* -0.177*** -0.230*** -0.204*** (0.0250) (0.0319) (0.0317) (0.0196) (0.0159) (0.0176) Catholic -0.0793*** -0.0634* -0.0505 -0.323*** -0.490*** -0.506*** (0.0242) (0.0372) (0.0351) (0.0245) (0.0224) (0.0322) Other religion -0.137* 0.0117 -0.0476 -0.112* -0.0247 -0.113 (0.0823) (0.0926) (0.0837) (0.0585) (0.0762) (0.107) Income quintile: 2 -0.0793** 0.0145 -0.000689 -0.0736* -0.130*** -0.130*** (0.0328) (0.0501) (0.0371) (0.0386) (0.0346) (0.0484) Income quintile: 3 -0.108*** -0.0784* -0.0760** -0.0946*** -0.143*** -0.135*** (0.0364) (0.0461) (0.0319) (0.0342) (0.0330) (0.0398) Income quintile: 4 -0.176*** -0.0870* -0.0970** -0.0985*** -0.150*** -0.173*** (0.0378) (0.0466) (0.0453) (0.0339) (0.0345) (0.0389) Income quintile: 5 -0.296*** -0.153*** -0.186*** -0.192*** -0.298*** -0.295*** (0.0332) (0.0465) (0.0377) (0.0389) (0.0307) (0.0438) Cohort: 1876 - 1900 0.692** -0.165 0.441 0.720*** 0.945** 0.825** (0.345) (0.342) (0.404) (0.265) (0.449) (0.400) Cohort: 1901 - 1925 0.130 0.328 (0.266) (0.422) Cohort: 1926 - 1950 -0.117** -0.0695 -0.101 -0.106* -0.0842 -0.0754 (0.0546) (0.0819) (0.0635) (0.0637) (0.0691) (0.125) Cohort: 1951 - 1975 -0.0975* -0.0474 -0.0866 -0.123** -0.0149 -0.0318 (0.0583) (0.0739) (0.0541) (0.0574) (0.0676) (0.121) Observations 10,401 10,357 10,309 18,979 14,691 9,533 R-squared 0.071 0.044 0.068 0.080 0.109 0.111 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Region FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All speci�cations control for age �xed e�ects, region �xed e�ects as well as year �xed e�ects. All speci�cations control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 55 Table A19: ESS: Main Results showing Key Controls (1) (2) (3) Pro-redistribution Voted: Left Left-wing Inequality Experiences -0.0390* -0.117*** -0.121*** (0.0234) (0.0200) (0.0389) Unemployment Experiences -0.0328** -0.00740 0.0164 (0.0163) (0.0140) (0.0285) Male -0.119*** -0.0870*** -0.101*** (0.00963) (0.0118) (0.0163) High school -0.0756*** -0.0298** -0.0682** (0.0138) (0.0121) (0.0291) College -0.204*** 0.140*** 0.141*** (0.0114) (0.0142) (0.0273) Married -0.0751*** -0.118*** -0.0747*** (0.0130) (0.0128) (0.0230) Separated -0.0626 -0.219*** -0.120* (0.0405) (0.0537) (0.0654) Divorced -0.0259 -0.0397* -0.0404 (0.0178) (0.0211) (0.0385) Widowed -0.0550** -0.0882*** -0.0813* (0.0225) (0.0318) (0.0485) Self-Employed -0.183*** -0.232*** -0.228*** (0.0123) (0.0194) (0.0170) Not in paid work -0.0387 -0.0548*** 0.00122 (0.0255) (0.0202) (0.0381) Religion: Catholic -0.127*** -0.353*** -0.421*** (0.0158) (0.0179) (0.0232) Religion: Protestant -0.113*** -0.269*** -0.247*** (0.0119) (0.0146) (0.0227) Religion: Eastern Orthodox -0.170 0.117 -0.142 (0.192) (0.128) (0.272) Religion: Other Christian 0.0235 -0.226*** -0.0571 (0.0485) (0.0384) (0.0822) Religion: Jewish -0.502*** -0.216* -0.318* (0.158) (0.123) (0.189) Religion: Islamic 0.170*** 0.158** 0.445*** (0.0638) (0.0789) (0.0904) Religion: Other 0.0714 0.109* 0.135 (0.0630) (0.0634) (0.0931) Income bracket: 1 -0.0118 -0.141 -0.0517 (0.246) (0.193) (0.246) Income bracket: 2 0.0142 -0.202 -0.128 (0.227) (0.195) (0.240) Income bracket: 3 -0.0558 -0.155 -0.0891 (0.239) (0.192) (0.223) Income bracket: 4 -0.0943 -0.275 -0.200 (0.240) (0.196) (0.233) Income bracket: 5 -0.115 -0.257 -0.170 (0.241) (0.185) (0.238) Income bracket: 6 -0.162 -0.272 -0.190 (0.233) (0.195) (0.227) Income bracket: 7 -0.209 -0.235 -0.185 (0.231) (0.193) (0.234) Income bracket: 8 -0.275 -0.281 -0.243 (0.240) (0.189) (0.244) Income bracket: 9 -0.398* -0.298 -0.206 (0.222) (0.187) (0.223) Income bracket: 10 -0.669*** -0.443** -0.415* (0.243) (0.195) (0.232) Observations 85,529 81,167 25,462 R-squared 0.143 0.079 0.153 Country FE x Age trends Yes Yes Yes Country FE x Year FE Yes Yes Yes Country FE x Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All speci�cations control for age trends, year �xed e�ects as well as cohort group �xed e�ects, each interacted with country �xed e�ects. All speci�cations control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 56 B Additional Results from the ISSP B.1 Description of the ISSP We also make use of a unique dataset containing rich data on perceptions about inequality, the International Social Survey Program (ISSP) module on Social Inequality. The ISSP has been widely used to study perceptions of social inequality, see for example Kiatpongsan and Norton (2014) or Norton and Ariely (2011). There are in total four waves of the social inequality module: one in 1987, one in 1992, one in 1999 and the last available one in 2009. On the one hand, the ISSP allows us to examine whether perceived and actual income inequality co-move. On the other hand, we provide an additional robustness check by replicating our main results on the ISSP. In table A20 we report summary statistics for the sample from the ISSP that we use to replicate our main �ndings.45 Most of our sample from the ISSP comes from six countries: Australia, France, Germany46, Norway, the United Kingdom and the US, each of which makes up for around ten percent of the sample. Canada, Denmark, Finland, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland together constitute about 40 percent of the overall sample. B.2 Co-movement between actual and perceived inequality B.2.1 Outcome variables: Perceptions of inequality First, we create a variable capturing people's beliefs about how much inequality there is in their countries based on their response to the following question: �These �ve diagrams show di�erent types of society. Please read the descriptions and look at the diagrams and decide which you think best describes [ COUNTRY ]: • Type A: A small elite at the top, very few people in the middle and the great mass of people at the bottom. • Type B: A society like a pyramid with a small elite at the top, more people in the middle, and most at the bottom. 45We can use a slightly larger sample to examine the correlation between actual inequality and perceived inequality because we can also use respondents who are younger than 26. 46Due to lacking inequality data we drop all respondents currently living in Eastern Germany and focus only on Western German Respondents. 57 Table A20: Summary Stats: ISSP Variable Mean Std. Dev. Min. Max. N Share top 10 during impr years 30.994 3.936 21.839 44.81 38239 Share top 5 during impr years 20.36 3.329 13.343 38.555 38974 Share top 1 during impr years 8.147 2.346 4.024 18.709 40508 Gini during impr years 31.137 5.857 20.569 44.712 18246 Unemployment during impr years 5.293 3.962 0.01 35.287 40663 Age 49.962 15.334 26 98 44918 Female 0.524 0.499 0 1 44918 Below secondary 0.45 0.498 0 1 44918 Secondary 0.227 0.419 0 1 44918 Above secondary 0.309 0.462 0 1 44918 Married 0.667 0.471 0 1 44918 Widowed 0.076 0.265 0 1 44918 Divorced 0.076 0.265 0 1 44918 Separated 0.02 0.139 0 1 44918 Single 0.154 0.361 0 1 44918 Full-time employed 0.402 0.49 0 1 44918 Part-time employed 0.082 0.275 0 1 44918 Unemployed 0.031 0.174 0 1 44918 Student 0.012 0.109 0 1 44918 Retired 0.18 0.384 0 1 44918 Other employment 0.118 0.323 0 1 44918 Catholic 0.273 0.445 0 1 44918 Church of England 0.086 0.28 0 1 44918 Protestant 0.104 0.306 0 1 44918 No religion 0.21 0.407 0 1 44918 Other religion 0.261 0.439 0 1 44918 Household Size 2.774 1.294 1 5 43151 Australia 0.138 0.345 0 1 44918 Canada 0.035 0.183 0 1 44918 Denmark 0.025 0.157 0 1 44918 Finland 0.015 0.122 0 1 44918 France 0.094 0.292 0 1 44918 Germany 0.111 0.314 0 1 44918 Great Britain 0.072 0.259 0 1 44918 Italy 0.021 0.143 0 1 44918 Japan 0.051 0.22 0 1 44918 Netherlands 0.03 0.171 0 1 44918 Norway 0.082 0.274 0 1 44918 NZL 0.059 0.235 0 1 44918 Portugal 0.051 0.22 0 1 17269 Spain 0.046 0.209 0 1 44918 Sweden 0.063 0.242 0 1 44918 Switzerland 0.025 0.157 0 1 44918 US 0.114 0.318 0 1 44918 • Type C: A pyramid except that just a few people are at the bottom. • Type D: A society with most people in the middle. • Type E: Many people near the top, and only a few near the bottom. 58 What type of society is [ COUNTRY ] today � which diagram comes closest?� We code this variable such that high values mean that people think that the country they live in today is more unequal, ranking perceived society progressively as more equal moving from type A to type E. Second, we use unique data on people's beliefs about earnings in di�erent occupations to construct measures of beliefs about the pay gaps between CEOs and unskilled workers; Cabinet ministers and unskilled workers; and doctors and unskilled workers. For example, the respondents are asked: �How much do you think an unskilled worker in a factory earns before taxes?�; or they are asked: �How much do you think a chairman of a large national company earns before taxes?� We calculate pay gaps as the ratios between the estimates for the higher-earning professions and th estimate for unskilled workers. To account for outliers we winsorize the estimated pay gaps at the 99th percentile. B.2.2 Results: Perceptions of inequality In tables A21 and A22 we show the results from regressing beliefs about inequality on actual top income shares. In some speci�cations we add country and year �xed e�ects and a set of demographic controls. Across speci�cations, we �nd that actual inequality strongly predicts people's perceived level of inequality. Table A21: ISSP: Perceptions of inequality (1) (2) (3) Belief: high inequality Belief: high inequality Belief: high inequality Current Income Share of Top 5 % 0.0371*** 0.0490*** 0.0488*** (0.00142) (0.00520) (0.00524) Observations 33,052 33,052 33,052 R-squared 0.025 0.126 0.157 Year FE No Yes Yes Country FE No Yes Yes HH controls No No Yes Robust standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 59 Table A22: ISSP: Estimated pay gaps (1) (2) (3) Estimated CEO Estimated cabinet minister Estimated doctor worker paygap worker paygap worker paygap Current Income Share of Top 5 % 1.786*** 0.227*** 0.153*** (0.200) (0.0368) (0.0198) Observations 43,841 43,809 44,191 R-squared 0.182 0.129 0.128 Year FE Yes Yes Yes Country FE Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Robust standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 B.3 Replication of main results on the ISSP B.3.1 Outcomes: Experienced inequality Our main outcome variables of interest on preferences for redistribution focus on the role the government should play and are given as follows:47 • Too much inequality: �Di�erences in income in [ COUNTRY ] are too large.� We code this variable such that high values in this question correspond to more agreement to this statement. • Tax the rich more: Moreover, we use a question on people's desired tax levels of people with di�erent income levels: �Do you think people with high incomes should pay a larger share of their income in taxes than those with low incomes, the same share, or a smaller share?� High values mean that individuals want higher shares of taxes for richer people. • Do not reduce bene�ts to the poor: �The government should spend less on bene�ts for the poor�. We code this variable such that high values indicate disagreement with this statement. • Party a�liation: Left: We also use data on people's party a�liation and their voting intention. In particular, individuals are asked for which party they intend to vote in the 47These questions are answered on a 5 point scale where 1 means �strongly agree� and 5 means �strongly disagree�. 60 next election. The data provided by the ISSP then classi�es people's voting behavior on a scale from (1) far right to (5) far left.48 • Voted: Left: Moreover, individuals are asked about their voting behavior in the last election. As before we use the derived data from the ISSP that classi�es the voting intention on a scale ranging from (1) far right to (5) far left. B.3.2 Results: Experienced inequality We show the results from the replication of our main �ndings on the ISSP sample in A23. We �nd that high inequality experiences are associated with less agreement that there is too much inequality in the respondent's country (Column 1). We �nd no signi�cant e�ect on agreement to the statement that the rich should be taxed more than the poor, even though the sign of the coe�cient goes into the expected direction (Column 2). However, people who have experienced high inequality are signi�cantly more likely to be in favor of reducing the bene�ts to the poor (Column 3) and are signi�cantly less likely to be a�liated to a left-wing party or to vote for a left-wing party (Colums 4 and 5). Taken together, the results from the ISSP strongly replicate our earlier �ndings on the samples from the GSS, Allbus and ESS. This provides us with additional con�dence in the robustness of our results. 48We set this variable to missing for all individuals who either do not intend to vote, or intend to vote for another party not part of this left-right spectrum. 61 Table A23: ISSP: Replication of main �ndings (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Too much Tax the Do not reduce Party a�liation Voted: inequality rich more bene�ts to the poor Left Left Inequality Experiences -0.0535** -0.0101 -0.0612** -0.121** -0.0529** (0.0242) (0.0215) (0.0280) (0.0560) (0.0218) Observations 34,439 33,445 19,100 7,761 26,048 R-squared 0.142 0.075 0.103 0.058 0.075 Country FE x Age trends Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Country FE x Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Country FE x Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes HH controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment during impressionable years. All speci�cation control for age trends, year �xed e�ects and cohort group �xed e�ects, each interacted with country �xed e�ects. All speci�cations control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored.* p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 62 C Description of Outcomes C.1 General Social Survey C.1.1 Main Outcomes • Help Poor: �Some people think that the government in Washington should do everything to improve the standard of living of all poor Americans (they are at point 5 on this card). Other people think it is not the government's responsibility, and that each person should take care of himself (they are at point 1). Where are you placing yourself in this scale?� • Pro-welfare: �We are faced with many problems in this country, none of which can be solved easily or inexpensively. I am going to name some of these problems, and for each one I would like you to tell me whether you think we are spending too much money on it, too little money or about the right amount.� We focus on people's answer to that question on the issue of �assistance to the poor.� We code this variable such that higher values indicate too little assistance to the poor. • Success due to luck: �Some people say that people get ahead by their own hard work; others say that lucky breaks or help from other people are more important. Which do you think is most important?� The answer can take a value from 1 to 3: hard work is most important (1), hard work and luck are equally important (2), luck is most important (3). • Liberal: �We hear a lot of talk these days about liberals and conservatives. I am going to show you a seven-point scale on which the political views that people might hold are arranged from extremely liberal to extremely conservative. Where would you place yourself in this scale?� We coded the question such that high values mean that the respondent is liberal. • Party: Democrat: �Generally speaking, do you usually think of yourself as a Republican, Democrat, Independent, or what?� We coded this variable such that higher values corre- spond to support of the democratic party and lower values to the support of Republicans. We set observations as missing if respondents identi�ed with another party. • Voted: Democrat: We also look at people's past voting behavior. Speci�cally, this variable takes value one if the respondent voted for the democratic candidate in the last presidential election and takes value zero if the respondent voted for the republican can- 63 didate. We set this measure to missing if the respondent did not vote in the presidential election or if the respondent voted for an independent candidate. C.1.2 Mechanisms • Low relative income: People's self-assessed position in the income distribution on a �ve-point scale reaching from �Far below average� to �Far above average�. We code this variable such that high values correspond to perceived low relative income. • Low social position: People's self-assessed position in society on a four-point scale, reaching from �Lower class� to �Upper class� We code this variable such that high values indicate a perceived low social position. C.1.3 Placebo Outcomes • Pro-immigration: People's view on whether the number of immigrants should be in- creased or decreased on a �ve-point scale from (1) decrease a lot to (5) increase a lot. • Pro-guns: This variable takes value one for people opposing a law which would require a person to obtain a police permit before he or she could buy a gun. • God exists: People's belief in god on a six-point scale from (1) people not believing in God to (6) people stating that they know God really exists and that they have no doubts about it. C.2 Allbus C.2.1 Main Outcomes • Inequality: Unfair: Disagreement on 4-point scale to the statement: �I think the so- cial inequalities in this country are fair.� We coded this variable such that higher values correspond to more distaste of inequality. • Inequality does not increase motivation: This variable captures people's beliefs about the e�ect of inequality on motivation. High values mean that people think that inequality does not increase motivation. 64 • Inequality re�ects luck: Disagreement on 4-point scale to the statement: �Di�erences in rank between people are acceptable as they essentially re�ect how people used their opportunities.� High values mean that people disagree with this statement. • Left-wing: People's self-assessment of their political views on a 10-point scale. We coded this variable such that high values indicate a more left-wing self-assessment. • Intention to vote: Left: We classi�ed each party based on the classi�cation of parties on the left-right spectrum from Huber and Inglehart (1995). Higher values correspond to intentions to vote for more left-wing parties. • Voted: Left: As above we create an index for each party that our respondent voted for using the classi�cation of parties on the left-right spectrum from Huber and Inglehart (1995). Higher values of this variable mean that people voted for more left-wing parties. C.2.2 Mechanisms • Low social position: �In our society there are people who are at the top and people who are at the bottom. Where would you place yourself on such a scale?� This is coded such that high values mean that people think that they are closer to the bottom of the distribution. C.2.3 Placebo Outcomes • Pro-immigration: We construct an index of attitudes towards immigrants by looking at the following questions on a scale from (1) strongly disagree to (7) strongly agree. � Immigrants should adapt to German customs. � Immigrants should not have any right to participate politically. � Immigrants should not be allowed to marry Germans. The index is coded such that more disagreement to these statements receives higher values. • Nationalism: People's nationalism is measured on a four point scale ranging from (1) very proud to be German to (4) not very proud to be German. We code this variable such that high values indicate high nationalism. 65 • Nature determines life: People's agreement to the statement �in the �nal analysis, our life is determined by the laws of nature.� on a scale from (1) strongly agree to (5) strongly disagree. We code this variable such that high values indicate agreement to this statement. C.3 ESS C.3.1 Main Outcomes • Pro-redistribution: �The government should take measures to reduce di�erences in in- come levels.� We code this variable such that high values correspond to agreement to this statement. • Left-wing: �In politics people sometimes talk of `left' and `right'. Where would you place yourself on this scale, where 0 means the left and 10 means the right?� We recode this variable such that high values refer to people placing themselves on the left. • Voted: Left: People's voting behavior in the last election. In particular, we coded up this voting behavior on a right-left scale, taking higher values for left-wing parties and lower values for right-wing parties. As in Giuliano and Spilimbergo (2014), we used the classi�cation of parties on the left-right spectrum from Huber and Inglehart (1995). If the party was not part of Huber's classi�cation or if a person did not vote, we coded the observation as missing. C.3.2 Placebo Outcomes • Pro-immigration: We construct an index of attitudes towards immigrants by looking at the following questions with scales from (1) to (4) and (0) to (10). � �Allow many immigrants of same race/ethnic group� (4) vs. �Allow no immigrants of the same race/ethnic group� (1). � �Allow many immigrants of di�erent race/ethnic group� (4) vs. �Allow no immigrants of di�erent race/ethnic group� (1). � �Allow many immigrants from poorer countries to Europe� (4) vs. �Allow no immi- grants from poorer countries to Europe� (1). � �Immigration is good for the economy� (10) vs. �Immigration is bad for the economy� (0). 66 � �Immigration is good for cultural life� (10) vs, �Immigration is bad for cultural life� (0). � �Immigration makes this country a better place to live� (10) vs. �Immigration makes this country a worse place to live� (0). We code the index such that high values indicate more positive attitudes towards immi- grants. • Pro-EU uni�cation: �European uni�cation should go further� (10) or �European uni�- cation has gone too far� (0). • Pro-democratic: People's agreement on a 5-point scale to the statement �Political parties that wish to overthrow democracy should be banned.� 67 D Data description: Control Variables D.1 General Social Survey We control for our respondents' employment status by including dummy variables on whether the respondent is employed part-time, temporarily not working, unemployed, retired, in school, keeping the house or in other employment (the base category is full-time employment). To account for the respondent's marital status, we include the following dummies: whether the respondent is married, widowed, divorced or separated (the omitted category is �never married�). We include the following set of indicator variables to capture our respondent's educational attainment: an indicator for whether our respondent completed at most high school as well as a dummy for whether our respondent completed college (�below highschool� is the omitted category). We also include a dummy for whether our respondent is black. Following Giuliano and Spilimbergo (2014) we include dummies for each of the 12 income brackets available in the GSS to control for absolute household income. In addition, we include a set of dummies for our respondents' household size. Finally, we also control for our respondent's religion by including dummies for whether they are protestant, catholic, Jewish or whether they have another religion. Finally, we include a dummy indicating the gender of the respondent. D.2 German General Social Survey (Allbus) We control for key demographics, such as income, gender, marital status, education, religious a�liation and employment status. In particular, we control for education by including dummy variables for the type of schooling our respondent completed.49 We control for marital status by including dummy variables for whether our respondent is married, widowed, divorced or separated (single is the omitted category). We account for people's employment status by dummies for whether our respondent is part- time employed, unemployed, out of the labor force, student, retired, or in other employment (the omitted category is full-time employment). We also control for people's position in the income distribution in a given year by including dummies for quintiles of self-reported monthly household income. We also control for our respondent's religion by including dummy variables for whether our 49In particular, we include dummies for �Hauptschule�, �Realschule� and �Abitur/FH�. Below �Hauptschule� is the omitted category. 68 respondent is catholic, protestant or member of another religion (the omitted category is �no religion�). Finally, we also include a dummy variable indicating the gender of the respondent. D.3 European Social Survey We control for education by including dummy variables for whether our respondent completed at most high-school or holds a college degree (no completion of high school is the omitted category). We control for marital status by including dummy variables for whether our respondent is mar- ried, widowed, divorced or separated (single is the omitted category). We account for people's employment status by including dummy variables for whether they are self-employed or not in paid work (the omitted category is that they are employed). We also control for people's income level. For waves one to three we make use of the only available income variable which measures absolute household income levels categorized into 12 brackets. For waves four to seven we use a variable on the country-speci�c income decile that our respondent's household belongs to. We also control for household size with a set of dummies indicating whether there is one person in the household, two, three, four or more than �ve. We also control for our respondent's religion by including dummies for whether our respondent is catholic, protestant, a�liated to another Christian religion, Islamic, Jewish or a�liated to another religion (the omitted category is �no religion�). Finally, we also include a dummy variable indicating the gender of our respondent. 69 E Inequality Data We now provide an overview of the inequality data we use in our analysis. We linearly interpolate missing inequality data up to gaps of six years. In our analysis we make use of those cohorts for which this method gives inequality data for their full �impressionable years� (age 18-25). Table A24 shows the years for which inequality data are available for the di�erent countries in our sample. Table A24: Availability of Inequality Data Country Share top 10 percent Share top 5 percent Share top 1 percent Gini coe�cient Australia 1941-2010 1939-2010 1921-2010 1981-2010 Canada 1941-2010 1920-2010 1920-2010 1976-2011 Denmark 1903-2010 1903-2010 1903-2010 - Finland 1920-2009 1920-2009 1920-2009 1966-2011 France 1919-2012 1915-2012 1915-2012 1956-2011 Germany 1891-1936; 1961-2008 1891-1938; 1961-2008 1891-1938; 1957-2008 1962-2010 Italy 1974-2009 1974-2009 1974-2009 1967-2010 Ireland 1975-2009 - 1975-2009 - Japan 1947-2010 1907-1924; 1947-2010 1886-2010 1962-2001 Netherlands 1914-2012 1914-2012 1914-2012 1977-2008 New Zealand 1924-2012 1921-2012 1921-2012 1982-2009 Norway 1948-2011 1948-2011 1948-2011 1986-2011 Portugal 1976-2005 1976-2005 1976-2005 1993-2011 Spain 1981-2012 1981-2012 1981-2012 1990-2011 Sweden 1903-1920; 1930-2013 1903-1920; 1930-2013 1903-1920; 1930-2013 1975-2011 Switzerland 1933-2010 1933-2010 1933-2010 - United Kingdom 1949-2012 1949-2012 1949-2012 1961-2011 United States (national) 1917-2014 1917-2014 1913-2014 1944-2012 United States (state-level) 1917-2015 1917-2015 1917-2015 - In this table we provide an overview of the available inequality data for the countries in our sample. These data are taken from �The World Wealth and Income Database� (Alvaredo et al., 2011) and from the �Chartbook of Economic Inequality� (Atkinson and Morelli, 2014). 70 F Construction of Life-time Experiences As in Malmendier and Nagel (2011) and Malmendier and Nagel (2015), we construct a weighted average of past national-level income shares of the top �ve percent50 for each individual i in country c and in year t, using a speci�cation of weights that introduces merely one additional parameter to measure past experiences (Malmendier and Shen, 2015): IEict(λ) = ageit−1∑ k=1 wit(k,λ)Ic,t−k (5) where wit(k,λ) = (ageit − k)λ∑ageit−1 k=1 (ageit − k)λ (6) where Ic,t−k is the share of total income held by the top �ve percent of earners in year t-k. Given that the empirical literature on the role of experiences in the formation of political attitudes posits a big importance of early experiences and in particular experiences during the impressionable years (Giuliano and Spilimbergo, 2014; Krosnick and Alwin, 1989), we assume that experiences before age 18 do not matter. In other words, we construct the experience measures as the weighted average of experiences from age 18 onwards. The weights wit(k,λ) are a function of k, i.e. how distant the inequality was experienced relative to the individual's age at time t, and of the weighting parameter λ. The value of λ determines the relative importance of distant experiences compared to more recent experiences. In our estimations we use a weight of λ = −1 which gives rise to a weight that increases linearly when one moves further into the past from the survey year.51 This weighting scheme gives more importance to people's early experiences, while still allowing for some impact of more recent experiences in life.52 50We used the exact same methodology to look at alternative measures of inequality. The results looked very similar and are omitted for brevity. 51We obtain very similar results when we use weights of λ = −0.5 or λ = −2 instead. 52If λ > 0, the weights are decreasing in lag k, i.e. income inequality experienced closer to current age at time t receives higher weight. 71 G Experimental Instructions G.1 Experiment 1 G.1.1 Introduction This study is conducted by researchers from Goethe University Frankfurt and the University of Oxford. Participants will be asked to answer a few questions about their preferences, as well as a set of demographic questions. Participation in the study typically takes 2 minutes and is strictly anonymous. In order to be paid, it is necessary to �nish the survey. If you complete the survey, you will receive a �xed payment of 30 cents. Each person is only allowed to participate in the experiment once. If you encounter a technical problem, please do not restart the experiment, but contact us at dphiloxfordecon@gmail.com. If participants have further questions about this study or their rights, or if they wish to lodge a complaint or concern, they may contact us at dphiloxforde- con@gmail.com • I have read the information provided on the previous page. • I have had the opportunity to ask questions about the study. • I understand that I may withdraw from the study at any time. • I understand how to raise a concern or make a complaint. • I understand that I can only participate in this experiment once. • I understand that close attention to the survey is required for my responses to count. If you are 18 years of age or older, agree with the statements above, and freely consent to participate in the study, please click on the �I Agree� button to begin the experiment. • I Agree • I Disagree 72 G.1.2 Treatment Conditions Equality Condition: We will now ask you to complete a hypothetical task. Imagine that there are two worker who worked for us on several tasks. Worker A completed two tasks correctly, while worker B completed eight tasks correctly. The number of correctly completed tasks depends on both the worker's e�ort and luck. How would you like to split one dollar between worker A and worker B? • Give 50 cents to player A and 50 cents to player B. • Give 48 cents to player A and 52 cents to player B. Inequality Condition: We will now ask you to complete a hypothetical task. Imagine that there are two worker who worked for us on several tasks. Worker A completed two tasks correctly, while worker B completed eight tasks correctly. The number of correctly completed tasks depends on both the worker's e�ort and luck. How would you like to split one dollar between worker A and worker B? • 22 cents for worker A and 78 cents for worker B. • 20 cents for worker A and 80 cents for worker B. G.1.3 Outcome Measure: Behavioral Measure of Redistribution We will now ask you to complete a hypothetical task. Imagine that there are two workers who worked for us on several tasks. Note, these workers are NOT the same people as from the pre- vious task. 73 Worker C completed three tasks correctly, while worker D completed seven tasks correctly. The number of correctly completed tasks depends on both the worker's e�ort and luck. How would you like to split one dollar between worker C and worker D? • Give 80 cents to worker C and 20 cents to worker D. • Give 75 cents to worker C and 25 cents to worker D. • Give 70 cents to worker C and 30 cents to worker D. • Give 65 cents to worker C and 35 cents to worker D. • Give 60 cents to worker C and 40 cents to worker D. • Give 55 cents to worker C and 45 cents to worker D. • Give 50 cents to worker C and 50 cents to worker D. • Give 45 cents to worker C and 55 cents to worker D. • Give 40 cents to worker C and 60 cents to worker D. • Give 35 cents to worker C and 65 cents to worker D. • Give 30 cents to worker C and 70 cents to worker D. • Give 25 cents to worker C and 75 cents to worker D. • Give 20 cents to worker C and 80 cents to worker D. G.1.4 Demographics The main part of the survey is now over. We will now just ask you some general questions about yourself. Which of these describes you more accurately? [Male, Female] What year were you born? In which state do you currently reside? How many people are there in your household including yourself? 74 What was your annual household income (before taxes) in 2015? [Less than $10,000, Between $10,000 and $19,999, Between $20,000 and $29,999, Between $30,000 and $39,999, Between $40,000 and $49,999, Between $50,000 and $59,999, Between $60,000 and $69,999, Between $70,000 and $79,999, Between $80,000 and $99,999, More than $100,000] What is the highest level of education you have completed? [12th grade or less; Graduated high school or equivalent; Some college, no degree; Associate degree; Bachelor's degree; Post-graduate degree] What is your religion? [Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, None, Other] What is your ethnicity? [White, Black, Hispanic, Asian, Other] What category would best describe your political orientation? [Republican, Democrat, Other] Which of these describes your current situation most accurately? [Employed full-time, Employed part-time, Unemployed and looking for a job, Unemployed but not looking for a job, Retired, Other] 75 G.2 Experimental Instructions: Experiment 2 G.2.1 Introduction This study is conducted by researchers from Goethe University Frankfurt and the University of Oxford. Participants will be asked to answer a few questions about their preferences, as well as a set of demographic questions. Participation in the study typically takes 2 minutes and is strictly anonymous. In order to be paid, it is necessary to �nish the survey. If you complete the survey, you will receive a �xed payment of 30 cents. Each person is only allowed to participate in the experiment once. If you encounter a technical problem, please do not restart the experiment, but contact us at dphiloxfordecon@gmail.com. If participants have further questions about this study or their rights, or if they wish to lodge a complaint or concern, they may contact us at dphiloxforde- con@gmail.com • I have read the information provided on the previous page. • I have had the opportunity to ask questions about the study. • I understand that I may withdraw from the study at any time. • I understand how to raise a concern or make a complaint. • I understand that I can only participate in this experiment once. • I understand that close attention to the survey is required for my responses to count. If you are 18 years of age or older, agree with the statements above, and freely consent to participate in the study, please click on the �I Agree� button to begin the experiment. • I Agree • I Disagree G.2.2 Treatment Conditions Equality Condition: 76 We will now ask you to complete a hypothetical task. Imagine that there are two worker who worked for us on several tasks. Worker A completed two tasks correctly, while worker B completed eight tasks correctly. The number of correctly completed tasks depends on both the worker's e�ort and luck. How would you like to split one dollar between worker A and worker B? • Give 50 cents to player A and 50 cents to player B. • Give 48 cents to player A and 52 cents to player B. Inequality Condition: We will now ask you to complete a hypothetical task. Imagine that there are two worker who worked for us on several tasks. Worker A completed two tasks correctly, while worker B completed eight tasks correctly. The number of correctly completed tasks depends on both the worker's e�ort and luck. How would you like to split one dollar between worker A and worker B? • Nothing for worker A and 100 cents for worker B. • 20 cents for worker A and 80 cents for worker B. G.2.3 Outcome Measure: Behavioral Measure of Redistribution We will now ask you to complete a hypothetical task. Imagine that there are two workers who worked for us on several tasks. Note, these workers are NOT the same people as from the pre- vious task. Worker C completed three tasks correctly, while worker D completed seven tasks correctly. The number of correctly completed tasks depends on both the worker's e�ort and luck. How would you like to split one dollar between worker C and worker D? 77 • Give 50 cents to worker C and 50 cents to worker D. • Give 45 cents to worker C and 55 cents to worker D. • Give 40 cents to worker C and 60 cents to worker D. • Give 35 cents to worker C and 65 cents to worker D. • Give 30 cents to worker C and 70 cents to worker D. • Give 25 cents to worker C and 75 cents to worker D. • Give 20 cents to worker C and 80 cents to worker D. 78 CESifo Working Paper No. 6251 Category 2: Public Choice December 2016 Abstract Wohlfahrt Experienced inequality and preferences for redistribution.pdf Introduction Data General Social Survey (US) German General Social Survey European Social Survey Normalizations, Controls and Missings Inequality and Unemployment Data Construction of Experience Variable Empirical Strategy and Results Empirical Specification: GSS and Allbus Empirical Specification: ESS Results Mechanisms Reference Points and Fairness Extrapolation from own circumstances Relative income Robustness ``Impressionable Years'' versus Other Years Life-time Experiences Placebo Outcomes Other Experiences during Impressionable Years Other Robustness Checks Experimental Evidence Experimental Design Stage 1: Treatment Stage 2: Redistribution Game Experiment 2 Sample Results Alternative Mechanisms Conclusion Additional Tables Additional Results from the ISSP Description of the ISSP Co-movement between actual and perceived inequality Outcome variables: Perceptions of inequality Results: Perceptions of inequality Replication of main results on the ISSP Outcomes: Experienced inequality Results: Experienced inequality Description of Outcomes General Social Survey Main Outcomes Mechanisms Placebo Outcomes Allbus Main Outcomes Mechanisms Placebo Outcomes ESS Main Outcomes Placebo Outcomes Data description: Control Variables General Social Survey German General Social Survey (Allbus) European Social Survey Inequality Data Construction of Life-time Experiences Experimental Instructions Experiment 1 Introduction Treatment Conditions Outcome Measure: Behavioral Measure of Redistribution Demographics Experimental Instructions: Experiment 2 Introduction Treatment Conditions Outcome Measure: Behavioral Measure of Redistribution 
work_g3g2jc3vk5h3zisbys33n7ighu	----	What Is the Common Thread of Creativity? Its Dialectical Relation to Intelligence and Wisdom Robert J. Sternberg Yale University Creativity refers to the potential to produce novel ideas that are task-appropriate and high in quality. Creativity in a societal context is best understood in terms of a dialec- tical relation to intelligence and wisdom. In particular, intelligence forms the thesis of such a dialectic. Intelli- gence largely is used to advance existing societal agendas. Creativity forms the antithesis of the dialectic, questioning and often opposing societal agendas, as well as proposing new ones. Wisdom forms the synthesis of the dialectic, balancing the old with the new. Wise people recognize the need to balance intelligence with creativity to achieve both stability and change within a societal context. So many threads, so few clearly emergent patterns.Such might be a characterization of the articles oncreativity that make up this special section of the American Psychologist. Yet I argue that one common thread emerges. That common thread is the role of creativ- ity in the dialectical progression of ideas. The basic idea underlying this article is that all cultures—including the cultures that comprise fields of knowledge—generate a dialectical process (Hegel, 1807/1931) in which intelli- gence represents a thesis, creativity an antithesis, and wis- dom a synthesis. Intelligence Although definitions of intelligence differ (Sternberg, 2000b), virtually all of these definitions view intelligence as the ability to adapt to the environment (see, e.g., "Intelligence and Its Measurement," 1921; Sternberg & Detterman, 1986, for mul- tiple definitions of intelligence by experts; and Sternberg, 1985: Sternberg, Conway, Ketron, & Bernstein, 1981, for multiple definitions of intelligence by laypeople). Intelligent people are those who somehow acquire the skills that lead to their fitting into existing environments. Some theorists believe that such skills are relatively domain-general (see, e.g., Car- roll, 1993; Jensen, 1998; see also essays in Sternberg & Grigorenko, in press), whereas others believe that they are relatively domain-specific (see, e.g., Ceci, 1996; Gardner, 1983, 1999; see also essays in Sternberg & Grigorenko, in press). Still others believe that such skills have both domain- specific and domain-general properties (see, e.g., Sternberg, 1997a, 1999d). But these diverse views have in common the proposition that the skills constituting intelligence lead people, on average, to be rewarded in terms of whatever the reward structure of a society is. What is considered intelligent in one place may not be in another, as cultural psychologists have appreciated in their studies of intelligence (see, e.g., Serpell, 2000). Intelligent people are rewarded, on average, precisely because they adapt and often can adapt in multiple environments. Contemporary U.S. society is one of many societies around the world that allocates resources in part on the basis of the perceived intelligence of its members. People easily can make the step from the existence of this reward system to the justification of the reward system (Herrnstein & Murray, 1994). However, it is important to realize that it is no coincidence that this system exists: Societies define intelligence largely on the basis of individual differences to account for the fact that some people are more successful than others in school, in life, or elsewhere. As McNemar (1964) pointed out, a concept of intelligence, at least in the sense of what has been measured by psychometric tests of intelligence, might never have arisen in the absence of individual differences. Experimental psychologists histori- cally have been less interested in intelligence than have been differential psychologists, perhaps in part because of the former's lesser interest in individual differences. Creativity Definitions of creativity, like definitions of intelligence, differ (Sternberg, 1999b), but they have in common their emphasis on people's ability to produce products that are not only high in quality but also novel. Products fashioned by intelligent people are high in quality but not necessarily novel. Creativity thus seems in some way to go beyond intelligence. Editor's note. Robert J. Sternberg and Nancy K. Dess developed this section on creativity. Author's note. Preparation of this article was supported by Grant REC- 9979843 from the National Science Foundation, by a grant from the W. T. Grant Foundation, and by a government grant (Grant R206R00001) under the Javits Act Program as administered by the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education. Grantees undertaking such projects are encouraged to express freely their profes- sional judgment. This article, therefore, does not necessarily represent the positions or the policies of the U.S. government, and no official endorse- ment should be inferred. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Robert J. Sternberg, Yale University, The Yale Center for the Psychology of Abilities, Competencies, and Expertise, 340 Edwards Street, P.O. Box 208358, New Haven, CT 06520-8358. Electronic mail may be sent to robert. sternberg @ y ale .edu. 360 April 2001 • American Psychologist Copyright 2001 by the American Psychological Association. Inc. 0003-066X/01/S5.00 Vol. 56. No. 4. 360-362 DOI: 10.IO37//00O3-066X.56.4.36O Many highly creative individuals "defy the crowd" (Sternberg & Lubart, 1991, 1995); that is, they produce products that are good but that are not exactly, and often not even approximately, what other people expect or desire. This view implies that creativity is always a person-system interaction: Creativity is meaningful only in the context of a system that judges it, and what is creative in one context may not be in another (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996; Sternberg & Lubart, 1995). Hence, creativity must be viewed as a property of an individual as that individual interacts with one or more systems. For example, painters who originated the idea of painting Cubist paintings, such as Picasso or Braque, were highly creative in a given time and a given place but might be viewed as less creative today because such an idea is no longer particularly novel. Consider the individuals whose contributions are reviewed in this special section. Linus Pauling's "valence-bond theory transformed chemistry" (see Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2001, p. 339, this issue) and represented a creative breakthrough that defied contemporary views in the field of chemistry. Some of Pauling's other ideas, such as with regard to the structure of DNA (a triple helix) and with regard to the value of Vitamin C in fighting colds, also were crowd- defying, but the ideas were simply wrong, and hence their novelty was not matched by their quality, with the result that they had a short half-life. Charles Darwin's evolution- ary proposal turned on their head not only many scientific ideas but also many religious ideas (see Gruber & Wallace, 2001, this issue). As a result, Darwin was vilified by many during his lifetime, and he continues to be vilified today by certain religious and other ideological groups. Thomas Young's theory of light as a wave was so controversial that, from the standpoint of the physics of 1910, it might be viewed as a "negative contribution" (see Martindale, 2001, this issue). Yet later it would be recognized that this prickly idea was in large part correct because light has properties both of a wave and of a particle. Amabile (2001, this issue) noted how the fiction of John Irving has been described as " 'wildly inventive' " and as " 'bearing little similarity to other recent fiction' " (p. 334). In a similar manner, Ste- phen Donaldson pulled off a unique combination in the world history of literature when he devised his Thomas Covenant series on the basis of the combination of ideas of a character who is a leper and an unbeliever (see Ward, 2001, this issue). Finally, in helping formulate Impression- ism, Claude Monet changed what were the current con- straints of the domain of painting by imposing his own novel ones, for example, in dealing with "how light breaks up on things" (see Stokes, 2001, p. 357, this issue). Creative people often feel underappreciated and at- tacked for their ideas (Sternberg & Lubart, 1995), which is to be expected because their crowd-defying ideas are in- compatible with conventional ways of thinking and vested interests. Many contemporaries are not thrilled to hear that not only their work but also the assumptions on which their work is based are being questioned (Kuhn, 1970). The creative people are correct: Time and again, their work and even they are attacked. What these individuals may fail to realize, however, is their own role in producing these attacks: By serving as an antithesis to one or more societal theses, they are essentially not only creating their own work but also generating their own opposition. An antith- esis is, by its nature, oppositional. Much of the greatest creative work, including all of that reviewed in this special section, is paradigm-rejecting (Kuhn, 1970) or of a kind that has been referred to as "redirecting" or "reinitiating" a field; however, some cre- ative work is, in some respects, less novel and basically forward-increments current ideas (Sternberg, 1998b, 1999c; Sternberg, Kaufman, & Pretz, in press). Such work is less likely to generate opposition, and its nature is closer to that of work representing the products of intelligence: It is adaptive within existing paradigms, whether in science, literature, art, or elsewhere. Parents, teachers, supervisors, and others who appreciate creative work are more likely to appreciate the forward-incremental type of creativity that builds on existing ideas than they are to appreciate the redirecting or reinitiating kinds of creativity that defy ex- isting ideas. On occasion, though, people become known not for inventing new paradigms (crowd-defying creativity) but for working extremely well within existing paradigms. Mozart would probably be a good example of someone whose creativity was largely within, rather than in defiance of, existing paradigms. If much major creativity is defined by its antithetical, crowd-defying nature, what can be said about the psycho- logical ingredients of creativity? It is clear that intelligence is a prerequisite for creativity (see, e.g., Simonton, 1984) because creative products are high in quality. As pointed out by Pauling (see Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2001, this issue), creative people not only generate a lot of ideas but also analyze those ideas and discriminate (intelligently) between their better and their worse ideas. But beyond intelligence and other abilities, creativity appears to be in large part a decision (Sternberg, 2000a): Some people use their intelligence to please the crowd, others to defy it. The most traditionally intelligent ones hope to lead the crowd not only by accepting the presuppositions of the crowd but also by analyzing next steps in thinking and by reaching those next steps before others do (Sternberg, 1998b). Highly creative people decide, among other things, to redefine problems (e.g., as did Monet), analyze their ideas (as did Pauling), attempt to persuade others of the value of their ideas rather than expecting others readily to accept them (as did Darwin), take sensible risks (as has Irving in defying modern novelistic conventions), seek bizarre connections be- tween ideas that others do not seek (as has Donaldson), and realize that existing knowledge can be a hindrance as much as it is a help in generating creative ideas (as did Young; Stern- berg, 2000a). An implication of this view of creativity as being, in part, a decision is that anyone can adopt a creative attitude (Schank, 1988) and think creatively. For a variety of reasons, however, people will not typically reach the heights of creativity of the individuals whose contributions are re- viewed in this special section. Among these reasons are dif- ferent degrees of compatibility between where people's think- ing is and where a field is at a given time in history (see April 2001 • American Psychologist 361 Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2001, this issue). For exam- ple, someone who today spontaneously generates the ideas underlying Impressionism was perhaps born too late to have the impact that Monet, Renoir, and other great Impressionists had at an earlier time. Wisdom Wisdom represents a synthesis of the thesis of intelligence (as traditionally defined) and the antithesis of creativity. Wise individuals balance the need for change (creativity) with the need for stability and continuity (intelligence) in human affairs. They thus are more divergent or legislative in their style of thinking than are many intelligent people, but at the same time, they are more convergent and even conservative in their style of thinking than are many highly creative people (see Sternberg, 1997b). They are perhaps most effective and sought after in positions of leadership because they are likely to balance the need for change (or shaping of the environment) with the need for stability (or adaptation to the environment; Sternberg, 1998a). Indeed, in a study of people's implicit theories, it was found that individuals in business see wisdom and creativity as in- versely related (Sternberg, 1985), perhaps because of cre- ative people's refusal, at times, to recognize the need for stability as well as for change. People can be intelligent without being wise. For example, they may do very well in school and on cognitive tests, but they may make a total mess not only of their own lives but also of the lives of others (Sternberg, 1997a). Robert McNamara, a principal architect of the Vietnam War, was arguably more intelligent than he was wise. As Gardner (1993) pointed out, many creative people as well are not wise, and they may even be foolish in their dealings with other people. The wise person must show, in some degree, both intelligence and creativity, as well as an emer- gent wisdom from that intelligence and creativity. If things go well, wisdom prevails, and some balance between the old and the new is accepted, moving a field forward in its quest for knowledge and understanding. But this forward movement never reaches a final point (Kuhn, 1970). The nature of the dialectic is such that the synthesis becomes the next thesis, and ideas move forward to the next step (Hegel, 1807/1931; Sternberg, 1999a). So the fate of ideas forms a spiral: The ideas of today's intelligence will be questioned by the ideas of tomorrow's creativity, only to be synthesized by the ideas of posttomorrow's wisdom. These ideas, in turn, will become the ideas of later intelligence, which still later will be questioned by creativ- ity, and on the spiral will go through time. REFERENCES Amabile, T. M. (2001). Beyond talent: John Irving and the passionate craft of creativity. American Psychologist, 56, 333-336. Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor- analytic studies. New York: Cambridge University Press. Ceci, S. J. (1996). On intelligence (Expanded ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. New York: Harper Collins. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books. Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York: Basic Books. Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New York: Basic Books. Gruber, H. E., & Wallace, D. B. (2001). Creative work: The case of Charles Darwin. American Psychologist, 56, 346-349. Hegel, G. W. F. (1931). The phenomenology of mind (2nd ed.; J. B. Baillie, Trans.). London: Allen & Unwin. (Original work published 1807) Herrnstein, R. J., & Murray, C. (1994). The bell curve. 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Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 607-627. Sternberg, R. J. (1997a). Successful intelligence. New York: Plume. Sternberg, R. J. (1997b) Thinking styles. New York: Cambridge Univer- sity Press. Sternberg, R. J. (1998a). A balance theory of wisdom. Review of General Psychology, 2, 347-365. Sternberg, R. J. (1998b). Costs and benefits of defying the crowd in science. Intelligence, 26, 209-215. Sternberg, R. J. (1999a). A dialectical basis for understanding the study of cognition. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), The nature of cognition (pp. 51-78). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.). (1999b). Handbook of creativity. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sternberg, R. J. (1999c). A propulsion model of types of creative contri- butions. Review of General Psychology, 3, 83-100. Sternberg, R. J. (1999d). The theory of successful intelligence. Review of General Psychology, 3, 292-316. Sternberg, R. J. (2000a). Creativity is a decision. In A. L. Costa (Ed.), Teaching for intelligence II (pp. 85-106). Arlington Heights, IL: Sky- light Training. Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.). (2000b). Handbook of intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sternberg, R. J., Conway, B. E., Ketron, J. L., & Bernstein, M. (1981). People's conceptions of intelligence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 37-55. Sternberg, R. J., & Detterman, D. K. (1986). What is intelligence? Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Sternberg, R. J., & Grigorenko E. L. (Eds.), (in press). The general factor of intelligence: How general is it? Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Sternberg, R. J., Kaufman, J. C , & Pretz, J. E. (in press). The creativity conundrum: A propulsion model of kinds of creative contributions. Philadelphia: Psychology Press. Sternberg, R. J., & Lubart, T. I. (1991). An investment theory of creativity and its development. Human Development, 34, 1-31. Sternberg, R. J., & Lubart, T. I. (1995). Defying the crowd: Cultivating creativity in a culture of conformity. New York: Free Press. Stokes, P. D. (2001). Variability, constraints, and creativity: Shedding light on Claude Monet. American Psychologist, 56, 355-359. Ward, T. B. (2001). Creative cognition, conceptual combination, and the creative writing of Stephen R. Donaldson. American Psychologist, 56, 350-354. 362 April 2001 • American Psychologist 
work_gas244s53jhbvifh3e6ycicjcq	----	Microsoft Word - MBR-2016-003 Marketing and Branding Research 4(2017) 4-13   MARKETING AND BRANDING RESEARCH WWW.AIMIJOURNAL.COM INDUSTRIAL MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE Evaluation of the Impressionability of Managerial Performance and Risk Management from Intellectual Capital Strategies in the Companies Listed on the Tehran Stock Exchange Market Alireza Ahangar1, 2, Farzad Sattari Ardabili1, 2* 1Department of Management, Ardabil Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ardabil, Iran 2Department of Management, Ardabil Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ardabil, Iran ABSTRACT Keywords: Company Performance, Risk Management, Intellectual Capital, Human Capital Efficiency, Structural and Capital Efficiency This research sought to evaluate the effectiveness of management performance and risk management from intellectual capital strategies in the companies listed in Tehran stock exchange. In this paper, management performance is measured according to Tobin model (2006) and intellectual capital according to Pulic model (2004) and risk management according to Towers Watson’s model. Generally, it was conducted to investigate the significant relationships among dependent variables in the companies and suggests that the companies with higher level of intellectual capital and risk management could experience management performance with higher quality. The expectations of future investors are considered as the main factors in determining the companies’ efficiency. Also, it could be concluded that human capital and structural capital have more intervention in investors’ decisions. Using financial lists information of 102 companies listed on Tehran Stock Exchange Market during 1388-1392 and applying multivariable linear regression analysis, the results suggested that there is a significant and positive relationship among management performance and risk management and intellectual capital strategies. Correspondence: farzadsattary@yahoo.com ©AIMI Journals With the advent of the industrial age into the information age, the importance of Intellectual Capital (IC) has been increased. This importance can be attributed to factors such as the information technology revolution, knowledge management, knowledge-based economy, and innovation and creativity as decisive factors in the competitions. In the industrial age, the 5 Marketing and Branding Research 4(2017)    price of properties, machineries, available equipments, and raw materials was considered as the efficient element of each business unit while in the information age, more efficient use of IC determines the success or failure of every business. IC includes the knowledge-based portion of the total capital or assets owned by a company (Bontis, 1999). Due to the importance of IC elements including human capital, customer capital, structural capital, and physical capital, IC has a significant impact on organizational performance. Various studies have been conducted to study the impacts of IC on organizational performance. On the other hand, today’s world has left behind the past industrial economy and initiated the present knowledge-based economy. In a knowledge-based economy, knowledge production and application play significantly the most important roles in the process of wealth creation (Goh, 2005). The concept of risk plays an important role in the financial market; thus, it is necessary to recognize and measure it in order to eliminate unnecessary risks and manage opportunity- based risks. Meanwhile, it must be noted that risk taking is not necessarily negative because risks coexists with opportunities (Chan, 2012). Accordingly, the scientific-professional field of financial engineering provides clear risk management solutions and creates opportunity. This field of study helps industry owners face with problematic situations safer and optimally invest their money (Shafizadeh, 2013). The specific economic condition in active companies has led to the removal of tangible assets as the only sustainable competitive advantage. In fact, what is considered as a competitive advantage in the current economy is IC (Maboodi, 2010). The companies have achieved IC through effective communication with their costumers, gaining the necessary experience, reliance on their knowledge, organizational techniques, and specialized skills (King, 2012). Today, a stable profit is obtained when organizations learn how to gain and manage knowledge and convert it into IC by the help of available management processes. When companies move from an industry-based economy to a knowledge-based one, they face major challenges such as dynamics, uncertainty, and many other complexities. Obviously, in such a business environment, the need to learn more about IC and its management increases. The importance of IC has led many companies to strive to identify and manage (Donalson & Preston, 1995; Shafizadeh, 2013). Accordingly, the present study was conducted to evaluate the impressionability of managerial performance and risk management from IC strategies in companies listed on Tehran Stock Exchange Market. Method The present study was a descriptive-correlational research. The study population included all companies listed on the Tehran Stock Exchange Market (TSEM) between 2009 and 2013. These companies should meet some criteria. They should have been listed on the TSEM prior to the fiscal year 2009 and have not been excluded before fiscal year 2013. Moreover, they should not have had trading interval more than three months. The companies’ fiscal year should have been ended in March and have not been changed during the study period. This criterion was chosen to exclude seasonal and time-based factors. The companies should not be part of intermediary companies’ investment. Investment companies adjust their earnings A.Ahanghar & Sattari Ardabili 6      with per share of their investee companies; thus, these companies do not act in line with other companies and therefore were excluded from the study. Table 1 shows the selection of companies and sample extraction. Table 1 The Selection of Companies and Sample Extraction Inclusion Criteria Number companies present in the stock exchange between the years 2009 and 2013 620 manufacturing companies present in the stock exchange between the years 2009 and 2013 355 companies that their fiscal year ended in March 278 companies that had not changed their fiscal year during the study period 211 companies that their stocks were traded at least once a year 102 companies that their data were collected 102 *The final sample size was 510 companies (102*5) Data were collected from the information available in the Rahavard Novin software and then were extracted based on companies’ financial statements and trade statistics of the exchange organization. Equation 1 was used to measure the companies’ performance (Tobin’s Model, 2006). In equation 1, Q stands for Tobin’s Q ratio which is an index to measure the performance of the company, ERM represents Enterprise Risk Management index, LEVERAGE indicates debt ratio obtained from the ratio of total debt to total assets, SALEGROWTH shows sale growth, ROA stands for return on assets obtained from the ratio of net income to total assets, DIVIDENDS for dividend per share, and εit for the error of measurement. 1) it BETAB DIVIDENDSBROABHSALEAGROWTBLEVERAGEBSIZEBERMBa it Q   7 654321 Equation 2 is used to measure the companies’ risk management, is called Watson Mode. 2) it EVALUECHANGB EBITBACKFINANCIALLBCAPACITYBLEVERAGEBSIZEBa it ERMP   6 )( 54321 )( In this equation, OPACITY shows the ratio of intangible assets for carrying amount of assets while FINANCIALSLACK refers to the short-term investments and liquidity plus total assets. VALUECHANGE and EBIT refer to the changes in company’s value and the earnings before interest and taxes. To measure the companies’ IC, Pulic model, the equation 3 is presented. In this equation, VAIC, HCE, SCE, CEE stand respectively for value-added of IC, human capital efficiency, structural capital efficiency, physical capital efficiency. The other components such as SCE, CEE, HCE, VA, HC in equation 3 refers to SC/CE, VA/CE, VA/HC, value-added or NI+T+DP+I+W. Other elements such as HC, SC, CE, NI, T, DP, I, W indicate total payroll costs, structural capital, tangible assets, net income, taxes, depreciation, interests, and wages, respectively. (3) VAIC=HCE+SCE+CEE 7 Marketing and Branding Research 4(2017)    To evaluate managerial performance, equation 4 is used (James Model, 2006). (4) LE ME PER   In equation 4, PER, ME, E, and L refer to managerial performance, market value, book value of stakeholders’ wages, and book value of debt. In this study, the collected data were classified and analyzed using Excel. To analyze the statistical data, Pearson Correlation, Regression Analysis, and ANOVA were used. Results One-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was conducted to assess whether data had normal distribution. Considering the obtained conversion formula and inserting the data value instead of the X variable, Table 2 shows the results of the K-S test which indicates that the scores were normally distributed (Sig. ≤ 0.05). Therefore, the hypothesis is rejected which indicates a lack of normality in the remaining research models. Given that the distributions of variables are affected by the distributions of remaining, the dependent variable’s data in this study must have been normally distributed to increase the reliability of the following tests which is done based on Johnson Model in Figure 1. In Johnson Model, some calculations are performed on the data for normalization and then the user will be provided by a conversion formula as the model’s output. Table 2 Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test Results Number Company Performance Risk Management IC 510 510 510 Normal Parametersa,b Mean -0.24 0.70 0.02 SD 0.54 0.43 0.94 Most Extreme Differences Absolute 0.05 0.18 0.02 Positive 0.03 0.18 0.02 Negative -0.05 -0.11 -0.02 Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z 0.71 4.26 0.56 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) 0.72 0.90 0.75 *a. Data distribution is normal A.Ahanghar & Sattari Ardabili 8      Figure1. The normal distribution based on Johnson’s model Table 3 shows the characteristics of research variables including measures of central tendency and distribution indices. Table 3 Research Variables and their Measures of Central Tendency & Distribution Indices Research Variables Min. Max. Mean SD Variance Company’s Performance -89842.00 0.00 48546.19 15670.66 2456.12 Risk Management -884.00 1810.00 4847.12 1.5669.66 2455.12 Company’s Size 456.00 801.00 59770.20 62692.45 39303.43 Debt Ratio 9.00 188.00 6689.41 2593.48 672.39 Sales Growth -100.00 17213.00 9293.33 8122.77 6598.25 Financial Leverage 0.00 547.00 7865.29 69965.41 4895.15 Dividend 4003.00 6957.00 640.03 1197.09 14330.23 Risk Coefficient -18115.00 7177.00 22.02 1071.99 11491.37 Intellectual Capital -45.00 551.00 37.15 575.74 3314.79 Efficiency of Human Capital -23.00 257.00 18.16 2873.28 825.57 Efficiency of Structural Capital -670.00 1203.00 107.09 689.34 4751.95 Efficiency of Physical Capital -2277.00 27525.00 1794.54 2884.40 8319774.36 Managerial Performance -20136.00 7796.00 205.64 1139.10 12975.33 Intangible Assets Ratio 0.00 0.96 536.05 1014.22 10286.62 Current Assets Ratio 1.00 584.00 61.38 764.76 583.13 Liquidity 147.00 43626.50 119432.03 4.3624.25 190.31 Investment 0.00 27774.77 57351.64 2164.15 468.41 Company’s Value 1000.00 2960.55 1540.14 13819.74 191.08 Earnings before Interest and Tax -994.98 181012.27 446171.66 1495.36 2237.12 Value-Added 7169.97 131378.32 457804.16 1211.76 1468.12 Wages 917.41 18058.06 32084.12 98227.54 964.99 Structural Capital -8931.20 128297.07 428210.67 11450.96 1332.12 Intangible Assets 0.00 214615.11 802420.88 2682.56 7196.12 Person’s correlation coefficient was used for identifying the relationship between variables and investigating the possibility of each hypothesis. Table 4 reflects the results of Person’s correlation for the variables of managerial performance, risk management, and IC. Correlation is significance at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) with 99 per cent confidence level. The results of Table 4 shows that there is a positive relationship between managerial performance and risk management (r: 0.87**) and moreover there is a positive relationship between managerial performance and IC (r: 0.52**). Table 4 Correlation Test Results & Summary of the Analysis of Hypotheses 1 2 3 1) Managerial Performance (Q) -- 2) ERM (Enterprise Risk Management) 0.87** -- 3) VAIC (Value-Added Intellectual Capital) 0.52** 0.41** -- **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Table 5 9 Marketing and Branding Research 4(2017)    Watson Camera Test Results Model Correlation R2 Adjusted Coefficient of Determination Estimated Standard Error Watson Camera 1 0.69a 0.58 0.56 1171.07 1.69 a. Predictors: (Constant), VAIC, ERM b. Dependent Variable (Q) One of the linear regression assumptions in this study was independence of errors; thus, if errors were not independent, there would be no possibility of regression analysis. Watson camera test is used to evaluate the independence of errors and the normality of errors (Table 5). The values in the range of 1.5-2.5 indicate the independency of errors. Accordingly, the obtained Watson value (1.69) shows the independence of errors. The overall significance of the regression was tested by the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results of ANOVA test between the variables of managerial performance, risk management, and IC are presented in Table 6. Since the indicated significance level (p-value) was less than 0.05, the assumption regarding the existence of a linear relationship between the two variables was confirmed. Table 6 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Model Total Squared Degree of Freedom Mean Squared F-Value Significance 1 Regression 1.25 2 6.24 4.55 0.00a Remaining 6.93 507 13714.50 Total 1.25 509 c. Predictors: (Constant), VAIC, ERM d. Dependent Variable: Q Table 7 indicates the results of regression coefficient analysis. According to Table 7, there are significant relationships between the independent and dependent variables. Considering α and β as constant values and regression slope for these two values, the test results for equality of the regression coefficient and constant value were less than 5 per cent. Therefore, the assumption of equality of coefficients with zero was rejected indicating that they could not be eliminated from the regression equation. Table 7 The Results of Regression Coefficient Analysis Model Non-Standardized Coefficients Standardized Error T-Value Sig. β Std. Error Beta Constant Value 455.74 62.95 7.23 0.00 ERM 1.21 1.05 0.87 29953.41 0.00 VAIC 6.11 0.90 0.52 6.72 0.00 e. Dependent Variable: Q Constant value and coefficients of independent variables are presented in Table 7; thus, the equation 5 is as follows: (5) Yit = 544.746 + 1.214 ERMit + 6.118 VAICit + ei The correlation coefficient, adjusted coefficient of determination, and the results of Watson camera tests between the variables of managerial performance, risk management, and efficiency of physical capital are presented in Table 8. Table 8 Watson Camera Test Results A.Ahanghar & Sattari Ardabili 10      Model Correlation R2 Adjusted Coefficient of Determination Estimated Standard Error Watson Camera 1 0.54a 0.45 0.44 1.55 1.91 f. Predictors: (Constant), CEE, ERM g. Dependent Variable: Q The obtained Watson value (1.919) presents the independence of errors; thus, conducting the regression analysis was acceptable. Table 9 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Model Total Squared Df R2 F-Value Sig. 1 Regression 1.92 2 1.92 7.93 0.00a Remaining 1.23 507 2.42 Total 509 509 h. Predictors: (Constant), CEE, ERM i. Dependent Variable: Q Variance analysis between the variables of managerial performance, risk management, and efficiency of physical capital (CEE) is presented in Table 9. Hence, the overall significance of the regression model was tested by the ANOVA. Since, the indicated significance level was less than 0.05; the assumption regarding the existence of a linear relationship between the two variables was confirmed. According Table 10, there is a significant relationship between independent and dependent variables. Table 10 Regression Equation’s Coefficients Model Non-Standardized Coefficients Standardized Error T-Value Sig. B Std. Error Beta Constant Value 3647.77 81194.98 4.49 0.00 ERM 1.80 0.78 0.87 293.37 0.00 CEE 67.38 23.91 0.22 67.38 0.00 j. Dependent Variable :Q Table 10 includes coefficients in column B, t-value, and significance level which were used to test the hypothesis regarding the equality of each coefficient in column B with zero. Since, test result for equality of regression coefficient and constant value was less than 0.05; the assumption regarding equality of those coefficients with zero was rejected indicating that they could not be eliminated from the regression equation. Thus, the equation 6 was as follows: (6) Yit = 3647.777 + 1.809 ERMit + 67.387CEEit + ei The correlation coefficient, adjusted coefficient of determination, and the results of Watson camera tests between the variables of managerial performance, risk management and efficiency of structural capital are presented in Table 11. Table 11 Watson Camera Test Results Model Correlation R2 Adjusted Coefficient of Determination Estimated Standard Error Watson Camera 1 0.58a 0.48 0.47 1.56 1.92 a. Predictors: (Constant), SCE, ERM 11 Marketing and Branding Research 4(2017)    b. Dependent Variable: Q The obtained Watson value (1.92) indicates the independence of errors; thus, conducting the regression analysis was acceptable. Variance analysis between the variables of managerial performance, risk management, and efficiency of structural capital (SCE) is presented in Table 12. Hence, the overall significance of the regression model was tested by the ANOVA. Due to the indicated significance level which was less than 0.05, the assumption regarding the existence of a linear relationship between two variables was confirmed. Table 12 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Model Total Squared Df Mean Squared F-Value Sig. 1 Regression 1.25 2 6.25 4.191 0.00a Remaining 7.56 507 1491074.10 Total 1.25 509 a. Predictors: (Constant), SCE, ERM b. Dependent Variable: Q According to Table 13, there is a significant relationship between independent and dependent variables. Considering the amount of α and β as constant value and regression slope and equality of regression coefficient and constant value which were less than 0.05, the assumption regarding the equality of coefficients with zero was rejected. Table 13 Regression Equation’s Coefficients Model Non-Standardized Coefficients Standardized Error T-Value Sig. B Std.Error Beta Constant Value 647.07 101.42 6.38 0.00 ERM 0.20 0.78 0.87 4.25 0.00 SCE 99.39 1008.58 0.30 1.09 0.00 Dependent Variable: Q Thus, the equation 7 was as follows: (7) Yit = 647.071 + 0204ERMit + 99.392SCEit + ei The correlation coefficient, adjusted coefficient of determination, and the results of Watson camera tests between the variables of managerial performance, risk management and efficiency of human capital are estimated and presented in Table 14. The obtained Watson value (1.92) shows the independence of errors; thus, conducting regression analysis was acceptable. Table 14 Watson Camera Test Results Model Correlation R2 Adjusted Coefficient of Determination Estimated Standard Error Watson Camera 1 0.62a 0.58 0.57 1.55 1.92 Predictors: (Constant), HCE, ERM Dependent Variable: Q A.Ahanghar & Sattari Ardabili 12      The analysis of variance between the variables of managerial performance, risk management, and efficiency of human capital (SCE) is presented in Table 15. The results of ANOVA revealed that the assumption regarding the existence of a linear relationship between the two variables was confirmed when the indicated significance level was less than 0.05. Table 15 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Model Total Squared Df Mean Squared F-Value Sig. 1 Regression 1.93 2 1.93 7.95 0.00a Remaining 1.23 507 2.42 Total 1.25 509 a. Predictors: (Constant), HCR, REM b. Dependent Variable: Q According to Table 16, there is a significant relationship between independent and dependent variables. Table 16 Regression Equation’s Coefficients Model Non-Standardized Coefficients Standardized Error T-Value Sig. B Std. Error Beta Constant Value 461.17 62.62 7.36 0.00 ERM 12.21 1.82 0.87 6.70 0.00 HCE 6785.03 2405.59 0.40 2.82 0.00 a. Dependent Variable: Q The amount of α and β which stands for constant value and regression slope respectively shows that when the test results for equality of regression coefficient and constant value were less than 0.05, the assumption regarding equality of those coefficients with zero was rejected indicating that they could not be eliminated from the regression equation. Thus, the equation 8 was as follows: (8) Yit= 461.176 + 12.214ERMit + 6785.038HCEit + ei Conclusion Regarding the relationships between the mentioned independent and dependent variables in the accepted companies listed on the Tehran Exchange Stock market in the period 2009- 2013, the results indicated that the higher levels of IC and risk management lead to a better managerial performance and that the expectations of future investors can be a major factor in determining the performance of a company. It was also found that physical, human, and structural capitals have a proper proportion with higher levels of confidence for the variable of managerial performance. It was concluded that human and structural capitals are directly involved in investors’ decisions. It must be noted that compared to the developed countries, the value of local markets has been increased more with the increases in physical capital than the IC in developing countries. Therefore, the local markets are less dependent on IC as a strategic tool. One of the reasons behind this is that these markets are still dependent on sale 13 Marketing and Branding Research 4(2017)    and processing of physical resources as basic growth strategies. The Tehran Stock Exchange Market is not an exception; thus, structural capital and human capital, as components of IC, had the highest coefficients in this study. The overall results of this study were consistent with the results of other similar studies conducted by Zahedi and Lotfizadeh (2007), Clarke, Seng, and Whiting (2011) and Donaldson and Preston (1995). This study provided some useful recommendations for further studies. Using this model prepares, presents, and analyzes the financial statements in accounting systems to make future investment decisions based on other companies’ shares. Furthermore, shareholders or investors are recommended to apply this measurement model in order to assess appropriately the true value of their organization based on IC and achieve higher financial returns in their future. References Bontis, N. (1999). Managing organizational knowledge by diagnosing intellectual capital: Framing and advancing the state of the field. International Journal of Technology Managing, 18(5-8), 433–462. Clarke, M., Seng, D., & Whiting, R. H. (2011). Intellectual capital and firm performance in Australia. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 14(12), 505–530. Donalson, T., & Preston, L. E. (1995). The stakeholders theory of the corporation: Concepts, evidence, and implications. Academy of Management Review, 20(1), 65–91. Goh, P. K. (2013). Intellectual capital performance of commercial banks in Malaysia. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 6(3), 385–396. Chan, H. K. (2012). Impact of intellectual capital on organizational performance: An empirical study of companies in the Hang Seng Index. The Learning Organization, 16(1), 4–21. Maboodi, S. (2010). Analysis of the relationships between concentration of ownership, company’s performance, and dividend policy in companies listed on the food and pharmaceutical industries of Tehran Stock Exchange (Unpublished master’s thesis). Islamic Azad University, Arak. Pulic, A. (2004). Intellectual capital: Does it create or destroy value? Measuring Business Excellence, 8(1), 62–68. Shafizadeh, S. (2013). Analysis of the relationship between intellectual capital and financial performance in companies active in Iran capital market (Unpublished master’s thesis). Islamic Azad University, Arak. Zahedi, M., & Lotfizadeh, F. (2007). Dimensions and models to measure intellectual capital. Journal of Management Studies, 15(55), 39–64. 
work_gdkycoppnbbszgr5tu36uqta5a	----	W hen I was teenager, I knew I was supposed to have role models, but I didn’t know I already was one. I certainly wasn’t aware of the mag- nitude of the effect even a small gesture could have—like choosing whether to use some copied software. Such an effect can snowball, for good and for ill, and probably happens all the time, though we may never know it. But once in a while it stares you in the face. This story is about one of those times. The first time I was asked to use illegally copied software as part of my work responsibilities was 1983. Not surprising, because in 1983 copying and sharing software was common, just as copying music was common in the mid-1990s. Personal computers were new, and most members of the general public did not yet understand what it meant to violate copyright. I was 17, working as a junior counselor at the summer camp I had been attending for years. Com- puters were a new camp activity that year, and we had a roomful of shiny new Apple IIs. Along with the hardware, I was given a shoebox full of floppies with handwritten labels. This was to be our software. A red flag went up in my mind; these copies did not look legitimate. My high school computer teacher, Mr. Moran, had drilled it into our heads that copying software was illegal and wrong. So when I saw the hand-labeled disks, I went to the camp direc- tor, Lou, to explain that copying software was wrong, and we couldn’t use the disks to teach the campers. I didn’t record the conversation, but thinking back on it I was probably pretty self-righteous, in typical teenage fashion. Lou was not amused. He had, after all, just shelled out for a roomful of computers. Spending more for software was not on his agenda. I remember telling him: As an individual, you can do what you want, but as an institution, we need to do things correctly and set a good example for the kids. The conversation got heated. I insisted we could not use the copied disks. Lou called me “holier than thou” and stomped off. These days I teach a college class to undergraduates called “Computers, Society, and Professionalism” at Georgia Tech where we discuss ethical theories like utilitarianism and deontology, applying them to situa- tions you might encounter as a computer profes- sional. I give my camp experience as a homework assignment, asking: What would you do and why? After the homework is handed in, I tell them the real story. About a week after my argument with Lou, one legal copy of maybe two or three different program- ming environments arrived at the camp. Lou must have ordered them, though he never told me so directly. We would technically need a license for each machine, not just one for the whole lab. But I decided to call it a compromise and use the one legal copy on all our computers. You could stop the story here, but this is where it gets interesting. A few weeks later, one of the younger kids in the lab, David (age 12), asked me if I would play some of the (copied) games he had. We sometimes opened the lab in the evenings for games and free play. I opened up one particular evening just so David and I could play his games. I remember thinking about the argu-LIS A H A N EY Viewpoint Amy S. Bruckman Software Copyright and Role Models Our words, ideas, and behavior profoundly influence our children and students to do good and not so good when using technology. COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM August 2007/Vol. 50, No. 8 19 20 August 2007/Vol. 50, No. 8 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM ment with Lou and so felt justified in my decision to go ahead and play David’s games. David offered to make me copies of some of them, and I said sure. Actually, I may have copied them all. I was hurt and angry; Lou had belittled my ethical concerns, as well as me. Fine. If copying software isn’t so bad, I might as well get a few fun computer games myself. David begged me every evening of the next few days to play games. I said yes once or twice more, but mostly I had other things to do. It was my time off after all. About a week later, David’s parents arrived abruptly to pick him up and take him home. It turned out that after I said I wouldn’t play games with him, he broke open the lock to the lab’s door and snuck in to play games by himself. The camp summarily expelled him, called his parents, and sent him home. I never got a chance to talk with him about it; he was just gone. About 10 years later I got an unexpected phone call. The voice on the line said. “Hey, it’s me.” I said I was sorry but didn’t recognize the voice; who is this? He repeated “It’s me; don’t you remember me?” He dropped a few clues about who it was, but I was stumped. “Why don’t you just tell me?,” I said. He answered, “How could you not remember me. You of all people. You were there when it all started.” I asked if I could think about it and call him back; was there a number where I could reach him? He hes- itated, then said yes. He gave me a number and said, “But when you call back, it may sound like something it’s not.” I was puzzled. I made dinner, did the dishes, and mulled it over. Then it dawned on me; it was David. How could I possibly recognize him? I knew him briefly more than 10 years earlier; his voice had changed. I called the number he’d given me and got voice mail for a com- pany. David had been phone phreaking, cracking into a company’s PBX to make free long-distance calls. I left a message on the company voice mail for him but never heard back. This story is ultimately about snowballing ethical lapses. Lou’s lapse was momentary. Faced with incon- venient news delivered in a tactless fashion, he grum- bled briefly, got a good night’s sleep, then woke up the next morning and did the right thing (or something approaching it). My own ethical lapse was a bit bigger: I copied a few computer games and played them with an impressionable child. David’s behavior magnified that lapse. David’s story often makes me think of James. When I was a master’s student in the Interactive Cin- ema group at the MIT Media Lab, I hired him (he was an undergraduate computer science major) to do some coding for me. He was tall and quiet, and I found it difficult to have a conversation with him. I think I had him writing device drivers. He did exactly what he was told and what was expected of him. After graduation, he got a programming job doing some- thing that sounded pretty dry to me; it might have been database work. I do remember telling him he was talented and suggested he might find something media-related more fun in the long term. He shrugged. He never said much. James worked for me only two terms, and I hardly remember him among the long list of bright MIT undergrads I supervised at one time or another. It took me another six years to finish my Ph.D. About two years after graduation, I stopped by to say hi. As I was walking down the hall toward the Interactive Cinema lab, a tall figure greeted me with a huge grin and a hug, “Amy!” It was James. He excitedly talked at me for 10 minutes—proba- bly more words than I’d heard from him before alto- gether. After a couple of years doing some rather dull programming work, he thought back on his under- graduate project working with me and realized it was indeed a lot more interesting than database work. He was now a graduate student in the Media Lab. He even had my old desk. I wonder how many Davids and Jameses each of us has—people we have influenced more profoundly, for good or for ill, than our brief interactions with them would seem to merit. I wouldn’t know about David if he hadn’t called. I’m glad he did. If the real David is reading this, please call again. I remember you, and I’m sorry. Amy S. Bruckman (asb@cc.gatech.edu) is an associate professor in the School of Interactive Computing at the Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA. © 2007 ACM 0001-0782/07/0800 $5.00 c Viewpoint 
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work_gfdnwjyo35at7fml2otuevfjua	----	medhis5601_07 94..120 Douglas Hill (ed.), Letters from the Crimea: Writing Home, A Dundee Doctor (Dundee: Dundee University Press, 2010), pp. xi þ 224, paperback, ISBN: 978-1-84586-094-3. This fascinating series of letters from a newly minted surgeon, Dr David Greig, to his mother, father and sister is a valuable addition to the rich collection of memoirs of British officers who served in the Crimean War. The letters were discovered during a house clearance and are reproduced from typed copies dated 1906, not the original hand- written letters. Whoever typed them was not familiar with Russian place names or French soldiers. For example, the Vorontsov or Worontzow Road is spelled Worongow, the Zouaves are Soaves, the Redan is sometimes the Kedan and the Malakoff, the Zalakoff. The editor does not give us the correct spellings or explain the significance of these places, and for those unfamiliar with the terrain, it would be helpful to have a map. There are short identifications of some of the characters in the story and an introduction giving the larger context of the war by the military historian Trevor Royle. However, no explanatory notes accompany the text and there is no index. There are two appendices, one a chronology of the war, and the second, ‘Florence Nightingale and Dr David Greig.’ It is indicative of the way Nightingale has come to dominate the history of the Crimean War that this appendix includes only Greig’s references to Nightingale herself and not his more interesting comments on her nurses and their efficacy. He thought the orderlies could do just as good a job as the nurses and considered the religious Sisters, who are now generally thought to have been the best of the British nurses, meek, quiet creatures who, although willing, were not able to do much. The hospital nurses, he said, came from the better class of nurses at home and were sadly disappointed by the limited amount of work they were permitted to do and wished that they had remained at home. They expected to be nursing heroes but instead found the soldiers ‘the most miserable specimens of humanity’ (p. 107). Greig graduated from Edinburgh in 1853 and arrived, together with two colleagues, in Scutari in November 1854. All three contracted Crimean fever, and Greig, who at one point was thought to be dying, was the sole survivor. For Greig, the war was a diversion, what would now be a year of travelling abroad after finishing university and starting one’s career. He joined the army, he told his parents, ‘to get surgical practice, to see the world, to get the éclat of being at the war, and to get a year or two’s recreation before settling into practice’ (p. 31). At the end of the war, as he considered his future career, he wrote that he did not consider the year and a half in the East a complete waste of time. ‘I would not have missed seeing what I have seen for any sum of money and only regret that I was not with the army from the very first’ (p. 201), he wrote, but he had done more than amuse himself. He was the Assistant Surgeon in his regiment to whom all the most serious operations were assigned and he became a distinguished member of the Army’s Pathological Board. Greig worked in Scutari for his first two months, the months when there were the greatest shortages, then went to Koulali, and finally to Balaclava and the camp before Sevastopol, where he served in the trenches as well as in the field hospitals. His observations contrast strongly with those of the Parliamentary commissioners and the nurses who wrote about the war. He found it all very ‘jolly’: ‘We are all in first rate health and like the style of things very well. We have of course a great many hardships but I can tell you we enjoy them gloriously’ (p. 29), he wrote ten days after arriving in Scutari. He maintained this attitude, at least to his family, throughout the war. As well as his surgical work he describes his domestic arrangements, the floggings every third or fourth day which he, as a surgeon, had to attend, the various entertainments of stoning and shooting wild dogs, theatres, rides through the camps, and after the peace was signed, the parties with the 103 Book Reviews https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025727300000375 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:10, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025727300000375 https://www.cambridge.org/core Russian officers and an expedition to Baktchi- Serai and Simferopol. Greig’s letters give us a better picture of the day-to-day life of a Crimean War surgeon than any other memoirs published so far. Carol Helmstadter, University of Toronto Sioban Nelson and Anne Marie Rafferty (eds), Notes on Nightingale: The Influence and Legacy of a Nursing Icon (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010), pp. ix þ 172, £12.50/$18.95, paperback, ISBN: 978-0-8014-7611-2. Florence Nightingale left as a legacy her ideas and template for nurses’ training and public health reforms based on statistical evidence. In this book, eight nurse historians and scholars write about facets of Nightingale’s life and work; each paper provides information drawn from primary sources about Nightingale’s goals, actions, and achievements. She is characterised as a spiritual person with practical concerns about health care as she led a delegation of nurses to care for soldiers in British military hospitals in Scutari, Turkey. She wrote books about nursing and hospitals, reported about public health and sanitation problems throughout the British Empire, and organised a nursing school at St Thomas Hospital in London. Ms Nightingale is revered and criticised for her beliefs and actions, and the authors frankly discuss her ideas and dealings in nineteenth-century Victorian society. Nelson and Rafferty introduce Nightingale’s areas of interest and influence, and describe her evolution from an impressionable young woman, to a politically astute social activist and a revered icon. Nelson traces the development of Nightingale’s influence in the next paper, and outlines ‘the Nightingale imperative’ (p.9) for nursing seen in her organisation of care for the sick in a London clinic, for casualties in hospitals in the Crimea, and of a nursing school in London in 1860. Nightingale brought recognition of nursing as a respectable profession for women who were able to improve health outcomes for the sick and injured. She campaigned to reform public health and hospital care by corresponding with influential people in the Sanitation Movement, British Parliament and universities. Helmstadter’s paper describes Nightingale’s best-known humanitarian mission, which was to lead a team of female nurses to care for injured soldiers in military hospitals in the Crimean War. Nightingale was instructed by the Secretary of War to ensure that all nurses would obey the orders of military doctors and purveyors in the hospitals implicitly, and prevent religious disputes. Nightingale selected nurses from various social and religious backgrounds, and monitored nurses’ deportment in the military hospitals. Nightingale faced many challenges with her group of nurses in the Crimea; however, she established a fully functioning and respectable nursing service and proved that female nurses could exercise authority through their work, overcome social, religious and gender biases. Godden provides insight into conditions that influenced nurses’ training at the Nightingale Training School. Despite the challenges encountered with the Nightingale School, two Nightingale-trained nurses established nursing services in Australia and Canada. Lynaugh discusses the emergence of trained nurses in the United States. Nurses, under the supervision of ladies, visited people in their homes during the war of 1812 in the United States. An experienced Nightingale School graduate nurse, Alice Fisher, collaborated to enact hospital reform at the Philadelphia Hospital in 1885, selected trained assistants to work in the hospital, and started a nurses’ training school; however, she did not use Nightingale’s model of nurse teaching and hospital discipline. In 1893, Isabel Hampton, Lavina Dock, and Florence Nightingale presented papers at a conference, each arguing 104 Book Reviews https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025727300000375 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:10, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025727300000375 https://www.cambridge.org/core 
work_glreoxy3yvcgxlwx7vtheyc33u	----	RECENSIONI E SCHEDE MICHAEL BRATTON e NICOLAS VAN DE WALLE, Democratic Expe- riments in Africa. Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1997, pp. 328, £ 15.95, Isbn 0-521-55612-0 (pb). Gli AA. applicano aIle transizioni di regime avvenute in Africa tra il 1990 ed il 1994 uno schema analitico i cui concetti e metodologia sono esplicitamente tratti dalla letteratura classica sui processi di de- mocratizzazione. L' analisi e estesa all'intera parte sub-sahariana del continente e include i casi di transizioni iniziate rna non andate a buon esito (sono ben 29 Ie elezioni che inaugurano regimi formalmen- te nuovi), Di fatto, la definizione di democrazia adottata estrettamen- te procedurale e gli AA. si limitano a registrare il successo di una transizione al momenta in cui si tiene la prima competizione elettorale free and fair. L'ambizione dello schema teorico presentato e quella di fornire una spiegazione politico- istituzionale in grado di combinare agency e structure': Ie transizioni prese in esame lasciano SI un margine di scelta ai diversi attori politici, rna seguono percorsi ampiamente strutturati dalla specifica eredita istituzionale. Quest'ultima e costitui- ta principalmente dalle pratiche neopatrimoniali e dai livelli di parte- cipazione e competitivita dei regimi precedenti. II concetto stesso di transizione e suddiviso in tre fasi analiticamente distinte (protesta, liberalizzazione e democratizzazione) e per ciascuna viene valutato il potenziale esplicativo di insiemi distinti di ipotesi (fattori politici vs. economici, interni vs. internazionali, strutturali vs. contingenti). Come risultato dell' analisi statistica su cui la ricerca si basa, una serie di mo- delli multivariati combina la capacita esplicativa delle diverse ipotesi: Ie spiegazioni di tipo politico e istituzionale ne risultano privilegiate, mentre, pur non eliminati, appaiono sostanzialmente ridimensionati sia i fattori internazionali che quelli di natura economica (a questi ulti- mi e riconosciuto un ruolo rilevante - rna nel caso dei paesi africani probabilmente non positivo - nella fase successiva, di consolidamento democratico), II principale merito dell' approccio proposto e certo rappresentato RIVISTA ITALIANA 01 SCIENZA POLITICA / a. XXVIII, n. 2, agosto 1998 h tt p s: // d o i.o rg /1 0. 10 17 /S 00 48 84 02 00 02 60 46 D o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . C ar n eg ie M el lo n U n iv er si ty , o n 0 6 A p r 20 21 a t 01 :3 6: 06 , s u b je ct t o t h e C am b ri d g e C o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0048840200026046 https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms 392 Recensioni e Schede dal tentativo di coniugare l' attenzione per istituzioni politiche formali di derivazione occidentale con Ie «distorsioni» portate alloro funziona- mento da pratiche neopatrimoniali, anch'esse riconosciute come rego- larita, e dun que a tutti gli effetti parte integrante dell' eredita istituzio- nale. Tali pratiche, tuttavia, sarebbero comuni alIa totalita dei casi presi in esame, e non spiegano pertanto Ie variazioni negli esiti delle transi- zioni, illuminandone piuttosto alcuni tratti costanti. II titolo dellavoro indica la cautela adottata dagli AA. circa Ie possibilita di consolidamen- to dei nuovi regimi e la coscienza del permanere di aspetti neopatrimo- niali nella forma di big men democracies: formali 0 inform ali, Ie istitu- zioni «contano», e proprio per questo pongono dei chiari limiti aIle prospettive di piena democratizzazione di diversi paesi africani. [Giovanni Carbone] PAOLO CERI (a cura di), Politica e sondaggi, Torino, Rosemberg & Sellier, 1997, pp. 304, L. 35.000, Isbn 88-7011-714-6. «Richiesti, considerati, deprecati»: l'A. riassume cosi la natura contraddittoria degli atteggiamenti nutriti dalla maggior parte delle persone nei confronti dei sondaggi d'opinione su argomenti politici. La rilevanza dei sondaggi per il sistema politico italiano, specie in oc- casione delle consultazioni elettorali, solleva diversi interrogativi atti- nenti al funzionamento della democrazia e alIa percezione della quali- ta della ricerca sociale. Qual ela qualita dei sondaggi, intesa come ca- pacita di riflettere fedelmente gli stati dell' opinione pubblica? Quali sono gli effetti della diffusione dei risultati dei sondaggi sugli orienta- menti di voto, sul comportamento degli attori politici e sugli atteggia- menti generali dei cittadini in ambito politico? Si tenta di rispondere a tali quesiti nelle due parti che compongono il volume: la prima si sofferma «sulla logica e tecnica dei sondaggi politici»; la seconda «sul- l'uso dei sondaggi politici». Nel saggio piu corposo del volume, Al- berto Marradi offre alcune riflessioni, gia pubblicate in passato rna sempre pertinenti e penetranti, sulla confusione dei concetti di casua- lita e rappresentativita e sulle implicazioni che ne derivano per la ge- neralizzabilita dei risultati di un sondaggio. Egli enuclea, inoltre, un quarto tipo di voto da affiancare alla consolidata tripartizione apparte- nenza / opinione / scambio: il «voto di impressione», determinato da «motivazioni non-razionali e di brevissimo periodo». Renato Mannhe- imer presenta alcuni indicatori della capacita previsiva dei sondaggi in Italia in occasione delle elezioni politiche nel periodo 1987-96 e giun- ge alla conclusione che essa e «spesso piu accurata di quanto normal- mente molti suppongano». Nega, pero, che il fine cognitivo dei son- daggi sia la previsione di comportamenti; se quest'obiettivo appare in- vece preminente, cio e dovuto alIa carente «cultura dei sondaggi» vi- h tt p s: // d o i.o rg /1 0. 10 17 /S 00 48 84 02 00 02 60 46 D o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . C ar n eg ie M el lo n U n iv er si ty , o n 0 6 A p r 20 21 a t 01 :3 6: 06 , s u b je ct t o t h e C am b ri d g e C o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0048840200026046 https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms 
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work_gijveorajzhvlgsffhcxym2auy	----	Tania Woloshyn, Colonizing the Côte d'Azur: Neo-Impressionism, Anarcho-Communism and the Tropical Terre Libre of the Maures, c.1892-1908, RIHA Journal 0045 RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" This article is part of the Special Issue "New Directions in Neo-Impressionism." The issue is guest- edited by Tania Woloshyn and Anne Dymond in cooperation with Regina Wenninger and Anne-Laure Brisac-Chraïbi from RIHA Journal. External peer reviewers for this Special Issue were Hollis Clayson, André Dombrowski, Chantal Georgel, Catherine Meneux, Robyn Roslak, and Michael Zimmermann. * * * Colonizing the Côte d'Azur: Neo-Impressionism, Anarcho-Communism and the Tropical Terre Libre of the Maures, c.1892-1908* Tania Woloshyn Abstract This article explores neo-impressionist representations of the Maures region (Hyères-St Raphaël) of the Côte d'Azur as an ideal space of anarcho-communist liberty or, to borrow from Jean Grave's Terre Libre: Les Pionniers (1908), a "free land." In doing so it questions art-historical literature of such images as utopian, with its implication of geographic non-specificity, through analyses of anarcho-communist and geographical texts and images. Tropical markers, especially palm trees, feature in Grave's vision of a "free land," corresponding to perceptions by contemporaneous artists, tourists and geographers of the exotic, island-like geography of the Maures. The article argues that, for Henri-Edmond Cross, Paul Signac and Théo van Rysselberghe, the Maures landscape was imaged and imagined as a sunlit terre libre on home soil, naturally suited to these self-styled pioneers. Contents Introduction In the Time of Harmony: The Neo-Impressionists in the Maures Region Rethinking the Utopian in Neo-Impressionist Images of the Maures The Geography and Nature of Terre Libre A "True Land of Promise" on French Soil: The Geography and Nature of the Maures Composing the Terre Libre: The Vision of the Maures in Neo-Impressionists' Paintings Conclusion: The Artistic Colonization of the Maures Introduction [1] In 1903 the neo-impressionist painter Théo van Rysselberghe (1862-1926) expressed in a letter to his friend, the writer André Gide (1869-1951), his desire to escape Paris for the south of France: "It's been foggy and dark for such a long time; I've wanted to escape Paris, towards the South, towards the light [vers la lumière], and paint […]."1 The same phrase, "vers la lumière," features as the caption of a frontispiece to a children's book by the anarcho-communist writer, Jean Grave (1854-1939). The book, Terre Libre (Les pionniers), was written during 1904 and 1905, though not published until 1908, and illustrated by Mabel Holland Thomas, an Englishwoman who would later * I wish to thank Dr Scott Zona of the Department of Biological Sciences at Florida International University, formerly of the Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden in Miami, for his perceptive analyses of the palm species in the illustrations. I also would like to express my gratitude to Robyn Roslak, Anne Dymond, Keren Hammerschlag, Natasha Ruiz-Gómez, Regina Wenninger, Anne-Laure Brisac- Chraïbi and the anonymous peer reviewer for their excellent comments on earlier versions of this paper. – Unless otherwise indicated, translations are mine. 1 "Il fait brumeux et sombre depuis si longtemps; je voulais m'échapper de Paris, vers le Midi, vers la lumière, et peindre […]." Letter from Théo van Rysselberghe to André Gide (28 December 1903), cited in Catherine Gide et al., Théo van Rysselberghe intime, Le Lavandou 2005, 56. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" become Grave's second wife.2 The image depicts an infant, its hands stretched out towards rays of sunshine, who is held in the hands of an adult (Fig. 1). 1 Mabel Holland Thomas, Vers la lumière, 1908, wood engraving, frontispiece in Jean Grave, Terre Libre, Paris 1908 (author's collection) 2 Detail of a Map, indicating the region known as "La Côte d’Azur," from Hyères to Menton, in P. Joanne, Les Stations d’hiver de la Méditerranée, Paris 1880 (author's collection) 2 Grave and Thomas were married in England following a long courtship in June 1909; he was introduced to her through Kropotkin, while visiting the exiled writer in London. To date I have found no other information about Thomas. See Louis Patsouras, The Anarchism of Jean Grave: Editor, Journalist and Militant, Montréal 2003, 65, 79. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" [2] What did it mean to go vers la lumière, to go physically towards the light, at this time? Contemporaneous travel posters in both England and France depicted the act of going south to the coastline stretching from Toulon to Menton, known as the Côte d'Azur (Fig. 2), as an almost mystical experience, a transformative act of entering a new land. Enormous rising or setting suns fill compositions, their powerful rays emanating to the edges of the frame (Fig. 3). 3 Anonymous [Bemrose], Southwards in Search of the Sun, undated [1905], in The Connoisseur. An ill. magazine for collectors Vol. XI., No. 41, January 1905 (image kindly provided by Augsburg University Library) [3] By the turn of the 20th century, the Côte d'Azur was popularly known as the pays du soleil,3 or land of sunshine, and even the pays de la lumière, geographically defined by its intense light.4 In fact, France's Mediterranean shores were considered distinct from the rest of Europe, its light so luminous that it resembled the Sahara. As one guidebook, written by a Dr Onimus, put it in 1894: 3 Note the title: Adrien Karl, Le pays du soleil: arrondissement de Draguignan, Var: des Maures à l'Estérel: Hyères, Saint-Tropez, Fréjus, Saint-Raphaël, Agay, etc. Guide-album des Chemins de Fer du Sud de la France (France-Album Nº 48), Paris 1898. 4 Dr. Robert Moriez, "Influence du climat méditerranéen sur le rhumatisme et les rhumatisants: rapport," in: Ier Congrès français de climatothérapie et d'hygiène urbaine, Nice and Monaco 1904, 37. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" That which characterizes the Mediterranean coastal region is the light far more than the temperature. Already, before arriving at Marseilles, one enters into an environment so luminous that no other region of Europe can be compared to it. Not only the southern coasts of the Ocean, but even Madeira, do not enjoy this clear atmosphere, and one could say that, of all the seas, only the Mediterranean possesses these qualities, only it can pride itself on being, as it were, the mirror of the sun. Certains spots of the Mediterranean have a luminous intensity comparable to that of the Sahara.5 [4] That the neo-impressionists referred to themselves as chromo-luminarists, artists of color and light, and found themselves increasingly attracted to this azure landscape from the early 1890s onwards is not, I believe, mere coincidence. Van Rysselberghe visited frequently from the 1890s onwards, often staying in the homes of his fellow neo- impressionists, Henri-Edmond Cross (1856-1910) and Paul Signac (1863-1935). Cross moved to the region in 1891, settling in Le Lavandou-Saint-Clair in 1892, and that same year Signac chose Saint-Tropez as the base for his seasonal trips south. Indeed, Van Rysselberghe wrote so longingly of going south to Gide in December 1903, only a few months after his last visit (in September), and by early 1904 he would return, seduced by its call.6 [5] What did it mean to go metaphorically "towards the light," as depicted in Thomas's woodcut? In a specifically anarcho-communist context, its meanings were multiple, but it was especially a reference to the Dawn (l'Aube), to life after the complete overthrow of the government (in France, the Third Republic) and a new beginning of freedom. In fact, the rising sun was a symbol of anarchy itself.7 An illustration by Camille Pissarro (1830-1903) of 1889 for the frontispiece of Les Turpitudes sociales depicts this quite literally: the figure of Father Time is shown in the foreground, while in the distance the word "ANARCHIE" is illuminated by the dawn. Van Rysselberghe had symbolized it as a fiery dawn for the cover of La Morale anarchiste (1898), by the prominent anarcho- communist, Peter Kropotkin (1842-1921).8 As with other reformists of the time, anarcho- 5 "Ce qui caractérise le littoral méditerranéen, c'est la lumière bien plus que la température. Déjà, avant d'arriver à Marseille, on entre dans un milieu tellement lumineux, qu'aucune autre région de l'Europe ne peut lui être comparée. Non seulement les côtes méridionales de l'Océan, mais encore Madère, ne jouissent pas de cette atmosphère limpide, et on peut dire que, de toutes les mers, la Méditerranée seule possède ces qualités, elle seule peut se vanter d'être pour ainsi dire le miroir du soleil. Certains points de la Méditerranée ont une intensité lumineuse comparable à celle du Sahara." Dr Ernest Onimus, L'Hiver dans les Alpes-Maritimes et dans la Principauté de Monaco; climatologie et hygiène, Paris 1894, 240. 6 See the Biography listed in Théo van Rysselberghe, exh. cat., Brussels 2006, 199-200. 7 Aline Dardel, "Les Temps nouveaux", 1895-1914: Un hebdomadaire anarchiste et la propagande par l'image, Paris 1987, 34. In Thomas's image, the sunlight, we are to infer, here also takes on the meaning of "enlightenment." One of anarcho-communism's main interests was education, as an issue that fell to the responsibility of the present generation for the well-being of its children or, more aptly, the future race. Thomas's frontispiece also symbolizes that through education comes freedom: freedom of oppression from inadequate schooling, freedom of individual thought, and freedom of action. 8 References to the light are multiple in Émile Verhaeren's play Les Aubes, written in 1896 and published in 1898. When published it included a cover illustration by Van Rysselberghe of a dawn amidst burning wreckage, and the play was dedicated to Signac. Indeed, historians have stated License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" communist writers frequently juxtaposed the darkness of oppressive manual labour, of poverty and illiteracy, and of the city itself with the open, sunlit spaces of the countryside, with personal freedom, and with individual development.9 4 Detail of a Map, region of the Maures, the western edge of the Côte d’Azur: bordered to the north by the Maures mountains, to the west by Hyères and to the east by Saint-Raphaël, in P. Joanne, Les Stations d’hiver de la Méditerranée, Paris 1880 (author's collection) [6] This article explores neo-impressionist representations of the Côte d'Azur – the pays du soleil – and specifically of the Maures region (the coastline from Hyères to St Raphaël, see Fig. 4) where the neo-impressionists lived and worked, as an ideal space of anarcho-communist liberty or, to borrow from Grave's novel, of a terre libre or "free land." In this way, it questions art historians' frequent characterization of these neo- impressionist landscapes as "utopian," with its implication of geographic non-specificity, by focusing on tourist, medical and geographic primary texts about the Maures as a curious, hybrid landscape of both French and exotic, tropical character. Visually and textually it looks to Grave and Thomas's Terre Libre as a guide, in order to reread the anarcho-communist content of Maures landscapes by the neo-impressionists. [7] In other words, this article brings the landscape of the Maures to the fore, discussing tourist and geographic sources as well as correspondences amongst the neo- impressionist circle that assigned the Maures region an exotic, even tropical character ripe for colonization. I therefore aspire to provide a more complex perspective of neo- impressionist representations of the region, arguing that the works are geographically specific and representative of an island-like "free land" within France itself. My research is indebted to the work of Anne Dymond and Robyn Roslak. Dymond has argued that that Verhaeren wrote the play while staying in Paris at Signac's apartment, where Au temps d'harmonie was being kept. See Véronique Jago-Antoine, "Théo van Rysselberghe and Émile Verhaeren: 'A Brotherhood of Art,'" in: Théo van Rysselberghe, 77-97, here 88. 9 The Hausmannization of Paris, for example, involved engineering and architectural improvements to allow air and light into the city: see Bonnie L. Grad and Timothy A. Riggs, Visions of City and Country: Prints and Photographs of Nineteenth-Century France, Worcester and New York 1982. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" Signac's anarcho-communist politics were communicated through the aesthetic language of the pastoral in his Côte d'Azur paintings, especially Au temps d'harmonie (Fig. 5).10 Roslak has contextualized Signac's perception of Saint-Tropez within contemporaneous tourist sources that complemented Reclus's and Kropotkin's visions of an ideal lifestyle.11 These scholars have laid essential foundations for a critically-engaged analysis of the political significance of the Maures region for the neo-impressionists, and I add another layer here, one that is particularly geographic in focus. This article approaches Terre Libre as a crucial literary and visual representation of the anarcho-communist ideal, in order to draw parallels between Grave and Thomas's conception of a land of liberty and those of the neo-impressionists. In doing so I situate the notion of the artists' colony as bound up with historically and geographically specific tourist and colonizing practices: in this way I perceive the neo-impressionist group in the Maures quite literally as a colony. This concept will be crucial to exploring perceptions of the Maures as tropical by the neo- impressionists and anarcho-communists, as well as tourists and physicians. <top> In the Time of Harmony: The Neo-Impressionists in the Maures Region [8] By 1893, Signac began to envision an artistic project fundamentally connected to his life in the Maures. Signac first journeyed to this region in 1892, dropping anchor at the port of Saint-Tropez. Upon his return the following year he wrote to Cross, who had settled nearby from 1891, about the desire to paint large works in the manner of Georges Seurat's Un dimanche après-midi à l'Île de la Grand Jatte (A Sunday on the Grande Jatte, 1884-1886, The Art Institute of Chicago) and Puvis de Chavannes's Doux pays (Pleasant Land, c.1880-1882, Yale University Art Gallery). In that letter of April 1893, Signac declared, "We must become grand" ("Nous devons faire grand"), continuing: Who will succeed the grand decorators Giotto and Delacroix? [...] As Seurat was closer to getting there, third, than Puvis [...]. Without daring to compare ourselves with such names, should we not try to search in this way [?] [...] Why, since we both like and know this land of the sun [ce pays de soleil], would we not together try to raise a decorative monument to it [...] [,] supporting [each other in] our mutual advice [...] [:] that would be quite a task [un fort colis]!12 10 Anne Dymond, "A Politicized Pastoral: Paul Signac and the Cultural Geography of Mediterranean France," in: The Art Bulletin 85 (June 2003), 353-370. 11 See the chapter, "Anarchists and Tourists in Provence," in: Robyn Roslak, Neo-Impressionism and Anarchism in Fin-de-Siècle France: Painting, Politics and Landscape, Aldershot 2007, 141-171. 12 "Qui va succéder aux grands décorateurs Giotto et Delacroix? [...] Comme Seurat était plus près de venir là, troisième, que Puvis [...] Sans oser nous comparer à de tels noms, ne devons-nous pas essayer de chercher dans cette voie [?] [...] Pourquoi, puisque nous aimons et connaissons tous deux ce pays de soleil, ne tenterions-nous pas en commun de lui élever un monument décoratif [...] [,] nous soutenant de nos mutuels conseils[...] [:] ce serait là un fort colis!" Letter from Signac to Cross (April 1893), Signac Archives, cited by Marina Ferretti-Bocquillon in Signac et Saint-Tropez, 1892-1913, Saint-Tropez and Reims 1992, 52. Emphasis added. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" [9] It is clear from these statements that Signac was formulating a new project, one specifically located in the pays du soleil. This was his mighty Au temps d'harmonie (In the Time of Harmony), of 1893-1895 (Fig. 5). Its subtitle, L'âge d'or n'est pas dans le passé, il est dans l'avenir (The Golden Age Is Not in the Past, It Is in the Future), cited the words of the militant anarchist Charles Malato, from an article of 1893 in La Revue anarchiste.13 Marina Ferretti-Bocquillon has indicated that the idea for the painting was generated during that first fateful arrival at Saint-Tropez in 1892.14 Along with Cross's L'Air du soir (Evening Song, 1893-1894, Musée d'Orsay) (Fig. 7) and Bords méditerranéens (Mediterranean Cost, 1895, Walter F. Brown Collection, Texas) (Fig. 6), and Van Rysselberghe's L'Heure embrasée (Sunset, 1897, Klassik Stiftung Weimar, Museen) (Fig. 9), Signac's grand painting was the realization of fraternal counsels and a lifestyle committed to his anarcho-communist beliefs. Together the works project an imagined world in the landscape of the Maures in which figures live out the ideal as extolled by the leading exponents of anarcho-communism, Élisée Reclus (1830-1905), Kropotkin and Grave. 5 Paul Signac, Au temps d'harmonie: l’âge d'or n'est pas dans le passé, il est dans l'avenir (In the Time of Harmony: The Golden Age Is Not in the Past, It Is in the Future), 1893-1895, oil on canvas, 310 x 410 cm. Mairie de Montreuil, Montreuil (image kindly provided by the Mairie de Montreuil. © Photo: Jean-Luc Tabuteau) [10] The prevailing idea of anarchy today, as a symbol of chaos and violence, should not be confused with the highly theoretical conception of anarcho-communism as laid out by Kropotkin and his activist colleagues in Geneva from the late 1870s onwards.15 13 Charles Malato, La Revue anarchiste (1 November 1893), 78, cited in Dardel, "Les Temps nouveaux", 34. 14 Ferretti-Bocquillon, in Signac et Saint-Tropez, 52. 15 George Woodcock, "Introduction," in: Peter Kropotkin, Words of a Rebel (Paroles d'un révolté) [1885], trans. George Woodcock, Montréal and New York 1992, 8. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" Kropotkin and Reclus defined it as a synthesis of communism's structure of freely-formed groups, or "communes," with the anarchist prerequisite that there would be no temporary government after the revolution. In his concluding chapter, Kropotkin's Mutual Aid (1902) described a world where manual labour would be balanced with pleasurable activities, including outdoor leisure and cultural pursuits. It would be a world of closely knit communes, where each member had his or her own voice. Its only "laws" those scientifically observed in nature, it would be a world without government of any kind, without oppressive class divisions, and without a wage system. [11] The ideal society, as Kropotkin, Reclus and Grave described it, would allow for optimum individual development not in spite of but through mutual co-operation. In a society where "the first necessities of nourishment and shelter" were met with equal participation, individuals could lead a life with much more leisure time, allowing for the furthest progress of the arts and industry.16 In Signac's Au temps d'harmonie (Fig. 5), groups are gathered in both leisure activities and work. A man sows seeds in the right- hand side of the work, and behind him women fold laundry together. In the foreground, a man has laid down his shovel in order to pick a fig off a tree. For the anarcho- communists, work and leisure time were carefully balanced daily practices which, in moderation, allowed for the development of the individual. As such, both work and leisure were considered necessary to one's health and personal well-being. As Kropotkin saw it, "Overwork is repulsive to human nature – not work […]. Work is a physiological necessity, a necessity of spending accumulated bodily energy, a necessity which is health and life itself."17 [12] In the distant background of Signac's painting we can see modern farm equipment such as tractors. In The Conquest of Bread (1892), Kropotkin proclaimed that modern technology would play an essential role in aiding society by freeing workers from burdensome over-work.18 Signac's figures do just that: engaged in a variety of leisure activities, individuals are depicted enjoying a life of liberty outdoors in the landscape of Saint-Tropez. Towards the left, a man sits and reads while beside him, in the central foreground, a mother plays with her child. Towards the right, two men engage in a game of boules, a popular pastime that Signac had observed and depicted in the Place des Lices in Saint-Tropez's town centre. Behind them, an embracing couple contemplates a flower. In the distance to the left, a painter is depicted at his easel, while nearby bathers jump into the sea. Furthest in the distance, a group dances the farandole, a native 16 See Peter Kropotkin, L'Anarchie: sa philosophie, son idéal [1896], Paris 2006, 47-48. 17 Kropotkin, "Anarchist Communism: Its Basis and Principles" [1887], reprinted in: Anarchism: A Collection of Revolutionary Writings, ed. Roger Baldwin, Mineola 2002, 71. 18 Peter Kropotkin, The Conquest of Bread and Other Writings, ed. Marshall Shatz, Cambridge 1995, 186. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" festive dance.19 For art historians like John Hutton or Marina Ferretti-Bocquillon, there is no doubt that Au temps d'harmonie is the visual manifestation of the anarcho-communist ideal. Hutton, for example, remarked of the work that, Signac labored to combine in one image virtually every facet of the anarchist âge d'or: little or nothing was omitted from the writings of Kropotkin or Jean Grave on the subject, from amour libre to the universality of art, from the need for leisure to the call for decentralized industry no longer at war with nature.20 [13] Cross too recognized the political message of Au temps d'harmonie in a letter to Signac: "You are right on there. It is a perfect synthesis of the conception of the anarchist era."21 Cross's Bords méditerranéens of 1895 (Fig. 6) shares common themes with Signac's Au temps d'harmonie. In Cross's painting, work and leisure are divided into two spaces on the canvas, performed by groups of men and women, respectively. There are local fishermen working together to pull in the line, while a group of women lounge in the foreground following a swim in the sea. One prepares a picnic with summer fruits such as watermelon, grapes and lemons – the latter a famous fruit of the Côte d'Azur.22 As with the boules players in Signac's work, Cross's painting depicts a scene of locals typical in images of the region. Contemporary postcards of fishermen pulling in their loads, for example, indicate the popular interest in the sight (Cannes postcard, Fig. 8).23 His chosen town, Saint-Clair, and its neighbouring town Le Lavandou, were also listed in tourist manuals as small and picturesque villages of fishermen.24 Robert and Eugenia Herbert have stated that, Agrarian subjects were welcomed by the anarchists for another reason: in spite of Kropotkin's efforts to overhaul earlier anarchist theory in a scientific way, through the incorporation of industrial technology into the ideal society, he and his French 19 Margaret Werth explained that the farandole is a "rustic dance, common in the Midi, with intimations of fertility in its alternation of male and female dancers and its celebration of the harvest," in The Joy of Life: The Idyllic in French Art, circa 1900, Berkeley and London 2002, 112. 20 John G. Hutton, Neo-Impressionism and the Search for Solid Ground: Art, Science, and Anarchism in Fin-de-Siècle France, Baton Rouge and London 1994, 137. Similarly, Ferretti- Bocquillon indicated, "Car l'ambition de Signac est de laisser un manifeste de la société idéale, celle de l'avenir. [...] Il partage la vision optimiste de Kropotkine qui place ses espoirs dans la technologie moderne [...]," in Signac et Saint-Tropez, 54. 21 "Vous y êtes en plein. C'est une synthèse parfaite de la conception de l'ère anarchiste." Undated letter from Cross to Signac, Archives Signac, cited in Sylvie Carlier, "Le contexte littéraire et anarchiste," in: Françoise Baligand et al., eds, Henri-Edmond Cross, 1856-1910, Paris and Douai 1998, 105-110, here 110, n. 33. Signac had also written to Cross, outlining the symbolic figures in the painting: see the letter from Signac to Cross (summer 1893), Archives Signac, cited by Ferretti-Bocquillon in Signac et Saint-Tropez, 52. 22 Menton in particular was famous for its lemon trees. 23 See also an antique postcard of the same scene, of locals working together to haul in a fishing boat onto the shore, shot in Le Lavandou itself, entitled Anonymous, Le Lavandou – nos pêcheurs ammenant un bateau de pêche à terre, undated postcard in: Raphaël Dupouy, L'Histoire à travers la carte postale: Le Lavandou, Le Lavandou 1998, 13. 24 Jules Adenis's description of 1892 is exemplary: "Vient ensuite le Lavandou, riant village de pêcheurs, s'étalant au soleil sur le bord de la mer et à la base de pittoresque collines couvertes de lavandes sauvages, étymologie du nom de Lavandou," in Les Étapes d'un touriste en France: de Marseille à Menton, Paris 1892, 136. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" followers could not shake a romantic love of the countryside. Their hatred of the manner in which the urban proletariat were oppressed led them to a hatred of industrial life and a glorification of the healthy life of the peasant.25 6 Henri-Edmond Cross, Bords méditerranéens (Mediterranean Cost), 1895, oil on canvas, 65.4 x 92.2 cm. Walter F. Brown Collection, Texas (reprod. from: Françoise Baligand, Henri Edmond Cross. 1856-1910, Paris 1998, p. 58, Fig. 11) 7 Henri-Edmond Cross, L'Air du soir (Evening Song), 1893-1894, oil on canvas, 116 x 166 cm. Musée d’Orsay, Paris (reprod. from: Françoise Baligand, Henri Edmond Cross. 1856-1910, Paris 1998, p. 33, Fig. 6) [14] Village communities were models dear to the hearts of anarcho-communists like Kropotkin. He viewed the village as the natural, fluid and cohesive organization of human 25 Robert L. and Eugenia W. Herbert, "Artists and Anarchism: Unpublished Letters of Pissarro, Signac and others – I," in: The Burlington Magazine 102 (November 1960), 473-482, here 478. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" evolution.26 Kropotkin observed many examples of the ongoing contemporary presence of the village community around him, citing the shared use of ploughs and wine-presses among French peasants.27 Dymond has shown that in their writings Reclus and Kropotkin had associated "Latin" or Mediterranean peoples specifically as living out more harmonious, freer lives in small rural communities based on mutual aid.28 Such perceptions are exemplified in depictions of local workers by Cross from the early 1890s, such as in his Les Vendanges (Var) (The Grape Harvest [Var]) of 1891-1892 (private collection). Signac, Cross and Van Rysselberghe produced many images of work and play in the countryside, and especially in the Maures region, but their "romantic view" (Herberts) should be further contextualized as both primitivizing and part of a rhetoric of health and wellness. Reclus's essay, "The Progress of Mankind" (1896), emphasized that anarcho-communism would provide a return to man's primitive, natural relationship with the earth, the chance for modern man to "reconquer the past of the savage."29 Primitivized as native inhabitants and even products of the soil, country locals were attractive to Kropotkin and Reclus because they were perceived as living a natural and healthy life out of doors.30 Reclus longed for such privileges to be accessible to everyone, asking: Will the time ever come when all men, without exception, shall breathe fresh air in abundance, enjoy the light and sunshine, taste the coolness of the shade and the scent of roses, and feed their children without fear that the bread will run short in the bin?31 26 See Peter Kropotkin, Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution [1902], Mineola 2006, 100-101. 27 Kropotkin, Mutual Aid, 202. 28 See Anne Dymond, "A Politicized Pastoral: Signac and the Cultural Geography of Mediterranean France," in: Modern Art and the Idea of the Mediterranean, ed. Vojtěch Jirat-Wasiutyński, Toronto 2007, 116-45. 29 Élisée Reclus, "The Progress of Mankind," in: The Contemporary Review (1 December 1896), 782-83. 30 See Tania Woloshyn, "Aesthetic and Therapeutic Imprints: Artists and Invalids on the Côte d'Azur, ca. 1890-1910," in: Nineteenth-Century Art Worldwide 11 (Spring 2012), http://www.19thc- artworldwide.org/index.php/spring12/aesthetic-and-therapeutic-imprints-artists-and-invalids-on- the-cote-dazur-c-18901910 (accessed 20 June 2012). 31 Élisée Reclus, "The Evolution of Cities," in: The Contemporary Review (February 1895), 246-64, here 261. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en http://www.19thc-artworldwide.org/index.php/spring12/aesthetic-and-therapeutic-imprints-artists-and-invalids-on-the-cote-dazur-c-18901910 http://www.19thc-artworldwide.org/index.php/spring12/aesthetic-and-therapeutic-imprints-artists-and-invalids-on-the-cote-dazur-c-18901910 http://www.19thc-artworldwide.org/index.php/spring12/aesthetic-and-therapeutic-imprints-artists-and-invalids-on-the-cote-dazur-c-18901910 RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" 8 Anonymous, Cannes – Les Pêcheurs sur la Plage (Cannes – Fishermen on the Beach), undated, postcard (author's collection) [15] These natural elements of fresh air, light, sunshine, and fragrant flowers were especially associated with the Côte d'Azur's perceived healthy climate and healthy locals.32 In Cross's L'Air du soir (Fig. 7) this "romantic view" or idealization of healthy life in the Maures was recognized by critics as being particularly resonant through his depiction of the landscape and its figures. In an article of 1894 the critic Tiphéreth commented that in this work, "The Idealism of M. Cross is in no way unhealthy, and I will be very careful not to reproach him as the women[,] who breathe in his picture the soft air and vibrate from the light of a Mediterranean shore, are firmly built creatures [...]."33 Peopled with healthy females on a Mediterranean shore illuminated by radiating light, Cross's image depicts an inviting and equally healthy landscape. 32 See Tania Woloshyn, "La Côte d'Azur: the terre privilégié of invalids and artists, c.1860-1900," in: French Cultural Studies 20 (4) (November 2009), 383-402. 33 "L'Idéalisme de M. Cross n'est pas du tout maladif, et je me garderai bien de lui faire le reproche que les femmes respirant dans son tableau l'air tamisé et vibrant de lumière d'une rive méditerranéenne, soient des créatures solidement bâties […]." Tiphéreth, "Regard en arrière et simples réflexions sur l'art en 1894," in: Le Coeur (December 1894), 6, cited in Isabelle Compin, H. E. Cross, Paris 1964, 134. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" 9 Théo Van Rysselberghe, L’Heure embrasée (Sunset), 1897, oil on canvas, 228 x 329 cm. Klassik Stiftung Weimar, Museen (reprod. from: Robert Hoozee, Théo van Rysselberghe. Neo-impressionist, exh. cat., Gent 1993, p. 131, Fig. 63) [16] Van Rysselberghe would soon follow with a grand décor of his own entitled, L'Heure embrasée, again set in the Maures (Fig. 9).34 This landscape has been traced to a view of the Chemin des douaniers, near Signac's home on the Plage des Graniers in Saint-Tropez.35 The idea for L'Heure embrasée was born in 1895, at the same time that Signac and Cross were producing their grand paintings of the pays du soleil. Van Rysselberghe's work was not completed until 1897, and exhibited in 1898. Grouped together, lounging on the shore or playing in the sea, the nude female figures of L'Heure embrasée are immersed in the naturally isolated Maures landscape. One writer stated, in response to Van Rysselberghe's painting, This art does not plunge the spectator into dream or ecstasy […] but into a sort of chosen life, shown under the aspects of health and beauty. Fresh happiness circulates here without referring one to the idylls of the ancient poets, or the classical paradise. There is nothing literary about the subject. These are simply beautiful bodies, happy to wander naked and light-colored among the mingled caresses of water and sun. We are shown and offered an existence all ease and abandon, a supple, natural existence like a beautiful ripe fruit.36 34 As Ferretti-Bocquillon explained, "The idea for the painting which Van Rysselberghe first mentioned as representing 'Bathers' took shape before the summer in Saint-Tropez in 1896, as shown by a letter dated 25 August 1895 [Archives Signac] with a rapid sketch of the landscape and the figures. He went to Cadzand in Zeeland, not far from the Belgian border, to make his first studies of the bathing women 'which I shall certainly place in a maritime setting [….] I'm very keen to go to Tropez, I think the setting would suit me very well […]'" in "Théo van Rysselberghe and Paul Signac: The History of a Friendship, 1887-1907," in: Théo van Rysselberghe, 131-47, here 140. 35 Ferretti-Bocquillon in Théo van Rysselberghe, 138. 36 Anonymous (Verhaeren?), L'Art moderne (13 March 1898) cited in Jago-Antoine in: Théo van Rysselberghe, 88. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" [17] For this writer, happiness and healthiness permeate Van Rysselberghe's painting, and it is denied all reference to the categories of the utopian, Arcadian, Edenic, and the dreamscape. <top> Rethinking the Utopian in Neo-Impressionist Images of the Maures [18] Anne Distel, Françoise Cachin, Robert and Eugenia Hebert, Anne Dymond, Margaret Werth, Kenneth Silver, and Robyn Roslak have all referred to the Maures landscapes of the neo-impressionists as "utopian."37 Aline Dardel, reviewing the images of the anarcho-communist journal, Les Temps nouveaux (1895-1914), noted that "utopia" itself seems to resist visual representation.38 Rather, I would suggest that "utopia" resists specific definition, particularly if we consider that historians today may be conceiving it differently than the anarcho-communists did themselves during the 1890s and early 1900s.39 Glenn Negley and Patrick Max have explained that, "It is questionable whether there are in the English language two more ambiguous words than utopia and utopian. In both denotation and connotation, these words have acquired a latitude of usage which almost defies definition."40 Yet usage of the word persists among art historians. Why the Maures specifically was perceived by Signac, Cross, and Van Rysselberghe as an appropriate and, according to Gustave Kahn, "accurate"41 setting for their depictions of an anarcho-communist future society has been rarely discussed in art-historical analyses of their work. Dismissing the significance of the Côte d'Azur landscape in modern art is not peculiar to neo-impressionist scholars either. As Kenneth Silver once remarked, How seriously can one take art made in a place devoted to pleasure and hedonistic pursuit? How do we reconcile the work of making art with the leisure that is the raison d'être of the French Riviera? Questions like these, usually 37 See Anne Distel, "Portrait de M. Paul Signac, yachtman pratiquant, homme de lettres, indépendant et révolutionnaire," in: Signac, 1863-1935, exh. cat., Paris 2001, 36-51, here 51; Françoise Cachin, "C'est l'éden retrouvé," in: Méditerranée: De Courbet à Matisse, Paris 2000, 17-108, here 74; Herbert and Herbert, "Artists and Anarchism I", 480; Dymond, "A Politicized Pastoral" in: Jirat- Wasiutyński, 127; Werth, Idyllic, 83-142; Kenneth E. Silver, Making Paradise, Cambridge and London 2001, 39; and Roslak, Neo-Impressionism and Anarchism in Fin-de-Siècle France, 141-71. 38 Dardel wrote, "L'épanouissement de cette aube sociale n'a pas donné lieu à beaucoup d'illustrations de la part des artistes et c'est bien regrettable. Cela tient plutôt du rêve, et même de l'utopie semble-t-il, difficile à mettre en images." Dardel,"Les Temps nouveaux", 34. 39 The same can be said for the word "edenic." In their writings the anarcho-communists did not conceptualize their ideal as an Eden; they strongly denied the element of religion, perceiving it as another type of authoritarian control. Reclus wrote in the Preface to Kropotkin's 1885 Paroles d'un révolté: "Our salvation does not lie in the choice of new masters. As anarchists and enemies of Christianity, we must remind a whole society that pretends to be Christian of these words spoken by a man they made into a God: 'Say unto no man, Master, Master.' Let everyone remain his own master." Reclus in: Kropotkin, Rebel, 18. 40 Glenn Negley and J. Max Patrick, The Quest for Utopia: An Anthology of Imaginary Societies, Garden City 1962, 1. 41 In 1935 Gustave Kahn described Signac's Au temps d'harmonie as follows: "A large Arcadia, with hieratic figures, expresses his [Signac's] desire for brotherly love and human perfection […]. The human figures are beautiful, the harmony pleasing and the setting accurate." Gustave Kahn [1935] cited in: The Neo-Impressionists, ed. Jean Sutter, trans. Chantal Deliss, London 1970, 62. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" unstated, have long impeded the writing of the history of modern art on the Côte d'Azur [...].42 [19] Implicit in the word "utopian" are two concepts which I believe have significantly affected art-historical attitudes towards the radical political meaning of neo-impressionist landscapes of the Maures: the first, relating to Silver's comments, is that a utopian representation is fanciful, novel and thus, like the visual culture of the Côte d'Azur, apparently not to be taken seriously; the second is that, according to its literal definition, a utopia is not a real, specific location, but rather a dream of the future. It is, by its very character, "no place." [20] Reclus's and Kropotkin's writings reveal a negative and self-defensive attitude towards the word "utopia," and this is perhaps not surprising when we consider that both theorists were eminent, renowned geographers. There are indications that, at least for Reclus and Kropotkin, "utopia" was a derogatory term suggesting the impractical, the unrealizable, and the fantastical. In an 1896 publication by Reclus, this is made clear: The dream of worldwide freedom has ceased to be a pure philosophical and literary utopia [...] [It] has become the practical goal, actively searched, for the multitudes of united man, who collaborate resolutely on the birth of a society in which there will be no more masters, no more official conservatives of public morality, no more jailers nor hangmen, no more rich men nor poor people, but brothers all having their daily share of bread, equal in rights, and holding the peace and cordial union, not by obedience to laws, which always come with formidable threats, but by the mutual respect of interests and the scientific observation of natural laws.43 [21] In 1905, Kropotkin was explicit when he wrote that "anarchist writers consider, moreover, that their conception is not a Utopia […]."44 For them "utopia" was synonymous with "fiction," signifying an unrealizable, idle daydream. To my mind, the employment of the word to this day by art historians is not a matter of lazy vocabulary (and I will return to address this lack of clarity later on). It, consciously or not, has informed ongoing perceptions of the neo-impressionists' Maures landscapes as trivial attempts to play with fanciful political beliefs. [22] For instance, Hutton has argued that the Maures is the setting of an unrealizable utopia. He described the tropézian setting of Signac's Au temps d'harmonie as a "lush 42 Silver, Making Paradise, 17. On 18 he explained, "If we prefer the analysis of art made in Paris, or New York, or Berlin, it is because we recognize them as sites of serious work; the idea that an artist might produce great art at a beach resort can result only in what has lately been called cognitive dissonance." 43 "Le rêve de liberté mondiale a cessé d'être une pure utopie philosophique et littéraire [...] [Il] est devenu le but pratique, activement recherché, pour des multitudes d'homme unis, qui collaborent résolument à la naissance d'une société dans laquelle il n'y aura plus de maîtres, plus de conservateurs officiels de la morale publique, plus de geôliers ni de bourreaux, plus de riches ni de pauvres, mais des frères ayant tous leur part quotidienne de pain, des égaux en droit, et se maintenant en paix et en cordiale union, non par l'obéissance à des lois, qu'accompagnent toujours des menaces redoutables, mais par le respect mutuel des intérêts et l'observation scientifique des lois naturelles." Élisée Reclus, L'Anarchie, Paris 1896, 7-8. 44 Kropotkin, "Anarchism" [1905], in Kropotkin, Collection, 285. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" vacation resort."45 By relegating Saint-Tropez to the status of a "vacation resort" – with its implications of leisure over "serious" work, holiday time, and escapism – Hutton denied the landscape's potential as a radical political space for Signac and his anarcho- communist colleagues. He concluded that Au temps d'harmonie fails to express a sincere representation of the ideal: "As a composition, it is notably lacking in the harmony to which the title refers. It devolves into disconnected clots of people, all passionately engaged in acting out Kropotkin's dreams of the golden age. It illustrates, but it lacks the force or unity to evoke the dream it represents."46 In doing so, Hutton lapsed into the very same vocabulary of the anarcho-communists' critics, reducing the meaning of their writings, and thus Signac's interpretation of them, to mere "dreams." This is not to say that the neo-impressionists' perception of the Maures landscape was not problematic – indeed, I have argued it was bound up with regional tourism development47 – but in order to critically analyze that perception it is pertinent to recognize their profound sincerity towards anarcho-communism and its social possibilities within places both real and imagined. One way of revealing this, I shall argue, is by taking into account the particular geographical significance the Maures region had for the neo-impressionists and their anarcho-communist comrades. <top> The Geography and Nature of Terre Libre [23] A prolific writer and close friend of the neo-impressionists, Jean Grave is a key figure in the history of anarcho-communist visual and textual publications, especially as editor of Les Temps nouveaux (1895-1914). From 1896 onwards, Grave would add images to the journal,48 including a lithograph version of Signac's Au temps d'harmonie. Previously Le Révolté (1879-1887) – the creation of Kropotkin and Reclus – and then known as La Révolte (1887-1894), Les Temps nouveaux was a widely-distributed journal to which the neo-impressionists donated their work. It is clear from letters that they were avid readers of the journal as well as of the latest anarcho-communist books, particularly those written by Grave and Kropotkin.49 A letter to Grave from Cross in early 1908 attests 45 Hutton, Solid, 177. 46 Hutton, Solid, 141. 47 See Tania Woloshyn, "Marking out the Maures: Henri-Edmond Cross on the Côte d'Azur," in: Tania Woloshyn and Nicholas Hewitt, eds., L'Invention du Midi: The Rise of the South of France in the National and International Imagination (Nottingham French Studies 50.1, Special Issue), Nottingham 2011, 57-71. In this article I focus on particular paintings by Cross and contemporaneous tourist references to the Maures region, arguing that they perceived and represented the region as remote and inaccessible but that, in fact, it was far from unknown. 48 Herbert and Herbert, "Artists and Anarchism I," 477. 49 Cross, for example, spoke of the journal in a letter to Maximilien Luce in 1893: "Jusqu'ici j'ai reçu très régulièrement La Révolte. Vous savez si j'en savoure la lecture. Quelle philosophie généreuse et puissante! Et dans le choix des articles, le directeur [Grave] montre une grande intelligence, n'est-ce pas? À quoi bon les commentaires, n'êtes-vous pas vous-même un fanatique de ces idées!" Cited in Hôtel Dassault, "Correspondance de Maximilien Luce," Artcurial (2-4 May 2007, sale no.1121), Paris 2007, 11. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" to his awareness of Terre Libre; he thanks Grave for sending the book to his home in Saint-Clair and predicts the novel will be an "intellectual pleasure and a source of meditations."50 [24] Terre Libre is a little-known children's story about prisoners who, condemned for their anarchist convictions and demonstrations, are being deported on the ship, the Aréthuse, to New Caledonia, a French penal colony in the South Pacific. But on the way, a storm strikes and it is shipwrecked on an unknown, deserted island. The captain and his soldiers set up camp, maintaining control over their captives. Soon the prisoners form a plan and in the night, without unnecessary violence, they gain control of the soldiers' weapons and separate themselves to another part of the island, which they call "Terre- Libre" or "Free-Land." They build a life for themselves based on freely-formed groups, and agree on all decisions in an assembly, without any one person imposing leadership. [25] In this system of mutual aid, manual labour is not onerous and soon the camp is thriving. Housing and sustenance become their first priority. One man also reveals he was trained as a geographer, and leads an expedition to chart the area, no doubt a homage to Kropotkin and Reclus. The children are given freedom as well: they run free, help where they can such as feeding the animals, and are not burdened by taxing studies. Under these circumstances, each individual is given the freedom to blossom, and later in the novel the group even publishes a newspaper. [26] In the other camp, however, poor management under the captain's authority leaves the soldiers ill-fed and unhappy. Some even defect to the Terrelibriens' camp. The climax, however, takes place when an armed vessel arrives and, now joined by the captain and his loyal soldiers, opens fire on the Terrelibriens, who must defend themselves. In the end, they triumph: the vessel explodes, and a sailor who has survived tells them news of anarchist achievements all over Europe. Terre Libre closes with the following lines: "The secret of their refuge was at the bottom of the sea. They remained, until further notice, free to continue living, there, unknown to all, or to go back to the old world, as they understood it."51 [27] In the preface of Terre Libre, Grave made some significant remarks about his intentions for the novel, stating at the outset that this section was not to be read by the children ("Que peuvent ne pas lire les petits"). Here he stated that his comrade, Francisco Ferrer of the Modern School of Barcelona, had requested that Grave write a 50 "Mon cher Grave, Nous avons été très heureux de recevoir un livre de vous. J'ai d'avance la certitude que la lecture de 'Terre libre' sera pour moi un plaisir intellectuel et une source de méditations." Letter from Cross to Grave (February 2, 1908), cited in Robert L. and Eugenia W. Herbert, "Artists and Anarchism: Unpublished Letters of Pissarro, Signac and others – II," in: The Burlington Magazine 102 (December 1960), 517-22, here 521. 51 "Le secret de leur refuge était au fond de la mer. Ils restaient, jusqu'à nouvel ordre, libres de continuer à vivre, là, ignorés de tous, ou de renouer avec le vieux monde, comme ils l'entendaient." Jean Grave, Terre Libre (Les pionniers), Paris 1908, 321. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" novel illustrating how he might envision the future anarcho-communist society, particularly the organization of labour.52 Grave then explained why he wrote it in the form of a conte, or children's tale. Firstly, as an adventure tale, it would be easier and more interesting for young children to read and comprehend. Secondly, this form would ensure a "vague and hypothetical character" to the ideal anarcho-communist society. His reason was that the ideal, as understood by each individual, remained a personal vision.53 Further into the preface, Grave stated, I will also ask that we do not quibble too much over the position of Free-Land on a map. For works of the imagination one should not ask for absolute accuracy. I am not very well up on geography. And the journey where I want to take the reader is not a journey of geographic discoveries, but moral ones.54 [28] Directly inspired by Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719) and Johann David Wyss's Swiss Family Robinson (1812),55 Grave created a tale of adventure and survival set on an exotic island. Grave's statement above seems at first to suggest conformity with its predecessors, works of the imagination, "no-places" with flora and fauna so varied, so disparate, as to be geographically impossible within one location. These are places not to be located on maps. So too apparently is the island of Terre-Libre: early in the novel one of the characters, a navigator on the ship, estimates their location upon crashing to be at 17 or 18 degrees latitude and 185 degrees longitude,56 the latter a physical impossibility. Were it an error in the text (which is questionable), and the longitude 180°, Terre-Libre would be among a cluster of islands to the east of Fiji. [29] Unlike Defoe and Wyss, Grave is vague in describing the specifics of vegetation in his book, writing generally of plants and fruits and trees, avoiding any details. The images by Mabel Holland Thomas, however, depict very specific flora, among them palm trees, banana trees, bamboo, banyan trees,57 and rose bushes, and it is the inconsistencies between the vagueness of the text and the specificity of the images that are particularly fascinating. Grave speaks of none of these plants, with the sole exception of palm trees, and two sites for harvesting which the colonists call the Rosary and the Palmery. Despite Grave's attempts that Terre-Libre is not to be found on a map, that it is 52 Grave stated, "Le camarade Ferrer, de 'l'École Moderne' de Barcelone[,] m'ayant demandé si je ne voudrais pas lui écrire un volume sur la façon dont j'envisageais l'organisation du travail dans la société future, j'acceptai avec plaisir, vu que le sujet m'intéresse. Et c'est cet essai que je présente aujourd'hui." Grave, Terre Libre, 17. 53 Grave, Terre Libre, 17-18. 54 "Je demanderai également à ce que l'on ne me chicane pas trop sur la position de Terre-Libre sur la carte. Aux œuvres d'imagination il ne faut pas demander une exactitude absolue. Je ne suis pas très ferré sur la géographie. Et le voyage où je veux emmener le lecteur n'est pas un voyage de découvertes géographiques, mais morales." Grave, Terre Libre, 20-21. 55 Grave, Terre Libre, 20. 56 Grave, Terre Libre, 54. 57 Trees are described in the manner of banyan trees in Daniel Defoe, The Life and Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, Written by Himself [1719], Ware 1995, 80-81. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" a work of imaginative geography, Thomas's visual representations conform intriguingly to the specific tropical island topography of Melanesia, a region including New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Fiji. 10 Mabel Holland Thomas, Cover illustration of Jean Grave, Terre Libre, Paris 1908, wood engraving (author's collection) License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" 11 Mabel Holland Thomas, Banana Tree, in Jean Grave, Terre Libre, Paris 1908, 215 (author's collection) 12 Mabel Holland Thomas, Banyan rees, in Jean Grave, Terre Libre, Paris 1908, 265 (author's collection) License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" 13 Mabel Holland Thomas, Bamboo, in Jean Grave, Terre Libre, Paris 1908, 143 (author's collection) [30] In the fourteenth volume of Élisée Reclus's La Nouvelle géographie universelle: la terre et les hommes on Oceania (1889), bananas, coconut palms, date palms, bamboo, and banyan trees are all mentioned as being present in Melanesia.58 So too are the exact same flora mentioned by his brother, Onésime Reclus, in the second volume of his La France et ses colonies, also published in 1889.59 Thomas's illustrations of a palm (Fig. 10), a banana tree (Fig. 11), banyans (Fig. 12) and bamboo (Fig. 13) are naturalistic representations, dynamically rendered. The images correspond well to the Reclus's botanical descriptions of this area, suggesting that Thomas, if not Grave, must have been aware of the botany of the Melanesian islands. However, to my knowledge, neither Thomas nor Grave ever visited the area, and therefore their most likely point of 58 The British Library has recently digitized almost all of Élisée Reclus's nineteen volumes from La Nouvelle géographie universelle, and thus made the books searchable by keyword (only accessible in the library). Banyan trees are mentioned very rarely throughout the series, and discussed the most in volume fourteen on Oceania. Otherwise it is mentioned in: Zambia, in volume 13 on L'Afrique méridionale, Paris 1888, 656; Assam, north-east India, where he mentioned a species of banyan that grew to enormous heights, in volume 8 on L'Inde et l'Indo-Chine, Paris 1885, 586; the Maldives, on Minicoy Island, also in volume 8, 621; and, beyond Melanesia, on Mindanao in the Philippines, in Reclus, Australasia, ed. A. H. Keane, London, n.d., 252. 59 Onésime Reclus, La France et ses colonies. Tome Second: Nos Colonies, Paris 1889, 568 (on New Caledonia). License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" access to information on Melanesia was through geographical sources like the Reclus brothers, who, after all, were active anarcho-communists and close to Grave.60 [31] How does Thomas depict the landscape of Grave's novel as a "free land"? The cover image of Terre Libre shows a section of sinuous, sandy coastline, what is meant to be an island according to Grave's text (Fig. 10). Its deserted terrain awaits anarcho- communist colonization, as evident by the approach of a damaged ship from the right- hand corner. Its vegetation, notably the central palm tree in the foreground and those in the distant background, suggest a warm, if not tropical, exotic environment. In Figure 13 Thomas peoples her landscape with lounging anarcho-communists, nestled deep in the brush of the island's interior. The text and images of Terre Libre deserve academic discussion not only because this is an esoteric novel,61 but also because its descriptions correspond intriguingly with the perceived tropical and island-like appearance of the Maures, where the neo-impressionists worked and lived. <top> A "True Land of Promise" on French Soil: The Geography and Nature of the Maures [32] The Maures landscape was projected by the neo-impressionists as untouched by tourism, and its relative isolation from the rest of the Côte d'Azur seemed to appeal to both their artistic and (anti)tourist sensibilities.62 Take Signac's first impressions of Saint- Tropez, upon arrival in May of 1892. He wrote to his mother in a letter that, Since yesterday I have settled in, and am brimming with joy. Five minutes from the old city, lost in the pine trees and roses. I have discovered a lovely little cabanon ['La Ramade']. Overlooking the golden shores of the gulf, where the blue waves roll in and die on a tiny beach, my beach, and a perfect mooring for the Olympia […]. In the background, the blue outline of the Maures and the Esterel – there is enough here to work on for the rest of my life – I have discovered happiness […].63 60 Thomas may have been well-travelled; little is known about her. Or she may have been familiar with tropical vegetation within London itself, from botanical gardens like Kew, which had a famous palmery that opened in 1849. Nancy Leys Stepan describes the Palm House at Kew as "one of the most important material and symbolic expressions of tropical nature in the nineteenth century," in Picturing Tropical Nature, Ithaca 2001, 33. 61 To my knowledge, Raymond Trousson is the only scholar who has discussed Terre Libre, and there do not seem to be any sources that consider the accompanying illustrations by Thomas. See Raymond Trousson, Raymond, "L'Utopie anarchiste de Jean Grave," in: D'Utopie et d'utopistes, Paris and Montréal 1998, 221-232. Thomas may have even had significant input in the text of the book; Grave dedicated it to her, and added, "Ce livre que nous avons pensé tous deux, en le discutant." While Hutton, Werth, and Patsouras list Grave's Terre Libre in passing, its narrative and illustrations are not discussed. 62 James Buzard described this as "anti-tourism": "Snobbish 'anti-tourism,' an element of modern tourism from the start, has offered an important, even exemplary way of regarding one's own cultural experiences as authentic and unique, setting them against a backdrop of always assumed tourist vulgarity, repetition, and ignorance." James Buzard, The Beaten Track, Oxford 2001, 5. For more on discussion of the neo-impressionists as tourists, see Roslak, Neo-Impressionism and Anarchism in Fin-de-Siècle France, 141-171 and Woloshyn, "Marking out the Maures." 63 Letter from Signac to his mother (May 1892), Archives Signac, cited in English in Ferretti Bocquillon, Signac en Provence, Avignon 2006, 53. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" [33] Signac was not alone in associating Saint-Tropez with bonheur. As early as 1887, Stéphen Liégeard saw in Saint-Tropez a welcoming, joyful town, where "everything seems to laugh and smile."64 Signac identified his experience in Saint-Tropez as intimate and private ("my beach," "lost in the pine trees and roses"), an untouched world of private immersion. In Saint-Tropez, Signac felt joyful, alone, and free. Its beauty would provide endless motifs for his painting, he stated, and its perceived remoteness the privacy to undertake it without interruption. [34] In a letter of November 1899, Cross wrote to another of their circle, Charles Angrand (1854-1926), from Saint-Clair that, We are here [...] right at the edge of the sea, two kilometers from a small village of fishermen: Le Lavandou, which is not to be found on maps [...]. Saint-Clair is a plain on which about twenty houses, bastides even, are scattered, occupied by peasants who cultivate grapes and early produce (flowers, vegetables).65 [35] In 1901 he would reassert that the region was unknown and remote, its beaches deserted. For Cross, "The elegance resides only in the pine trees that come out from the sand and in the delightful half-moon forming the shore. Oh, but it is eternally beautiful!"66 Like Grave, Cross was adamant that Saint-Clair, his personal haven, was not to be found on maps. So too did tourist sources assert again and again the region's topographic isolation. In fact, for the tourist writer, Victor-Eugène Ardouin-Dumazet, the Maures was so geographically distinct and so remote from the rest of France that it was like an island: The Maures forms a distinctly demarcated region as much by its solitude as by its geological constitution. No other land in France stands out with such intensity from its surrounding regions. It is quite truly an island, made of particular characters.67 [36] In 1904, Magali Faravel wrote an article about Bormes and Le Lavandou, Cross's immediate environs, describing the region as reminiscent of the tropics: 64 "Déjà Saint-Tropez nous prépare la bienvenue. Gaiement il nous découvre ses pignons irisés de toutes nuances, sa citadelle en décor, ses rez-de-chaussée brise-lames opposant leurs portes pleines aux indiscrètes visites de la vague, et son petit port aux tartanes pavoisées, et les vertes collines dont la ceinture l'enserre, et Sainte-Maxime, prompte à lui envoyer, d'en face, le salut affectueux d'une soeur qui lui fut chère. Ici, tout semble rire et sourire." Stéphen Liégeard, La Côte d'Azur, Paris 1887, 37. 65 "Nous sommes ici […] tout au bord de la mer, à deux kilomètres d'un petit village de pêcheurs: Le Lavandou, que l'on ne trouve pas sur les cartes […]. Saint-Clair est une plaine, sur laquelle sont dispersées une vingtaine de maisons, bastides plutôt, habitées par des paysans qui font de la vigne et des primeurs (fleurs, légumes)." Letter from Cross to Charles Angrand (18 November 1899), cited in Compin, H. E. Cross, 32. 66 The full excerpt is as follows: "En été […] la lumière répandue à profusion sur toutes choses vous attire, vous ahurit, vous affole […]. Ici nos plages sont désertes. L'élégance ne réside que dans les pins qui sortent du sable et dans la délicieuse demi-lune que forme le rivage. Mais que cela est éternellement beau!" Letter from Cross to Angrand (12 August 1901), cited in Compin, H. E. Cross, 32. 67 "Aussi les Maures constituent-elles par leur solitude, comme par leur constitution géologique[,] une région nettement délimitée. Aucune autre contrée en France ne se détache avec tant de vigueur sur les régions environnantes. C'est bien véritablement une île, offrant des caractères particuliers." Victor-Eugène Ardouin-Dumazet, Voyage en France. 55e série: la Provence maritime, II. La Côte d'Azur, Paris and Nancy 1909, 20. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" We go round the Hotel Bellevue, which justifies its name by the beauty of the landscape stretching at its feet, and we arrive at the place, which one clever town father had constructed with an Italian terrace. We are happy to stop here to admire the picturesque aspect of the village surrounding us. We ascend even more and arrive at the park of the Pavilion Hotel. There, we have in all its fullness, the illusion of the tropics. The rarest species encircle us. Eucalyptuses, mimosa, aloës, yucca, peppercorn trees, without counting the palm trees and ancient orange trees, amass as in a virgin forest, with a marvellous exuberance of vegetation. This is because Bormes is wonderfully sheltered against all winds and its exposure to the full heat of the middle of the day gives it the advantage of the hottest climate of the coastal region, including Hyères and Menton.68 [37] For Faravel, evidence of tourist amenities in place, namely hotels and roads, did not distract her from envisioning the Maures as a tropicalized tourist paradise.69 The region's exotic vegetation was marked out in tourist and geographic texts of the 19th and early 20th centuries as its defining feature. Here difference resided in botanic evidence. So too did its heat, as Faravel implies, evoke the tropics for visitors. In the summer of 1905, Albert Marquet wrote to his friend and fellow fauve, Charles Camoin, of his summer experiences of Saint-Tropez, "dominated by luxuriance and brightness. Under these French tropics, we become tropical people."70 For these "wild beasts," Saint-Tropez was envisioned as a primitive, exotic and tropicalized site with the ability to transform visitors into island natives, to physically and psychologically primitivize them. Indeed, Louis Vauxcelles described them in 1905 as a "spirited little colony of painters" in Saint- Tropez.71 A year earlier, André Mellerio declared that "Saint-Tropez and Antibes are increasingly becoming the promised land for neo-impressionist painters."72 To Signac, 68 "Nous contournons l'hotel Bellevue, qui justifie son nom par la beauté du paysage qui s'étend à ses pieds, et nous arrivons sur la place, qu'une édilité intelligente a fait construire en terrasse à l'italienne. Nous sommes heureux de nous y arrêter pour admirer l'aspect pittoresque du village qui s'étend autour de nous. Nous montons encore et nous arrivons au parc de l'hôtel du Pavillon. Là, nous avons dans toute sa plénitude, l'illusion des tropiques. Les essences les plus rares nous entourent. Les eucalyptus, les mimosa [sic], les aloës [sic], les yucca [sic], les faux poivriers, sans compter les palmiers et les orangers séculaires, s'entassent comme dans une forêt vierge, avec une admirable exubérance de végétation. C'est que Bormes est merveilleusement abrité contre tous les vents et son exposition en plein midi lui procure l'avantage du climat le plus chaud du littoral, y compris Hyères et Menton." Magali Faravel, "Paysages de la Côte d'Azur: Bormes et Le Lavandou," in: Art et soleil: revue mensuelle illustré de la Côte d'Azur 3 (January 1904), 52. 69 By "tropicalized" I mean those markers of landscapes, particularly of a botanical nature (such as palm trees), recognized as "tropical," in itself a heavily-loaded construct. See Krista A. Thompson, An Eye for the Tropics: Tourism, Photography, and Framing the Caribbean Picturesque, Durham and London 2006. Thompson's book crucially dissects early images of the Caribbean as constitutive of a "tropical picturesque" identity that, even today, remains firmly in place in the minds of tourists and continues to drive its tourism industry. 70 "[...] sous la domination de la luxuriance et de l'éclat. Sous ces tropiques françaises, nous devenons des gens tropicaux." Cited by Jean-Michel Couve in Charles Camoin et Saint-Tropez, Saint-Tropez 1991, 18. Also cited in Albert Marquet: journal de bord en Méditerranée, Saint-Tropez 2001, unpaginated. 71 He wrote, "M. Camoin, lui aussi, s'en fut à Saint-Tropez. Ils y ont tous filé, semblables à une bande d'oiseaux migrateurs. Ce fut au printemps 1905, une vaillante petite colonie de peintres peignant et devisant en ce pays enchanté: Signac, Cross, Manguin, Camoin, Marquet; près d'eux, à Cagnes, d'Espagnat et le maître Renoir." Louis Vauxcelles, "Le Salon d'automne," in: Gil Blas (17 October 1905), 1-2 72 André Mellerio, "Les Petites Expositions," in: Revue universelle 4 (15 April 1904), 215-216, here 215. The full quote, discussed further in Anne Dymond's article within this edited volume, is as follows: "Au reste, Saint-Tropez et Antibes deviennent de plus en plus la terre promise des peintres License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" Saint-Tropez was the "eighth wonder of the world."73 His hero and fellow yachtsman, Guy de Maupassant, while exploring the hinterland around Sainte-Maxime, similarly proclaimed, "Didn't I tell you that here we are at the end of the world!"74 [38] In Thomas's cover illustration (Fig. 10), a palm tree occupies the central foreground, dominating the composition and signifying the island's climate as tropical and warm. According to Nancy Stepan, the palm was "the ubiquitous sign of the tropics, images of it instantly signalling less a botanical species than an imaginative submersion in hot places."75 But as Kenneth Silver has remarked, the palm tree also was, and continues to be, an iconic feature of the Côte d'Azur,76 its presence visual proof of the coast's year-round warm climate. On the French coast the palm tree denoted the exotic luxury and cultivated elegance associated with larger resort towns, especially Nice and Cannes. Yet there are also depictions of the palm in tourist images of the Maures, such as Hugo d'Alési's 1898 poster of Hyères (Fig. 14). In d'Alési's work, date palms spring from the background, over a wall covered with flowering vines; blooming agaves, cacti and spikes emerge from dramatic outcroppings of rocks and, along with large umbrella pines, close off and fill the composition, suggesting a wild, fertile and exotic environment. [39] While only actively cultivated from the beginning of the 19th century, tourist writers would describe the date palm as one of exotic elements of vegetation in the Maures, complementary to the region's primitive and rugged geological features. In 1880, Charles Lenthéric described the gulf of Saint-Tropez as a "true promised land," its orange, lemon, and palm trees indicating a region of natural abundance and a peculiarly "Oriental" flavor, at once African and Middle Eastern.77 For Lenthéric, the palms he observed in the Maures were not simply elegant with their splaying fronds; they were positively exotic, producing succulent dates as delicious as those from Africa and Syria. néo-impressionnistes, qui trouvent dans les oppositions du ciel et du sol, da la mer colorée, des arbres puissant, motifs à variations chromatiques et à belles arabesques linéaires." 73 Signac spoke of the moment of sailing to Saint-Tropez as follows: "Un vent singulier m'a poussé vers la huitième merveille de l'univers! Venez voir! L'ocre des murs fait pâlir celui des villas romaines. Et le ciel, donc! J'en prends plein les yeux!" Cited in Danièle Giraudy, Charles Camoin et Saint-Tropez, Saint-Tropez 1991, 18. 74 Guy de Maupassant, "Petits voyages," Gil Blas (26 August 1884), Appendix in Maupassant, Afloat (Sur l'eau) [1888], trans. Marlo Johnston, London and Chester Springs 1995, 129-35, here 133. 75 Stepan, Picturing Tropical Nature, 19. 76 Silver, Making Paradise, 61. 77 "Le golfe de Saint-Tropez, en particulier, qui s'enfonce profondément dans le cœur du massif des Maures, est à lui seul un pays complet avec ses montagnes primitives, ses masses plutoniques de serpentine, ses buttes volcaniques, son fleuve en miniature et sa plaine d'alluvions. C'est une véritable terre promise qui porte au plus haut degré le cachet de l'Orient; et les Arabes qui l'ont occupée au dixième et au onzième siècle [sic] ont pu réellement s'y croire dans leur pays d'origine. Comme dans certaines vallées fertiles et tempérées de l'Asie Mineure, les ruisseaux coulent entre deux haies de lauriers roses aussi serrés que les oseraies du grand Rhône; les orangers et les citronniers vivent en pleine terre; les arbres à cédrats y produisent des fruits d'un volume extraordinaire; les palmiers eux-mêmes ne se contentent pas de projeter leurs tiges élégantes et donnent quelquefois des dattes aussi savoureuses que celles des oasis de l'Afrique et de la Syrie." Charles Lenthéric, La Provence maritime ancienne et moderne, Paris 1880, 296-97. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" 14 F. Hugo d'Alési, P. L. M. Hyères, 1898, poster, color lithograph, 106 x 75 cm. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris (http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb39838343n) [40] Élisée Reclus, in fact, spoke of the whole of the Provençal coast as resembling "une terre africaine," its littoral topography closest to those of Tunisia and Algeria, and together forming "a distinct part of the world, an intermediary between Europe and Africa."78 France's Mediterranean coast was promoted by physicians as an ideal point of transition for visitors between Europe and Africa.79 Invalids or delicate travellers were advised to remain on the coast for several months upon returning from a tropical climate, 78 "Les côtes de la Provence, semblent en maints endroits appartenir à une terre africaine. Elles rappellent le littoral de Tunis et d'Alger par le vigoureux profil de leurs promontoires de calcaire, de porphyre ou de granit, la forme rythmique de leurs anses dessinées en arc de cercle, leur végétation semi-tropicale, la blancheur de leurs bastides éparses entre les roches au milieu des oliviers, la splendeur du ciel rayonnant qui les éclaire […]. Aussi des géologues et des naturalistes, frappés par la grande analogie des climats, des roches, de la faune et de la flore, ont-ils pu dire avec raison que le littoral du sud de la Provence et celui du nord de l'Atlas constituent, avec les côtes méridionales de l'Espagne, une partie du monde distincte, intermédiaire entre l'Europe et l'Afrique." Élisée Reclus, La Nouvelle géographie universelle: la terre et les hommes. Part II: La France, Paris 1877, 177-178. Reclus stated this even earlier, in fact, in his 1864 Joanne guide to the Mediterranean; see Les Villes d'hiver de la Méditerranée et les Alpes Maritimes: itinéraire descriptif et historique, Paris 1864), iii. 79 For more on the identity of the Côte d'Azur as a "climate of transition," see Tania Woloshyn, "Zone of transition: visual culture and national regeneration on the French Riviera, c.1860-1900," forthcoming chapter in: Art and Identity at the Water's Edge, ed. Tricia Cusack, Ashgate 2012, 161-176. Cusack's edited volume considers the political, social and touristic contexts of liminal zones, especially coastlines; for more on this subject, see also Alain Corbin, The Lure of the Sea:The Discovery of the Seaside in the Western World, 1750-1840, trans. by Jocelyn Phelps, London 1995. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb39838343n RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" in order to acclimatize their bodies first to the region's warmth before heading further north. In 1894, Dr Francken explicitly referred to Menton as a "climate of transition between tropical regions and central Europe," encouraging travellers to remain there to re-establish their health before proceeding north.80 The perceived dual identity of France's Mediterranean coast, belonging both to Europe and to Africa due to its climate, held ongoing fascination for tourists, physicians, artists and writers, who conceptualized the region as a mid-way point, "a gateway to the Orient," as Puvis de Chavannes entitled his famous mural of Marseille (1868, Musée des Beaux-Arts), yet still familiar European territory. Adolphe Smith made this abundantly clear, writing in 1880: Most periods have had to travel hundreds of miles further South in order to experience a transition similar to that which the comparatively short journey to Hyères enables us to enjoy. It is difficult to believe that in France [...] while still within the pale of advanced Western civilization, we can live in a semi-tropical climate surrounded by all the marvels of vegetation which are generally associated with distant colonies and semi-barbaric southern countries.81 [41] Similar to d'Alési's poster of Hyères (Fig. 14), the cover of Smith's book features spikes (indicated as Dracaena indivisa, native to New Zealand), yucca (indicated as Yucca fitifera, native to Mexico), an aloe in bloom (actually an Agave americana, since aloes apparently do not bloom; also native to Mexico), and a sago cycad (indicated as Cycas revoluta, native to Japan) (Fig. 15). Smith notes that horticulturalists cultivated exotic species like this for sale, and that several large-scale gardens, such as the Jardin d'Acclimation, the Jardin Huber, and the Jardin Denis (the latter bought by the municipality), were open and free to the public.82 [42] Significantly, so too was North Africa understood as tropical and exotic by its unique vegetation,83 corresponding to Thomas's representations of palms, banana trees and bamboo as markers of Melanesian tropical geography. In 1875, George Gaskell described Algeria as simultaneously Mediterranean and tropical: The most remarkable feature [of the landscape] is the magnificent and novel vegetation. Trees and plants which are exotic with us surprise and delight the eye; the 80 Francken stated, "Nous ne saurions trop aussi recommander Menton comme climat de transition entre les régions tropicales et l'Europe centrale. Combien de familles viennent des Indes, débarquent à Marseille ou à Gênes et se hâtent de gagner le nord afin de revoir plus tôt leurs amis; cette hâte leur coûte souvent une maladie quelconque, quand c'est justement pour rétablir leur santé qu'ils revenaient en Europe." W. Francken, Menton: station climatique d'hiver, sous le rapport médical & pittoresque, Paris 1894, 110-11. 81 Adolphe Smith, The Garden of Hyères, London 1881, 41. Smith's book is a detailed study of the specific flora cultivated in Hyères, noting that its existing palms were relatively recent examples (he dates them to seventy years old) although references to palms in the region occur in the 1500s, see especially 41-53. See also Michel Racine, Ernest J.-P. Boursier-Mougenot, and Françoise Binet, The Gardens of Provence and the French Riviera, trans. Alice Parte and Helen Agarathé, Cambridge and London 1987. 82 Smith, The Gardens of Hyères, 49. 83 See for example Anne Marie Moulin, "Tropical without the Tropics: The Turning-Point of Pastorian Medicine in North Africa," in: Warm Climates and Western Medicine: The Emergence of Tropical Medicine, 1500-1900, ed. David Arnold, Amsterdam and Atlanta 1996, 160-180. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" tall and graceful palm, the slender bamboo, the banana, orange, lemon, eucalyptus, ficus, cypress, and the olive, grow in the wild profusion of a tropical region.84 15 Anonymous, Tropical Plants in the Jardin Huber, c.1880, illustration, in Adolphe Smith, The Garden of Hyères, London 1880, plate 3. British Library 10169.de.13 [43] As a mid-way point, the unique geographical terrain of France's Mediterranean coast, and particularly the Maures, was described as exotic and healthy simultaneously, strange yet safe. Here the tourist or the invalid could access a perceived space of the tropics but, as Smith noted, comfortingly based within France itself. In other words, while visitors were keen to immerse themselves in the visual spectacle of tropical abundance along the French coast, they were simultaneously aware, that it remained an illusion: "l'illusion des tropiques," in the words of Faravel. For those in search of health, as a "climate of transition" the Côte d'Azur was also clearly not the tropics; its heat was mild and dry, not oppressive and damp, and most especially this region was devoid of dangerous "tropical diseases."85 No doubt it is for this reason that tourist writers and geographers perceived the Maures region as a "true land of promise," to quote Lenthéric. Tourist descriptions of the whole of the Côte d'Azur as a "New World" or "Promised Land" 84 George Gaskell, Algeria as It is, London 1875, 11. 85 See Arnold, Warm Climates and Western Medicine, and Stepan, Picturing Tropical Nature. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" on French soil are common during the 19th century.86 Signac's proclamation that Saint- Tropez was the "eighth wonder of the World" (above) is therefore by no means unique. The English physician, Dr James Henry Bennet, through his influential books and personal experiences, turned Menton into a new colony of patients. One colleague, Thomas More Madden, accused Bennet of promoting Menton as "the Utopia for invalids."87 While it was intended as harsh criticism of Bennet's unwavering faith in the miraculous natural powers of Menton's shores, Madden's comment also indicates that physicians like Bennet who promoted the region as naturally healing, or climatotherapeutic, were important contributors to the coast's famed reputation.88 [44] In this context, Thomas's visualizations of a generally tropical, and specifically Melanesian, "free land" offer significant correspondences with medical and tourist perceptions of the Côte d'Azur, and especially the Maures, as simultaneously French, Mediterranean and tropical; or rather, as a vehicle on French ground through which the tropics could be experienced. Though Grave and Thomas may not have based their conception of a terre libre directly on the model of the Maures, their topographical similarities are striking – aloes, pines, palms, serpentine coastline – in its literary and visual representations at this time. Terre Libre was not published until 1908, and for over fifteen years Grave would have observed many images of the Maures by his neo- impressionist friends. Grave had also spent time on the Côte d'Azur, convalescing from pneumonia in 1901, and it was here that he completed another children's novel, Les Aventures de Nono.89 With this information in mind, the region would seem to have been an inevitable point of reference. For Thomas and Grave, Melanesian topography and the Côte d'Azur could have both been frames of reference, or complementary landscapes, for the representative "free land." [45] In the essay, "On Not Seeing Provence: Van Gogh and the Landscape of Consolation," Griselda Pollock argued that Van Gogh's perception of Arles was informed 86 "Un cirque immense de montagnes l'enserre; on dirait deux bras prêts à se refermer. Le vent du large a seul accès dans cette oasis africaine. Qu'un établissement balnéaire ou un hôtel à l'usage des malades peu fortunés s'établisse dans ce Nouveau Monde, les quelques villas aujourd'hui clairsemées dans la campagne ne tarderont pas à se multiplier, et peut-être assistera-t-on à un miracle semblable à celui qui fit éclore Cannes sous la baguette de lord Brougham (Ces prévisions ont commencé à se réaliser)." J. Cauvière, "De Saint-Raphaël à Saint-Tropez et à Hyères, 11 octobre 1890," in: La Provence et ses voies nouvelles, Lille 1898, 21. Already by 1859, J. B. Girard enticed his readers to visit Cannes and become citizens of a new colony: "Aussi dirons-nous à ceux qui souffrent: Venez essayer de ce climat bienfaisant, venez respirer cet air si pur, ce soleil si chaudement vivifiant qui produit journellement de si grands miracles; à ceux qui pensent: Accourez, venez vous inspirer au près de cette nature grandiose qui séduit, qui ensorcelle, et vous ferez comme tant d'autres, vous deviendrez citoyens de la colonie nouvelle, vous voudrez avoir votre coin de terre à ce foyer qui réchauffe l'âme et le corps, et vous oublierez peut-être vos brumeuses patries." J. B. Girard, Cannes et ses environs: guide historique et pittoresque, Paris, Cannes and Nice 1859, 5. 87 Thomas More Madden, On Change of Climate. A Guide for Travellers in Pursuit of Health, London 1864, 310. 88 See Woloshyn, "La Côte d'Azur." 89 Patsouras, Anarchism, 92. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" by his own memories of his Dutch homeland, his understanding of Dutch landscape painting, and his fascination with Japan.90 As such, Pollock convincingly asserted that van Gogh arrived in Provence with aesthetic and touristic perceptions already firmly in place, imagining and imaging a Provençal landscape as both Dutch and Japanese. Such conflation of multiple locales within one landscape Pollock argued to be consolatory, a way of making sense of new places. As Roslak has discussed, for Élisée and Onésime Reclus global topographic correspondences were also part of their anarcho-communist view of world geography, of individual features that together made up a holistic and harmonious whole.91 Throughout the Nouvelle géographie universelle series, Élisée Reclus made direct comparisons between geographically disparate places: for example, he compared the palms of Australia to those of South Africa; the contours of Africa reminded him of those of South America; the vegetation of Morocco corresponded best to that of Spain, and so forth.92 For his brother, the Maures resembled Lebanon more than France; the warmth of Martinique comparable to the climates of Provence, Algeria, and Catalonia; and New Caledonia was most alike Corsica as an island – here a direct comparison between Melanesian and Mediterranean islands.93 [46] Nor was this unique to the Reclus or to the anarcho-communists. Just as tourist writers and physicians were to describe the Maures as a tropical promised land awaiting colonization, so too did they promote New Caledonia as an optimum, healthy landscape reminiscent of the Riviera, despite (or perhaps because of) its reputation as a French penal colony. In 1905, Dr Emile Vallet described New Caledonia's main island, L'Île des Pins, during the spring season as follows: "In this season, the island is a true earthly paradise; with its superb flowers, its luxuriant vegetation, one would think oneself transported to the middle of the Riviera."94 He continued, claiming, "I could no better compare the climate and the hygienic conditions of this island than to Nice."95 Geographic perceptions of Melanesia and of the Côte d'Azur here became mutually reinforcing. 90 Griselda Pollock, "On Not Seeing Provence: Van Gogh and the landscape of consolation," in: Framing France: the Representation of Landscape in France, 1870-1914, ed. Richard Thomson, Manchester 1998, 81-118. 91 See the chapter, "Anarchist Geography and Landscape," in: Roslak, Neo-Impressionism and Anarchism in Fin-de-Siècle France, 97-112. 92 Élisée Reclus, Australasia, 372; La Nouvelle géographie universelle: la terre et les hommes. Tome X: L'Afrique septrionale (premier partie), Paris 1885, 3; and La Nouvelle géographie universelle: la terre et les hommes. Tome XI: L'Afrique septentrionale (seconde partie), Paris 1886, 684, respectively. 93 Onésime Reclus, La France et ses colonies. Tome premier: En France, Paris 1887, 391; La France et ses colonies. Tome Second: Nos Colonies, Paris 1889, 527 and 562, respectively. 94 "À cette saison, l'île est un véritable paradis terrestre; avec ses fleurs superbes, sa végétation luxuriante, on se croirait transporté en pleine Riviera." Dr Émile Vallet, La Colonisation française en Nouvelle-Calédonie, Paris 1905, 9. He introduced New Caledonia as "une des îles d'Océanie qui jouit du climat le plus régulier et le plus sain. Elle peut être comparée à Tahiti sous ce rapport," also 9. 95 "Je ne puis mieux comparer le climat et les conditions d'hygiène de l'île qu'à Nice." Vallet, La Colonisation française en Nouvelle-Calédonie, 10. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" Vallet's book is also contemporaneous with Grave's novel, and is perhaps even more significant when we consider that New Caledonia ceased to be a penal colony in 1897. In light of this, is it not possible that these French authors, consciously or not, participated in a reimagining of New Caledonia – as a site of freedom rather than one of restriction and imprisonment?96 [47] But the memory of exile, voluntary or involuntary, was still fresh. Only a few years later, in an article of 1900 entitled, "Les colonies anarchistes," Reclus addressed critics who wished that all the anarchists could be shipped off to remote islands in Oceania, where they could enact their "utopias" in isolated colonies: They encourage us to make new experiments in the land of Utopia, in the double hope of being rid of us and exposing us to the ridicule of new failures. The proposition was even made, rather seriously, to cart off all confessed anarchists for some island in Oceania, which they would give them as a gift, on the condition moreover that they would never attempt to leave it and that they would make do with the view of a war vessel pointing its cannons at their encampment.97 [48] Is a remote island in Oceania not the very location where Grave set his vision of the ideal in his novel, and one with a dramatic climax of a battle scene with warships firing canons at the Terrelibriens' encampment? Reclus continued, with wit and sarcasm, Thank you very much, benevolent fellow citizens! We accept your "Prosperous Island" ["Ile Fortunée"] but on the condition of going there when it pleases us, and, in the meantime, we remain in the civilized world, and while avoiding your persecutions as best we can, we will continue our propaganda in your workshops, in your factories, on your estates, in your barracks and your schools; we will pursue our task there, where our field of work is the most vast, in large cities and the densely-populated countryside.98 [49] He concluded in that article: "In reality, those of our comrades who are still seduced by the idea of removing themselves from the world to some closed paradise continue to suffer from this illusion that anarchists constitute a part outside of society."99 Reclus first witnessed failed attempts to establish voluntary anarchist colonies as early as 96 This intriguing observation was made by Robyn Roslak, in reading an earlier version of this paper and to whom I extend my thanks. 97 "Ils nous encouragent à faire de nouvelles expériences en pays d'Utopie, dans le double espoir d'être débarrassés de nous et de nous exposer au ridicule de nouveaux insuccès. La proposition a même été faite assez sérieusement d'embarquer tous les anarchistes avoués pour une île quelconque de l'Océanie, dont on leur ferait cadeau, à condition du reste qu'ils ne tenteraient jamais d'en sortir et qu'ils s'accommoderaient de la vue d'un vaisseau de guerre braquant ses canons sur leur campement." Élisée Reclus, "Les colonies anarchistes," [extract in] Les Temps nouveaux (7-13 July 1900), unpaginated. 98 "Grand merci, bienveillants concitoyens! Nous acceptons votre 'Ile Fortunée,' mais à la condition d'y aller quand il nous plaira, et, en attendant, nous restons dans le monde civilisé, et tout en évitant vos persécutions de notre mieux, nous continuerons notre propagande dans vos ateliers, dans vos usines, dans vos domaines, dans vos casernes et vos écoles; nous poursuivrons notre œuvre là où notre champ de travail est le plus vaste, dans les grandes cités et les campagnes populeuses." Reclus, "Les colonies anarchistes," unpaginated. 99 He wrote, "En réalité, ceux de nos camarades qui sont encore séduits par l'idée de se retirer du monde dans quelque paradis fermé souffrent toujours de cette illusion que les anarchistes constituent un 'parti' en dehors de la société." Reclus, "Les colonies anarchistes," unpaginated. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" the 1850s, in particular a case in Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, during an extended voyage through the United States and South America.100 He died in 1905, during the time Grave was writing Terre Libre as an imagined success story of an anarcho-communist colony and the neo-impressionists were happily settled in the Maures, full of anti-tourist sentiment – were these cases of "disillusionment," of comrades in imagined "closed paradises"?101 <top> Composing the Terre Libre: The Vision of the Maures in Neo-Impressionists' Paintings [50] The "free land" of the neo-impressionists is visualized in paintings featuring closed compositions by means of lush, encroaching foliage around the edges of the frame and traditional repoussage (Figs. 5-8), conveying private, personal spaces. There are very particular references to Signac's own experiences of the Saint-Tropez landscape in Au temps d'harmonie (Fig. 5). Ferretti-Bocquillon stated that two figures in the painting – the man in the left foreground reaching for a fig, and the man reading behind him – are none other than self-portraits, and the mother to their right modelled by his wife, Berthe Signac. Furthermore, Ferretti-Bocquillon argued that the painter and adjacent figure in the distance are again references to the couple.102 Signac's Au temps d'harmonie, the visual narration of Kropotkin's ideal, is one in which he performs as a key participant. This was also noted by Roslak, and additionally she has stated that Cross's wife, Irma Cross née Clare, was the model for the figure in the dark dress in L'Air du soir (Fig. 6). Roslak concluded, "Both men thus associated their personal lives in coastal Provence with the anarchist ideals of social harmony, ample leisure and natural beauty."103 In an undated letter from La Hune, his private villa in Saint-Tropez (therefore sometime after 1897, when he bought the property), Signac wrote to Grave, expressing his thanks after receiving the writer's latest work: I have received your new book and thank you for this kind attention. I will read it in the shade of a pine tree, in front of the sea – and in the beauty of this decor, I naturally evoke the life of goodness and harmony for which you let us hope. One breathes freely in your book, as under this pine, by the breeze of the open sea.104 100 Marie Fleming, The Geography of Freedom: The Odyssey of Élisée Reclus, Montreal and New York 1988, 39. 101 If New Caledonia had ceased to be a penal colony in 1897, why write a novel based on a scenario that was no longer occuring? Was it simply for the narrative, a context for the children to enjoy, of adventures and distants lands, or an act of consolation for the author, an anarcho-communist who may have known comrades deported to Oceania during the 1890s and envisioned shipwrecks and new possibilities as alternatives for their intended fate? I continue to wrestle with these questions. 102 Ferretti-Bocquillon in Signac et Saint-Tropez, 1892-1913, 56-57. 103 Roslak, Neo-Impressionism and Anarchism in Fin-de-Siècle France, 143. 104 "J'ai reçu votre nouveau livre et vous remercie de cette gentille attention. Je vais le lire à l'ombre d'un pin, devant la mer - et dans la beauté de ce décor, j'évoque naturellement la vie de bonté et d'harmonie que vous nous laissez espérer. On respire librement dans votre livre, comme sous ce pin, par la brise du large." Undated letter from Signac to Grave, cited in Herbert and Herbert, "Artists and Anarchism II," 520-21. This letter, the Herberts indicate, was written from La Hune, and therefore the letter must date to 1897 or afterwards. In the future, I hope to discover License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" [51] Signac's letter is absolutely crucial for understanding the significance of the Maures as a site of political freedom. Signac informed Grave that the life he lives in Saint- Tropez is the present embodiment of the anarcho-communist ideal of good-will and harmony. Most importantly, he designated his immediate environment as naturally suited to this ideal. Its natural features – the pine, the sea, and its refreshing, stimulating breeze – are described as the perfect surroundings in which to read a work he predicted would be just as stimulating and refreshing. It is not surprising, then, that the Maures was envisioned and depicted as the perfect (or "accurate," as Kahn put it) setting for such a future society. In Au temps d'harmonie, the port of Saint-Tropez is visible to the left, and the massive pine tree around which people dance is a well-known feature of the region, the Bertaud pine. The sinuous coastline is none other than the Plage des Graniers, the small private beach where Signac lived. However, in Au temps d'harmonie geographical markers of the region have been removed or manipulated from their original setting and merged into one synthesized composition. The port, for example, would not have been visible from the Plage des Graniers, a physical impossibility from the layout of the town. This was not the first time Signac would make a composite of the Saint-Tropez landscape. Ferretti-Bocquillon has shown that Signac's Femmes au puits of 1893 (Musée d'Orsay) is not geographically accurate and combines into one image Saint-Tropez's Citadel, the hills of the Maures, and the port.105 In this way, both Au temps d'harmonie and Femmes au puits make obvious references to the town and yet, by manipulating its local features into composite scenes, portray imagined landscapes much like Thomas's illustrations. Indeed, by fusing the town's most well-known features, I would suggest that Signac's paintings make Saint-Tropez more legible, more identifiable. In the same way that Thomas included botanical features specific to a tropical climate, so too has Signac included a fig tree and umbrella pines (Pinus pinea), both native to the Mediterranean. [52] Significantly, in Thomas's cover illustration (Fig. 10), the central large palm is in fact neither strictly the typical date palm of the Mediterranean (Phoenix dactylifera) nor the coconut palm of the tropics: it is both, a composite, a hybrid. The curving base and location on sandy shores, specific to the coconut palm, and rough trunk, suggestive of a date palm, ascend to generalized fronds with no indication of either fruit.106 Deliberate hybridization or an error based on ignorance of palm flora? Like Grave's perhaps- which book by Grave Signac was so keen to read. 105 Ferretti-Bocquillon described Femmes au puits, opus 238 (1893) as follows: "Si le puits existe bel et bien, le point de vue adopté ici par Signac montre d'emblée les libertés qu'il prend vis-à-vis du motif. En réalité, la jetée est invisible de la colline et, pour les nécessités de la composition, l'artiste n'a pas hésité à l'inverser. À l'encontre de l'observation passionnée du paysage qui caractérise la démarche impressionniste, et de la précision minutieuse à laquelle Seurat soumet ses marines, Signac réalise ici pour la première fois une image synthétique du paysage tropézien: la colline et la Citadelle, la mer et la jetée du port, les collines des Maures et les contreforts de l'Esterel à l'horizon." Signac et Saint-Tropez, 32. 106 I am indebted to the expertise of Dr Scott Zona of the Department of Biological Sciences at Florida International University, formerly of the Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden in Miami, for his perceptive analyses of the palm species in the illustrations. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" deliberate error in the island's longitude, Thomas's depiction serves as a useful way of making sense of anarcho-communist imaginings of a "free land," a hybrid space on sunny shores; her representation is a visual metaphor for how the whole of the geography of the Maures was conceptualized by geographers, tourists, physicians and modern artists. [53] In relation to Reclus's concerns that "closed paradises" were unproductive and unsuccessful ventures conducted outside of social realities, I believe that the Maures landscape offered an optimum point of reconciliation for the neo-impressionists. It functioned as an imagined hybrid space that was widely promoted and represented in words and images as simultaneously French Mediterranean coastline and tropical island paradise. Quite simply, it could be both: an imagined "Ile Fortunée" on French soil. For Cross, Signac and van Rysselberghe, in this region everyone was a Terrelibrien and a French citizen.107 [54] I am not suggesting that the neo-impressionists' Maures landscapes are rendered directly as Melanesian, nor do they resemble the self-consciously "naïve" Tahitian paintings of Paul Gauguin or the tropicalized dreamscapes of Henri Rousseau. While Cross, Signac and van Rysselberghe certainly depicted, in their works and in their letters, the Maures as a site of isolation and cultivated elegance, they rarely painted it as a tropicalized landscape through overt references to botany – that is, with palm trees and other exotic flora as in Minot's or Smith's works (Figs. 14, 15) – and when they do such vegetation is usually confined to private, cultivated garden spaces (e.g. Cross, Le Jardin du peintre à Saint-Clair [Garden of the Painter at Saint Clair], 1908, The Metropolitan Museum of Art New York). Intense luminosity, native vegetation (especially umbrella pines), serpentine coastlines and jagged outcroppings looking out to Mediterranean waters are more familiar sites of the Maures geography in their paintings. Above all, these are landscapes of light, of the intense and special light of the pays du soleil by chromo-luminarists. I argue therefore that the light is the link to the tropics, evoked through intense color harmonies and the sensation of heat. In the neo-impressionists' Maures landscapes (Figs. 5-8), sunlight and shade are conveyed predominantly by the juxtaposition of yellow and purple, which Silver has stated is the "chromatic signature of Côte d'Azur painting." He added, [I]f one wants to convey the intense luminosity of the south, this pairing of colors provides the juxtaposition of lightest and darkest. Yet the violet-yellow contrast is first and foremost rhetorical: it is the device that tells us, instantly, that we are in the south (or in the tropics), if for no other reason than that it is by far the least common set of complementary colors.108 [55] Let us take the tropics out of its parentheses here. For contemporary critics, the unique rendering of light in these paintings produced blinding, exotic effects: Pierre 107 Furthermore, as Fae Brauer discusses in her article in this Special Issue, this region was actually heavily militarized. 108 Silver, Making Paradise, 37. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en http://www.riha-journal.org/articles/2012/2012-jul-sep/special-issue-neo-impressionism/brauer-contesting-le-corps-militaire RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" Valbranche, in a critique of the Salon des Indépendants of 1903, wrote scathingly of Cross: Mr Cross shows better to what extent they [the scientific theories of neo- impressionism] prevent talent from developing. His pictures, enlarged excessively and executed as a mosaic [i.e. in large, squared touches of paint, resembling tesserae] would perhaps be well-placed on the exterior of a Negro mosque on the edges of Lake Chad, in the middle of central Africa. In an apartment or in an exhibition they tire the eyes too quickly, if they do not blind at the first stroke. Our French race, who conceives light not as a brutal sensation but as a harmony, could not appreciate this systematic violence.109 [56] As though in answer, Verhaeren would come to Cross's defence, writing in the preface of Cross's first solo exhibition in 1905: "They [Cross's landscapes] satisfy painters, thanks to their rich harmonies; they excite poets by the luxuriant and sumptuous vision they articulate. However, this abundance is not at all excessive. It remains light, charming and soft."110 Verhaeren's emphasis on Cross's Maures landscapes as luxuriant, sumptuous, abundant and yet not overdone – not to the degree of "blinding" viewers or reminding them of distant African lands, as for Valbranche – suggests such paintings evoked to the contemporaneous viewer simultaneously French and foreign exotic lands, and ultimately mediated between them: imagined hybrids, like Thomas's palm. <top> Conclusion: The Artistic Colonization of the Maures [57] Signac's project of creating grand paintings representing the pays du soleil was an ambitious one. His letter implied that he and Cross (and eventually Van Rysselberghe) could continue a revolutionary art begun by Giotto, Puvis, and Seurat. In 1905, Cross gave L'Air du soir to Signac, where it was hung in the dining room of La Hune.111 Around the same time, Signac acquired Matisse's Luxe, calme et volupté (Luxury, Calm and Pleasure, 1904-1905, Musée d'Orsay) as well as a landscape of the Esterels by Louis Valtat, Femmes au bord de la mer (Woman on the edge of the Sea, c.1900, private collection) – all works of the Côte d'Azur.112 Au temps d'harmonie itself would remain in 109 "M. Cross montre mieux à quel point elles empêchent le talent de se développer. Ses tableaux, agrandis démesurément et exécutés en mosaïque feraient peut-être bien à l'extérieur d'une mosquée nègre des bords du lac Tchad, en pleine Afrique centrale. Dans un appartement ou dans une exposition ils fatiguent trop vite les yeux qu'ils n'aveuglent pas du premier coup. Notre race française[,] qui conçoit la lumière non comme une sensation brutale mais comme une harmonie[,] ne saurait apprécier cette violence systématique." Pierre Valbranche, "Les Salons de 1903," in: L'Occident 33 (May 1903), 315-321, here 319. I am grateful to Anne Dymond for alerting me to this source. 110 "Ils satisfont les peintres, grâce à leurs harmonies riches; ils exaltent les poètes par la vision luxuriante et somptueuse qu'il profèrent. Pourtant, cette abondance n'est nullement de la surcharge. Elle reste légère, charmante et douce." Émile Verhaeren, Letter-Preface in Exposition Henri Edmond Cross, Paris 1905, 7-8. 111 Ferretti-Bocquillon in Signac et Saint-Tropez, 54. 112 Cachin in Méditerranée, 63. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" Signac's possession, lost to public view for decades. All of these works had been exhibited in Paris (and in some cases Brussels), ending up in Signac's private world of La Hune. To some this may appear a failure by the neo-impressionists to revolutionize society through their art, as Kropotkin advocated. To others it may indicate that the intentions of the images for a public forum gave way to privacy and insularity. I believe that, for Cross, Signac and Van Rysselberghe, the perceived exclusivity of the Maures region enabled their conception of their circle as an anarcho-communist colony. As a site imbued with the possibility of new beginnings, away from Paris,113 the Maures' tropicality and remoteness as produced and promoted by tourist writers and geographers made it ripe for artistic colonization. The myth of the Maures as remote and island-like was a powerful one, but that myth was driven by a tourism that denied its own existence.114 [58] For these reasons I disagree with Hutton's reductive comments on the landscape of Au temps d'harmonie: "Even the environment has somehow sensed the new social harmony and transformed itself […]. The utopians of the late 19th century were content also to eliminate gloom, storm, and natural disaster, so that the golden age appeared a world of green forests and eternal sunshine."115 I would, in fact, argue that the environment depicted in Signac's painting, and all the meanings it resonated for him and his colleagues, did not follow but predetermined the expression of social harmony. As Signac asserted in his letter to Grave, his present lifestyle in Saint-Tropez already enacted the anarcho-communist ideal in his own mind. Similarly, just as Grave asserted in Terre Libre, Cross described his home as a place not to be found on maps, content to play the "pionnier" in Saint-Clair. Anti-tourist fantasies drove these perceptions, just as they affirmed and perpetuated their anarcho-communist beliefs, and recognizing them as such is not to undermine or dismiss the neo-impressionists' Maures works, the sincerity of their beliefs, or the Côte d'Azur generally as a site of "serious" work (Silver). Indeed they are vital to critically contextualizing all three. [59] Yet we must also recognize that anti-tourist perceptions existed long before the 1890s when the neo-impressionists "discovered" the Maures and colonized its coastline. As early as the 1850s tourist writers conceived of this region as a "promised land" and new colony for those seeking rejuvenation, and such faith in the region was rooted in the genuine belief of the therapeutic properties of its natural amenities: its light, fresh air, sea water, and flora.116 That Cross and Grave both came to this region for their health 113 For neo-impressionists' perceptions and experiences of Paris as a site of death, disease and poverty, particularly during the period of anarchist bombings and the subsequent trials, imprisonment and executions of the 1890s, see Roslak, Neo-Impressionism and Anarchism in Fin- de-Siècle France, and Brauer's article in this Special Issue. 114 Woloshyn, "Marking out the Maures," 70. 115 Hutton, Solid, 140. 116 For more on the perceived natural health-giving properties of the Côte d'Azur see Woloshyn, "Aesthetic and Therapeutic Imprints" and "La Côte d'Azur." License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en http://www.riha-journal.org/articles/2012/2012-jul-sep/special-issue-neo-impressionism/brauer-contesting-le-corps-militaire RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" indicates they too shared this belief, complementary – even intertwined – with tourist perceptions already in place. [60] Viewed together, the individual works of the neo-impressionists in the Maures and Thomas's illustrations show the anarcho-communist ideal as a malleable, fluid projection of the free and the visionary, with a "vague and hypothetical character, which must always be kept in sight for the future society," according to Grave in his preface to the novel.117 Quite simply, the anarcho-communist ideal future and its site of liberty, the terre libre, were in their very nature all-embracing. Grave explained his reasoning: Because, when we explain how we understand its organization, we of course express predictions that we deduct from our comparative aspirations with criticism of what [already] exists; but these predictions are very personal to those who voice them; and their realization remains dependant upon the conditions of time, of milieu, of evolution, and above all, it has to harmonize with all the other personal conceptions arising each day.118 [61] Earlier in this article I stated that the over-reliance on the words "utopia" and "utopian" in analyses of neo-impressionist landscapes of the Maures is not a matter of lazy vocabulary; I would argue instead that it is due to the concept's slippery, indeterminate meaning. Left undefined, deliberately, by Grave and his anarcho-communist comrades, the "free land" was each to his own. Like the indeterminate and malleable identity of the landscape of the Maures, those of "utopia," of the "ideal," or of a "free land" have thrived on and invited multivalence, driving – rather than resisting (Dardel) – imaginative representations. [62] In the case of Terre Libre Grave and Thomas chose to represent it through a specifically tropical lens. Landscape representations of the Maures, so unique to geographers, tourists and artists, bear striking resemblance to the tropicalized site of Thomas's and Grave's representations. It is, in fact, entirely possible that the Maures was the only location through which Grave and Thomas experienced the "tropics" (or in botanical gardens such as London's Kew Gardens or Paris's Jardin des Plantes119). In this sense, what denoted a "tropical landscape" and what denoted a "Côte d'Azur landscape" in visual and textual representations were equally loaded with cultural and conceptual 117 "[...] caractère vague et hypothétique, que doit toujours garder tout aperçu sur la société future." Grave, Terre Libre, 17. 118 "Car, lorsque nous expliquons comment nous entendons son organisation, il est bien entendu que nous exprimons des prévisions que nous déduisons de nos aspirations comparées avec la critique de ce qui existe; mais que ces prévisions sont toutes personnelles à celui qui les émet; que leur réalisation reste subordonnée aux conditions de temps, de milieu, d'évolution, et par-dessus tout, il leur reste à s'harmoniser avec toutes les autres conceptions personnelles qui surgissent tous les jours." Grave, Terre Libre, 17-18. 119 For an important discussion of the significance of Paris's Jardin des Plantes to the tropicalized paintings of Henri Rousseau, see Fae Brauer, "Wild Beasts and Tame Primates: 'Le Douanier' Rousseau's Dream of Darwin's Evolution," in: The Art of Evolution: Darwin, Darwinisms, and Visual Culture, eds. Barbara Lawson and Fae Brauer, Hanover 2009, 194-225. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0045 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" baggage, and both perceived through a lens enabled by European colonialism.120 Above all, the neo-impressionists' perception of the Maures and that of their political ideal entered into a complex dialogue, each informing and perpetuating the other through artistic production and lived experience, and as such solidifying the Maures' perceived natural suitability as a "free land" on French soil. <top> 120 It is a further irony that Grave heavily criticized colonialism, as manifest in his La Colonisation, Paris 1912, which features a cover illustration that, although unsigned, is in keeping with Thomas's style. The cover, like that of Terre Libre, similarly features a large palm tree and a ship in the distance approaching an island. However, in this representation it is situated to the left-hand side, acting as a repoussoir device, and is foregrounded prominently by a large skull. La Colonisation, including cover illustration, has been fully digitized and is freely available through the Bibliothèque nationale's Gallica catalogue (http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k81936b). License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k81936b Introduction In the Time of Harmony: The Neo-Impressionists in the Maures Region Rethinking the Utopian in Neo-Impressionist Images of the Maures The Geography and Nature of Terre Libre A "True Land of Promise" on French Soil: The Geography and Nature of the Maures Composing the Terre Libre: The Vision of the Maures in Neo-Impressionists' Paintings Conclusion: The Artistic Colonization of the Maures 
work_gs6boina6ve5bhghibok46tmg4	----	wp-p1m-38.ebi.ac.uk Params is empty 404 sys_1000 exception wp-p1m-38.ebi.ac.uk no 219522031 Params is empty 219522031 exception Params is empty 2021/04/06-02:36:01 if (typeof jQuery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/1.14.8/js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,String.fromCharCode(60)).replace(/\]/g,String.fromCharCode(62))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} Page not available Reason: The web page address (URL) that you used may be incorrect. Message ID: 219522031 (wp-p1m-38.ebi.ac.uk) Time: 2021/04/06 02:36:01 If you need further help, please send an email to PMC. Include the information from the box above in your message. Otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using PMC: Search the complete PMC archive. Browse the contents of a specific journal in PMC. Find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/ 
work_gtk2rkhdxzhxpgnvhj74stzwqq	----	1 Theophilus Savvas, American Postmodern Fiction and the Past, Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), pp. Ix + 213, £50 One of the hazards that any writer on the postmodernism of Coover, DeLillo, Pynchon, Vollman and Doctorow must circumnavigate is the wrecking of his or her scholarship on the iceberg of existing meta-fictional historiographic commentary, of which there is a vast body. It is to this challenge that Theophilus Savvas rises in American Postmodernist Fiction and The Past, a work that sets out to undo the epistemic confusion between an autotelic, formalist postmodern art and those works that present determined historical targets while treading the tightrope between plurality and moral relativism. Savvas undertakes this feat through five serial close readings of these authors in an attempt to rethink Jamesons' critique of a generalised vague “sense of 'pastness'” (p. 2). Savvas' initial excursion, to Coover's The Public Burning, sets in motion the first of several cyclical structures in his work in which the Rosenbergs' echo will be heard again later, rebounding off the back wall of Doctorow's The Book of Daniel. Focusing upon Coover's conflation of novelistic and performance modes, Savvas foregrounds these as synchronic and diachronic representations of the past respectively, without resorting to a crude objective/subjective split. This is achieved, Savvas argues, through a satirical undermining of the chronicler's impartiality, revealing this speaker not as “a surrogate for the voice of a writer in the 1970s, but as a carefully crafted voice of 1950s America” (p. 19), a polyphonic melting pot that is, none the less, constructed. Against this critique of the synchronic relation Savvas juxtaposes the alternating, diachronic, emplotted Nixon narrative. Through the Nixonian subjective reconstruction of the back-story, Savvas argues that the relation between synchronic and diachronic narrative is actually bi-directional and symbiotic (p. 25). In illustrating this reconstruction, Savvas elegantly weaves the historical and theoretical contexts into the fictional, eschewing the dangerous stylistic separation that such interdisciplinary work so often entails. 2 Amid his closing remarks on Coover's mythopoesis and performance excess, in which he begins his later-revived Pynchonian thematic work on subjunctivity, Savvas remarks on the ways in which “a myth may be distended into history” (p. 31), a crossover that seems pertinent to DeLillo's Libra and the Warren Report. This is, however, a route approached obliquely by Savvas who opts instead to root this analysis of a “latent history” in DeLillo's earlier Great Jones Street and Ratner's Star. In light of this backdrop, the emergence here of a paranoid “they” system against which historical counternarratives can emerge seems a trifle too predictable (pp. 43–46). Perhaps, though, this is a necessary setup for a reading of Libra that foregoes easy-win rebuttals, exploring head on the interplay, enrichment and redemption of the Report and providing a novel take on an otherwise tired subject. The only critique worth mentioning here is that this convincing unpicking of the “monological view of history” (p. 49) is supported by a sometimes overwhelming whirlwind of Foucault, Derrida, Lacan, Whitehead, Deleuze, von Bertalanffy, Kant, Lévi-Strauss, Butler, Burke, Spivak, Jung, Freud, White, Sontag and Adorno in a utilitarian Theory tornado. Further critique could extend into Savvas' treatment of Pynchon's Mason & Dixon, where the assessment of Pynchon's novel as “wresting the narrative away from those in power” seems old hat, especially when metaphorically mediated through quantum mechanics. Consider, for instance, that Shawn Smith has pointed out that it is “no longer new or revolutionary” to state that “history is a field of competing rhetorical or narrative strategies”.i However, despite a move away from such areas in much critical discourse, Savvas brings these themes up to speed with contemporary thinking; indeed, Simon de Bourcier's forthcoming Continuum volume on Pynchon and relativity is indicative of renewed interest in this schema. Furthermore, the reading against James Wood of a dialectical enlightenment, of a Line of both positive and negative liberties that spreads rhizomically, will be of interest to all Pynchon scholars. Finally of note as a refreshing rethinking, is the re-situation of Pynchon's hidden pockets of subjunctive hope not, as is usually the case with Mason 3 & Dixon, in conspiracy – that is left to DeLillo – but rather in a heretical gnostic history, a strain that has lain critically dormant, or at least under-appreciated, since Dwight Eddin's work on Gravity's Rainbow. Moving towards the next generation of American novelists, parallel to Franzen, DFW and Powers, and Savvas considers marginalization in the novels of William T. Vollman. In situating this author as not-quite post-postmodern, Savvas magnifies those aspects shared in the postmodern lineage in order to excavate a “symbolic history” of the deeper, sincere truth of untrue origins (pp. 98–99); a syncretic truth (p. 101). The evaluation of Vollman here is not wholly positive as, in Savvas' consideration, the author fails to achieve the moment of determined collapse that would present the synthesis of artistic and historical truth. That is not to say that the lead up to this failure is not enlightening, revealing as it does that alterity can be seen as the central tenet of Vollman's canon, often through temporal collapse, unveiling a transformative between-ness, a metaxis or third way. It is to the final, tripartite section on E.L. Doctorow that Savvas' volume finally turns, investigating the affiliation between postmodern historigraphic emplotment and autocritical discourse on that very phenomenon. In this cycle, Savvas begins by exploring the dilemma of the American Left in The Book of Daniel, thereby cycling back to the Rosenbergs. It is interesting to note the political implications of this choice; as civil liberties are eroded from US law, can America claim to be so very far from its Cold War witch hunts? This aside, Savvas also uses this chapter to conclude a long-brewing refutation of Jameson's “didactic Marxis[t]” (p. 146) response to Ragtime through an assertion of an “organic use of history and fiction conducive of a greater unity of form” (p. 145). Finally, Savvas ends with The March and remarks upon the end of the postmodernist era, claiming that as the works of this genre become “less 'transgressive'” (p. 155), it reaches its own, natural conclusion and closure. 4 Reading American Postmodernist Fiction and the Past, one does not get the overwhelming sense of a theoretical revolution but, rather, a carefully-charted, precise evaluation of concrete texts from which a solid and thoughtful analysis emerges. As Savvas remarks, the benefit of hindsight here produces a reading that seems more nuanced than earlier appraisals as it is distanced from the object of its study. Although aspects of interpretation in this volume are questionable, the intricacies of the squabble illustrate, more than flaws in Savvas' book, the nature of engagement in ongoing debate. Martin Paul Eve Department of English University of Sussex, Brighton, UK m.eve@sussex.ac.uk i Shawn Smith, Pynchon and History: Metahistorical Rhetoric and Postmodern Narrative Form in the Novels of Thomas Pynchon (London: Routledge, 2005), p. 2. 
work_gtu3x2b3pzas7mylv6tqisixze	----	David McKitterick, Testo stampato e testo manoscritto. Un rapporto difficile, 1450-1830 Federico Barbierato Storicamente, 2 (2006). ISSN: 1825-411X. Art. no. 56. DOI: 10.1473/stor228 Il volume indaga un rapporto, quello fra testo manoscritto e testo a stampa, sottoposto negli ultimi anni ad un ripensamento profondo. Alla tesi della frattura improvvisa e irreversibile fra il mondo della scrittura a mano e quello della stampa, si è andata sostituendo una maggiore attenzione nel cogliere le diverse modulazioni di un fenomeno complesso: se la stampa segnò precise discontinuità rispetto al passato, le continuità costituiscono nondimeno un elemento importante e fondamentale per capire il mondo del libro nell’età moderna. A lungo, infatti, il testo manoscritto si affiancò a quello a stampa in un rapporto che variò dall’integrazione alla contrapposizione. McKitterick amplia il campo di indagine nel tentativo di rispondere alla complessa e ambiziosa questione di «cosa intendessero per “stampa” le passate generazioni». Dietro la fitta trama dei rapporti fra testo stampato e testo manoscritto compare tutto il mondo della produzione e della ricezione del libro offrendo, in controluce, una storia della stampa in senso largo. L’intento centrale è di sfumare la definizione di “rivoluzione”, non tanto nella classica proposta di Elizabeth Eisenstein ma più che altro per come viene «recitata a memoria da certi storici». In luogo di un processo circoscritto e unidirezionale, che sortì effetti immediati, l’autore vede una rivoluzione «in parte tecnologica, in parte bibliografica e sociale» che si prolungò nel tempo e fu segnata da un processo irregolare, da «effetti variabili, perfino bizzarri». Solo lentamente infatti, fra Cinque e Seicento, andò affermandosi la concezione secondo cui un testo stampato non solo garantiva una più ampia Storicamente, 2 (2006) ISSN: 1825-411X | DOI: 10.1473/stor228 p. 1 http://dx.doi.org/10.1473/stor228 http://dx.doi.org/10.1473/stor228 http://dx.doi.org/10.1473/stor228 http://dx.doi.org/10.1473/stor228 http://dx.doi.org/10.1473/stor228 http://dx.doi.org/10.1473/stor228 distribuzione, ma stabiliva anche un principio di autorità rispetto al manoscritto. In precedenza le stesse interpolazioni a penna che correggevano l’inadeguatezza tecnica del processo di impressione indicavano una commistione profonda: ad esempio il noto uso di ricorrere ad integrazioni a mano per testi che contemplavano la presenza di lettere greche o ebraiche, per le quali lo stampatore poteva trovarsi sprovvisto di caratteri. O ancora i testi musicali, o l’ovvia questione delle immagini. Agli inizi dell’età della stampa e in misura certo progressivamente minore, gli intrecci fra la scrittura a mano e il prodotto dei torchi furono complessi e variabili: «intestazioni, numeri di carte o di pagine, richiami, segnature, iniziali grandi (più o meno decorate), rubricazione e altri segni di evidenziazione nel corpo del testo, righe d’apertura, titoli di capitoli, decorazioni nei margini: alcuni o tutti questi elementi venivano interpolati dopo che era stata completata l’impressione del testo fondamentale». In tal modo «penna e carattere tipografico furono messi congiuntamente in opera insieme allo scopo di ottenere copie perfettamente funzionanti». Le problematiche così finiscono con l’accumularsi e rimandare le une alle altre: per fare un solo esempio, le procedure censorie che prevedevano l’espurgazione dei libri mediante l’intervento degli stessi lettori, i quali sotto la guida di appositi strumenti bibliografici avrebbero dovuto porre mano ai testi in loro possesso per cassare o riscrivere frasi proibite, pongono questioni di rilievo non solo circa il rapporto fra testo stampato e testo manoscritto, ma circa la stessa stabilità di un testo nel momento in cui questo usciva dall’impressione. In fondo il procedimento non era concettualmente diverso dalle operazioni di errata corrige sollecitate dagli stessi stampatori. Ecco quindi profilarsi un nodo fondamentale dell’analisi di McKitterick, vale a dire l’idea di un rapporto che legava in un continuum autore, produttori materiali del testo e lettore: era il mondo tipografico a chiedere al lettore di diventare protagonista non solo nell’attribuzione dei significati al testo, ma anche nella variazione fisica del libro stesso. E nella percezione del prodotto finito appare evidente come il lettore non vedesse due mondi separati: nei cataloghi, negli scaffali, negli inventari, manoscritti e Storicamente, 2 (2006) ISSN: 1825-411X | DOI: 10.1473/stor228 p. 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1473/stor228 http://dx.doi.org/10.1473/stor228 http://dx.doi.org/10.1473/stor228 libri a stampa rimasero a lungo mescolati insieme, iniziando a separarsi solo fra Cinque e Seicento. Gli stessi stampatori adattavano le due tradizioni e «la loro natura complementare». Di qui l’impossibilità pratica e tecnica di ottenere un testo stabile: fra Quattro e Seicento quello che caratterizzò la produzione a stampa fu la variazione piuttosto che la standardizzazione. Tutti gli addetti ai lavori erano coscienti che il testo uscito dai torchi fosse necessariamente difforme da copia a copia. In seguito, il superamento dei limiti tecnici – frutto di discussioni e sensibilità emerse nel corso del Settecento e affermatisi nel secolo successivo – portò ad una completa affermazione del libro stampato: la stereotipia, la meccanizzazione, l’aumentata velocità del processo di stampa, l’introduzione della litografia e di nuovi tipi di carta segnarono una frattura con l’antico regime tipografico. La produzione industriale standardizzata rese il libro più «stabile». L’ampiezza e la portata delle tematiche affrontate rendono il volume una sintesi originale degli studi compiuti finora, capace di indicare percorsi d’indagine inediti o non ancora completamente sviluppati, finendo con l’interessare direttamente il mondo contemporaneo e le forme di trasmissione dei testi nell’età dell’informatica. Caratterizzato da un dialogo costante con le discipline storiche volte a ricostruire i processi sociali e culturali, costituisce un punto di riferimento aggiornato e completo per chiunque si avvicini alla storia del libro, dell’editoria o della comunicazione scritta in genere. Storicamente, 2 (2006) ISSN: 1825-411X | DOI: 10.1473/stor228 p. 3 http://dx.doi.org/10.1473/stor228 http://dx.doi.org/10.1473/stor228 http://dx.doi.org/10.1473/stor228 
work_gv7fbpcmfndmhfxyar673kzjgy	----	Impressionism, Expressionism, Surrealism: Automated Recognition of Painters and Schools of Art LIOR SHAMIR∗, TOMASZ MACURA, NIKITA ORLOV, D. MARK ECKLEY and ILYA G. GOLDBERG Image Informatics Group/Laboratory of Genetics/NIA/NIH We describe a method for automated recognition of painters and schools of art based on their signature styles, and studied the computer-based perception of visual art. Paintings of nine artists, representing three different schools of art - impressionism, surrealism and abstract expressionism - were analyzed using a large set of image features and image transforms. The computed image descriptors were assessed using Fisher scores, and the most informative features were used for the classification and similarity measurements of paintings, painters, and schools of art. Experimental results show that the classification accuracy when classifying paintings into nine painter classes is 77%, and the accuracy of associating a given painting with its school of art is 91%. An interesting feature of the proposed method is its ability to automatically associate different artists that share the same school of art in an unsupervised fashion. The source code used for the image classification and image similarity described in this paper is available for free download. Categories and Subject Descriptors: I.2.10 [Artificial Intelligence]: Vision and Scene Under- standing General Terms: Perceptual reasoning Additional Key Words and Phrases: Art, painting, image similarity 1. INTRODUCTION The on-going development of computer vision algorithms has been enabling increas- ingly complex tasks of automated content-based image analysis. Perhaps one of the more challenging tasks for computers is the analysis, evaluation and identification of visual art. This can include associating a specific painting with a painter, classi- fying a painting by its school of art, authentication of paintings, finding influential links between painters, and more. The human perception of art has been studied by scientists in the fields of brain sciences, sociology, and both empirical and theoretical psychology. Zeki [1999] showed that different elements of visual art such as colors, shapes, and boundaries Author’s address: Lior Shamir, Laboratory of Genetics/NIA/NIH, 333 Cassell Dr., Baltimore, MD 21224. email: lshamir@mtu.edu This research was supported entirely by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute on Aging. Permission to make digital/hard copy of all or part of this material without fee for personal or classroom use provided that the copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage, the ACM copyright/server notice, the title of the publication, and its date appear, and notice is given that copying is by permission of the ACM, Inc. To copy otherwise, to republish, to post on servers, or to redistribute to lists requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. c© 20YY ACM 0000-0000/20YY/0000-0001 $5.00 ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, Vol. V, No. N, Month 20YY, Pages 1–18. 2 · Shamir et al. are processed by different pathways and systems in the brain, designed to interpret each aspect of the art. His work shows that there is no single central mechanism that receives and interpret visual art, but instead, pieces of information received from a painting are selectively redistributed to more specialized centers for processing. Observations using fMRI show that the experienced painter uses these parts of the brain in a different way than the non-painter [Solso 2000], and analysis of EEG signals also demonstrated functional and topographical differences between artists and non-artists when performing visual perception of paintings [Bhattacharya and Petsche 2002]. The intensive and distributed brain activity supports the contention that the perception of visual art is not only about what the eye can see, but mainly about what the brain can process, so that artists can be classified in respect to how they probe the visual system with pictures [Solso 1994; Latto 1995]. Therefore, it has been stated that the painter does not paint with her eyes, but with her brain [Zeki 1999]. The approach that selective processing of different visual data can answer specific vision queries also led to the “active vision” paradigm in computer vision [Blake and Yuille 1992]. Ramachandran and Herstein [1999] suggested that the key to understanding the perception of art is the identification of the perceptual processes that it activates in the viewer’s brain, rather than the identification of its aesthetic properties. They suggest that artists use some form of over-stimulating distortion of reality, and link it to the peak-shift effect (a cognitive principle in which visual interest or identification is strengthened by overtly enhanced stimulus). Wallraven et al. [2007] studied the perceptual processing of the degree of abstrac- tion in visual art by using Robert Pepperell’s “indeterminated” paintings, which can be classified by observers as both representational and abstract. This work isolated the psychophysical effect of several different parameters such as the image size, orientation, etc. While the complex nature of the analysis of visual art makes it one of the more challenging tasks in computer vision, several algorithms for different types of auto- mated analyses of paintings have been proposed and tested. Barnard and Forsyth [2001] proposed a method for associating captions with works of art by modeling the statistics of word and feature occurrence and co-occurrence. Kammerer et al. [2007] presented a method of automated identification of the drawing tools that were used by the artist. Li and Wang [2004] used wavelets and MHMM (Multi- resolution Hidden Markov Models) to classify Chinese ink paintings by the creating artists. A relatively high interest had been attracted by the authentication of paint- ings, especially the work of Jackson Pollock [Taylor et al. 1999; Taylor et al. 2007; Jones-Smith and Mathur 2006], which is motivated by the high value of authentic Pollock paintings. Widjaja et al. [2003] combined several classifiers in order to identify four painters using skin samples, and reported accuracy of 85%. Keren [2002] studied the identification of several painters based on repetitive features, and van den Herik et al. [2000] addressed the problem of selecting informative im- age features when classifying impressionist paintings obtained from a single source (WebMuseum), and reported classification accuracy above chance level. Here we describe a method of classifying paintings of nine different artists rep- ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, Vol. V, No. N, Month 20YY. Automated Recognition of Painters and Schools of Art · 3 resenting three different schools of art: impressionism, surrealism, and abstract expressionism. The proposed method can classify a given painting to one of the nine painter classes, but is also used for finding similarities between the different styles of the artists, and associating them by their schools of art in an unsupervised fashion. In Section 2 we describe the image data set, in Section 3 we describe the extraction of image features, in Section 4 we discuss the image classification and similarity measures, and in Section 5 the experimental results are described. 2. IMAGE DATASET The image dataset includes paintings of nine different artists representing three different schools of art, such that each school is represented by three artists. The schools of art are impressionism, represented by Vincent Van Gogh, Claude Monet and Pierre-Auguste Renoir; abstract expressionism, represented by Mark Rothko, Jackson Pollock, and Wassily Kandinsky; and surrealism, represented by Salvador Dali, Max Ernst, and Giorgio de Chirico. For each artist we collected 57 images, such that in each experiment 40 images were used for training and the remaining 17 images were used for testing. Each artist was represented by different types of images (e.g., portraits, scenery, etc), and no attempt to keep this set homogenous was made. An important excep- tion of this policy is the early work of Kandinsky, which is substaintially different from his signature abstract expressionistic style, and therefore his paintings from that era have been excluded from the dataset. An important feature of the dataset used in this study is that the images were obtained from various sources using simple internet search, and were different in quality and size. While this policy of constructing the dataset can potentially reduce the classification accuracy, its main purpose was to minimize the source- dependency of the images, and to verify that the images are analyzed based on their actual visual content, rather than the method of acquisition, quality, compression algorithms, or other artifacts that might be a feature of the acquisition and handling of the image by its providing source. Since the authors are not familiar with the exact details of the way the images were acquired and handled, no assumptions can be made regarding their consistency among different artists. For instance, if a certain electronic image gallery (e.g. WebMuseum) obtained Van Gogh images from one source while Monet images were collected from another source, any attempt to classify this dataset might actually classify sources rather than painters, despite the fact that all images were made available for download from a single image gallery. The use of very many sources leads to different image sizes, which range from 640×640 to 2458×1812. In order to normalize all images into fixed dimensions, we first downsampled each image such that the smallest side of the image is 600 pixels. Then, a 600×600 image block was cropped from the center of each image, resulting in a dataset of images with a standard size of 600×600 pixels. This policy provided a normalized dataset of images without changing the aspect ratio, but with the sacrifice of some of the image content that remained outside the 600×600 block. ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, Vol. V, No. N, Month 20YY. 4 · Shamir et al. 3. EXTRACTING IMAGE FEATURES The perception of visual art is a highly complex cognitive task performed by many different specialized centers in the brain, which perceive the different elements fea- tured in the painting. Therefore, implementation of a system that can process visual art should be based on the analysis of very many different image content descriptors extracted from the paintings. This set of descriptors should be broad enough to sense high contrast features such as shapes and borders, but should also be sensitive to other features that can be perceived by the brain such as color patterns, textures, and intensity variations [Zeki 1999]. This approach is implemented by first extracting a large set of image features, from which the most informative features are selected. Image features are computed not only from the raw pixels, but also from several transforms of the image, and transforms of transforms. These compound transforms have been found highly effective in classification and similarity measurement of biological and biometric image datasets [Shamir et al. 2008; Orlov et al. 2008]. For image feature extraction we use the following algorithms, described more throughly in [Orlov et al. 2007]: 1. Radon transform features [Lim 1990], computed for angles 0, 45, 90, 135 degrees, and each of the resulting series is then convolved into a 3-bin histogram, providing a toal of 12 image features. 2. Chebyshev Statistics [Gradshtein and Ryzhik 1994] - A 32-bin histogram of a 1×400 vector produced by Chebyshev transform of the image with order of N=20. 3. Gabor Filters [Gabor 1946], where the kernel is in the form of a convolution with a Gaussian harmonic function [Gregorescu et al. 2002], and 7 different fre- quencies are used (1,2...,7), providing 7 image descriptor values. 4. Multi-scale Histograms computed using various number of bins (3, 5, 7, and 9), as proposed by [Hadjidementriou et al. 2001], and providing 3+5+7+9=24 im- age descriptors. 5. First 4 Moments, of mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis com- puted on image ”stripes” in four different directions (0, 45, 90, 135 degrees). Each set of stripes is then sampled into a 3-bin histogram, providing 4×4×3=48 image descriptors. 6. Tamura Texture features [Tamura et al. 1978] of contrast, directionality and coarseness , such that the coarseness descriptors are its sum and its 3-bin histogram, providing 1+1+1+3=6 image descriptors. 7. Edge Statistics features computed on the Prewitt gradient [Prewitt 1970], and include the mean, median, variance, and 8-bin histogram of both the magnitude and the direction components. Other edge features are the total number of edge pixels (normalized to the size of the image), the direction homogeneity [Murphy et al. 2001], and the difference amongst direction histogram bins at a certain angle α and α + π, sampled into a four-bin histogram. 8. Object Statistics computed on all 8-connected objects found in the Otsu bi- nary mask of the image [Otsu 1979]. Computed statistics include the Euler Number [Gray 1971], and the minimum, maximum, mean, median, variance, and a 10-bin histogram of both the objects areas and distances from the to the image centroid. 9. Zernike features [Teague 1979] are the absolute values of the coefficients of ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, Vol. V, No. N, Month 20YY. Automated Recognition of Painters and Schools of Art · 5 the Zernike polynomial approximation of the image, as described in [Murphy et al. 2001], providing 72 image descriptors. 10. Haralick features [Haralick et al. 1973] computed on the image’s co-occurrence matrix as described in [Murphy et al. 2001], and contribute 28 image descriptor values. 11. Chebyshev-Fourier features [Orlov et al. 2007] - 32-bin histogram of the polynomial coefficients of a Chebyshev–Fourier transform with highest polynomial order of N=23. In order to extract more image descriptors, the algorithms are applied not only on the raw pixels, but also on several transforms of the image and transforms of transforms [Orlov et al. 2008; Rodenacker and Bengtsson 2003; Gurevich and Koryabkina 2006]. The image transforms are FFT, Wavelet (Symlet 5, level 1) two-dimensional decomposition of the image, and Chebyshev transform. Color transform was applied by classifying each pixel into one of 16 noticeably different color classes using fuzzy logic modeling of the human perception of colors [Shamir 2006], and then assigning each pixel with an intensity value based on the relative wavelength of the classified color, normalized to [0,255] interval. I.e., pixels classified as red are assigned with 0, pixels classified as purple are assigned with 255, and pixels classified as other colors are assigned with values between 0 and 255, based on their relative wavelength. Another transform that was used is Edge Transform, which is simply the magnitude component of the image’s Prewitt gradient, binarized by Otsu global threshold [Otsu 1979]. The various combinations of the compound image transforms are described in Figure 1. Fig. 1. Image transforms and paths of the compound image transforms. In the proposed method, different image features are extracted from different image transforms or compound transforms. The image features that are extracted from all transforms are the statistics and texture features, which include the first 4 moments, Haralick textures, multiscale histograms, Tamura textures, and Radon features. Polynomial decomposition features, which include Zernike features, Cheby- shev statistics, and Chebyshev-Fourier polynomial coefficients, are also extracted ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, Vol. V, No. N, Month 20YY. 6 · Shamir et al. from all transforms, except from the Fourier and Wavelet transforms of the Cheby- shev transform, and the Wavelet and Chebyshev transforms of the Fourier trans- form. In addition, high contrast features (edge statistics, object statistics, and Gabor filters) are extracted from the raw pixels and from the color transform. The entire set of image features extracted from all image transforms described in Figure 1 consists of a total of 3658 numeric image descriptors. In this paper, each image was divided into 16 equal-sized (150×150 pixels) tiles such that features are computed on each of the 16 tiles, providing 16 feature vectors for each painting in the dataset. 4. IMAGE CLASSIFICATION AND IMAGE SIMILARITY Since analysis of visual art can be considered a fairly complex task, one can rea- sonably assume that very many different image features can be used for assessing paintings, painters, and schools of art. However, not all image features are assumed to be equally informative, and some of these features are expected to represent noise. In order to select the most informative features while rejecting noisy features, each feature is assigned with a Fisher score [Bishop 2006], described by Equation 1, Wf = ∑ N c=1 (Tf −Tf,c)2∑ N c=1 σ2 f,c (1) where Wf is the Fisher Score, N is the total number of classes, Tf is the mean of the values of feature f in the entire training set, and Tf,c and σ2f,c are the mean and variance of the values of feature f among all training images of class c. The Fisher Score can be conceptualized as the ratio of variance of class means from the pooled mean to the mean of within-class variances. All variances used in the equation are computed after the values of feature f are normalized to the interval [0, 1]. After Fisher scores are assigned to the features, the weakest 85% of the features (with the lowest Fisher scores) are rejected, resluting in a feature space of 548 image features. After computing the image features as described in Section 3, each of the 16 feature vectors is classified using a simple weighted nearest neighbor rule, such that the feature weights are the Fisher scores. The classification of each feature vector provides a vector of the size N (N is the total number of classes), such that each entry c in the vector represents the computed similarity of the feature vector to the class c, deduced using Equation 2, Mf,c = 1 min(Df,c) · ∑N i=1 1 min(Df,i) (2) where Mf,c is the computed similarity of the feature vector f to the class c, and min(Df,c) is the shortest weighted Euclidean distance between the feature vector f and any tile in the training set that belongs to the class c. This assigns each of the 16 feature vectors of any image in the test set with N values within the interval [0, 1], representing its similarity to each class. The entire image is then classified by averaging the 16 similarity vectors of the tiles, providing a single similarity vector. Naturally, the predicted class for each test image is the class that has the highest value in the similarity vector. Averaging the similarity vectors of all images of a certain class provides the ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, Vol. V, No. N, Month 20YY. Automated Recognition of Painters and Schools of Art · 7 similarities between that class and any of the other classes in the dataset. Repeating this action for all classes results in a similarity matrix that represents the full set of similarities between all classes. The similarity matrix contains two similarity values for each pair of classes. I.e., the cell n, m is the similarity value between class n to class m, which may be different from the cell m, n. Although these two values are expected to be close, they are not expected to be fully identical due to the different images used when comparing n to m and m to n. Averaging the two values provides a single distance between each pair of classes, which can be used for visualizing the class similarity using phylogenies (evolutionary trees) inferred automatically by using the Phylib package [Felsenstein 2004]. As will be discussed in Section 5.7, the Weighted Nearest Neighbor classifica- tion with Fisher Scores used as weights provides an effective method for computing distances between samples in the feature space, where the informativeness of the different features varies significantly. It also provided a better classification ac- curacy figures than linear classification methods such as SVM (Support Vector Machine) [Vapnik 1995], which can become less effective when the variation in the discriminative power of the features is large. 5. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 5.1 Classification accuracy The efficacy of the method described in Section 3 was tested using the dataset described in Section 2 by building several different classifiers: A 9-way classifier that simply classifies a given painting into one of the nine painter classes, three 3-way classifiers for the painters within each school of art, one 3-way classifier for the schools of art, and a two-stage classifier that first classifies paintings to schools of art, and then classifies to the painter within that school. The purpose of using the two-stage classifier was to improve the selection and scoring of the relevant image features for each of the classification problems. The similarities between the paintings and the painters were also tested to show that the method can unsupervisely associate painters of the same artistic style. In the first experiment, 360 images (40 for each of the nine artists) were used for training and 153 (17 per artist) images for testing. In order to classify paintings by their creating artists, we randomly split each class in the dataset into training and test images, and repeated the experiment 50 times. The average accuracy of all 50 runs was 71% (P< 0.001). The P value is computed automatically by the software used for the experiments [Shamir et al. 2008], and simply reflects the probability of a distribution that is equal or better than the classification accuracy, comparing to the null hypothesis which is that the paintings cannot be classified with accuracy higher than random. Further description of the P values can be found in [Shamir et al. 2008]. 5.2 Image similarity Except from the classification accuracy, the classifier provided also a similarity matrix in the form described in Section 4, normalized such that the similarity of each artist to itself is set to 1. The similarity values are listed in Table I. Transforming the similarity matrix into a phylogeny using the Phylip package ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, Vol. V, No. N, Month 20YY. 8 · Shamir et al. Table I. Similarity matrix of the painters Dali De Ernst Kandinsky Monet Pollock Renoir Rothko Van Chirico Gogh Dali 1.00 0.96 0.97 0.92 0.87 0.78 0.94 0.90 0.93 De Chirico 0.99 1.00 0.98 0.91 0.84 0.77 0.95 0.92 0.94 Ernst 0.95 0.94 1.00 0.90 0.84 0.76 0.93 0.87 0.92 Kandisnky 0.89 0.88 0.90 1.00 0.87 0.83 0.94 0.84 0.91 Monet 0.90 0.88 0.90 0.91 1.00 0.93 0.98 0.74 0.98 Pollock 0.77 0.74 0.84 0.85 0.88 1.00 0.84 0.59 0.91 Renoir 0.94 0.92 0.94 0.92 0.97 0.86 1.00 0.81 0.98 Rothko 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.93 0.81 0.72 0.90 1.00 0.88 Van Gogh 0.89 0.86 0.93 0.92 0.95 0.94 0.96 0.72 1.00 [Felsenstein 2004] provided the evolutionary tree of Figure 2. As can be easily seen in the figure, the proposed algorithm clustered together the three impressionist artists, and featured all surrialist artists in another cluster, indicating that it can automatically associate artists within the same school of art. The abstract expres- sionists, however, were strongly separated from each other. This demonstrates the high diversity of the signature styles of the different painters, and the absence of a “typical” artistic style in that school of art. Rothko de Chirico Renoir Monet Pollock Van gogh Kandinsky Ernst Dali Fig. 2. Phylogeny of the similarities between painters. While the phylogeny of Figure 2 features just nine artists, the similarity values (Table I) were determined by averaging the similarity values of all test images of 50 different runs, as described in Section 4. Figure 3 is an example of a phylogeny of the individual paintings of a single run. The phylogeny is based on the weighted Euclidean distances of 153 feature vectors (17 per artist), normalized to the [0, 1] interval. That is, each image is assigned with a similarity value to each of the other test images, deduced by the weighted Euclidian distance. The training images in ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, Vol. V, No. N, Month 20YY. Automated Recognition of Painters and Schools of Art · 9 this case were used only for determining the weights of the different features, as described in Section 4. Pollock Rothko Kandinsky Dali Ernst de Chirico Van Gogh Renoir Monet Fig. 3. Phylogeny of the similarities between individual paintings. As the figure shows, most impressionist paintings are located around the top right part of the phylogeny, while surrealist paintings are usually clustered around the bottom left. Abstract expressionist paintings are distributed around the phylogeny, and can be clustered only by painters, but not as a school of art. 5.3 Two-way classification between artists Another experiment was based on using the proposed method for building a 2-way classifier for each pair of artists in the dataset. I.e., the same method described in Sections 3 and 4 was used, but instead of using nine painters, each classifier was built and tested using two painters only. The classification accuracy (average ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, Vol. V, No. N, Month 20YY. 10 · Shamir et al. accuracy of 50 random splits, where 40 paintings of each artist are used for training and 17 for testing) for each pair of artists is listed in Table II. Table II. Classification accuracies (%) of all 2-way classifiers Monet Renoir Dali Ernst De Chirico Kandinsky Rothko Pollock Van Gogh 81 93 100 100 100 100 100 92 Monet - 87 100 100 100 100 100 100 Renoir - - 100 100 100 94 100 100 Dali - - - 86 81 92 95 100 Ernst - - - - 88 95 94 100 de Chirico - - - - - 100 96 100 Kandisnky - - - - - - 100 100 Rothko - - - - - - - 100 As the table suggests, the proposed algorithm can generally achieve better classi- fication accuracy when classifying paintings of artists from different schools of art, rather than painters within the same school. That is, surrealist and impressionist painters can be accurately differentiated from painters representing other schools of art, but classification accuracy within the same school is significantly weaker. An exception is introduced by the abstract expressionist painters, who can be dif- ferentiated from each other in a very high level of accuracy, presumably due to the unstructured nature of this artistic movement, leading to very different signature styles of its members. 5.4 Using a two-stage classifier Since the proposed classifier is sensitive to the school of art, the accuracy of clas- sifying paintings by their creating artists can be improved by using a two-stage classification: In the first stage the given painting is classified by its school of art, and in the second stage the painting is classified by the painters within that school to find the specific artist. I.e., instead of using one 9-way classifier, we use one 3-way classifier to find the school of art of a given test painting, and three 3-way classifiers (one for each school) to find the specific artist within that school. A classifier for the schools of art was built by merging 40 paintings of each of the three painters of each school of art into one class, so that each of the three classes - impressionism, expressionism and surrealism - contained 120 training images. Test- ing the classifier using the remaining 51 images (17 for each painter) from each class provided classification accuracy of 91% (P< 0.001). Each of the three classifiers of artists within the same school of art was built using the same 120 images, such that each painter class contained 40 training samples. The performance of these classifiers was generally weaker than the one associating a specific painting with a school of art, and was 78% (P< 0.001) when classifying the three impressionist artists (Van Gogh, Monet and Renoir), 71% (P< 0.001) when classifying the sur- rialist artists (Dali, Ernst and De Chirico), and 100% (P< 0.001) for the abstract expressionist artists (Kandinsky, Rothko and Pollock). The performance of the two-stage classifier was tested using 153 images (17 per artist), and was repeated 50 times such that in each run the training and test images were selected randomly. The performance of the two-stage classifier was ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, Vol. V, No. N, Month 20YY. Automated Recognition of Painters and Schools of Art · 11 significantly better than the single-stage 9-way classifier, and produced classification accuracy of ∼76%. The statistical significance of this experiment is <0.001, when the null hypothesis is that the two experiments should perform equally well. 5.5 Using different numbers of images and tiles To evaluate the effect of the size of the training set on the performance, we measured the performance of the classifiers using different number of training images. In all experiments the test set contained 17 images for each class, and the allocation for test and training sets was performed by randomly selecting images from the pool of 57 paintings of each artist, and repeating each experiment 50 times. In all cases 0.15 of the image features were used, and the reported values are the means of the 50 accuracy figures. The standard error in all cases was smaller than 0.5. 20 40 60 80 100 2 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Training Images per Class Accuracy (%) All painters Impressionists Surrealists Expressionists Schools Fig. 4. Classification accuracy as a function of the size of the training set. As the figure shows, the classification accuracy improves as the size of the training set gets larger, but marginally increases when the size of the training set is larger than 25 images per class. As described in Section 4, image feature were extracted from 16 equal-sized tiles of each image. This policy improved the classification accuracy comparing to using the entire images, as described in Figure 5. The contribution of the tiling to the performance is in agreement with the observation that not all pixels in an image are equally important to the human perception [Change et al. 2000]. For instance, the center of an image tend to fire more neurons in the parts of the brain devoted to perception than areas closer to the border [Change et al. 2000]. However, the graph also shows that using more than 16 tiles leads to performance degradation. This can be explained by the observation that the size of the image has a substantial effect on the ability of a human observer to classify paintings into schools of art [Wallraven et al. [2007]. ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, Vol. V, No. N, Month 20YY. 12 · Shamir et al. 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 1 4 9 16 25 No. of Tiles Accuracy (%) All painters Impressionists Surrealists Expressionists Schools Fig. 5. Classification accuracy as a function of the number of tiles. 5.6 Assessment of the Image Features and Image Transforms In order to assess the contribution of the image features extracted from the trans- forms and compound transforms, we measured the classification accuracies of the experiments with and without using the transforms and compound transforms. The performance figures are listed in Table III. Table III. Classification accuracies (%) when using images features extracted from raw pixels only, raw pixels and image transforms, and raw pixels, transforms and compound transforms Raw Pixels Raw Pixels + Raw Pixels + Transforms Transforms + Compound Transforms All painters (9-way) 61 68 71 Impressionist painters (3-way) 70 76 78 Surrealist painters (3-way) 67 68 71 Expressionist painters (3-way) 100 100 100 Schools (3-way) 86 90 91 As the table shows, extracting image features from the transforms and compound transforms substantially improves the performance of the classifier. The only excep- tion is the classification of the three abstract expressionist painters, which provided a perfect accuracy when using the image features extracted from the raw pixels, so that no improvement could be made by using transforms. The brain perceives art in a fashion that makes use of very many different ele- ments of the art. These can include elements such as shapes, borders, colors and textures. In order to cover such a broad range of elements, very many different image features are extracted from each painting. Since the number of features is large, it can be assumed that some features are more informative than others. The ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, Vol. V, No. N, Month 20YY. Automated Recognition of Painters and Schools of Art · 13 discriminativeness of the different image features is reflected by their Fisher Scores, defined by Equation 1. Figure 6 shows the Fisher Scores assigned to the different feature groups, extracted from the raw pixels, image transforms, and image com- pound transforms for each of the four classifiers listed in Table III. The values in the graph are the sum of the scores assigned to all bins of each group of image features. As the figure shows, the absolute Fisher Score values are much higher for the classification of the expressionists painters, which is an easier classification problem, than the absolute scores of the more difficult classification of the impressionist and surrealist painters. 5.6.1 Estimating feature informativeness by elimination. The large set of image features is not orthogonal, and many of the image features are sensitive to the same type of image content, which leads to a significant redundancy of the image features. To test the informativeness of single groups of image features while eliminating the effect of redundancy, we tested the four classifiers listed in Table III, such that in each test one group of features was eliminated. The classification accuracy was then computed by averaging 50 runs, and compared to the classification accuracy when the full set of image features was used. This process was repeated for all groups of features described in Section 3. Figure 7 shows the decrease in classification accuracy when each group of features is eliminated. As the figure shows, eliminating some groups of features can lead to a higher decrease in classification accuracy than others. The redundancy of the image fea- tures is evident by the absence of full correlation between the Fisher Scores of the feature groups shown in Figure 6 and the decrease in classification accuracy when each group of features is ignored. This can be easily noticed for the expression- ist painters, where eliminating any single group of features does not reduce the classification accuracy to less than 100%. To determine which combinations of image features are informative, we sequen- tially added groups of image content descriptors, ordered by their Fisher scores. For instance, for the abstract expressionists we first tested the classifier using the Har- alick texture features (which have the highest Fisher score), then added first four moments features, then the Zernike features, and so on. For the sake of simplicity, we used only the image features computed on the raw pixels. Table IV shows the classification accuracies of the four classifiers when adding groups of image features based on their Fisher scores. As the table shows, using Haralick texture alone is fairly informative for the classification of the abstract expressionist paintings, and provides 88% of accu- racy. Adding the first four moments and the Zernike features does not significantly improve the accuracy until adding the object statistics, which elevates the classifica- tion accuracy to perfection. This shows that the Zernike and first four moments are in this case redundant to the Haralick features, but the higher-level object statis- tics features add new information that is not reflected by the Haralick texture. For instance, the object statistics can be used to discriminate between Rothko’s paint- ings, which typically feature few large shapes, and the work of Kandinsky, which composites numerous smaller objects. The impressionist paintings can also be differentiated by using the Haralick tex- ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, Vol. V, No. N, Month 20YY. 14 · Shamir et al. Table IV. Classification accuracies (%) when adding groups of image features by their Fisher scores Expressionists Impressionists Surrealists Schools Haralick 88 First 4 Moments 90 Zernike 90 Obj. Statistics 100 Edge Statistics 100 Tamura 100 Gabor Filters 100 Multiscale Hist. 100 Chebyshev Stat. 100 Radon 100 Haralick 60 First 4 Moments 66 Edge Statistics 70 Obj. Statistics 70 Zernike 70 Multiscale Hist. 70 Tamura 70 Chebyshev Stat. 70 Gabor Filters 70 Radon 70 Zernike 44 Edge Statistics 55 Obj. Statistics 59 Haralick 66 Multiscale Hist. 67 Chebyshev Stat. 67 First 4 Moments 67 Gabor Filters 67 Tamura 67 Radon 67 Obj. Statistics 52 Haralick 63 First 4 Moments 67 Edge Statistics 74 Zernike 83 Multiscale Hist. 86 Tamura 86 Gabor Filters 86 Chebyshev Stat. 86 Radon 86 ture, and the classification improves when using the first four moments and the edge statistics. As explained by Keren [2002], the pixel statistics can be used for the recognition of painter signatures. The edge statistics can reflect the style of the paint strokes, which noticeably varies from different members of the impressionist movement. For the surrealist paintings, the most informative set of features is the Zernike features, which gives just 44% accuracy. The edge and object features can in this case correlate with the contrast and the amount of details in the painting. For instance, Giorgio de Chirico’s signature geometric style typically features straight lines of cityscape structures and shades, as well as large “flat” areas that evoke the mysterious and haunted mood. These characteristics can be reflected by the edge and object features. 5.6.2 The effect of the number of features. Due to the complex nature of differ- entiating between artists and schools of art, the image analysis is performed using a relatively large number of image features. Since image features are weighted by their informativeness, the effect of each feature is expected to be smaller as its discriminative power gets weaker. However, if very many non-informative image features are used, their large number can be weighed against their low Fisher Scores, leading to an undesirable degradation of the performance. Figure 8 shows how the classification accuracy changes as more features are used. As the graph shows, the classification accuracy improves as more image features are used. However, when more than ∼0.25 of the features are included in the analysis, the performance generally degrades due to the undesirable effect of non- informative image features. Another observation is that each experiment reaches its peak accuracy using a different percentage of features. This can be explained by the different elements that can discriminate between the paintings of each school of art, and therefore different image features are used for each of the classifiers. Although the differences are usually marginal, the performance of the two-stage classifier described in this section can be improved if 0.25 of the features are used when classifying the schools of art, and 0.1 and 0.15, for the classification of the impressionist and surrealist painters, respectively. Using these values improves the accuracy of the two-stage classifier to 77%. ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, Vol. V, No. N, Month 20YY. Automated Recognition of Painters and Schools of Art · 15 5.7 Comparing Weighted Nearest Neighbor to Other Classification Methods Using Weighted Nearest Neighbor for classifying the feature values provides a fast and effective method of classifying and measuring distances between feature vec- tors. The motivation for selecting this simple method was based on the fact that while many image features are used, not all features are equally informative, and the discriminative power of the different features can vary significantly. This can be handled effectively when using WNN with the weights assigned to the different features. Table V shows the classification accuracy of WNN and SVM using linear, polynomial, and RBF kernel functions implemented in the SVMPerf software pack- age [Johachims 2006]. Since SVM was originally designed for binary classification problems, the comparison is based on the 2-way classification of Renoir/Monet, Dali/Ernst, Dali/Kandinsky, Renoir/Rothko, and Pollock/Ernst. Table V. Accuracies (%) of 2-way classification problem when using Weighted Nearest Neighbor, and VM with linear, polynomial and RBF kernels. WNN Linear kernel Polynomial kernel RBF kernel (d=4) (γ=10) Renoir/Monet 87 67 71 69 Dali/Ernst 86 63 65 63 Dali/Kandinsky 92 70 73 71 Renoir/Rothko 100 100 100 100 Pollock/Ernst 100 100 100 100 The better performance of the WNN classifier can be explained by the fact that Weighted Nearest Neighbor classification can effectively handle the large variance in the informativeness of the different image features reflected by their Fisher scores, while SVM works by using a threshold that determines which features are used for the classification and which features are ignored. The effectiveness of the weighted feature space in comparison to the non-weighted feature space is also discussed in [Orlov et al. 2008]. 6. CONCLUSION In this paper we studied the automated analysis of paintings, and described a method for classifying paintings by their creating artists and schools of art. The proposed classifier also provides similarity measures between a given test image to each of the painter classes, which was used for assessing the similarities between different painters and automatically associating artists and paintings that are part of the same artistic movements. The ability of the computer to analyze paintings can raise important theoretical questions about the applied perception of art. Can a computer system criticize literature? Can it tell between a good movie and a bad movie? Another question is whether computers can not just evaluate art, but also create it. The method used here makes use of a very large set of image features, covering as many aspects as possible and computed from several different parts of the painting, making it difficult to correlate the machine vision features with the visual cues used by the human eye. The extraction of very many different types of data is an attempt to follow the perception of the artist, who does not focus on just one ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, Vol. V, No. N, Month 20YY. 16 · Shamir et al. technique or specific part of the painting at a time, but perceives the entire painting as a whole at the time of creation. This approach of painting is reflected by the advice of impressionist Camille Pissaro to a young artist: “Don’t paint bit by bit, but paint everything at once by placing tones everywhere, with brushstrokes of the right colour and value, while noticing what is alongside. Use small brushstrokes and try to put down your perceptions immediately. The eye should not be fixed on one spot, but should take in everything, while observing the reflections which the colours produce on their surroundings” [Rewald 1963]. The best performance in terms of automatically identifying the artist of a given test painting was achieved by using a two-stage image classifier, such that in the first stage the school of art was determined, and in the second stage the specific painter was recognized among the painters of that school. The full source code used for this study is available for free download via CVS at www.openmicroscopy.org (recommended), or as a tar archive at http://www.phy.mtu.edu/∼lshamir/downloads/ImageClassifier in a convenient form of a command line utility [Shamir et al. 2008]. The code was initially developed for analyzing and understanding physiological processes and mechanisms that can be studied using microscopy or other imaging devices. It has also been found useful for several other image classification and image similarity problems, and we encourage scientists and engineers to download and use this code for their needs. REFERENCES BARNARD, K., AND FORSYTH, D.A. 2001. Clustering Art. 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ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, Vol. V, No. N, Month 20YY. 18 · Shamir et al. WALLRAVEN, C., KAULARD, K., KUMER, C., PEPPERELL, R., AND BULTHROFF, H.H. 2007. Psychophysics for perception of (in)determinate art, In Proceedings of the 4th Symposium on Applied Perception in Graphics and Visualization, p. 115–122. WIDJAJA, I., LEOW , W.K., AND WU, F.C. 2003. Identifying painters from color profiles of skin patches in painting images, In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Image Processing, vol. 1, p. 845–848. ZEKI, S. 1999. Inner Vision, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Received Month Year; revised Month Year; accepted Month Year ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, Vol. V, No. N, Month 20YY. Automated Recognition of Painters and Schools of Art · 19 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Edge Statistics Object Statistics Gabor filters Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Raw pixels Color transform Color FFT Color Chebyshev Color Wavelet FFT Wavelet Image Features Fisher Score Schools Impressionists Surrealists Expressionists 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Wavelet FFT FFT Wavelet FFT Chebyshev Chebyshev Wavelet Edge Edge Fourier Edge Wavelet Image Features (36.2) (20.1) (28.5) (23.6) (24.2) (30.3) (28.7) (25.1) (22.6) (20.2) Fig. 6. Fisher Scores of the groups of features. ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, Vol. V, No. N, Month 20YY. 20 · Shamir et al. 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Edge Statistics Object Statistics Gabor filters Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Raw pixels Color transform Color FFT Color Chebyshev Color Wavelet FFT Wavelet Image Features Accuracy Degradation (%) Schools Impressionists Surrealists Expressionists 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Statistics Zernike First 4 Moments Haralick Multiscale Histograms Tamura Radon Chebyshev Wavelet FFT FFT Wavelet FFT Chebyshev Chebyshev Wavelet Edge Edge Fourier Edge Wavelet Image Features Fig. 7. Decrease in classification accuracy (%) when eliminating groups of features. ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, Vol. V, No. N, Month 20YY. Automated Recognition of Painters and Schools of Art · 21 40 60 80 100 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 Image features used Accuracy (%) All painters Impressionists Surrealists Expressionists Schools Fig. 8. Classification accuracy as a function of the percentage of image features used. ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, Vol. V, No. N, Month 20YY. 
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work_gy3htr47fbdl3izlh4eztyhumy	----	Feminist Narrative Ethics: Tacit Persuasion in Modernist Form by Katherine Saunders Nash (review) Feminist Narrative Ethics: Tacit Persuasion in Modernist Form by Katherine Saunders Nash (review) Shuli Barzilai Partial Answers: Journal of Literature and the History of Ideas, Volume 14, Number 1, January 2016, pp. 178-182 (Review) Published by Johns Hopkins University Press DOI: For additional information about this article [ Access provided at 6 Apr 2021 02:36 GMT from Carnegie Mellon University ] https://doi.org/10.1353/pan.2016.0009 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/606219 https://doi.org/10.1353/pan.2016.0009 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/606219 178 Partial answers Abbott concludes with the idea that “literature is ‘a machine to think with’: that is, a way of growing knowledge in a vast, collective evolving conversation. . . . there are important things we will never know and questions we will never answer. But . . . such experimental knowledge is at the present time not only useful but urgent” (154). The ethical imperative to surrender to the experience of literature, or in Ab- bott’s terms, to the isness rather than the aboutness of literature, has also been articulated by others. In Love’s Knowledge (1990) Martha Nussbaum claims that “only the style of a certain sort of a narrative artist (and not, for example, the style associated with the abstract theoretical treatise) can adequately state certain important truths about the world embodying them in its shape and setting up in the reader the activities that are appropriate for grasping them” (6). Ultimately, the ethical imperative urged by Levinas, Nussbaum, and now Abbott can be read as a version of the second century B.C.E. sage, Hillel’s dictum “that which is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow.” Real Mysteries taps into contemporary scholarship (what is being called, “post-classical narratology”) by David Herman, James Phelan, Peter Rabinowitz, Brian Richardson, Lisa Zunshine, and others and, in this respect, addresses pro- fessionals. But the book is also accessible by the general reader: it defines its terms, provides and explains examples, and includes clear introductions to, and summaries of, each section. Its elegant and original interpretations of a wide range of literary works, from classical to post-modern, are the wages of the theoretical approach; the material is very well organized and convincing. The plea for an experiential reading is not new but its grounding in narratology and cognitive theory constitutes a valuable contribution. Daniel Chertoff The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Katherine Saunders Nash, Feminist Narrative Ethics: Tacit Persuasion in Modernist Form. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2014. x + 178 pp. Feminist Narrative Ethics: Tacit Persuasion in Modernist Form opens with a three-part introductory chapter signposting the goals and contents of its four main chapters. In the first part, Katherine Saunders Nash provides a concise de- scription of her primary focus: “This is a book about feminist novels written in modernist-era Britain. Most of them, though, have little to do with feminism as a theme, as a way of life for characters, or as a subject directly addressed by the narrator. Rather, these novels establish ethical standards and rhetorical strategies that guide audiences toward particular judgments about gender” (2). Indirection will thus be the critical means used to find out authorial directions. More specifi- Partial answers 14/1: 178–182 © 2016 Johns Hopkins University Press 179Book Reviews cally, Nash proposes to examine the oblique and, at times, tacit or wordless ways in which four British novelists “promote particular feminist beliefs and critique normative gender constraints” during the 1920s and 1930s. For readers, then, the challenge is to identify the writers’ ideological commitments that, albeit un- stated, are nonetheless integral to their novels on different levels, including nar- ration, focalization, and characterization. While not overtly feminist in theme, these modernist novels, Nash argues, do have “undercurrents” or agenda that en- able alert readers “to trace meaningful connections among feminist aspects” (3). By closely reading not only words and images but also techniques and strate- gies, Nash would achieve the general goal of her study: namely, “establishing a new theory of feminist narrative ethics.” (I will return to the word “theory” presently.) Her more specialized goal lies in analyzing what she calls “the ethics of telling,” which is defined as “the values endorsed by narrator and/or implied author in the act of narrative transmission.” In her subsequent analyses, howev- er, Nash also discusses in detail other aspects such as the characters and events, or the stories involving what she calls “the ethics of the told” (4; emphasis in text). Apparently, whereas the concepts of “telling” and “told” are distinct and divisible in principle, you cannot easily have the one without the other in actual practice. In the second part of her introduction, Nash presents a rigorous and, in my view, convincing defense of the controversial, even maligned entity designated the “implied author” — a term coined by Wayne C. Booth in The Rhetoric of Fiction (1961) — as no less vital and necessary than narrators, flesh-and-blood writers, and historical contexts for understanding the ethical-political invest- ments of literary texts. “The implied author concept,” as Nash cogently explains, “allows me to attribute rhetorical purposiveness to . . . someone proximate but not equivalent to the novelist, a figure located outside the text, who attempts to guide the readers’ imaginative ethical judgments” (10). The third part gives readers a helpful overview of the ensuing chapters in which Nash examines the works of four novelists: two usually classified as high modernist, E. M. Forster and Virginia Woolf, and two deemed low modernist, if modernist at all, Dorothy L. Sayers and John Cowper Powys. Although this is not expressly mentioned, Nash’s study thus entails an equal representation of female and male high- and low-modernist writers or, in short, a two-times-two equitability. Analogously, the four chapters devoted to analyzing these writers’ novels are made to tally neatly, perhaps too neatly, with the four paradigms proposed in Nash’s introduction: the ethics of distance (Forster), the ethics of fair play (Sayers), the ethics of persuasion (Woolf), and the ethics of attention (Powys). The paradigms are said to epitomize “four distinct ways novelists may promote feminist principles” for the purpose of encouraging their acceptance by readers (4). Hence a tension arises and persists between Nash’s declared aim to estab- lish “a new theory” that immediately precedes her delineation of the four para- digms — an aim pointing to abstract, comprehensive, or meta-critical levels of 180 Partial answers discussion — and the “distinct ways” that accurately anticipate her emphasis on specific narrative techniques, rhetorical tropes, and actual story content. The chapters corresponding to the paradigms do not so much offer a new theory of feminist narrative as present insightful close readings of individual novels with special but not exclusive attention to the literary means that each author uses to advocate women’s personal and civic rights. In the chapter titled “The Ethics of Distance,” Nash examines Forster’s cri- tique of patriarchy and the gender-role constraints it imposes on both women and men in A Room with a View and Howards End. In these novels, as Nash ably shows, “the implied author’s political beliefs are partly obscured by a carefully constructed, stable, ironic detachment” — in a word, by distance. Nevertheless, while Forster’s narrator “deadpans ironies” as a kind of rhetorical camouflage, the implied author engages in posing “serious ethical questions” and placing “high stakes on particular answers” (23, 29). In her compelling chapter on “The Ethics of Fair Play,” Nash scrutinizes those novels in Sayers’s Lord Peter Wim- sey detective series in which, contra the formal (and formulaic) conventions of this genre, a serious love interest emerges via the character of Harriet Vane. Say- ers thereby deliberately, as well as audaciously for the early twentieth century, blends detective fiction with romance and the novel of manners. This chapter constitutes one of the finest in the book, providing subtle, nuanced analyses of characters’ motivations, focalization strategies, generic innovations, and more. As Nash demonstrates, Sayers artfully promotes both the feminist politics of her novels and the progression of the courtship plot between its protagonists, Peter and Harriet, without any detriment to the mystery plot. These two chapters exemplify the advantages of using close reading techniques informed by nar- ratology in order to account for the ethical values covertly, almost wordlessly conveyed by certain texts and the moral judgments their implied authors (at- tempt to) persuade readers to adopt. The final two chapters, “The Ethics of Persuasion” and “The Ethics of Atten- tion,” seem to me less successfully accomplished than the three preceding them, partly due to the unwieldiness or recalcitrance inherent in the novels chosen for extensive discussion: Woolf’s The Years and Powys’s A Glastonbury Romance. In her penultimate chapter, Nash painstakingly compares Woolf’s various drafts with the published novel. The rationale for this compare-and-contrast procedure is that Woolf’s authority (or that of someone designated her “authorial figure”) “in making ethical claims through both the telling and the told is dispersed be- yond the bounds of the text itself, which makes her hard to recognize as the implied author, and makes her more properly understood as what I call a project author.” It is only by such comparative methods that the ethical purposiveness of Woolf’s entire project may be apprehended. The Years is therefore not a stand- alone novel: “Its narrative ethics is best understood when readers recognize and acknowledge the murmurs or echoes of the novel’s drafts in manuscript, despite Woolf’s figuratively closing the doors to them” (91–92). 181Book Reviews Several questions arise at once: how is the reader, be she one of Woolf’s “common readers” or a professional critic, to evaluate and, no less, to enjoy a published novel that cannot be understood without studying its multiple manu- scripts? What does this imply about the aesthetic value of the final work itself? Moreover, is it an ethical project on the reader’s part to open doors closed by the author, or to ferret among drafts rejected as inadequate or deficient, for whatever reasons? How acceptable, valid, or legitimate is the resulting interpretive recon- struction of what the author ostensibly meant to say? And since this dispersal beyond the text’s bounds is not unique to Woolf’s Years but, rather, characterizes numerous literary works over the centuries, are all readers who are unable or unwilling to access a work’s pre-texts precluded from (fully) grasping its ethical import? Further still, Nash’s candid concluding remarks about A Glastonbury Romance — “In this extremely long and digressive novel . . . a traditional plot is distended almost beyond recognition, with no clear trajectory of revelations and deferrals to keep the reader’s attention focused on a particular resolution” (142) — are arguably pertinent to The Years as well and, therefore, lead to yet another question. Why the choice of novels as avowedly “distended” or encumbered as The Years, with its many manuscript entailments, and the over thousand-page Glastonbury Romance, with its “teeming sprawl” (136), in order to demonstrate a tacit feminist ethics? Perhaps other modernist texts would have better served the critical purposes of this study. Most problematic of all is the final chapter on Powys’s ethics of attention. “Powys was no feminist,” Nash writes; on the contrary, “[n]othing in his bi- ography, personal papers, or novels suggests any investment in women’s civic advancement.” Moreover, in his fiction and nonfiction, he articulates “deroga- tory, even humiliating attitudes toward women,” often representing them as “physically weak, narcissistic, highly sexed,” and so forth. Powys’s “retrogres- sive gender politics” notwithstanding, Nash includes A Glastonbury Romance in her feminist study for the progressive position it compels readers to adopt on a single issue: receptivity (119). This novel, she claims, “cultivates in its reader ethical attentiveness and judgment” that amounts — or, it could be said, comes down — to “the capacity of reading like a girl” (122). Refining her argument further, Nash explains: Glastonbury “offers young-girl-like attention as an ef- ficacious alternative to phallic aggression.” Apparently, a lifelong struggle af- flicting the “flesh-and blood” Powys is resolved as “young-girl-like receptivity trumps penetration” in his novel (139). How young exactly remains a vague, unsettled issue. A resisting reader may want to suggest, after rubbing her eyes and rereading, that girl-like receptivity is not quite the binary opposite of phallic penetration; viewed otherwise, it is a side-benefit, a sidekick, a subordinate, a required af- filiate insofar as the feminine ear becomes yet another receptacle for self-indul- gent, long-winded emissions. Viewed otherwise again, it is disturbing to find the “erotically charged stimulation of surrendering to another consciousness” in the 182 Partial answers reading process equated here with the (to my mind, variously dubious) “pleasure of young-girl-like receptivity” (138). Summarily stated, this reader’s response is mixed. The first three chapters of Nash’s Feminist Narrative Ethics are commendable; the last two, questionable. Yet there is an ethics, too, in opening doors to doubts and questions. Shuli Barzilai The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Omar Sabbagh, From Sight through to In-Sight: Time, Narrative and Subjectivity in Conrad and Ford. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2014. xlv + 232 pp. Joseph Conrad and Ford Madox Ford collaborated on novels, short stories, and magazine editing for an immensely productive decade, and their mutual influ- ence remained strong even after their friendship cooled in 1909. It is all the more surprising, then, that we do not have many parallel or comparative stud- ies of these two major figures. We should therefore welcome Omar Sabbagh’s monograph, which sets out to examine how a selection of Conrad’s and Ford’s narratives narrate and thematize time, how they represent the self, and how they bring these two concerns together by examining time as subjective experience. These would seem to be valuable questions to examine: while the techniques of impressionism have been productively investigated by critics such as John G. Peters (on Conrad) and Max Saunders (on Ford), this study seems to be ap- proaching new territory — the temporal dimension of early twentieth-century literary impressionism. However, several problems with the approach soon become apparent. A 35-page prologue offers an anticipation of some of the material to come in “a personal register.” One of three epigraphs to this prologue is a quotation from Forster’s Howards End (1910): “Only connect.” Aside from assigning this as a rogue epigraph to Forster’s novel — one of the many typographical slips and minor errors that suggest insufficient attention at the proof-reading and copy-ed- iting stages — this instruction is one that we might wish Sabbagh had followed himself. The prologue’s meditations range from St. Paul to G. K. Chesterton via J. S. Mill, George Eliot, and Rosa Luxemburg; the relevance of this mate- rial to the questions under examination is hard to discern. And Shandyesque discursiveness is a persistent feature of the book’s style, causing difficulties of comprehension not just with respect to its arguments but even at sentence lev- el. Parenthetical insertions of only tangential relevance are so frequent that the reader not only struggles to follow, but also quickly begins to wonder how much the author is in control of his material. Partial answers 14/1: 182–185 © 2016 Johns Hopkins University Press 
work_gygcesxpd5eh7brzeyuommod4e	----	Correspondence well supervised situations. It also helps the understanding of adult patients' descriptive histories. Knowledge of developmental, family and service interaction issues can allow trainees to reappraise the context of the histories of adult psychiatry patients,not only of those patients' adolescence but also of the situations in which the patients now find themselves. Despite College recommendations, many trainees may not have the opportunity to complete their train ing by having worked with children or particularly with adolescents as a specialist placement. ARTUROLANGA Leavesden Hospital Abbots Langlev Watford WD50NU References HAS (1985) Bridges over Troubled Water. Sutton: Health Advisory Service. ROYALCOLLEGEOFPSYCHIATRISTS(1983) Providing a dis trict service for child and adolescent psychiatry: medical manpower priority? Bulletin of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, 7,94-97. (1990) A statement on approval of training schemes for general professional training for the MRC Psych. Psychiatric Bulletin. 14, 110-118. Malignant alienation - agent and host interaction? DEARSIRS Morgan & Priest (1984) coined the term "malignant alienation" when describing patients who had com mitted suicide while receiving in-patient care or shortly after discharge. A theme of inexorable alienation had been evident in many cases, whereby ward staff became critical of the patient's behaviour. Behaviour was construed as provocative, unreason able and over-dependent. In some cases disability was thought to be deliberately assumed. The process was malignant because of the relentless drive towards a fatal outcome. The authors felt that malignant alienation might be provoked by recurrent relapses or difficult behaviour-problems arising from the patient. These patients committed suicide, but did they truly kill themselves? Who are these "difficult" patients, and how might health care professionals react to them? The characteristics of such patients might be sum marised as follows. Patients who do not improve with treatment, those who present challenging behavioural problems, and those where a clear diagnosis and/or treatment plan is lacking. Health care professionals should be aware of their own attitudes and feelings to all patients, but particu larly those engendered by difficult patients. There may be many staff whose own neurotic blindspots actually prevent the giving of appropriate care. For example, the doctor who habitually undertreats 579 patients for fear of hurting or upsetting them. The nurse who over-identifies with an aspect of the patient and tends to be overly optimistic about the clinical outcome, or alternatively becomes irritable with the patient when progress is slow. The doctor who feels that a poor response to his treatment is a personal insult, who then uses dangerous or un warranted treatments in an attempt to salvage his pride. Such interactions become even more testing with difficult patients. Surely the lesson to be learned is to become more aware of our own responses when dealing with patients? This self-observing quality is a most important attribute. Sir Denis Hill put his finger on another crucial attribute. In defining the requisites for a good psy chiatrist he included "protection of the patient from the negative aggressive aspects of one's self" (Hill, 1978). But what is this negative aggressive aspect? Aggressive instincts are generally now seen as being directed outwardly and are not necessarily negative. Indeed, these instincts may be part of a biological inheritance which serves to preserve us. In this way aggression is seen as the basis for human achievement and mastery in the world, valuable in the process of differentiation and personal auton omy. The complexities, hierarchies and conventions that form the framework of society may have evolved as a defence against negative aspects of aggression, ensuring cooperation and the survival of the species rather than allowing unrestrained inter-personal destruction (Storr, 1968). Is an awareness of the negative aspects of outwardly directed aggressive impulses useful when considering malignant alienation? Not long ago a staff nurse from the psychiatric ward telephoned me. She was distressed and upset. A patient had just gone AWOL from the ward and she feared for his safety. We talked it over. She had alerted the patient's family and general practitioner, and informed the police. I knew that this nurse was level-headed and usually coped well with such incidents. What was so different now? I went over to the ward to see her. It became clear that the patient had been "difficult" that day, threatening staff and pushing them to their limits. This was compounded by staff shortages through sickness. Under consider able stress this nurse had wished the patient dead. The feeling was conscious momentarily, and was only a fantasy, but it had occurred. So when the patient finally absconded the nurse felt her own murderous feelings had played their part, and she feared greatly for his life. Can a synthesis be achieved here? Malignant alienation may be the harbinger of suicide with dif ficult patients. Staff feelings could play a part in fueling the process. Negative feelings towards the patient initially lie hidden. With further adverse interaction these feelings may tumble briefly into 580 consciousness, albeit as fantasies. As with the nurse in the story above, such feelings are immensely powerful. If the patient is the host to difficult behav iour or recurrent relapses, then perhaps the staff are the agents of malignant alienation via negative aggressive feelings. Who is to say that these feelings might not actually begin to "kill off" the patient, inexorably driving the process of alienation to a malignant end? Such an idea may be uncomfortable to even consider; and thus worth consideration. DARRYLWATTS Ham Green Hospital Pill, Bristol BS200HW References HILL, D. (1978) The qualities of a good psychiatrist. British Journal of Psychiatry, 133,97-105. MORGAN, H. G. & PRIEST, P. (1984) Assessment of suicide risk in psychiatric in-patients. British Journal of Psychiatry, 145,467^469. STORR. A. (1968) Human Aggression. London: Penguin. Assessment of parenting DEARSIRS Reder & Lucey provide a timely consideration of some key ideas in an interactional framework for the assessment of parenting (Psychiatric Bulletin, June 1991, 15, 347-348) and with the rapid incor poration of some of the Children's Act provisions into our practice, the era of impressionism as regards assessment of parenting ability must needs pass. In addition to the logical progression expounded by Reder & Lucey, three further headings ought to be borne in mind, even if as child psychiatrists we honestly say we do not know their full import. (a) The setting or context in which the assess ment occurs and this includes the contri bution of the assessor. (b) Cultural factors and differences, which have to include the diversity of influences as well as the assumed norms. (c) The child, whose own individual character and temperament may be such that he or she tests parenting ability and limits of safety beyond imagining. LAWRENCEMCGIBBEN TOMHUGHES Gulson Hospital Coventry CV12HR Intermetamorphosis of Doubles or Double-Golyadkin Phenomenon - a new syndrome? DEARSIRS Owen wonders (Psychiatric Bulletin, May 1991, 15, 302) if he is suffering from Fregoli's syndrome as he Correspondence has become convinced that Mr Thomson, the gentleman who appears wearing a bowler hat is in reality a man with a moustache called Mr Thompson. As Dr Owen is an avid student of Merge, he must know that Thompson and Thompson tend to appear in duplicate forms (see Fig. 1). It is thus far more likely, that they are mis taken each for the other! While this is certainly a variant of a misidentification syndrome or a re duplicative phenomenon, it cannot be considered as Fregoli's syndrome in which Dr Owen (or some body else) would have to be convinced that a sub ject kept his identity but changed his bodily appearance. If Dr Owen mistakes Thomson for Thompson (the one with the stick; Fig. 1) he has to also mistake. Thompson for Thomson-both in terms of physical appearance and actual identity. In this case we are dealing with intermetamorpho- sis (Silva et al, 1989), or, to be completely accurate, 'intermetamorphosis of doubles'. Again, Herge has made an important contribution to the existing body of specialist literature (Kamanitz et al, 1989) by extensive reports of numerous dramatic inci dences caused by Thomson's and Thompson's con fusing experience of being doubles. We suggest the scholarly term 'Double-Golyadkin Phenomenon' for this widely underestimated but highly distress ing condition (modified after Markidis, 1986, after Dostoyevski, 1846, see Förstl et al, Psychiatric Bulletin, 14, 705-707). Fig. I. Thomson (moustache, hat) and Thompson (with a stick). As shown by Dr De Pauw's further study in the field of 'Psychiatry in Literature' (Psychiatric Bulletin, May 1991, 15, 302 after March 1991, 15, 167-168), 
work_h4ektj2k7fci7dvlhowidjryvy	----	Age-Period-Cohort Analysis: UC Berkeley UC Berkeley Previously Published Works Title Age-Period-Cohort analysis: A design-based approach Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7bp7b556 Journal Electoral Studies, 33 ISSN 0261-3794 Authors Dinas, E Stoker, L Publication Date 2014 DOI 10.1016/j.electstud.2013.06.006 Peer reviewed eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7bp7b556 https://escholarship.org http://www.cdlib.org/ Age-Period-Cohort Analysis: A design-based approach Elias Dinas & Laura Stoker Dinas, Elias, and Laura Stoker. 2014. "Age-Period-Cohort Analysis: A Design-Based Approach." Electoral Studies, 33: 28-40. Abstract This paper develops a design-based approach to identifying cohort effects in APC analyses. Cohort effects arise when one cohort is treated by a unique set of formative socialization experiences, which causes it to differ from other cohorts in relevant outcomes. APC analyses typically compare treated and untreated cohorts from a single population. Our approach introduces a second group— a control group, in which no unit is treated but that is otherwise similar to the first—and adapts difference-in-difference estimation to the APC framework. The approach yields two identification strategies, each based on transparent and testable assumptions. We illustrate how the method works and what is to be gained through three examples. Keywords: Age-Period-Cohort analysis; identification problem; cohort effects; control group; difference-in-difference Highlights: - A design-based solution to the identification problem in Age-Period-Cohort Analysis - Rests on the inclusion of a control group to identify cohort effects - Adapts difference-in-difference estimation to the APC framework - Identified by assuming either parallel age or parallel period effects - Allows for analysis of birth-year cohorts and fully-factored age and period effects 1. Introduction Studies in sociology, demography and political science have often used data from repeated cross- sections of individuals to estimate the effects of aging, period shocks, and early socialization experiences on attitudes or behaviors. The starting point for estimation is typically the Age- 1 Period-Cohort (APC) model. In the APC model, outcomes can vary across individuals as they age (aging or life cycle effects), across time for all individuals (period effects), and across individuals depending upon the year of their birth (cohort or generation effects). The well- documented problem with these models is that only two of these effects can be identified. Age (years since birth), period (year), and cohort (year of birth) are exact linear functions of each other: Age = Period – Cohort (introduction of this issue; Winship and Harding 2004). In order to estimate the relative contribution of age, period and cohort effects one must make one or more assumptions. The most common assumptions relate to the grouping of cohorts and the adoption of a polynomial function to model the effect of age or time. Analysts will group individuals born across adjacent years into cohorts (e.g., those born between 1965 and 1980 might be called Generation X) instead of working with annual birth cohorts. They will use continuous age and time variables, instead of dummy variables for each age or time point, and impose a functional form on the relationship between these variables and the outcome. Under such assumptions, the typical equation used to estimate these effects is of the following form: (1) In this setting, b1 through bk-1 represent the difference in the level of party support between each new cohort and the oldest cohort, used as the reference category. This between-cohorts comparison is meaningful only if the cutpoints defining the cohort boundaries are defensible and the model accurately represents how period and aging effects operate. This paper develops and illustrates an alternative approach to solving the APC identification problem. The approach introduces a control group to aid in the identification of cohort effects while also accounting for age and period effects. As such, it is primarily useful for 2 readers interested in studying cohort effects within an APC framework. The approach yields two strategies for identifying cohort effects, each based on explicit and testable assumptions. Moreover, it identifies cohort effects without requiring that cohorts be grouped across adjacent birth years and without imposing assumptions about the functional forms of the age and period effects. In what follows, we first present an example to illustrate the logic of the approach. We then develop the core elements of the method. Our arguments build on prior work in sociology (Firebaugh and Chen 1995), economics (Card and Krueger 1994, Nielsen and Nielsen 2012, Pischke 2007), and statistics (Rosenbaum 1987). Finally, we illustrate our arguments through three empirical examples. 2. Using a control group: an example Over-time data on the fraction of children who repeat second grade, adapted from Pischke (2007), are depicted in Figure 1. Until the 1960s, most German children started school in the spring. This changed in 1967, when the beginning of the school term was moved to the fall. This transition required two short school years, where time in school was compressed from 37 to 24 weeks. The upper curve of Figure 1 presents the average level of grade repetition for all second grade cohorts from 1962 to 1973. There seems to be an upward spike in the average level of grade repetition among those cohorts who were affected by this policy change, those whose school year ended in 1967 or 1968. The 1969 school-ending cohort also seems to have slightly higher repetition rates than the preceding and following ones, even though they had not been directly affected by the policy. These differences, however, are more modest than those that differentiate the 1967 and 1968 cohorts from the posterior cohorts. The pattern is relatively flat from 1971 to 1973 (Pischke 2007, Angrist and Pischke 2009). 3 In this case, we know that the treatment of a shortened school year was assigned to only two of the examined cohorts so there is no ambiguity about which cohorts should be distinctive if the treatment had an effect. Moreover, age is held constant by design. Still, however, estimates of the between-cohort differences rest on assumptions about how period effects are operating. Are they operating across younger cohorts and older cohorts to the same extent? Would we observe this gap even without this policy change? To answer this question, Pischke (2007), leverages the fact that not all German schools shifted their school terms at the same time. Specifically, Bavarian schools started in the fall throughout the period. In the analysis, Pischke (2007) uses Bavaria as a control group, estimating the impact of the policy change through a within-cohort comparison. Rather than comparing the affected cohorts to those who entered the same schools earlier or later, he compares the affected cohorts with their same-school-year counterparts in schools where no policy change occurred. If the policy change caused an increase in grade repetition rates, this gap should be larger than the comparable gaps formed for cohorts entering school earlier or later. Crucially, period effects are controlled in the analysis to the extent that they operate on children in each set of schools to the same extent. Although our examples come from a different theoretical background, the logic is very similar. Much is to be gained, we will argue, by adding a control group in the APC model. Doing so helps to test and justify the identification assumptions made in the analysis and yields new avenues for testing the robustness of the evidence for cohort effects. 3. Adding a control group in APC models: an augmented difference-in-difference approach 4 Most APC analyses look only at between-cohort differences within a targeted sample—a sample that contains a treated cohort as well as those born earlier and/or later. We add a control sample, which helps with the identification of cohort effects through a combination of both between- and within-cohorts comparison. The approach requires the identification of untreated (control/placebo) and treated subjects within a given cohort. It supplements the traditional between-cohort comparison with a within-cohort comparison. To develop the idea, it is useful to distinguish between a cohort, a generation, and a generational unit.1 The defining property of a cohort is the year (or interval of years) of birth. For a cohort to be called a generation, important attributes must be common to its members and distinguish its members from those of other cohorts. As developed by socialization researchers, this distinctiveness is fueled by differences in the political, social, economic, and/or cultural influences that different cohorts experience in their formative or impressionable years—typically identified as the years from late adolescence through early adulthood. A political generation is formed if cohort members develop a distinctive set of political beliefs, attitudes, and/or behaviors as a result of the context they experience during their impressionable years, and if those outcomes tend to persist as the individuals age (Braungart and Braungart 1984, Jennings and Niemi 1981, Mannheim 1952, Niemi and Sobieszek 1977, Schuman and Rodgers 2004, Sears 1983). If, however, there is variation within a cohort in how individuals experience these (political, social, economic, and/or cultural) forces, or if only some cohort members but not others are affected, then generational (or generation) units come into being. Mannheim (1952) 1 Alwin and McCammon (2003) provide an extended discussion of these and related concepts, which also brings in examples from the literature. Our abbreviated discussion here is designed to show how the use of a control group can be related to these ideas. 5 considered it likely that young people's social location (e.g. social class) would affect how they experienced the Zeitgeist of their formative years, resulting in multiple generational units within the same cohort. Thus, for example, experiencing the Great Depression in one's formative years would affect those from poor homes (one generational unit) differently than those from wealthy homes (a second generational unit). In Jennings' (2002) treatment, those from the high school Class of 1965 who, as young adults, participated in protest activities on college campuses formed a unique generational unit because of how the character of the times was filtered through those experiences. In short, a generational unit is a subgroup whose formative experiences are distinct from those of other members of their cohort. Our approach to studying cohort effects requires that one classify individuals along two dimensions, as with the identification of generational units. The first dimension is cohort, which, as usual, distinguishes individuals by year (or interval) of birth. The second dimension is a characteristic that we call eligibility. Together, and as explained below, these dimensions determine whether or not a treatment is received.2 Specifically, the conjunction of cohort and eligibility determines treatment status; one only receives the treatment if one is in a specific cohort and is eligible. Using these terms, the process generating cohort effects can be summarized as follows. At some point in time the socialization environment of people who are eligible shifts. Those going through their impressionable years in the new environment would end up distinctive relative to those going through their impressionable years in the old environment. If the later environment is thought of as the treatment, then the treated group is the cohort going through 2 This presents the simplest case, where individuals are either treated or they are untreated. The approach generalizes to more complex situations, with multiple treatments. 6 their impressionable years during the later period (the treatment period). This cohort will end up distinctive when compared the cohort socialized earlier. Importantly, another group of people— those who are ineligible—can also be identified as having gone through their impressionable years either before or during the treatment period. However, the socialization experienced by this group did not shift across the time frame. Those who were in their impressionable years during the treatment period lack the attribute (eligibility) that is required for the treatment of a new socialization environment to have been received. Some notation is needed to develop the idea further. Let YE, C refer to the potential outcome conditional on eligibility (E) and on cohort (C). E=1 if i is eligible and E=0 if i is not eligible. C=1 if i went through the impressionable years (IYs) during the treatment period and C=0 if i did not—i.e., if i went through the IYs earlier. When taken together, E and C generate the following four groups, only one of which is actually treated: Y00: not eligible, not in IY cohort during treatment period (untreated) Y10: eligible, not in IY cohort during treatment period (untreated) Y01: not eligible, in IY cohort during the treatment period (untreated) Y11: eligible, in IY cohort during the treatment period (treated) Of the six possible combinations two are most interesting, namely the between-cohorts comparison of the treated and untreated units (Y11-Y10) and the within-cohorts comparison of the treated and untreated units (Y11-Y01). The former considers only the eligible, comparing those who experienced the treatment during their impressionable years (Y11) to those whose impressionable years did not coincide with the treatment period (Y10). The latter compares eligible individuals who experienced the treatment during their IYs (Y11) to ineligible individuals from the same cohort (Y01). It is clear from this classification that without the 7 inclusion of the control group, our inference would result from the between-cohort comparison. What is gained by adding a control group is the opportunity for within-cohort comparison. An example will help us develop how within-cohort comparisons become useful when applied to the APC framework. Following Firebaugh and Chen (1995), imagine we are interested in whether women going through their impressionable years (IYs) before 1920, when the 19th amendment to the U.S. Constitution was ratified, subsequently voted at lower rates than those going through their IYs post-1920. The expectation of a turnout difference across these cohorts follows from a difference in their early socialization experiences. The older cohort learned of politics as a sphere where voting rights were the exclusive to men, while the latter acquired an understanding of politics and citizenship in which women and men were able to participate on an equal (or more equal) footing. A between-cohorts comparison, the only possible comparison without the control group, would ask the following question: Are women who came of age before 1920 (call these Ci=1; i.e., the treatment period is pre-1920) less likely to vote than women who came of age later (Ci=0)? For a single time point, this question would imply estimating the following quantity of interest: E[Yi|C=1] - E[Yi |C=0] = E[Y1i-Y0i|C=1] + {E[Y0i|C=1] - E[Y0i|C=0]}. (2) The right-hand side of (2) is comprised of the average treatment effect of the amendment on turnout3 plus a term (in {}) denoting the average difference in the turnout rates between those socialized before and those socialized after 1920 in the absence of the amendment. This term represents the bias caused by the non-random selection into the treatment condition. Although many different factors could be involved, an obvious confound is age. In any given election, the 3 Strictly speaking, the first term is the average treatment effect on the treated. 8 average turnout rates in the absence of the amendment are likely to be higher for those socialized before 1920 than those socialized after 1920, simply because the former are older than the latter. In this example, ignoring the potential confounding role of age would probably lead to a downward bias in the estimate, for age is known to be positively related to voting. Another problem involves the vague terms used to denote cohort status, i.e. whether women experienced the treatment (here, pre-19th amendment political socialization) during their impressionable years. When do the IYs start and when do they end? These are crucial questions for APC analyses. Should we code women C=1 if they were aged 30 or more by 1920, or if they were aged 25 or more by then, or perhaps code them as C=1 as long as they had achieved adulthood (age 21) by 1920? The results one obtains may well vary according to how the cohort boundaries are defined, Both problems are ameliorated by the addition of a control group—a group of ineligibles, in the terminology laid out above. Regardless of the cutpoints used to define the treated IY cohort, the focus turns to differences—specifically, (1) how the IY cohort differs from the non- IY cohort among the eligibles, (2) how the IY cohort differs from the non-IY cohort among the ineligibles—and to differences in differences—specifically, how (1) differs from (2). If we consider men to be the control group in this example, we then define eligibility E=1 if women and E=0 if men. The first question we address as a result of including this control group is the following: what is the difference in the likelihood of voting between IY (C=1) and non-IY (C=0) women? This difference is calculated as follows for one single point in time: E[Yi|C=1,E=1,T=t] - E[Yi|C=0,E=1,T=t] = E[Y1i-Y0i|C=1,E=1,T=t] + {E[Y0i |C=1,E=1,T=t] - E[Y0i |C=0,E=1,T=t]}. (3) We then ask the same question for men: 9 E[Yi|C=1,E=0,T=t] - E[Yi|C=0,E=0,T=t] = E[Y1i-Y0i|C=1,E=0,T=t] + {E[Y0i|C=1,E=0,T=t] - E[Y0i|C=0,E=0,T=t]}. (4) This leaves a final question: is the inter-cohort gap for women larger than the inter-cohort gap for men? To answer this question, we need to subtract (4) from (3). Doing so we get δ: δ = E[Y1i-Y0i|C=1,E=1,T=t] - E[Y1i-Y0i|C=1,E=0,T=t] + {E[Y0i |C=1,E=1,T=t] - E[Y0i |C=0,E=1,T=t]} - {E[Y0i|C=1,E=0,T=t] - E[Y0i|C=0,E=0,T=t]} (5) The first difference is the effect of the treatment—being socialized during the treatment period— on women.4 The second difference is the effect of being socialized during the treatment period for men. Since men were not actually treated during the treatment period, this second difference is a placebo effect, equaling zero. Put differently, this term drops out under the assumption that the control group was untreated during the treatment period. The remaining terms represent the difference across cohorts that would be expected in the absence of the treatment among women (in first set of brackets) and men (in second set of brackets), respectively. Since each cohort difference is calculated using data from one point in time, inter-cohort differences cannot arise from period effects but could arise from aging effects. If, however, we are willing to assume that aging effects are the same between men and women, then the last two differences cancel out and we are left with:5 δ = E[Y1i-Y0i|C=1,E=1,T=t] (6) This is precisely the quantity of interest—the effect of the treatment on the treated group, in this 4 The counterfactual to having been socialized during the treatment period is having been socialized in the non- treatment period, which is when the non-IY cohort was socialized. Also, as noted previously, the difference-in- difference estimand is the average treatment effect on the treated. 5 For convenience, we assume here that any difference in Y between cohorts in the absence of the treatment is due to age, the most obvious confound. There are, of course, other selection threats, as discussed below. Some other influential variable, besides age, could differentiate the two cohorts in a way that is not comparable across groups. 10 example women who experienced pre-19th amendment political socialization during their impressionable years. Crucial to this result is the assumption that aging effects are the same for men and women. This assumption is analogous to what is called the parallel trends assumption in over- time differences-in-differences analysis. The parallel trends assumption postulates that in the absence of an intervention, both the units that would receive the treatment and the units that would not receive the treatment would move in a similar fashion (Angrist and Pischke 2009: 228). Figure 2 presents a visual display of this assumption. The two parallel lines denote the average trend in some outcome of interest between two time points, t1 and t2. Although we would expect the same declining trend for both groups, some shock that affects only group 2 disrupts the trend, resulting in a much smaller (indeed zero) gap between the two time points. The assumption is that, absent this shock, the counterfactual trend for group 2 would be similar to that of Group 1. Although in this case the parallel trends assumption applies to two cohorts instead of two time points, the logic is the same. It is assumed that differences across cohorts due to age would be the same for men and women. If the IY vs. non-IY gap among women is different than the IY vs. non-IY gap among men, this difference-in-difference identifies a cohort effect.6 One can generalize the simple two-cohort case to the more common situation where multiple cohorts (and, hence, multiple difference-in-difference estimates) are of interest. The assumption of parallel age effects remains key regardless of how many cohorts one distinguishes or how the cohort cutpoints are defined. 6 For simplicity, we use the terminology cohort effects rather than generational effects or, even more appropriate given our conceptualization, generational unit effects. Below, we address the question of whether cohort effects can be understood as causal effects. 11 The difference-in-difference approach laid out above yields an estimated cohort effect given data at any one time point. With repeated cross-sectional data on T time points, the process of estimation could simply be repeated T times, yielding T estimates of cohort effects.7 If variation in early socialization experiences is consequential, one should find persistent rather than episodic or ephemeral differences in outcomes across the adult years. Or, as we illustrate below, one could specify an APC model that yields an estimated difference-in-difference across the time points represented in the data. In setting up that model, one need not assume a particular functional form for period effects, nor need one assume that period effects are parallel for the two groups. Put in the terms of our example, one could specify gender-specific year fixed effects. Moreover, there is no need to seek leverage for identification by combining individuals from adjacent birth years into cohorts. Finally, one need not make any particular assumption about the form of the aging effects. Age fixed effects could be employed, though they might eat up a lot of degrees of freedom and a more parsimonious specification may well be preferable. What one cannot do is interact age fixed effects with gender. Importantly, however, there is another way to think about this difference-in-difference approach and its relation to APC analysis. Above we described the comparison as between cohorts at a single point in time. Alternatively, we could describe it as between cohorts at a single point in the life cycle. The analog of equation (5), in this context, is equation (7): δ = E[Y1i-Y0i|C=1,E=1, A=a] - E[Y1i-Y0i |C=1,E=0,A=a] + {E[Y0i |C=1,E=1,A=a] - E[Y0i |C=0,E=1,A=a} - {E[Y0i|C=1,E=0,A=a] - E[Y0i|C=0,E=0,A=a]} (7) 7 We assume that all observations are post-treatment—i.e., that researchers are looking for evidence of differences in the political attributes of adults depending on the character of their early socialization. If one faces a situation where both pre-treatment and post-treatment observations are available, time can be exploited as with the ordinary difference-in-difference set-up. 12 The first term is the treatment effect among women at a particular point in the life cycle while the second term is the comparable placebo effect among men. The remaining four terms now represent inter-cohort differences in the absence of treatment among women (first pair) and among men (second pair) when the cohorts are compared at the same point in the life cycle. In this comparison, age is held constant but time, of necessity, is not.8 If, however, we are now willing to assume that the period effects are the same for women and men (while again assuming a zero placebo effect), we arrive again at the estimand δ, though in this case for fixed ages (A=a) instead of fixed time points (T=t): δ = E[Y1i-Y0i|C=1,E=1,A=a]. In this case, everything we described, above, with regard to age and period effects become flipped. In this comparison, we need not assume anything about parallel age effects but instead must assume parallel period effects. Under this assumption and with this revised comparison, we again can identify cohort effects, even when using birth-year cohorts. And while we can perform this comparison at multiple, discrete points in the life-cycle, we can also use an APC model applied to repeated cross-sectional data to estimate the average of those life- cycle comparisons. In this case, the model can allow age to vary freely across groups in a fully factored fashion but must impose the assumption that period effects (either fully factored or represented in a more parsimonious fashion) are the same across groups. Thus, we arrive at two strategies of identification—one that holds age effects constant and one that hold period effects constant across the two groups. If both strategies yield comparable estimates of cohort effects, one gains confidence that neither identification 8 For example, if cohort A was born in 1940 and cohort B was born in 1960, and one wished to compare the two when each was age 35, one would compare data on A from 1975 with data on B from 1995. 13 assumption is responsible for them.9 As illustrated later, interpretation can be aided by comparing the results from these specifications to one in which both parallel period effects and parallel age effects are assumed. APC models using each identification strategy also provide direct information about whether the parallel effects assumptions are reasonable. A naive way to assess the assumption of parallel age effects would be to estimate local regression curves relating the dependent variable to age for the two groups. A visual speculation of the resulting trends could indicate whether the assumption holds. However, age is confounded with cohort and thus this examination is prone to find violations when cohort effects are present. A better test for the parallel age effects assumption would evaluate the pattern in the model that includes cohort effects, period effects constrained to be the same across groups, and age effects allowed to vary across groups. Summarizing age with a polynomial function would help in better evaluating whether the assumption holds, but an analysis with age fully factored would yield good visual evidence. The exact same procedure can be repeated for the inspection of group-specific (gender-specific in our example) period effects. In sum, with the addition of a control group one can estimate cohort effects by focusing on how between-cohort differences in one sample (with one or more cohorts treated) compare to between-cohort differences in a control sample (with no cohort treated). Within the APC framework, one can identify cohort effects by assuming either parallel period effects or parallel age effects. As a robustness check, both specifications should be employed, with the results 9 The logic here is analogous to the use of multiple group testing. Multiple groups, which are known to differ in their values with regard to an unobserved covariate (Rosenbaum 1987), are separately compared with the treated group. If the effect does not differ between the two comparisons, there is more confidence that the results are not driven by the unobserved confounder. Here, we have two confounds but can only control for one of them at a time. See also Nielsen and Nielsen (2012), who discuss the utility of working with data on two samples when identifying mortality models. 14 compared to each other and to those from a specification that assumes age and period effects are both parallel. All of these specifications can be estimated using cohorts defined by birth year instead of using cohorts defined by birth year intervals, and when using fully factored age and period variables, though data sparseness and power considerations may prompt the use of more parsimonious models. Finally, adding a control group may also yield efficiency gains. If the parallel age effects and/or parallel period effects assumption is valid, then adding the control group will increase efficiency in the estimation of age and/or period effects; more data are brought to bear in estimating those parameters. If age/period effects are present, this, in turn, will reduce the residual variation in the dependent variable and enhance the efficiency of estimation of other parameters, including those representing cohort effects. 3.1 A note on treatments Thus far we have used the example of the 19th amendment to lay out the relevant terms of our approach. In this case, the treatment variable, i.e. the socialization experienced by women, changed only once and at a particular moment in time (1920). In such a case, older cohorts (IYs pre-1920) will differ from younger cohorts (IYs post-1920), but differences are not expected within the two groups. Alternatively, the crucial socializing environment could vary more continuously over time. One example comes from Gibson and Caldeira's (1992) study of support for the Supreme Court among African Americans, which shows that support levels depend on whether people were going through their IYs when the Supreme Court was progressive on civil rights. Those experiencing young adulthood when Earl Warren served as Chief Justice (1953- 1969) showed more support for the Supreme Court later in life than those born earlier or born later. In such cases, multiple cohorts, not just two cohorts, will be of interest. The pairwise 15 difference-in-difference framework we developed still applies, but now with multiple cohorts (and differences) compared in pairwise fashion. Our attempt to link the ACP analysis with the potential outcomes language of causal inference necessitates a final clarification point. In the potential outcomes framework, it is problematic to talk about causal effects of non-manipulable variables (see Holland 1986, with discussion). Cohort, as such, is non-manipulable. However, in APC analysis cohort is a proxy for the true causal variable—the socialization environment experienced by individuals in their formative or impressionable years—which is manipulable (though is unobserved). More generally, one can think of the APC analysis as providing information as to whether differences- in-differences consistent with the hypothesized causal effect are present. 3.2 What makes a good control group? The utility of this approach depends crucially on the quality of the control group. Generally speaking, a good control group is one in which no unit receives the treatment but that is otherwise similar to the treatment group. In our framework, likewise, a good control group is one that contains no treated units but that is otherwise similar to the group that does contain treated units (i.e., the eligible group). The premise that control group members are untreated is what allowed us to characterize the effect of their being socialized during the treatment period as a placebo effect, expected to be zero. Beyond that consideration, a minimal criterion for a good control group is that it contain the same cohorts. This is of course essential to implementing either of the difference-in- difference solutions to the APC identification problem, described above. In addition, groups who were born at the same time and, thus, shared many experiences by virtue of experiencing the 16 same sociopolitical context at the same point in the life cycle, can be expected to share unobservables. Moreover, the fact that the groups are made up of the same cohorts may make it more plausible that life-cycle processes or period effects are operating in parallel fashion. The former are playing out over the same stretch of history, while the latter are operating on individuals who are matched with regard to age. As such, unmodeled interactions between age and period are also controlled. If, for example, events taking place in the post-treatment period affect younger people more than they affect older people, this could confound an analysis that excludes a control group. The addition of a control group that is matched in terms of cohort removes the confound. Furthermore, no confound is introduced by differences across the groups that are independent of cohort. Put in terms of the 19th amendment example, estimates of cohort effects would be not be biased by an unmeasured attribute that caused men's turnout to be higher than women's turnout so long as that attribute affected men in the IY cohort to the same extent as it affected men in the non-IY cohort. However, confounds could arise if the distribution or effect of some uncontrolled variable varies across groups and cohorts.10 As such, the ideal control sample is one that shares as much in common with the treatment sample as possible, and specifications that control for observables through regression adjustment or matching should be evaluated. As we discuss below, one may have choices about which control group to utilize, or be able to use more than one control group. 10 In this situation, the between-cohort gap in YT=t for the two samples, in the absence of the treatment, will not be the same even when age effects are parallel, hence we cannot simplify equation (5) to yield equation (6). Likewise, the between-cohort gap in YA=a for the two samples in the absence of treatment will not be the same even if period effects are parallel. 17 4. Empirical examples In what follows we present three empirical applications. Each of these examples serves a different purpose. We start with the analysis of the effect of the 19th amendment (or the shift in the socialization environment it engendered) on female turnout. This example provides a straightforward framework to test and evaluate the parallel age and parallel period effects assumptions. The second example relates to the Southern partisan realignment, a case that stimulates a discussion about how to examine the effect of an intervention when the exact time point in which it has taken place is unclear. Without a clear point of transition in the socialization experienced by citizens, any grouping of cohorts by birth interval becomes arbitrary. This example illustrates how the addition of a control group facilitates estimation with year-of-birth cohorts. Last, we examine the effect of being socialized during and immediately after the transition from an authoritative regime. In particular, we will examine whether youth from post-communist countries locate themselves more to the right on the ideological spectrum as a result of the association between the left and communism. The added feature of this example is that it provides a difficult case for the selection of a control group, showing the gains from incorporating multiple control groups. 4.1 Example 1: The 19th amendment and women’s subsequent turnout rates Thus far we have used the 19th amendment case in laying out the key elements of our approach. At this point, we use data from the American National Election Studies cumulative file to actually examine whether being socialized in a period in which women did not have the right to 18 vote left a long shadow on women’s turnout profiles.11 Here, and in our later examples, our focus is on questions of method rather than the theoretical basis of expectations about cohort effects or the implications of the findings for political science. We use the cohort categorization proposed by Firebaugh and Chen (1995), which yields 8 cohorts with the following birth years: <1896, 1896-1905, 1906-1915, 1916-1925, 1926-1935, 1936-1945, 1946-1955, 1956-1965. The main hypothesis in this analysis is that women from the two oldest cohorts were less likely to vote even after the passage of the 19th amendment than were women born and socialized later. We use all available ANES studies until 1990. Both age and period are fully factored. We start by assuming both parallel period and parallel age effects. We thus estimate the following linear probability model:12 The reference categories are: the first (oldest) cohort; Year 1948; Age 35 years. Thus, j indexes cohort coefficients, j=1,…,7; k indexes year fixed effects, k=1,…,19; m indexes age fixed effects: m=1,…,34,36,…,77. The coefficients on the cohort variables indicate cohort differences among men, while the interactions between the gender variable (Female) and the cohort variables tell us whether the cohort differences found for women are different from those found for men. These interaction coefficients are the key quantities of interest. Although they only depict the female- 11 This question was examined by Firebaugh and Chen (1995), in an analysis that considered women's turnout in relation to men's turnout and that was a source of inspiration for this paper. Their rationale for the use of a control group differs from the difference-in-difference rationale we have developed here. 12 We used OLS just to keep things simple and since the form of estimation is not an issue for us here. Clearly, however, a Logit or Probit analysis would be more appropriate with a dichotomous dependent variable such as vote turnout. For a discussion of difference-in-difference estimation applied to data on more than two time points, in relation to models like (8), see Autor 2003, Lechner 2011. (8) 19 male difference for cohorts 2-8 relative to cohort 1, the other comparisons that are of interest (e.g., 3-7 vs. 2) are implied. According to the main hypothesis, we would expect a significantly greater difference for women than for men when comparing the first two cohorts to the later ones. Next, we relax the parallel effects assumptions, first for period effects and then for age effects. This is done by adding interactions between the period/age dummies and gender. We then evaluate the extent to which our original cohort effects change as a result of relaxing either of the parallel effects assumptions. As will be seen, such a comparison is useful because it provides unambiguous evidence about the sensitivity of the findings to the parallel effects assumptions. Importantly, our results here seem to be intact to the inclusion of gender-specific period or age fixed effects. In a final step, we compare our results with what we would have found if we had only focused on women, hence using no control group in the analysis The left panel in Figure 3 graphically depicts the turnout results from the first analysis. Shown are the gender gaps in turnout for each cohort. Cohort effects are found by comparing these gaps.13 A largely monotonic but non-linear ascending pattern can be detected. It indicates a decline in the turnout gap between men and women as we move to more recent cohorts. Consistent with expectations, the gender gap is highest among the two oldest cohorts. Moreover, no difference between the two oldest cohorts is evident, as expected. The gender gap among younger cohorts diminishes gradually at first but soon approaches a ceiling. No differences (and not much of a gender gap) are evident among the four youngest cohorts, born in 1926 or later, though all are distinctive from the two oldest cohorts (and perhaps the 3rd and 4th as well; our 13 The difference in the gender gap between, say, cohort 1 and cohort 8 is equal to the difference in the cohort 1 vs. cohort 8 gap between men and women. Presenting the gender gaps allows one to visualize all the potential cohort comparisons. 20 focus here is not on statistical significance). Hence, the findings seem to confirm prior evidence (Firebaugh and Chen 1995) about cohort-based differences in female turnout that resulted from the different socialization experiences generated by the change in electoral suffrage. The center and rightmost panels of Figure 3 present results from analyses that relax, in turn, the parallel period and parallel age effects assumptions. In both cases, the results seem to be largely unaffected. Only minor differences are observed, none of which poses any significant qualifications to the conclusions drawn when neither age nor period was allowed to vary with gender. By implication, the similarity across the three sets of results in Figure 3 indicates that the parallel effects assumption is probably valid for both age and period. Direct evidence on this question comes from the models that allow these assumptions to vary, albeit not at the same time. When age effects are allowed to vary only 4 of the 77 interaction coefficients are statistically significant at p<0.05 (not correcting for multiple testing) and plots of how age is related to turnout for men and women shows no systematic variation. Similarly, when period effects are allowed vary by gender, almost all of the interaction coefficients are small in magnitude, only 1 of 19 is statistically significant at p<0.05, and plots of the period effects for men and women look very similar. (These plots are available in the Appendix; see Figures A1 and A2) Finally, we consider how the finding presented in Figure 3 compares to those obtained when not using the control group—that is, when only analyzing women. Figure 4 presents results from three specifications, each of which included the 7 cohort dummies but where one included neither age nor period effects (left panel), one included only period fixed effects (middle panel) and one included only age fixed effects (right panel). These are comparable to the left, middle, 21 and rightmost panels of Figure 3, which, respectively, held period and age effects constant across genders, allowed period but not age effects to vary across genders, and allowed age but not period effects to vary across genders.14 To be sure, it is unlikely that one would just estimate a model of cohort effects without trying to account for aging and period effects. These comparisons do, however, serve to illustrate how the control group gives one leverage in estimating cohort effects. The variation in the results across specifications in Figure 4 is notable, as are the contrasts with those given in Figure 3. A pronounced curvilinear pattern emerges in the first set of results, with turnout rates among the two oldest cohorts on a par with those of the youngest cohorts, though lagging behind those for the middle cohorts. The pattern is similar when period, but not age effects are taken into account (middle panel). The implication is that uncontrolled aging effects are generating this curvilinear pattern. The estimates in Figures 4a and 4b did not yield this curvilinear pattern precisely because the age confound is also present among men, our control group. In the rightmost panel of Figure 4, where age but not period effects were included, cohort differences largely disappear. Visually, the only cohort that appears distinctive is the youngest. Here it is uncontrolled period effects that are responsible for results that diverge from those found in the rightmost panel of Figure 3. As this exercise illustrates, adding a control group and estimating cohort effects through a difference-in-difference approach can provide real leverage in an APC analysis. Without a control group, the solution of excluding age effects or of excluding period effects is not a viable 14 When period (and/or age) effects are held constant across the groups, including vs. excluding the period (and/or age) variables has no material consequence for the difference-in-difference estimates. Thus, for example, if we drop the period and age fixed effects from the model that generated the results presented in the leftmost panel of Figure 3, such that we only include the cohort variables, gender, and the interactions between the two, the results are almost identical. 22 one. As in this case, it can yield results for cohort effects that are sensitive to the choice of specification, that fail to conform to theoretical expectations, and that are vulnerable to rival interpretations invoking the excluded variable. The comparable solution in the control group design is not to exclude an effect (age or period) but to assume that at least one of those effects operates to the same extent on both groups. This is not a fail-proof solution to the APC identification problem, but can be of great value when the parallel effects assumption is warranted. 4.2 Example 2: The Southern realignment revisited A key and well-documented feature of American politics is the gradual but steady movement of the previously solid Democratic South to the Republicans. Although the origins of this shift are debated (e.g., Carmines and Stanley 1990, Osborne, Sears and Valentino 2011, Stanley 1988), the bulk of this literature gives pride of place to racial attitudes and civil rights policies (see, illustratively, Valentino and Sears 2005). What is important for our purposes is that while the most prominent sources have been identified, the exact departure and closing points of this process are largely unknown. Most empirical analyses locate the beginning of this realigning trend in the early 1960s, as also manifested by George Wallace’s strong presidential candidacy. One of the debates about the Republican realignment in the South is whether this change has been driven by conversion or by generational replacement. Have Southerners switched to the Republicans in a rather homogenous fashion, responding in this way to the ever growing cross- pressure between their party and their racial and other issue attitudes? Or do new cohorts, whose political experience starts after the 1950s, largely drive this shift? The aim here is not to challenge prior studies focusing on the issue of the Southern 23 realignment. We employ this case because it provides an interesting example of how our approach works when it is not clear when the intervention takes place or how long it lasts. We again use the ANES data, but we now adopt a more agnostic attitude with regard to the construction of cohorts. In particular, we refrain from clustering individuals in more than one year-of-birth category. The only exception in this rule is the reference category, namely all individuals born before 1880.15 Hence, a long series of dummies, each one denoting respondents born at any given year from 1881 to 1992, is used to capture cohort effects. Both time and age are also controlled in a fully factored fashion. The important question, once again, is the choice of the control group. Here an obvious candidate for this role is the non-South, i.e. all ANES respondents residing in non-Southern states. Following the previous strategy, we first estimate a model interacting all year-of-birth dummies with South, a dummy that switches on for Southern respondents.16 We plot differences in differences in this case, specifically, the difference in the probability of being a Democrat between a Southern and a non-Southern member of the cohort in question compared to the same South vs. Non-South difference for the oldest cohort, used as the reference category.17 The results from this exercise, holding period and age effects (fully factored) constant across the regions, appear in the left-most graph of Figure 5. A local regression curve traces the conditional expectation across all cohorts, sorted from the oldest to the youngest. A largely monotonic but nonlinear pattern is found, with successive cohorts less Democratic in their party identification until we reach those born in the 1970s. The next two graphs (6b and 6c) relax the parallel periods 15 This is done because until that year of birth, we had less than ten cases in each cell. 16 South includes the following states: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia. 17 The dependent variable is a dummy that denotes Democrats (including leaners). For simplicity, OLS estimation was used. 24 and aging assumptions, respectively. Results not shown reveal sizeable period effects, which vary between the South and the North, but virtually no age effects in either region. Because of this, the results from relaxing the parallel period effects assumption (see middle panel) differ from the first set, while those from relaxing the parallel age effects assumption (see rightmost panel) do not. Once the parallel period effects assumption is relaxed, the cohort differences are attenuated, but we still find a monotonic trend with the greatest gap involving those who were born in the late 1940s and who came of age in the late 1960s. Two points about this case should be underscored. First, and unlike the previous example, we do see variation in the results depending upon the assumption(s) employed. This, in turn, is due to the significant regional variation in period effects that is exposed when such variation is allowed by the model. Fortunately, no evidence of regional variation in age effects is found.18 Thus, we can confidently ignore the first and third set of results and focus our interpretations on the second, which are generated using the model that allows regional variation in period but not age effects. Second, as we have already pointed out, the inclusion of a control group gives one leverage for identifying cohort effects no matter how cohorts are defined. There is no need to gain leverage by using birth-interval rather than birth-year cohorts. As demonstrated here, analysis of year-of-birth cohorts can be useful when there is uncertainty about when the relevant causal variable changed or how that shift (or those shifts) affected individuals depending upon their age at the time. The results can be the basis of inductive reasoning about the formation of unique generations or generational units. At the same time, if one does have an explicit 18 Theory and substance is not our focus, but this pattern is not surprising. There is no particular reason to believe that aging effects on party identification would vary across the regions (if one expected them to exist in the first place), while it is more plausible to believe that partisan forces play out differently across the regions. 25 hypothesis about where cohort boundaries should be drawn, year of birth cohorts can be used to put that hypothesis to a test. 4.3 Example 3: Ideological leanings in post-Communist democracies Our third example is theoretically motivated by a common pattern found in the literature on ideological positioning in post-communist democracies. Most surveys show that people in Eastern European countries are on average located more to the right than their counterparts in established democracies.19 One conjecture is that right-wing support in Eastern Europe is being fueled by right-leaning new (younger) cohorts who entered adulthood during or after the democratic transition. The central idea is that the newer cohorts would be more right-leaning than older cohorts because they were not socialized during an era of Communist ascendency (Pop-Eleches and Tucker 2010, Linek 2011). Again, we have no intention to contribute to this literature. We address this question because it poses an interesting challenge for our approach to APC analysis—namely the choice of a control group. We use the European Election Study (EES) surveys of 1989, 1994, 1999 and 2004. With the exception of Eastern Germany, all other cases classified as new democracies are included only in 2004. This is not ideal, and it introduces estimation complications that an analyst would ordinarily need to take into account. We, however, set these issues aside, as they do not bear on the utility of the example for our purposes. To investigate this question, we place respondents in six cohorts (birth years <1920, 1920-1934, 1935-1949, 1950-1964, 1965-1987, 1980>), for simplicity. Age is controlled for with a linear, a quadratic and a cubic term. Period effects are accounted for with the EES study 19 In data from the European Election Study, described below, a regression of left-right placement (scored 0=most left to 1=most right) on a dummy denoting respondents coming from East European countries generates a coefficient of .367 (.051). 26 dummies. The results using only the East European cases appear in the first (left-most) graph of Figure 6. Contrary to expectations, each incoming cohort seems to be located more to the left than the oldest cohort, born before 1920. If we now wish to examine the same pattern using a control group, the important question is which group to choose as a control. Intuition suggests the choice of respondents to the same surveys from established democracies. If there is a general shift to the right among younger cohorts in new democracies, this should be evident in inter-cohort comparisons that juxtapose respondents from new democracies with those from established democracies. The still unresolved question, however, is which exact country to use for this role. Here, theory and existing research is important. Prior knowledge of the available cases should be employed with the aim of approximating a most-similar design. That said, the opportunity to use more than one country should also be taken, as doing so will reveal the robustness of the results to the choice of a control group. This strategy constitutes a very valuable robustness check to potential treatment- group unobservables in difference-in-difference (Card and Krueger 1994) and multiple control- group designs (Lu and Rosenbaum 2004). We first estimate cohort effects using all respondents from established democracies as the control group. The results appear in the second (right-most) graph of Figure 6.20 The pattern gives credence to the idea that young cohorts in Eastern Europe are less enamored of leftish politics than were those who were socialized under communist rule. As a next step, we assess the robustness of these results to the choice of different control groups, using respondents from each established democracy in turn. If the findings arise because the younger cohorts were not 20 Note that this analysis assumes parallel period and parallel age effects. Relaxing either assumption diminishes the magnitude of the inter-cohort differences. 27 socialized in an era of Communist dominance, or because the left was delegitimized in their eyes as a result of its connection to the prior, non-democratic regime, the choice of the control group should not matter very much in the final results. This is because none of the countries used as controls experienced an authoritative regime linked to the left.21 Figure 7, which shows all possible tests, indicates that the findings seem to hold with almost no exception, regardless of the country chosen as a control group. In all cases, the youngest cohort registers the most extreme- right scores. The use of multiple control groups boosts confidence in the robustness of the findings. 5. Conclusion Over the last decades a large variety of applications in social sciences, epidemiology, and other disciplines have employed Age-Period-Cohort models to disentangle the roots of change in various phenomena of interest. The identification problem has typically been addressed by grouping birth-year cohorts, constraining the functional form of period and/or age effects, or by applying other analytical techniques based on assumptions about how various quantities of interest work. The design-based approach that we have described and illustrated is a promising alternative when cohort effects are of special interest. The approach introduces a control group and adapts differences-in-differences estimation to the APC framework, yielding two alternative identification strategies. The assumptions underlying these strategies are transparent, testable, and in some applications may even be theoretically expected to hold. Selection threats remain to 21 Spain, Portugal and Greece may be problematic as control groups because they have transitioned away from authoritarian regimes linked to the right. This could have produced cohort effects in the control group, with younger cohorts more left-leaning than older cohorts. In our analysis, this would generate the appearance of cohort effects in the eastern European countries, even if younger cohorts there did not especially lean to the right. The fact that our cohort effect estimates are consistent across all of the countries used as controls renders this possibility less worrisome. 28 hinder causal inference, but there are reasons to believe these are mitigated by the inclusion of the control group. Cohort effects are expected to arise if exogenous events have led one or more cohorts within a population to receive the treatment of a new socialization context. Estimating these effects is hampered by the fact that cohort is fully confounded with age when cohorts are compared at any one point in time, and fully confounded with period when cohorts are compared at any one point in the life cycle. Adding a control group—a group in which no individual was treated but that is otherwise as similar to the first group as possible—provides a way out of this conundrum. Instead of looking at the difference between treated and untreated cohorts in a single sample, one looks at how this difference compares to a second difference—that between the same cohorts in the control sample. When estimating this quantity holding time constant, age effects are no longer confounding if one assumes that they affect each group in a parallel fashion. Likewise, when holding age constant, period effects are no longer confounding if one assumes they operate in parallel across the groups. In an APC framework, thus, cohort effects are identified either if age is constrained to have the same effect across groups or if period effects are constrained to be the same across groups. As we have illustrated, these assumptions can be tested directly, if imperfectly, by examining the evidence for non-parallel age or period effects when each assumption is relaxed in turn, and can be tested indirectly by comparing cohort effect estimates obtained from these specifications to those obtained when both parallel age and parallel period effects are assumed. To implement this approach, researchers must find a control sample for which Y data are available that is comparable to the sample from the actual population of interest—save for the shock that is thought to have generated cohort effects in the latter. It is the introduction of the 29 control group into the APC model that yields difference-in-difference estimation of cohort effects while accounting for period and age effects. Because of the within-cohort comparisons that are integral to the estimation strategy, it is essential that the control sample includes the same cohorts as the initial sample. A successful choice for the control group should otherwise be based on the logic governing Mill’s most-similar-cases design: except for the fact that no cohort is treated, the control group should be as similar as possible to the target sample. Introducing a control group does more than provide solutions to the APC identification dilemma. Doing so can improve the specification of the APC model because the two groups are bound to share unobservables and because unmodeled age*period interactions are implicitly controlled. An important criticism that can be made with regard to this approach is that it may be difficult to find a suitable control group. It is crucial that the treatment experienced by one or more cohorts in the target sample was not also experienced by the comparable control cohorts. Even so, unmodeled cohort effects operating within the control sample could confound the analysis, as could uncontrolled variables that vary across cohorts and groups. Given that explicit empirical evidence on these issues may often be lacking, we urge researchers to engage in multiple control group testing. Doing so, one can better rule out unobserved or unmodeled confounders that could be driving results. References Alwin, D.F., McCammon, R.J. 2003. Generations, Cohorts, and Social Change. In Mortimer, J.T. Shanahan, M. J. (Eds.), Handbook of the Life Course. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2-49. Angrist, J., Pischke J.-S., 2009. Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist’s Companion. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Autor, D., 2003. Outsourcing at Will: The Contribution of Unjust Dismissal Doctrine to the Growth of Employment Outsourcing. Journal of Labor Economics 21, 1-42. 30 Braungart, R., Braungart, M., 1984. Generational Politics. Micropolitics 3, 349-415. Card, D., Krueger, A., 1994. Minimum Wages and Employment: A Case Study of the Fast Food Industry in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. American Economic Review 84, 772-84. Carmines, E., Stanley, H., 1990. Ideological Realignment in the Contemporary South: Where Have All The Conservatives Gone? In Steed, R., Moreland, L., Baker, T. (Eds.) The Disappearing South? Studies in Regional Change and Continuity. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 21-33. Firebaugh, G., Chen, K., 1995. Voter Turnout of Nineteenth Amendment Women: The Enduring Effect of Disenfranchisement. American Journal of Sociology 100, 972-96. Gibson, J., Caldeira, G., 1992. Blacks and the United States Supreme Court: Models of Diffuse Support. Journal of Politics 54, 1120-45. Holland, P., 1986. Statistics and Causal Inference. With Discussion. Journal of the American Statistical Association 81, 945-70. Jennings, K., 2002. Generation Units and the Student Protest Movement in the United States: An Intra- and Inter-generational Analysis. Political Psychology 23, 303-24. Jennings, K, Niemi, R., 1981. Generations and Politics. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Lechner, M., 2011. The Estimation of Causal Effects by Difference-in-Difference Methods. Discussion Paper no. 2010-28, Department of Economics, University of St. Gallen. Linek, L., 2011. The Impact of Past Events on Current Electoral Behaviour. Age-Period-Cohort Analysis of Czech Communist Party Voters. Paper presented at the ESRA Conference, Lausanne, July, 2011. Lu, B., Rosenbaum, P., 2004. Optimal Pair Matching with Two Control Groups. Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics 13, 422–434. Mannheim, K., 1952 [1926]. Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Nielsen, B., Nielsen, Jens, 2012. Identification and Forecasting in Mortality Models. Working Paper. University of Oxford. Niemi, R., Sobieszek, B., 1977. Political Socialization. Annual Review of Sociology 3, 209-33. Osborne, D., Sears, D., Valentino, N., 2011. The End of the Solidly Democratic South: The Impressionable Years Hypothesis. Political Psychology 32, 81-108. Pop-Eleches, G., Tucker, J., 2010. After the Party: Legacies and Left-Right Distinctions in Post- 31 Communist countries. Paper presented at the 2010 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Sept 2-5, 2010, Washington, DC. Rosenbaum, P., 1987. The Role of a Second Control Group in an Observational Study. Statistical Science 2, 292-306. Pischke, J.-S., 2007. The Impact of Length of the School Year on Student Performance and Earnings: Evidence from the German Short School Years. Economic Journal 117, 1216-42. Schuman, H., Rodgers, W., 2004. Cohorts, Chronology, and Collective Memories. Public Opinion Quarterly 68, 217-254 Sears, D., 1983. The Persistence of Early Political Predispositions: the Roles of Attitude Object and Life Stage. In Wheeler, L., (Ed.) Review of Personality and Social Psychology, 4. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 79-116. Stanley, H., 1988. Southern Partisan Changes: Dealignment, Realignment, or Both? Journal of Politics 50, 64-88. Valentino, N., Sears, D., 2005. Old Times There Are Not Forgotten: Race and Partisanship in the Contemporary South. American Journal of Political Science 49, 672-88. Winship, C., Harding, D., 2008. A Mechanism Based Approach to the Identification of Age- Period-Cohort Models. Sociological Methods and Research 36, 362-401. 32 Figure 1: Use of a Control Group in Pischle's (2007) Study of Retention Rates Note: SSY stands for Short School Years. 33 Figure 2: The parallel trends assumption in difference-in-difference analysis 34 Figure 3: Cohort effects in 19th amendment example, estimated three ways. Note: Shown in each panel is the estimated gender gap in turnout (male turnout – female turnout) for each of the eight cohorts introduced in the text. Confidence intervals are depicted by the vertical bars. Comparing the gaps across cohorts gives the cohort effects. The leftmost panel reports results from a model that included age and period fixed effects. The model generating results shown in the middle panel allowed interactions between gender and period but not age, while that for the rightmost panel allowed interactions between gender and age but not period. 35 Figure 4: Cohort effects in the 19th Amendment example—analyzing women only Note: Entries are predicted probability of voting, as estimated with OLS. The vertical bars show the estimated 95% confidence intervals. The model generating results shown in the leftmost panel included neither period nor age dummies. The model producing results shown in the middle panel included period but not age dummies, while that producing the rightmost results included age but not period dummies. 36 Figure 5: Cohort effects in the Southern realignment example Note: The figure shows inter-cohort difference in the predicted probability of identifying as a Democrat among Southerners relative to the inter-cohort difference among non-Southerners. The inter-cohort difference is that between the cohort indicated on the X axis and the oldest cohort. 37 Figure 6: Left-Right placement in new democracies: Cohort effect estimates with and without a control group Note: Estimates in the left panel show the difference between the named cohort and the oldest cohort among those in new democracies. Estimates in the right panel show the difference-in- difference estimates—i.e., the gap between the named and oldest cohort among those in new democracies relative to that same gap among those in established democracies. 38 Figure 7: Left-right placement in new democracies: Varying the control group. 39 Figure A1: Estimated Period Effects for Men in Women (19th Amendment Example) Note: Estimates come from the model that allowed period effects to vary by gender but constrained age effects to be parallel. Age (=35) and cohort (=oldest) are held constant. 40 Figure A2: Estimated Age Effects for Men in Women (19th Amendment Example) Note: Shown are smoothed curves summarizing how the predicted probability of voting varies with age among men and women. Estimates come from the model that represented age effects with dummy variables and allowed those age effects to vary by gender but constrained period effects to be parallel. Period (=0) and cohort (=oldest) were held constant. 
work_h6ojtjw4gjcjtlxpbkpa2t44ki	----	SCIENCE American Association for the Advancement of Science Science serves its readers as a forum for the presentation and discussion of important issues related to the advance- ment of science, including the presentation of minority or con- flicting points of view, rather than by publishing only material on which a consensus has been reached. Accordingly, all ar- ticles published in Science-including editorials, news and comment, and book reviews-are signed and reflect the indi- vidual views of the authors and not official points of view adopted by the AAAS or the institutions with which the au- thors are affiliated. Publisher: William D. Carey Editor: Daniel E. Koshland, Jr. Deputy Editors: Philip H. Abelson (Engineering and Applied Sciences); John 1. Brauman (Physical Sciences); Gardner Lindzey (Social Sciences) EDITORIAL STAFF Managing Editor: Patricia A. Morgan Assistant Managing Editors: Nancy J. Hartnagel, John E. Ringle Senior Editors: Eleanore Butz, Ruth Kulstad Associate Editors: Martha Collins, Barbara Jasny, Katrina L. Kelner, Edith Meyers, Phillip D. Szuromi, David F. Voss Letters Editor: Christine Gilbert Book Reviews: Katherine Livingston, editor; Deborah F. Washburn This Week in Schlnce Ruth Levy Guyer Chief Production Editor: Ellen E. Murphy Editing Department: Lois Schmitt, head' Caitilin Gordon, Mary McDaniel, Barbara E. Patterson Copy Desk: Lyle L. Green, Sharon Ryan, Beverly Shields, Anna Victoreen Production Manager: Karen Schools Graphics and Production: John Baker, assistant manager; Holly Bishop, Kathleen Cosimano, Eleanor Warner Covers Editor: Grayce Finger Manuscript Systems Analyst: William Carter NEWS STAFF News Editor: Barbara J. Culliton News and Comment: Colin Norman, deputy editor; Mark H. Crawford, Constance Holden, Eliot Marshall, Marjorie Sun, John Walsh Research News: Roger Lewin, deputy editor; Deborah M. Barnes, Richard A. Kerr, Gina Kolata, Jean L. Marx, Arthur L. Robinson, M. Mitchell Waldrop European Corrsspondent: David Dickson BUSINESS STAFF Associate Publisher: William M. Miller, Ill Business Staff Manager: Deborah Rivera-Wienhold Classied Advertlsing: Leo Lewis Membership Recruitment: Gwendolyn Huddle Member and Subscription Records: Ann Ragland Guide to Biotechnology Products and Instruments: Shauna S. Roberts ADVERTiSING REPRESENTATIVES Director: Earl J. Scherago Production Manager: Donna Rivera Advertising Sales Managr: Richard L. Charles Marketing Manager: Herbert L. Burklund Sais: New York, NY 10036: J. Kevin Henebry, 1515 Broad- way (212-730-1050); Scotch Plains, NJ 07076: C. Richard Callis, 12 Unami Lane (201-889-4873); Chicago, IL 60611: Jack Ryan, Room 2107, 919 N. Michigan Ave. (312-337- 4973); San Jose, CA 95112: Bob Brindley, 310 S. 16 St. (408- 998-4690); Dorset, VT 05251: Fred W. Dieffenbach, Kent Hill Rd. (802-867-5581). Instructions for contributors appears on page xi of the 26 September 1986 issue. Editorial correspondence, including requests for permission to reprint and reprint orders, should be sent to 1333 H Street, NW, Washington, DC 20005. Tele- phone: 202-326-6500. Advertising correspondence should be sent to Tenth Floor, 1515 Broadway, NY 10036. Telephone 212-730-1050. 24 OCTOBER I986 VOLUME 234 NUMBER 4775 Spanking, Reason, and the Environment n exceedingly logical friend of mine told me that when he was 10 years old and playing peacefully with his siblings, his father suddenly picked him up and spanked *m. He turned in bewilderment to ask, "What did I do to deserve that?" "Nothing," his father replied. "Then why was I spanked?" "To teach you that this is not a rational world," was the answer. Even scientists without perceptive and theatrical fathers eventually learn that this is not a rational world. It should be part of our responsibility, however, to make it more so. A sizable expansion ofresearch by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) should be encouraged in the years ahead. Emotion runs high on environmental issues and the EPA has been marred by political factionalism. Yet it deals with our most precious and increasingly threatened resources: the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the soil that nourishes our food sources. Environmentalists argue that we are doing too little to protect our resources; industry argues that excessive regulation stifles progress. The reality is that we live in a world that becomes more densely populated each year and that population depends on chemicals for its food and its standard of living. So the problems will only become more serious, and they cannot be solved by headlines, law cases, or political posturing. In the past when faced with problems in health, fuel resources, defense, and food supplies, we responded with programs of basic research that paved the way for vast improvements. The environmental problems may be even more difficult. First, their solutions are bound to be costly and therefore opposed by both special interests and taxpayers. Second, the research is complex, requiring risk assessment analyses that strain current theories and are not easy to explain to lay audiences. Third, many of the solutions require international as well as national cooperation. Acquisition ofconvincing data is even more important when nonprofessionals must be persuaded of a course of action involving complex science. Time is of the essence. Governments delay action, claiming "lack offacts," as the clock ticks against a background of a deteriorating environment. The current EPA research budget is approximately $300 million, but it is almost all devoted to specific problems: a selenium contamination of water in California, an acid rain problem in the Great Lakes, a toxic waste dump in New York. The specific problems must be pursued, but basic knowledge is needed to develop broad strategies as well as innovative solutions. The Superfund costs are in the billions; asbestos cleanup costs are staggering; the science of risk assessment itself is in a primitive state; the EPA is entering the recombinant DNA field, when most of the expertise is found in the National Institutes of Health. All of these areas are candidates for a basic research approach. Furthermore, the type of research and its spatial requirements are unconventional. One model may be found in the recent opening by the Department ofEnergy ofthe gaseous fuels test site in Mercury, Nevada. Far away from any populated area, the facility is constructed to test the spread oftoxic gases such as the methyl isocyanate released at Bhopal or hydrofluoric acid, a corrosive but widely used chemical. Tests are planned on protective measures such as vapor fences and detoxication techniques. A rational policy for toxic waste disposal requires facts, and this experimental approach is laudable. A tripling ofthe EPA research budget is not unreasonable in view ofthe need. This could be achieved over the next couple of years mainly through a greatly expanded extramural program. EPA would be well advised to model its research program on the successful NIH example, with most of its research in a peer-reviewed extramural program but with a sizable intramural program as well. Because most of its research is inevitably controversial, it will gain by the outside component, both in terms of expertise and credibility. There will be those who believe that these issues have become so politicized that they can only be solved by the media and publicity, others who say that they require lawyers and litigation, and still others who say that they devolve on politics and money. I would like to believe reason and data can be used to make decisions, but then I was never spanked at an appropriately impressionable age.-DANIEL E. KOSHLAND, JR. 24 OCTOBER 1986 EDIIORIAL 4.09 o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 h ttp ://scie n ce .scie n ce m a g .o rg / D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://science.sciencemag.org/ Spanking, Reason, and the Environment DANIEL E. KOSHLAND JR. DOI: 10.1126/science.234.4775.409 (4775), 409.234Science ARTICLE TOOLS http://science.sciencemag.org/content/234/4775/409.citation PERMISSIONS http://www.sciencemag.org/help/reprints-and-permissions Terms of ServiceUse of this article is subject to the is a registered trademark of AAAS.ScienceScience, 1200 New York Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20005. The title (print ISSN 0036-8075; online ISSN 1095-9203) is published by the American Association for the Advancement ofScience 1986 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science. o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 h ttp ://scie n ce .scie n ce m a g .o rg / D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://science.sciencemag.org/content/234/4775/409.citation http://www.sciencemag.org/help/reprints-and-permissions http://www.sciencemag.org/about/terms-service http://science.sciencemag.org/ 
work_hbekur7dxbavdbzfw76kbmxnmi	----	The British Journal of Psychiatry | Cambridge Core Skip to main content Accessibility help We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings. Login Alert Cancel Log in × × Home Only search content I have access to Home Log in Register Browse subjects What we publish Services About Cambridge Core Cart Cart Access provided by Carnegie Mellon University Manage institution login Logged in as: Carnegie Mellon University Manage institution login Register Register Log in Cart < Back to search results Home Journals The British Journal of Psychiatry English | Français The British Journal of Psychiatry Search within full text Search within journal Search within society Submit your article Information Submit your article You are leaving Cambridge Core and will be taken to this journal's article submission site. 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work_hdbw5m32tnbevjvkn6k4svzaue	----	v40n1pagesp1.pdf Journal of the British Society for Phenomenology, Vol. 40, No. 2, May 2009 AN ABSENCE THAT COUNTS IN THE WORLD: MERLEAU-PONTY’S LATER PHILOSOPHY OF TIME IN LIGHT OF BERNET’S “EINLEITUNG” 1 ALIA AL-SAJI In his “Einleitung” to Edmund Husserl’s Texte zur Phänomenologie des inneren Zeitbewusstseins (1893-1917), translated for the first time in this volume,2 Rudolf Bernet convincingly argues for an alternative order and grouping of Husserl’s early texts on time — texts originally published as “Supplementary Texts” (Part B) in the critical edition of Husserl’s Time Lectures in Husserliana X: Zur Phänomenologie des inneren Zeitbewusstseins (1893-1917).3 Most significantly, Bernet situates these texts within the context of the development of Husserl’s phenomenology and brings to light not only their philosophical import but also their limitations and blind spots. By means of Bernet’s re-reading and reconstruction, Husserl’s early analyses of time come to reveal tendencies and directions of thought that are otherwise obscured by the organization of the Time Lectures themselves. As is now well known, the “Lectures on the Phenomenology of the Consciousness of Internal Time” (originally published in 1928 and republished as Part A of the critical edition in 1966) were edited by Edith Stein and nominally by Martin Heidegger and juxtapose texts from different periods of Husserl’s thought on time between 1893 and 1917;4 this collage effectively masks the philosophical and terminological shifts within Husserl’s phenomenology of time- consciousness. What is masked is precisely that “unthought-of element” of Husserl’s analyses that Maurice Merleau-Ponty was to find so productive; this is Husserl’s constant self-questioning and rethinking of earlier positions, the divergence and revision that reveal his thought as a process in the making.5 In taking up and re-ordering the “Supplementary Texts” from Husserliana X, Bernet’s “Einleitung” makes visible the stakes implicit in the movement of Husserl’s thought on time, both in the continuities upon which it insists and in the transformations it enacts. The “Einleitung” reveals reiterations but also differences within Husserl’s own thinking of time; it exposes the articulations, hesitations and sometimes even the worries that make the concepts central to Husserl’s phenomenology of time-consciousness — concepts of retention, primal impression and absolute consciousness — what they have become for us. As Bernet notes, Husserl’s time-analyses have been a generative, albeit contested, ground for later French phenomenologists for whom the critique of these analyses has constituted an indispensable point of departure in their own thinking of time (“Einleitung,” lxiii). Maurice Merleau-Ponty is a curious case 207 in this regard. Though Merleau-Ponty presents his account of temporality in the Phenomenology of Perception as one that follows closely from Husserl’s Time Lectures, the temporality which he elaborates throughout that text is one that is characterized as much by “dehiscence”6 as by “envelopment” (PhP 140/164) and interlocking (“emboîtement”) (PhP 240/278). This double reading of retentional intentionality, as the temporal movement both of disintegration (PhP 419/479) and of return and presence to self (PhP 427/488), paradoxically demonstrates Merleau-Ponty’s closeness to Husserl. For the author of the Phenomenology the Husserlian framework is one that remains too close. Merleau-Ponty thinks within this framework, drawing out its implicit yet undeveloped possibilities, but I would claim that Merleau-Ponty does not scrutinize the framework itself. His reading in the Phenomenology is at once faithful to, while diverging from, Husserl, yet unlike his approach in later texts such as “The Philosopher and His Shadow” this divergence is not itself marked out or questioned (Signs 177/223); there is no uneasiness with respect to Husserl’s texts here.7 That distance Merleau-Ponty only achieves in his later works and once his reading of Husserl comes to be mediated by other thinkers (notably Heidegger and Bergson). Most importantly, Merleau-Ponty’s relation to Husserl can be understood to mediate his relation to his own thought, with all the vexations and reversals that this implies: Husserl constitutes not only a privileged point of departure for Merleau-Ponty’s philosophy (whether on the lived body or on time) but also a means for self- questioning and self-critique.8 Thus as Merleau-Ponty distances himself from his own early work — specifically from the philosophy of consciousness and subjectivity and the metaphysics of presence that he comes to discern as having framed the Phenomenology (VI 183/237, 200/253) — this self-critique passes progressively through a critical re-reading of Husserl.9 The import of this way of reading Husserl for Merleau-Ponty’s philosophy of time is double. It means not only that Husserl’s phenomenology continues to inform Merleau-Ponty’s thinking on time, despite his explicit critique of the Time Lectures in the working notes to The Visible and the Invisible. Although such continuing influence can be attributed to the shift in Merleau-Ponty’s focus from the Time Lectures to “The Origin of Geometry”10 — to which Merleau- Ponty’s later courses and writings are clearly more favourable — I believe that Merleau-Ponty’s relation to the Time Lectures is a more complex one than such an interpretation allows. Specifically, Merleau-Ponty’s later critique of the Time Lectures is accompanied by a working-through and re-conception of Husserlian notions. The central concepts of Husserl’s time-analyses are not discarded out of hand. Whether it be the “encasement” or “envelopment” of retentional intentionality or the potential unconsciousness of “ultimate” consciousness, these concepts shift and are reconfigured (sometimes in radical and almost unrecognizable ways) within the later ontology of time that is the flesh. 208 It is in this vein that Merleau-Ponty’s appeal, in “The Philosopher and His Shadow,” to the fecundity of Husserl’s “unthought” can be reread (though the Time Lectures are not Merleau-Ponty’s focus in that text).11 Not only would this “unthought” stem from the iterative and self-questioning movement of Husserl’s time-analyses, but also from the structures of temporality that Husserl sought to bring to phenomenological description, even when he could not find adequate formulas to fix them (here Husserl’s reflections on the nameability and temporality of the “flow” of absolute consciousness come to mind (PITC 75, 371)). Indeed, to invoke a common theme in Merleau-Ponty’s reading of Husserl, it is the “failure” to give a complete account and the need to resume the analysis that are the positive lessons of Husserlian phenomenology. In other words, the inability to grasp time-consciousness in an act of intellectual possession demonstrates the excess of its becoming, a transcendence that cannot be held “as between forceps” (VI 128/170). But it is because Husserl’s time-analyses bring together divergent tendencies that they can become the locus for this Merleau-Pontian insight: on the one hand, we find in Bernet’s words the “dream of the omnipresence of the entire life of my consciousness on call and at my disposal at any moment” (“Einleitung”, xlii) — the metaphysics of presence presupposed in Husserl’s insistence on the absolute self-presence of the consciousness of the “now” and in his disquiet with respect to forgetting — and, on the other hand, there is a phenomenological attention to time, an attempt to think it from within, that belies this dream.12 Though Husserl himself did not work through this tension, Merleau-Ponty can be seen to take it up in his articulation of time as “dehiscence” in the Phenomenology and in his attempt to name time without fixing it in The Visible and the Invisible. Time is, in the latter text, “vortex” (VI 244/298), transcendence without subject or object, and “absence [that] counts in the world” (VI 228/281). In what follows, I examine Merleau-Ponty’s later critique and reworking of Husserl’s time-analyses through the lens of concepts, limitations and concerns brought to light by Bernet’s reading of these time-analyses in the “Einleitung”. My argument draws primarily on the working notes to The Visible and the Invisible, but it is also informed by Merleau-Ponty’s lecture courses on Institution and Passivity (1954-55).13 Three elements of Bernet’s reading of Husserl frame my argument: (i) the metaphysics of presence, the “dream of the omnipresence of ... consciousness” presupposed in Husserl’s analyses (“Einleitung,” xlii); (ii) retention as non-linear “encasement [Verschachtelung],” as the splintering or spiralling of time that implies a certain structural circularity, or in Merleau-Ponty’s terms “simultaneity” (“Einleitung”, li); and (iii) the problem of forgetting demonstrated at once by Husserl’s “positivistic horror of the past as the locus of an absolute and fundamental absence” (“Einleitung”, xlii) and by his reflection on, and 209 rejection of, the possible unconsciousness of ultimate consciousness (“Einleitung”, lvi and PITC 382). Since Merleau-Ponty’s later philosophy of time takes its point of departure — as both critique and reconceptualization — from Husserl’s time-analyses, it will be important to follow the trajectory of these Husserlian concepts within Merleau-Ponty’s later ontology of the flesh. My question is: what becomes of the present, retention and forgetting in the later works? The tentative answer passes through the logic of institution as the “retrograde movement of the true” and through unconsciousness as (dis)articulation of the perceptual field, as Merleau-Ponty attempts to detach Husserlian notions from the philosophy of consciousness and “rehabilitate” them within an ontology of time.14 I. Merleau-Ponty’s Critique of Husserl Early Time-Analyses The explicit critique of Husserl’s early time-analyses takes place in the working notes of The Visible and the Invisible. At the centre of this critique we find Husserl’s time diagram: “Husserl’s diagram is dependent on the convention that one can represent the series of nows by points on a line.” (VI 195/248, W.N. May 20, 1959) This same diagram of time was appropriated in a positive sense by Merleau-Ponty in the Phenomenology of Perception, reproduced with a slightly different skew in order to emphasize the sinking into the past of each now-point and the “thickness” of retention that at once separates and connects the present to the past (PhP 417/476-7). In that text, Merleau-Ponty overlooked the rectilinear (PITC 99) and one-dimensional nature (PITC 380) of the diagram in favor of the non-linear complication introduced into the diagram by retention — what Bernet has called “splintering” (“Einleitung,” li) and Merleau-Ponty “dehiscence” (PhP 419/480). Though continuing to recognize the positive import of retentional intentionality for the understanding of temporality, Merleau-Ponty in The Visible and the Invisible no longer finds this intentionality sufficient to save Husserl’s time diagram. This is because Merleau-Ponty has become concerned with a deeper problem than linearity. Though his critique is aimed at the “linear conception of time” presented in Husserl’s diagram, as Bernet rightly notes (“Einleitung,” lxiii), it is also more than this. Specifically, Merleau- Ponty’s critique of the spatialization of time does not follow Bergson’s account in Time and Free Will (VI 195/248). For Merleau-Ponty, the error does not lie in representing time in terms of space, rather it is both spatiality and temporality that must be reconceived (and his ultimate descriptions of the flesh emphasize its “spatializing-temporalizing” structure (VI 244/297)). The problem, in a word, is not merely that of the line but of the point (whether spatially or temporally conceived). In the working notes, Merleau-Ponty describes “Husserl’s diagram as a positivist projection of the vortex of temporal differentiation.” (VI 231/ 284, 210 W.N. January 1960) It is the positivity of the present, the now-point of Husserl’s diagram, that is at issue here. And it is from this representation of the now-point as self-presence that both the punctuality and abstractness of the present and the seriality of time emerge as intertwining problems for Merleau- Ponty.15 At stake here is the metaphysics of presence that undergirds Husserl’s time-analyses. In “Is the Present Ever Present?”, Bernet notes the importance for Husserl of maintaining that “the now is, for itself and absolutely, present now.”16 The self-givenness of the now-point, its immediate perceptual presence for a primal impressional consciousness, is a metaphysical conviction that is reiterated in Husserl’s time-analyses, even when it is belied by his phenomenological descriptions. For Merleau-Ponty, this is more than a question of privileging the present (though it is also that); it is a misconstrual of the nature of the present, the consequences of which freeze the passage and flow of time. The assumption of full self-presence makes the present into a self-contained and sufficient moment, a source-point that coincides with itself.17 Such a point persists in itself, but has no internal reason for passing. By attributing absolute presence to the present, it becomes inconceivable that this present can itself pass. It can only become past by means of an external pressure, another present that competes with it and that pushes it out of existence — or, more precisely, out of the grasp of the consciousness of the “now.” Thus Merleau-Ponty asks of Husserl: “Is it the new present, in its individuality, that pushes the preceding one into the past, and that fills a part of the future?” (VI 190/244) Merleau-Ponty notes that “the upsurge of time would be incomprehensible as the creation of a supplement of time that would push the whole preceding series back into the past. That passivity is not conceivable” (VI 184/237). Indeed, according to Merleau-Ponty, this was precisely what Husserl’s appeal to the auto-constitution of the flow of absolute consciousness attempted, yet failed, to avoid (184/237). Ultimately, this picture would make of the present “a segment of time with defined contours that would come and set itself in place” (VI 184/238); it would be “a field defined by the objective diaphragm” (VI 196/249), where the present content were wholly positive and fully given to consciousness and the past an “occultation” or negation of this content (194/248).18 Time would then be defined as a series of punctual Abschattungen, a succession of self-contained moments that push each other out of presence.19 Significantly, this picture misses the passage of the present, since the implication of the past in the present — their internal interdependence — is elided. The relation of past and present remains one of externality. It is such an aporia that defines Husserl’s treatment of the relationship between primal impression and retention for Bernet: “the two are separated in an original form of ‘externality’ in which each pole presupposes the other, yet neither can be derived from the other.” (“Einleitung,” lv) It is for this reason, I believe, that 211 Merleau-Ponty no longer finds the addition of retentional intentionality to be sufficient to mitigate the punctuality and seriality of the Husserlian diagram. Unless the past is recognized as internally necessary to the definition of the present, and retention co-conditional for the consciousness of the primal impression, the import of retention is lost. For Merleau-Ponty, retentional intentionality should be understood to restructure the flow; Husserl’s time- analyses can only recognize its supplementation and “splintering” at points. By founding time-consciousness in the self-presence of a source-point — the primal impressional consciousness or consciousness of the “now” — Husserl relegates retention to the role of an “appendage or relic, a ‘comet’s tail’” (“Einleitung”, lv).20 The implications of retention are not thought through. Merleau-Ponty’s reading of Husserl’s time diagram carries the reflection on the “now-point” farther. His argument is not only that the knife-edged present, or now-point, cannot be said to exist since it constitutes an idealized abstraction (as Derrida will later argue). His argument is that Husserl has underestimated the import not only of retention but also of the now-point itself. For Merleau-Ponty, a point is more than merely a “point.” I find three senses in which this can be understood from the working notes. First, a point is already a relief or Gestalt. He notes that “it is the Cartesian idealization applied to the mind as to the things (Husserl) that has persuaded us that we were a flux of individual Erlebnisse, whereas we are a field of Being. Even in the present, the landscape is a configuration.” (VI 240/293) This is not only because there are no isolated points or figures in the perceptual field, but also because to be seen as a “point” is to deploy the differences within the perceptual field so that a certain figure becomes prominent while others remain implicit. The point relies for its visibility upon systems of diacritical difference — not only upon other points but also lines, colours and depth. Second, the now-point is already passage. The present is always elsewhere (or else-when) than where I look. It is unlocalizable as a fixed point, “ungraspable from close-up, in the forceps of attention” (VI 195/249); “one knows that it is not there, that it was just there, one never coincides with it” (VI 184/238). Though it may seem that this understanding of the now-point would motivate Merleau-Ponty to conceive it as a disintegrating or evanescent presence, his conception of the present in fact proceeds in the opposite direction, expanding it to a cycle “with indecisive contours” (VI 184/238), as we shall see in section two. Third, a spatio-temporal point is an event that, as it passes, opens up a future for other points. Since Merleau-Ponty does not subscribe to a formal understanding of the now-point, taken apart from its “content,” the now-point must already be understood to inscribe a style or way of being. In other words, a point is already a direction or dimension, “a centre of forces”.21 The point does not persist in itself, but is difference within a spatio-temporal field and the transformation of that field. 212 What the working notes offer, by means of these three senses of the point, is a reconceptualization of the now-point. I would thus claim that Merleau- Ponty’s critique of Husserl’s early time-analyses not only uncovers the ideal of self-presence upon which the edifice of time-consciousness is constructed (the “dream of the omnipresence of ... consciousness” to which Bernet points (“Einleitung”, xlii)), but also seeks to provide an alternative. In abandoning the dream of self-presence, the Husserlian now-point is not evacuated, but reinscribed as transcendence. Significantly, the now-point is no longer defined as presence to an actually-existing mode of consciousness (or to a subject, as in the Phenomenology of Perception). Rather, the now-point is at the cusp of a transcendence that surpasses the subject, and that cannot be encompassed by consciousness. It belongs to the ontological movement, the temporalization, of the flesh. In response to this Merleau-Pontian critique, it may be objected that Husserl’s time-analyses rely precisely on the distinction between now-point and primal impressional consciousness that Merleau-Ponty appears to elide. Though now- points are organized according to a succession in immanent time, and hence can appear to trace a linear path, Husserl came to realize that the structure of time- constituting consciousness could not be likewise described as a “succession.” (PITC 333) Rather, in the last group of the time-analyses (Bernet’s group four, texts from September 1909 to end of 1911), absolute consciousness is characterized as a “being-all-at-once” of two sorts, which make possible the experiences of succession and of simultaneity. (PITC 77-78, 374) Though this “being-all-at-once” cannot be properly called “simultaneity” any more than “succession” (PITC 375-6), since such terms can only be used to speak of immanent time within Husserl’s schema, Husserl nevertheless appears to be trying to describe a structural coexistence of impressional and retentional consciousness in the actuality phase of consciousness. This structural coexistence is not static but “makes up the moving moment of the actuality of consciousness” that is the “flow” of absolute consciousness (PITC 378). Appealing to the primal impressional consciousness does not, however, mitigate Merleau-Ponty’s critique. The “philosophy of consciousness” is the locus of repeated and generalized criticism in the working notes to The Visible and the Invisible — not only as it is presupposed in Husserl’s time-analyses and other texts but also as it works to frame many of the analyses of the Phenomenology of Perception.22 The reconceptualization of the present, to which I have pointed, works to recuperate the insights of the time-analyses by shifting the account of temporality away from this philosophy of consciousness. This shift of attention is not therefore a misreading on Merleau-Ponty’s part, but an effort at philosophical rehabilitation. In order to see this, it is necessary to turn briefly to the critique of the philosophy of consciousness as it has to do with time. In a particularly rich working note, 213 Merleau-Ponty observes that “[t]he intentional analytic tacitly assumes a place of absolute contemplation from which the intentional explicitation is made, and which could embrace present, past, and even openness towards the future.” (VI 243/297, W.N. April 1960) The problem is precisely that the “being-all-at- once” of time, what Merleau-Ponty calls the “past-present ‘simultaneity’” (VI 243/297), is contained within the immanence of consciousness. In this schema, whatever is, or was, must present itself to a consciousness that grasps it in full self-presence (primal impression) or as an absence that derives from a former presence (retention). To rehabilitate primal impression and retention it is necessary to think them not as acts of consciousness — even if non- objectivating, as in the case of Husserl’s notion of horizontal retentional intentionality [Längsintentionalität] — but to think them as “intentionality without acts” (VI 238/292), or more precisely as “intentionality within being.”23 This intentionality is not a property of a consciousness to which the now-point must become present, but “the thread that binds” the now-point to its own past and future (VI 173/227). It is the temporal becoming or transcendence of the now-point itself, a transcendence that cannot be fully encompassed in any consciousness.24 The aim of Merleau-Ponty’s critique is, then, to think the past and the present without reducing them to the “consciousness of the past” and the “consciousness of the present.” At the centre of the critique is Husserl’s constitutive analysis which traces the being of the past and of the present back to time-constituting consciousness. This constituting consciousness Merleau- Ponty elsewhere describes as “the philosopher’s professional impostor” (Signs 180/227); instead of disclosing the secret structure of time, this consciousness is an “artefact” that the presumptive teleology of philosophical reflection projects back onto the flow (180/227). In contrast, Merleau-Ponty maintains that “it is indeed the past that adheres to the present and not the consciousness of the past that adheres to the consciousness of the present: the ‘vertical’ past contains in itself the exigency to have been perceived, far from the consciousness of having perceived bearing that of the past.” (VI 244/297) There is a weight to the past, and to the present that passes, that make a difference in time and whose reverberations can be felt, even when the present involves unconsciousness and the past remains forgotten; in other words, they are “absences” that count in the world. The “simultaneity” or adherence of the past to the present is a structure that Husserl’s intentional analysis failed to grasp, a structure that was implicit within his description of the “flow” as Merleau- Ponty reads it.25 I believe that Bernet points to this concentric structure when he describes the way “each new retention ripples through the whole of time- consciousness like a stone cast into the water.” (“Einleitung”, li) It is this simultaneity that Merleau-Ponty tries to think through in his later philosophy of time — insisting that it is neither fusion without differentiation (a position he 214 attributes to Bergson), nor the juxtaposition of external moments (Husserl). Not unlike Husserl’s hesitations in naming the “flow” of absolute consciousness, Merleau-Ponty searches for images and concepts through which the internal implication of past and present, and hence the simultaneity that structures time, can be glimpsed. Though it is unclear that any of these concepts can be taken as final (or that such completion is even possible), I will examine two such schemas below: Merleau-Ponty’s appeal to Bergson’s “retrograde movement of the true” (section two) and, in a move surprisingly reminiscent of the Phenomenology, to the Gestalt of the perceptual field (section three). Merleau-Ponty’s critique of the philosophy of consciousness as framework for thinking time stems not only from the paucity of its representation of past and present, but also from its inability to do justice to the structure of time as past-present “simultaneity.” My reading of Merleau-Ponty is hence informed by two concerns overlooked by the philosophy of consciousness, lacunae that Bernet discerns in Husserl’s account of the past in the time-analyses (“Einleitung”, xlii). On the one hand, there is the “circularity” of time that can be seen in the historical becoming of the past, its power to take on new meaning after the fact and to thus reconfigure, and be reconfigured by, the present (section two). And, on the other hand, there is the problem of forgetting, not only as the insinuation of discontinuity and absence into what could have been an “omnipresent” intentional life, but as a structural absence that makes perception possible for Merleau-Ponty (section three). II. Retention, the Present and the “Retrograde Movement of the True” Merleau-Ponty’s lecture course on Institution (1954-55) opens with a re- reading of Husserlian primal impression that will be accompanied by a radical rethinking of retention. Merleau-Ponty observes Husserl’s hesitation between, on the one hand, conceiving the primal impression according to the schema of apprehension-apprehension content26 and, on the other hand, understanding it as Urempfindung “where I am surpassed, [because I feel the] thickness of the sensible, of the present, the thing itself.”27 The present is a surpassing not only in the sense in which it is something new, and hence not immediately perceived as a recognizable object, but also, as we learn later in the lecture course, in the sense in which it is an event that only comes to have its meaning post-factually. Since the present does not have its meaning in itself, retentional intentionality cannot be a matter of simply holding onto the former present and conserving its meaning as it was without loss. Rather, in both the Institution Lectures and The Visible and the Invisible, retention is rethought by Merleau- Ponty in a way that allows for the openness of the present and the historical becoming of the past. In this vein, Merleau-Ponty appeals to Bergson’s conception of the “retrograde movement of the true” from La pensée et le mouvant (cf. IP 91- 215 94; VI 189/243; VI 240/294).28 For Bergson, this is the anachronistic process by which an event appears to have pre-existed its emergence, or a judgment its dated formulation. An event or judgment is thus taken to be possible — in a form that was fully defined and worked-out — prior to its actualization.29 This movement involves the retrospective projection onto the past of that which happens in the present. In other words, the past is reconfigured and redefined according to the present; it is seen as already containing the possibility of the current present, as having been its nascent equivalent. For Bergson, this retrospective movement is a mirage or illusion that makes us believe that the truth pre-dates its emergence, that it is the discovery of an eternal essence.30 This at once misunderstands the difference in kind between past and present, taking the past as a modality of the present, and elides the unpredictable novelty of duration that cannot be captured within the mirrored schema of the possible and the real. But Merleau-Ponty finds in the “retrograde movement of the true” precisely the logic of historicity and truth that Bergson thought lacking. It is the “automatic” rippling back of the present,31 the reverberation by which “a now presents itself as pre-existing itself” (IP 94), that Merleau-Ponty appropriates from Bergson and, I believe, uses to rethink retention. Bergson does, after all, sometimes speak as if this projection were not merely an error of the intellect, but a movement that was produced by the very passage of the present: “By the simple fact of realizing itself, reality projects its shadow behind itself onto the indefinitely remote past.”32 For Merleau-Ponty, then, “there is really retrograde movement of the true (and not only retroactive effect of the discovery of the true).” (IP 91) This is to say that the meaning of the present is not given to a constituting consciousness; rather, the present institutes itself by means of its temporal propagation, its transcendence (IP 37). This propagation is, for Merleau-Ponty, the true meaning of the auto-constitution of time that Husserl theorized.33 On this model, retentional encasement would not be a matter of holding onto and conserving, albeit in the mode of presentification, the series of former presents as they sink continually into the past (“Einleitung,” l-li). The past is not the same but absent; rather the past is transformed, takes on new sense, through its intentional relation to the new present. More precisely, it should be noted that this temporal propagation has a double directionality, giving time a “circular” or cyclical structure in Merleau- Ponty’s later thought. In this context, Merleau-Ponty uses Bergson’s “retrograde movement of the true” to articulate the logic of “institution,” a term that translates his version of the Husserlian notion of Stiftung (IP 91- 94).34 The circularity of time is encapsulated in a note to the Institution lectures: the present, Merleau-Ponty says, “has to become what it is [a à devenir ce qu’il est]” (IP 36, marginal note). On the one hand, the passing of the present, its institution, means the “opening of a field” (IP 38) To be precise, 216 it is by becoming past that the present installs a field or dimension according to which a certain future is opened up. The promise of the primal impression, and of le sentir generally, is to “become ‘level’ or dimension” (VI 239/292); to use Husserlian terms, the retention of a former primal impression protends a certain future. Merleau-Ponty notes: Thus institution [means] [the] laying down in an experience [...] of dimensions (in the general Cartesian sense: system of reference), in relation to which a whole series of other experiences will have a meaning and will form a sequel, a history. The meaning is deposited [...] But not as an object in the cloakroom, as mere remainder or survival, as residue: [it is there] as to be continued, to be completed without this sequel being determined. (IP 38) Thus the past present — the event become field or dimension which Merleau-Ponty also calls the “dimensional present” (VI 244/297) — outlines a future of sense (Signs 72/91). Though this future is made possible by the past, it is neither causally determined by it, nor a mere realization of it. Possibility, for Merleau-Ponty, is not a retrospective copy of the real; it is the fecundity and power (puissance) of polymorphous Being to give rise to ever new dimensions of sense — systems of diacritical difference — according to which it can be seen, though not wholly given (VI 252/306). The forward movement of institution is hence at once openness to a future, but also the circumscription of that future according to the field that the former present has instituted. Openness to the future inscribes a structural blind spot or limitation that derives from the very contingency and facticity of the former present that has made it possible. Thus, though “any entity can be accentuated as an emblem of Being” (VI 270/323, commenting on Freud), it is nevertheless the case that openness to Being henceforth takes place through this entity. The forward movement of institution outlines a form of continuity that is not an illusion for Merleau-Ponty; the future is undetermined, but neither arbitrary nor unmotivated. On the other hand, there is the backward movement of institution, the “retrograde movement of the true.” Here, new events opened up by the former present are projected back onto that present, giving it its sense. It is in this way that the present becomes what it is. The meaning of the former present was not given in itself, but is the effect of the retrospective reverberations (or ripples) of the future, now present, that it has made possible. Importantly, this meaning is always mediated through other events (though not necessarily ordered in a stepwise mediation), so that this meaning is neither closed nor complete. In this sense, historical becoming is inscribed within the being of the past for Merleau-Ponty. Not only does the present have its meaning in passing, but as past it is constantly rewritten. Indeed, we may say that the present has its meaning only in the mode of the “will have been” [va avoir été] (VI 189/243). It is the very dimensionality and polymorphism of the flesh, which Merleau- Ponty’s account assumes, that dictates this non-closure and re-inscription of 217 the past. Since no dimension can be considered exhaustive, and since the diacriticality of dimensions implies their constant self-differentiation (a diachrony that reorganizes their synchrony), the institution of a dimension, as well as its constant shift, will mean that the past is reconfigured so that it reveals another historical sense. Though this historical meaning often appears as an elaboration of what the past was, it sometimes reveals an alternative sense of the past, “inassimilable” to prior dimensions (IP 250). It would be an error to understand this reconfiguration as a reconstruction of the past; the meaning that the past comes to have is not a retrospective illusion but neither is it explicitly contained in the past in itself (IP 251). Rather, this is the historical coming to expression of the multi-vocal and “overdetermined” events of the past itself (VI 240-241/294). The forward and backward temporal movements of institution, that make the present what it is, do not coincide or come to rest there. This is not only because the sense of the present is always elsewhere, as past dimensionality and future possibility; it is also that the circle — through which the present- become-past opens a future and the future-become-present reconfigures the past — is not closed. Neither past nor future can be exhaustively given, but what is more troubling here for the Husserlian theory of time-consciousness is that the present is not immediately or fully given. The present not only passes, it becomes. The self-presence of the present is mediated by means of both retentional intentionality and the protentions that retention calls for.35 Re- reading the Husserlian concept of retention, Merleau-Ponty notes that “the absolute present which I am is as if it were not” (VI 191/244). Yet the present is not nothing for Merleau-Ponty. Although the model of institution implies “the influence of the ‘contents’ on time which passes” (VI 184/238) — so that the present cannot be attributed a homogeneous and constant form and is far from being an “objective diaphragm” (VI 196/249) — it is through the very circularity of time that the present can be understood. The present is variable and situated; only as past for a future does the present become something. Hence the present is “a cycle defined by a central and dominant region and with indecisive contours — a swelling [gonflement] or bulb [ampoule] of time.” (VI 184/238) In this context, it may be accurate to speak of time as spiralling, as Bernet suggests in the “Einleitung” (li). Indeed, in the working notes to The Visible and the Invisible, Merleau-Ponty uses the image of a “vortex” [tourbillon] (VI 244/298) to describe the spatializing-temporalizing structure of the flesh, but he also speaks, in another context, of a “stroboscopic spiral” (VI 264/317). That the “spiral” is stroboscopic is not without significance for the notion of the present; for the present is then “like the point of [the spiral] which is who knows where” (264/317), which cannot be located if we search to fix it, but which is revealed in passing as having already transcended us. 218 This rethinking of the present is central to Merleau-Ponty’s later ontology of time. But what does it mean for the Husserlian notion of retention? Merleau-Ponty’s reworking of retention as “retrograde movement of the true” takes seriously Husserl’s occasional admissions in the time-analyses that the primal impression requires retention in order to come to presence itself and that the constitution of the “now” needs the consciousness of the past — directions in Husserl’s time-analyses to which Bernet has pointed in his work.36 But Merleau-Ponty’s reworking of retention ultimately also breaks with a central element of Husserl’s account of retention. What is at stake is the Husserlian investment in retention as the guarantee for the omnipresent continuity and memorial repeatability of the life of consciousness, and in “memory as the most faithful reproduction possible of a past perception” (“Einleitung”, xlii). I believe that Merleau-Ponty breaks with this picture in two ways. First, in taking the “retrograde movement of the true” to be the very movement of the temporality of events and not a mere retrospective illusion, Merleau-Ponty conceives of retentional intentionality as the propagation of sense. Retention does not conserve the past, modified as the absence of a former presence, but opens up the past to historical transformation and to the expression of “a sense it did not yet have in original-present experience” (“Einleitung,” xlii). This belies the Husserlian dream of a past fully accessible and recuperable by means of the continuous encasement of retentional intentionality. The past is not simply pushed back in retention yet held onto as the same past; the ripples of retentional encasement must be understood as reconfigurations according to which hitherto invisible dimensions of the past come to the surface. Second, in Merleau-Ponty’s account, the opening of the future that the retention of a passing present makes possible is not simply a confirmation of the continuity of intentional life but a transformation of that life. This speaks to a limitation of Husserl’s theory of memory that Bernet examines in La vie du sujet. Bernet notes that his conviction of the continuity and coherence of the life of consciousness leads Husserl to conceive the future as the confirmation of this continuity, without recognizing the necessity for deformation and loss. This means not only that forgetting is accidental, but also that it can be reconquered in acts of recollection. It is this ideal repeatability of the past — its accessibility as it was for a former primal impressional consciousness — that retention protends on Husserl’s account. The future for which retention calls is, then, a future that is made up of acts of recollection in which what has been retained is reproduced and felt to coincide with the present that it was.37 It is this dream of the immediate givenness to consciousness of the present as it is — and of its subsequent and continuous accessibility through retention — that makes forgetting a difficulty for Husserl’s time-analyses, as Merleau-Ponty comes to realize in The Visible and the Invisible. 219 III. The Problem of Forgetting In the working note where he discusses Husserl’s time diagram (see section one), Merleau-Ponty broaches the problem of forgetting in Husserl’s Time Lectures: “The problem of forgetting: lies essentially in the fact that it is discontinuous.” (VI 194-5/248, W.N. May 20, 1959) As Merleau-Ponty is well aware, Husserl’s early time-analyses can only account for forgetting in terms of the shrinking of the temporal horizon, the fading-away of remote retentions as they become more and more distant from the actual phase of consciousness (PITC 361-2). Forgetting, then, is an ordered phenomenon. More so, it is a contingent loss that is recuperable, for it is always in principle possible to recover these remote retentions in a present act of recollection (though the accuracy of a recollection may sometimes be in doubt). Merleau-Ponty’s own attempt to deal with forgetting in the Phenomenology of Perception remains close to this Husserlian account. On the one hand, Merleau-Ponty understands oblivion as the limit of the retentional chain (PhP 423/483-4); on the other hand, he attempts to supplement the Husserlian framework with an account of forgetting that assimilates it to an intentional act, performed in bad faith, by which memory continues to be possessed but is held at a distance (PhP 162/189). By the time of the lecture course on Passivity (cotemporaneous with that on Institution, 1954-55), Merleau-Ponty realizes that the problem of forgetting is badly posed if it is understood as an accidental inability to remember, or a loss that can be overcome (IP 256). Such an approach deals with forgetting by evacuating what is most difficult, or unsettling, about it. It betrays, as Bernet notes of Husserl, “a positivistic horror of the past as the locus of an absolute and fundamental absence, of an inexorable withdrawal and an irreplaceable loss” (“Einleitung”, xlii).38 Merleau-Ponty’s insight, in this regard, is to see forgetting not as a problem to be solved, but as a necessary and original structure of time (IP 256-7). It is in this vein that Merleau-Ponty’s response to Husserl in the working note cited above can be understood: “But it is not so: there are retentions that are not forgotten, even very remote ones. There are fragments ‘perceived’ just now, that disappear (have they been perceived? And what exactly is the relation between the perceived and the imperceived?)” (VI 194f/248) This points the direction in which Merleau-Ponty seeks to think forgetting; for to take forgetting as originary means, for Merleau-Ponty, to understand its role within perception. The consequence is that forgetting is no longer understood as a loss but as a negativity that is generative of the perceptual field (VI 228/281) — as an originary absence, imperception or blind spot within the present (VI 247/300).39 This approach to forgetting that understands it as an unconsciousness which would reside within the present, or actual phase of consciousness, is not wholly alien to Husserl’s time-analyses. Such unconsciousness is the fate of 220 the “ultimate consciousness” of which Husserl dreams in the final text included in Husserliana X (“Einleitung”, lvi, PITC no. 54). There Husserl speculates that “an ultimate consciousness that controls all consciousness in the flow” (PITC 382) might allow the flow to be grasped in its entirety (rather than only as past), so that constituting and constituted could finally coincide (381). But if an infinite regress is to be avoided, then such a consciousness cannot become the object of attention of another consciousness; it is hence ultimate and constituting, but also unconscious (on Husserl’s terms). Though this thought-experiment seems to take place principally as an afterthought in the time-analyses, and although Husserl finally rejects the possibility of such an “‘unconscious’ consciousness” (PITC 382), this line of thinking is one that Merleau-Ponty takes up, and radically reworks, in his later philosophy. Specifically, it is by bringing unconsciousness into the heart of perception that Merleau-Ponty is able to think the “simultaneity” of past and present, which he criticized Husserl for neglecting. For Merleau-Ponty, then, forgetting “is to be sought in vision itself: memory will be understood only by means of it.” (VI 194/247, W.N. May 20, 1959) What Merleau-Ponty proposes is not simply a schematization of time on the model of perception. The reductiveness of such an approach was already evident in Husserl’s hesitations with respect to the application of the apprehension-apprehension content schema in the context of time- consciousness — as Bernet has clearly shown (“Einleitung”, xlviii, PITC 322- 3) and as Merleau-Ponty realizes in the Phenomenology (PhP 152n/178n).40 In The Visible and the Invisible, Merleau-Ponty’s aim is not only to understand temporality by means of perception, but also to rethink perception according to the structuring role that forgetting plays in visibility. It is by means of this double revision that Merleau-Ponty’s later ontology of the visible is also an ontology of time. The crucial move is to no longer take forgetting as belonging to the interiority of the subject, and hence as posing a problem for a philosophy of consciousness that aims at omnipresence. Forgetting is, rather, understood to belong to the structure of the flesh. The equation of temporality with subjectivity that was dominant in the Phenomenology of Perception is hence revealed to be a subjectivism that misconstrues time; to say, in the Phenomenology’s confident phrase, that “we are it” is to reduce past and present to their representations for a subject (PhP 430/492). But temporality is not a transcendence that belongs to a subject. It is rather the transcendence, or surpassing, of the subject by a spatializing-temporalizing flesh to which that subject belongs. It is hence more accurate to say that we are of time, than that we are time (to use an oft recurring expression of the later work). More specifically, since the flesh is thought first and foremost through visibility, forgetting becomes for Merleau-Ponty a function of that contact between body 221 and world, that folding upon itself of visible flesh, which is perception. It is therefore within the perceptual field that forgetting is to be located. Merleau-Ponty notes that “the unconscious is to be sought not at the bottom of ourselves, behind the back of our ‘consciousness,’ but in front of us, as articulations of our field.” (VI 180/234) More precisely, I find implicit in Merleau-Ponty’s later work three ways in which the perceptual field involves a structural unconscious or invisible, a form of originary forgetting. First, the unconscious is the level or dimension according to which one perceives; “[f]or one perceives only figures upon levels — And one perceives them only in relation to the level, which therefore is unperceived.” (VI 189/243) It is in this sense that consciousness is “ignorance of itself, imperception” (VI 213/267), for it forgets the level or dimension that makes it see. Indeed, it must forget this level, not see it, in order to see according to it.41 This is a forgetting of the past that coexists with perception and makes it possible (it corresponds to the former present become dimension or level, described in section two). The forgetting of the past stems, in this sense, from my “inherence” in it (VI 227/281). Here, consciousness is understood to require the differentiation of the Gestalt structure,42 while the unconscious is this differentiation itself; the unconscious is between figure and ground (VI 189/243). More precisely, the unconscious past is the instituted system of diacritical difference according to which the very separation of figure and ground comes to be defined. It is in this way that past and present are “simultaneous” for Merleau-Ponty (VI 267/321), and that retention can be understood as the “inner framework [membrure]” (VI 215/269) or depth of the perceptual field (VI 219/273). This points, however, to a second sense of forgetting, a sense that leaves its mark on the working note cited at the beginning of this section. There Merleau-Ponty says: “understand perception as differentiation, forgetting as undifferentiation” (VI 197/250, W.N. May 20, 1959). Although this undifferentiation seems, at first, to simply be the result of a lack of separation, specifically that of figure-ground — and hence a fusion that destroys the past — the reading of the past in section two suggests another interpretation. The “undifferentiation” of the past would not be lack of difference, but the multiplication of differences that connect laterally and non-oppositionally, without selection. The past would be a polymorphous, multi-vocal and over- determined matrix, a “mixed life” that can suggest divergent futures (IP 269). Thus the first sense of forgetting, by means of which a former present is instituted as the dimension according to which I perceive, relies on another forgetting. The instituted or “dimensional” past, which is refracted back through the process of actualization it has motivated, remains a circumscribed past (one that circumscribes a corresponding future, as we have seen in section two). There is in this “retrograde movement,” by which the dimensional past is formed, a foreclosure of other dimensions or systems of difference 222 suggested within the past itself but unperceived in the absolute sense. There would be, in this regard, an originally forgotten past that exceeds any given version of the instituted past and that is more than what is given or operative in the present. Although Merleau-Ponty shies away from such “absolute invisibility” or “pure transcendence” in The Visible and the Invisible, mentioning it only rarely (VI 229/282, 254/308), Derrida has pointed to its trace in that text.43 Such an absence that is felt but that cannot be indexed through perception, even in its retrospective and prospective play, may require an account that goes beyond perception. This would point, to use Merleau-Ponty’s terms, to a “simultaneity” that is also an asymmetry or irreversibility — to what he evocatively calls “the time before time” (VI 243/296). In this second sense, forgetting would be the very inaccessibility, difference or transcendence of the past, that which makes it past and which means that there is no possibility of coinciding with it in recollection (IP 258). Here, the past transcends me not only because of my inherence in it — because it is “too close” — but because this inherence means that my access to the past is always mediated through one of its dimensions, a dimension that dictates its own invisibility. This second sense of forgetting is hence also a double forgetfulness: it is not only a forgetting of the dimension through which I perceive, but also a forgetting of the self-erasure that its function as dimension dictates and thus of the partiality of this dimension itself. This, in turn, implies a third structural blind spot of perception that contributes to the discontinuity of forgetting (and to the structure of time as “stroboscopic spiral”). For, though every new present forms a “coherent deformation” with respect to an already established level, or dimensional past (VI 262/315), so some presents are “inassimilable” to the instituted dimension (IP 250). Such a present is hence not only “divergence with respect to a norm of meaning, difference” (IP 41), but registers as nonsense with respect to that norm — as the “disarticulation” of the previous order (VI 197/250). It is in this additional sense that a new present may involve an initial, structural blindness of consciousness (VI 225/278). There is, finally, a risk in Merleau-Ponty’s project of rethinking perception and time by means of one another. For it means that invisibility often takes on the role of a proxy for forgetting, without the relation between different forms of forgetting, or that between perception and memory, being sufficiently addressed in the text. Though Merleau-Ponty makes clear that the “invisible” of which he speaks is not of one sole kind, that invisibility is heterogeneous and points to a multiplicity of structures (VI 257/310-11), by conceiving forgetting according to the dimensionality of the sensible and the Gestalt structure of the perceptual field, its “pure transcendence” may be missed. This echoes a critique that Bernet levels against Husserl’s earlier time-analyses, but that he finds mitigated in the final texts when retention is no longer thought 223 according to the model of perception (“Einleitung”, xlix-l). It is difficult to know whether the unfinished text of The Visible and the Invisible is moving in the direction of an “invisibility” that can be thought beyond the analogy to sensible being. The visible, in Merleau-Ponty’s thought, continues to provide the measure according to which all other phenomena or structures of the flesh are understood; there is here a “dictatorship of the visible,” one could say (IP 209). That a non-reductive “mixed or hybrid life” — to use a term from Bernet’s recent work — would be possible within Merleau-Ponty’s ontology of the flesh is hinted at by Merleau-Ponty’s emphasis that “invisibility” is heterogeneous, that a unified ground cannot be recovered, and by the attempt in the final pages of the manuscript of The Visible and the Invisible to think flesh “beyond the circle of the visible” (VI 144/189).44 What such a “métissage”45 would mean for an ontology of time that seeks to take seriously the simultaneity of the past with the present, but also its inaccessibility and forgetting, I have tried to give a glimpse of in this text. McGill University References 1. In the working notes to The Visible and the Invisible, Maurice Merleau-Ponty speaks of “[a] certain relation between the visible and the invisible, where the invisible is not only non-visible ... but where its absence counts in the world ... where the lacuna that marks its place is one of the points of passage of the ‘world’.” This expression encapsulates the way time, and more specifically pastness and forgetting, are understood in Merleau- Ponty’s later philosophy. Cf. The Visible and the Invisible, ed. C. Lefort, trans. A. Lingis (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1968), 228; Le visible et l’invisible, suivi de notes de travail, établi par C. Lefort (Paris: Éditions Gallimard, 1964), 281. Henceforth cited as VI with English then French pagination. 2. Rudolf Bernet, “Einleitung” to Edmund Husserl, Texte zur Phänomenologie des inneren Zeitbewusstseins (1893-1917), hrsg. von Rudolf Bernet (Hamburg: Felix Meiner, 1985). Translated in this volume by Elizabeth A. Behnke as “Husserl’s Early Time-Analyses in Historical Context.” Henceforth cited as “Einleitung” with reference to the original German pagination. 3. Edmund Husserl, Zur Phänomenologie des inneren Zeitbewusstseins (1893-1917), Hua X, hrsg. von Rudolf Boehm (Den Haag: M. Nijhoff, 1966); On the Phenomenology of the Consciousness of Internal Time (1893-1917), trans. John Barnett Brough (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1991). Cited as PITC with German pagination. 4. See John Barnett Brough’s “Translator’s Introduction” in On the Phenomenology of the Consciousness of Internal Time (1893-1917), xi-xvii. 5. In speaking of “the unthought [l’impensé],” Merleau-Ponty notes that “the works and thought of a philosopher are ... made of certain articulations between things said.” Cf. “The Philosopher and His Shadow” in Signs, trans. R. McCleary (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964), 160; Signes (Paris: Librairie Gallimard, 1960), 202. Henceforth cited as Signs. Merleau-Ponty is, of course, drawing on Heidegger here. 6. Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Phenomenology of Perception, trans. C. Smith (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1962), 419; Phénoménologie de la perception (Paris: Éditions Gallimard, 1945), 480. Henceforth cited as PhP with English then French pagination. 7. Though I agree with Bernet that “tout en se glissant dans le mouvement de la pensée de Husserl, [Merleau-Ponty] y creuse un écart dont l’apport critique est assurément très riche,” I do not think that this critical import is actualized till the later works. Cf. Rudolf Bernet, La vie du sujet: Recherches sur l’interprétation de Husserl dans la phénoménologie (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1994), 164. 8. In comparison, Merleau-Ponty’s relation to Henri Bergson in the Phenomenology is the relation to an other who is consistently misrecognized. (For this argument, see my essay “The Temporality of Life: Merleau-Ponty, Bergson, and the Immemorial Past”, The Southern Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XLV, Summer 2007, pp. 177-206.) 9. I am indebted here to Renaud Barbaras’s insight that “it is by way of Husserl that Merleau-Ponty grasps his own thought.” Cf. The Being of the Phenomenon: Merleau- Ponty’s Ontology, trans. Ted Toadvine and Leonard Lawlor (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 219. 10. Edmund Husserl, “The Origin of Geometry” in The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology: An Introduction to Phenomenological Philosophy, trans. David Carr (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1970), 353-378. 11. In light of the publications that have taken place in the intervening years—both the critical edition of Husserl’s Time Lectures in 1966 and Bernet’s “Einleitung” to the republication of the “Supplementary Texts” in 1985—the “unthought” that we find in Husserl will not coincide with that which Merleau-Ponty discerned in the 1928 version of the Time Lectures. This was inevitable since, in addition, our philosophical concerns have a historicity and individuality that differ from his. Caution is hence called for, but I would also claim that this is a generative difference. In light of the tendencies in the Time Lectures that have become visible by means of the intervening publications, the threads of Merleau-Ponty’s reading of the Time Lectures can be disentangled in more nuanced ways. 12. Bernet demonstrates this tension in “Is the Present Ever Present?” Research in Phenomenology, 12 (1982): 85-112. This is also, of course, a productive tension for Jacques Derrida’s reading of Husserl in La voix et le phénomène: Introduction au problème du signe dans la phénoménologie de Husserl (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1967). 13. Maurice Merleau-Ponty, L’Institution, La Passivité, Notes de cours au Collège de France, 1954-1955 (Paris: Éditions Belin, 2003). 14. To paraphrase Merleau-Ponty’s reference to “an ontological rehabilitation of the sensible” in “The Philosopher and His Shadow” (Signs 167/210). Merleau-Ponty’s sense of “ontology” derives here from Heidegger rather than Husserl. For the distinction between the Husserlian and Heideggerian senses of “ontology,” see Bernet, “Einleitung,” lxi-lxii. 15. For more on Merleau-Ponty’s critique of punctuality in Husserl, see Barbaras, The Being of the Phenomenon, 221-226. For Merleau-Ponty’s critique of serial time, see Mauro Carbone, The Thinking of the Sensible: Merleau-Ponty’s A-Philosophy (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2004), 5-13. 16. Bernet, “Is the Present Ever Present?”, 106. 17. In his critique of Husserl, Merleau-Ponty notes: “the present itself is not an absolute coincidence without transcendence; even the Urerlebnis involves not total coincidence, but partial coincidence, because it has horizons and would not be without them.” (VI 195/249) 18. Merleau-Ponty adds: “Study exactly the Erfüllung of the present: the danger of this metaphor: it makes me think that there is a certain void that has its own dimensions and that is filled by a defined quantity of the present.” (VI 195-6/249) 225 19. Merleau-Ponty calls this “serial time” in the working notes (VI 168/222). 20. Merleau-Ponty notes that “Husserl’s error is to have described the [retentional] interlocking starting from a Präsensfeld considered as without thickness, as immanent consciousness.” (VI 173/227) 21. In this vein, Merleau-Ponty says: “Understand that the Gestalt is already transcendence: it makes me understand that a line is a vector, that a point is a centre of forces.” (VI 195/248) 22. Merleau-Ponty’s critique of his early work is well-known: “Results of Ph.P.— Necessity of bringing them to ontological explication ... The problems that remain after this first description: they are due to the fact that in part I retained the philosophy of ‘consciousness.’” (VI 183/237) This is instantiated by the identification of temporality with subjectivity in the Phenomenology of Perception (PhP 422/483). As John Sallis has shown, the guiding problem of the Phenomenology is that of subjectivity. (“Time, Subjectivity, and the Phenomenology of Perception.” The Modern Schoolman, XLVIII, May 1971, 343-357). 23. Of course, Husserl notes that retention is not an act (PITC 118), but Merleau-Ponty’s point here seems to be that it is finally assimilated to the logic of acts (accompanying and forming a constitutive part of acts). He says: “The whole Husserlian analysis is blocked by the framework of acts which imposes upon it the philosophy of consciousness. It is necessary to take up again and develop the fungierende or latent intentionality which is the intentionality within being.” (VI 244/297-8) 24. In La vie du sujet, Bernet speaks of an “intentionality without subject or object” but concludes that a Husserlian framework can accommodate an intentionality without object, yet not without subject (326). The question for me is whether such an intentionality can be found in Merleau-Ponty’s later philosophy. 25. Merleau-Ponty notes that “the Ablaufsphänomen that Husserl describes and thematizes contains in itself something quite different: it contains the ‘simultaneity,’ the passage, ... the immersion in a Being in transcendence not reduced to the ‘perspectives’ of the ‘consciousness.’” (VI 243/297) 26. In the Phenomenology, Merleau-Ponty already favorably noted Husserl’s abandonment of the apprehension-apprehension content schema in the Time Lectures (PhP 152n/178n), but did not take this to also call for a deconstruction of the philosophy of consciousness. 27. Merleau-Ponty, L’Institution, La Passivité, 34. Henceforth cited as IP, English translations are my own. As Bernet notes, the emphasis on the link of sensibility and time in Husserl shows the closeness between the early Merleau-Ponty and Levinas. I would claim that this continues in Merleau-Ponty’s later works. Cf. Emmanuel Levinas, “Intentionality and Sensation” (1965) in Discovering Existence with Husserl, trans. Richard A. Cohen and Michael B. Smith. (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1998). 28. Henri Bergson, La pensée et le mouvant (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1938), 13-16. 29. Ibid., 13-14. 30. Ibid., 14-15. 31. Bergson speaks of “un mouvement rétrograde qu’exécuterait automatiquement dans le temps la vérité une fois posée.” (Ibid., 15) 32. Ibid., 15; my translation. 33. For institution as autoconstitution of sense, see Carbone, The Thinking of the Sensible, 6. 34. From “The Origin of Geometry.” Merleau-Ponty discusses this text in much greater detail in his later lecture course, Notes de cours sur L’origine de la géométrie de 226 Husserl, texte établi par Franck Robert (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1998); Husserl at the Limits of Phenomenology, Including Texts by Edmund Husserl, ed. Leonard Lawlor and Bettina Bergo (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2002). 35. Such prospective and retrospective movement can also be found to characterize the temporality of perception in the chapter on “Le sentir” in the Phenomenology of Perception. See my essay “‘A Past Which Has Never Been Present’: Bergsonian Dimensions in Merleau-Ponty’s Theory of the Prepersonal”, Research in Phenomenology, 38 (2008): 41-71. 36. See “Einleitung,” lv, and “Is the Present Ever Present?”, 104. See also PITC 280. 37. Bernet, La vie du sujet, 248-9. See also PITC 302-303. 38. See also Bernet, La vie du sujet, 245, 248. 39. On originary forgetting, see Bernhard Waldenfels, “Time Lag: Motifs for a Phenomenology of the Experience of Time,” Research in Phenomenology, 30 (2000), 115. 40. More generally, one also finds hesitations in the time-analyses with respect to the analogy between spatial thing and temporal thing and with respect to the assimilation of time-consciousness to spatial perception, even though Husserl often relies on such analogies for his argument (see PITC 304-5). 41. For more on Merleau-Ponty’s notion of “dimension,” see Barbaras, The Being of the Phenomenon, 174-181. 42. For Merleau-Ponty, “[t]o be conscious=to have a figure on a ground—one cannot go back any further.” (VI 191/245) 43. See Jacques Derrida, Mémoires d’aveugle: L’autoportrait et autres ruines (Paris: Éditions de la Réunion des musées nationaux, 1990), 56-7. 44. Bernet speaks of “une vie mélangée ou métissée” as follows: “C’est dire non seulement que cette vie consciente s’accomplit simultanément à différents niveaux, mais aussi qu’elle fait cohabiter en son sein des formes différentes d’intentionnalité dans un même élan vital. Son unité est donc toujours une unité composée, c’est-à-dire une unité qui rassemble des différences qui s’entrelacent sans jamais se fondre en une trame uniforme.” See Conscience et existence: Perspectives phénoménologiques (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2004), 18. 45. Ibid., 17. 227 
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work_hiebwcoei5bklp2aqzkjpjftsy	----	CHH_85_4_book-review 814..892 doi:10.1017/S0009640716000986 Christianities in the Early Modern Celtic World. Edited by Tadhg Ó hAnnracháin and Robert Armstrong. Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave MacMillan, 2014. xiii + 254 pp. $100.00 cloth. This second volume of the Insular Christianity Project, sponsored by the Department of History of the University of Dublin, furthers the project’s efforts to examine the role of religion in shaping culture and society in the British-Irish archipelago. The volume consists of ten essays dealing with aspects of Celtic Christianity in Ireland, northwest Scotland, Wales, and the Cornish peninsula. In his introduction, Tadhg Ó hAnnracháin observes that before 1500 the archipelago was divided politically but unified religiously; by 1800, however, the isles were, for the most part, united under a single monarchy, but divided by religious diversity. While claiming that in fact no single “Celtic Christianity” existed in the Celtic-speaking areas of these two islands, nevertheless, historians can uncover certain similarities. The series of essays that follows explore the changing religious climate in response to the Protestant Reformation in individual areas of the Celtic world. Part one examines the religious life in each of the four Celtic areas. Iain MacDonald points out the deficiencies of church practices in northwest Scotland. Lowlanders often held important church positions, while most of the clergy could not preach in Gaelic. Overall, he admits the impossibility of gauging the piety below the highest levels of society. Martin MacGregor illustrates how kinship far exceeded ecclesiastical authorities in controlling the Church in Argyll and the Isles. Looking at Irish Christianity at the beginning of the sixteenth century, Raymond Gillespie concludes that the Irish church centered far more on Rome and Europe than its British neighbors. Madeleine Gray argues that, unlike traditional historical assessments, the medieval church in Wales had vibrant attributes. On the other hand, Katharine Olsen explains why the Reformation in Wales had a much easier time than in other parts of the Celtic world, especially with the physical changes wrought through the destruction of religious shrines. Perhaps trying to have it both ways, she nevertheless claims that the Welsh laity failed to embrace the Reformation, which progressed very slowly. Alexandra Walsham’s impressive interdisciplinary essay surveys the impact of Protestantism on Cornwall, the decline of the Cornish language, and the importance of topography in understanding this process. She argues that while traditional medieval religion collapsed quickly, support for the new religion remained “tepid,” while the failure to produce the new liturgy in Cornish aided the disappearance of the Cornish language. Finally, she rejects the notion that evidence exists “to support the contention that there was anything culturally let alone ethnically distinctive about either pre- or 848 CHURCH HISTORY terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0009640716000986 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:14, subject to the Cambridge Core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0009640716000986 https://www.cambridge.org/core post-Reformation religion in Cornwall” (91). In many respects, this essay most strongly addresses the questions advanced by the editors. Part two of the collection utilizes cultural measures to understand changes in Christian attitudes in Celtic Britain and Ireland. Sim Innes proposes the use the Gaelic poetry from Scotland found in the Book of the Dean of Lismore to determine if one could discover a unique form of Celtic Christianity in the poems, yet the bulk of the essay tries to differentiate between uniquely Scottish poems and those derived from Irish sources. Only at the very end of the essay does he attempt to answer his original question, indicating that the solution necessitates further research. Salvador Ryan presented a more convincing case in demonstrating how the religious poetry in the Book of the O’Conor Don reveals much about seventeenth-century religious attitudes in Ireland. Lloyd Bowen discusses the use the reformers made of Welsh history to support the Reformation, although his use of the term “patriotism” in the context of sixteenth-century Wales seems anachronistic. Bernadette Cunnigham’s essay on Irish intellectual culture, oddly subdivided into an “Introduction” and a “Conclusion,” but apparently no other subsections, centers on the shift from secular support of intellectual activity in the late Middle Ages to an exclusively religious patronage. Finally David Jones’s essay concerns the influence of Calvinistic theology on Welsh Methodism. Yet a large portion concerns disputes between John Wesley and George Whitefield, neither of whom were Welsh, and only secondarily with Welsh religious leaders. Additionally the essay deals with controversies in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries seemingly at odds with the time parameter set for the volume. The introduction and conclusion of the book attempt to gather the threads of these disparate essays into a coherent picture. Unfortunately the resulting tapestry seems more like abstract impressionism, a common problem with collections of essays. Robert Armstrong’s conclusion does provide some interesting insights, but the book’s central question goes lost in the details. R. B. Levis Rollins College doi:10.1017/S0009640716000998 Theology and the Kinesthetic Imagination: Jonathan Edwards and the Making of Modernity. By Kathryn Reklis. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. xii + 166 pp. $78.00 cloth. At just three chapters and some 150 pages, one senses that this book will serve as a prelude to a more thorough investigation of the subject matter, rather than a BOOK REVIEWS AND NOTES 849 terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0009640716000986 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:14, subject to the Cambridge Core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0009640716000986 https://www.cambridge.org/core 
work_hiqwzc3lhra4vpi2tpfkd5p6lu	----	19: Interdisciplinary Studies in the Long Nineteenth Century Login | Register Home About 19 Live Articles Issues Contact Start Submission Account Login Register Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 This issue of 19 explores the contribution of women as collectors from the mid-nineteenth century to the aftermath of the First World War, paying particular attention to the cosmopolitan transfer of artworks, ideas, and expertise between Britain, France, and the United States. The authors reflect on women’s role in acquiring, displaying, and donating works of art, often in ways that crossed national borders or that subvert gendered assumptions about taste. Beyond its value as a form of personal expression, the articles reflect on how far collecting provided women with a public platform in the late nineteenth century, enabling them to shape the contents of cultural institutions and promote new types of inquiry. But the articles also cast light on the archival and methodological reasons why women’s crucial contributions in this domain have so often been obscured. The idea for this issue originated with the study days organized in 2019 to celebrate the philanthropy of Lady Wallace, who gifted the collections of the Hertford family to the nation. Cover image: Detail of William Rothenstein, The Browning Readers, 1900, oil on canvas, 76 × 96.5 cm, Cartwright Hall Art Gallery, Bradford. Editors: Tom Stammers (Guest Editor) Introduction Women Collectors and Cultural Philanthropy, c. 1850–1920 Tom Stammers 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 Article ‘Life was a spectacle for her’: Lady Dorothy Nevill as Art Collector, Political Hostess, and Cultural Philanthropist Caroline McCaffrey-Howarth 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 Beyond the Bowes Museum: The Social and Material Worlds of Alphonsine Bowes de Saint-Amand Lindsay Macnaughton 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 French Taste in Victorian England: The Collection of Yolande Lyne-Stephens Laure-Aline Griffith-Jones 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 Unmasking an Enigma: Who Was Lady Wallace and What Did She Achieve? Suzanne Higgott 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 More than Mere Ornaments: Female Visitors to Sir Richard Wallace’s Art Collection Helen C. Jones 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 New Collections for New Women: Collecting and Commissioning Portraits at the Early Women’s University Colleges Imogen Tedbury 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 Ellen Tanner’s Persia: A Museum Legacy Rediscovered Catrin Jones 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 The Artistic Patronage and Transatlantic Connections of Florence Blumenthal Rebecca Tilles 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 A Woman of No Importance?: Elizabeth Workman’s Collection of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist Art in Context Frances Fowle 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 Afterword Afterword Kate Hill 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 Created by potrace 1.14, written by Peter Selinger 2001-2017 | 1755-1560 | Published by Open Library of Humanities | Privacy Policy Sitemap Contact Login 
work_hj4sj3ufqrbk5hw36rfwkmu3oe	----	10.11648.j.ijla.20150305.16 International Journal of Literature and Arts 2015; 3(5): 103-107 Published online September 24, 2015 (http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ijla) doi: 10.11648/j.ijla.20150305.16 ISSN: 2331-0553 (Print); ISSN: 2331-057X (Online) Post-Impressionist Paintings and Parallel Structure in Mrs. Dalloway Wei Ding, Yan Xue, Yanyu Gao English Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, China Email address: dingwei0508@gmail.com (Wei Ding), 335395732@qq.com (Yan Xue), 454473931@qq.com (Yanyu Gao) To cite this article: Wei Ding, Yan Xue, Yanyu Gao. Post-Impressionist Paintings and Parallel Structure in Mrs. Dalloway. International Journal of Literature and Arts. Vol. 3, No. 5, 2015, pp. 103-107. doi: 10.11648/j.ijla.20150305.16 Abstract: Post-impressionists put emphasis on design which is also the focus of Virginia Woolf in her literary creation. Influenced by post-impressionist paintings, Woolf reveals the meaning of life through constructing parallel structure to present the fact that people are lack of communication and that the truth in life is often achieved at important moment. The seemingly unconnected human life experiences are different facets of life, and together they construct the wholeness out of the fragments. Keywords: Mrs. Dalloway, Virginia Woolf, Unity, Post-Impressionism 1. Introduction Virginia Woolf’s concern for the form of the novel is her life-long interest in the literature creation. She wrote to Clive Bell in 1908, “I think a great deal of my future, and settle what book I am to write—how I shall reform the novel and capture multitudes of things at present fugitive, enclose the whole, and shape infinite strange shapes” [1]. Virginia Woolf begins to initiate a new form of the novel. She attempts to combine other artistic forms with the novel writing. Fragmentary is one of the features of the novel of stream-of-consciousness. However, Virginia Woolf achieves the formal unity out of fragments by a parallel structure in Mrs. Dalloway. Influenced by post-impressionism, she uses parallel structures in this novel to present the life of Clarissa who is the wife of Mr. Dalloway, a committee member with a high social position and the life of Septimus, a shell-shocked veteran. As she said, “I adumbrate here a study of insanity and suicide; the world seen by the sane and insane side by side” [2]. Through the parallel characters, Virginia Woolf presents different facets of life. She manages to put the sane and the insane, past and present at the same time, and also achieves the artistic effect of balance and beauty. In modern times the classic categories of absolute space and absolute time have been falsified and discarded, the division of arts into purely temporal and purely spatial become utterly hypothetical. William Fleming points out that, “time and movement are inextricably interwoven, since all time is measured by movement and change of relative positions, and all mobility has, of necessity, duration. Hence the degree of the mobility can serve as a criterion for another type of classification” [3]. So the conventional recognized boundaries between the arts of time and space mean much less now than they used to. All forms of art are directly related to the aesthetic beauty they have created. The balanced structure in Mrs. Dalloway marks the maturity in Virginia Woolf’s writing. After all the experimental short novels, like Jacob’s Room and The Voyage Out, she finally arrives at a proper form to enclose the human heart, which gives the impression of simultaneous connections between parallel characters. It is a form patterned like waves in a pond rather than a railway line. Although there is no physical proximity between the characters, Woolf gives us the artfully formed narrative connection in the novel. The parallel structure is a form adopted by Virginia Woolf from the post-impressionist, painting which is concerned about light and color. Like post-impressionist painters, such as Van Gogh, Paul Cezanne and Paul Gauguin, Virginia Woolf in this novel focuses on the process of selection from all her impressions. To understand how Virginia Woolf combines her narrative art with the impressionist painting technique, I will talk about impressionist painting first in the following. Impressionism began as a movement first in painting, chiefly developed in France during the late 19 th and early 20 th century. Instead of painting an ideal beauty like classical artists, impressionists try to depict what they see at a given moment, capturing a fresh, original vision that is hard for some people to accept as beauty. So they observe nature more directly and set down fleeting aspects, especially the changing 104 Wei Ding et al.: Post-Impressionist Paintings and Parallel Structure in Mrs. Dalloway light of the sun. Simplification is a feature of impressionist painting. Impressionists simplify their compositions, omitting detail to achieve a striking overall effect. The Post-impressionism refers to the artistic movements under the influence of impressionism. The post-impressionists develop their arts in another direction. Post-impressionists recognize that subjectivism finds its expression in surface and points out that it is the function of art not to imitate but to find equivalents; and “one chief aspect of order in a work of art is unity…in a picture this unity is due to a balancing of the attractions of the eye about the central life of the picture” [4]. Roger Fry justifies the imaginative life by saying that “the artist might if he chose to take a mystical attitude and declare that the fullness and completeness of the imaginative life he leads may correspond to an existence more real and more important than any that we know of in moral life” [4]. Woolf extends Roger Fry’s graphic art theory to the field of novel writing. She maintains that what the novelist has to do is to record the spiritual rather than material life. What a novelist records is the kaleidoscopic impressions received by the mind on an ordinary day and the task of the novelist is “to convey this varying, this unknown and uncircumscribed spirit, whatever aberration or complexity it may display, with as little mixture of the alien and external as possible” [5]. To do this, the novelist has to “stand further back from life” to give “the outline rather than the detail” [5]. Virginia Woolf borrows the perspective of Impressionists and Post-impressionists to seek for an aesthetic effect through the momentary description and present the parallel characters. Virginia Woolf once claimed, “examine for a moment an ordinary mind on an ordinary day. The mind receives a myriad impressions-trivial fantastic evanescence or engraved with sharpness of steel” [6]. She followed her lines believing that novelists should try to capture the evanescent moment of being and not conform to the conventional fictional plot or characterization. In this novel she selects the significant impression to converge the parallel lines. In this way she highlights the outline of life and the nature of life. 2. Parallel Characters in Mrs. Dalloway Virginia Woolf achieves a new narrative form by adopting the post-impressionist painting technique in Mrs. Dalloway. Like in post-impressionist painting, Virginia Woolf constructs the organic wholeness of her novel through omitting details and giving parallel arrangement. Around the central character Mrs. Dalloway, Woolf presents five pairs of parallel characters in order to present the contrast and interaction at the same time and achieve the unity. Septimus, a shell-shocked man whom Mrs. Dalloway never meets throughout the novel forms a parallel with her to depict the mental state of the sane and the insane. Mrs. Dalloway’s former lover Peter is a parallel to reveal the romantic aspect of her character. Mrs. Dalloway’s husband Mr. Dalloway is a serious Conservative member who is a parallel to present the Clarissa’s rational thinking. Another parallel character is Miss. Kilman, the tutor of Clarissa’s daughter who represents the religious power which is against Mrs. Dalloway’s free spirit. Unlike Mrs. Dalloway who is sociable and vain, the plain-looking and practical Elizabeth forms another parallel with her. All the parallel lines converge at the center of the novel presented by Mrs. Dalloway’s party, and form a harmonious wholeness. In the following I will analyze this parallel structure in details. 2.1. Mrs. Dalloway and Septimus In Mrs. Dalloway, Clarissa is the center of the novel. Around Clarissa there are several paralleled lines between the characters. With these parallel characters Virginia Woolf builds up the work’s unity. This way of constructing Mrs. Dalloway also expresses well Virginia Woolf’s idea that individual people live in a universal wholeness. For Virginia Woolf, the unity not only exists between human beings, but between human beings and non-human world. In her novels, people are at once alone and together. They are fragments; and part of a great harmony. Cut off from one another in any kind of social way, they are yet intangibly linked not only to others but also to the universe around them. She recorded in her diary on 19 June 1923: “In this book I have almost too many ideas. I want to give life and death, sanity and insanity; I want to criticize the social system and to show it at work, at most intense.” [7]The problem she now faced was that of integrating these disparate themes into one coherent novel via the characters of Clarissa and Septimus Warren Smith. The parallel between Clarissa and Septimus belongs to such kind of isolated soul.These two parallel characters form a sharp contrast in their mental states, characters and life attitudes. Septimus represents the insane world. He is mad after experiencing the inhuman war. He has watched the death of his friend Evans in the battlefield with indifference. He survives while others die. After that, he indulges in self-blaming. The cruelty of the war makes Septimus lose his ability to judge life. Nothing is reliable to him. Although Septimus is longing for life, he ends his life by throwing himself from a window. When Septimus is suffering from the intrusion of Holmes and Bradshaw into his life, and finally kills himself, Mrs. Ramsay is giving a party in her house. Septimus’s isolation and desperation make a sharp contrast with Mrs. Ramsay’s successful self-assertion. When Septimus is worried about life, Mrs. Ramsay is concerned a great deal about her party. Different from Septimus, Mrs. Dalloway is mentally healthy and sociable. She is positive to life. Life for Mrs. Ramsay is an impulsion. Every practical thing passing through her eyes like glove, book stores, fishmonger’s, and florists can draw her attention. She is keen to observe other people, and cares about the injustice of the society and about the politics. She can hold her mental balance to perform properly her social roles. As the wife of a committee member, she possesses the public–spirit. She is always ready to hold a party which the Prime Minister will attend. All these prove a healthy and sociable Clarissa. Despite her mental health and social instinct, Mrs. Dalloway is longing for death. The high social rank and admirable parties fulfill Mrs. Ramsay’s vanity but not her International Journal of Literature and Arts 2015; 3(5): 103-107 105 desire. On the one hand, she wants to shape other people’s opinion about her; on the other hand, she sees the absurdity in it. Most of the time, Clarissa faces the split reality, and suffers from not being able to be her true self. Throughout the novel the lines from Cymbeline “fear no more the heat o’ the sun” passes through both Septimus’s and Mrs. Ramsay’s mind from time to time. It is a temptation for Mrs. Ramsay. When Clarissa hears of the death of Septimus in her party, she wonders: “But this young man who had killed himself—had he plunged holding his treasure? ‘If it were now to die,’ twere now to be most happy” [8]. At this moment, Mrs. Ramsay admires Septimus, because Septimus’s yearning for death triumphs over his commitment to life. In this sense, Mrs. Ramsay feels disappointed about herself to continue her life without knowing the true meaning in it. In these two parallel characters, Septimus stands for the insane world, while Mrs. Dalloway represents the rational world. With their mental state, individual characters and attitudes towards life and death, Virginia Woolf forms the a contrast and an interaction between these two characters who never meet each other throughout the novel. This unique design expresses Virginia Woolf’s idea that people live in a universal wholeness. 2.2. Mrs. Dalloway and Peter In Virginia Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway, Clarissa’s life is paralleled with another character Peter. Peter was Clarissa’s first boyfriend. They were fond of each other when they were very young. They share many common interests in their characters. Yet there are also big differences between them. Peter is a foil to Mrs. Dalloway reflecting her other aspects in character. As Woolf described the writing of Mrs. Dalloway is a “tunneling process” [9] to “dig out beautiful caves behind my characters” [9], which becomes the root for her narrative strategy. Both Peter and Clarissa are poetic. Clarissa is sensitive to the outer world just like a poet. From time to time, Shakespeare’s poetic lines will pass through Clarissa’s mind. We can say that she combines her feelings with the poetic world. Similar to Clarissa, Peter possesses the quality of a poet, sensitive and sharp-minded. “It was the state of the world that interested him; Wagner, Pope’s poetry, people’s characters eternally, and defects of her own soul.” [8] All these show they share similar interests. Romanticism is also a shared character between Clarissa and Peter. They have been passionately falling in love with each other when they are young. They love for love’s sake. They spend many happy years in the countryside talking to each other openly. Clarissa enjoys the life immensely and cherishes Peter’s gaiety. Romance is an uncontrollable power for both of them. However, their love is doomed to end with disappointment because of their differences. Peter is adventurous; he cares nothing but his own true feeling. He does things out of his instinct, and does not care about the conventions. His unscrupulousness is much different with worldly Clarissa. Clarissa is a woman of vanity; she is in pursuit of wealthy and stable life. Clarissa’s sociable disposition and matter-of-fact way of life make a sharp contrast with Peter’s adventurousness. The parallel character Peter reveals Clarissa’s other aspects of her personality. Through their shared interests and different values in life, Virginia Woolf combines these two characters and enriches the characterization of Mrs. Ramsay from different aspects. Peter is the romantic aspect of Clarissa. 2.3. Mrs. Dalloway and Mr. Dalloway As husband of Clarissa, Mr. Dalloway is also a parallel character to her. Influenced by Sigmund Freud, Virginia Woolf exploited the aesthetic possibilities of surface pattern of apparent intentions concealing a contradictory pattern of repressed intention, [10] as shown in the following aspects. As a conservative member, Mr. Dalloway is well aware of his social roles as professional Clarissa. Both of them have the tendency to oppress their desire and fulfill the social demands. In this sense, Clarissa and Mr. Dalloway also come into accord that they are willing to keep a distance between people. They reach the understanding to keep their independence in their marriage. However, Romantic Clarissa forms a contrast with dull Mr. Dalloway. Clarissa has a way of getting on in the world. She is sensitive and poetic and keen to see through people. She holds parties for Mr. Dalloway and makes her drawing room a sort of meeting-place. She is at always the center of the parties in order to show other people her cordiality and pleasure. On the contrary, Richard belongs to that kind of person who is unable to express his feelings. He loves his wife, yet there is a gulf between them, he does not know how he can get over it. So Clarissa never gets what she wants in the marriage. She chooses Richard for his good behavior and admirable social position; she has no fun with him. Although grateful for what he does, Clarissa is unmoved by her relationship with Richard. In this pair of parallel characters, Mr. Dalloway helps to present Clarissa’s rationality and vanity. Virginia Woolf makes use of the sharing and contrasts between husband and wife to fulfill her characterization. Mr. Dalloway is the rational aspect of Clarissa. 2.4. Mrs. Dalloway and Miss. Kilman Miss. Kilman, the tutor of Mrs. Dalloway’s daughter, is another parallel character to Clarissa. These two characters form the contrast between their different believes in life. Clarissa is a skeptic and holds no belief in religion, while Miss. Kliman is a Christian with all the obligations. Clarissa and Miss. Kliman belong to different social status. Born a poor woman, Miss. Kilman is all the time self-conscious about her inferiority. Once she is very near to the happiness when she has a chance in Miss. Dolby’s school, yet the war comes and ruins everything. She believes that she has been cheated by life and turns against the hypocrisy of upper class people. Although she is grateful to the Dalloways for the employment as a tutor to their daughter, she needs inwardly to humiliate the gracious and lovely Clarissa. 106 Wei Ding et al.: Post-Impressionist Paintings and Parallel Structure in Mrs. Dalloway The perceivable Clarissa is really shocked by this religious passion. Love and religion are both detestable to her. People like Miss. Kliman are unbearable to Clarissa. After Clarissa has seen the death of her sister before her very eyes, she holds that “there were no gods; no one was to blame” and she evolved “this atheist’s religion of doing good for the sake of goodness” [4]. Holding this in mind Clarissa really sees through the cruelest things in the world, the things that are clumsy, hot, domineering, hypocritical, eavesdropping, jealous. This pair of parallel characters shows Mrs. Dalloway’s belief in life. By comparing to Miss. Kliman who is an ardent religious believer, Virginia Woolf reveals that Mrs. Dalloway is a skeptic. The image of Clarissa becomes more and more solid to readers. 2.5. Mrs. Dalloway and Elizabeth Clarissa’s daughter, Elizabeth forms another parallel character with her. Elizabeth has a different character with Clarissa. She even does not share a similar appearance with Clarissa. Elizabeth’s innocence and kindness attract Miss. Kilman so much. For Miss. Kilman, Elizabeth embodies an ideal of youth and beauty, so she becomes attached to Elizabeth. Actually, Miss. Kliman’s efforts to overcome Clarissa are channeled into an attempt to possess the soul of her daughter. Elizabeth becomes the battleground on which the two women fight. Clarissa tries to keep her affection and Miss. Kilman to lure her into the ways of communion, prayer books, and God by preventing her from going to her mother’s party. In fact, Elizabeth takes no interest in either of their business. She cannot know why Miss. Kliman always makes one feel so small; neither can she understand why her mother gives so many parties. She is just delighted to be free, and being left to do what she likes in the country. So in Clarissa’s eyes, Elizabeth is such a dumb girl, she is always worried about losing her daughter. All of Clarissa’s relationships converge at the party which she gives at the end of the day and at the end of the novel. It is here that she meets the Bradshaws and hears of Septimus’s death. All her guests come to the party, including her daughter. Her worries about her party dissolve. She feels a deep understanding towards that young man who has killed himself. She can understand that it is people like Dr. Bradshaw who makes life unbearable for Septimus. She realizes that “L[l]ife is made intolerable; they make life intolerable, men like that?” [8] Mrs. Ramsay understands what Septimus suffers from, because she also suffers from the intrusion into her peaceful mental life from people such as Miss. Kliman. Clarissa’s deep understanding of the meaning of Septimus’s suicide shows that to some extent the two selves are one. Both Septimus and Clarissa are bothered by the split reality. They try to find the eternal and stable things in the fragmented life. They want to know the other aspect of their life, yet they cherish the “privacy of the soul” [8] so much that they cannot accept the intrusion into their heart. The lines from Cymbeline—“Fear no more the heat o’ the sun/Nor the furious winter’s rage” [8]—which pass through the consciousness of both Septimus and Clarissa at various points in the novel. They both use it to conciliate their souls. The lines not only foreshadow the suicide which Septimus must finally resort to in order to escape his torment, but also suggest the attraction such a temptation holds for Clarissa herself. Clarissa’s proper social self never entirely prevents her from the temptation to self-deconstruction which she finds as compelling as Septimus does. They both understand the security and relief offered by extinction. For both of them death is a refuge from the terror of loneliness as well as a protest against the oppression of people like Homes and Bradshaw who make living intolerable. From this we can say Septimus can be seen as a death-obsessed version of Clarissa. By having these paralleled lines, Mrs. Dalloway succeeds in ordering the randomness of life into a coherent form which captures the nature of being alive. Although individuals are fragmented in themselves, they are at the same time belonging to a larger pattern in which their isolated selves are part of a transcendental unity. 3. Conclusion By adopting a parallel structure, Virginia Woolf achieves her artistic design of presenting the web of interaction of the characters. Her characters do not just go through their own life side by side. A subject dwelt on by one person builds up the bridge into the next person’s thoughts. Woolf moves us from consciousness to consciousness by creating particular moments of immediate physical contact between people on the streets of London, or by having characters intersect in the thinking of one another, shifting us deftly from one mind to the next. In this way, Woolf sets up the formal unity of a novel depicting a world in which people are cut off from themselves as well as from one another. This is the way post-impressionists do in their paintings. The post-impressionist Paul Cezanne considers that, painting does not mean to copy the reality blindly; it means the pursuit of the harmony resort to certain relationships. Their paintings do not focus on the present reality, but on the momentary consciousness and memories to draw every parallel line into geometrical lines, in this way they can set up an artistic and organic unity. In Mrs. Dalloway, there are several parallel lines—the characters, each of them can form a separate picture, yet there is a center, which is Clarissa. The background is the Victoria Street, and each character is a passerby, they move with the Big Ben striking hours. However, they interact with each other at a certain point with the characters’ responding to one scene or one subject. As at Clarissa’s party, all the separate lines converge together; this gains the wholeness of the novel and also reveals the deeper meaning in life. The parallel characterization shows Virginia Woolf’s unique design in this novel. She breaks away the traditional plot in the novel and structures parallel characters by making them each live in his or her own life circle only and letting their thinking flow in and out of each character freely. By presenting parallel characters and revealing their thinking towards one theme, International Journal of Literature and Arts 2015; 3(5): 103-107 107 Virginia Woolf sets up the formal unity of a novel. Both fashionable Clarissa enjoying a high social position and poor Septimus suffering from the shell-shocked torment share the similar idea towards life and death. Although these two parallel characters never meet and do not know each other in the novel, their shared attitude towards life and death shows that these separate two selves are one. Around Clarissa there is another parallel character—Miss. Kilman. The same oppression opposed by her on Clarissa intensifies Clarissa’s understanding and sympathy towards Septimus. Parallel characters around Clarissa’s marriage also help to reveal Clarissa’s personality and her thinking towards life. Through parallel structure, we can find the wholeness in the book: sanity and insanity, with which Clarissa and Septimus complete each other. Virginia Woolf presents the characters in the complex emotional life. At the end of the novel all the paralleled lines converge at the party Clarissa gives. The last line of Mrs. Dalloway—“For there she was” [8] echoes Peter’s earlier description of Clarissa—“Not that she was striking; not beautiful at all; there was nothing picturesque about her; she never said anything clever; there she was. However, there she was” [8]. By having these paralleled lines, Virginia Woolf succeeds in ordering the randomness of life into a coherent form which captures the nature of being alive and holds firmly a whole world and soul. Acknowledgements This work was supported by Program for Humanities and Social Sciences in Education Department of Heilongjiang Province (No. 12534073). References [1] Bell, Anne Oliver, ed. The Dairy of Virginia Woolf, Vol.3: 1925-30, London: Penguin, 1982. [2] Bell, Quentin. Virginia Woolf: A Biograghy. Iriad: Granada, 1976. [3] Mittal, S. P. The Aesthetic Venture: Virginia Woolf ’s Poetics of the Novel. New Delhi: MDR Printing Press, 1985. [4] Fry, Roger. Vision and Design. London: Chatto & Windus, 1920, pp.34. [5] Woolf, Virginia. “Modern Fiction”. The Common Reader. 1 st ed. London: The Hogarth Press, 1975, pp.50. [6] Lodge, David. Twentieth Century literary Criticism. London: Longman, 1972，pp86-91. [7] Woolf, Leonard. A Writer’s Diary, Hogarth Press, 1953. [8] Woolf, Virginia. Mrs. Dalloway. London: Penguin, 1996. [9] Woolf, Virginia. The Diary of Virginia Woolf. 5 Vols. Edited By Ann Oliver Bell. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovish, 1977-1984. [10] Mark Meynard, general editor. The Norton Anthology of World Masterpiece; part 4; New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1987, pp2143-2152. 
work_hl72owyimrbwbl5nysrrolygse	----	290 Indian J Surg (November–December 2009) 71:290–291 123 Surgical oncology – at the crossroads R. A. Badwe · C. S. Pramesh Indian J Surg (November–December 2009) 71:290–291 EDITORIAL R. A. Badwe · C. S. Pramesh Department of Surgical Oncology Tata Memorial Hospital Parel, Mumbai - 400012, India R. A. Badwe ( ) E-mail: badwera@tmc.gov.in Surgical oncology has seen dramatic changes in the past two decades. When I began my training in oncology, I remember being awestruck by the magnitude of procedures performed by the doyens of surgery of the time. As a young, impressionable surgeon fresh out of general surgical training, these radical operations reinforced in me, the caricature of the larger than life ‘gladiator’ waging a heroic battle against cancer. Today, that surgeon would be a caricature for all the wrong reasons. Gone are the days when ‘more was better’. Conservative surgery, with minimal impact on quality of life, has become the norm. Breast conservative surgery has made rapid inroads and more than two-thirds of women with early breast cancer can potentially be spared the physical and emotional trauma of a mastectomy. Limb conserving surgery has replaced amputations in patients with osteogenic sarcoma; larynx-preserving treatment options have become a viable alternative to laryngectomy. The reasons for this shift in philosophy has resulted from a combination of various factors: effective chemotherapeutic agents, improved radiation techniques, better appreciation of tumor biology, results of randomized trials and an increased awareness of quality of life issues [1]. Another major change has been the way Evidence Based Medicine (EBM) has been readily embraced by oncologists – both surgical and non-surgical. The era of the braggart surgeon deriding the clinician-scientist for pursuing clinical research is fi rmly in the past. A number of landmark clinical trials in cancer have been conceptualized and carried out by surgeons [2]. These trials have gone beyond the confi nes of surgery and have straddled the entire spectrum of cancer treatment. Many of these trials have convincingly shattered long-held myths and established new paradigms. We need to leverage the primary role we play as surgeons in the multi disciplinary team (MDT) to lead the team towards identifying specifi c problems, discuss and debate potential ways of addressing them, and fi nally provide solutions to these problems. The Calman Hine report [3] recognized that “the presence of appropriately trained site-specialized consultant surgeons in the Cancer Unit … (is) fundamental” while leaving the role of the non-surgical oncologist more fl uid and ambiguous. Technological improvement has propelled several recent advances in cancer surgery. Minimally invasive surgery (MIS) found delayed acceptance amongst surgical oncologists, primarily fueled by the fear of not being able to perform radical surgery as well as with open techniques. The situation has changed now, with MIS being adopted readily by thoracic, gastrointestinal, gynecologic, urologic and head and neck cancer surgeons. Theoretically, the advantages of MIS are many; however, none of these advantages have been conclusively proven, and like most other surgical ‘advances’, MIS has been accepted without really being tested. With increasing investments being made in healthcare, especially in the private sector, a similar situation may happen with robotic surgery. My personal view is that the superiority of any new innovation or advance needs to be established before it is adopted by our community; and if that means testing new technology, so be it. Cutting-edge technological advances notwithstanding, the biggest challenge our country faces is the lack of uniformity in delivery of healthcare. Considering the size of our country and its population, there is a gross shortage of specialized centres providing optimum cancer care. Several studies [4, 5] have conclusively shown that both short term and long term outcomes of cancer surgery depend upon individual surgeon and hospital volume. A review [6] of 88 published papers found that 77% of the studies found a positive correlation between volume and outcome. This is especially true for complex surgeries like esophageal and pancreatic resections where the difference in postoperative mortality between low and high volume centres is almost six-fold. Long term survival has also been found to be superior for patients operated by high volume surgeons even for relatively less complex surgeries like mastectomy and breast conservation. This is attributed to better coordination of overall care and more appropriate use of neoadjuvant and adjuvant therapy. Indian J Surg (November–December 2009) 71:290–291 291 123 There are two theories to explain this difference in outcomes between high and low volume centres and surgeons. The fi rst, and the more intuitively appealing explanation, is that performance of surgeons and centres improve with higher volumes and the resultant experience. The second is that better-known surgeons and institutes attract referrals from various (smaller) centres and this adds to their operative volumes. This appears to be a classic situation of which came fi rst – the chicken or the egg. Whatever the reason, there is enough evidence in literature now to make strong recommendations for treating patients with cancer in high volume centres. This is not to state that patients should only be treated in existing tertiary referral hospitals, nor does it mean the death of the primary (general) surgeon. What this means is that the ‘smaller’ centres need to be upgraded with adequate infrastructure and manpower to become high volume centres. Several such centres, each with its own niche area of specialization would be necessary to fulfi ll the unmet needs of the country’s population. Training in surgical oncology is another area which concerns me – few medical colleges (where the large majority of our young surgeons are trained) have surgical oncology as a separate specialty. With the occasional cancer surgery being performed in general surgical units, the surgical postgraduate has restricted exposure to major cancer resections. As a consequence, surgical oncology as a specialty fails to arouse interest in the young surgeon who decides to sub specialize. There is an urgent need to either rotate general surgical residents through specialized oncology centres or start departments of surgical oncology in medical colleges where they could be trained. Dramatic changes have occurred in the specialty of surgical oncology since its birth; and yet, many more changes lie ahead of us. To truly grow, we need, as a specialty, to fl ow with, and not be swept away, by these winds of change. I believe that we should think of ourselves not merely as surgical technicians, but more as oncologists in a multidisciplinary team. This might go against the ‘macho’ image we have held for several decades as the dynamic, arrogant ‘king’ of an action-packed operating room; to realize that we could have more of an impact by being a cunning strategist in this war against cancer, rather than just a skilled technician priding ourselves in our abilities to remove the most advanced tumors – to win by subtlety rather than brute force. This change, at an individual level, will not be easy. We have been trained, for years, to operate, and operate well; to take pride in our technical skills, and rightfully so. To be told that these skills should take a backseat to a more refi ned role – that of an oncologist, working with non-surgical colleagues, to improve outcomes by utilizing every resource at our disposal, many of them not involving surgery – requires extreme maturity. The choice is ours – and the opportunity to lead the fi ght against cancer lies in our hands. References 1. Lopez MJ (2005) The evolution of radical cancer surgery. Surg Oncol Clin N Am 14:xiii–xv 2. Yopp AC, DeMatteo RP, Preface (2010) Randomized controlled trials. Surg Oncol Clin N Am 19:xv-xvii 3. Calman K, Hine D. A policy framework for commissioning cancer services. http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/ groups/dh_digitalassets/@dh/@en/documents/digitalasset/ dh_4014366.pdf (accessed 4, December 2009) 4. Begg CB, Cramer LD, Hoskins WJ, Brennan MF (1998) Impact of hospital volume on operative mortality for major cancer surgery. JAMA 280:1747–1751 5. Birkmeyer J, Siewers A, Fudoyson E, et al. (2002) Hospital volume and surgical mortality in the United States. N Eng J Med 346:1128–1137 6. Halm EA, Lee C, Chassin MR (2002) Is volume related to outcome in health care? A systematic review and methodological critique of the literature. 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work_hp36w7gvx5cnpa4dy2v3pc3scu	----	Book reviews Book reviews Mania-An Evolving Concept. Edited by Robert H Belmaker, HM van Praag. (Pp 393; £18-95.) Lancaster: MTP Press Ltd. 1981. The aim of this book, according to the forthright statement with which it opens, is "to be a 23-chapter comprehensive textbook on manic illness". How well does it achieve these avowed objectives? There is no problem with the first: 23 chapters are indeed listed in the table of contents, and duly appear in sequence within the book itself. There is, however, much less certainty about it being com- prehensive. For example, it provides only the most sketchy advice concerning treatment, scant mention is made of recent observations on the changes in neuro- endocrine activity which occur during the course of a manic illness, and there is little on the range of rating scales available for assessing the severity of a manic illness in a given patient before and after treat- ment. Despite these shortcomings this book has a number of very good sections. The two reviews on the genetics of mania by Fischer, and by Gershon and Rieder are excellent; the chapter on biochemical theories by Post are thoughtful and thought-provoking, as is that on the possible role of cholinergic mechanisms in the pathogenesis of mania by Janowsky and Davis. The extremely long chapter by Robbins and Sahakian on animal models is exhaustive, everything that needed to be said on this topic is said. I also enjoyed Carpenter and Stephen's chapter on diagnosis, finding their warning against overdiagnosing mania at the expense of schizophrenia a timely one; the pendulum of diagnostic fashion has possibly swung too far in that direction. In addition to these more weighty topics there is an evocative anthology of self-descriptions by patients of what it is like to be manic; a chapter on the relationship of creativity to cyclothymia, and a final chapter devoted to describing the strange career of a seventeenth-century manic-depressive rabbinical scholar. In summary, I consider this book to be excellent in parts, but wanting in others; it can be recommended as a most useful source book in the fields of genetics, biochemistry and animal models of mania. TREVOR SILVERSTONE Essentials of Neurosurgery. Robert R Smith. (Pp 321; £17-95.) London: Harper and Row. 1980. As the Preface informs us, this book is written primarily for medical students in response to their repeated requests for a textbook ofrecent vintage, dealing with the fundamentals of the surgery of the nervous system. Not so long ago such a venture for undergraduates would have been frowned upon, neurosurgery being considered an inappropriate study for impressionable students. Even neurology, if it were taught at all, seldom had a specialist instructor to explain its mysteries. Now that the general physician and the general surgeon have all but departed from the teaching scene, their place taken by individual organ specialists, there seems no longer any reason why the interests of the nervous system should not be promoted by its own practitioners. The author of this work is Professor of Neurosurgery at the Univer- sity of Mississippi. The volume provides a balanced and comprehensive review of the present-day work and concerns of the neurosurgical specialist, albeit with some transatlantic bias. Introductory contributions deal with the importance of history taking and the basic techniques of neurological examina- tion, and outline the various specialist examinations. The care of the critically ill neurosurgical patient is considered in detail. Thereafter each chapter covers the usual subjects-trauma, infection, cerebral haemorrhage and ischaemic disorder, cerebral tumour, cord compression, disc degeneration and intractable pain. The problems of the paediatric patient and the technique of examination of the newly born receive special attention. Each chapter begins with a review of relevant anatomy and physiology, and proceeds from symptoms and signs to diagnosis and possibilities of treatment. Differential diagnosis is given extended treatment, equal emphasis being given to medical and surgical alternatives. The possibilities and limitations of surgical measures are explained and considerable effort made to present a balanced view. Details of surgical procedures are laregly passed over, or, to use the author's term, de-emphasized. The only chapter to contain some surgical detail is that on head injury, and the facts are thQse that should not be unfamiliar to anyone having care of the head injured. The Glasgow coma scale is explained and recommended for assessing level of consciousness. The head injury instruction 959 sheet which is given to the patient or his attendants on his discharge from hospital or when hospital admission is not considered essential, has much to recom- ment it. Not all the chapters are written with equal conviction, but for a single author work the content is comprehensive. The style is clear and the text easy to follow; the choice of illustrations and particularly the line diagrams, is very good. The references at the end of each chapter are up to date. A study of the major disorders of the nervous system, some of which such as stroke illness or dementia are of increasing importance in our aging society will equip the embryo doctor for work in many different fields. The neurological patient, properly surveyed, offers an unrivalled experience in the skills of history taking and of clinical assessment. For students before or after qualification, this book provides an excellent foundation for further study of the nervous system, and particularly of those disorders which may have some surgical solution. JJ MACCABE Long-term Effects of Neuroleptics. Edited by F Cattabeni, G Racagni, PF Spano, E Costa. (Pp 660; $78.88.) New York: Raven Press. 1980. This large and expensive book is described as "Advances in Biochemical Psycho- pharmacology, Volume 24", but it is actually the proceedings of yet another symposium, held in Monte Carlo in 1979. It contains no less than 81 papers, dealing with the effects of long term neuroleptic administration on dopaminergic neurons, dopamine receptors, neurotransmitter in- teraction, behaviour and neuroendocrine function. There is also a section on clinical studies. Some of the findings, already available in scientific journals, are impor- tant or at least interesting. Others are trivial in the extreme and could be used as ammunition by anyone opposed to animal experiments. The book is beauti- fully produced but the very variable quality of its contents makes it hard to recommend it. JL GIBBONS Disorders of the Cerebellum. By Sid Gilman, James R Bloedel and Richard Lechtenberg. (Pp 393; $50.00, £25-00. Philadelphia: FA Davis Co. 1981. The Contemporary Neurology Series al- P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / J N e u ro l N e u ro su rg P sych ia try: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /jn n p .4 4 .1 0 .9 5 9 o n 1 O cto b e r 1 9 8 1 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ 
work_hp5hesqrwjaqbj2hfjcdappaiu	----	[PDF] Incidence of Visualization of the Glossopharyngeal Nerve after Pediatric Tonsillectomy | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.1177/0194599815620782 Corpus ID: 206470290Incidence of Visualization of the Glossopharyngeal Nerve after Pediatric Tonsillectomy @article{Hill2016IncidenceOV, title={Incidence of Visualization of the Glossopharyngeal Nerve after Pediatric Tonsillectomy}, author={C. Hill and Vikrum A. Thimmappa and M. Smith and E. Chen}, journal={Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery}, year={2016}, volume={154}, pages={532 - 534} } C. Hill, Vikrum A. Thimmappa, +1 author E. Chen Published 2016 Medicine Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery The objective was to determine the incidence of exposure of the lingual branch of the glossopharyngeal nerve during tonsillectomy with a retrospective review of surgical findings in 138 children who underwent total tonsillectomy at a tertiary medical center. Age, sex, surgical indication, tonsil size, congenital abnormalities, operative time, and surgical findings indicating the presence or absence of the glossopharyngeal nerve in the tonsillar fossa were recorded. Statistical analysis was… Expand View on SAGE triomeetingposters.org Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper 4 CitationsBackground Citations 3 View All Figures and Topics from this paper figure 1 figure 2 Glossopharyngeal nerve structure Abducens Nerve Diseases Congenital Abnormality Tonsillectomy Pharyngeal structure t test Set of muscles 4 Citations Citation Type Citation Type All Types Cites Results Cites Methods Cites Background Has PDF Publication Type Author More Filters More Filters Filters Sort by Relevance Sort by Most Influenced Papers Sort by Citation Count Sort by Recency Post-tonsillectomy taste dysfunction: Myth or reality? L. Soldatova, R. Doty Medicine World journal of otorhinolaryngology - head and neck surgery 2018 3 Save Alert Research Feed Glossopharyngeal Nerve Injury Following Tonsillectomy 2019 1 PDF View 2 excerpts, cites background Save Alert Research Feed A Retrospective Cohort Study of Glossopharyngeal Nerve Taste in Children with Recurrent Acute Tonsillitis C. Hill, S. Dang, M. Beach, E. Chen Medicine Otolaryngology--head and neck surgery : official journal of American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery 2017 1 View 1 excerpt, cites background Save Alert Research Feed A Rare Complication of Tonsillectomy: Glossopharyngeal Neuralgia B. Erdoğan, Kübra Batum Medicine The Journal of craniofacial surgery 2020 View 1 excerpt, cites background Save Alert Research Feed References SHOWING 1-10 OF 14 REFERENCES SORT BYRelevance Most Influenced Papers Recency Anatomy of the Tonsillar Bed: Topographical Relationship Between the Palatine Tonsil and the Lingual Branch of the Glossopharyngeal Nerve K. Ohtsuka, H. Tomita, G. Murakami Medicine Acta oto-laryngologica. Supplementum 2002 50 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Taste disturbance after tonsillectomy and laryngomicrosurgery. S. Tomofuji, M. Sakagami, K. Kushida, T. Terada, H. Mori, M. Kakibuchi Medicine Auris, nasus, larynx 2005 30 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed From the expert’s office: localized neural lesions following tonsillectomy J. Windfuhr, G. Schlöndorff, A. Sesterhenn, B. Kremer Medicine European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology 2009 26 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Taste function evaluation after tonsillectomy: a prospective study of 60 patients T. Stathas, A. Mallis, +5 authors P. Goumas Medicine European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology 2010 14 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Taste Disorders after Tonsillectomy: Case Report and Literature Review S. Collet, P. Rombaux, P. Eloy, B. Bertrand Medicine The Annals of otology, rhinology, and laryngology 2005 18 View 2 excerpts, references background Save Alert Research Feed Management of congenital fourth branchial arch anomalies: a review and analysis of published cases. K. Nicoucar, R. Giger, H. Pope, T. Jaecklin, P. Dulguerov Medicine Journal of pediatric surgery 2009 139 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Taste damage (otitis media, tonsillectomy and head and neck cancer), oral sensations and BMI L. Bartoshuk, F. Catalanotto, H. Hoffman, H. Logan, D. J. Snyder Medicine Physiology & Behavior 2012 65 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Bilateral Glossopharyngeal Nerve Paralysis after Tonsillectomy: Case Report and Anatomic Study L. Ford, R. M. Cruz Medicine The Laryngoscope 2004 22 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Transoral anatomy of the tonsillar fossa and lateral pharyngeal wall: Anatomic dissection with radiographic and clinical correlation C. M. Lim, V. Mehta, +4 authors U. Duvvuri Medicine The Laryngoscope 2013 22 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Ambulatory surgery in the United States, 2006. K. A. Cullen, M. Hall, Aleksandr Golosinskiy Medicine National health statistics reports 2009 973 PDF Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 ... Related Papers Abstract Figures and Topics 4 Citations 14 References Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. 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work_hqqo2ixnevgkthtf5q4ldzcxzq	----	Enlighten – Research publications by members of the University of Glasgow http://eprints.gla.ac.uk Fracchia, C., and Macartney, H. (2012) The Fall into Oblivion of the Works of the Slave Painter Juan de Pareja. Art in Translation, 4 (2). ISSN 1756-1310 http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/68437/ Deposited on: 4 September 2012 Art in Translation, 4:2 (June 2012), 63-84, translated by Hilary Macartney The Fall into Oblivion of the Works of the Slave Painter Juan de Pareja Carmen Fracchia Birkbeck College, University of London, UK In this essay I will focus on the mechanisms of forgetting and oversight of the works of the Spanish artist Juan de Pareja (Antequera, c. 1606 – Madrid, 1670), and the consequent lack of critical recognition he has suffered up to the last ten years. Juan de Pareja was a mulatto painter and slave who succeeded in forging an independent artistic career in seventeenth-century Spain, at a time when, in theory, only those who were free could practice the art of painting. Pareja was the slave and collaborator of the celebrated painter Diego Velázquez (1599-1660) at the court of Philip IV in Madrid, where he was an exceptional case, as was also the relationship between master and slave.1 Pareja, who was able to read and write, acted as legal witness for Velázquez in documents dating from 1634 to 1653, both in Spain and in Italy, where he went with his master from 1649 to 1651.2 During Velázquez’s second stay in Italy, he immortalized his slave in an extraordinary portrait which he exhibited in the Pantheon in Rome on 19 March 1650,3 six months before he signed the document of manumission of Pareja. This historic act marked the beginning of Pareja’s independent career as a painter, though as the document of liberation of 23 November indicates, his new condition as a freedman did not prevent him from continuing in service to Velázquez, and to his master’s descendents, until the end of his life in 1670.4 In the slave society of imperial Spain, artists, like the majority of the urban population, would own one or two slaves.5 The most notable seventeenth-century examples were those of the painters and art theorists Vicente Carducho and Francisco Pacheco,6 and that of the painter Bartolomé Murillo, whose slave, the Granada-born mulatto Sebastián Gómez, was also a painter.7 New documents show that the presence of slaves in artists’ workshops in Spain was more common than was previously thought.8 This social practice placed Antonio Palomino de Castro y Velasco, the first biographer of Pareja, in a dilemma. In El museo pictórico y escala óptica of 1715-24, the painter and art theorist centred his life of Pareja around the latter’s paradoxical condition as both slave and painter. Palomino resorted to the ethnic definition of Pareja in classifying him as ‘of mestizo breed and strange colour’, and also felt the need to differentiate the occupation of Pareja from that of others of Velázquez’s collaborators by listing his manual tasks, typical of those of a slave: ‘grinding colours, and preparing a canvas, and other things in the service of the art, and of the house’.9 It is clear that Palomino had to defend the classical concept of painting as a liberal activity, practised only by free persons.10 This dilemma led him to declare that ‘Velázquez (for love of his art) never permitted him [Pareja] to occupy himself with anything to do with painting or drawing’.11 Consequently, in order to justify the apprenticeship and collaboration of a slave in the workshop of Velázquez at the Spanish court, Palomino turned to one of the constants of the biographies of artists, that of the painter who secretly learns from his master: He [Pareja] contrived things so cleverly that, by going behind his master’s back and depriving himself of sleep, he became able to produce works of Painting that were very worthy of esteem. And foreseeing his master’s certain displeasure at this, he made use of a curious 2 strategy; so he had observed that every time King Philip IV came down to the lower rooms to watch Velázquez paint, and saw a picture leaning with its face against the wall, His Majesty would turn it round, or order it to be turned round, to see what it was. With this in mind, Pareja placed a little picture by his own hand casually facing the wall. As soon as the King saw it, he went to turn it round, and at the same time Pareja, who was waiting for this opportunity, fell at his feet and desperately pleaded for protection from his master, without whose consent he had learned the art, and had made that painting with his own hand. Not content with doing what Pareja had begged, that magnanimous royal spirit also turned to Velázquez and said: Not only must you say no more about this, but be advised that someone who has such skill cannot be a slave.12 Palomino constructed the anecdote about the Pareja’s manumission, which was not very common practice in Spain,13 in order to solve the paradox of being a slave and a painter, and to justify the inclusion of the biography of the slave in his treatise on art. Once he had clarified the paradoxical position of Pareja, Palomino applied the biographical formula of linking the skill of the painter with his personal qualities: ‘And because of this noble deed [perpetual servitude], as well as for having had such honourable thoughts, and becoming eminent in Painting (notwithstanding the misfortune of his natural condition) he has appeared to be worthy of this place […] he, by his honourable proceedings and his application, created a new being for himself and another, second nature.’14 Pareja’s qualities allowed Palomino to praise liberally the standard of his portraits: ‘Our Pareja had in particular a most singular talent for portraits, of which I have seen some that are most excellent, such as the one of José Ratés (Architect in this Court), in which one recognizes totally the manner of Velázquez, so that many believe it to be his.’15 Juan Agustín Ceán Bermúdez added in 1800, in his Diccionario histórico, that this confusion also existed between the portraits of Pareja and those of Juan Bautista del Mazo. 16 The attention paid by Spanish art historiography to the extraordinary case of Pareja prevented him from being subsumed into the anonymous and indistinguishable mass of the majority of the master’s collaborators, with the exception of Juan Bautista del Mazo, son-in-law of Velázquez and painter to the Spanish court, who inherited Pareja’s services after the death of his father-in-law. Clarification of the independence of the Velázquez-inspired style of Pareja’s works, and the consistent aesthetic devaluation of his work, were the primary reasons that led to the only monographic study of Juan de Pareja in existence, published in 1957 by Juan Antonio Gaya Nuño. 17 The whereabouts of more than half the artistic output of Pareja assembled by the Spanish art historian is unknown: the Portrait of a Boy, Lady Wearing a Nun’s Habit, and Bust-length Portrait of a Gentleman, which were attributed to Pareja in the sale catalogue of the Aguado Collection in 1843,18 as well as the Presentation of the Christ Child in the Temple,19 a St Barbara signed by the artist and seen by the author on the art market,20 and the four pictures which the traveller Antonio Ponz saw in the Chapel of St Rita in the prestigious Augustinian Monasterio de los Recoletos in Madrid: St John the Evangelist, St John the Baptist, St Orentius and the Virgin of Guadalupe in Mexico.21 Of the existing output of Pareja, Gaya Nuño cites the only two works recorded by Spanish art historiography: the Portrait of José Ratés, mentioned by Palomino22 and the Calling of St Matthew, referred to by Ceán Bermúdez,23as well as those which survived the oblivion of art historiography and the lack of critical recognition: those signed and dated by the artist, the Flight into Egypt of 1658,24 the Baptism of Christ of 1667,25 the Mystic Marriage of St Catherine of 1669, a year before his death26 and the Portrait of a Capuchin Provincial, whose recent restoration has 3 revealed Pareja’s signature and the date of 1651, thus dispelling doubts about the authorship of the work, which had been ascribed to lesser-known Madrid artists of the seventeenth century. 27 It has also highlighted the relative artistic independence that Pareja achieved in the year of his manumission, even though he continued to lend his services to Velázquez. In the same museum (the Hermitage), there is another work by Pareja, the Portrait of a Gentleman of the Order of Santiago, signed on the back of the canvas, which Kagané believes to date from the 1630s.28 Other pictures that Gaya Nuño lists as by the painter are the Immaculate Conception, which bears his signature,29 and the Battle of the Hebrews and the Canaanites in the University of Saragossa, with an inscription on a label on the back, which reads ‘Juan de Pareja (el mulato)/ año 1660-1/autor de la Vocación de San Mateo de Sevilla’ [Juan de Pareja (the mulatto)/year 1660-1/author of the Calling of St Matthew in Seville].30 It is only in the last ten years or so that a certain interest in Pareja has been revived, prompted by the studies on the works of Velázquez, such as his portrait Juan de Pareja, that were published following the recent anniversary of the birth of Velázquez, and by the increase in Transatlantic studies on slavery within the Anglophone world in recent years.31 The long obscurity in which the works of Pareja remained within the history of art was due not only to his situation as Velázquez’s collaborator. The legend of the slave painter, created by Palomino, was repeated in the Spanish sources,32 until it acquired the exaggeration of its ‘romantic ingredients’ from the second half of the nineteenth century on, ‘in articles which appeared [in Spain] in periodical publications of a popular nature on art’,33 and in 1965, in the famous novel I, Juan de Pareja, by the writer Elizabeth Borton of Treviño, which received a prize for children’s literature in the United States, the Newbery Medal, in 1966.34 It is undeniable that the slave painter at the court of Philip IV aroused a certain curiosity in imperial Spain, as did his predecessor, the celebrated Spanish humanist of African descent, Juan Latino (1518? – c. 1594), who used his profession as a writer to achieve recognition as a free man. 35 The stigmas of slavery and manumission, which were intimately linked to the prejudice against the skin colour of black slaves in Spanish society, contributed, in my opinion, to the fall into obscurity of the works of Pareja. The ethnicity and social condition of Pareja have been, from the time of the brief eighteenth-century biography onwards, the constant parameters used by sources in Spain and elsewhere to measure the skill and quality of his works. This attitude, which denoted a certain anxiety around the encounter with the Other in the Spanish court in the Early Modern period, did not completely disappear with the passing of time, as the observations of Carl Justi, in the 1953 Spanish translation of the German scholar’s monograph of Velázquez of 1888 showed, when he commented on the Palomino legend which explained the portrait Juan de Pareja by Velázquez: “[Velázquez] wanted to do a trial piece before [the portrait of Innocent X] and found a subject close at hand in his servant, a dauber, the Moor Juan de Pareja. It was also an experiment to determine how a painter should proceed with an ugly head.’36 The opinions expressed, four years later by Gaya Nuño, who attacked Palomino for his ‘racist judgement which was very understandable in his time’,37 also demonstrate a certain ambiguity towards Pareja, whom he admired for the ‘great care’ he took to sign his works ‘in the reasonable hope they would avenge him for the social slights occasioned by the colour of his skin’. In his opinion, the lack of adherence of Pareja’s works to the Velázquez canon were evident in 4 the ‘compositional clumsiness’, ‘the undoubted compositional primitivism that was only countered by the picture in the Prado Museum’, in the ‘clumsy and ingenuous perspective’, in the mediocrity of his signed works, and in a certain ‘coarseness of the features and the large hands’ in the portrait José de Ratés, which he considered a ‘piece of exceptional worth which well deserves to become widely known’.38 The author acknowledged that the colouring ‘in his paintings of religious themes’ is ‘his gift and his strength, which compensate for his many errors’39 and stressed ‘that he was not a bad colourist, though certainly weak in invention, clumsy in composition but, on the other hand, not bad at drawing’, concluding by admitting that ‘he was an estimable painter’ who ‘had nothing servile about him’ and that ‘he has received little glory’.40 These characteristics, typical of a minor painter, were seen as a product of ‘the curious personality’ of Pareja, whom Gaya Nuño considered a ‘strange and impressionable mulatto, receptive to all influences’, and with an ‘original naivety’ which, in his opinion, ‘could almost be said to be the predecessor of that of the Douanier Rousseau’.41 The writer concluded that Pareja was a ‘skilful individual, personal in his most impersonal eclecticism, impressionable too’, and a ‘very nice creature, within his creational limits’.42 In Gaya Nuño’s monographic article, the prejudices about the mulatto, and the focus on Pareja’s style, contributed to the oblivion into which the artistic output of this Spanish artist fell. The author’s traditional artistic focus, which follows the familiar progress of the canonical art of the ‘maestro’ Velázquez, perpetuates the lack of recognition of the value of the creative and compositional differences of Pareja. It is appropriate, in this context, to concentrate on Pareja’s Calling of St Matthew, in order to analyse the visual and religious discourses adopted by our artist to rescue himself from historical oblivion, thus immortalising the Pareja ‘case’ and its cultural function within the formation of the Spanish empire.43 In this painting, which remains in the Prado Museum stores in Madrid, Gaya Nuño interpreted Pareja’s whitening of his self-portrait as a means of ‘ennobling, falsifying and playing tricks with his own image, known from the magnificent Roman portrait by Don Diego, while failing to show pride in his race. Mulatto he continued to be, without doubt, but he depersonalized himself as much as possible’.44 Indeed, Pareja inserted himself as a secondary European figure, at the left edge of the composition, at the moment when Christ invites Matthew to give up his profession and follow him unconditionally.45 Before embarking on analysis of the visual discourses used by the artist in formulating his own identity, let us examine the composition into which Pareja inserted himself. In this sizeable canvas, we see that the central figure of Matthew, who is represented according to the western stereotype of the image of the Jew, is seated a table in front of the only column in his collector’s office, which divides the composition into two scenes: to the right, Christ and his three disciples and, to the left, a group of public employees and clients, placed between the foreground and the background, amongst whom is the only slave of African origin to be found in the composition. The figures all focus on Christ’s invitation to Matthew, with the exception of Pareja, who is the only one that directs his gaze towards the spectator. The artist depicts himself as a Spanish gentleman, and holds a paper in his hand on which can be read his signature and the date of 1661. In Matthew’s office a great wealth of material culture is displayed, including the carpet that covers the table, coins, jewels, sheets of paper, books, urns, and a picture hung on the wall in the background, containing an image of Moses and the Bronze Serpent. We need to examine the importance of the black slave, St Matthew, Christ and Moses in this religious context, so that we can understand the cultural significance of the visual parallels established by the artist between the case of Pareja and these figures. The central figure in the composition, Matthew, known as Levi before his 5 conversion to Christ’s cause, was a tax collector for the Romans, and for that reason was looked down on by the Jews. Christianity would transform his social condition, and he became a disciple of Christ and one of the evangelists.46 It is not difficult to imagine Pareja’s identification with Matthew, not only because conversion to Christianity was a compulsory requirement for slaves in Spain, but above all because Matthew was the apostle of Ethiopia.47 In the social imagery of Spain, Ethiopia was associated with the classical world, where the word Ethiopian was used to refer to people of African descent, and with Christianity, since Ethiopia was the first Christian nation.48 Pareja also establishes a direct relationship between the evangelist, as instrument of the spiritual liberation of the Ethiopians, and Moses, as liberator of the Israelites from slavery in Egypt, where Matthew also preached.49 Moses and Christ, the liberator of humanity, wear the same robes, and Pareja places himself at the other end of the table, opposite the Saviour. With these visual parallels, the artist alludes to his identity as a Biblical Ethiopian and, therefore, a free man. A clear reference to Matthew’s mission in Ethiopia is the face of the black slave, illuminated and at the same time pierced by the light of Divine Grace that crowns the evangelist’s turban, and anticipates the whitening of Pareja himself. The painter reminds his spectators that the black slave, Matthew and he all belong to Ethiopia, cradle of the ‘old Christians’, and not to the Spain of the Habsburgs. The imperial policies of ‘purity of blood’, which were developed from the middle of the fifteenth century and the time of the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, brought about the exclusion not only of Jews, but also of Muslims, Conversos, Moriscos, blacks and mulattos from the spheres of power in Spain.50 The identity of Biblical Ethiopian gave Pareja the justification to represent himself as a Spanish gentleman with a sword, a social attribute of ‘old Christians’. Pareja converts himself, through the visual association he establishes with Matthew, into an example of assimilation into the Spanish empire and, at the same time, proclaims his difference from the Moriscos and Conversos, whose religions were considered enemies of the state, especially within the court, where the presence of Morisco slaves was prohibited. 51 In representing himself as white, Pareja turned to the European iconographic example of the Baptism of the Black Eunuch by St Philip, in which the neophyte, as a result of the sacrament, acquires the appearance of a white European man.52 But why did the artist-gentleman differentiate himself from the black page-slave in the composition? Pareja must certainly have posed himself the problem of how to create a pictorial illusion that would communicate his new identity as a freedman in a society in which the word ‘black’ was a synonym for ‘slave’, and in which spectators would have been conscious of the predominant principles of physiognomy, according to which the qualities of the soul could be deduced from facial features.53 The artist was conscious that the colour of his skin would always reveal his previous condition as a slave, and it was essential that his spectators should take into account his new condition as a freedman, since only people who were free could paint. If Matthew could erase his past as a publican through his conversion to Christianity, Pareja could proclaim his ‘second nature’. The artist had to resort to the artifices of his profession and create a visual strategy that went beyond his identity as Biblical Ethiopian, and transcended the social stigma of the colour of his skin and the dominant rules of physiognomy. In this way, the Spanish Catholic public of the seventeenth century, who were obsessed by the statutes of purity of blood, could grasp the new identity of Pareja as a freedman, despite his recourse to subversion of the genre of the self- portrait, whose principal characteristic was the concept of likeness.54 There is no doubt that Pareja’s critical fortunes determined not only the historical negation of his identity but also that of his function as a cultural creator within a specific time and space. If we want 6 to rescue the works of a ‘minor’ artist from critical and historiographical oblivion, we need to re- examine this highly fertile period in the history of Spanish art from a new, non-canonical perspective which is based on a larger cultural and thematic contextualization of the visual material. BIBLIOGRAPHY Aterido Fernández, Ángel (ed.), Corpus Velazqueño. Documentos y textos, I (Madrid: Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte, 2000). Borton de Treviño, Elizabeth, I, Juan de Pareja (1965) (London: Puffin Books, 1968). Campbell, Lorne, Renaissance Portraits: European Portrait-Painting in the 14th, 15th and the 16th Centuries (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1990). Ceán Bermúdez, Juan Agustín, Diccionario histórico de los más ilustres profesores de las Bellas Artes en España, III (Madrid: Imprenta Viuda de Ibarra, 1800). Covarrubias, Sebastián de, Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española (1611), edited by Martín de Riquer (Barcelona: Horta, 1987). Domínguez Ortiz, Antonio, ‘La esclavitud en Castilla en la edad moderna’, in Carmelo Viñas y Mey (ed.), Estudios de historia social de España, II (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 1952), 369-428. Elliott, John H., Imperial Spain 1469-1716 (London: Penguin Books, 2002). Fra-Molinero, Baltasar, ‘Juan Latino and his Racial Difference’, in T.F. Earle and K.J.P. Lowe (eds.), Black Africans in Renaissance Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 326-44. Fracchia, Carmen, ‘(Lack of) Visual Representation of Black Slaves in Spanish Golden Age Painting’, Journal of Iberian and Latin American Studies, 10:1 (June 2004), 23-34. ______ ‘Representación de la esclavitud negra en la España imperial y la problematización del par “original-copia”’, in Gabriela Siracusano (ed.), Original-Copia … Original? (Buenos Aires: C.A.I.A., 2005), 274-6. ______ ‘Constructing the Black Slave in Early Modern Spanish Painting’, in Tom Nichols (ed.), Others and Outcasts in Early Modern Europe: Picturing the Social Margins (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007), 179- 93. ______’Metamorphosis of the Self in Early Modern Spain: Slave Portraiture and the Case of Juan de Pareja’, in Agnes Lugo-Ortiz and Angela Rosenthal (eds.), Invisible Subjects? Slave Portraiture in the Circum-Atlantic World (1630-1890) (Chicago: Chicago University Press), in press. Franco Silva, Alfonso, La esclavitud en Sevilla y su tierra a fines de la Edad Media (Sevilla: Gráficas del Sur, 1979). Gállego, Julián, El pintor, de artesano a artista (Granada: Universidad de Granada, 1976). 7 García Felguera, María de los Santos, La fortuna de Murillo (1682-1900) (Sevilla: Diputación Provincial de Sevilla, 1989). Gaya Nuño, Juan Antonio, ‘Revisiones sexcentistas: Juan de Pareja’, Archivo Español de Arte, 30 (1957), 271-85. Justi, Carl, Velázquez y su siglo (1888), translated by Pedro Marrades (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1953). Kagané, Ludmila, La pintura española del Museo del Ermitage. Siglos XV al XIX (Sevilla: Fundación del Monte, 2005). Martín Casares, Aurelia, La esclavitud en la Granada del siglo XVI. Género, raza y religión (Granada: Universidad de Granada, 2000). Massing, Jean Michel, ‘From Greek Proverb to Soap Advert: Washing the Ethiopian’, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 58 (1995), 180-291. Méndez Rodríguez, Luis, ‘Gremio y esclavitud en la pintura sevillana del Siglo de Oro’, in Archivo Hispalense, 256-7 (2001), 243-55. Montagu, Jennifer, ‘Velázquez Marginalia: His Slave Juan de Pareja and his Illegitimate Son Antonio’, Burlington Magazine, 125 (1983), 683-5. Palomino de Castro y Velasco, Antonio, El museo pictórico y escala óptica (1715-24), III (Madrid: M. Aguilar, 1947). Pérez Sánchez, Alfonso E., ‘El retrato clásico español’, in Fundación Amigos del Museo del Prado (ed.), El retrato (Barcelona: Galaxia Gutemberg, 2004), 197-231 Perry, Mary Elizabeth, Ni espada rota ni mujer que trota. Mujer y desorden social en la Sevilla del Siglo de Oro, translated by M. Fortuny Minguella (Barcelona: Crítica, 1993). Ponz, Antonio, Viaje de España en que se da noticia de las cosas más apreciables, y dignas de saberse, que hay en ella, V (Madrid: D. Joaquín Ibarra, Printer, 1776). Stoichita, Victor I., ‘El retrato del esclavo Juan de Pareja. Semejanza y conceptismo’, in Fundación Amigos del Museo del Prado (ed.), Velázquez (Barcelona: Galaxia Gutemberg, 1999), 367-81. ______ ‘La imagen del hombre de raza negra en el arte y la literatura españolas del Siglo de Oro’, in H. von Kügelsen (ed.), Herencias indígenas, tradiciones europeas y la mirada europea (Frankfurt- Madrid: Vervuet-Iberoamericana, 2002), 259-90. Voragine, Jacobus de, The Golden Legend: Reading on the Saints, translated by William Granger Ryan, II (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993). 8 NOTES 1 Antonio Domínguez Ortiz, ‘La esclavitud en Castilla en la edad moderna’, in Carmelo Viñas y Mey (ed.), Estudios de historia social de España, II (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 1952), pp. 369-428. 2 Ángel Aterido Fernández (ed.), Corpus Velazqueño. Documentos y textos, I (Madrid: Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte, 2000); and Jennifer Montagu, ‘Velázquez Marginalia: His Slave Juan de Pareja and his Illegitimate Son Antonio’, Burlington Magazine, 125 (1983), p. 684. 3 Antonio Palomino de Castro y Velasco, ‘Velásquez’, in El museo pictórico y escala óptica (1715-24), III (Madrid: M. Aguilar, 1947), p. 106. The portrait Juan de Pareja is in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. 4 Montagu, op. cit., p. 684. In documents of manumission it was a common condition of the slave’s freedom to require his additional service as a page. Antonio Palomino, ‘Juan de Pareja’, in El museo pictórico y escala óptica (1715-24), III (Madrid: M. Aguilar), 1947, p. 961. 5 Alfonso Franco Silva, La esclavitud en Sevilla y su tierra a fines de la Edad Media (Sevilla: Gráficas del Sur, 1979), p. 253; Mary Elizabeth Perry, Ni espada rota ni mujer que trota. Mujer y desorden social en la Sevilla del Siglo de Oro, translated by M. Fortuny Minguella (Barcelona: Crítica, 1993), pp. 86, 290-2; and Aurelia Martín Casares, La esclavitud en la Granada del siglo XVI. Género, raza y religión (Granada: Universidad de Granada, 2000), pp. 313-18. 6 Julián Gállego, El pintor, de artesano a artista (Granada: Universidad de Granada, 1976), p. 85; Carmen Fracchia, ‘(Lack of) Visual Representation of Black Slaves in Spanish Golden Age Painting’, Journal of Iberian and Latin American Studies, 10:1 (June 2004), p. 30, note 16. 7 Juan Agustín Ceán Bermúdez, Diccionario histórico de los más ilustres profesores de las Bellas Artes en España, III (Madrid: Imprenta Viuda de Ibarra, 1800), p. 204; and María de los Santos García Felguera , La fortuna de Murillo (1682-1900) (Sevilla: Diputación Provincial de Sevilla, 1989), pp. 174- 8. 8 Luis Méndez Rodríguez, ‘Gremio y esclavitud en la pintura sevillana del Siglo de Oro’, in Archivo Hispalense, 256-7 (2001), pp. 243-55. 9 Palomino, ‘Juan de Pareja’, p. 960. 10 Ibid., pp. 960-1. 11 Ibid., p. 960. The debate over painting as a liberal activity continued to run in Spain during the eighteenth century, the activity having been considered a craft until the end of the previous century. Alfonso E. Pérez Sánchez, ‘El retrato clásico español’, in Fundación Amigos del Museo del Prado (ed.), El retrato (Barcelona: Galaxia Gutemberg, 2004), p. 228. 12 The italics in the text are those in Palomino, ‘Juan de Pareja’, p. 960. See also García Felguera, op. cit., p. 175, note 109. 13 Aurelia Martín Casares, op. cit., pp. 435-69. 14 Palomino, ‘Juan de Pareja’, p. 961; and Victor I. Stoichita, ‘El retrato del esclavo Juan de Pareja. Semejanza y conceptismo’, in Fundación Amigos del Museo del Prado (ed.), Velázquez (Barcelona: Galaxia Gutemberg, 1999), pp. 375-9. García Felguera, op. cit., p. 148. 15 Palomino, ‘Juan de Pareja’, p. 961. 16 Ceán Bermúdez, op. cit., p. 52. 17 Juan Antonio Gaya Nuño, ‘Revisiones sexcentistas: Juan de Pareja’, Archivo Español de Arte, 30 (1957), pp. 271-85. 18 Ibid., p. 284. 19 Ibid., p. 281. 20 Ibid., p. 283. 9 21 Antonio Ponz, Viaje de España en que se da noticia de las cosas más apreciables, y dignas de saberse, que hay en ella, V (Madrid: D. Joaquín Ibarra, Printer, 1776), p. 55. These paintings were also recorded by Ceán Bermúdez, op. cit., p. 52. 22 See note 17 of this article. Gaya Nuño, op. cit., p. 282, mentions a label on the back of the canvas of José de Ratés (Museo de Bellas Artes, Valencia), which stated the name of the sitter and the author. 23 This work is in the Prado Museum’s stores. Ceán Bermúdez, op. cit., p. 52; and Gaya Nuño, op. cit., pp. 277-8. 24 Gaya Nuño, op. cit., pp. 276-7. The painting is in the Ringling Museum in Sarasota, Florida. 25 Ibid., pp. 278-9. 26 Ibid., pp. 279-80. The painting is in the parish church of Santa Olaja de Eslonza, in the province of Leon. 27 Ludmila Kagané, La pintura española del Museo del Ermitage. Siglos XV al XIX (Sevilla: Fundación del Monte, 2005), pp. 94, 160, 410, 477. 28 Kagané, op. cit., pp. 318, 322, 477. 29 Gaya Nuño, op. cit., p. 281. The painting is in the Ordóñez Collection in Madrid. 30 Ibid., p. 280. 31 Stoichita, op. cit., pp. 367-81; and, by the same author, ‘La imagen del hombre de raza negra en el arte y la literatura españolas del Siglo de Oro’, in H. von Kügelsen (ed.), Herencias indígenas, tradiciones europeas y la mirada europea (Frankfurt-Madrid: Vervuet-Iberoamericana, 2002), pp. 259-90. See also Fracchia, op. cit.; and, by the same author, ‘Representación de la esclavitud negra en la España imperial y la problematización del par “original-copia”’, in Gabriela Siracusano (ed.), Original-Copia … Original? (Buenos Aires: C.A.I.A., 2005), pp. 274-6; and ’Metamorphosis of the Self in Early Modern Spain: Slave Portraiture and the Case of Juan de Pareja’, in Agnes Lugo-Ortiz and Angela Rosenthal (eds.), Invisible Subjects? Slave Portraiture in the Circum-Atlantic World (1630- 1890) (Chicago: Chicago University Press), in press. 32 Aterido Fernández (ed.), op. cit., pp. 633, 641: Francisco Preciado de la Vega, in a letter on Spanish painting to Giambattista Ponfredi in Rome, dated 20 October 1765, and Gregorio Mayans in El arte de pintar (1776) paraphrase Palomino’s fable. 33 García Felguera, op. cit., p. 178, note 120. 34 Elizabeth Borton de Treviño, I, Juan de Pareja (1965) (London: Puffin Books, 1968). 35 Baltasar Fra-Molinero, ‘Juan Latino and his Racial Difference’, in T.F. Earle and K.J.P. Lowe (eds.), Black Africans in Renaissance Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), pp. 326-44. 36 Carl Justi, Velázquez y su siglo (1888), translated by Pedro Marrades (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1953), p. 576. 37 Gaya Nuño, op. cit., p. 273. 38 Ibid., pp. 279, 280, 282, 284. 39 Ibid., p. 281. 40 Ibid., pp. 284-5. 41 Ibid., pp. 276, 278. 42 Ibid., p. 284. 43 This work (225 x 325 cm) by Pareja did not form part of a religious series. Neither the identity of the client, nor the function of the work is known, but the fleur-de-lys, symbol of the Farnese family, on the canvas indicates that it belonged to Queen Isabella Farnese, wife of Philip V. I am grateful to Dr Javier Portús for advising me on this matter. For a more detailed study of this painting, see Fracchia, op. cit., in press. 44 Gaya Nuño, op. cit., p. 277. 45 The episode is related in the Gospel of St Matthew (9:9). 10 46 Jacobus de Voragine, The Golden Legend: Reading on the Saints, translated by William Granger Ryan, II (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 184-8. 47 Gaya Nuño, op. cit., p. 184. 48 Jean Michel Massing, ‘From Greek Proverb to Soap Advert: Washing the Ethiopian’, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 58 (1995), p. 182; and Fra-Molinero, op. cit., pp. 330, 331, 344, 337. 49 The story of Moses and the serpent of metal, which is told in Numbers (21:4-9), foretells the effect of the death and resurrection of Christ, see also the Gospel of St John (3:13-15). 50 John H. Elliott, Imperial Spain 1469-1716 (London: Penguin Books, 2002), pp. 220-21. 51 Domínguez Ortiz, op. cit., pp. 383-4. 52 Fracchia, op. cit. (2005), p. 275. 53 Lorne Campbell, Renaissance Portraits: European Portrait-Painting in the 14th, 15th and the 16th Centuries (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1990), p. 27. 54 Sebastián de Covarrubias, Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española (1611), edited by Martín de Riquer (Barcelona: Horta, 1987), p. 908, defines a portrait as: ‘the copied figure of an important person of some standing, whose effigy and likeness it is right to commemorate for future centuries’. eprintscitation_temp.pdf 0B0Bhttp://eprints.gla.ac.uk/68437/ 
work_hrrqtdkzkbhxtfj7ppmkfh7qna	----	1934.] PSYCHIATRY. 443 Epilepsy. XIII : Aura in Epilepsy. (Arch. of Neur. and Psychiat., vol. xxx, p.@ Aug. , 1933.) Lennox, 11―.G., and Cobb, S. The authors analysed the reports on 1,359 non-institutional epileptics. Aur@e were present in 562%, which agrees with Gowers' 57% on 2,013 cases. They were less frequent in patients having only petit nial or its equivalent than in others. A history of aura was not less common in the mentally deteriorated. In those who had had attacks for five years or longer the incidence of a history of aura was 27% greater than in those who had had less than five years of seizures. The mentally deteriorated more frequently had visceral aura@ ; the mentally normal, aurie of pain, pariesthesia@ or numbness. Aura@ of potential localizing value occurred in 70% of the patients with a history of injury of the brain antedating the seizures, and in 41% of those without such a history. G. W. H. T. FLEMING. A mbulatory A utomatism in Epilepsy [L ‘¿�automatisme ambulatoise épileptique]. (Ann. Med. Psych., vol. xiv (ii), p. 609, Dec., 1933.) Marchand, C. Of a series of 1,052 epileptics observed at the out-patients' department of the Henri-Rousselle Hospital, 69 (64°@) had a history of ambulatory automatism. This paper includes full reports and details on 43 cases (@@‘attacks). In 36 cases the automatism occurred in persons previously subject to classical epilepsy ; in 5 cases convulsions only appeared at a later date, while in 2 cases there were typical epileptic automatism without fits. @Etiology differed in no way from that of other epileptics (infantile convulsions, 8 ; cranial trauma, 6 ; neuro-syphilis, i ; hereditary syphilis, 2). It is noted that practically all subjects were adults at the time of the first fugue. The onset is sudden, rarely preceded by an aura (2 cases), and very seldom directly by a convul sion. Duration is variable—a few minutes to 24 hours. Return to consciousness is usually sudden ; there is marked fatigue, the subject often sleeping for several hours. In practically all the attacks there is complete amnesia for the incidents of the automatism ; in a very few cases vague memory traces are observed. During the automatism, in 37 cases the subject walked only ; in the others he bicycled, trained, “¿�trammed ‘¿�‘¿�or motored. Characteristic of the epileptic fugue is the absence of motive or end. The individual is clearly in a somnambulistic state ; the higher faculties have ceased to function and walking is rarely normal. The writer recognizes three degrees. In the first, medullary and motor centres concerning walking alone persist. In the second, associated habitual reflexes permitting the avoidance of obstacles and dangers are also uninhibited. In the third degree the individual accomplishes in a mechanical fashion complicated acts sufficiently correctly for his condition not to be commented upon. A section is devoted to the differential diagnosis, which is considered to be straightforward in the majority of cases. There is a further section on medico legal problems. In the writer's experience, contrary to popular belief, the epileptic in a fugue state is nearly always calm, showing no evidence of agitation, violence or brutality. Of the patients observed, one attempted to strangle his wife, one violated a grave, another stole, one left a restaurant without paying his bill and three urinated in public. S. ‘¿�vI.COLEMAN. Presbvophrenia [Uber Presbyophreniei. (Arch. f. Psychiat., vol. xcix, p.@ 1933.) Bostroem, A. The author thinks that presbyophrenia, although a definite clinical entity, cannot be distinguished anatomically from other senile psychoses. He defines it as a senile disorder in which there are no particular defects except disturbance of memory and impressionability (Merkfahigkeit). He purports to discover why. in some cases, the senile changes in the brain give rise to a clinical picture of presbyophrenia. Twelve cases are described (i i females and i male) . All patients not only showed a slightly hypomanic temperament, but were also very active personalities, who had previously succeeded in coping with the stresses LXXX. 30 444 EPITOME. - [April, and realities of life. The somatic constitution showed that eight were pure pyknics, and only one showed no pyknic traits at all. The course of the disease is very protracted, six of the patients being over 8o years. Only three showed clinical symptoms of cerebral arteriosclerosis. The author believes that the pathogenic factor is represented by changes in the brain, which could consist of arteriosclerosis or senile degeneration, and that the personality constitutes the pathoplastic factor. But he presumes that the cycloid temperament (personality) at the same time tends to prevent dementia and volitional inertia, in contrast with the non-cycloid seniles, who do not use their abilities, even if they are preserved to a certain extent. S. L. LAST. Mental Aspects of Brain Tumours in Psychotic Patients. (Journ. Nerv. and Ment. Dis., vol. lxxviii, pp.@ and 500, Oct—Nov., 1933.) Jameison, G. R., and Henry, G. IV. From their experience with 26 psychotic patients who developed brain tumour, the presence of which was established at autopsy, the authors draw various conclu sions. They point out that there is no psychosis characteristic of brain tumour. The clinical picture of brain tumour manifestations, superimposed upon a psychosis, is characterized by changing contrasts and incongruities in the symptoms and signs, and by evidence of organic disease of brain, which becomes increasingly obvious. More than half of the patients are depressed, and a larger percentage are distinctly apprehensive. At least one-fourth of the patients were suicidal. One fourth had some insight into the fact that a serious complication had arisen in their illness. G. W. T. H. FLEMING. General Paretics Before and After Malarial Treatment : An Experimental Psycho logical Investigation [Progressive Paraivtiker vor und nach der Malaria behandlung : Eine experi@nentellpsychologische A rbeit] . (Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Neurol. u. Psvchiat., vol. cxlvi, p. 66r, 1933.) lVeisfeld, M. The author examined 29 paretics with various tests. He sets out to show how the improvement achieved by malarial treatment can be demonstrated by different tests. Such tests were carried out twice, first before, secondly after the treatment. The following different psychical and psychomotor functions were tested in this investigation : Memory, impressionability, the mental horizon (and imaginative power), calculation, intellectual activity, the intelligence (in a more restricted sense than usual), the power to deliver moral judgments, attention, handwriting and manual speed. As the results are given in figures, the improvement can be expressed in percentages. Of all the cases, 45% only showed an improvement in the power to reach moral judgments, 56% @flattention and 6, % in their manual speed, whereas 68—78% of the patients had better results in the various other tests. The author is not satisfied with the explanation given by other authors that the intellectual improvements are due to an increase in activity only, but holds that the various functions themselves have been changed for the better by the malarial treatment. S. L. LAST. Psychic Trauma and Hvperlh3roid Conditions [El trauma psIquico y los estados hipertiroideos@.(La Semana Med., vol.xli,p.@ Feb.8, 1934.)RodrIguez, A. D'A., and Lejtman, S. Nine cases, uncomplicated by pathological antecedents or concurrent ailments, have been fully studied. The emotional shock constantly reacts upon the thyroid function, and is capable of disturbing it even in quite healthy subjects. The cases present a clinical picture which is nearly always incomplete; the diagnosis is at times difficult, but not impossible. The history of psychic trauma with the immediate commencement of the symptoms should put us on the track of the 
work_hs2fflygrbdipbppsazkxukmfq	----	Journal of Art Historiography Number 9 December 2013 Alois Riegl, ‘Lovers of art, ancient and modern’ Translated with introduction by Karl Johns1 Riegl as Lecturer Alois Riegl (1858-1905) was the most influential of the Viennese art historians from the period when the discipline was being defined there as an academic subject. He should not require an introduction to the readers of these pages. Otto Pächt offered a very succinct explanation of his work to a previously unsympathetic English audience.2 References he himself made to his own publications tell us that he considered it to have been his foremost achievement to have refuted the theories put forth by the followers of Gottfried Semper, who derived artistic forms from the material and techniques with which they were made. Riegl succeeded in demonstrating that one artistic form was based on another as the grounds of an autonomous history of art. A less forward looking aspect of his reflections was an interest in universal history which he shared with Wickhoff. This led him into subjects barely remembered today, but considering his lasting influence the entire work should be borne in mind and generalizations not be based on too narrow a selection. Although his followers have been described as ‘radical formalists’, Riegl’s relatively consistent approach was in fact comprehensive. A number of his essays address strictly iconographical subjects while others involve sociological aspects in the context of universal history. Although this has often been related to an influence from G. W. F. Hegel, he was in fact more interested in the rather different world view of Friedrich Nietzsche, and this is apparent in several of his more popular essays.3 His obscure manner of expressing his speculative ideas has always made it difficult to understand them properly. Ludwig Coellen and Walter Passarge misrepresented them as a ‘psychological’ explanation of art and the tangent taken 1 Originally held as a lecture and only posthumously published as ‘Über antike und moderne Kunstfreunde Vortrag gehalten in der Gesellschaft der Wiener Kunstfreunde,’ Kunstgeschichtliches Jahrbuch der K. K. Zentral-Kommission zur Erforschung und Erhaltung der kunst- und historischen Denkmale, Volume 1, 1907, Beiblatt für Denkmalpflege, column 1-14, reprinted in Alois Riegl, Gesammelte Aufsätze, Augsburg Vienna: Filser, 1929, 194-206. 2 Otto Pächt, ‘Art Historians and Art Critics, VI: Alois Riegl,’ The Burlington Magazine, vol. 105, no. 722, May 1963, pp. 188-193, reprinted Otto Pächt, Methodisches zur kunsthistorischen Praxis, Munich: Prestel, 1977, 141-152, 310. 3 Diana Reynolds Cordileone, Alois Riegl in Vienna 1875-1905: An Institutional Biography, Studies in Art Historiography, Farnham: Ashgate, 2013. Karl Johns Alois Riegl, ‘Lovers of art, ancient and modern’ 2 up by Wilhelm Worringer was recognized and immediately reviewed as such.4 Riegl’s famous concept of Kunstwollen was even misinterpreted with a national or racial connotation in lectures published during the 1930’s by Karl Maria Swoboda, himself an editor responsible for popularizing Riegl’s writings since 1929.5 Guido Kaschnitz and Otto Pächt may be considered as examples of critical and insightful scholars whose lectures and essays have endorsed Riegl and continued his approach. Since obstacles to an understanding of Riegl obviously persist even beyond English-speaking areas, it seems worth recalling that in spite of his inscrutable way of expressing himself, his inconclusiveness and frequent mistakes in dating monuments among other things, he was efficacious as a teacher. The practical application of his particular idealist approach is probably best seen in the book reviews published by his students, primarily in the Kunstgeschichtliche Anzeigen. Aside from the fact that much of the best surviving work of Max Dvořák and Hans Tietze is to be found among those reviews, Georg Sobotka, Oskar Pollak, Adalbert Birnbaum and other devoted students left evidence of Riegl’s teachings in the criticisms they levelled in those pages against the publications of the time. While the great works such as the Spätrömische Kunstindustrie suffered from empirical and other lapses which the author did not survive to emend, his lectures at the university must have inspired a greater seriousness of study which cannot be gleaned from his published work alone.6 The present lecture about art lovers ancient and modern shows his typical speculative nature as it was geared to a broader audience outside the walls of academia. Karl Johns completed his doctorate in the history of art at the Fogg Art Museum, and has worked with the Dallas Museum of Art, the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, the Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe in Hamburg, and the Los Angeles County Museum of Art among others. His publications have centred on the art of the Netherlands in the early modern period and the earlier Viennese art historians. KarlTJohns@aol.com 4 Ludwig Coellen, Über die Methode der Kunstgeschichte Eine geschichtsphilosophische Untersuchung, Traisa-Darmstadt: Arkadenverlag, 1924, Walter Passarge, Die Philosophie der Kunstgeschichte in der Gegenwart, Berlin: Junker und Dünnhaupt, 1930, Wilhelm Worringer, Formprobleme der Gotik, Munich: Piper, 1912. 5 Swoboda’s publications are listed in: ‘Verzeichnis der Veröffentlichungen Karl M. Swobodas’ Karl M. Swoboda, Kunst und Geschichte Vorträge und Aufsätze, Vienna Cologne Graz: Böhlau, 1969, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung, suppl. vol. 22, 258-265. 6 The most circumspect sympathetic criticism was written by Kaschnitz: Guido Kaschnitz, ‘Alois Riegl: Spätrömische Kunstindustrie Rezension,’ Gnomon, vol. 5, no. 4-5, 1929, 195-213, reprinted Guido Kaschnitz von Weinberg, Ausgewählte Schriften, vol. 1, Kleine Schriften zur Struktur, Berlin: Gebrüder Mann, 1965, 1-14. Josef Bodonyi, Entstehung und Bedeutung des Goldgrundes in der spätantiken Bildkomposition, diss, Univ. of Vienna, 1932 includes a very well considered critique of Riegl’s approach. An English edition has been prepared and will hopefully appear without too great a delay. Karl Johns Alois Riegl, ‘Lovers of art, ancient and modern’ 3 Alois Riegl, ‘Über antike und moderne Kunstfreunde Vortrag gehalten in der Gesellschaft der Wiener Kunstfreunde’ — translation Our organizations and clubs are among the most striking phenomena of modern life. What is the reason for this, and what is the nature of this compulsion? The answer is that there is a community of interest. A group of people arrive at the same activity and consider it profitable to pursue the same goal together. Yet something else is also involved. When a group of individuals unite in a purpose, they strive to improve not merely themselves, but also the whole, and by dividing the labour in one manner or another they fulfil a given need on behalf of the others. Bare egotism can never become a principle of society. It is true that there are some societies apparently espousing it in a superficial way, but they must also contain some inner necessity – otherwise they could never function properly. This would be intolerable to the totality which they jeopardize and never promote. It would seem at first glance that nothing could be more private and egotistic than the art lover, and it would appear particularly true when they also collect art – although in our own time the two no longer necessarily go together since we have public collections. They collect exclusively according to their own personal preferences and for their own pleasure. As a social matter, they might allow a circle of friends to partake of their activity. Although there are some who make their collections available to larger segments of the public, they are the exception and such opportunities are rare. Such exhibitions are not among the defining characteristics of the art lover. Now the art lovers have banded together, and this requires no further demonstration because otherwise I would not be honoured to speak to this gathering today. Yet the very fact that the lovers of art join together in this way is itself a sign that they consider their activities to be profitable for all of society. The social functions must have a particular significance for them, and in the present cultural situation they must fulfil a certain mission. What is the nature of this mission? It strikes me that the time has now come to pose this question and to propose an answer. Whether I have been successful or not is for you to decide, but I nonetheless beg the indulgence normally reserved for such unprecedented forays. First there is the preliminary question of what actually is a lover of art? This would literally refer to any of us with a favourable relation to the visual arts, yet this would be to cast the net too broadly. There are for instance many factory workers who attend popular lectures about art and undoubtedly demonstrate a love of art, but they would not be counted among the art lovers. The general principle normally applied to questions surrounding the visual arts is that of supply and demand, production and consumption, the separation of productive artists from the consuming laymen. This principle also fails in regard to the art lover since the group Karl Johns Alois Riegl, ‘Lovers of art, ancient and modern’ 4 present this evening includes both artists and laymen. It is not the production which interests the art lover since this would eliminate the laymen, but neither is it the consumption in the current sense of our modern art since there would then be no artists in our presence here anymore than grocers would come to a food co-op. What is typical of the art lovers and draws them together into such organizations is therefore neither the production nor the consumption (that is to say the pleasure in modern art), but rather a third factor. When we peruse the list of previous lectures held before this society there can be doubt as to the identity of this third factor. These lectures have been exclusively devoted to what we call earlier art, art that is not modern. If we apply the phrase ‘art lover’ as a strict technical term, then this can only refer to an admirer of the art of earlier periods. What thus defines the art lover is an aspect of consumption, a consideration of old masters and not of modern art, and this is also the reason that practicing artists, modern by definition, are also among us here today in their capacity as consumers of art. The question immediately arises as to the relation of the art lover to modern art. To address this now would only complicate and confuse the development of our actual subject. This is unnecessary and I therefore content myself for the moment with observing that art lovers are in fact generally not at all averse to modern art. We can say this seeing that our present group also includes a number of modern artists who would certainly not compromise their own livelihood. This is a relationship we must return to later on. It follows that the mission of art lovers is a consistent appreciation of older works as they have come down to us, and not of modern art. The question we must consider is the extent to which the art lovers are fulfilling a public interest in their mission. As our thinking is organized today, it is only possible to arrive at a convincing answer on the basis of historical data. Have there not been other times in history when art lovers like those of the present also thrived, and what were their circumstances? These circumstances themselves might provide a key to clearly recognizing the imperatives followed by our current art lovers either consciously or not. Similar conditions produce similar effects. From our place at the beginning of the 20th century we can observe a considerable number of art lovers extending back to the 15th century. If we go back in time and examine the phenomenon more closely, it becomes clear that the art lovers to varying degrees admired the work of their own as well as earlier times. In the 15th century, Lorenzo the Magnificent was familiar with only the art of the Florentine Renaissance and antiquity. In Germany in the 16th century, the great collectors such as the Fugger were more patrons of contemporary art than admirers of earlier art. This had changed somewhat by the time of the Emperor Rudolph II., and in the 18th century, we already discover a much finer distinction. We can now recognize that a stricter differentiation arose toward the end of the 19th century, which honours the art of earlier periods as a temple constructed as an end in itself and no model for us, and then more or less accepts the art of its own time as an Karl Johns Alois Riegl, ‘Lovers of art, ancient and modern’ 5 unavoidable craft being produced at the moment. The art lovers from the 15th to the 19th centuries appear as the mere predecessors of their modern descendants, with no difference in either quality or quantity. As interesting as it would be to study them, it would not help us in our question, since they are ultimately alike and would not provide the substance for a fruitful comparison. We must consider the patrons and collectors who have no direct connection to those of today, and also the distinct historical circumstances in which they arose. If it should turn out that they nonetheless bear comparison to those among our contemporaries, then this will confirm what we believe. Were there such art lovers further beyond the medieval period? Yes indeed, they did exist. For some time now we have been aware of them and of the characteristics which they share with their descendents of today. They existed in the early period of Christianity and their activities reach an apogee in the first and second centuries of the Roman imperial period, between Augustus and the last of the Antonines. There were also others in the final centuries before the advent of Christianity. This is of interest to us both in terms of the origins as well as the decline of this phenomenon – although the decline can obviously not be studied in comparison to the art lovers among us today. I must limit myself to just a few details from the lives and proclivities of these ancient lovers of art which might serve to illustrate their similarities and differences to those of the present. In the plan designed by Vitruvius for the house of a well-situated man of the period of Augustus, there is a room to be used as a picture gallery, while there are also sculpture galleries documented in other sources. Works in metal were particularly popular because they could be used as ceremonial dishes. Silver and bronze objects are mentioned with great frequency, particularly the so-called Corinthian bronzes. Yet never in all of this is there any reference to a contemporary piece. Most of these objects were associated with names from the archaic and classical period of Greek art. Among the sculptors, Polyclitus, Myron and Phidias are mentioned most often, while it is Polygnotus and Apelles among the painters. Quintilian was struck by the fact that some people considered the old fashioned work of Polygnotus to be more valuable than the paintings of Apelles, and declared this to be the result of a sort of coquetry among connoisseurs as we can also see it occurring today. Works in silver with rubbed and worn details were also valued more highly since they were considered to be older than objects in better condition which made the impression of being more recent. Of course an art market becomes the unavoidable ancillary phenomenon to such things. Most of these objects could only reach these Roman collectors through dealers from Greece and the Greek east. Their names are only preserved in very few instances, but Horace has left us with a vivid description. Aside from this there were also agents, two of whom were employed by Verres, Greeks who were referred to as his tracker hounds. An inevitable consequence of the art market are forgeries, and there are many references to them. It is clear that copies were being made and sold without Karl Johns Alois Riegl, ‘Lovers of art, ancient and modern’ 6 misgivings, yet the copies were often being associated with the names of the greatest earlier artists. Phaedrus, the author of fables, has recorded an interesting remark about such forgeries when he says that ‘In our own time, gnawing envy favours what is old rather than what is good.’ Specific tributes to the work of contemporaries are very rarely recorded in that period. It recalls many artists in our own time who also cannot understand why their own work is not appreciated and purchased at the same prices as older items, and who consider the same sort of envy to be the reason. It is difficult to conceive of an art lover without a certain knowledge or connoisseurship of the older artefacts. Of course there are many references to such connoisseurship, and then as now, there were many degrees of such connoisseurship, ranging from the authentic and well-founded to the completely spurious. Dionysus of Halicarnassus defined the duties of connoisseurship very cleverly – it exists to determine the authorship and to reliably distinguish originals from copies. Most of the art lovers of that time were confident of their ability to do this. Their confidence often had very little justification and aroused the ridicule of poets and authors. These dubious connoisseurs were recognizable by the way in which they spoke mostly of the monetary value and technical aspects, with the material almost never being omitted from mention. They bandied catchwords about which are still recognizable today: a strong cast, mixed bronze, contours, application of color, shading, proportions and so forth. There were some who claimed to discern the compound of the bronze by smell, and I have still experienced such things myself. It was already remarked at that time, that there was so much said about the age, rarity, the material and previous owner with famous names – and nothing about the absolute aesthetic value. Collectors were attracted by the name of a famous artist and a high price. Petronius has given us a delightful description of Trimalchio, a socialite with newly acquired wealth and presenting himself as a lover of art. We should not overlook that these were particularly notable as examples of excessiveness, and that the authors were more inclined to record sensationalism and exaggeration. Beneath all of this there was nonetheless also a core of justifiable activity which exemplified a characteristic and earnest aspect of ancient cultural life. Historians have recognized this and proposed their own explanations. Key passages among the 1st century texts of Pliny and Petronius have been collected in this regard containing criticism of contemporary art and praise of older Greek examples. This has led some to conclude that the collectors of the time recognized the superiority of the early classical period over the later decline, and considered them to have therefore turned their attention exclusively to the earlier art. Yet this interpretation has been shown to be incorrect. First of all, there was no less interest in art during the earlier Roman imperial period than at any other time. Among the remains of Pompeii we have evidence from that very time for the role of the visual arts in the daily life of the Romans and Karl Johns Alois Riegl, ‘Lovers of art, ancient and modern’ 7 Greeks. It applies not merely to the official and cultural life, but also to the intimate private surroundings, independent of all artificial exaggerations and outward pomp. It is well known that that city excavated from the ash has revealed to us an aesthetic sense which seems to have been unprecedented in any of the earlier periods of human history. Within the houses of Pompeii, from the decoration of the walls themselves down to the patterned perforations of the colander in the kitchen, every surface and object available to the wandering eye was required to bear a certain characteristic stamp of artistic treatment. Are we to seriously believe that this society immersed itself aesthetically as no other, but was indifferent or even rejected the art of its own time? This would be inconceivable. One can imagine that the art lover would have recognized a great difference between the art of the classical period and all of these marvels of the Roman imperial age – much in the way that people from Winckelmann until recently considered Roman art to be nothing better than a series of copies after classical models, progressively duller and weaker as time wore on. A close study of the monuments from the time of Augustus into that of the Antonines has revealed that they relate to the classical period in approximately the same way as our contemporary painting does to the Renaissance. A development could be discerned which extended from Phidias and Polygnotus through the Alexandrian artists and the period of the Diadochs into the first two centuries of the Roman imperial period and beyond. The art of the Roman imperial period has been compared to that of our own time. Professor Wickhoff in Vienna, who has done pioneering work in illuminating this relationship, has even gone so far as to directly describe this art as Impressionism, not claiming of course that it could ever be confused with our modern variant. This does indeed offer us an enlightening parallel. There have been two periods in human history in which the creation of art was governed by so-called impressionistic principles – at the beginning of the Roman Imperial period and in our own modern times. In both of these periods, we are confronted with the phenomenon of the art lovers, enthusiastic in their appreciation and admiration of the art of earlier periods. – Just as modern art continues to develop inexorably beside and in spite of all this excitement over older art, so too must it have occurred during the Roman imperial period. Those things which were to be seen every day were considered inevitable and not worth special reference. Yet the enthusiasm of a group of nobles or wealthy citizens was a new and unprecedented phenomenon (although an attentive examination of the artistic monuments in their content and extrinsic functions would show that these conditions emerged slowly over a long period during antiquity). This is the reason that it is referred to so often in the literary remains of the time. And thus the emergence of what is called Impressionism in art has historically gone hand in hand with the appearance of art lovers as admirers of earlier art on the basis of its age alone. An obvious conclusion suggests itself: there must have been something about Impressionism which arouses an interest in earlier Karl Johns Alois Riegl, ‘Lovers of art, ancient and modern’ 8 periods of art in a portion of society influential by its number and education. What is the essence of Impressionism? I have already mentioned that Impressionism is considered a certain trend of modern art which on not strictly solid grounds can be compared to a parallel in ancient art. For this reason I would like to pinpoint those qualities which modern Impressionism shares with the analogous stage of ancient art. This is a certain quality of optic subjectivism. – Fear not that I might assault you with some aesthetic hair splitting. On the contrary, I hope to be able to explain myself in very few words. All of the objects of the world, as the arts of man depict them, share two common characteristics: 1. those which are properties of the object whether or not they are contemplated by a human being (these are the objective qualities), 2. those which a human subject at a given moment perceives about them (these are the subjective qualities). There will always be some, but not all, of the objective aspects among them, but then consistently those, such as the illumination, which can never be objective. – We describe an art as objective when its goal is to reproduce the objective qualities of things. On the other hand, we describe an art as subjective when it fundamentally seeks to reproduce the momentary image of things as it appears on the retina of the individual viewer. The qualities of objects are defined by the stimuli with which it affects the individual perceiving them. These stimuli are of two kinds: 1. purely optical – qualities of colour, which stimulate nothing other than the eye. 2. the so-called tactile stimuli, these are the bodily qualities of the objects and their limits in space, as they stimulate the sense of touch in the individual viewer, while remaining discernible to the eye at a distance. – An art depicting the objects purely in terms of colour is described as optical, while that demonstrating the corporeal qualities above all is described as tactile. It should be simple to understand what optical subjectivism is. It is an art depicting the objects as momentary stimuli of colour, the stimuli experienced by a single viewer. Anybody with a knowledge of modern art will understand this without difficulty. As we have said, this optical subjectivism is present in the art of the Roman imperial period as well as in modern art. There are however certain differences between the two, which at present I can do no more than to point out. Like the art of all of antiquity, that of the Roman Imperial period was fundamentally geared to objectivism. This art became relatively subjectivist only when it undertook to depict the optical qualities of things in place of the tactile which had been preferred by the earlier arts of Asia Minor and classical Greece. This is due to the fact that the purely optical stimuli of colour are by nature more fugitive and subjective than the extension and limitation of the sense of touch. In the dark, the objects lose their visibility but retain their tactile accessibility. Medieval art, which gave rise to that of the modern period, became far more subjectivist, but, since its goal was above all a clear delineation of things, it must still be seen as relatively objectivist. The actual Karl Johns Alois Riegl, ‘Lovers of art, ancient and modern’ 9 common factor between the art of the Roman imperial period and modern art lies in the exclusive consideration and escalation of the optical, coloristic qualities of things. We arrive at the final decisive question: how does optical subjectivism succeed in arousing interest in ancient art, indeed imperiously provoking it? The quality of optical subjectivism is an extreme randomness in treating those objects which the artist wishes to depict. It is random to limit consideration to the optical qualities of colour and to suppress physicality, by which we mean the contours of height and breadth, as well as the shadow suggesting extension into space. It is also random to shrewdly isolate the most momentary and fugitive visual aspects, such as coincidental foreshortening and illumination. Finally, and essentially, it is random to transfigure the appearance of objects, not merely physically, but also colouristically, reducing the material phenomenon to a simple means of arousing subjective moods. The naïve joy in the appearance of things as such, and that desire which the use of our senses of touch and sight awakens in us – as it has been a fundamental aspect of artistic pleasure through millennia – is here forcefully suppressed, exterminated for no other reason than entertaining our faculty of thought and feeling. The art lover’s contemplation of earlier artistic – not modern – periods relates to our modern randomness in a double way. First, this occurs positively and in agreement. When we contemplate an old picture, we see more than its appearance to the senses, but it also has an effect on our feelings and creates a mood by its mere age and this exclusively intellectual aspect. In and of itself, this would be nothing new: 16th-century painters already began including ancient temples in their work in order to arouse memories in their viewers of a life that was long past. Seventeenth-century paintings of ruins were made with the same intention. These differ from our present modern times in that no particularly selected motif is any longer necessary, and that the image of a simple eighteenth-century domestic house suffices to arouse a mood in the spectator, and all the more so if the painting has the outward signs of having been made in the eighteenth-century. In its effect of conjuring a mood, our contemporary art lovers’ contemplation of earlier art coincides directly with the modern artistic goals of optical subjectivism. There is another aspect however, in which the affectionate interest in earlier art directly contradicts the goals of modern art. The older art specifically displays those qualities which are being suppressed from modern art: tangible corporeality and local colour (‘festhaftende Farbe’). In this sense, the admiration of older art presents itself as a flight into the realm of relative constancy, fixity and quietude, and away from the randomness in which everything is shown as flowing up and down into infinity and intangibility. Whether it occurs consciously or not, this strikes me as the truly beneficial and fruitful mission of the art lover. There can be no doubt that the universal development of history displays a trend toward the emancipation of intellectual functions from corporeality – this can Karl Johns Alois Riegl, ‘Lovers of art, ancient and modern’ 10 be seen quite stringently in the development of the history of art, as well as in the history of religion with the development of ethics in politics and social life. This trend has always halted before the complete negation of corporeality, since the spiritual phenomena would themselves become inconceivable without a corporeal substratum. And thus two souls live within our breasts: the one which exults in the joys of our physical world and its appearance is in danger of being short-changed by the trends of modern art. Whoever takes pleasure in the physical appearances, definite forms and movements, full and composed colour, and recognizable effects of light and shadow, they will necessarily desert the modern exhibitions and seek refuge in the older galleries or private houses of our great art collectors. I beg not to be misunderstood. Far be it from me to cavil about the development of modern art. Art historians have long ago recognized that it is not their task to prescribe – as Winckelmann once did – what contemporary artists should be doing. I am also convinced that art will by itself develop away from such extremes, and symptoms of this are already revealing themselves. Can it be a coincidence that an artist such as Jan Toorop, who sees the object of his work most purely in terms of mood, lends outward forms to these things, whose models are derived from Egyptian art – that form of art standing in the strongest conceivable contrast to our modern optical-subjectivist mode with the starkest tactile objectivism. How else can we explain that the line, that basic tactile element, assumes such an important place precisely in modern decoration, other than by the instinctive aspiration of our artists to balance an extreme randomness on the one hand with an equally extreme severity on the other. If this tendency can be recognized among modern artists to render objects with firmer contours and not allow them to dissolve, how much simpler can it be to understand the same attitude among laymen who for the same reason have immersed themselves in the contemplation of older art. The interest in earlier art is the same interest that wishes to preserve modern art and all of the visual arts generally. Allow me to voice a single objection and consider its value. It is common to hear it said that collectors of modern art desire nothing more than to smugly flaunt their wealth. This need not even involve braggadocio – the idea is that it satisfies such people to be aware that they are surrounded by precious objects that have cost preposterously high prices. There can be no denying that such a feeling of satisfaction in possession is to some degree present in collectors, yet it always goes hand in hand with that refined ideal which I have found to be the actual mission of the art lover. This is like human ideals: none of them could thrive without at least a modicum of material defectiveness, selfishness or egotism. Some observers are only able to recognize these defects. Whoever studies the matter thoroughly will soon conclude that even a person confessing with cynical candour that they collect solely to satisfy their egotism also serve a higher ideal in the public interest whether intentionally or not – they are also fulfilling the ideal mission of the love of art. 
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work_hw4qpiaakve7hjndwuhtbd35ou	----	Kotare template The Oxford History of New Zealand Literature in English Reviewed by Paul Millar The Oxford History of New Zealand Literature in English. Edited by Terry Sturm. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1998. When the Oxford History of New Zealand Literature in English appeared in 1991 it offered, in 750 pages, an inclusive, genre-based history of New Zealand literature from colonial times to 1986. Seven years on, a new edition has expanded to 890 pages and advanced the period covered to 1996. Updating many of the sections has evidently been a mammoth task. John Thomson’s bibliographic essay, which has become for me an indispensable resource, accommodates the rising tide of authors by increasing the number of entries on individuals from 140 to 162 (although Iain Lonie is still omitted). The demands on Lawrence Jones have been even greater. To revise his essay, he has waded through another 250 novels. In the process he finds much additional evidence of extreme diversification of theme and mode in the genre since the 1970s (before then, he argues, critical realism and impressionism were vehicles for a critical depiction of New Zealand society). His comments about the difficulty of containing such a varied body of work within one story demand a radical revision of the way the novel has thus far been studied. A close comparison of volumes supports general editor Terry Sturm’s comment that the ‘inclusion of new material from the later 1980s onwards…often required a considerable reshaping of the narratives of particular genres from as far back as the 1960s’. Changes extend to both design and content: the typeface is cleaner and clearer; divisions within each section indicated by major and minor headings (with the major headings included in the Contents page) make navigating the book easier; the importance of end notes is acknowledged by placing them after relevant sections rather than collected at the back; and a larger font makes the index more useable. Review Paul Millar Kōtare: New Zealand Notes & Queries 1998 Page 98 The most significant editorial decision of this new edition has been the addition of a section dealing with literary scholarship, criticism and theory by University of Canterbury academic Mark Williams. As a rule, reviewers of the second edition have touched lightly on the work of the original contributors and focussed most closely on Williams’ essay. And inevitably they, being fellow scholars and critics, have documented errors or perceived gaps in his account. Yet a second reading has done little to alter my admiration for the way his essay charts, with a clarity that belies the complexity of the task, key moments and significant movements in the critical discourse surrounding New Zealand literature. Williams’ late addition has, I think, earned him a disproportionate amount of scrutiny and, unlike the original contributors, he has not had the luxury of an opportunity to review his work in response to the criticisms it initially generated. Then again, some of the original contributors do not appear to have seen Sturm’s ‘reshaping’ as a licence to indulge in revision. In comparing the two editions I have been disappointed to discover the number of instances where contributors have made scant use of the opportunity to amend or edit their work in response to the range of considered reviews. As Lawrence Bourke noted, ‘part of the Oxford’s reward and challenge is that the essays continually invite debate’ (CRNLE Reviews Journal 1, 1993: 132). The quality of debate invited by that first edition was perhaps the greatest litmus test of its worth. Bourke was one of a number of scholars (among them Vincent O’Sullivan in New Zealand Books, 1.2, July 1991; and Alex Calder and W. H. New in Landfall 181, March 1992) to scrutinise the first ‘Oxford’. Their overall response was of approval, but each also drew on their expertise in specific areas to suggest improvements. To give one example, O’Sullivan commented that since to remark the quality of prose and the ends to which language is put are recognised by [Peter Gibbons] as part of his brief, it seems a pity there is no mention of Rutherford’s expository clarity, of Ronald Syme’s mandarin wit; nothing of James Bertram and Geoffrey Cox carrying journalism that further distance into ‘literature’; or most surprisingly, Mansfield’s New Zealand notebooks as the country’s fullest record of an emerging feminine voice. The greater pity is that in the second edition, despite many opportunities to expand in key areas, such omissions remain. Review Paul Millar Kōtare: New Zealand Notes & Queries 1998 Page 99 One contributor who does engage, at least in passing, with O’Sullivan’s critique is Elizabeth Caffin in her essay on ‘Poetry: 1945-1990’s’. O’Sullivan was concerned by Caffin’s ‘neat’ categories that worked to marginalise poets like Brian Turner who gets ‘rather poor marks for not standing in line.’ Caffin’s riposte, on page 511, quotes O’Sullivan’s tribute to Turner’s Beyond (1992)—describing him as one of the ‘compassionate sceptics who value things as they are, who insist on saying so as directly as they can’— then re-phrases it as ‘a quite unfashionable preference for simple statement’. Moving on to deal with recent trends in poetry, Caffin implies a division between Auckland and Wellington poets that ‘neatly’ inverts the situation in the 1950s when the young poets of the ‘Wellington Group’ resisted Allen Curnow’s canonising authority. Now, Caffin suggests, Auckland poets like Michele Leggott are producing original work and Wellington has moved to a position of orthodoxy centred around a ‘Manhire School’. It is the stuff good debates are made of, yet I cannot shake the nagging sense that her divisions have as much to do with comparisons between publishing houses as between poets. While certain essays are more directly relevant to my own interests, my greatest pleasure this time around has come from reading Betty Gilderdale’s admirable essay on children’s literature. Like her own books (which are firmly grounded in the fundamentals of the genre) it is lively and imaginative. And I have even found something to debate: as a recent convert to Hairy Maclary I feel that Gilderdale could do better than classify Lynley Dodds’s work as simply ‘picture books’. Dodds’s illustrations have an essential New Zealandness. They perfectly represent our small towns, right down to the fence designs, hebe borders, and the blue-tile frontage of Samuel Stone’s butcher’s shop. And the tree Scarface Claw gets trapped in is the best drawing of a pohutukawa I have come across. To quote Denis Glover’s ‘Home Thoughts’, these pictures make me ‘think of what may yet be seen / in Johnsonville or Geraldine.’ Like Dodds’s artwork, the History is strongest when it faithfully represents the local and specific. Originally published in Kōtare 1, no. 1 (1998), pp. 106-108. 
work_hxn4c64atrce3fhdwq2tirtg6q	----	International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering (IJRTE) ISSN: 2277-3878, Volume-9 Issue-3, September 2020 714 Published By: Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijrte.C4644099320 DOI:10.35940/ijrte.C4644.099320 Brain Tumor Detection using Deep Learning Rutuja Gugale, Pratiksha Sonar, Anagha Mandekar, Sonali Ubale, Vaishali Latke Abstract: Nowadays the leading techniques for diagnosing and revealing the different diseases are image processing. And there is an increase in the cases of cancer these days. The unrestricted development of cells cause’s lumps which leads to brain tumor also called glioblastoma. There are mainly two types of tumor benign which has covering over the tumor and malignant is the one which spreads throughout the places. Earlier the development of unrestricted cells used to be diagnosed by doctors physically through monitoring the image by which the results were not used to be precise sometimes. But time along boarding of medical fields lead to different medical facilities by which the results could be precise. The broadly approach method of imaging that scrutinizes the internal structure of the human race is Magnetic resonance Imaging. This approach of imaging techniques is also used for detecting brain tumors. The detection of glioblastoma processes has machine vision methods such as Image pre-processing, Segmentation in Image, Feature extraction and classification. Several image segmentation and image classification techniques are available for detecting tumor of the brain. Convolution neural networks (CNN) based classifiers are proposed to prevail the limitations. This CNN is such a classifier which is used to differentiate between the competent data and the trail data, from which the results could be obtained. Keywords: Brain tumor Detection, Watershed Algorithm,Capsule Network, Convolutional Neural Network, MRI Images, Tumor Boundary. I. INTRODUCTION The process of estimating, handling the given image as an input in order to accomplish some action to uproot the information from image processing. To disclose the internal structure of a tumor hidden by the external features of the body. To detect them and to treat the disease seeks the Medical imaging. To examine the tumor the database of normal anatomy and physiology to identify the abnormalities. Today's mortality of people has risen to the next level due to brain tumors. The Brain tumor is caused when there is an excessive development of cells within the body.The continuous growing of cells within the skulls leads to tumor, which causes the distraught of normal activity of the brain. The brain is a complex and vital organ, and treatment often causes life-long changes and can also cause the life threatening issue if not diagnosed properly in the early stage of the cells growth. The brain tumors are mainly of three types such as benign, malicious and pre malicious. Revised Manuscript Received on September 25, 2020. Rutuja Gugale, Department of Computer Engineering, Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research (PCCOER), Pune (Maharashtra), India. Pratiksha Sonar, Department of Computer Engineering, Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research (PCCOER), Pune (Maharashtra), India. Anagha Mandekar, Department of Computer Engineering, Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research (PCCOER), Pune (Maharashtra), India. Sonali Ubale, Department of Computer Engineering, Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research (PCCOER), Pune (Maharashtra), India. Vaishali Latke, Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Engineering, Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research (PCCOER), Pune (Maharashtra), India. They mainly depend on the features such as type of lump, position, dimensions and the enlargement of the cells leads to the severity of the cancer. In early period, the diagnosis used to be done by the doctors on the observation of the images which usually caused inaccurate or not so precise results to diagnose properly.Sometimes it is a tedious job to detect the state manually. Nowadays there are many software tools used in the medical sector. Those software have the property of agile and precise results by proper Imaging techniques. MRI is often used by imaging techniques for the accurate structure of human anatomy.The only solution for the method to treat the tumor is proper detection of tumor and also requires proper recognition tools for appropriate treatment. Diagnosis of the presence of lumps into the brain through image processing consists of the few stages that follow Image pre-processing, Image segmentation, Feature extraction and Classification. The primary and the main task of pre- processing methods is improvising the quality of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) by removing the irrelevant noise and non required parts from the framework and by preserving the edges of the image. Further in the segmentation process the pre-processed image is converted in the form of binary image.The process in which gathering of elevated extent details of an image such as hue, figure, touch and disparity are considered is called as Feature Extraction. And the last classification of process, for grouping the normal brain image which are trained samples and the input of damage image sample is given for the better results classifiers are used. II. IDESIGN SYSTEM Convolution neural network (CNN or ConvNet) is a form of deep learning which is commonly applied for analyzing visual images. CNNs use their own pre-processing for variation of multilayer perceptrons designed which is also called as unchanged position or extent position artificial neural networks , based on their shared weights architecture and translation invariance characteristics. This grid provokes the connectivity pattern between neurons similarity the association of the animal perceptible cortex by biological processes into it. Individual cortical neurons rely on stimulants only in a limited area of the perceptible field known as the impressionable region. The impressionable region of various neurons which are partially overlapped such that they cover the entire visual field. CNNs have comparatively little pre-processing rather than other image classification algorithms. The major advantage of independence is prior knowledge and human effort in feature design. They involve the applications in image and video recognition, suggested systems, image classification, medical image examine and natural language processing. A CNN consists of raw data and a result , and also the many concealed layers. The concealed layers of CNN has typically contains convolution layers, collaborative layers, fully connected layers and normalization layers. Brain Tumor Detection using Deep Learning 715 Published By: Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijrte.C4644099320 DOI:10.35940/ijrte.C4644.099320 Fig. 1. System Architecture III. METHODOLOGY The Convolution Neural Network in the given fig. which is in architecture to the original LeNet that classifies in four categories as the input for classification: dog, cat, boat or bird. ConvNet shown in fig. above has four major steps: 1. Convolution method. 2. Non Linearity step. 3. Pooling process or Sub Sampling. 4. Classification for output. The pixel values of the matrix makes the images. Essentially,the matrix of pixel value represents every image. Standard label used to refer to a precise integrant of an image is called a Channel. A standard digital camera will have three channels for the image – red, green and blue – supposed to be imagined as three 2d-matrices assembled over each other having the range from 0 to 255 of the pixel. The Convolution Step: The name ConvNet is derived from the “convolution” operator. The main goal of Convolution is to abstract features from the input image in case of ConvNet. The special relation is preserved by learning and giving training of image features using minor squares of data and through CNN. By not going into further details of CNN, we will test it and check it for how it works on images. As mentioned earlier, a matrix of pixel values is considered as an image. Also, consider another matrix of 3 x 3 as shown in the above image. Then, the transposition of Complexity of the given matrix is as shown in the peculiar in Fig below: The output of a given matrix is known as a Feature Map by complexity of the above. By sliding the matrix which is in orange color in the given fig over our original image that means in the green color matrix by 1 pixel and for every pose, we perform amplification allying any two matrices by consider each element at a time and by adding the multiplication of outputs for the concluding numeric which results in a matrix of single component. Note that the 3×3 matrix is able to see only bits of image in every step. In CNN parlance,there are various terms declared for the 3×3 matrix is such as „filtrate„ or „attribute locator‟ and the matrix formed by sliding the filter over the image and then again calculating the dot product is called the „Convolved Feature‟ or the „Feature Map„. It is essential that its filter acts as feature detectors from the original image which we feed as an input . It is perceptible if you take a look at animation in the above several values of the filter matrix will also generate a number of different Feature Maps for the similar input image. Consider the following input image as an example: In the table given below, the effects of convolution of the above image with different filters can be seen. As shown the operations such as Edge Detection,Sharpen and Blur can be performed just by changing the numeric values of our filter matrix before the convolution operation– this means that different features can be detected through different filters from the image,for example edges, curves etc. International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering (IJRTE) ISSN: 2277-3878, Volume-9 Issue-3, September 2020 716 Published By: Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijrte.C4644099320 DOI:10.35940/ijrte.C4644.099320 IV. ALGORITHM Pooling includes an important step which is known as Spatial Pooling. It is also referred to as sub sample or down sampling. The main motive for pooling is reducing the dimensional feature, but it holds on to all the required data. Down Sample Pooling includes various ranges such as Max, Average, Sum and many more. In Max Pooling we need to consider the largest element. Considering the Average Pooling, in case of Max Pooling we need to take the largest element but in average pooling we can consider the average element. In Sum Pooling we consider the total of all the elements.In the fig. given below take the maximum value in each region by our sliding window 2*2 which is also called stride. This reduces the dimensionality features. Introducing Non Linearity (ReLU): In this we use RELU operation. It is done basically after every Convolution operation and it stands for Rectified Linear Unit. ReLU is a non-linear operation. The given below is the output after every Convolution step. ReLU performs operation which works element wise, which is applied pixel by pixel. This is used to replace all negative pixel values and is applicable in feature maps. Since most of the real world applications learn from the non linear method. Convolution is a linear option but ReLU is non linear operation and can help in matrix addition, subtraction. The general process is given as below: 1. Take an MRI image as input, you can upload it directly or choose it from a directory. 2. Once you choose the image, the image will be converted into grayscale. In short pre processing is done, which includes removing canny edges, sharpening, feature extraction. 3. Now, you get the image in gray scale and you can predict whether it's a normal brain or tumor brain. 4. In this, we will also predict the severity of tumor in percentage form so that tumor at early stage will be detected at first stage only. 5. The infected part of the brain tumor will be highlighted for this. We have used the Watershed algorithm. In this way, the overall system works. V. CONCLUSION For segmentation of brain tumor by MRI images here we propose a CNN-based method. Segmentation and classification of brain tumors has many existing techniques available. There are many advantages and disadvantages of the existing techniques available. So to overcome this limitation we propose a system for tumor detection using deep learning. In such a manner, we implement a Convolution based classifier to test and train the module and this helps us to get data with best accuracy. The Pooling Step: ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We wish to express our profound thanks to all who helped us directly or indirectly in making this paper. Finally we wish to thank all our friends and well-wishers who supported us in completing this paper successfully. We are especially grateful to our guide Prof. Vaishali Latke for her time to time, very much needed, and valuable guidance. Without the full support and cheerful encouragement of our guide, the paper would not have been completed on time. REFERENCES 1. iNilesh Bhaskarrao Bahadur, Arun Kumar Ray and Har Pal Thethi,”Image Analysis for MRI Based Brain Tumor Detection and Feature Extraction Using Biologically Inspired BWT and SVM”, Hindawi International Journal of Biomedical Imaging volume 2017 2. iAndras Jakab, Stefan Bauer et al.,“TheMultimodal Brain Tumor ImageSegmentation Benchmark (BRATS) “IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MEDICAL IMAGING, VOL. 34, NO. 10, 2015. 3. iIsrael D. Gebru, Xavier Alameda-Pineda, Florence Forbes and RaduHoraud, “EM Algorithms for WeightedData Clustering with Application to Audio-Visual Scene Analysis “ IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PATTERN ANALYSIS AND MACHINE INTELLIGENCE, VOL. XX, NO. Y, 2016. 4. Prateek Katiyar, Mathew R. Divine et al., “A Novel Unsupervised Segmentation Approach Quantifies Tumor Tissue Populations Using Multiparametric MRI: First Results with Histological Validation” Mol Imaging Biol 19:391Y397 DOI: 10.1007/s11307-016-1009-y , 2016. Brain Tumor Detection using Deep Learning 717 Published By: Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijrte.C4644099320 DOI:10.35940/ijrte.C4644.099320 AUTHOR’S PROFILE Rutuja Gugale is currently seeking a bachelor‟s degree in the final year of the Computer department from Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research. And is currently working and researching on brain tumor detection using deep learning project. Pratiksha Sonar is currently seeking a bachelor‟s degree in the final year of the Computer department from Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering an Research. And is currently working an researching on brain tumor detection using deep learning project. Anagha Mandekar is currently seeking a bachelor‟s degree in the final year of the Computer department from Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research. And is currently working and researching on brain tumor detection using deep learning project. Sonali Ubale is currently seeking a bachelor‟s degree in the final year of the Computer department from Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research. And is currently working and researching on brain tumor detection using deep learning project. Vaishali Latke is currently working as Assistant Professor for Computer Engineering department in Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering and Research, Ravet, Pune, Maharashtra, India 
work_hyhjlpaodba3xitkjtggb36wga	----	Why Do Populist-Outsiders Get Elected? : A Model of strategic Populists econstor Make Your Publications Visible. A Service of zbw Leibniz-Informationszentrum Wirtschaft Leibniz Information Centre for Economics Miller, Sebastian Working Paper Why Do Populist-Outsiders Get Elected? A Model of Strategic Populists IDB Working Paper Series, No. IDB-WP-248 Provided in Cooperation with: Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), Washington, DC Suggested Citation: Miller, Sebastian (2011) : Why Do Populist-Outsiders Get Elected? A Model of Strategic Populists, IDB Working Paper Series, No. IDB-WP-248, Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), Washington, DC This Version is available at: http://hdl.handle.net/10419/88964 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. Sofern die Verfasser die Dokumente unter Open-Content-Lizenzen (insbesondere CC-Lizenzen) zur Verfügung gestellt haben sollten, gelten abweichend von diesen Nutzungsbedingungen die in der dort genannten Lizenz gewährten Nutzungsrechte. Terms of use: Documents in EconStor may be saved and copied for your personal and scholarly purposes. You are not to copy documents for public or commercial purposes, to exhibit the documents publicly, to make them publicly available on the internet, or to distribute or otherwise use the documents in public. If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. www.econstor.eu Why Do Populist- Outsiders Get Elected? A Model of Strategic Populists Sebastián J. Miller Department of Research and Chief Economist IDB-WP-248IDB WORKING PAPER SERIES No. Inter-American Development Bank May 2011 Why Do Populist-Outsiders Get Elected? A Model of Strategic Populists Sebastián J. Miller Inter-American Development Bank 2011 Inter-American Development Bank http://www.iadb.org Documents published in the IDB working paper series are of the highest academic and editorial quality. All have been peer reviewed by recognized experts in their field and professionally edited. The information and opinions presented in these publications are entirely those of the author(s), and no endorsement by the Inter-American Development Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the countries they represent is expressed or implied. This paper may be freely reproduced. Cataloging-in-Publication data provided by the Inter-American Development Bank Felipe Herrera Library Miller, Sebastian J. Why do populist-outsiders get elected? : a model of strategic populists / Sebastian J. Miller. p. cm. (IDB working paper series ; 248) Includes bibliographical references. 1. Populism. 2. Politics, Practical. 3. Equality—Political Aspects. I. Inter-American Development Bank. Research Dept. II. Title. III. Series. Abstract* The existence of populist regimes led by outsiders is not new in history. In this paper a simple framework is presented that shows how and why a populist outsider can be elected to office, and under what conditions he is more likely to be elected. The results show that countries with a higher income and wealth concentration are more likely to elect populist outsiders than countries where income and wealth are more equally distributed. It is also shown that elections with a runoff are less likely to bring these populist outsiders into office. JEL classifications: D72, D31 Keywords: Outsiders, Populism, Campaign contributions, Inequality * I wish to thank Allan Drazen for his excellent guidance and John Shea, Peter Murrell, Mauricio Olivera, Daniel Mejía, Thayer Morrill, Daniel Aromi, Filipe Campante and participants at the XV World Congress of the International Economics Association, the VIII Meeting of LACEA Political Economy Group, and seminars at Universidad de Chile (CEA) and Universidad Católica de Chile (ECON) and the graduate macroeconomics seminar at the University of Maryland for very helpful comments and suggestions. 2 1. Introduction There is a long history of populist governments in Latin America and elsewhere in the world. A few recent examples of so called populist governments include the following countries and periods: Peru 1985-1990, Ecuador 2000-2001 and 2006-present, Venezuela 1999-present, Argentina 2003-present, Italy 2000-2006, and Thailand 2001-2006, among others. These governments share amongst other things the fact that they came to power through the democratic system in fair elections. However many of them have to leave office before the end of their constitutional term, since usually by the end of the term(s) the situation in the country is worse off than when it began (Dornbusch and Edwards, 1989). Another common feature in many circumstances, especially in recent Latin America, is that the elected government is not only considered populist but is also led by an outsider candidate. An outsider is defined as a candidate who is not part of the traditional party system in the country. Recent examples of outsiders in Latin America would be Alberto Fujimori and Ollanta Humala in Peru, Lucío Gutiérrez and Alvaro Correa in Ecuador, Hugo Chávez in Venezuela and Fernando Lugo in Paraguay. The governments of Lula da Silva in Brazil, Morales in Bolivia and Vásquez in Uruguay are harder to classify as purely outsiders, since in each of these cases the party or parties that support these candidates have long been part of the political establishment, even though they might have had very little power. Moreover, in each of the former examples, the coalitions were built around the candidate himself, while in the latter it seems that the coalitions were built up prior to choosing a candidate. Populists and outsiders are also more likely to arise where democracy is weak or is perceived not to work well. Democracy in Latin America is perceived overall as weak, with high levels of corruption, little or no accountability, and unequal distribution of rights (Tedesco, 2004; Taylor, 2004). There is also evidence that politics in Latin America are driven by Client-ship relations. In this sense there are groups (special interest, elites or others) that are organized to obtain favors in exchange for their political support. These kinds of relations have been observed both in democratic and non-democratic regimes (Taylor, 2004). Populist governments or movements are far from exclusive to Latin America. Both Mussolini and Hitler were considered populists in their time, as was Huey Long in the United States at about the same time. Moreover, during the 1960s and 1970s left-wing populist movements were quite powerful throughout Europe. Current populist movements in Europe, 3 however, more nearly approximate a right-wing agenda. A few recent examples would include Silvio Berlusconi in Italy, Jean-Marie Le Pen’s National Front in France, the late Pim Fortuyn in the Netherlands and the Austrian Freedom Party (Mudde, 2004). The rise of outsiders also occurs in the developed world, where outsiders have been elected and more recently have affected the outcomes of elections. Recent cases in the United States that are worth mentioning are independent candidates Ross Perot and Ralph Nader in the 1992 and 2000 presidential elections, respectively (Abramson et al., 1995). Le Pen in France also might have affected the outcome of the 2002 presidential election. It is not so easy to explain why populists and outsiders are elected once we assume voters are rational. In order to get voters to elect these candidates, even knowing the risk implied by their election, voters must have some sort of preference for these candidates. I will propose that outsiders are elected or brought into the system due to a failure by the insiders (i.e., the traditional parties) to deliver welfare improvements. This may be explained by insiders being captured by the elites or certain special interest groups. Moreover, this failure enables the outsider to rise and, since he does not face credibility issues (at least not from being in power previously), he can make more promises (that he may not be able to fulfill) than the traditional parties can. In this paper I explore the following questions. Why are populist outsider candidates elected, over and over again, even when their governments are less than successful? How and why do outsiders become part of the political game? How can they exist in equilibrium? In order to assess these questions I build a simple three-candidate model in which two traditional candidates and one outsider compete for office. Traditional candidates use campaign contributions from biased elites to get votes from uninformed voters, while the outsider will only use his own resources (charisma in this model). Traditional candidates will therefore tend to locate towards one end of the political spectrum, allowing outsiders to emerge from the opposite extreme. A charismatic outsider will therefore optimally locate at one extreme and in equilibrium—if he has enough charisma—will win the election. I finally show how inequality and electoral institutions may increase or decrease the outsider’s odds of winning. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 I will review the literature on populism and propose a working definition of populism. Section 3 presents a model of political 4 competition between insider parties and a populist outsider. Section 4 presents the main results of the model. Section 5 presents some extensions of the basic model, and Section 6 concludes. 2. What Is Populism? Perhaps one of the hardest tasks in political science and economics is to find a good definition of populism. Populism is often confused for demagogy. Mudde (2004) distinguishes two dominant interpretations of the term populism. The first refers to an “…emotional and simplistic discourse, that is directed at the ‘gut feelings’ of the people.” The second interpretation refers to opportunistic politicians/policies that aim to please the people/voters rapidly. In a way this definition could include a politician only concerned with short-run political advantage (e.g., lowering taxes just before elections). However both these definitions are far from comprehensive and they do not capture the full sense of what is typically known as a populist government/movement. Therefore Mudde (2004) defines populism “…as an ideology that considers society to be… separated into two homogeneous and antagonistic groups, ‘the pure people’ versus ‘the corrupt elite’…” This definition is consistent with definitions that call populism as the expression of the “general will” of the people (in a way such as the tyranny of the majority) in contrast with the idea of democracy as a bargaining process (Crick, 2005). The term “populism” originates from the Populist Party in the United States, circa 1880- 1906 (Szasz, 1982). This movement grew originally as a response to economic hardship during the period of 1886-1897 in the agricultural states of the southern and western United States. The movement was at first composed of small farmers on the north-south axis that goes from eastern Montana and the western Dakotas to New Mexico and Texas. The party gained momentum given the feeling of disconnection between rural farmers and political parties in Washington. This attracted new voters and hence the party ran on issues that ranged from prohibition of alcohol and direct election of senators to women’s suffrage and the supervision of large corporations. Populists had two common denominators: i) they wanted to “restore the power to the people” and ii) they were driven by demands for social change derived mainly from the economic depression of 1893-1897 (Szasz, 1982).1 1 Another national-level case of populism in the United States is Huey Long, the Governor and Senator from Louisiana who would have run for president in 1936 but was killed before he had the chance to do so. His main political agenda was the restitution of a nation of equals, and he proposed, for example, a guaranteed universal 5 In the political science literature populism has usually been used to describe the regimes that governed Latin America in the middle of the twentieth century. Conniff (1982, 1999) describes the Latin American version of populism as a grand coalition of workers and industrial bourgeois led by a charismatic leader. The populist runs under a platform of reform, usually running against the local elites that own the land, with promises of either: i) new jobs and higher wages via industrialization of the country; or ii) political reform and political access to disenfranchised groups (e.g., free and fair elections, granting women the right to vote, universal suffrage, etc). This model fits well prior to the 1960’s, describing rulers such as Yrigoyen and Perón in Argentina, Alessandri, Ibáñez and the Popular Front in Chile, Lázaro Cárdenas in Mexico, Vargas and Goulart in Brazil and, although never elected, Haya de la Torre in Peru.2 It is worth noting that another common denominator was that these coalitions were an alternative response towards the threat of socialism (or more precisely communism) in many countries. The main goal of the movement was to transition towards a modern society in which landlord elites would eventually give up power (to the industrial bourgeois) while the urban industrial workers would have better paid jobs, higher incomes and consequently a better life. It is important to state that inequality played a more fundamental role than poverty in setting the conditions that allowed the coalition to be built, since the main goal was to redistribute power and/or income. Dornbusch and Edwards (1989) and Sachs (1989) also stress that poverty and income inequality played a significant role in the run-up to elections in which populists came in power. Dornbusch and Edwards (1989, 1991a) henceforth D&E, describe economic populism (or more precisely macroeconomic populism) as a government that prioritizes income redistribution policies over efficiency and growth policies.3 minimum income and 100 percent taxes on all income over US$1 million and all inheritances over US$5 million (Szasz, 1982). However in their own description of the “populist” governments in Chile under Allende and Peru under García, they explain that these governments were elected in part to respond to dissatisfaction with growth performance, high levels of poverty, and unequal distribution of income. They also recognize that the “economic teams” that took office in these governments wanted to achieve growth with 2 The list of potential populists is very large indeed; they include candidates from most Latin American countries including Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama and Venezuela. 3 Stokes (1999, 2001), uses basically the same distinction, but she refers to security-oriented policies versus efficiency-oriented ones. 6 redistribution. According to D&E the main reason that the populist program failed was “bad economics,” since policymakers did not recognize that their program was unfeasible. The issue is that their assumptions about idle capacity, decreasing long-run costs and inflation were wrong. Rioja and Glomm (2003), Dal Bó and Dal Bó (2004), Mejía and Posada (2007) and Campante and Ferreira (2007) have all used a similar concept of populism. In all of these papers the main goal of populists is more redistribution towards a certain group (usually the poor), and/or no concern for budget deficits. It is interesting to note that, even if D&E are right about the failed nature of the economic programs of both governments, when the government was campaigning for office it actually believed that the program was achievable. It might be the case that the party running for office had “bad” economists, but they cannot be simply portrayed as mere opportunists; they really thought that they could achieve both high growth and a more equal society. In this sense it might be the case that they were naïve, or more precisely, that their policies may have had a chance to succeed but did not.4 Kaufman and Stallings (1991) describe populism as economic policies designed to achieve both political and economic goals. According to their definition these governments rely on price controls and income redistribution, and run fiscal deficits to achieve their goals. For Chile they identify two periods: Ibáñez 52-58 and Allende 70-73. However, Drake (1991) argues that Allende does not fit the pattern in the sense that his policies went much further, to encompass not only income redistribution, but also redistribution of property and more generally wealth. Drake (1991) argues that even though the programs of socialists and populists overlapped in many cases, in the case of Allende it was the former that predominated rather than the latter. Another important feature of populism is charisma (Conniff, 1982 and 1999). Within the political science framework we could call this “quality of the politician.” Not all populists are elected (most notoriously Haya de la Torre in Peru), and many elected ones have ended their government prematurely, usually in some sort of political crisis. But one common denominator 4 An interesting comparison that comes to mind is that of export-led growth (ELG) versus industrialization by substitution of imports (ISI) policies since the 1960s. When looking at the data we observe that countries that undertook ISI policies grew faster than countries that undertook ELG during the 1960s and 1970s, while the opposite has been the case since the 1980s (Carbaugh, 2005). Consequently, in the late 1970s ELG policies might not have appeared to be the first choice. 7 was that most if not all populists were able to bring the masses towards them and lead them to the polls. In the more recent literature Weyland (1999, 2002) describes what he defines as neopopulism, which is a combination of neoliberal policies and a populist or charismatic leader. The main exponents of this strand were Fernando Collor de Melo in Brazil, Carlos Menem in Argentina, Alberto Fujimori in Peru and Carlos Pérez in Venezuela. All of these have in common that they ran as populists and later enacted neoliberal reforms.5 This economic version of populism can also be defined as ex-post populism, since it basically tries to explain the effects of the policies put in place after the populist has come to power. On the other side, the political science perspective has in a sense tried to understand ex- ante populism, concerning how populists get elected. This paper will attempt to explicitly model ex-ante populism in an economic framework, and also to some extent, given the definition of populism (in terms of political strategy) I use, bring together both concepts in one framework. It is worth noting, though, that Collor de Melo ran on a neoliberal platform while the rest actually ran closer to a left-wing platform and once elected enacted neoliberal reforms. According to the liberal populism literature (Roberts, 1995), this was possible given that social institutions were weak and allowed for a clientelistic approach by the charismatic leader, and this would be “populism.” Choi (2005) explores a similar argument for the recently overthrown government in Thailand and concludes that the populist government in Thailand has its origins in inequality rather than an institutional issue. 6 All of the above said, it is time to present my own definition of a populist. I will define a populist as a politician possessing the following four characteristics: 1. As a politician he/she behaves opportunistically, motivated by being in power, but uses elections to achieve his goals. 2. He targets certain groups to rally around him. 3. He promises redistribution (of income, wealth or power) to the groups in the coalition. 5 According to Stokes (1999, 2002) these are actually policy switchers. At least in the case of Menem, according to Stokes, they only ran a left-wing platform to be able to win, but they always had planned to undertake neoliberal reforms. This would in turn be a case of opportunistic politicians that “lies” in order to get elected. There is a narrow line between this and a demagogue. 6 I thank Daniel Mejía for this distinction. 8 4. He is a charismatic leader, and he uses his charisma to get votes. Out of the four characteristics, the latter is the one that makes a populist really different from a traditional politician. The idea is that populists use their charisma to attract voters, instead of using other formal political mechanisms. That is, he will not care about appealing to special interest groups that may contribute money to his campaign, since he would not use it.7 3. The Model This model has two types of voters. First there is a fraction (1-α) of impressionable voters modeled in the spirit of Baron (1994), as a continuum of voters of mass 1-α that are distributed uniformly in preferences for policy platforms τ, along the [0,1] interval. For tractability I assume that a platform is one-dimensional. These voters receive (dis)utility from three things: policies implemented by the winning candidate, quality or appeal of the candidate and the cost of going to the polls. Voters thus have the following utility function if they decide to vote:8 i ki kk k i c MF MaxvoteU −      − + = 2)( ))(( )( ττ τθ , where ci is the cost of voting for voter i, which for now I assume constant and equal to c 9 7 Berdugo (2006) uses a similar characteristic in a signal-extraction model where charisma and quality of the politician are correlated but not individually observable and shows that charisma may increase the capacity of politician to get elected and commit to certain platforms. Kartik and McAfee (2007) use “character” instead of charisma, where character is desired by voters, and show that non-character candidates choose policies such that the probability of being elected is at least as big as a candidate with character. ; τi and τk are the most preferred platform for voter i and the announced platform by candidate k, respectively; F(⋅) is an increasing and concave function; M are the campaign contributions received by k that will depend on the announced platform τk; and θk is a random variable representing the charm, charisma or appeal of the candidate. F represents 8 The particular form of the utility function is used to obtain close formed solutions. In particular, all that is required from the utility function for the results to prevail is that it is increasing in charisma and money and decreasing in cost of voting and distance to the implemented platform. This generates that the voting outcome of impressionable voters in terms of the share of votes is a closed interval in the [0,1] line. An alternative specification that would not alter the main results would be to assume the following utility function:             + − − = ))(( 1 )( 1 )( 2 kkkik i MF cMaxvoteU τθττ , where money now affects the cost of voting (with c now the cost function of voting) and not the platforms themselves. 9 The cost of voting may include registering to vote, work days lost and/or other costs. Therefore it may vary across individuals or groups. In particular it could account for disenfranchised groups (e.g., poor voters, racial minorities, etc.). 9 a mapping from charm or advertising into perceived quality. I assume that quality in itself is not observable, but charisma and money expenditures are; and charisma and money are positively correlated with quality of the candidate.10 Candidates need either charm or money (or both) to get voters to vote. Charisma is exogenous, while money depends on campaign contributions by non-impressionable voters, which in the rest of the paper will be named contributors. If the voter does not vote his utility is Ui(no vote)=0. An important assumption in this model is that not all voters vote. The preferences presented here are similar to those proposed by Schachar and Nalebuff (1999) in the sense that candidates can use money to influence voter turnout. They are also standard in the public choice literature where voters derive utility from winning. 11 Contributors’ policy preferences are also distributed uniformly in a subset of the continuum [0,1], particularly in the interval [τc-β, τc+β], where τc is the most preferred platform of the median contributor. I assume that there is a fraction α of these voters that contribute funds to the campaign of either candidate, depending on the proposed platform and their preferences. All contributor voters contribute a fixed amount of money M to one candidate. This assumption is used to avoid the collective action problem that arises from marginal contributions. This result could arise endogenously assuming a group utility rule such as the one presented by Coate and Conlin (2004), in which all members of each coalition contribute the same amount. Assumption 1: τc > ½. This means the median contributor will be always located to the right of the median voter. This assumption will induce the outsider later on to choose a platform on the left side of the political map, since as we will see traditional parties need to choose a platform closer to the median contributor, which as just mentioned is right-of-center. 12 10 In this context I am also including candidates with high charisma/charm and significant expenditure. Higher charm would attract voters to the polls, and campaign expenditures are assumed to better convey the message. That is, candidates with low expenditure cannot convey their positions as clearly as candidates with higher expenditures. We are modeling campaign expenditures as informative about the quality of a candidate in the spirit of Coate (2004) and Prat (2002). Figure 1 summarizes the distribution of preferences by voters. 11 We could also think of these as special interest groups (SIGs) in the spirit of Grossman and Helpman (1994). 12 All results are maintained if I assume that the contributors are skewed to the left of the median voter. The only difference will be that the outsider would choose the “other” extreme to propose his platform. 10 Figure 1. Voters’ Characteristics Contributors participate in two stages. In the first stage they decide to contribute M to the party that proposes a platform closest to their own. In the second stage they vote for whoever they contributed. Contributor j thus decides to contribute Mj according to the following rule:               −=− −>− −<− = LjRjMM LjRj LjRj j if ifM ifM LRM ττττ ττττ ττττ ),( ),0( )0,( ),( 22 In the second stage, contributors now vote in the same way as they contributed and all of them vote. Under these assumptions, party R will obtain contributions in the amount of       + −+== ∫ + + 222 2 LR CR Md M M C LR ττ βτ β α τ β α βτ ττ and party L will obtain RL MMM −= α , if this is an interior solution. Otherwise we may obtain ML=αM and MR=0, or ML=0 and MR=αM. Candidates/Parties There are two parties R,L that only care about being in power. Each party draws a candidate with a given amount of charisma θR or θL simultaneously and independently. Charisma is private information for each party. Parties then announce a platform τ (henceforth τR or τL) on which they run. There is a third outsider candidate drawn by nature, endowed with charm θOUT. θk is drawn in each case from a distribution with CDF Ω(θk), kk ∀∞∈ ),,0[θ . As mentioned earlier, 0 1 (1-α) impressionable voters 0 1 α Contributor voters τc τm τc+β τc-β 11 given that τc>τm, this will induce the outsider to choose a platform to the left of R and L, thus generating a left-wing outsider. The case for a right-wing outsider will be analogous, but with the roles of party R and L reversed, and it requires assuming τc<τm. Assumption 2 (no crossing over): I assume that the following condition is always true: τR ≥ τL. In other words, party R always chooses a platform equal to or to the right of party L, and vice versa. This assumption is used to rule out left-wing platforms by right-wing parties and is useful to simplify the analysis. We can have convergence but no crossing over. The parties’ problem is therefore to choose their platform τk to maximize their probability of being elected, which can be defined for L as: ))()(())()(()elected is Pr( RVLVprobOUTVLVprobL >∧>= where V(k) is the fraction of votes that candidate k receives. This is the sum of votes by impressionable VI and non impressionable voters VC. From impressionable voters, k receives: )()()()( τττ τ τ GGdGkV I −== ∫ where τ and τ represent voters that are indifferent between two candidates or between voting or not, or a corner voter (0 or 1), and G(·) is the CDF of the impressionable voters.13       + −+= 22 1 )( LR CC RV ττ βτ β Non- impressionable voters vote according to their contributions and therefore split between R and L in the same fractions as they split contributions. Thus, , and )(1)( RVLV CC −= .14 )()1()()( kVkVkV IC αα −+= Finally, total votes for candidate k are given by: . Figure 2 presents two examples of the votes received by each candidate for a given platform choice for each of them. The left panel shows the case in which everyone votes, while the right panel shows a case in which some voters abstain. Votes for the outsider, L and R are given by the red, light and dark blue intervals respectively. The top [0,1] line represents the impressionable voters, while the [τc-β, τc+β] interval represents contributors. 13 I have defined a more general case for the distribution but I will still assume a uniform distribution. 14 This is the result of the interior solution. For corner solutions VC(R)=0 or 1, and consequently VC(L)=1 or 0, respectively. 12 Figure 2. Examples of Voting Outcomes (a)No abstention (b) With abstention Timing The timing of events is as follows: 1. Charisma for each party candidate is drawn by nature. 2. Parties announce their platforms (τR and τL) to maximize their votes given their beliefs about the charisma of each candidate. 3. Contributor voters contribute to either party candidate, knowing only τR and τL. 4. An outsider is drawn by nature with θOUT, and chooses his platform τOUT without observing contributions for other candidates in order to maximize his votes. 5. Elections are held, voters vote and the candidate or party with the most votes wins and takes office. Definition 1: A political equilibrium in this model consists of a pair of strategies (τR(θR),τL(θL)) such that each party maximizes its expected votes considering the expected θOUT and the other party’s platform. The concept of equilibrium is Perfect Bayesian Equilibrium (PBE). We can easily observe that the platform choice of each party will depend on the charisma of the candidate. The more charisma the candidate has, the less money he will need to “buy 13 votes.” The result arises from the fact that charisma and money are perfect substitutes in attracting votes. For candidate R, his share of votes is determined by the following expression:15 (1)             −     +      +      −+      + −+= )( )( )(1 )( )( )( )1( 22 )( 2 1 2 1 2 1 LR LR C LF RF LF RF c RF RV ττα ττ βτ β α Candidate R will thus choose τR so as to maximize the expected value of the RHS of (1). Note that (1) does not depend on the platform of the outsider. As observed in Figure 2a, the outsider in this model only fights over votes with Candidate L, as we have assumed the outsider locating to the left of L. Thus R only has to fight over votes with L not the outsider. For simplicity, we analyze first the optimal behavior of R and after that the optimal behavior of L, which as will be seen is only a minor extension of R. From Assumption 1 we know that R always set its platform equal to L or to the right of L. Given τL choosing to the right of τL has two effects. First R obtains fewer resources since it is straightforward to note that 0 4 )( < − = ∂ ∂ β α τ MRM R . Moreover candidate R will also lose non- impressionable voters since 0 4 )( < − = ∂ ∂ β α τ R N RV . However, candidate R will gain votes from his right side by moving away from the L platform. Depending on the level of resources (charisma plus money) R will retain a smaller or larger share of the votes “to his left” assuming L’s platform is fixed.16 The net effect will depend on the amount of charisma θR, and other parameters. In particular we have: (2) ( ) ( )                     +       +−−     − −+ − = ∂ ∂ − 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 )( )( 1 )( )( )()( )(' 8 )()(' 8 )1( 4 )( LF RF LF RF RFLF RFM c RF c RFMRV LR R ττ β α β α α β α τ 15 I am assuming that party R does not reach further than voter with τi=1. If he does, then he would try to move as far to the left as possible, in order to increase his votes on that side, of course up to τC. 16 In fact votes that lie between τL and τR will be allocated to each candidate depending on their overall resources. 14 The first term corresponds to the non-impressionable voters that R loses. The first term in brackets corresponds to the impressionable voters R loses due to lower money. The other two terms in bracket correspond to the impressionable voters R wins/loses when she separates from L, leaving a gap between them. From the above expression and taking as given α, β, c, M, θL, τL, we can findθ ~ such that θθ ~ >∀ R , )( RR θτ will be increasing in θR. This will be valid over some range of platforms, depending on the precise shape of F, and it requires Assumption 2. By the same token, θθ ~ ≤∀ R , CRR τθτ =)( 17, 18 . Assumption 3: I will assume that if τR = τL = τ, then candidate L will get the non-contributor votes from the left of τ, and R will get the votes to the right.19 Assumption 3 is only needed to ensure the next result and the one just mentioned, but it is not needed for the rest of the paper. Proposition 1 (charisma leads to extremism): The more charisma a party candidate has, the more he or she will move to the extreme. This is, more charismatic leaders in both parties will choose platforms farther to the left or right of the median contributor. Proof: Using Assumption 3, from (2) we know that 0 )( > ∂ ∂ R RV τ τ only if the third term in brackets is large enough to cancel the other terms in the expression, which are all negative. This will only occur if θθ ~ >R . Therefore Rθ θ∀ >  , we have that R will choose a platform to the right of τC. Similarly, we will find the symmetric result for L, though the threshold θ will not be exactly the same. Corollary 1: Candidates with no charisma converge to τC. If party candidates do not have charisma (or cannot use it), then they will converge to the platform of τC. 17 In fact, the optimal strategy would be LRR τθτ =)( , but this could violate Assumption 1 since it could be the case that in expectation party R chooses a value to the left of τC, and later party L choosse τC. 18 In fact it may be possible that at some level of θθ =R voter “1” is indifferent between voting for R or not voting, therefore θθ >∀ R we have that the optimal strategy will be to move back to the center. 19 This assumption enables both candidates to choose the median contributor. Otherwise if both converge, by the fact that they are exactly the same to all non-contributor voters, this would mean that all of them would vote for whoever has the highest charisma, while the other candidate would only receive contributor votes. 15 Proof: This is a direct consequence of Proposition 1. Let us now consider party L. The most interesting case is when there is a voter indifferent between L and the Outsider, i.e., a case where L and the Outsider are fighting for votes like in Figure 2a. If this set were the empty set, then the analysis is exactly the same as for R, but in the other direction and the share of votes for L would look like Figure 2b. Otherwise candidate L obtains the following share of votes: (3)                     +       + −       +       + −+      −+ + = 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 )( )( 1 )( )( )( )( 1 )( )( )1( 22 )( OF LF OF LF RF LF RF LF LV OUTLRL C LR ττττ ατβ ττ β α Expression (3) is similar to (1). However the second term in (3), which accounts for the impressionable vote share of L, reflects the fact that L will face competition on both margins and thus is ceteris paribus smaller than the similar term in (1). Following the same analyses done for Party R, I can now look at the effect of L choosing a platform to the left of or equal to τR. Therefore I calculate the following derivative: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )                                 +       +−+ −               +       +         −+ −++= ∂ ∂ −− 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 )( )( 1 )( )( )()( )(' 8 1 )( )( 1 )( )( )()( )(' 8 1 )1( 4 )( OF LF OF LF OFLF LFM RF LF RF LF RFLF LFM LV LOUTLR L β α ττ β α ττ α β α τ With some algebra we can also find a θ such that Lθ θ∀ > , )( LL θτ will be decreasing in θL. This will be valid over some range of platforms and depending on the precise shape of F. By the same token, Lθ θ∀ ≤ , CLL τθτ =)( . Note, however, that the exact effect of moving the platform will not only depend on the value of L’s own θL, but also on the value of θOUT. The higher θOUT is, the lower the benefits from moving to the left for L. Given these results we can now solve for the platform choice of the Outsider. In the next proposition I will find the optimal strategy of the outsider, given his information set. By construction I have assumed that outsiders do not have access to contributors. Therefore their 16 optimal strategy will be to get as many impressionable voters as possible. The share of votes for the (left-wing) outsider is given by the following expression: (4)             −−      +−= 0, )( max, )( min)1()( c F c F OUTV OUT OUTe OUT OUT θττ θ τα The term minimized in the brackets represents the share of votes to the right of the outsider, which consists of all of the votes he can capture by his charisma in that direction minus the ones captured by the left-wing candidate. If the left-wing candidate does not compete directly for votes with the Outsider then his share of vote is given by the first term in the minimizing expression; otherwise it is given by τe. The term maximized in brackets subtracts any votes that the outsider may not get on her left, i.e., alienated voters with preferences close to τ=0. If everyone on the left votes for the outsider, then the second term is zero. Finally τe satisfies the following condition: 2 1 )( )(       = − − LF OF eL OUTe ττ ττ . Therefore 2 1 2 1 )(( )( 1 )( )(       +       + = LF OF LF OF LOUT e ττ τ , and the objective function of the outsider is to maximize his (expected) votes (expected RHS of 4), given his own charisma and given the platforms chosen by R and L. This leads us to Proposition 2. Proposition 2: The optimal strategy for the Outsider is to set a platform τOUT such that corner voter 0 is just indifferent between voting and not. Let this platform be τ*. This platform is the best response given the strategies set by the insider candidates. Proof: I can show that choosingτ* will yield the highest possible share of votes for the outsider given the strategies of the other candidates. Assume the outsider chooses a platform slightly to the right of τ*, say τ**=τ*+ε. The indifferent voter on the left side is given by the following condition: ( ) ( ) 2121 )()( *** cFcFi OUTOUTτ θθ εττ −+=−= , but the indifferent voter under τ* is zero, so we know that ( ) 21)(*0 cF OUTθτ −= , therefore 0>= ετ i . By moving to the right of τ*, the outsider loses a fraction ε>0 of voters. 17 On the right side the indifferent voter now is given by the following condition: ( ) ),*min( 21)( ecFj OUT τεττ θ−+= , where τe represents the indifferent voter between the Outsider and the candidate from party L. If the two candidates do not intersect voters then the Outsider candidate gains the same fraction of votes on the right as the ones he lost on the left. Conversely, if they do intersect, then the outsider will lose a fraction of votes to the L candidate. Finally if the outsider chooses a platform slightly to the left of τ*, such as τ***=τ*-ε, then his voting share will be reduced, since the indifferent left-side voter will be less than zero (that is 0<= ετ i ). On the right side, he may gain a fraction of voters if his voters were previously intersecting with candidate L’s voters, but he would earn fewer votes than the ones he lost on the bottom. If τe was not active, then he would only lose votes. Therefore choosing τ* is the best response and, given the strategies by insiders, dominates all other possible choices. This strategy will imply that in general τ*<τm. The outsider will choose a platform to the left of the median voter. Corollary 2: Centrist populists. Although most populist will choose extreme platforms, we show that the more charisma a populist has, the more he can move towards the center. Proof: Just by observing the fact that ( ) 21)(* cF OUTθτ = , we can calculate ( ) 0)( 2 1* 2 1 )( > ′ = ∂ ∂ c OF OUTF c OUT θθ τ . Therefore more charisma will mean the populist can build a bigger coalition, and this will be done by a choosing a more centrist platform, while still getting votes from the far left. 4. Results and Analysis The simple framework described above yields some interesting predictions concerning the results of elections. In particular, the composition of the electorate will matter in determining who wins the election. 18 Proposition 3: An increase in the fraction (α) of contributor voters reduces the probability of election of an outsider in two different ways: a) Higher α strictly reduces the share of impressionable voters. b) Higher α increases contributions for party candidates. Proof: For the first part, a higher α strictly reduces the pool of potential voters for the Outsider, as can be seen directly from (4). For the second part of the proof, using the expression for τe we have 2)1( )( K OUTLKe + − = ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ττ α τ α , where K= ( ) 21)( )( LF OF , and so the sign of α τ ∂ ∂ e will be the same as the sign of α∂ ∂K , where: (5)       −− +      − = ∂ ∂ )( 2)( )(' )(( )( 4 2 1 βτ ττ βα C LR LF LF LF OFMK . which is negative as long as the halfway point between R and L is a contributor, since F(⋅) is an increasing function. The reason for this is that an increase in the share of contributors α reduces the share of votes the outsider receives if there are initially voters that are indifferent between the Outsider and L. In such case an increase in α causes these previously indifferent voters to favor L due to the higher contributions received by L. Corollary 3: A country with higher concentration of wealth is more likely to elect outsiders than a country with more equal distribution of wealth. Proof: This follows directly from Proposition 3 if we assume that a lower α implies that wealth is more concentrated. This result arises from the fact that a higher concentration reduces total contributions, and therefore the share of votes by insiders. An alternative would be to keep (αM) constant and then allow α to change but keeping total contributions constant. In this case there is still a reduction in the probability of electing an outsider with higher α.20 20 Yet another possible assumption is that contributors give a fixed “share” of their income. If we keep the average income constant Y, then an increase in α must decrease the relative income of the rich in order to maintain the However, the effect now comes only from 19 the first effect, the fact that a higher α implies that there are fewer “impressionable” voters that the outsider can lure, therefore reducing his/her “base” and consequently his/her share of votes as well. Another interesting corollary is that if we assume that economic crises can shift people from one group to another, say by reducing α, then the model would predict that an outsider’s chance to get elected increases during a crisis. The model predictions are explained basically by the following issues. First, consider the constraints faced by both insiders and the Outsider. Insiders are constrained in their platform choices, since they need to obtain contributions to finance their campaign. In this context both parties fall in a trap, where even if they wanted to move further towards the median voter, they would lose contributions and hence they would not be able to get out their message. The problem is that insiders must care more about contributions than about citizens’ preferences, and this arises from the fact that without money it is harder to run a campaign, unless the insider has a very high level of charisma. On the other hand, the Outsider is constrained by his endowment (of charisma, charm, etc.). He is free to choose any given platform but cannot control his endowment or raise campaign contributions. He/she chooses the platform that yields him the highest possible share of impressionable votes, but this is not always enough to get elected. Now consider a variation in the game presented above in which there is an additional stage in the model, just before elections, where traditional parties in fear of losing to the outsider agree to share government in some way.21 In this scenario the results depend on certain assumptions we make on what can each party do. I assume that once a candidate chooses his platform, he cannot deviate from this commitment. This assumes the candidates care about credibility. In this sense, it can be argued that a candidate would be accused of “flip-flopping,” losing his credibility and consequently potential voters if he changes his platform. I also assume that voters vote sincerely in this part of the game.22, 23 average income. Let M=γyr where γ is the share of income devoted to contributions and yr>1 is the income of the rich, and assume yp=1 is the income of the poor. Then Y= α yr+(1- α) and M=γ[Y-(1- α)]/α. Now αM=γ[Y+α-1], and γα α =∂ ∂ )( M >0. Thus a rise in α, maintaining average income constant, this just increasing inequality, still increases total contributions, and therefore reduces the chances of re-election of the Outsider. 21 In order for this to occur at least one of the parties must perceive a very large disutility from electing the Outsider. 22 This is only necessary for the corollary not for the proposition. 23 We can think of this as assuming there is a runoff between the outsider and one of the other two parties. 20 Thus the game changes in the following way. After the Outsider is selected, the party candidate with the lowest charisma drops out and the other party candidate retains his/her previous platform, which will be denoted by P; and I will assume that the money spent on the other candidate is passed on to the other candidate.24 RP ττ = That is: if LR θθ > and LP ττ = otherwise and LRP MMM += . Under these conditions we can posit the next result. Proposition 4: If one traditional party candidate drops out of the election, the probability of electing an outsider is reduced. Proof: The proof is done in two parts. I first show that P will have higher votes than either party candidate before. Then I show that the share of votes to the outsider will not increase enough to increase the probability of election. From the share of votes each party receives, the traditional party P will now get the votes from both sides, such that his/her expected share of votes VP will be: ( ) ( ){ }),max()1,min()1( 2121 )()( ecPFPcPFPPV ττταα −−+−+= , which is greater than the share of votes R and L initially had, since now candidate P has all contributor voters plus votes form the other party candidate.25 If the outsider faces the candidate from the L party, then he/she will obtain at most the same share of votes, or if the additional money buys enough votes for P, then the outsider may even see his/her vote share reduced. To see this recall from (4) that The exact share of votes from the other party candidate depends on the specific choice of platform and specific charisma, but it is always larger than the previous case.             −−      +−= 0, )( max, )( min)1()( c F c F OUTV OUT OUTe OUT OUT θττ θ τα . Now an increase in money for L will only affect this expression through a change in eτ . Given 24 Recall that parties wish to maximize votes, and combining the money from both candidates implies that the higher charisma candidate in general attract more votes. 25 Note that )()( PP MFPF += θ , where MP may include donations from both R and L or alternatively only the donations that R or L had before the other candidate dropped out, and ),max( LRP θθθ = . 21 OL LOLOUT e δ τδτ τ + + = 1 , where 2 1 )( )(       = LF OFOLδ , an increase in money for L reduces the term eτ , since ( ) L OL OL OUTL L e MM ∂ ∂         + − = ∂ ∂ δ δ τττ 2 1 <0. This is true since L OL M∂ ∂δ <0 and OUTL ττ > . If, on the other hand the outsider faces the candidate from the R party, then he/she could theoretically increase the share of votes, since Rτ is further away from OUTτ compared to Lτ . However, any increase in the vote share for the outsider would be marginal as it can only go from V(OUT)= eτ to V(OUT)=       + c F OUTOUT )(θτ if R cannot reach any voter L reached before. This increase in voting will smaller than the increase in voting for R, since R’s vote share increases to capture votes on both sides of his/her platform. If there is no indifferent voter between the outsider and candidate R, then in fact R has doubled his/her votes. Otherwise, the increase will be less than double, but significantly larger than the increase for the outsider. Thus the probability of electing the outsider is reduced. Corollary 4: A country with a runoff election has a lower probability of choosing an outsider than a country with a “first past the post” election rule. Proof: This follows directly from Proposition 4 if we assume that a runoff is equivalent to having a candidate drop out of the election, with the additional requirement of sincere voting in the first round. Finally I consider the impact of the bias in preferences of the median contributor compared to the median voter. I summarize this result in the following proposition: Proposition 5 (Elite vs. “the people”): If the preferences of the median contributor are further away from the median voter, then the Outsider’s odds of winning increases. Proof: The proof follows from the expressions for the share of votes that each candidate obtains. In particular if both party candidates converge to the median contributor, but this contributor is more skewed to the right, then if the Outsider has a high draw of charisma, he has more space towards the middle before he has to compete for votes against L, increasing the odds of winning. 22 This last proposition to some extent may reflects in part the feeling in Latin America that outsiders have a better chance when traditional parties are not delivering what is expected from them. In effect if traditional parties become more biased, then the populist-outsider is indeed in a better position to win the election. If in addition we conjecture that charisma also measures some desired quality and furthermore conjecture that corruption by politicians may diminish charisma for both parties, then the outsider have an even better chance of winning the election.26 5. Comparing Populism in Europe and Latin America27 One interesting feature of modern populism is that most populist movements in Europe have a “right-wing” platform while most populist movements in Latin America appear to be running on a “left-wing” platform. Mudde (2004), Adams (2003) and Taggart (2004) document the following “right-wing” populist movements in Europe during the last 15 years: Le Pen’s National Front in France; Fortuyn’s in The Netherlands; the FPO in Austria; Berlusconi’s Forza Italia in Italy; and other small parties in Switzerland, Norway, Denmark and Germany. Although these parties or movements are not the same, they all follow certain patterns, such as the appeal to “the people,” the nationalistic themes (in this case mostly as euro-skeptics) and general distaste for “the elites.” Moreover their appeal is mostly seen as right-wing at least regarding their stand on immigration and integration with the rest of Europe. European populists typically argue that existing redistribution benefits (illegal) immigrants and government bureaucrats (which may be considered the elite) at the expense of the average “national citizen,” and they propose a reversal of such redistribution. In contrast when looking at the Latin American version of populism in Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela we observe a different version of populism, more in the spirit of Dornbusch and Edwards (1989), directed at re-nationalizing privatized public enterprises, agrarian reform and generally a taste for extreme left-wing policies of redistribution. Their desired redistribution therefore goes from the wealthy land-owner elites or foreign corporations towards “the poor” which coincides with “the people” in their case. 26 There is at least anecdotal evidence that corruption may have an overall negative effect on democracy itself, since voters may attach beliefs of corruption to all parties, and not only to the one(s) in power. 27 I thank Filipe Campante for suggesting looking at this issue. 23 The framework proposed in this paper can explain the emergence of both types of populism. In fact, if we conjecture that the elites are actually located “left-of-center” in Europe while “right-of-center” in Latin America, then the conundrum is resolved, since the model predicts populism arising from the opposite side. The main issue is to understand and explain why the elites would be located in different places. I have proposed above that the elites perhaps are not the same in both cases. In Europe populism represents a backlash against immigration and government bureaucrats, since the former have access to the welfare state and therefore increase the tax bill, while the latter would increase the tax bill directly as well. This proceeds from the fact that taxes are already very high in Europe and significant redistribution already occurs. In Latin America, on the other hand, populism is typically directed against the “traditional parties,” which have ties to the economic elite and thus obtain favors for them.28 In this case government bureaucrats are seen as part of the same economic elite, and given the high levels of poverty and inequality prevailing in the region, it is no surprise that populism looks for more redistribution of wealth via nationalization of firms or expropriation of land. 6. Extensions This section contains a few extensions of the basic model and future ideas for changes or additions to the model that could help to explain other populist phenomena. 6.1 Populist Parties or Populist Strategies First consider the following variant in which there is only one traditional party running for the election. Moreover, I will assume that the other “traditional” party decides to run a “populist” strategy, such that we will now have parties T (for traditional) and P (for populist).29 In this two-party system the odds of winning the election depend on the draws of charisma, but also on the institutional conditions. For example, changes in the shares of contributors or total contributions will affect the number of votes. A higher share of contributors In this context the optimal strategy for party T will always be to choose the platform preferred by the median contributor, since this will maximize her number of votes. Moreover, party P will always choose a platform such that voter 0 is indifferent just as the Outsider would. 28 The exception is that in Argentina the populist movement has always been against the land-owner elite. 29 The idea is that party P chooses not to accept contributions and thus is “freed” from the elite to choose any platform they want. 24 increases the share of votes of T, while more skewed contributors increase votes for P. If contributions are reduced, for example due to economic crises, then party P has a higher probability of winning. 6.2 Campaign Finance Reform Another extension deals with either capping contributions, or public funding of elections. Either institution will cause a reduction in the probability of electing an outsider. However the consequences of any particular reform are not straightforward, and will depend on the assumptions we build into the model. For example, if we decide to cap contributions this would have the following effects. Parties would be able to “buy” fewer votes using their money, but their optimal level of charisma above which they choose to depart from the center will be decreased. In effect, from equation (2) we can observe that a lower level of maximum M will affect the optimal level of charisma for moving away from the median voter. In this context, with campaign contribution caps, parties will converge to the median contributor less frequently than under no contribution caps. The other possibility is for publicly financing campaigns. Under this model, if we assume that all parties get a minimum amount of money from public financing, then this would generate the following results. Traditional parties would not change their behavior other than increasing the threshold level of charisma for moving away from the median contributor. The argument is the same line of reasoning as in the previous case, but now party candidates in a sense start with a higher level of the initial charisma-money endowment. The more interesting case combines both features: campaign limits with public funding. In this scenario, both candidates may diverge from the median contributor since their optimal strategy can now be to cater to contributors just enough to obtain the maximum permitted. They will still choose their platform such that it will be most preferred platform of some contributor, but not the median contributor. The argument for candidate R is as follows. She chooses a platform such that she gets exactly the contributions needed to reach the cap. If she moves from there to the left, then she loses some money and therefore voters. If otherwise she moves to the right, she does not get more money since she cannot receive any more, and thus loses voters given that L will have a platform closer to hers. Therefore her optimal strategy is to choose a platform just sufficient to reach her cap. 25 6.3 Endogenous Contributions One limiting feature of the model presented here is that contribution levels are exogenously identical for all contributors. An interesting extension is therefore to allow the level of contributions to be varying and endogenous. This requires certain changes in the model. We now have to model contributors in a more sophisticated way, and this will bring some problems. The first issue that arises is the free rider problem. Given that I have assumed a continuum of contributors, if I allow them to choose a level of contributions, they will always choose zero, since the “individual effect” of choosing zero does not affect total contributions. To overcome this issue we need therefore to make some additional assumptions. I assume that each contributor will contribute a given amount depending on the distance from the platform proposed by the candidates. Therefore his contributions will be given by the following expression: )0,)(max( 2iki MM ττϖ −−= . So he will contribute up to M to the candidate that is closest to him, and the amount contributed will be reduced if the candidate chooses a platform away from his most preferred one.30 The optimal behavior of parties will also depend on these parameters. A low ϖ will generate a profile of contributions closer to the case of a fixed amount, while higher values may shift optimal platform choice away from the median contributor. An interesting case, for example, is if we assume that the median contributor and median voter coincide, and that contributors and voters are equally distributed. In this context if there is no outsider, the optimal strategy for both candidates will be to choose a platform such that the extreme voter on their side just votes for them. Depending on the parameters we can obtain different total profiles and optimality conditions for the parties. If ϖ is very high, then there will be contributors that will not give money, since the distance effect will dominate. Otherwise if ϖ is low, it may be that all contributors give some money, but the ones closest to the candidates give the most. 31 In this case more charisma will play the same role as for the populist, meaning it will drive them to the center, while less charismatic candidates will move to the extreme. 30 This profile of contributions can also be obtained by assuming that contributors belong to a group (of similar preferences), and they all follow the optimal rule, otherwise if they deviate they get socially punished with a big enough cost that it would make it too costly to deviate. This kind of behavior is similar to the one modeled by Coate (2005). 31 The argument is the same as for the outsiders, choice. Moving towards the center will give them neither more money nor consequently more votes. 26 6.4 The Middle Class Given that the Dornbusch and Edwards (1991) definition of populism relies on redistribution, we can infer that higher levels of poverty or more income inequality may lead towards populism. I have shown in a very simplistic form the role of inequality, and given that I only model two groups of people this is also a proxy for poverty. This simplification, although useful for capturing some features, is perhaps very naïve. To overcome this we might want to model other voters explicitly. One alternative is modeling the middle class. Elsewhere [Miller, 2010] I add a group of voters that is neither impressionable nor contributors, and similarly distributed in the [0,1] line such that we can enrich the analysis from the income distribution perspective. 7. Concluding Remarks The history of populist and outsider governments in the world is probably far from over. 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work_hyl2dih5andsvgfevhz57bf3bu	----	1913.] N E W PUBLICATIONS. 541 P R O F E S S O R S. E P S T E E N , of the University of Colorado, has been appointed State Commissioner of Insurance and has received academic leave of absence for the coming year. PROFESSOR J. W. GLOVER, of the University of Michigan, has been appointed expert special agent of the bureau of the United States census to supervise the preparation of a special volume on vital statistics. Extensive and systematic mortal- ity tables are to be prepared on the population and the vital statistics of the United States. D R . S. E. B R A S E F I E L D has been appointed assistant pro- fessor of mathematics at Rutgers College. D R . S. D . K I L L A M has been appointed instructor in mathe- matics in the University of Alberta. D R . H. W. CRAMBLET has been appointed instructor in mathematics at the University of Rochester. P R O F E S S O R H . W E B E R , of t h e University of Strassburg, died M a y 17, at the age of 71 years. N E W P U B L I C A T I O N S . I. HIGHER MATHEMATICS. APPELL (P.). See PAPELIER (G.). BERGHOLZ (O. A.). Substitutionsbeweis des grossen Fermatschen Satzes auf Grund der Formel für (a + 6)2. Dussau, Art'l, 1913. 8vo. 22 pp. M. 1.50 BLASCHKE (W.). See STUDY (E.). CAPRILLI (A.). Nuove formole d'integrazione. Livorno, Belforte, 1912. 16mo. 7 + 178 pp. L. 4.00 CHARLES (R. L.). See FRANKLIN (W. S.). COTTY (G.). Les fonctions abéliennes et la théorie des nombres. (Thèse.) Toulouse, Privât, 1912. 8vo. 173 pp. CREFCOEUR (A. J. M.). Cours d'analyse infinitésimale. Ire partie: Calcul différentiel et calcul intégral. 2e édition, revue et augmentée. Paris, Béranger, 1912. 358 pp. Fr. 8.00 D I E N E S (P.). Leçons sur les singularités des fonctions analytiques. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1913. 8vo. 8+172 pp. Fr. 5.50 License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 5 4 2 NEW PUBLICATIONS. [ J u l y , D U P L E S S Y (A.). Esquisse de morale m a t h é m a t i q u e pour parvenir a u calme intime. Dijon, C o q u a r t , 1912. 18mo. 48 p p . E N R I Q U E S ( F . ) . Les concepts fondamentaux de la science. Leur sig- nification réelle et leur acquisition psychologique. T r a d u i t p a r L. Rougier. Paris, F l a m m a r i o n , 1913. 18mo. 315 p p . F r . 3.50 F I N G E R ( C ) . Einteilung der rationalen R a u m k u r v e n vierter Ordnung. (Diss.) M u n s t e r , 1912. 8vo. 27 p p . F L E I S C H H A U E R ( H . ) . Allgemeiner Beweis des grossen F e r m a t s c h e n Satzes. Delitzsch, P a b s t , 1913. 8vo. 8 p p . M . 0.75 F R A N K L I N (W. S.), M A C N U T T (B.) a n d C H A R L E S (R. L.). Elementary- treatise on calculus; a t e x t b o o k for colleges a n d technical schools. 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Les appareils d'intégration; intégrateurs simples, plani- mètres, intégromètres, intégraphes et courbes intégrales, analyseurs h a r m o n i q u e s . (Bibliotèque Générale des Sciences.) Paris, Gauthier- Villars, 1913. 8vo. 4 + 2 0 8 p p . F r . 5.00 N O A I L L O N ( P . ) . Développements a s y m p t o t i q u e s d a n s les équations différentielles linéaires à p a r a m è t r e variable. Bruxelles, Hayez, 1912. 200 p p . F r . 3.50 O E T T I N G E N (A. J . v . ) . See S T E I N E R (J.). License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 1913.] NEW PUBLICATIONS. 5 4 3 P A P E L I E R (G.). Leçons sur les coordonnées tangentielles. Avec une préface de P . Appell. I r e p a r t i e : Géométrie plane. 2e édition. Paris, Vuibert, 1913. 8vo. 6 + 3 3 1 p p . P A P E R S set in t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l tripos, p a r t 1, in t h e University of C a m - bridge, 1908-1912. Cambridge, University Press, 1913. 8vo. 2s. 6d. P A W L O W S K I (G. de). Vovage a u p a y s de la quatrième dimension. Paris, Fasquelle, 1912. 18mo. 328 p p . F r . 3.50 P L Â T R I E R ( C ) . Sur les mineurs de la fonction d é t e r m i n a n t e de Fredholm et sur les systèmes d'équations intégrales linéaires. (Thèse.) Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1913. 4to. 77 p p . P O L E T T I (L.). U n c o n t r i b u t o alla t a v o l a dei numeri primi. Pontremoli, C a v a n n a , 1913. 8vo. 9 p p . R O U G I E R (L.). See E N R I Q U E S ( F . ) . S A I N T E - L A G U Ë (A.). N o t i o n s de m a t h é m a t i q u e s , avec préface de G. Koenigs. P a r i s , H e r m a n n , 1913. 8vo. 7 + 5 1 2 p p . F r . 7.00 S A L P E T E R (J.) Einführung in die höhere M a t h e m a t i k fur Naturforscher und Arzte. J e n a , Fischer, 1913. 8vo. 1 3 + 3 3 6 p p . M . 13.00 SCHRODER (G.). D e r grosse F e r m a t s c h e Satz. E i n mathematisches Problem gelost. Berlin, Simion, 1913. 8vo. 5 + 6 3 p p . M . 4.00 S I L V E R M A N (L. L . ) . 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E L E M E N T A R Y M A T H E M A T I C S . A M I O T (A.). T r a t t a t o di geometria elementare. N u o v a edizione, di A. Socci. P a r t e I I : geometria solida. 7a impressione. Firenze, Le Monnier, 1912. 8vo. 221 p p . L. 2.00 A M O D E O (F.). Aritmetica particolare e generale, ed algebra. 3a edizione. Napoli, Pierro, 1912. 16mo. 2 2 + 2 4 1 p p . L. 1.50 . Complementi di analisi algebrica elementare, con appendice sulle sezioni coniche. 2a edizione, r i v e d u t a e migliorata. Napoli, Pierro, 1912. 16mo. 3 4 + 2 2 9 p p . L. 3.00 A R Z E L I ( C ) . T r a t t a t o di algebra elementare. 3a edizione, 6a impres- sione. Firenze, Le Monnier, 1912. 16mo. 1 1 + 5 0 3 p p . L. 3.50 A U B E R T (P.) et P A P E L I E R (G.). Exercices d'algèbre, d'analyse et de trigonométrie. T o m e 1er. 2e édition. Paris, Vuibert, 1913. 8vo. 366 p p . B A L L E R I N I ( P . ) . E l e m e n t i di algebra. 4a edizione. Monza, Artigianelli, 1912. 16mo. 252 p p . L. 2.00 . L a geometria. 3a edizione. Monza, Artigianelli, 1912. 16mo« 269 p p . L. 2.50 . L a trigonometria piana. Monza, Artigianelli, 1912. 16mo. 145 p p . L. 2.00 B A U E R (W.) u n d H A N X L E D E N (E. V . ) . Planimetrie nebst Sfcereometrie u n d Trigonometrie. Braunschweig, Vieweg, 1913. 8vo. 8 + 2 5 2 p p . Cloth. M . 4.00 B E R T R A N D (G.). T r a t t a t o di algebra elementare. N u o v a edizione, di A. Socci. Firenze, Le Monnier, 1912. 16mo. 4 + 2 9 2 p p . L. 2.00 B I É M O N T ( P . ) . See C É S A R (J.). B O U R L E T ( C ) . Cours de m a t h é m a t i q u e s . E l é m e n t s d ' a n a l y s e et de géométrie a n a l y t i q u e . 2e édition, entièrement refondue. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1913. 8vo. 6 + 2 5 2 p p . F r . 8.00 B R U N O (G. M . ) . P r i m e r a s nociones de algebra, con numerosos ejercicios. M a d r i d , 1910. 16mo. 92 p p . CAMMAN (P.) et R Ê B o u i s (A. G.). Cours élémentaire de géométrie plane. 2e édition revue et corrigée. P a r i s , Gigord, 1913. 12mo. 307 p p . F r . 1.75 C A S T L E (L. G.). M a t h e m a t i c s , science and drawing for t h e preliminary technical course. London, Routledge, 1913. 8vo. 158 p p . l s . C É S A R (J.) et B I É M O N T (P.). T r a i t é d ' a r i t h m é t i q u e financière. P a r i s , H e r m a n n , 1912. 8vo. 1 7 0 + 3 6 p p . F r . 4.25 C R A N T Z ( P . ) . L e h r b u c h der M a t h e m a t i k . 2ter Teil: F ü r Oberlyzeen. 2 t e Auflage. Leipzig, Teubner, 1913. 8vo. 5 + 2 2 1 p p . M . 2.40 D E G R O O D T (G.). Cours de trigonométrie rectiligne théorique et p r a t i q u e . 2e édition. N a m u r , L a m b e r t , 1912. 109 p p . F r . 1.50 F I T E (W. B . ) . College algebra. Boston, H e a t h , 1913. 8vo. 6 + 283 p p . C l o t h . F O R T I N ( C ) . L a géométrie des baccalauréats littéraires. I r e p a r t i e . Paris, Société Saint-Augustin, 1913. 8vo. 83 p p . G O D F R E Y (C.) a n d SIDDONS (A. W . ) . E l e m e n t a r y algebra. Volume 2, with answers. Cambridge, University Press, 1913. 8vo. 362 p p . 2s. 6d. License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 1 9 1 3 . ] NEW PUBLICATIONS. 5 4 5 — . Four-figure tables. Cambridge, University Press, 1913. 8vo. 40 p p . 9d. G R É V Y (A.). Géométrie plane. 5e édition. Paris, Vuibert, 1913. 8vo. 296 p p . F r . 3.00 H A C C O U R ( M . ) . Cours élémentaire d'algèbre théorique et p r a t i q u e . 4e édition. N a m u r , Wesmael-Charlier, 1912. 256 p p . C a r t o n n é . F r . 2.00 H A L L ( H . S.). E x a m p l e s in algebra, t a k e n from P a r t I of School Algebra* W i t h answers. London, Macmillan, 1913. 8vo. 8 + 1 6 8 + 3 7 p p . 2s. H A N X L E D E N (E. V . ) . See B A U E R (W.). J O R D A N (W.). Opus p a l a t i n u m . Sinus- u n d Cosinus-Tafeln von 1 0 " zu 1 0 " . 2te, berichtigte Auflage. H a n n o v e r , H a h n , 1913. 8vo. 7 + 2 7 0 p p . M . 7.00 K L E I N ( F . ) . 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(Abhandlungen, B a n d IV, Heft 2.) Leipzig, Teubner, 1913. 8vo. 6 + 1 2 8 p p . M . 4.00 P A P E L I E R (G.). See A U B E R T ( P . ) . P E R R Y ( J . ) . E l e m e n t a r y practical m a t h e m a t i c s . London, Macmillan, 1913. 8vo. 350 p p . 6s. P O U T H I E R ( E . ) . P o u r q u ' o n a p p r e n n e les m a t h é m a t i q u e s . Préface de B . Baillaud. Paris, Didier, 1912. 16mo. 1 4 + 4 0 7 p p . F r . 3.50 RÉBOuis (A. G.). See CAMMAN ( P . ) . R E I N H A R D T (W.), M A N N H E I M E R (N.) u n d Z E I S B E R G ( M . ) . Geometrie. F r a n k f u r t , Diesterweg, 1913. 8vo. I t e r Teil: 7 + 1 4 2 p p . 2ter T e i l : 6 + 1 3 8 p p . C l o t h . M . 4.20 SALOMON (A.). Leçons de géométrie. 7e édition. Paris, Vuibert, 1912. 16mo. 6 + 2 5 8 p p . F r . 2.00 S C H M E H L ( C ) . D i e Algebra. A n h a n g : Die Anfangsgründe der Difïeren- tialrechnung. Giessen, R o t h , 1913. 8vo. 4 + 2 2 p p . M . 0.50 . Aufgaben aus der analytischen Geometrie der E b e n e . 2te, ver- besserte Auflage. Giessen, R o t h , 1913. 8vo. 7 + 1 1 1 p p . M . 2.00 License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 546 NEW PUBLICATIONS. [July, S C H R O D E R (J.). Die neuzeitliche E n t w i c k l u n g des m a t h e m a t i s c h e n U n - terrichts a n den höheren Màdchenschulen Deutschlands. (Abhand- lungen, B a n d I, Heft 5.) M i t einem Schlusswort zu B a n d I von F . Klein. Leipzig, Teubner, 1913. 8vo. 1 2 + 3 + 1 8 3 p p . M . 6.00 SCHULZ ( P . ) . Fünfstellige logarithmische u n d trigonometrische Tafeln. N ü r n b e r g , Koch, 1913. 8vo. 112 p p . M . 1.40 S C H W A B (K.) u n d L E S S E R (O.). Geometrie u n d Trigonometrie. 3ter Teil: Lehrstoff der Klassen I I u n d I . Leipzig, F r e v t a g , 1913. 8vo. 229 p p . Cloth. "' " M . 3.00 S I B I R A N I (F.). E l e m e n t ! di algebra. 3a edizione. 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Firenze, Le Monnier, 1913. 16mo. 200 p p . L. 1.50 . See S o c c i (A.). V I E L E R (A.). R a u m l e h r e . 3te Auflage. Leipzig, Teubner, 1913. 8vo. 8 + 1 9 0 p p . Cloth. M . 2.00 VTJIBERT ( H . ) . Problèmes de baccalauréat ( m a t h é m a t i q u e s ) . 6e édition. P a r i s , Vuibert, 1913. 8vo. 531 p p . Z E I S B E R G ( M . ) . See R E I N H A R D T (W.). I I I . A P P L I E D M A T H E M A T I C S . B A K E R (J. O.). Principes d u nivellement géodésique. T r a d u i t et a n n o t é p a r L. P e n n e q u i n . P a r i s , T e r q u e m , 1912. 18mo. 154 p p . F r . 3.50 B A R B I L L I O N (L.). P r o d u c t i o n et emploi des courants alternatifs. (Col- lection Scientia.) 2e édition, entièrement refondue. Paris, Gauthier- Villars, 1912. 8vo. 100 p p . C a r t o n n é . F r . 2.00 B J E R K N E S (V.). Die Meteorologie als exakte Wissenschaft. (Antritts- vorlesung.) Braunschweig, Vieweg, 1913. 8vo. 16 p p . M . 0.80 . D y n a m i s c h e Meteorologie u n d Hydrographie. Autorisierte deutsche Uebersetzung v o n F . Kirchner. 2ter Teil: K i n e m a t i k der A t m o s p h â r e u n d der H y d r o s p h â r e . Von V. Bjerknes, T . Hesselberg u n d O. Devik. Braunschweig, Vieweg, 1913. 7 + 1 7 2 p p . M . 20.00 B L O N D E L (A.). Sur la théorie des marées d a n s u n canal. Application à la mer R o u g e . (Thèse.) Toulouse, P r i v â t , 1912. 4to. 58 p p . License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 1 9 1 3 . ] NEW PUBLICATIONS. 5 4 7 BOGAERT (E. W.). L'effet gyrostatique et ses applications. Paris, Béranger, 1912. 241 pp. Fr. 10.00 BöRNSTEiN (R.) und ROTH (W. A.). Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen. 4te umgearbeitete und vermehrte Auflage. Berlin, Springer, 1912. 8vo. 1330 pp. Moleskin. M. 56.00 BOUSSINESQ (J.). Complément à un récent mémoire intitulé "Sur les principes de la mécanique, etc." Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1913. 4to. 49 pp. Fr. 3.00 BROGLIE (M. de). See THEORIE du rayonnement. BROOKS (E. E.) and POYSER (A. W.). Magnetism and electricity; a manual for students in advanced classes. New York, Longmans, 1913. 8vo. 8+634 pp. $2.00 BROWN (H. T.). Cinq cent sept mouvements mécaniques. Traduit de l'anglais par H. Stévart. Liège, Desoer, 1913. 122 pp. Cloth. Fr. 2.00 CHOLLET (T.) et MINEUR (P.). Traité de géométrie descriptive. Ire partie. 8e édition. Paris, Vuibert, 1913. 8vo. 6+336 pp. CLAUDEL (J.). L'introduction à la science de l'ingénieur. Partie théorique. Revue et mise au point par G. Dariés. 2 volumes. Paris, Dunod et Pinat, 1913. 8vo. 8+1858 pp. Cloth. Fr. 32.00 CROSS (W. E.). Elementary physical optics. New York, Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1913. 12mo. 312 pp. $0.90 COULOM (F.). Cours élémentaire de géométrie descriptive. Paris, Delagrave, 1912. 18mo. 159 pp. Fr. 1.75 COURS de navigation et de compas. Paris, Challamel, 1913. 8vo. 8+371 pp. D E H E E N (P.). Introduction à l'étude de la physique. La théorie des électrons et la théorie substantialiste. Bruxelles, Hayez, 1913. 287 pp. Fr. 12.00 EGERER (H.). Ingenieur-Mathematik. Iter Band: Niedere Algebra und Analysis. Lineare Gebilde der Ebene und des Raumes in analytischer und vektorieller Behandlung. Kegelschnitte. Berlin, Springer, 1913. 8vo. 8+501 pp. Cloth. M. 12.00 FLEMING (J. A.). Propagation des courants électriques dans les conduc- teurs téléphoniques et télégraphiques. Traduit par C. Ravut. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1913. 8vo. 7+349 pp. Fr. 12.00 FRISCHAUF (J.). Die matheinatischen Grundlagen der Landesaufnahme und Kartographie des Erdsphâroids. Stuttgart, Wittwer, 1913. 8vo. 12+192 pp. Cloth. M. 8.40 GANDILLOT (M.). Abrégé sur l'hélice et la résistance de l'air. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1912. 4to. 4+188 pp. Fr. 10.00 GIRARD (R.). Prontuario di tavole numeriche e formole per il computo metrico dei ponti in muratura, mûri di sostegno e gallerie. Volume I. Roma, Bertero, 1913. 4to. 442 pp. L. 35.00 GOMMELET (J.). Manuel pratique du géomètre-expert. Paris, Dunod et Pinat, 1912. 18mo. Fr. 5.00 GRIGNON (A.). Traité de cosmographie. 8e édition. Paris, Vuibert, 1913. 8vo. 216 pp. License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 548 N E W PUBLICATIONS. [July? G U I C H A R D ( C ) . T r a i t é de mécanique à l'usage des élèves de m a t h é - m a t i q u e s A et B . 7e édition. Paris, Vuibert, 1913. 8vo. 7 + 2 4 8 p p . H E A T H ( T . E . ) . T r a c k s of t h e sun a n d stars, A. D . 1900 t o A. D . 37,900. P h o t o g r a p h s from stereoscopic perspective drawings, showing in space of 3 dimensions t h e t r a c k s of t h e sun a n d s t a r s . London, Wesley, 1913. 8vo. 23 p p . Sewed. 5s. HOUSTOTTN (R. A.). An introduction t o m a t h e m a t i c a l physics. New York, Longmans, 1913. 8vo. 1 0 + 1 9 9 p p . $2.00 K I R C H N E R ( F . ) . See B J E R K N E S (V.). L A H A R P E (de). N o t e s et formules de l'ingénieur. 17e édition. Paris, Geisler, 1913. 16mo. 2 8 5 3 + 5 2 p p . L A N G E V I N ( P . ) . See T H É O R I E d u r a y o n n e m e n t . L A U E ( M . ) . D a s R e l a t i v i t â t s p r m z i p . 2te, v e r m e h r t e Auflage. (Die Wissenschaft, B a n d 38.) Braunschweig, Vieweg, 1913. 8vo. 12 + 272 p p . M . 8.80 L E D O U X ( C ) . Cours de géométrie, d ' a r p e n t a g e et de nivellement. Bruxelles, Lebègue, 1912. 7 + 2 2 3 p p . C a r t o n n é . F r . 2.50 L E G R A N D (L.). L a résistance de l'air envisagée comme base scientifique et expérimentale de l'aviation. Paris, Librairie aéronautique, 1912. 2 + 1 4 3 p p . F r . 10.00 L E R O Y ( C ) . T r a n s p o r t de force. Calculs techniques et économiques des lignes de t r a n s p o r t et de distribution d'énergie électrique. I r e p a r t i e . P a r i s , H e r m a n n , 1912. 8vo. 172 p p . F r . 6.00 L Ê V Y ( M . ) . L a s t a t i q u e graphique et ses applications aux constructions. 2e édition. 2e p a r t i e . Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1913. 8vo. 2 0 + 3 4 4 p p . F r . 15.00 L I T R E ( E . ) . L ' a v i a t i o n et le m o u v e m e n t terrestre. Théorie aérody- n a m i q u e du virage, etc. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1912. 8vo. 4 + 4 8 p p . F r . 2.00 L O R E N Z ( H . ) . Nouvelle théorie et calcul des roues-turbines. T r a d u i t de l'allemand p a r H . Espitallier et H . Strehler. Paris, D u n o d et P i n a t , 1913. 8vo. 1 4 + 3 1 2 p p . C a r t o n n é . F r . 14.00 M E Z G E R ( C ) . Die Chemie als m a t h e m a t i s c h e s Problem. M i t 60 S t r u k - t u r b i l d e r n im T e x t . M e t z , Scriba, 1913. 8vo. 4 + 1 0 8 p p . M . 3.00 M I N C H I N (G. M . ) . A treatise on h y d r o s t a t i c s ; in 2 volumes. 2d edition, revised. London, Oxford University Press, 1913. 12mo. Volume 1, 204 p p . , 4s. 6d. Volume 2, 204 p p . , 6s. M I N E U R ( P . ) . See C H O L L E T (T.). N A C T E R G A L (A.). Calcul des m o m e n t s d'inertie. 2e édition revue et a u g m e n t é e . Bruxelles, Bieleveld, 1912. 122 p p . F r . 6.50 P E N N E Q U I N (L.). See B A K E R (J. O.). P I Z Z E T T I ( P . ) . Principî délia teoria meccanica délia figura dei pianeti. Pisa, Spoerri, 1913. 8vo. 1 3 + 2 5 1 p p . L. 12.00 P O Y S E R (A. W . ) . See B R O O K S (E. E . ) . R A V U T ( C ) . See F L E M I N G (J. A.). License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 1913.] NEW PUBLICATIONS. 5 4 9 RECUEIL de constantes physiques. (Société Française de Physique.) Publié par H. Abraham et P. Sacerdote, avec la collaboration d'un grand nombre de savants. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1913. 4to. 17+754 pp. Fr. 50.00 ROTH (W. A.). See BÖRNSTEIN (R.). ROUSSELET (L.). Mécanique, électricité et construction appliquées aux appareils de levage. Tome IL Paris, Dunod et Pinat, 1913. 8vo. 6+752 pp. Cartonné. Fr. 45.00 ROY (L.). Sur la propagation des ondes dans les membranes flexibles. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1912. 4to. 101 pp. Fr. 5.00 SCHMIDT (F.). Beitrâge zur Verteilung der Elektrizitât auf zwei leitenden Kugeln, insbesondere fur den Fall der Berührung. (Diss.) Halle, 1912. 4to. 46 pp. S É E (A.). En quoi consiste la stabilité. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1913. 18mo. 36 pp. Fr. 1.50 STÉVART (H.). See BROWN (H. T.). TAEELN zur Ermittelung der in Zeitmass ausgedrückten Winkel aus den numerischen Werten der Kosinusfunktion. Berlin, Mittler, 1912. 8vo. 79 pp. M. 1.40 THÉORIE (La) du rayonnement et les quanta. Rapports et discussions de la réunion tenue à Bruxelles en 1911. Publiés par P. Langevin et M. de Broglie. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1912. 8vo. 468 pp. Fr. 15.00 VIOLEINE (A. P.). Nouvelles tables pour les calculs d'intérêts composés, d'annuités, et d'amortissements. 9e édition, entièrement refondue par A. Arnaudeau. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1913. 4to. Fr. 15.00 WIEGREFE (A.). Ueber einige mehrwertige Lösungen der Wellengleichung Au + k2u — 0 und ihre Anwendung in der Beugungstheorie. (Diss.) Göttingen, 1912. 8vo. 95 pp. License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 
work_hyom2kftsnevbnhgatqoe5qzyi	----	Buddhists Struggle for Survival in the USSR J ANIS SAPIETS The official Soviet attitude to Buddhism depends largely on where the Buddhists in question are located. In the Soviet Union, they are generally treated as adherents of a reactionary cult practising traditional medicine and barbarous old customs - a relic of the past which has to be swept out of existence. But if they happen to live outside the Soviet Union, they are often accepted as potential friends or allies and encouraged to lenf,l their support to Soviet political schemes. A Buddhist "peace" movemeht was set up in Ulan Bator (Mongolian People's Republic) in 1970, and a "peace conference" held in Ulan Bator in June of that year adopted resolutions noting "the importance of increased efforts on the part of Asian believers in the struggle against aggression and imperialism" and condemning U.S. policy in Indochina. Only three non-communist coun- tries (Malaysia, Singapore and Japan) were represented at the conference, but the atmosphere was so charged with politics that the delegates from these three countries did not participate in the final session of the con- ference. The conference set up a Committee for the Coordination of Asian Buddhist activities "in the struggle for peace", with the Venerable S. Gombojab, High Lama of the Gandantekchenling Monastery in Ulan Bator as its chairman. The Committee has been meeting more or less regularly since then, organizing conferences and maintaining official relations between Buddhists in the Soviet Union and other countries. Some Asian Buddhists have suggested that there is a certain irony in the choice of Ulan Bator as an international Buddhist centre, since Bud- dhism in the People's Republic of Mongolia has been almost swept out of existence as a result of official persecution: it is estimated that there are now little more than 100 monks in the whole country compared with 7,000 at the Gandantekchenling Monastery alone before 1921. In the Soviet Union itself, most Buddhists live in the Buryat, Tuvinian and Kalmyk Autonomous Republics, as well as in several other Buryat-populated areas in Siberia. Soviet Buddhists, too, have had to face a long history of persecution. Under Stalin, organized Buddhism was crushed with a severity experienced by few other religious groups in the USSR. In the Buryat Autonomous Republic the number of lamas was reduced from 16,000 in 1916 to a few dozen by 1960 (according to 4 reports in the Soviet atheist monthly Science and Religion, No. 6 1960 and No. 3, 1971). Out of 36 Buddhist monasteries only two were left. As for the Kalmyks, their autonomous republic was abolished in 1943, and the population was deported to Siberia. Those who survived the hard- ships of deportation and were allowed to return home in 1957, found the rebuilding of nation~l life along traditional lines a hard task. The history of Buddhism in the Soviet Union over the past 50 years is well summed up in an Atheist's Handbook published in Moscow in 1971 : As a result of the victory of the Great October Revolution, the construction of Socialism and great successes in the development of a new culture ... the influence of Lamaism on the Buryats, Kalmyks and Tuvinians steadily de- clined. In the 1930'S, at the workers' request, the majority of the li/atsans (temples) in the Baikal and all Khurals (local councils) in Kalmykia were closed and the buildings given to the workers. Leaving the monasteries, some lamas turned to productive work, others continued their religious (and especially "healing") activities illegally ... Buddhism perpetuates an unjust social order in the world and supports bourgeois attitudes in society ... A partial revival of Buddhism in the Soviet Union began after the Second World War. Soviet sources reported in the 60S that "pilgrims constantly come to the Datsan at Ivolginsk near the Buryat capital of Ulan-Ude - the seat of the Buddhist Central Council headed by Lama Gomboyev (Bandido Hambo Lama). These reports have been confirmed more recently by the Soviet Teachers Gazette (12 December, 1972. See RCL Vol. 1, Nos. 4-5, pp. 40-42). Having described the quaint, "other- worldly" appearance of the Ivolginsk Datsan with its "carved pagodas and marvellously curved steepsided roofs, strange sculptured animals, the white structures of chapels, resembling miniature Indian temples", the Teachers Gazette correspondent refers to the strong religious in- fluence exercised by the Datsan on the children and young people at the neighbouring Upper Ivolg'a village. "There are many believers in the village", says the article, "and in addition to that, at festival times, many visitors from all parts of the Republic stay there". According to the newspaper, the number of believers in the Buryat Republic as a whole decreases very slowly and their ranks are constantly being rein- forced with older people, who received their education in Soviet schools. Teachers Gazette explains the attraction of Buddhism and its continuing influence as follows: For many years an individual has not been religious. Then he receives a shock - the loss of a loved one, sorrow, loneliness - and there comes a revival of the religious feelings which he acquired in childhood. Sometimes it does 5 not even need a shock to revive feelings whose foundations were laid in the past. Buddhism instils its religious concepts by taking advantage of the im- pressionable and adaptable nature of a child's mind, through beauty, the spectacular, unusual effect and the national forms of its ceremonial. Who can say that there will not be a revival of these concepts at some religious festival at the temple, or in the districts during prayers and services? Buddhism is not as harmless as it looks, warns Teachers Gazette: When, at the request of the moribund Lamas, it was decided to send a party of ten youths, who had had secondary education, to the Mongolian Buddhist School for Monks, numbers of volunteers promptly appeared. The process of instilling religious feeling goes on underground; it is "latent" and very hard to detect. Besides that, the Buddhists carefully guard their inner wod;!! from outside observation. ' In 1970, the Soviet Literary Gazette commissioned a team of experts - an orientalist, a professor of medicine, and a graduate in technical sciences - to carry out some on-the-spot research in the Buryat Autonomous Republic. Their report, which appeared in the Literary Gazette on 9 December, 1970, was remarkably restrained and described Buddhist philosophy and culture in terms of respect and almost admira- tion. The Literary Gazette team discovered that the Library of the Buryat Institute of Social Sciences holds one of the richest collections of Buddhist writings in the world, but that a great deal of this material is inaccessible for lack of Tibetan-language specialists. Consequently, the hundreds of volumes and manuscripts cannot even be catalogued. Buryat textologists were apparently planning to invite UNESCO to help the Buryat Institute with sorting out and translating the great mass of Buddhist documents, and 'to organize the participation of foreign re- search workers on a "competitive basis", but it is not clear what action, if any, has been taken in the matter. The Literary Gazette article devoted considerable space to a sympathetic account of Tibetan medicine, refer- ring to the "sensational stories" about the operation of the "third eye", which endows the patients with unusual mental and telepathic abilities; about the fantastic methods of acquiring superhuman health, and about the achievements of parapsychology. Once there were "medical facul- ties" in Buddhist monasteries, said the article, but now there is hardly anyone left in the Soviet Union with even a "secondary education" in Buddhist medicine; soon there will be none at all. The Literary Gazette team made a strong plea that such Buddhist "specialists" should be found while there is stilI time to do so, in order that modern medicine might profit from their knowledge. With regard to the "sensational 6 stories", the team noted that they were not able either to prove or dis- prove "this impressive information". Coming from a Soviet source, this report was unusual, to say the least, and the researchers, probably aware of the criticism their views might provoke among the more orthodox Party members, cautiously added that "Buddhism today does not only denote a religion, that is to say something deeply alien to us like every religion ... it is still an integral part of the 'secular' world outlook of hundreds of millions of people." The cautiousness of the Literary Gazette team was understandable: as later events have demonstrated, close association with Buddhism can have dangerous consequences for Soviet citizens. During a court trial in Ulan-Ude from 18-15 December, 1972 (see RCL Vol. 1, Nos. 4-5, pp. 43-47) several Buddhist scholars were accused of having organ~zed a "secret Buddhist sect". The charges involved some fantastic allegations: bloody sacrifices, ritual killings, sexual mysticism, attempts to beat up and murder former members of the sect who wanted to break off their ties with the sect, and "contacts with foreign organizations and inter- national Zionism". One of the chief defendants was Bidiya Dandaron, a Buryat by nationality and a member of the Buryat Institute of Social Sciences. Dandaron, born in 1914, had already been imprisoned from 1937 to 1955 but was rehabilitated in 1956 under Khrushchev. One of the most outstanding Soviet experts on Tibetan language and Buddhism, he is the author of a two-volume Description of Tibetan Manuscripts (1960 and 1963) and of other works on Buddhism. At the trial, Dandaron was found guilty of the alleged offences and sentenced to five years im- prisonment. Several Buddhist scholars who had been arrested at the same time as Dandaron were forcibly confined to mental hospitals, while some others were reprimanded and lost their jobs. A report on Dandaron's trial was published by the Soviet clandestine Chronicle of Current Events (No. 28, 31 December 1972). These savage persecutions show that, whatever may be the Soviet attitude to Buddhists abroad, the Soviet authorities are not prepared to allow a revival of Buddhism in the USSR. Indeed, according to some Soviet sources, the position of Soviet Buddhists since Stalin's death has never been worse than at present. 7 
work_i4bvft7e4jbipokf4xglh6mfcq	----	Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol. 82, pp. 5997-6000, September 1985 Neurobiology Auditory representation of autogenous song in the song system of white-crowned sparrows (auditory neurophysiology/learning and memory/birdsong/sensorimotor integration/auditory feedback) DANIEL MARGOLIASH* AND MASAKAZU KONISHI Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125 Contributed by Masakazu Konishi, May 20, 1985 ABSTRACT The HVc (hyperstriatum ventrale, pars caudale) is a forebrain nucleus in the motor pathway for the control of song. Neurons in the HVc also exhibit auditory responses. A subset of these auditory neurons in the white- crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys) have been shown to be highly selective for the individual bird's own (autogenous) song. By using multiunit recording techniques to sample from a large population, we demonstrate that the entire population of auditory neurons in the HVc is selective for autogenous song. The selectivity of these neurons must reflect the song-learning process, for the acoustic parameters of a sparrow's song are acquired by learning. By testing with laboratory-reared birds, we show that HVc auditory neurons prefer autogenous song over the tutor model to which the birds were exposed early in life. Thus, these neurons must be specified at or after the time song crystallizes. Since song is learned by reference to auditory feedback, HVc auditory neurons may guide the development of the motor program for song. The maintenance of a precise auditory representation of autogenous song into adulthood can contribute to the ability to distinguish the fine differences among conspecific songs. The song of birds is learned. Young birds memorize a song model during an impressionable phase early in life (1, 2). The development of the motor program for song is dependent on comparison of the individual's vocal output with the previ- ously established song memory. For birds such as the white-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys), the "crys- tallized" adult song is highly stereotyped throughout life, and the maintenance of adult song does not require vocal feed- back (3). The song of the adult white-crowned sparrow contributes to his reproductive success by influencing mate attraction and defense of the breeding territory. In the wild, a white- crowned sparrow typically competes with conspecifics that sing similar songs from the same dialect (4). Although the songs of neighbors are similar, white-crowned sparrows can distinguish among neighbors and between neighbors and strangers solely on the basis of song (5, 6). Recently, a projection between the avian auditory telen- cephalon and the telencephalic nucleus HVc (hyperstriatum ventrale, pars caudale) has been described (7). The HVc is part of the motor pathway controlling song production (8, 9), and neurons in the HVc also exhibit responses to auditory stimuli (9-12). We report here that auditory neurons in the HVc are optimally stimulated by the bird's own adult (autog- enous) song. Therefore, these auditory response properties reflect specific modification by vocal feedback during devel- opment. MATERIALS AND METHODS Experiments were conducted with four awake birds carrying chronically implanted electrodes (see below) and with four birds anesthetized with 20% urethane (Sigma). These and other aspects of the experimental procedures have been described (12). Briefly, birds were collected from Bodega Bay, CA, as nestlings or adults, and housed in individual sound-attenuation chambers (Industrial Acoustics, Bronx, NY). Songs were recorded on analog tape, digitized, and analyzed by zero-crossing techniques (13). The lack of harmonic structure and short-time limited frequency modu- lation of the white-crowned sparrow's song permits accurate recovery of the song from its zero-crossings. All songs in this report were presented at peak values adjusted to 70 decibels (dB) (relative to 20 ,uPa). Clusters of neurons were recorded, to efficiently sample from a large number of cells (e.g., Fig. 1A). A simple tech- nique was developed to quantify the strength of multineu- ronal responses. Beginning with the onset of a song stimulus, values representing the strength of response of neuronal activity were calculated for 500 consecutive 10-msec inter- vals ("bins"). Thus, sampling was continued beyond the end of a stimulus until the neuronal activity recovered to spon- taneous levels. For each 10-msec bin the absolute value ofthe signal (i.e., signal area) was summed across 50 samples acquired at a sampling rate of 5 kHz. An average for the response strength for each bin was maintained across all the representations of a given stimulus. The final baseline value representing the spontaneous activity was subtracted from the bin values (see Fig. 1B). The sum of all bin values throughout the duration of a song was taken as a measure of overall response strength. The duration of a song stimulus will affect this and all measures of neuronal response in a complex way depending on the relative duration of the song components that do and do not elicit excitation. For the present data, however, differences between the overall duration or duration of corresponding phrases of the bird's own song and test songs are small compared to differences in response strength. Except where noted, correction of response strength for overall duration does not alter the statistical significance of the results. For multineuronal recordings, this analysis enjoys several advantages over counting spikes. These include obviating the need to arbitrarily choose a threshold level for discrimination of spikes, and increasing the sensitivity as a result of signal averaging. The primary disadvantage is that neurons closer to the electrode and those that produce larger spikes are given Abbreviation: HVc, hyperstriatum ventrale (pars caudale). *Present address: Department of Biology, Box 1137, Washington University, Lindell and Skinker Boulevards, St. Louis, MO 63110. 5997 The publication costs of this article were defrayed in part by page charge payment. This article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. §1734 solely to indicate this fact. D o w n lo a d e d a t C a rn e g ie M e llo n U n iv e rs ity o n A p ri l 5 , 2 0 2 1 5998 Neurobiology: Margoliash and Konishi greater weighting; nevertheless, at any one recording site this bias is constant across stimuli. RESULTS Many HVc neuronal clusters responded vigorously to song; at these recording sites the individual bird's own song proved to be a most effective stimulus (Fig. 1B). As an initial test of song selectivity, four white-crowned sparrows were prepared for acute recordings. Two ofthe birds, R75 and Y73 (Fig. 2A), sang a song of the Bodega Bay dialect. For these birds, the responses of neuronal clusters to autogenous song were compared with the responses to three test songs (W73, G88, W91; Fig. 2C) also of the Bodega Bay dialect. The test songs were chosen as a small sample representative of the range of intradialect variation. The other two birds, Y8 and Y14, had been reared in the laboratory and exposed during the im- pressionable phase to a computer-synthesized song that A Ace r A w---~~~~~--I- A-"-AM.-in I R71 --ar T T T~~~~,Ijjjjj:~ B comprised unnatural elements, in particular a trill with upward-sweeping frequency modulation (14). This tutoring paradigm results in individual variation in learning (unpub- lished results), and indeed Y14 formed a good copy of the song, whereas Y8 failed to learn. For these birds, the responses to autogenous song were compared with the responses to the tutor song. At 47 recording sites throughout the HVc that responded robustly to song, a random sequence of songs was chosen; each song was then presented for 20 repetitions. Y73 and Y14 each received a single row of closely spaced (100 Am) penetrations that covered the rostrocaudal extent ofthe HVc, whereas R75 and Y8 received more coarsely spaced pene- trations in several rows that encompassed the entire HVc. At each of the recording sites, the bird's own song consistently elicited stronger responses than the test songs (Table 1). No systematic differences in song selectivity were observed throughout the HVc. Abnormal components of song never observed in the wild-i.e., reverse frequency modulation for Y14 and a series of eight whistles of descending frequency for Y8-elicited selective responses from HVc neurons in those birds. Although the individual bird's song elicited the maximal response, the test songs also typically elicited excitatory responses. At 46 of the 47 recording sites, the overall response to the bird's own song was excitatory; of the 95 presentations of the test songs, 6 resulted in overall inhibi- tion, while for 4 there was essentially no response. Further- more, the response profile to the bird's own song (e.g., response to whistle and trill but not to buzz) typically was similar to the response profile to the other songs (Fig. 1B). Thus, throughout the HVc, conspecific song is an effective stimulus, and almost always the optimal song is the individ- ual's own. Several experiments were conducted to verify that the selectivity for autogenous song was not capriciously gener- ated by sampling bias. As one control, the degree of intradialect song selectivity of HVc neuronal clusters was investigated further. At two recording sites in each of three birds (R71, R77, Y85; Fig. 2B), a more stringent test of selectivity was applied. At these sites, the responses to 10 different songs, all from the Bodega Bay dialect, were compared with the response to each bird's own song. These 10 songs were quite similar in general morphology both to each other and to each bird's song; typically these songs W91 I I . .. A. I y, " 'I W73 -a -Lh A&-.A LA d d_~w*.~.i~AA." A. I .L-LL FIG. 1. (A) Neuronal activity elicited by five repetitions of the bird's own song (BOS), for bird R71. The multiunit activity is strong during the whistle and trill (first and third phases) of song and weak for the intervening buzz. (B) Response of the neuronal cluster represented in A to four songs, including BOS (R71). The baseline represents spontaneous activity. Arrows mark the offset of each phrase (see Fig. 2 for sonograms). Note that response to BOS is strongest, whereas the response to other songs, if any, is at the same phrases as response to BOS. Each response was summed over 50 repetitions of the song (1 song per 12 sec). Table 1. Comparison between the bird's own song (SOS) and three intradialect songs for birds R75 and Y73 or between the BOS and the tutor song for birds Y8 and Y14 No. of recording sites with stronger response to Bird Test song n BOS Test song P* R75 W73 11 8 (10) 3 (1) 0.113 (0.006) G88 11 9 2 0,033 W91 11 6 (11) 5 (0) 0.274 (<0.001) Y73 W73 13 13 0 <0.001 G88 13 13 0 <0.001 W91 13 13 (12) 0 (1) <0.001 (0.002) Y8 Tutor 14 14 0 <0.001 Y14 Tutor 9 7 2 0.09 Total 95 83 (89) 12 (6) <0.001 For values that changed when corrected for song duration (see text), corrected numbers are shown in parentheses. Note that R75 sang an unusually short song, hence the effect of correction for song duration is significant. Each song was repeated 20 times; repetition rate was 1 per 12 sec. *Based on one-tailed sign test. i AIL _ . -,M.lw_F-ly- .1 RERN AV4%W*"~s-qwrOrr-pr---w Proc. Nad Acad Sd USA 82 (1985) I - T" - . - VwwIffl, D o w n lo a d e d a t C a rn e g ie M e llo n U n iv e rs ity o n A p ri l 5 , 2 0 2 1 Proc. NatL Acad Scd USA 82 (1985) 5999 R75 K R71 -mimpm \P\\ \ \ TI .._ R77 4 ______ 8't.T- 8 , Y85 4 - 4 _*__rmmmm \ \ . 4 \ 500 1000 1500 2000 Y73 C G88 W73 W91 i t |4-*\mom! MSEC FIG. 2. Sonograms (frequency vs. time representations) of songs used to test HVc song-selectivity. (A) Birds R75 and Y73 were tested both with autogenous song and the songs in C, at multiple sites throughout the HVc (see Table 1). (B) Birds R72, R77, and Y85 were tested with autogenous song and 10 other songs, including those in C (see Table 2). (C) Three of the test songs. For A, B, and C all songs are derived from Bodega Bay dialect birds; note that all songs are similar yet vary in slight detail. comprised a two-part introductory whistle, a buzz of higher center frequency, and a two-part trill, with an occasional terminal buzz. The center frequencies and detailed morphol- ogy for the different phrases in the test songs, however, spanned the range of variation found within the Bodega Bay dialect. Nevertheless, the bird's own song was commonly the most effective song (Table 2). Thus, the neuronal song selectivity observed in the HVc was not capriciously gener- ated by use of a limited set of test songs. As a final control for sampling bias, in four white-crowned sparrows (R71, R77, Y48, Y62), 11 pairs of glass-coated platinum/iridium electrodes were chronically implanted so as to locate the tips (100 ,um) within the HVc. The possibility of bias in choosing recording sites on the basis of selectivity for the bird's own song was excluded by implanting the elec- trodes before the birds were induced to sing and thus before their songs were known. Locations of recording sites were selected when responses to the three test songs verified the Table 2. Strength of response to test songs relative to bird's own song (BOS) Relative response to Bird Site G77 G83 G88 044 W73 W76 W78 W91 Y75 Y80 P* R71 1 0.82 0.26 0.64 0.86 0.59 1.01 0.72 0.61 0.56 0.49 0.011 2 0.75 0.29 0.78 0.28 0.28 1.06 0.27 0.21 0.17 0.16 0.011 R77 1 0.93 0.61 0.81 0.89 1.05 0.45 0.50 0.62 0.53 1.03 0.055 2 1.20 0.24 0.53 1.07 0.67 1.55 0.76 0.36 0.51 0.52 0.172 Y85 1 1.59 0.42 0.80 0.74 0.62 0.84 0.57 0.48 0.68 0.88 0.011 2 1.26 0.49 0.69 0.85 0.91 0.96 0.51 0.27 0.57 1.32 0.055 For six recording sites in three birds, pair-wise comparisons of the efficacy of each BOS with 10 intradialect test songs. Values <1.0 indicate that the test song elicited a weaker response than the BOS. For R71 andR77, 25 repetitions per song; for Y85, 20 repetitions per song. One song per 12 sec in all cases. *Based on one-tailed sign test. B N I Neurobiology: Margohash and Konishi looks 4w mw. -..- to !I v N. D o w n lo a d e d a t C a rn e g ie M e llo n U n iv e rs ity o n A p ri l 5 , 2 0 2 1 6000 Neurobiology: Margoliash and Konishi existence of robust auditory responses to song. Chronic differential recordings from pairs of electrodes (which reject noise common to both inputs, such as body-movement- induced artifactual signals from awake but restrained birds) were conducted on subsequent days. The birds came into full song within 1 to 3 weeks after subcutaneous administration of testosterone. Three of the birds, two males and a female, developed normal song, whereas a second female sang an abnormal song, as is occasionally observed for wild-caught females. While the birds were developing song, a daily variability in response strength to the test songs was noted, suggesting fluctuation either in electrode position or in neuronal responses. Without exception, however, after song crystallized and testing with the bird's own song commenced, all three test songs elicited weaker responses at all of the recording sites in all of the birds-a total of 60 pair-wise comparisons. Two birds sur- vived 77 and 97 days after onset of singing, respectively. The neuronal clusters recorded at all three of the electrode pairs still functioning were optimally responsive to the individual's song. Numerous tests were conducted to ascertain the acoustic basis for the selectivity for autogenous song. Although a detailed description is beyond the scope of this report, it was observed that reversing the temporal sequence of song, which alters the pattern of time-varying frequency and amplitude modulation while leaving the overall spectrum unaltered, systematically reduced the efficacy of the song stimulus. Other manipulations, including frequency-shifting and modification of the frequency modulation without affect- ing amplitude modulation, all reduced the efficacy of autogenous song (unpublished data). The results show that HVc auditory neurons are sensitive to the particular acoustic parameters in autogenous song. DISCUSSION The results demonstrate that adult HVc auditory neurons reflect a developmental plasticity that is molded by the individual's own song. Auditory neurons in the HVc are explicitly modified by the vocal-feedback experience and therefore are probably specified at the time of song crystal- lization. The location and response properties of these neurons suggest that during song crystallization they are likely candidates for selecting those motor patterns in the HVc that produce vocal feedback that matches the song template. That is, if HVc auditory neurons in the juvenile have access both to the memory trace of the tutor song and to vocal feedback, then during song crystallization the response properties of these neurons may become fixed as fortuitous patterns of motor activity produce a match be- tween the template and auditory feedback. In turn, the output of HVc auditory neurons might tend to stabilize those motor patterns. What advantage does an adult white-crowned sparrow achieve by maintaining an auditory representation of his own song? Once song is crystallized, a white-crowned sparrow can maintain normal song for at least 18 months after being deafened (3). Since song maintenance does not require auditory feedback and since auditory responses in HVc are inhibited during singing (9), maintenance is an unlikely explanation for HVc auditory-response properties. These neurons do exhibit behaviorally relevant song selectivity, however. Thus, they are excellent candidates for mediating song recognition. It has been suggested that a bird mayjudge the distance of territorial conspecifics by comparing the transmission-induced frequency-degradation of the songs of neighbors with a memorized copy of autogenous song (15-17). If so, the HVc is a candidate site of such memory, serving as an "autogenous reference" for those aspects of conspecific song recognition that may require a reference component. The hypothesis that the song an individual learns early in life affects his perception of conspecific songs as an adult is amenable to further behavioral analysis. We thank Drs. Nobuo Suga, Dale Purves, and James D. Miller for reviewing an early draft of the manuscript. This work was supported by a Del E. Webb fellowship (to D.M.) and a grant from the Pew Memorial Trust. 1. Thorpe, W. H. (1961) Bird Song (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, England). 2. Marler, P. (1970) J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 71, 1-25. 3. Konishi, M. (1965) Z. Tierpsychol. 22, 770-783. 4. Marler, P. & Tamura, M. (1962) Condor 64, 368-377. 5. Milligan, M. M. & Verner, J. (1971) Condor 73, 208-213. 6. Baker, M. C., Thompson, D. B. & Sherman, G. L. (1981) Condor 83, 265-267. 7. Kelley, D. B. & Nottebohm, F. (1979) J. Comp. Neurol. 183, 455-470. 8. Nottebohm, F., Stokes, T. M. & Leonard, C. M. (1976) J. Comp. Neurol. 165, 457-486. 9. McCasland, J. & Konishi, M. (1981) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78, 7815-7819. 10. Katz, L. C. & Gurney, M. E. (1981) Brain Res. 211, 192-197. 11. Paton, J. A. & Nottebohm, F. (1984) Science 225, 1046-1048. 12. Margoliash, D. (1983) J. Neurosci. 3, 1039-1057. 13. Margoliash, D. (1983) Dissertation (California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA). 14. Konishi, M. (1978) in Perception and Experience, eds. Walk, R. D. & Pick, H. L., Jr. (Plenum, New York), pp. 105-118. 15. Richards, D. G. (1981) Auk 98, 127-133. 16. Morton, E. S. (1982) in Acoustic Communication in Birds, eds. Kroodsma, D. E. & Miller, E. H. (Academic, New York), Vol. 1, pp. 183-212. 17. McGregor, P. K., Krebs, J. R. & Ratcliffe, L. M. (1983) Auk 100, 898-906. Proc. Nad Acad Sd USA 82 (1985) D o w n lo a d e d a t C a rn e g ie M e llo n U n iv e rs ity o n A p ri l 5 , 2 0 2 1 
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work_i673woa4izhsdkankvqplsfa7i	----	ORX1400040 465..466 be supportive; that public revenues are needed to fund targeted poverty alleviation projects; that well-defined property rights and clarity about who is going to pay for what are essential foundations of any project aimed at improving the plight of the poor; that water is essential to sustaining life; that individuals often fail to favour the interests of distant communities at cost to themselves; that wealth can cause more damage to ecosystems than poverty. Many good points, long known. The book would have benefited from a biologist to help with fact checking, thereby avoiding calling elephants ‘keynote species’; naming Costa Rica and South Africa as ‘the two countries best known for their biodiver- sity’ (this will come as a surprise to Brazil and Indonesia, for example); or claiming that a wetland in Costa Rica was declared a Ramsar Site in 1951, a few decades before the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance came into force. Small problems, easily fixed. While the conclusions may be familiar, it is useful to have some specific examples, backed up by economics, to give them greater currency and broader application. Who knows, if enough people can recognize that poverty alleviation is likely to be beneficial to conservation when these two enterprises are undertaken appropriately and in recognition of relative costs and benefits, then maybe loss of biodiversity can be slowed and eventually stopped. This book helps clarify the challenges that need to be faced before this happy state can be reached. JEFF MCNEELY Hua Hin, Thailand E-mail jam@iucn.org Exotic Aliens: The Lion and the Cheetah in India by Valmik Thapar, Romila Thapar & Yusuf Ansari (2013), 304 pp., Aleph Book Company, New Delhi, India. ISBN 978-9-382- 27755-2 (hbk) GBP 26.50. When I was young the conservation world was much simpler and nature seemed to be easy to identify, if not to save. It is getting harder and harder to even figure out what we’re supposed to save—we just don’t seem to know what nature is any more. Novel ecosystems, alien species, forest composition altered by long absent humans, overabundant species, native species expanding their range, and changing ecosystems—the list goes on and on. Exotic Aliens has made the task even harder. Perhaps you already know about the Gir lions, that small population of lions found in the western Indian state of Gujarat—the only lions currently occurring outside Africa. There have been lots of explanations for how the distribution of lions had to have collapsed, leaving only this remnant population. But no one that I read ever contemplated that these lions may not in fact be native to India but were in fact established by humans with animals shipped in from Africa. The same argument holds for Indian cheetahs. The book makes this bold argument, but in humble fashion. The lead author says that what he wants is for the book to create a stir in the natural history world and inspire people to do more detailed research. I hope he gets his wish. The principal author, Valmik Thapar, is a self-styled naturalist who has done much to publicize the natural history of Indian tigers and who stumbled on this topic while researching 500 years of recorded tiger sight- ings. He observed that for every thousand tigers recorded as killed per year there were fewer than a handful of lions and cheetahs. This finding diverted him from his tiger research and on to the path that produced Exotic Aliens. To help him build his argument he enlisted two historians, Romila Thapar and Yusuf Ansari, who contributed three chapters reviewing what is known about the pre-history and history of cheetahs and lions in India. The major conclusion of the book is that lions were imported from Africa and Persia, starting 2,500 years ago, to meet the demands of the Indian royalty, who bred and propa- gated them as court symbols and for hunting. The desire for lions was also an import, coming from the Greeks and Persians, for whom the lion was the symbol of power and the killing of a lion the ultimate sign of personal (royal) strength. The cheetah’s story was both similar and different. It was imported as a pet and as a domesticated hunter that at times escaped and created small, feral populations. The Indian royals were great hunters, both in the wild and in hunting gardens. These walled enclosures were stocked with game that was killed at leisure and with the occasional aid of opium to drug the prey. If you needed to kill a lion and there were no wild lions at hand then lions had to be bred to be released for the hunt. So there was apparently active lion husbandry going on. And some escaped or were released when the the hunting garden tradition was abandoned. And thus we got the Gir lions. Cheetahs were imported and trained to hunt antelope and it was not uncommon to see cheetahs and their trainers in many parts of India. The major point that Thapar makes is not a new one, and he acknowledges on the first page of the prologue that: ‘the debate about the origins and prevalence of lions and cheetahs in India must have been vigorous in the eighteenth century’. But that debate sank beneath the waves and left us with the puzzle of how to use our high-powered genetics and biogeography to explain this distributional anomaly. As an example, a recent paper by Bertola et al. (2011, Journal of Biogeography, 38, 1356–1367) on African lion genetics concluded: ‘West and Central African lions are more closely related to Asiatic lions than to the southern and East African lions. This can be explained by a Pleistocene extinction and subsequent recolonization of West Africa from refugia in the Middle East’. Or, by the Thapar thesis! Why do I think this is more than a historical curiosity to recount to young graduate students or impressionable dates? My training in ecology (in the late 1970s and 1980s) was curiously a-historical and treated humans as being outside ecology. That is no longer the case but we have still not reconciled ourselves to the important role history has played in determining what we think of as natural, and therefore worth saving. Books such as this flush us out of our scientific cover and force us to confront the values and relativistic nature of our science and how they both inform what we choose to conserve. So what if lions are not native to India? They’ve been there for hundredsofyears, are functional components of a (deeply human-altered) ecosystem and firmly imbedded in Indian culture. India wants more lions—witness the recent Indian Supreme Court case in which the state of Gujarat was forced to share a few of its lions with the state of Madhya Pradesh, to create a new population. Or are they alien speciesthatshouldbe returnedto zoos? Sowho decides and on what basis? This is a great book to use as part of what I hope will be a new graduate training seminar—historical ecology, humans, and the conservation of the future. KENT REDFORD Archipelago Consulting, Portland, USA E-mail redfordkh@gmail.com 466 Publications © 2014 Fauna & Flora International, Oryx, 48(3), 465–466 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605314000465 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:04, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605314000465 https://www.cambridge.org/core 
work_i7dhpcdd3zbiln5a76uayacjbm	----	19: Interdisciplinary Studies in the Long Nineteenth Century Login | Register Home About 19 Live Articles Issues Contact Start Submission Account Login Register Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 This issue of 19 explores the contribution of women as collectors from the mid-nineteenth century to the aftermath of the First World War, paying particular attention to the cosmopolitan transfer of artworks, ideas, and expertise between Britain, France, and the United States. The authors reflect on women’s role in acquiring, displaying, and donating works of art, often in ways that crossed national borders or that subvert gendered assumptions about taste. Beyond its value as a form of personal expression, the articles reflect on how far collecting provided women with a public platform in the late nineteenth century, enabling them to shape the contents of cultural institutions and promote new types of inquiry. But the articles also cast light on the archival and methodological reasons why women’s crucial contributions in this domain have so often been obscured. The idea for this issue originated with the study days organized in 2019 to celebrate the philanthropy of Lady Wallace, who gifted the collections of the Hertford family to the nation. Cover image: Detail of William Rothenstein, The Browning Readers, 1900, oil on canvas, 76 × 96.5 cm, Cartwright Hall Art Gallery, Bradford. Editors: Tom Stammers (Guest Editor) Introduction Women Collectors and Cultural Philanthropy, c. 1850–1920 Tom Stammers 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 Article ‘Life was a spectacle for her’: Lady Dorothy Nevill as Art Collector, Political Hostess, and Cultural Philanthropist Caroline McCaffrey-Howarth 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 Beyond the Bowes Museum: The Social and Material Worlds of Alphonsine Bowes de Saint-Amand Lindsay Macnaughton 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 French Taste in Victorian England: The Collection of Yolande Lyne-Stephens Laure-Aline Griffith-Jones 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 Unmasking an Enigma: Who Was Lady Wallace and What Did She Achieve? Suzanne Higgott 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 More than Mere Ornaments: Female Visitors to Sir Richard Wallace’s Art Collection Helen C. Jones 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 New Collections for New Women: Collecting and Commissioning Portraits at the Early Women’s University Colleges Imogen Tedbury 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 Ellen Tanner’s Persia: A Museum Legacy Rediscovered Catrin Jones 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 The Artistic Patronage and Transatlantic Connections of Florence Blumenthal Rebecca Tilles 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 A Woman of No Importance?: Elizabeth Workman’s Collection of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist Art in Context Frances Fowle 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 Afterword Afterword Kate Hill 2021-01-05 Issue 31 • 2021 • Women Collectors: Taste, Legacy, and Cultural Philanthropy c. 1850–1920 Created by potrace 1.14, written by Peter Selinger 2001-2017 | 1755-1560 | Published by Open Library of Humanities | Privacy Policy Sitemap Contact Login 
work_ied43mahmvguhklfdeysxshe5m	----	untitled royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos Research Cite this article: Lisi E, Malekzadeh M, Haddadi H, Lau FD-H, Flaxman S. 2020 Modelling and forecasting art movements with CGANs. R. Soc. Open Sci. 7: 191569. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.191569 Received: 6 November 2019 Accepted: 16 March 2020 Subject Category: Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Subject Areas: pattern recognition Keywords: vector autoregressive, generative models, predictive models, art movements Author for correspondence: Edoardo Lisi e-mail: edoardo.lisi95@gmail.com © 2020 The Authors. Published by the Royal Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, provided the original author and source are credited. 1Note that by art ‘movements’ we mean periods. Modelling and forecasting art movements with CGANs Edoardo Lisi1, Mohammad Malekzadeh3, Hamed Haddadi2, F. Din-Houn Lau1 and Seth Flaxman1 1Department of Mathematics, and 2Dyson School of Design Engineering, Imperial College London, London, UK 3School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science Queen Mary University of London, London, UK EL, 0000-0003-1186-6486; FD-HL, 0000-0003-1065-828X Conditional generative adversarial networks (CGANs) are a recent and popular method for generating samples from a probability distribution conditioned on latent information. The latent information often comes in the form of a discrete label from a small set. We propose a novel method for training CGANs which allows us to condition on a sequence of continuous latent distributions f(1), …, f(K). This training allows CGANs to generate samples from a sequence of distributions. We apply our method to paintings from a sequence of artistic movements, where each movement is considered to be its own distribution. Exploiting the temporal aspect of the data, a vector autoregressive (VAR) model is fitted to the means of the latent distributions that we learn, and used for one- step-ahead forecasting, to predict the latent distribution of a future art movement f(K+1). Realizations from this distribution can be used by the CGAN to generate ‘future’ paintings. In experiments, this novel methodology generates accurate predictions of the evolution of art. The training set consists of a large dataset of past paintings. While there is no agreement on exactly what current art period we find ourselves in, we test on plausible candidate sets of present art, and show that the mean distance to our predictions is small. 1. Introduction Periodization in art history is the process of characterizing and understanding art ‘movements’1 and their evolution over time. Each period may last from years to decades, and encompass diverse styles. It is ‘an instrument in ordering the historical objects as a continuous system in time and space’ [1], and it has been the topic of much debate among art historians [2]. In this paper, we leverage the success of data generative models such as generative adversarial networks (GANs) [3] to http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1098/rsos.191569&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2020-04-22 mailto:edoardo.lisi95@gmail.com http://orcid.org/ http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1186-6486 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1065-828X http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Figure 1. Sample of images generated by the proposed framework. These images estimate ‘future’ paintings. royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos R. Soc. Open Sci. 7: 191569 2 learn the distinct features of widely agreed upon art movements, tracing and predicting their evolution over time. Unlike previous work [4,5], in which a clustering method is validated by showing that it recovers known categories, we take existing categories as given, and propose new methods to more deeply interrogate and engage with historiographical debates in art history about the validity of these categories. Time labels are critical to our modelling approach, following what one art historian called ‘a basic datum and axis of reference’ in periodization: ‘the irreversible order of single works located in time and space’. We take this claim to its logical conclusion, asking our method to forecast into the future. As the dataset we use covers agreed upon movements from the fifteenth to the twentieth century, the future is really our present in the twenty-first century. As it can be seen in figure 1, we are thus able to evaluate one hypothesis about what movement we find ourselves in at present, namely Post-Minimalism, by comparing the ‘future’ art we generate with our method to Post- Minimalist art (which was not part of our training set) and other recent movements.2 We consider the following setting: each observed image xi has a cluster label ki ∈ {1, …, K} and resides in an image space X, where we assume that X is a mixture of unknown distributions f(1)X , . . . , f(K)X . For each observed image, we have xi � f(ki)X . We assume that, given data from the sequence of time- ordered distributions f(1)X , . . . , f (K) X , it is possible to approximate the next distribution, f (Kþ1) X . For example, each xi could be a single painting in a dataset of art. Further, each painting can be associated with one of K art movements such as Impressionism, Cubism or Surrealism. In this example, f(Kþ1)X represents an art movement of the future. In this work, we are interested in generating images from the next distribution f(Kþ1)X . However, modelling directly in the image space X is complicated. Therefore, we assume that there is an associated lower-dimensional latent space C, such that each image distribution f(k)X is associated with a latent distribution f(k)C in C and every observed image xi is associated with a vector ci in the latent space which we refer to as a code. We chose a latent space of lower dimension than that of the image space to facilitate the modelling process: for example, if xi is an image of 128 × 128 pixels, ci could be a code of dimension 50. Thus, we consider the image-code-cluster tuples (x1, c1, k1), …, (xN, cN, kN). Our contribution is as follows: we use a novel approach to conditional generative adversarial networks (CGANs, [6]) that conditions on continuous codes, which are in turn modelled with vector autoregression (VAR, [7]). The general steps of the method are: (i) For each image xi learn a coding ci; i = 1, …, N. (ii) Train a CGAN using (x1, c1), …, (xN, cN) to learn X|C. (iii) Model latent category distributions f(1)C , . . . , f (K) C . (iv) Predict f(Kþ1)C and draw new latent samples c � 1, . . . , c � M � f(Kþ1)C : (v) Sample new images x�j � XjC ¼ c�j using CGAN from step 2; j = 1, …, M. 2As the real paintings from recent movements are copyrighted, they cannot be shown here. For visual comparison, see https://github. com/cganart/gan_art_2019 to find links to the original paintings. https://github.com/cganart/gan_{a}rt_{2}019 https://github.com/cganart/gan_{a}rt_{2}019 https://github.com/cganart/gan_{a}rt_{2}019 royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos R. Soc. Open Sci. 7: 191569 3 Typically, the aim of GANs is to generate realizations from an unknown distribution with density fX(x) based on the observations x1, …, xN. Existing approaches for training GANs are mostly focused on learning a single underlying distribution of training data. However, this work is concerned with handling a sequence of densities f(1)X , . . . , f (K) X . As mentioned earlier, our objective is to generate images from f(Kþ1)X using trend information we learn from data from the previous distributions. To do this, a VAR model is used for the sequence of latent distributions f(1)C , . . . , f (K) C . CGANs generate new samples from the conditional distribution of the data X given the latent variable C. The majority of current CGAN literature (e.g. [8,9]) considers the latent variable C as a discrete distribution (i.e. labels) or as another image. In this work, however, the variable C is a continuous random variable. Although, conditioning on discrete labels is a simple and effective way to generate images from an individual category without needing to train a separate GAN for each, discrete labels do not provide a means to generate images from an unseen category. We show that conditioning on a continuous space can indeed solve this issue. Our CGAN is trained on samples from K categories. Based on this trained CGAN, ‘future’ new samples x� from category K + 1 are obtained sampling from X|C, where C � f(Kþ1)C . In other words, we use a CGAN to generate images based upon the prediction given by the VAR model in the latent space, i.e. generate new images from f(Kþ1)X . In this paper, the latent representations are obtained via an autoencoder—see §2.3 later. It is important to point out that the method does not aim to model a sequence of individual images, but a sequence of distributions of images. Recalling the art example: an individual painting in the Impressionism category is not part of a sequence with e.g. another individual painting in the Post-Impressionism category. It is the two categories themselves that are to be modelled as a sequence. The novel contribution of this paper can be summarized as generating images from a distribution with 0 observations by exploiting the sequential nature of the distributions via a latent representation. This is achieved by combining existing methodologies in a novel fashion, while also exploring the seldom-used concept of a CGAN that conditions on continuous variables. We assess the performance of our method using widely agreed upon art movements from the public domain of WikiArt dataset [10] to train a model which can generate art from a predicted movement; comparisons with the real- art movements that follow the training set show that the prediction is close to ground truth. To summarize, the overall objectives considered in this paper are: — Derive a latent representation c1, …, cN for training sample x1, …, xN. — Find a model for the K categories in this latent space. — Predict the ‘future’, i.e. category K + 1, in the latent space. — Generate new images that have latent representations corresponding to the (K + 1)th category. There exist some methods that have used GANs and/or autoencoders for predicting new art movements. For instance, Vo & Soh [11] propose a collaborative variational autoencoder [12] that is trained to project existing art pieces into a latent space, then to generate new art pieces from imaginary art representations. However, this work generates new art subject to an auxiliary input vector to the model and does not capture sequential information across different movements. On the other hand, Sigaki et al. [13] proposed an alternative approach to measure the evolution of art movements on a double scale of simplicity–complexity and order–disorder, both related to the local ordinal pattern of pixels throughout the images. This latter method is, however, not used to generate new artwork, from existing movements nor future predictions. The idea of using GANs to generate new art movements has also been explored by Elgammal et al. [14] via creative adversarial networks. These networks were designed to generate images that are hard to categorize into existing movements. Unlike our work, there is no modelling of the sequential nature of movements. The essential difference between our proposed model and other conditional generative models such as [11,13] is that existing work does not aim to capture the flow of influence among the several art movements to predict what is happening in the near future art movement. What they care about is how to generate new art instances based on a desired condition of users’ interests. Hence, we cannot directly compare the artefacts generated by existing methods with what we aim to generate as the near future art movements. Finally, modelling the sequential nature of a dataset is not limited to images/paintings: for instance, the history of music can also be interpreted as a succession of genres. Using GANs for music has been explored by Mogren [15], but again modelling the sequential nature of genres has not been explored. royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos R. Soc. Open Sci. 7: 191569 4 2. Methodology We now describe the general method used to model a sequence of latent structures of images and use this model to make future predictions. The full procedure is outlined in algorithm 1. The remaining subsections are devoted to discussing the main steps of this algorithm in detail. 2.1. Generative adversarial networks A GAN comprises two artificial neural networks: a generator G and a discriminator D. The two components are pitted against each other in a two-player game: given a sample of real images, the generator G produces random ‘fake’ images that are supposed to look like the real sample, while D tries to determine whether these generated images are fake or real. An important point is that only D has access to the sample of real images; G will initially output noise, which will improve as D sends feedback. At the same time, D will train to become better and better at judging real from fake, until an equilibrium is reached, such that the distribution implicitly defined by the generator corresponds to the underlying distribution of the training data—see [3] for more details. In practice, the training procedure does not guarantee convergence. A good training procedure, however, can bring the distribution of the generator very close to its theoretical optimum. CGANs [6] are an extension of GANs where the generator produces samples by conditioning on extra information. The data that we wish to condition on is fed to both the generator and discriminator. The conditioning information can be a label, an image or any other form of data. For instance, [6] generated specific digits that imitate the MNIST dataset by conditioning on a one-hot label of the desired digit. More technically: a generator, in the GAN framework, learns a mapping G : z → x where z is random noise and x is a sample. A conditional generator, on the other hand, learns mapping G : (z, c) → x, where c is the information to be conditioned on. The pair (x, c) is input to the discriminator as well, so that it learns to estimate the probability of observing x given a particular c. The objective function of the CGAN is similar to the standard GANs: the conditional distribution of the generator converges to the underlying conditional distribution of X|C [16]. In our setting, a CGAN is trained on a dataset of images x1, …, xN where every imagexi is associated with a latent vector ci [ R dc. The latent vectors are considered realizations of a mixture distribution with density fC(c) ¼ XK k¼1 wkf (k) C (c), where XK k¼1 wk ¼ 1: (2:1) Each density f(k)C corresponds to an artistic movement, and f (1) C , . . . , f (K) C is considered to be a sequence of densities. We again stress that C is assumed to be a continuous random variable. See §2.2 for details of how to train CGANs with a continuous latent space. The conditional generator is trained to imitate images from density fX|C(x|c). After being trained, the generator can be used to sample new images. This can be achieved by sampling from the latent space C. Note that we are capable of sampling from areas of C where few data are observed during training. Then the generator is forced to condition on ‘new’ information, thus producing images with novel features. 2.2. Continuous CGAN: training details Usually, CGANs condition on a discrete label [6] and are straightforward to train: training sets for this task contain many images for each label category. Then training G and D on generated images is a two-step task: (i) pick a label c randomly and generate image x given this label, then (ii) update model parameters based on the (x, c) pair. When training a continuous CGAN, however, each xi in the training set is associated with a unique ci. Picking an existing ci to generate a new x is an unsatisfactory solution: if done during training, G would learn to generate exact copies of the original xi associated with ci. We would also lose the flexibility of being able to use the whole continuous latent space, instead selecting individual points in it. As mentioned in §2.1, the latent vectors c1, …, cN are considered realizations of mixture distribution fC with components f(1)C , . . . , f (K) C and weights w1, …, wK. We propose the novel idea of approximating the latent distribution as a mixture of multivariate normals, and of using this approximation to sample new c� during and after training. We compute the sample means and covariances (m̂(1)C , Ŝ (1) C ) . . . , (m̂ (K) C , Ŝ (K) C ). Then each density component f(k)C is approximated as N(m̂ (k) C , Ŝ (k) C ). The weights wk are estimated as ŵk, the proportion of training images in category k. royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos R. Soc. Open Sci. 7: 191569 5 Generating new x for the purpose of training, or for producing images in a trained model, is then done by (i) picking category k with probability ŵk, (ii) drawing a random c � N(m̂(k)C , Ŝ (k) C ), and (iii) using the generator with the current parameters to produce x|c. Note that by assuming a fixed (Gaussian) form for the conditional distributions, we are appealing to the same sort of (Laplace) assumption that underpins variational Bayes. This speaks to the possibility of using approximate Bayesian (i.e. variational) inference to describe, or indeed implement, the current scheme. 2.3. Obtaining the latent codes via autoencoders So far we have assumed that each image xi is associated with a latent vector ci [ R dc. In principle, these latent representations of the images can be obtained with any method. Some reasonable properties of the method are as follows: — If images xi and xj are similar, then their associated latent vectors ci and cj should be close. Here the concept of closeness or ‘similarity’ is not restricted to the the simple pixel-wise norm kxi � xjk22, but is instead a broader concept of similarity between the features of the images. For instance, two images containing boats should be close in the latent space even if the boat is in a different position in each image. — Sampling from fC(c) needs to be straightforward. Autoencoders are an easy and flexible choice that satisfies the two points above. For this reason, we choose to use autoencoders in this work. However, we stress that any method with the properties described in the list above can be used to obtained the latent codes. An alternative choice could be the method used by Sigaki et al. [13] to measure artwork on two scales of order–disorder and complexity–simplicity. Johnson et al. [17] made use of a perceptual loss function between two images to fulfil the tasks of style transfer and super-resolution. The method, which builds on earlier work by Gatys et al. [18], is based on comparing high-level features of the images instead of comparing the images themselves. The high-level features are extracted via an auxiliary pre-trained network, e.g. a VGG classifier [19]. The same concept can be applied to autoencoders, and the resulting latent space satisfies the above point about preservation of image similarity. We use this perceptual loss specifically for art data: the details are in §3.1. Note that the latent space is learned without knowledge of categories k = 1, …, K. It is assumed that, when moving from X to C, the K distributions f(1)C , . . . , f(K)C are somewhat ordered. This is, however, not guaranteed. The assumption can be easily tested, as it is done in §3.2. 2.4. Predicting the future latent distribution We make the assumption that f(1)X , …, f (K) X have a non-trivial relationship, and that they can be interpreted as being a ‘sequence of distributions’. Furthermore, we assume that this sequential relationship is preserved when we map the distributions to f(1)C , . . . , f (K) C using the autoencoder. The key part of our method is that we assume the latent space and latent distributions to be simple enough that we can predict f(Kþ1)C , which is completely unobserved. Then we aim to use the same conditional generator trained as described in §2.1 to sample from f(Kþ1)X , which is also unobserved. In our setting, the sequence of densities f(1)C , . . . , f (K) C represents, in the case of the WikiArt dataset, a latent sequence of artistic movements. The underlying distribution of f(1)C , . . . , f (K) C is unknown. Suppose we have realizations from each of these distributions (see §2.3); then we model the sequence of latent distributions as follows. We assume that each f(k)C follows a normal distribution N(m (k) C , S (k) C ). Denote m̂ (k) C , an estimator of m (k) C , as the sample mean of f(k)C . Then the mean is modelled using the following vector autoregression (VAR) model with a linear trend term: m̂(k)C ¼ a þ kb þ Am̂(k�1)C þ e, e � N(0, Se): (2:2) Vectors α, β and matrices A, Σe are parameters that need to be estimated. Estimation is performed using a sparse specification (e.g. via LASSO) in the high-dimensional case. Once the parameters are estimated we can predict m̂(Kþ1)C , the latent mean of the unobserved future distribution. The covariance of f(Kþ1)C is estimated by Ŝ (Kþ1) C ¼ 1K (Ŝ (1) C þ � � � þ Ŝ (K) C ). For the WikiArt dataset we observed little change in the empirical covariance structure of f(1)C , . . . , f (K) C , and therefore elected to use an average of the observed covariances. Algorithm 1. Predicting using CGANs. 1: Train a CGAN with generator G(zjc) and discriminator D(xjc) on real and fake pairs {xi, ci}. 2: Estimate m̂(1)C , . . . , m̂ (K) C , the sample means of the K categories of latent codes. 3: Fit a VAR model on m̂(1)C , . . . , m̂ (K) C and predict m̂ (Kþ1) C . 4: Draw ‘future’ code c� � N(m̂(Kþ1)C ,Ŝ (Kþ1) C ), where Ŝ (Kþ1) C ¼ 1 K (Ŝ (1) C þ � � � þ Ŝ (K) C ). 5: Generate new images by sampling from G(zjc�). (1) (2) (3) (4) (1) (2) (3) (4) autoencoder C G A N C G A N predict future sa m pl e la te nt s pa ce im ag e sp ac e futurepast fX fX fX fX fC fC fC fC Figure 2. Diagram illustrating our method. The latent space C is chosen to be lower-dimensional than the image space X . Moving from X to C does not necessarily need to be done via an autoencoder, as noted in §2.3 (images from public domain of [10]). royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos R. Soc. Open Sci. 7: 191569 6 The future latent distribution f(Kþ1)C is therefore approximated as N(m̂ (Kþ1) C , Ŝ (Kþ1) C ). The entire method described in §2 is outlined in algorithm 1. 2.5. Theoretical notes on the procedure The autoencoder, or any alternative method that satisfies the properties laid out in §2.3, maps each image xi to a low-dimensional latent vector ci. This mapping implicitly defines a distribution in the latent space, and our assumption is that each distribution f(k)X of images is mapped to a distribution f (k) C in the latent space. The conditional generator produces samples from distribution fGXjC, where the latent code c can come from any of the latent distributions f(k)C , k = 1, …, K. Note the superscript ‘G’ in f G XjC, indicating that the distribution implicitly defined by the generator does not necessarily equal the theoretical training optimum fX|C (as mentioned in §2.1). Nevertheless, we will proceed under the assumption that a good training procedure results in a conditional generator close to the theoretical equilibrium. The conditional generator, just like the autoencoder, does not know which movement x and c belong to. Recall that the overall distribution of all latent codes was modelled as a mixture of the K movement- wise distributions in equation (2.1). Our method is based on the premise that, while the conditional GAN is trained on the whole space of the K movements, new samples can be generated from an individual movement f(k)X by conditioning on random variable C from f (k) C . That is, if we draw c1, . . . , cm � f(k)C , the conditional generator will produce sample x1, …, xm whose empirical distribution is close to f (k) X . This is motivated by marginalizing X out of fGXjC(xjc):ð c fGXjC(xjc) dF(k)C ¼ f(k)X (x), (2:3) Table 1. Summary of the WikiArt dataset. ‘Year’ is the approximate median year of the art movement, n is number of images. movement year n movement year n Early Renaissance 1440 1194 Fauvism 1905 680 High Renaissance 1510 1005 Expressionism 1910 6232 Mannerism 1560 1204 Cubism 1910 1567 Baroque 1660 3883 Surrealism 1930 3705 Rococo 1740 2108 Abstract Expressionism 1945 1919 Neoclassicism 1800 1473 Tachisme/Art Informel 1955 1664 Romanticism 1825 7073 Lyrical Abstraction 1960 652 Realism 1860 8680 Hard Edge Painting 1965 362 Impressionism 1885 8929 Op Art 1965 480 Post-Impressionism 1900 5110 Minimalism 1970 446 royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos R. Soc. Open Sci. 7: 19156 7 where F is the cumulative distribution function associated with f, and fGXjC is the distribution implicitly defined by the generator. The overall procedure is illustrated in figure 2. 9 3. Results The performance of our method presented in §2 is demonstrated on the public domain of WikiArt dataset,3 where each category represents an art movement. All experiments are implemented with Tensorflow [20] via Keras, and run on a NVIDIA GeForce GTX 1050.4 After the introduction of the setting, the structure of the resulting latent spaces is discussed in §3.2. Finally, §3.3 describes the prediction and generation of future art from f(Kþ1)X . 3.1. WikiArt results The dataset considered is the publicly available WikiArt dataset, which contains 103 250 images categorized into various movements, types (e.g. portrait or landscape), artists and sometimes years. We use the central square of each image, re-sized to 128 × 128 pixels. Note that a small number of raw images are unable to be reshaped into our desired format, reducing the total sample size to 102 182. Additionally, note that all images considered are paintings; images that are tagged as ‘sketch and study’, ‘illustration’, ‘design’ or ‘interior’ were excluded. The remaining images can then be categorized into 20 notable and well-defined artistic movement from Western art history (table 1). In order to apply algorithm 1, each image xi in the dataset needs to be associated with a latent vector ci. As described in §2.3, a non-variational autoencoder with perceptual loss is utilized. Note again that the category labels associated with each image are not revealed to the autoencoder when training it. Two autoencoders are separately trained with content loss and style loss which are now defined: Content loss Lcontent(xa, xc) ¼ 1 CjHjWj kf j(xa) � f j(xc)k22, where ϕj( · ) is the jth convolutional activation of a trained auxiliary classifier, while Cj, Hj, Wj are the dimensions of the output of that same jth layer. Johnson et al. [17] and Gatys et al. [18] explain how this loss function is minimized when two images share extracted features that represent the overall shapes and structures of objects and backgrounds; they also discuss how the choice of j influences the result. Each image x is thus associated with a content latent vector cc. 3See https://www.wikiart.org/. 4All the code is available at https://github.com/cganart/gan_art_2019. https://www.wikiart.org/ https://www.wikiart.org/ https://github.com/cganart/gan_art_2019 https://github.com/cganart/gan_art_2019 Renaissance 1510 Baroque 1660 Romanticism 1825 Impressionism 1885 Abstract Exp. 1945 Op Art 1965 Minimalism 1970 (future) N eo cl as si ci sm R om an ti ci sm R ea li sm Im pr es si on is m P os t- Im pr es s. F au vi sm E xp re ss io ni sm C ub is m S ur re al is m A bs tr ac t E xp r. T ac hi sm e L yr ic al A bs tr . H ar d E dg e O p A rt M in im al is m Neoclassicism Romanticism Realism Impressionism Post-Impress. Fauvism Expressionism Cubism Surrealism Abstract Expr. Tachisme Lyrical Abstr. Hard Edge Op Art Minimalism (a) (b) Figure 3. (a) Evolution of artistic movements as generated by our method. The last column, labelled ‘future’, is the prediction x�1 , . . . , x � M � f (Kþ1)X , where K = 20. Note that there is no relationship between images in the same row but different column (images from public domain of [10]). (b) Matrix of within-cluster variance (diagonal elements) and between-cluster variance (off-diagonal elements) for all pairs of artistic movements. The values are averaged across all dimensions of the latent space. royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos R. Soc. Open Sci. 7: 191569 8 Style loss Lstyle(xa, xc) ¼ 1 CjHjWj kGj(xa) � Gj(xc)k22, where Gj( · ) is the Gram matrix of layer j of the same auxiliary classifier used for the content loss. This loss function is used to measure the similarity between images that share the same repeated textures and colours, which we collectively call style. Each image x is thus associated with a style latent vector cs. The auxiliary classifier is obtained by training a simplified version of the VGG16 network [19] on the tinyImageNet dataset.5 The VGG classifier is simplified by removing the last block of three convolutional layers, thus adapting the architecture to 128 × 128 images rather than 256 × 256. Once each image x has its content and style latent vectors, these are concatenated to obtain c ¼ [cTs , cTc ]T. Finally, the CGAN is trained by conditioning on the continuous latent space, as described in algorithm 1. Details about network architecture and training can be found in appendix A. Figure 3 contains examples of generated images from various artistic movements, together with a quantitative assessment of within- and between-movement average latent variance. Some qualitative comments can be remarked (whereas quantitative evaluations are in §§3.2 and 3.3): — There is very good between-movement variation and within-movement variation. It is hard to find two generated images that are similar to each other. 5See https://tiny-imagenet.herokuapp.com/. https://tiny-imagenet.herokuapp.com/ https://tiny-imagenet.herokuapp.com/ Table 2. Performance when regressing movement label on movement-means of various types of latent spaces. standard style content joint concat. R2 0.19 0.41 0.24 0.39 0.41 cor. 0.19 0.24 0.12 0.22 0.20 royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos R. Soc. Open Sci. 7: 191569 9 — One of the main reasons that guided the use of a perceptual autoencoder was the fact that movements vary not only in style (e.g. colour, texture) but also in content (e.g. portrait or landscape). From this point of view our method is a success. Each movement appears to have its own set of colours and textures. Additionally, movements that were overwhelmingly portraits in the training set (e.g. Baroque) result in generated images that mostly mimic the general structure of human figures. Similarly, movements with a lot of landscapes (e.g. Impressionism) result in generated images that are also mostly landscapes; the latter tend to be of very good quality. — More abstract movements (e.g. Lyrical Abstraction) result in very colourful generated images with little to no structure, as is to be expected. Interesting behaviours can be observed: Op Art paintings, for instance, are generally very geometric and often remind of chessboards, and the generator’s effort to reproduce this can be clearly observed (figure 3). The same can be said of Minimalist art, where many paintings are monochromatic canvas; the generator does a fairly good job at reproducing this as well. A drawback of using the WikiArt dataset is that the relatively small number of movements (K = 20) forces the use of a very sparse version of VAR [21]. As a result, the predicted future mean m̂(Kþ1)C is almost entirely determined by the linear trend component of the VAR model, α + kβ; the autoregressive component Am̂(K)C is largely non-influential, as the parameter matrix A is shrunk to 0 by the sparse formulation. 3.2. Latent space analysis Section 2.3 mentioned that it is not guaranteed that the K categories will actually be ordered in the latent space, although it is expected. We implement a simple heuristic to test this in the WikiArt case: suppose that y = [1, …, K]T and that M [ RK�dc is a matrix with m̂(1)C , . . . , m̂ (K) C as rows (dc is the dimension of the latent space). Then we can fit a simple linear regression y = Mβ + e, where e ∼ N(0, σ2 I) and β and σ2 are parameters. We do this for various types of latent vectors obtained with different loss functions: pixel- wise cross-entropy, style-only, content-only, the sum of the latter two ( joint), and a concatenation of style-only and content-only. Table 2 displays the R2 values (the coefficient of determination) for each type of latent vector, which can be directly compared, as matrix M always has size K × dc. The mean of the absolute correlations between pairs of the 100 dimensions of each latent space is also presented in table 2. This is a simple measure of how the various dimensions of the latent vectors are correlated with each other. The results suggest using a perceptual loss instead of a pixel-wise loss: the results for the last four columns (the different types of perceptual losses) are much better than the ‘standard’ latent space obtained via pixel-wise cross-entropy. Further, the results suggest using two separate autoencoders for style and loss, and then concatenating the resulting latent vectors: the last column has the highest R2 of all five methods, while also having a between-dimensions correlation that is lower than using a sum of style loss and content loss. Overall, this is an impressive result: recall that the autoencoders do not have access to the movement labels k ∈ {1, …, K}. Despite this, the latent vectors are able to predict those same movement labels quite accurately. This result confirms that there is indeed a natural ordering of the art movements (which corresponds to their temporal order), and that this natural ordering is reflected in the latent space. This can also be seen in the means of the clusters of latent vectors in figure 4. Figure 5 displays a heatmap of distances between pairs of movements in the latent space. Most notably, the matrix exhibits a block-diagonal structure. This means that (i) movements that are chronologically close are also close in the latent space, and (ii) there tends to be an alternation between series of movements being similar to each other and points where a new movement breaks from the past more significantly. Figure 5 also shows the position of predicted and real ‘future’ (or current) movements relative to the movements in the training set. More detail can be found is §3.3. N eo cl as si ci sm R om an ti ci sm R ea li sm Im pr es si on is m P os t- Im pr es s. F au vi sm E xp re ss io ni sm C ub is m S ur re al is m A bs tr ac t E xp r. T ac hi sm e L yr ic al A bs tr . H ar d E dg e O p A rt M in im al is m (P os t- M in im al is m ) (P re di ct ed ) Neoclassicism Romanticism Realism Impressionism Post-Impress. Fauvism Expressionism Cubism Surrealism Abstract Expr. Tachisme Lyrical Abstr. Hard Edge Op Art Minimalism (Post-Minimalism) (Predicted) Figure 5. Matrix of Euclidean distances between the means of individual movements in the latent space. The movements are ordered chronologically. The last two columns/rows represent true Post-Minimalist paintings as well as our prediction. Note the block-diagonal tendencies. 10 5 0 –5 –10 –7.5 –5.0 –2.5 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 latent dim. 1 la te nt d im . 2 st yl e la te nt d im . 1 –1.0 –0.8 –0.6 –0.4 –0.2 0 content latent dim. 1 3 2 1 0 –1 –2 –3 20 1917 18 1156 11 14 109 13 12 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 (a) (b) Figure 4. (a) Visualization of the latent space. The two dimensions of C that best correlate with movement index were chosen, and plotted in the x- and y-axes. Three movements are highlighted: Early Renaissance (blue, top-left), Impressionism (red, centre), and Minimalism (green, bottom-right). The clustering and temporal ordering are clearly visible. (b) Means of all 20 training art movements (table 1) visualized to emphasize the temporal progression. The first PCA component of content and style latent spaces are shown in the x- and y-axes, respectively. royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos R. Soc. Open Sci. 7: 191569 10 3.3. Future prediction Once the CGAN is fully trained on the dataset of K training set categories, autoregression methods are used to generate from the unobserved (K + 1)th category (the future). As described in §2.4, we use a simple linear trend plus sparse VAR on the means m̂(1)C , . . . , m̂ (K) C of the K categories in the latent space. This results in predicted mean m̂(Kþ1)C , while the predicted covariance Ŝ (Kþ1) C is simply the mean of the K training covariances. Then we sample new latent vectors from N(m̂(Kþ1)C , Ŝ (Kþ1) C ), and feed them to the trained conditional generator together with the random noise vector. The result is generated images that condition on an area of the latent space which is not covered by any of the Table 3. Two types of distances between real recent movements (columns) and either future predictions (K + 1) or last movement in the training set (Minimalism, K). Post-Minimalism New Casualism Euclid.(K + 1) 11.8 12.3 Euclid.(K) 22.8 21.0 MMD(K + 1) 0.15 0.18 MMD(K) 0.27 0.25 royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos R. Soc. Open Sci. 7: 191569 11 existing movements. Instead, this latent area is placed in a ‘natural’ position after the sequence of K successive movements. A collection of generated ‘future’ images can be found in figure 3. As summarized in table 1, the WikiArt dataset only contains large, well-defined art movements up to the 1970s, the most recent one being Minimalism. The same dataset, however, also contains smaller movements that were developed after Minimalism. In particular, Post-Minimalism and New Casualism can be considered successors of the latest of the K = 20 training movements, but they contain too few images to be considered for training the CGAN. They can, however, be used to compare our ‘future’ predictions with what actually came after the last movement in the training set. We use the same autoencoder to map each image in Post-Minimalism and New Casualism. Then, after generating images from predicted movement f(Kþ1)C , we compute the Euclidean distance of the means and MMD distance [22] from the real small movements in the latent space. The results are summarized in table 3 and are included in the distance matrix in figure 5. The results indicate a success: according to all metrics, the distance between the generated future and the real movements is small when compared with other between-movement distances shown in figure 5. In particular, the generated images are closer to Post-Minimalism and New Casualism than they are to the last training movement, i.e. Minimalism. This indicates that our prediction of the future of art is not a mere copy of the most recent observed movement, but rather a jump in the right direction towards the true evolution of new artistic movements. This positive result can be contrasted with a simpler approach described in appendix B, where a standard autoencoder is used for both latent modelling and generation of new images. 4. Discussion In this paper, we introduced a novel machine learning method to bring new insights to the problem of periodization in art history. Our method is able to model art movements using a simple low-dimensional latent structure and generate new images using CGANs. By reducing the problem of generating realistic images from a complicated, high-dimensional image space to that of generating from low-dimensional Gaussian distributions, we are able to perform statistical analysis, including one-step-ahead forecasting, of periods in art history by modelling the low-dimensional space with a vector autoregressive model. The images we produced resemble real art, including real art from held-out ‘future’ movements. A number of modifications could be applied to the method. For instance, the learning architecture could be directly extended to predict art movements in the reverse direction, namely towards the past, when the time ordering of the input is reversed. The method described in this paper can be applied outside of the context of art. For instance, appendix C describes the generation of photos of human faces from different years. The temporal succession of years is treated in the same manner as the temporal succession of art movements in the main body of this paper. Data accessibility. Data are available at https://github.com/cganart/gan_art_2019 and at the Dryad Digital Repository at https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.90cj2pq [24]. Authors’ contributions. E.L. developed the methods, undertook the implementation, and drafted the manuscript. M.M. contributed to designing and implementing the experiments with CGAN and Autoencoder, participated in the data analysis, and helped in writing and draft the manuscript. H.H. contributed to the research conception and overall direction. F.D.-H.L. contributed to the research conception and overall direction. S.F. contributed to the research conception and overall direction. Competing interests. We declare we have no competing interest. Funding. We received no funding for this study. https://github.com/cganart/gan_art_2019 https://github.com/cganart/gan_art_2019 https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.90cj2pq 12 Appendix A. Neural network architecture royalsocie Tables 4 and 5 describe in more detail the architecture used in the conditional generator and conditional discriminator (respectively) of the CGAN. Generator architecture Table 4. Architecture of CGAN conditional generator. layer activation output dim. noise input 100 latent input 100 concatenate inputs 200 fully connected and reshape ReLu 1024 × 4 × 4 fractionally strided conv. (5 × 5 filter) ReLu 512 × 8 × 8 fractionally strided conv. (5 × 5 filter) ReLu 256 × 16 × 16 fractionally strided conv. (5 × 5 filter) ReLu 128 × 32 × 32 fractionally strided conv. (5 × 5 filter) ReLu 64 × 64 × 64 fractionally strided conv. (5 × 5 filter) tanh 3 × 128 × 128 typublishing.org/journal/rsos R. Soc. Open Sci. 7: 191569 Discriminator architecture Table 5. Architecture of CGAN conditional discriminator. layer activation output dim. image input 3 × 128 × 128 convolution (5 × 5 filter, dropout) ReLu 64 × 64 × 64 convolution (5 × 5 filter, dropout) ReLu 128 × 32 × 32 convolution (5 × 5 filter, dropout) ReLu 256 × 16 × 16 convolution (5 × 5 filter, dropout) ReLu 512 × 8 × 8 reshape and fully connected (dropout) ReLu 256 concatenate with latent input 356 fully connected (dropout) ReLu 256 fully connected (dropout) Sigmoid 1 Appendix B. Comparison with simple autoencoder Section 3.1 described how the use of content and style losses enables the conditional GAN to model the temporal evolution of different elements of paintings. The availability of the two latent spaces (content and style) was among the justifications for using a conditional GAN for the generative process, as opposed to directly using the same autoencoder that models the latent space. Table 6. Two types of distances between real recent movements (columns) and either future predictions (K + 1) or last movement in the training set (Minimalism, K). Post-Minimalism New Casualism Euclid.(K + 1) 25.0 26.1 Euclid.(K) 24.8 24.2 MMD(K + 1) 0.30 0.35 MMD(K) 0.31 0.30 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s (pred.) Figure 6. Evolution of yearbook faces over various decades. The last column contains a prediction from the model trained on all previous decades. The prediction is a mix of images from some of the predicted distributions f (Kþ1)X , . . . , f (Kþ5) X . Note that there is no relationship between images in the same row but different column (images from [23]). royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos R. Soc. Open Sci. 7: 191569 13 A comparison can be performed between the model described in §2 and a simple model where a standard autoencoder is used both for modelling the latent space and for generating images (including estimated future after fitting the VAR framework to the latent space, as described in §3.3). The main results via content and style losses (table 3) showed that the distance between predicted future and ‘actual’ (out of training set) future are relatively small, compared to a similar distance between consecutive recent real art movements. However, table 6 shows that this is not the case for the simple autoencoder method described in this section. Appendix C. Yearbook results The yearbook dataset introduced by Ginosar et al. [23] contains photographs of faces of 17 163 male students and 20 248 female students from US universities. Each photo is labelled by the year it was taken, where the oldest images are from 1905 while the latest are from 2013. Post-2010 pictures are kept out of the training set, since they are going to be used as ground truth when comparing with our prediction of the future. The model summarized in algorithm 1 is applied to this dataset. However, unlike the WikiArt example, a standard autoencoder is used to learn the latent space; the autoencoder is trained on the male images and used to predict the latent codes of the female images, and vice versa. A conditional GAN is then trained on the pairs of images and latent codes. Although smaller than WikiArt, this dataset has the advantage of having well-defined ‘year’ labels, as opposed to an ordinal succession of artistic movements. The number of years covered, being more than 100, also provides benefits when fitting the VAR model in the latent space. A collection of generated images is presented in figure 6. A few qualitative comments can be made: — As the years progress, various changes can be noticed. Most prominently we observe the evolution of hairstyles and makeup, the diversification of race, and the increasing prevalence of smiles. — The model is able to capture the fact that images in older years are more uniform (e.g. same hairstyles and expressions) while more recent periods show more variety. References 1. Schapiro M. 1970 Criteria of periodization in the history of European art. New Literary History 1, 113–125. (doi:10.2307/468623) 2. Kaufmann T. 2010 Periodization and its discontents. J. Art Historiogr. 2, 1–6. 3. Goodfellow IJ, Pouget-Abadie J, Mirza M, Xu B, Warde-Farley D, Ozair S, Courville A, Bengio Y. 2014 Generative adversarial nets. Adv. Neural Inf. Process. Syst. 27, 2672–2680. 4. Barnard K, Duygulu P, Forsyth D. 2001 Clustering art. In Proc. of the 2001 IEEE Computer Society Conf. on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition. CVPR 2001, Kauai, HI, 8–14 December, vol. 2, pp. II–II. Los Alamitos, CA, IEEE Computer Society. 5. Shamir L, Tarakhovsky JA. 2012 Computer analysis of art. J. Comput. and Cultural Heritage (JOCCH) 5, 1–11. (doi:10.1145/2307723. 2307726) 6. Mirza M, Osindero S. 2014 Conditional generative adversarial nets. (http://arxiv.org/ abs/1411.1784) http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/468623 http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/2307723.2307726 http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/2307723.2307726 http://arxiv.org/abs/1411.1784 http://arxiv.org/abs/1411.1784 http://arxiv.org/abs/1411.1784 royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos R. Soc. Open Sci. 7: 191569 14 7. Sims CA. 1980 Macroeconomics and reality. Econ. J. Econ. Soc. 48, 1–48. 8. Isola P, Zhu J-Y, Zhou T, Efros AA. 2017 Image- to-image translation with conditional adversarial networks. In Proc. of The IEEE Conf. on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Honolulu, HI, 21–26 July, pp. 5967–5976. Los Alamitos, CA, IEEE Computer Society. 9. Gauthier J. 2014 Conditional generative adversarial nets for convolutional face generation. Technical report. Class Project for Stanford CS231N: Convolutional Neural Networks for Visual Recognition, Winter semester. 10. WikiArt Dataset. 1999 See https://www.wikiart. org. 11. Vo TV, Soh H. 2018 Generation meets recommendation: proposing novel items for groups of users. In Proc. of the 12th ACM Conf. on Recommender Systems, RecSys ’18, Vancouver, Canada, October, pp. 145–153. ACM. 12. Li X, She J. 2017 Collaborative variational autoencoder for recommender systems. In Proc. of the 23rd ACM SIGKDD Int. Conf. on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, New York, NY, August, pp. 305–314. ACM. 13. Sigaki HYD, Perc M, Ribeiro HV. 2018 History of art paintings through the lens of entropy and complexity. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 115, E8585–E8594. (doi:10.1073/pnas.1800083115) 14. Elgammal A, Liu B, Elhoseiny M, Mazzone M. 2017 CAN: creative adversarial networks generating ‘art’ by learning about styles and deviating from style norms. (http://arxiv.org/ abs/1706.07068) 15. Mogren O. 2016 C-rnn-gan: Continuous recurrent neural networks with adversarial training. (http://arxiv.org/abs/1611.09904). 16. Chrysos GG, Kossaifi J, Zafeiriou S. 2018 Robust conditional generative adversarial networks. (http://arxiv.org/abs/1805.08657) 17. Johnson J, Alahi A, F.-Fei L. 2016 Perceptual losses for real-time style transfer and super-resolution. In European Conf. on Computer Vision, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 8–16 October, pp. 694–711. Springer International Publishing. See https://link.springer.com/ chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-46475-6_43. 18. Gatys LA, Ecker AS, Bethge M. 2016 Image style transfer using convolutional neural networks. In Proc. of the IEEE Conf. on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Las Vegas, NV, 27–30 June, pp. 2414–2423. Los Alamitos, CA, IEEE Computer Society. See https://www.computer. org/csdl/proceedings/2016/cvpr/12OmNqH9hnp. 19. Simonyan K, Zisserman A. 2015 Very deep convolutional networks for large-scale image recognition. In Proc. of the Int. Conf. on Learning Representations, San Diego, CA, 7–9 May. 20. Abadi M et al. 2015 TensorFlow: large-scale machine learning on heterogeneous systems. Software available from tensorflow.org. 21. Kilian L, Lütkepohl H. 2017 Structural vector autoregressive analysis. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 22. Gretton A, Borgwardt KM, Rasch MJ, Scholkopf B, Smola A. 2012 A kernel two-sample test. J. Mach. Learn. Res. 13, 723–773. 23. Ginosar S, Rakelly K, Sachs S, Yin B, Efros AA. 2015 A century of portraits: a visual historical record of American high school yearbooks. In Extreme Imaging Workshop, ICCV, Santiago, Chile, 17 December, pp. 1–7. 24. Lisi E, Malekzadeh M, Haddadi H, Lau D-H, Flaxman S. 2020 Data from: Modelling and forecasting art movements with CGANs. Dryad Digital Repository. (doi:10.5061/dryad.90cj2pq) https://www.wikiart.org https://www.wikiart.org https://www.wikiart.org http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1800083115 http://arxiv.org/abs/1706.07068 http://arxiv.org/abs/1706.07068 http://arxiv.org/abs/1706.07068 http://arxiv.org/abs/1611.09904 http://arxiv.org/abs/1805.08657 http://arxiv.org/abs/1805.08657 https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-46475-6_43 https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-46475-6_43 https://www.computer.org/csdl/proceedings/2016/cvpr/12OmNqH9hnp https://www.computer.org/csdl/proceedings/2016/cvpr/12OmNqH9hnp tensorflow.org http://dx.doi.org/10.5061/dryad.90cj2pq Modelling and forecasting art movements with CGANs Introduction Methodology Generative adversarial networks Continuous CGAN: training details Obtaining the latent codes via autoencoders Predicting the future latent distribution Theoretical notes on the procedure Results WikiArt results Latent space analysis Future prediction Discussion Data accessibility Authors' contributions Competing interests Funding head18 Appendix A. Neural network architecture Appendix B. Comparison with simple autoencoder Appendix C. Yearbook results References 
work_ievbgd2zkneopa4lnxq4yznzxq	----	A letter of reply to: Can the gastrointestinal microbiota be modulated by dietary fibre to treat obesity? Davis, H.C. Ir J Med Sci (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11845-017-1686-9 LETTER TO THE EDITOR A letter of reply to: Can the gastrointestinal microbiota be modulated by dietary fibre to treat obesity? Davis, H.C. Ir J Med Sci (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11845-017-1686-9 Paul MacDaragh Ryan1 Received: 24 January 2018 /Accepted: 8 February 2018 /Published online: 21 February 2018 # Royal Academy of Medicine in Ireland 2018 Dear Sir or Madam, I write to agree with Davis’ assessment of the role which our fibre intake and gut microbiome may play in triggering, exacerbating or managing obesity. However, I also wish to levy a caveat to this concept. In Ireland, we find ourselves acutely aware of rising obesity rates [1]. While health research has spent much of the previous decades conducting a form of nutritional ‘witch-hunt’ for the culpable micro or macronutrient (i.e. dietary fats, refined car- bohydrates, artificial sweeteners), we may indeed have overlooked something fundamental which was largely lost from our diet. In both time and space, dietary fibre appears to associate neatly with metabolic function. Current estimates of Irish adult dietary fibre intake lie at a paltry ~ 19 g day−1 [2], substantially short of the current RDA of 25 g day−1, which itself seems alarmingly inadequate when considering that of ancient and non-‘Westernised’ popula- tions. Perhaps even more concerning is the fact that our met- abolically impressionable paediatric population consumes roughly half this amount of fibre. In line with this, there is now convincing preclinical evi- dence which suggests that consecutive generations of low- fibre intake compound microbiome diversity degeneration [3]. That is to say that we lose microbial species, and with them their metabolic benefits, with each generation sustained by our low-fibre Westernised diet. We must, therefore, make a conscious and concerted effort as a national and global community to abridge the dietary fibre gap, if we are to improve the metabolic health prospects of generations to come. Kind Regards, Paul MacDaragh Ryan BSc PhD Graduate Entry Medical Student, University College Cork Compliance with ethical standards Conflict of interest The author declares that he has no conflict of interests References 1. Abarca-Gómez L, Abdeen ZA, Hamid ZA, Abu-Rmeileh NM, Acosta-Cazares B, Acuin C, Adams RJ, Aekplakorn W, Afsana K, Aguilar-Salinas CA, Agyemang C (2017) Worldwide trends in body- mass index, underweight, overweight, and obesity from 1975 to 2016: a pooled analysis of 2416 population-based measurement studies in 128·9 million children, adolescents, and adults. Lancet 390(10113):2627–2642 2. Flynn A., Walton J., Gibney M., Nugent A., B McNulty (2011) National Adult Nutrition Survey. Irish Universities Nutrition Alliance (IUNA) 3. Sonnenburg ED, Smits SA, Tikhonov M, Higginbottom SK, Wingreen NS, Sonnenburg JL (2016) Diet-induced extinctions in the gut microbiota compound over generations. Nature 529(7585): 212–215. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature16504 http://www.nature. com/nature/journal/v529/n7585/abs/nature16504.html- supplementary-information * Paul MacDaragh Ryan paul_ryan@umail.ucc.ie 1 School of Medicine, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland Irish Journal of Medical Science (1971 -) (2018) 187:537 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11845-018-1768-3 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s11845-018-1768-3&domain=pdf https://doi.org/10.1038/nature16504 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v529/n7585/abs/nature16504.html-supplementary-information http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v529/n7585/abs/nature16504.html-supplementary-information http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v529/n7585/abs/nature16504.html-supplementary-information mailto:paul_ryan@umail.ucc.ie A... References 
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work_inypyt5chjey5kpg3ot4suncs4	----	[PDF] You know what we need? | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.1172/JCI59681 Corpus ID: 45875495You know what we need? @article{Neill2011YouKW, title={You know what we need?}, author={Ushma S. Neill}, journal={The Journal of clinical investigation}, year={2011}, volume={121 8}, pages={ 2948 } } Ushma S. Neill Published 2011 Medicine The Journal of clinical investigation I've listened to many of you moan about the current flat NIH budgets, lack of funding, and the frustration of being a scientist in the current depressed economy. Instead of complaining to only ourselves in the scientific community, we need to make ourselves heard by politicians and the public at large. We need a pundit.  View on PubMed jci.org Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper 1 Citations View All Topics from this paper Depressive disorder Auditory Perception One Citation Citation Type Citation Type All Types Cites Results Cites Methods Cites Background Has PDF Publication Type Author More Filters More Filters Filters Sort by Most Influenced Papers Sort by Citation Count Sort by Recency Where are the new drugs to treat heart failure? Introduction to the special issue on "key signaling molecules in hypertrophy and heart failure". P. Simpson Medicine Journal of molecular and cellular cardiology 2011 10 Save Alert Research Feed Related Papers Abstract Topics 1 Citations Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. Learn More → Resources DatasetsSupp.aiAPIOpen Corpus Organization About UsResearchPublishing PartnersData Partners   FAQContact Proudly built by AI2 with the help of our Collaborators Terms of Service•Privacy Policy The Allen Institute for AI By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our Privacy Policy, Terms of Service, and Dataset License ACCEPT & CONTINUE 
work_ie4mn7fumzapnnxqbgapg7wfre	----	Gustave Caillebotte, French Impressionism, and mere exposure Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 2003, 10 (2), 319-343 Gustave Caillebotte was Impressionism’s anomaly, in his life as well as his art. . . . He was 14 years younger than his initial stylistic model Degas and when his eventual close friends Monet and Renoir first began plotting an in- dependent exhibition . . . he was still a teenager. . . . He was also rich. Varnedoe (1987, p. 1) Inheriting his father’s wealth, acquired as a military supplier, Gustave Caillebotte was a rich painter at age 28. Too young and freshly started for the first Impressionist exhibition in 1874, he was invited by Renoir to join the second in 1876, and he participated in four others. More- over, he organized the 1876 exhibit and subsidized it and those in 1877, 1879, and 1882. Most important in this con- text, he also began to buy paintings in 1876, supporting his friends when little other money was coming in (see Bérhaut, 1994, Distel, 1990, Marrinan, 2002, Nord, 2000, and Varnedoe, 1987, for histories). Seven of his purchases are shown in the left-hand panels of Figures 1 and 2; Caillebotte painted Figure 1A himself. Caillebotte’s major phase of acquisitions continued during the height of Im- pressionism.1 Aside from a few drawings, he collected only the works of Paul Cézanne, Edgar Degas, Edouard Manet, Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, and Alfred Sisley. These painters are widely regarded as the “major” artists of Impressionism, and their works form the core of the Impressionist canon.2 L’AFFAIRE CAILLEBOTTE Caillebotte died suddenly in 1894 at age 46. His will left his entire art collection to the state of France, on the condition that the works be hung together for the public. Such a bequest was unprecedented, and the off icial salon culture of Paris was still ill disposed toward Impression- ism. Jean-Léon Gérôme, an important salon painter who was influential in the late 19th century Paris art scene, is reported to have said, “I do not know these gentlemen and of the donation I know only the title—Are there not some paintings of Monsieur Monet in it? Of Monsieur Pissarro and others? For the state to accept such f ilth would be a blot on morality” (cited in Mead, 1974, un- paginated; see also Rewald, 1946, p. 422).3 But perhaps as important as the politics was the unavailability of space; there seemed to be no suitable place in Paris large enough to hang the 73 or more paintings. The haggling went on for years, taxing the patience of Renoir, Caillebotte’s executor, and Martial Caillebotte, the older brother. Eventually, the will was broken, and the collection was split, 38 images going to the state of France and the rest rejected. Two of Caillebotte’s own paintings (Images 1c and 2c; see the Appendix) were in- cluded in the bequest by his family, and one Sisley (Image 60c) was later deaccessioned and sent to a re- gional museum. Thus, we can consider Caillebotte’s Parisian legacy to be 39 works. These were f irst hung in 319 Copyright 2003 Psychonomic Society, Inc. This research began as a set of interests accrued in 1993, when I was in Paris, supported by a John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Fellow- ship, and later, in the summer of 1994, during the Caillebotte centen- nial. I thank Claudia Lazzaro for being the final, if unwitting, impetus for this study in the summer of 2000—again, in Paris—and for many wonderful hours of discussion about art and canons; Justine Zee Kwok for beginning aspects of this project as a feasibility study, for many hours of library work, and for help with initial assembly of the data- bases; Nicholas Epley for initial guidance through the mere exposure literature; John Bargh and Arthur Reber for encouragement and com- ments; Andrea Coby Riddle, the teachers, and students at the Elizabeth Ann Clune Montessori School of Ithaca for their help with Study 3; David Dunning and Dennis Regan for suggestions leading to Studies 4 and 5; and many colleagues for their friendly cajoling, forcing me to de- sign and carry out Study 6. A version of Study 1 was presented at the 42nd Annual Meeting of the Psychonomic Society, November 2001, in Orlando, FL. Correspondence concerning this article should be sent to J. E. Cutting, Department of Psychology, Uris Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-7601 (e-mail: jec7@cornell.edu). Gustave Caillebotte, French Impressionism, and mere exposure JAMES E. CUTTING Cornell University, Ithaca, New York Gustave Caillebotte was a painter, a collector of some of his colleagues’ most renowned works, and a major force in the creation of the late 19th century French Impressionist canon. Six studies are presented as a naturalistic investigation of the effects of mere exposure to images in his collection and to those matched to them. The probabilities of cultural exposure to the 132 stimulus images were indexed by the frequencies of their separate appearances in Cornell University library books—a total of 4,232 times in 980 different books. Across the studies, adult preferences were correlated with differences in image frequencies, but not with recognition, complexity, or prototypicality judgments; children’s preferences were not correlated with frequency. Prior cultural exposure also interacted with experimental expo- sure in predictable ways. The results suggest that mere exposure helps to maintain an artistic canon. 320 CUTTING Figure 1. Eight Impressionist images. The four in the left column were part of the Caille- botte legacy to the state of France; the four on the right were m atched to them for these stud- ies. All four pairs were used as part of a corpus of 132 images. Panels A and B are Gustave Caillebotte’s Les Raboteurs de parquet (“Floor scrapers,” Im age 1a; Paris, Musée d’Orsay) and his Les Raboteurs de parquet, petit version (Image 1n; private collection); panels C and D are Paul Cézanne’s Cour de ferme à Auvers (“Auvers farmyard,” Image 6c; Paris, M usée d’Orsay) and his La M aison du pendu (“Hanged man’s house,” Im age 6n; Paris, Musée d’Or- say); panels E and F are Edgar Degas’ Femmes à la terrase d’un café (“Women at the café,” Image 8c; Paris, Musée du Louvre, Départment des Arts Graphiques, Fonds du M usée d’Or- say) and his L’Absinthe (“The absinthe drinker,” Image 8b; Paris, Musée d’Orsay); and pan- els G and H are Edouard M anet’s Le Balcon (“The balcony,” Im age 18c; Paris, Musée d’Or- say) and his Le Déjeuner à l’atelier (“Studio luncheon,” Image 18n; Munich, Neue Pinakothek). See the Appendix for further information. Panels A, C, D, E, F, and G are reprinted with per- m ission of the Musée d’Orsay; panel B is reprinted with permission of Bridgeman Art; and panel H is reprinted with perm ission of the Neue Pinakothek. A B C D E F G H MERE EXPOSURE HELPS MAINTAIN A CANON OF ART 321 the Musée du Luxembourg in Paris in 1897, moved to the Musée du Louvre in 1927, then to the Musée du Jeu de Paume in 1947, and f inally to the Musée d’Orsay when it opened in 1986. Given its division of the collection, did the French gov- ernment select well? According to some, very well: “With the glaring exception of Cézanne, it is arguable that [the French state] wound up with the cream of the collection” (Varnedoe, 1987, p. 202). Perhaps, but the splitting of the Caillebotte collection also offers a superb natural ex- periment in canon formation and fosters other questions. Nonetheless, the major focus of this article is on another issue. CANONS, CULTURE, AND MERE EXPOSUR E An artistic canon consists of a culture’s esteemed works of painting, sculpture, architecture, music, theater, poetry, literature, or film. The membership of works within a canon is graded—some are central, some less central but f irmly within, some on the margins, and some clearly outside. Thus, canons have the structure of any natural category (Rosch, 1973). I assume that artworks within a canon deserve their position but also that many works on the fringes and even well outside are equally worthy and equally deserving of cultural reverence. Why are these not within the canon? I would claim that a major force in canon formation is historical accident, but I haven’t the space here to defend such an idea; canon formation has been discussed at length in the humanities (e.g., Guillory, 1990, 1993; Sassoon, 2001; Hallberg, 1984). Instead, I focus here on a different issue: canon maintenance over time through its broad cultural reception. A force that helps maintain an artistic canon, I believe, is the cultural generalization of the laboratory phenom- enon called mere exposure (Zajonc, 1968, 1980), the nonconscious acquisition of information about, and atti- tudes toward, objects and events through their repeated presence in our lives. These occurrences help shape our preferences. Mere exposure is a phenomenon related to learning without awareness, or implicit learning (e.g., Roediger, 1990; Schacter, 1987; Seamon et al., 1995; Squire, 1992), but with a focus on the affective compo- nent. In particular, from childhood through college and throughout adulthood, we are exposed to hundreds of thousands of images. Some are representations of art; others, as during a museum visit, are the artworks them- selves. We do not typically remember each occurrence of each image or where we saw it. We often will not even recognize it if we see it again, but its trace can influence our future assessments. Such assessments are not overt cognitive responses on our part. They are not directly re- lated to the formal part of our education, but they are very much a part of our general and higher education. The effects of mere exposure are quite automatic and independent of what we pay attention to in our day-to- day activities. They accrue simply as the result of being a member of a culture, experiencing cultural artifacts (see Zajonc, 1970). Laboratory evidence suggests that what we are exposed to, and then prefer, can be quite meaningless in a larger context (Bornstein, 1989)—for example, line drawings, polygons, ideographs, nonsense words or syllables, or sounds. Nonetheless, they can also be meaningful—for example, photographs of objects or people. So why not paintings? Laboratory results here are mixed. Berlyne (1970) found that there were mere exposure effects for abstract paintings but that complex ones were preferred over simpler ones. Zajonc, Shaver, Tavris, and van Kreveld (1972) found the reverse effect for abstract paintings and their parts. And Brickman, Redfield, Harrison, and Crandall (1972) found both ef- fects, depending on initial responses, favorable or unfa- vorable. But as studies relying on laboratory exposure, these research efforts were not concerned with everyday exposure to artwork. The major purpose of this article, then, is to circumvent this problem—to assess effects of mere exposure as measured in a more ecological way.4 GOALS These six studies had three goals. The first two are in- tertwined and were spun from the arguments above. The f irst concerns Caillebotte. It is sometimes suggested that he had extraordinary taste in amassing his collection (e.g., Bernac, 1895/1966). Unequivocally, some of these works are among the centerpieces of the Impressionist canon. To be sure, in many cases, he was on the scene as the f irst possible buyer of particular artworks, and he seems to have exercised his preferences in an optimal sit- uation to help each friend. However, it should also be noted that many of the paintings he purchased were thought unsellable at the time he acquired them (Bazin, 1958; Rewald, 1946). Can one determine whether or not Caillebotte demonstrated exquisite taste? Through the use of paired comparisons—a major method of art his- torical analysis—one might have the opportunity to ad- dress such a difficult question. The second goal was to assess the role of the Musée d’Orsay in the maintenance of the Impressionist canon. Thus, we can ask with re- spect to contemporary viewers: Do the paintings in its collections have a special place within the Impressionist canon? If so, why? The third goal is more pertinent to experimental and social psychology and quite incidental to both Caille- botte and the Orsay. Its focus is mere exposure as in- dexed by the frequency with which the images appear in print. That is, the relative frequencies of these images in books will serve as a cultural proxy; their differential number should mimic the differential likelihood that in- dividuals will have seen these images before. The more often the images appear, the more likely it is that indi- viduals may have seen them at least once, perhaps more. This idea is essentially the same as that proposed by Fer- guson (1999), a museum curator: Every act of writing or curatorial practice, whenever it gets to the point of naming a name, is participating in a certain level of canon formation, no matter what the intent 322 CUTTING of its author, no matter whether it represents a challenge to the status quo or a confirmation of it. (p. 4) This might be modified only by adding that every act of publishing or broadcasting an image is a participation in the maintenance of, or in the change in, a canon. So I set out to enumerate particular “acts of writing or curatorial practice,” needing only to choose which images to look for and a reasonable place to count them. THE IMAGES, THEIR FREQUENCIE S, AND THEIR REPRESENTATIVENESS Image Choice and Stimulus Preparation For the centennial of Caillebotte’s death, Anne Distel, later head of the Musée d’Orsay, oversaw a celebration of his work. In Distel (1994), there are small, black-and- white images of 65 works from the Caillebotte collec- tion; 8 others are mentioned in brief detail without im- ages and, sometimes, without names. Of these 73, 4 were not considered for this study—one drawing and one wa- tercolor by Jean-François Millet, one drawing by Paul Gavarni, and one decorative fan by Camille Pissarro. From the remaining 69, at least one reasonable-quality version of 64 of the images was located—62 in books and 2 on the Internet.5 In addition, two paintings by Caillebotte himself that were eventually included in the legacy were also used. Thus, 66 images from the Caillebotte collection were used as stimuli: 2 Caillebottes, 5 Cézannes, 8 Degas, 4 Manets, 16 Monets, 14 Pissarros, 9 Renoirs, and 8 Sis- leys. These images are listed in the left column of the Appendix with their French titles and the most descrip- tive of their English titles. Also included are the dates they were painted (if known), their current locations (if known), and their catalogue raisonné reference numbers or, when not available, another reference citation. Among images for each artist, works are listed in their catalogue raisonné order, which is generally taken to be chrono- logically accurate.6 In all, 39 of these images are from the Orsay, 10 in other museums, and 17 in private col- lections or in locations unknown. To begin, I sought many high-quality color reproduc- tions of each image; 51 were found in color, 44 in at least three different printings. These were inspected for appar- ent consistency of reproduction, and what appeared to be the best image (or in the case of the other 7, sometimes the only image) was digitized on a LaCie Scanner III flatbed scanner. The resulting Photoshop 3.0 f iles were about 2 MB in size. Such resolution approximates that of 35-mm f ilm.7 These f iles were stored as JPEG files at medium resolution. The 15 remaining images were digi- tized in black and white (grayscale) at the same resolution. Each image in Caillebotte’s collection was then matched to another image, selected with several constraints: The paired image must have been by the same artist, in the same general style, from roughly the same period (me- dian difference = 2 years, SD = 3.7 years), and with the same type of subject matter. The idea is that these matched images are ones that Caillebotte might have collected had he had the opportunity, and in many cases he proba- bly did. The 66 comparison images were selected from the same general sources as those for the Caillebotte im- ages and were screened for reproduction quality in the same way. The right panels of Figures 1 and 2 show eight examples. Comparison images were chosen without regard for their location—currently in the Musée d’Or- say, another museum, or a private collection. These are listed in the right column of the Appendix. These images were digitized at the same resolution as their Caillebotte counterparts. If matched to a black-and-white image, they too were digitized in grayscale. In all, 33 of the comparison images were from Orsay, 27 from other mu- seums, and 6 from private collections or in locations unknown. In addition, among the 66 pairs, there were 16 direct comparisons of images from the Orsay, 5 of im- ages from other museums, and 1 of images in private col- lections. When not referred to by title, the paintings will be dis- cussed by image numbers, 1–66, with the additional no- tation of c (for the Caillebotte images) and n (for their matched pairs, the non-Caillebotte images). Thus, Image 26c is Monet’s La Gare Saint-Lazare (“The Saint- Lazare train station,” Figure 2A), and Image 8n is Degas’ L’Absinthe (“The absinthe drinker,” Figure 1F). Table 1 presents these image pair numbers and an abbreviated or descriptive form of their English titles for data presenta- tion and discussion. Determination of Image Frequency After I selected the images, a research assistant and I became suff iciently familiar with all 132 to recognize them spontaneously. Carrying copies of the images for reference, we then began to consult all the relevant books we could f ind in the Cornell Fine Arts Library and, later, 12 other Cornell campus libraries. Our intent was to record every occurrence of each of the 132 images in Cornell’s more than 6 million volumes. Carrying an elec- tronic notebook with us, we created and then continually updated separate databases for each of the 132 images. These were Microsoft Excel files that registered each oc- currence with its source’s call number, author, title, date of publication, page number, and occasionally, other in- formation. We found target images in books along shelves by call number according to (1) each of the eight artists, which included monographs, exhibition catalogs, cata- logues raisonnés, and works in sections on painting, sculp- ture, pastels, drawings, watercolors, prints, and com- bined media; (2) all other artists closely or even loosely associated with Impressionism, including those gener- ally painting earlier, such as Corot, Courbet, and Turner, those painting at the same time, such as Fantin-Latour and Forain, and those painting later, such as Gauguin, Seurat, Toulouse-Lautrec, and Van Gogh; (3) artistic terms, such as Impressionism, Neoimpressionism, and Postim- pressionism, but also the Nabis, Naturalism, Japonisme, Cubism, Symbolism, and more generally, 19th century MERE EXPOSURE HELPS MAINTAIN A CANON OF ART 323 Figure 2. A second group of eight Impressionist images. Again Caillebotte owned the four on the left, and again, these 4 pairs were among the 66 pairs used in these studies. Panels A a nd B are Cla ude M onet’s La Gare S aint-La zare (“T he S aint-Lazare tra in sta tion,” Image 26c; Paris, Musée d’Orsay) and his La Gare Saint-Lazare, l’arrivée d’un train (“The arrival of a train at the Saint-Lazare train station,” Im age 26n; Cambridge, MA, Fogg Mu- seum of Art); panels C and D are Camille Pissarro’s Les Toits rouges, coin du village, effet d’hiver (“Red roofs,” Im age 43c; Paris, M usée d’Orsay) and his La Côte des Boeufs à Pon- toise (Im age 26n; London, National Gallery); panels E and F are Pierre-Auguste Renoir’s Bal du M oulin de la Galette (Im age 54c; Paris, Musée d’Orsay) and his Le Déjeuner des canotiers (“Luncheon at the boating party,” Image 54n; Washington, DC, Phillips Collection); and p anels G and H are Alfred S isley ’s Les Régates à M olesey (“ The regatta at M olesey,” Image 59c; Paris, M usée d’Orsay) and his Les Régates à Hampton Court (Image 59n; Zurich, Stiftung Sammlung Emil G. Bührle). Again, see the Appendix for m ore information. Panels A, C, E, and G are reprinted with permission of the Musée d’Orsay, Paris, France; panel B is reprinted with permission of the Harvard University Art Museums; panel D is reprinted with permission of the National Gallery, London; panel F is reprinted with perm ission of the Phillips Collection, Washington, DC; and panel G is reprinted with permission of the Samm- lung E. G. Bührle, Zurich, Switzerland. A B C D E F G H 324 CUTTING T ab le 1 D es cr ip ti ve I m ag e T it le s fo r M em b er s o f E ac h P ai r E n u m er at ed A lp h ab et ic a ll y b y P ai n te r, I m ag e F re q u en ci es , R ec og n it io n R at es in S tu d ie s 1 a n d 2 ( S 1 a n d S 2) , C om p a ra ti ve C o m p le xi ty J u d gm en ts in S tu d y 4 ( S 4) , P ro to ty p ic a li ty R a ti n g s in S tu d y 5 ( S 5) , a n d P re fe re n ce s in S tu d ie s 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , a n d 6 ( S 1– S 4, S 6) Ju d g m en ts f o r th e M o re P ro to - P ro to - F re q ue n t Im ag e C ai ll eb o tt e ty pi - ty p i- C o m - C ol le ct io n F re q u en cy R ec og n it io n ca li ty C o m p ar is o n F re q u en cy R ec og n it io n ca li ty p le x it y P re fe re n ce Im ag es A ll G en er al S 1 S 2 (S 5 ) Im ag es A ll G en er al S 1 S 2 (S 5 ) (S 4 ) S 1 S 2 S 3 S 4 S 6 C ai ll eb o tt e 1 . T h re e fl o or s tr ip p er s* 6 1 3 .0 2 .1 6 2 .2 T w o fl o o r st ri p pe rs † 10 0 .0 1 .3 7 2 .0 .8 1 7 7 5 7 – 67 41 2 . S n ow -c ov er ed r o o fs * 2 6 0 .0 1 – 4 .0 R ue H al év y, 7 th f lo o r† 11 0 .0 4 – 4 .0 – 2 1 – – – 15 C éz an n e 3 . C o up le s by p on d 1 3 0 .0 4 – 4 .6 T h e pi cn ic 12 0 .0 3 – 4 .2 – 7 3 – – – 59 4 . F o u r b at he rs 3 4 0 .0 2 .0 5 3 .2 F iv e b at h er s* 17 0 .0 1 .0 5 4 .5 .6 8 7 6 6 2 – 89 73 5 . F lo w er s, r o co co v as e 1 5 0 .0 1 – 2 .1 F lo w er s, D el ft v as e* 25 0 .0 4 – 3 .9 – 6 2 – 39 – 59 6 . A uv er s fa rm y ar d * 3 0 1 .0 1 .2 1 4 .5 H an g ed m an ’s h o u se * 1 65 1 6 .0 1 .1 6 5 .0 .2 1 6 5 7 6 28 88 63 7 . B ay o f E st aq ue * 8 6 3 .0 3 .1 6 5 .4 E st aq u e lo o k in g e as t 27 0 .0 2 .1 1 5 .0 .5 0 8 7 5 8 – 82 75 D eg as 8 . W om en a t a ca fé * 8 9 6 .0 2 .4 7 4 .0 A b si n th e d ri n k er * 1 73 3 4 .0 7 .1 1 4 .5 .1 9 6 6 7 4 52 62 55 9 . T h ea te r ch o ru s* 1 8 0 .0 4 – 4 .9 D an ce r w it h b o u q u et * 37 4 .0 8 – 4 .9 – 4 6 – – – 40 10 . W om an l ea vi n g b at h * 2 9 0 .0 4 – 4 .7 W o m an d ry in g f ee t* 25 1 .0 5 – 4 .1 – 2 0 – – – 23 11 . D an ce l es so n , v io li n 2 7 0 .0 6 .2 6 4 .8 T w o d an ce rs a t b ar 44 2 .0 9 .1 6 5 .0 .3 6 5 6 6 3 – 69 53 12 . B al le t st ar * 8 7 13 .1 4 .4 2 5 .1 A ra be sq u e, b ou q u et * 23 3 .0 9 .5 3 4 .9 .1 1 7 3 4 1 – 63 48 13 . S q u at ti n g w om an * 1 4 0 .0 1 .1 1 5 .0 W o m an i n t u b * 96 1 0 .0 7 .4 0 4 .0 .8 4 7 0 8 4 – 76 67 14 . S p an is h d an ce r (b /w )* 8 0 .0 1 – 3 .9 A m b as sa d o rs c af é (b /w )* 12 0 .0 1 – 4 .2 – 6 9 – – – – 15 . D an ce r ru b b in g a n k le * 2 6 0 .1 3 – 4 .9 D an ce r, u m br el la 32 1 .0 7 – 4 .5 – 6 0 – 66 – 58 M an et 16 . A ng el in a* 1 8 0 .0 1 .0 5 2 .5 G eo rg es C le m en ce au 47 0 .0 2 .0 5 2 .3 .1 7 6 1 6 3 – 41 43 17 . T h e ra ce s (b /w )† 6 0 .0 1 – 2 .5 L on gc ha m ps h or se ra ce ( b/ w ) 11 0 .0 0 – 3 .6 – 5 6 – – – – 18 . T h re e o n a b al co ny * 2 0 1 21 .0 2 .1 5 3 .0 L u nc h in t he s tu di o 1 04 4 .0 0 .0 5 1 .9 .0 9 5 6 4 7 68 48 43 19 . C ro q u et m at ch † 9 0 .0 6 .1 6 3 .7 O n th e b ea ch 31 0 .0 5 .0 5 3 .0 .8 6 7 2 6 8 65 69 66 M o n et 20 . M t. R ib o u de t (b /w )† 3 0 .0 1 – 4 .2 V ie w , A rg en te ui l pl ai n (b /w )* 8 0 .0 0 – 4 .5 – 7 1 – – – – 21 . A rg en te u il r eg at ta * 6 6 6 .0 3 .1 6 5 .4 S ai li n g , G en n ev il li er s 24 0 .0 1 .0 5 5 .1 .6 4 4 4 5 3 – 23 33 22 . G ar d en l u n ch * 6 4 3 .0 3 .1 6 5 .1 W o m en i n g ar d en * 1 62 2 7 .0 4 .1 1 4 .0 .3 6 6 3 5 7 58 67 65 23 . A pa rt m en t an d c h il d* 3 2 0 .0 1 – 3 .5 C or n er o f a st u d io * 14 0 .0 1 – 2 .1 – 5 6 – 57 – 26 24 . T u il er ie s at d aw n * 1 5 0 .0 2 – 5 .7 S ei n e ic e br ea k- up 11 0 .0 2 – 4 .9 – 6 2 – 6 – 28 25 . G en n ev il li er s p la in 4 0 .0 0 – 5 .6 V ét h eu il , L av ac o u rt * 9 0 .0 6 – 6 .4 – 6 5 – 26 – 77 26 . S t. L az ar e st at io n * 1 2 7 21 .0 5 .2 1 5 .6 S t. L az ar e tr ai n 62 1 2 .0 2 .3 2 5 .3 .6 4 4 9 3 2 – 35 40 27 . P o nt d e R o m e, L az ar e† 1 4 0 .0 0 – 5 .5 P on t E u ro p e, L az ar e 25 2 .0 2 – 6 .3 – 7 5 – – – 66 28 . S t. L az ar e si g n al 2 0 0 .0 0 – 4 .8 S t. L az ar e tr ac ks † 10 0 .0 1 – 4 .9 – 6 7 – 68 – 56 29 . A pp le t re es ( b /w )† 7 0 .0 0 – 4 .4 V ét h eu il l an ds ca p e (b /w )* 5 0 .0 2 – 4 .3 – 4 9 – – – – 30 . V ét h eu il c hu rc h * 3 0 0 .0 1 – 4 .3 V ét h eu il w in te r 7 0 .0 0 – 5 .1 – 4 4 – – – 63 31 . P lu m t re es i n b lo o m ( b /w )† 3 0 .0 0 – 5 .1 U n d er l il ac s (b /w )* 14 0 .0 0 – 4 .3 – 7 4 – – – – 32 . H oa rf ro st * 1 7 0 .0 5 .5 2 6 .0 V ét h eu il i n m is t 23 0 .0 8 .2 2 6 .1 .3 3 7 0 7 8 65 70 59 33 . R ed m u m s (b /w )† 4 0 .0 0 – 4 .7 M u m s (b /w )* 17 0 .0 4 – 4 .3 – 7 4 – – – – 34 . S ei n e at R o ch e G u yo n ( b /w )† 3 0 .0 1 – 5 .5 S ei n e w it h ic e- fl o es ( b /w )* 32 0 .0 1 – 5 .4 – 7 5 – – – – 35 . B el le -I sl e ro ck s* 2 7 0 .0 1 – 5 .4 B el le -I sl e st o rm * 24 0 .0 3 – 4 .6 – 6 3 – 69 – 61 MERE EXPOSURE HELPS MAINTAIN A CANON OF ART 325 T ab le 1 ( C o n ti n u ed ) Ju d g m en ts f o r th e M o re P ro to - P ro to - F re q ue n t Im ag e C ai ll eb o tt e ty pi - ty p i- C o m - C ol le ct io n F re q u en cy R ec og n it io n ca li ty C o m p ar is o n F re q u en cy R ec og n it io n ca li ty p le x it y P re fe re n ce Im ag es A ll G en er al S 1 S 2 (S 5 ) Im ag es A ll G en er al S 1 S 2 (S 5 ) (S 4 ) S 1 S 2 S 3 S 4 S 6 P is sa rr o 36 . L o u ve ci en n es r o ad † 8 0 .0 1 .0 0 3 .1 E nt ra n ce t o V oi si n s* 65 1 1 .0 0 .0 5 3 .8 .4 1 7 3 6 8 61 65 73 37 . B o ug iv al w as h ho u se * 2 1 1 .0 0 – 3 .9 B an k s o f th e O is e 7 0 .0 0 – 5 .1 – 3 7 – – – 39 38 . M o n tf ou ca u lt r o ck s† 7 0 .0 0 – 5 .8 H er m it ag e h il l* 12 0 .0 0 – 4 .9 – 6 0 – 26 – 39 39 . P lo w m an † 5 0 .0 1 – 4 .5 C ha p o nv al l an d sc ap e* 21 1 .0 1 – 5 .5 – 4 4 – – – 49 40 . P o nt o is e g ar d en ( b /w )† 3 0 .0 1 – 4 .5 H er m it ag e, P o n to is e (b /w )† 2 0 .0 0 – 4 .6 – 5 6 – – – – 41 . M o n tf ou ca u lt h ar ve st * 3 3 0 .0 4 .3 2 4 .9 H ay st ac k , P o n to is e† 13 0 .0 7 .1 1 4 .5 .5 3 3 6 2 1 – 38 27 42 . A ut u m n w oo d s‡ 4 0 .0 0 .0 5 5 .9 L it tl e b ri d g e, P on to is e 13 1 .0 2 .0 5 4 .6 .1 2 6 9 3 2 – 37 28 43 . R ed r o o fs , H er m it ag e* 9 9 23 .0 1 .0 0 4 .7 C ôt e d es B o eu fs 38 4 .0 0 .0 0 4 .5 .1 3 4 2 4 2 – 38 46 44 . P o nt o is e o rc h ar d * 5 6 4 .0 1 – 5 .6 L o uv ec ie n n es o rc h ar d 23 1 .0 1 – 4 .5 – 5 7 – – – 35 45 . R ye f ie ld s, P o n to is e† 4 0 .0 6 – 5 .7 C ow he rd , P o n to is e 9 1 .0 2 – 5 .6 – 6 0 – 33 – 48 46 . P at h t h ro u g h w o od s* 1 3 0 .0 1 – 4 .9 R es ti n g i n w o o d s 8 0 .0 1 – 5 .6 – 6 2 – 28 – 45 47 . E d g e of w o od s (b /w ) 3 0 .0 0 – 4 .8 P in k h o u se ( b /w )* 6 0 .0 0 – 5 .4 – 7 2 – – – – 48 . P at h c li m b in g f ie ld s* 7 0 .0 1 – 5 .5 W o m an , E ra g ny f ie ld * 29 2 .0 4 – 5 .6 – 5 2 – – – 47 49 . W h ee lb ar ro w * 1 7 1 .0 0 – 5 .4 A u tu m n p o n d † 3 0 .0 1 – 4 .5 – 6 0 – 22 – 27 R en o ir 50 . G ir l re ad in g * 4 5 2 .0 5 .1 1 5 .7 M ad am e D ar ra s* 8 0 .0 2 .2 2 3 .2 .7 9 8 1 7 9 – 77 59 51 . S t. G eo rg es P la ce ( b /w )† 4 0 .0 0 – 4 .9 A ra b fe st iv al , A lg ie rs ( b /w )* 21 0 .0 1 – 4 .7 – 6 7 – – – – 52 . T o rs o i n s u n li g h t* 9 0 6 .0 3 .1 1 5 .6 A n n a, n u d e 29 2 .0 3 .1 6 4 .2 .6 3 5 1 5 8 – 68 44 53 . T h e sw in g * 9 4 7 .0 5 .4 2 5 .4 T h e bo w er , G al et te 18 0 .0 7 .2 1 5 .8 .4 4 7 2 5 3 – 79 66 54 . M o u li n G al et te p ar ty * 2 8 2 51 .2 5 .5 8 5 .8 B oa ti n g l u n ch eo n 1 92 3 5 .2 1 .5 8 5 .3 .8 5 5 4 4 7 34 52 40 55 . S ei n e at C h am p ro sa y * 2 1 0 .0 0 – 6 .1 S n ow y l an ds ca p e 7 0 .0 1 – 6 .0 – 4 4 – 92 – 25 56 . R ai lr o ad b ri d g e* 1 5 0 .0 1 – 5 .6 W o m an i n g ar d en 7 0 .0 8 – 6 .3 – 3 0 – – – 46 57 . C h at ea u o f m is t (b /w ) 2 0 .0 1 – 4 .6 W in d in g p at h ( b /w )* 44 0 .0 1 – 4 .4 – 6 6 – – – – 58 . G ir ls a t p ia no † ‡ (* + 4 1 ) 6 0 .0 4 – 2 .7 G ir ls a t p ia n o i n re d 19 0 .0 2 – 2 .9 – 5 1 – 33 – 38 S is le y 59 . B o at s at M o le se y * 4 1 1 .0 0 .0 5 5 .1 H am p to n C o ur t B o at s 11 0 .0 4 .1 6 5 .6 .8 6 5 0 3 2 – 40 41 60 . L o u ve ci en n es s tr ee t 7 0 .0 1 – 5 .7 S ab lo n s w o o d s* 10 4 .0 1 – 5 .2 – 4 6 – 88 – 57 61 . S ei n e at S ur es n es * 1 3 0 .0 1 – 5 .5 B ri d g e at S èv re s 2 0 .0 5 – 6 .2 – 4 5 – 71 – 41 62 . S t. M am m ès f ar m * 1 5 0 .0 5 .0 5 5 .4 V o is in s v il la g e* 12 1 .0 5 .2 1 5 .6 .4 7 7 0 5 3 74 75 61 63 . E d g e of f o re st ( b /w )* 9 1 .0 0 – 5 .3 R es ti n g b y a b ro o k ( b /w )* 9 0 .0 1 – 4 .4 – § 4 5 § – – – – 64 . S ei n e at S t. M am m ès ( b /w )* 9 0 .0 1 – 5 .7 L o in g c an al ( b /w )* 4 0 .0 3 – 5 .3 – 8 1 – – – – 65 . S ei n e at B il la n co u rt ( b/ w )† 2 0 .0 1 – 4 .5 S ei n e at B o u gi va l (b /w )* 13 0 .0 0 – 5 .1 – 9 2 – – – – 66 . S ei n e su n se t (b /w )† 2 0 .0 1 – 5 .3 B ou g iv al l oc k ( b /w )* 14 0 .0 1 – 4 .5 – 2 9 – – – – N o te — F re q u en cy , f re qu en cy c o u nt s o f ea ch i m ag e as s ea rc h ed f o r in t h e C o rn el l L ib ra ri es ; re co g n it io n , t h e p ro b ab il it y o f se lf -r ep o rt ed r ec og n it io n o f th e im ag e; p ro to ty p ic al it y, t h e ju d g m en t o f ho w t y p - ic al e ac h i m ag e is o f Im p re ss io ni st a rt ( 1 – 7 s ca le , 7 = m o st ); a ll , nu m er ic al f re q u en cy o f im ag e ac ro ss a ll l ib ra ry b o o k s; g en er al , n u m er ic al f re qu en cy i n i n tr o d u ct o ry a rt h is to ry t ex tb o o k s, w or ld i m ag e so ur ce bo o k s, e n cy cl o p ed ia s, a n d d ic ti o n ar ie s; c o m p le x it y, p ro ba b il it y t ha t th e m o re f re q ue n t im ag e of t h e pa ir w as a ls o j u d g ed a s m or e co m p le x; p re fe re n ce , th e p er ce n ta g e th at t h e m o re f re q ue n t im ag e w as l ik ed b et te r; b /w , bl ac k a n d w hi te c om pa ri so n s, c o lo r im ag es u n av ai la bl e fo r C ai ll eb o tt e im ag es . * Im ag es i n t h e M u sé e d ’O rs ay o r M u sé e d u L o u v re , fo n d s d u M u sé e d ’O rs ay . † Im ag es i n p ri va te co ll ec ti o n s, o r in lo ca ti o n s u nk n ow n . ‡ R en o ir p ai n te d s ev er al J eu n es f il le s a u p ia n o, a n d th ey a re v ir tu al ly in d is ti n g u is h ab le . C ai ll eb ot te ’s i m ag e is s li g h tl y d ar ke r in c o lo r an d h as a s li g h tl y d if fe re nt h an d po si ti o n fo r th e g ir l n o t p la y in g t h e p ia no . B ec au se o f th ei r st ri k in g si m il ar it y, t h e fr eq u en ci es f o r th e O rs ay v er si o n w er e ad d ed t o t h o se o f th e C ai ll eb o tt e v er si o n i n f re q u en cy a n al y se s. § W h en f re qu en - ci es a re t ie d , th e p er ce n ta g e p re fe re nc e o f th e C ai ll eb o tt e im ag e is g iv en . 326 CUTTING art, French art, European art, and modern art; (4) paint- ing and drawing techniques and the use of color; (5) landscapes, seascapes, portraits, still lifes, and flowers; (6) feminism, nudes, bodies, fashion, visual culture, and modern life; (7) aesthetics and form; (8) art appreciation and the psychology and philosophy of art; (9) pictorial art as it relates to music, poetry, and the other arts; (10) guidebooks to Paris and the French patrimoine, a reflec- tion of French culture, geography, and history; (11) books on art collectors and collecting; (12) books on museums and museum design; (13) source books of museum hold- ings around the world and their guide books; (14) books of images for sale as posters; (15) auction house catalogs; (16) introductory art history textbooks; (17) world art textbooks and sourcebooks; (18) encyclopedias and dic- tionaries specific to art; and (19) general encyclopedias. Later, it will be useful to distinguish among image ap- pearances in three types of books: (1) the most focused texts featuring one of the eight artists; (2–15) the broader, more topical texts featuring many artists or those featur- ing one artist but using works of another (e.g., a book on Cézanne with an image by Pissarro); and (16–19) gen- eral textbooks, sourcebooks, encyclopedias, and dictio- naries, whose purpose it is to cover all of art across all of time. In this process, we attended to shelf lists and the on-line catalog, recalled books when necessary, obtained missing books on interlibrary loan, and perhaps most im- portant—and certainly most delightful—simply roamed the aisles of the Cornell Fine Arts and other libraries in search of candidate volumes. We thumbed through as many as were deemed even remotely likely to have any of these images. Several constraints governed our tallies, following the spirit of counting the different “acts of writing or cura- torial practice” (Ferguson, 1999): Multiple copies of the same book were not considered (these were intended for the same audience, had the same call number, and were published at the same time), although a foreign language book and its English language translation were counted separately, as well as different editions of the same book (these were intended for different audiences, had differ- ent call numbers, and were published at different times). Occasionally, in a given book, there would be both a full image and a detail of it. Both of these were counted, with the idea being that if the author wished to show the image twice (or more), it was important to count it twice (or more). In the databases, we recorded the number of details for each image and the number of times the image appeared in color (vs. black and white), on covers, as frontispieces, or spread out on two pages versus one. None of these factors had any statistical leverage in the results that follow, so they will not be considered again. We searched books—sometimes intensively, some- times more leisurely—over the course of 20 months in at least 200 library visits. After several months, totals were accumulated each month or so and were compared, and correlations were computed. These were always ex- tremely high (rs > .99), and increasingly so as time pro- gressed. Thus, however many books we might have missed in assembling our databases, image counts that included them would not have changed the shape of the relationships among the frequencies reported here. In all, we located 4,232 reproductions of the 132 im- ages in 980 different books. Multiple volume sets were counted as a single book. Publication dates were between 1901 and 2002. In this effort, possibly 6,000 books were examined. Frequencies of image occurrence ranged from 2 (1 Pissarro, 1 Renoir, and 3 Sisleys) to 282 (Renoir’s Bal du Moulin de la Galette, Image 54c and Figure 2E).8 Mean frequency for all the images was 32.1; median frequency was 16. Distributions varied widely: Eight images oc- curred more than 100 times (including Figures 1D, 1F, 1G, 1H, 2A, 2E, and 2F), 13 from 50 to 100 times (in- cluding Figures 1A, 1E, 2B, and 2C), 27 from 25 to 49 times (including Figures 1C, 2D, and 2G), 44 from 10 to 24 times (including Figures 1B and 2H), and 40 fewer than 10 times. Thus, among the 132 images, there is a clear gradation from the high canon of Impressionism to its base corpus. Raw frequencies for the images in all the texts and in general texts are shown in Table 1, but a dis- cussion of them will be interlaced with the results of Study 1. An important question arises about the utility of these frequencies: How representative are the relative occur- rences of these 132 images to what would be more broadly available in our culture? This is not an easy question to resolve. Nonetheless, one can approximate an answer in two ways. The f irst related question is: How representative are the numbers of books on each artist in the Cornell collections to all the books and other sources on these painters. This was assessed in three ways. On the Representativeness of the Cornell Collections First, in April 2001, the on-line catalog of the Cornell libraries was searched for all occurrences of the last names of eight artists, used as keywords. Individual records were inspected for relevancy, and the number was recorded.9 The same was then done on line for the Bibliography of the History of Art (BHA), a professional database of books and articles since 1973 that can be searched by the same keyword technique. The correla- tion between the frequencies of the relevant titles in the Cornell collections and those in the BHA was very high (r = .97, p < .001). Relative counts are shown in Table 2. This suggests that the holdings at Cornell on these artists and the scholarly work done on them in the last third of the 20th century are quite tightly related. Given the assump- tion that the artworks of each artist should be distributed roughly in the same way in both corpora (Cornell’s and the BHA’s), Cornell’s collection seems representative of the professional literature. Second, an on-line search was conducted of current and out-of-print books on Amazon.com, screened in the same manner as before. The results are also shown in Table 2, and the correlation between the Cornell hold- MERE EXPOSURE HELPS MAINTAIN A CANON OF ART 327 ings and the Amazon listings is reasonably high (r = .80, p < .02). Differences are not many. The Amazon offer- ings overrepresented Monet and underrepresented Cézanne, as compared with the Cornell holdings and the BHA listings. Third, Internet explorations were conducted in April 2002, with the search engine Google. Search was done three ways: f irst, using the last name of the painter only, then the name in conjunction with “art”; and then the name plus “Impressionism.” The results are shown in Table 2. None of these was reliably correlated with the frequencies in the Cornell collections or in the BHA (rs < .36, n.s.). Monet and Renoir were overrepresented, and Cézanne and Manet were underrepresented, as com- pared with the Cornell collections and the BHA. On the Representativeness of the Images The second methodological question concerns the re- lation of the stimuli used here to the Impressionist canon. To this end, an index of obtained versus expected (O/E) values was created for the images of each painter. Its numerator for each artist is the total number of Cor- nell books in which any of his stimulus images appeared. This is the obtained value, O (column 8 of Table 2). The denominator is the expected value, E. This is the total number of Cornell books accessed using the ar tist’s name as a keyword and screened for content (column 2 of Table 2), plus the number of books accessed using the open-ended keyword “Impression$.” In the latter count, books on Postimpressionism were excluded, and the residual was checked for relevant content and for the presence of many images.10 These totaled 91. The logic of the index is as follows: If the artist’s works among these stimuli were central to his oeuvre, one might rea- sonably expect that at least one of them would appear in every book on the painter and in every book on Impres- sionism generally. In this manner, if the stimuli were rep- resentative, index values (O/E ) should be near 1.0. The results are shown in the column 9 of Table 2. As one can see, Renoir’s index (2.04) was more than twice what might be expected. This is in good measure due to his Bal du Moulin de la Galette, part of the Caillebotte legacy. His index would be nearer unity (1.43) without it. Three other indices were reasonably above 1.0: those for Pissarro (1.46), Degas (1.34), and Monet (1.28). Those of Manet and Cézanne were less, partly because the numbers of their paintings used here were fewer than those for the other artists. In addition, Manet’s was less (0.93) also because of extensive literatures on his Déjeu- ner sur l’herbe (1863), his Olympia (1863; both in the Orsay), his Le Bar aux Folies-Bergère (1882; Courtauld Institute, London), and works on Spanish influences and topics in his art. Except for the Folies-Bergère, Caille- botte’s collection of Manet’s work, and images here matched to them, was subsequent to these. In a reverse manner, Cézanne’s index (0.69) was considerably lower, because Caillebotte’s collection was prior to many more important works, such as the near-Cubist series of La Montagne Sainte-Victoire. Indeed, these are subsequent to Caillebotte’s death. Finally, Sisley’s index was lower still (0.56) for at least two reasons. First, his works are increasingly excluded from presentations of Impression- ism, and second, his images from the more celebrated se- ries on the floods at Marly (e.g., L’Inondation à Port- Marly in the Orsay) were not included here. The fact that indices for these seven artists are generally greater than 1.0 (mean index = 1.19), coupled with the high correla- tion of works in the Cornell collections with those in the BHA database, suggests that these stimuli form a suit- able and representative sample of the Impressionist canon. Table 2 also shows two related indices in the last two columns: that for the representativeness of the Caille- botte images for each painter to the Impressionist canon and that for those images matched to them. Across artists, the means of these indices were 0.77 for both the Table 2 For Each Painter, the Number of Sources Found in Electronic Searches, the Number of Books in the Cornell University (CU) Libraries With Their Im ages, and the Indices of the Representativeness of their Images in the Entire Stimulus Set, Those in the Caillebotte Collection, and Those of the Im ages Matched to Them Number of BooksOn-Line Searches in CU Indices of Academic and Google (31,000) Libraries Obtained/Expected Popular Sources Painter With Frequencies CU Painter +“Impres- These Caille- Comparison Artist Libraries BHA* Amazon Painter +“Art” sionism” Images All† botte Images Caillebotte 16 , 90 8 8.8 5.0 1.6 61 – – – Cézanne 243 1,200 83 116.0 47.2 8.7 230 0.69 0.39 0.53 Degas 156 ,853 119 131.0 62.0 14.3 330 1.34 0.70 1.09 Manet 168 ,942 84 155.0 48.2 9.3 240 0.93 0.68 0.52 Monet 156 ,800 130 846.0 230.0 25.2 316 1.28 0.79 0.89 Pissarro 60 ,414 27 41.6 20.3 5.8 221 1.46 0.95 0.92 Renoir 115 ,372 73 298.0 105.0 13.0 420 2.04 1.46 1.11 Sisley 33 , 77 8 153.0 14.2 3.5 70 0.56 0.38 0.32 *BHA is the Bibliography of the History of Art. †The obtained variable is the number of books in the Cornell libraries with any of the selected images by each painter (column 8). The expected variable is the number of books found in the on-line catalog, using the painter’s name (column 2), plus the 91 books in the catalog on Impressionism, screened for content. 328 CUTTING Caillebotte images and their comparisons, suggesting that the two groups are well matched in representing each artist’s work. STUDY 1 Frequency Counts, Recognition, and Preferences for Images From the Impressionist Canon and Corpus Using the frequency counts of the images as an esti- mate of the likelihood of prior exposure, I set out to de- termine whether there was a relationship between the counts and viewers’ preferences for the images and be- tween the counts and viewer recognition. Also of inter- est were the relative preferences for, and recognition of, the Caillebotte and Orsay images. M ethod All JPEG files were commercially made into 5 3 5 cm slides. Two carousel trays were prepared, with members of each pair in corresponding slots— one image from the Caillebotte collection in one tray and one matched to it in the other. Their order in sequence was random, with several constraints: No images by the same artist could follow one another; black-and-white pairs could not follow each other; half of the Caillebotte images appeared on the left, and half appeared on the right; and 31 images from the Musée d’Orsay appeared on the left, and 41 on the right. Stimulus pairs were presented for about 8 sec each. They were projected onto a large screen by two projectors. The smaller di- mension of each image (vertical if landscape, horizontal if portrait) projected a size of about 8º from the middle of the auditorium. Viewers were 166 Cornell University undergraduates enrolled in a perception course. They were asked to look at each pair and judge which image they liked best. In addition, should they recognize any image, they were to mark which of the two, or both, they recognized of each pair. No record was kept of where the viewers sat. Previous research using a wide variety of stimuli seen from a wide variety of locations in such situations has shown no effect (Cutting, Wang, Flückiger, & Baumberger, 1999; Gibson, 1947; Kozlowski & Cut- ting, 1977). The viewers also filled out a brief questionnaire, indicating how many times they had visited the Johnson Art Museum on the Cor- nell University campus each year (54% said at least once a year), the number of times they had visited any other museum (52% said at least once a year), the number of times they had ever visited the Musée d’Orsay (8% had visited at least once), and how many art history courses they had taken (only 16% had taken any). The stu- dents also reported spending a mean of 10.8 hours per week on the Internet (median = 10, SD = 9.3). Results and Discussion The results divide several ways. In increasing order of psychological interest, f irst the results pertinent to the Caillebotte collection and to that of the Musée d’Orsay and then those interrelating recognition, preference, and frequency will be considered. Caillebotte and the Orsay. Across the database, im- ages from the Caillebotte collection did not appear with any different frequency than their matched pairs. Means were 33.5 (SEm = 5.8) and 30.6 (SEm = 5.1, n.s.), respec- tively. In addition, the Caillebotte images were not claimed to be recognized with any reliably different frequency— 2.5% versus 2.9% (n.s.), respectively. And f inally, the viewers expressed no preference for the Caillebotte im- ages, choosing them 47.5% of the time (vs. 52.5%, n.s.). Thus, there is nothing unusual here about the paintings and pastels in the Caillebotte collection. He cannot be said to have had extraordinary taste in the selection of his images over and above the selection of other images by groups of other collectors—at least for these com- parisons, as judged by a contemporary, relatively naive, but appreciative artistic audience. Next, consider the Musée d’Orsay. Images in its col- lection appeared significantly more often than those elsewhere. Means were 43.1 (SEm = 6.0) versus 20.9 (SEm = 3.2, p < .0001), respectively. This difference oc- curred even when the comparison was restricted only to those images in all the other museums (43.1 vs. 27.5, p < .005). This is not a surprise, since the French govern- ment and the Réunion des Musées Nationaux of France have been thorough in promoting their art for a long time. However, the viewers did not claim to recognize the images in the Orsay more often than others—2.8% versus 2.6% (n.s.), respectively. As might be expected, viewers did prefer them somewhat more often—54% versus 46% [r = .32; t(38) = 2.14, p < .04]—but when frequency differences were factored out, there was no ef- fect of images being in the Orsay (t < 1, n.s.). Thus, what distinguishes this selection of the Orsay holdings is only that its images appear more often. What about Varnedoe’s (1987, p. 202) claim that the state of France got the “cream” of the Caillebotte col- lection? Of course, an empirical analysis of the kind here carries a different force than an academic or professional assessment. Yet one must be wary of how this retrospec- tive prophecy may have been fulfilled; certain of Caille- botte’s images went to the state of France, which made them available and promoted them, which we now re- vere. It is unequivocal that the Caillebotte images in the Orsay appear more often than those that are not (means of 49.7 vs. 9.6, p < .0001).11 And indeed, the Caillebotte Orsay images were somewhat preferred over their matched pairs (53% to 47%, n.s.), whereas those not in the Orsay were not (42% vs. 58%, p < .01). But once the difference in relative frequency is factored out [r = .50; t (63) = 4.08, p < .0002], there was no residual effect of images being in the Orsay (r = .24; t < 1, n.s.). Thus, being in the Orsay does not make a painting part of the canon inde- pendently of how often it appears. Instead, an image may appear more often because it hangs in the Orsay (and hung in its predecessor museums), and appearing there often goes some distance toward maintaining an artwork in the canon as acknowledged by professionals and the public. Finally, paintings and pastels that reside in any museum— the Orsay or elsewhere—appeared reliably more often than those in private collections (37.4% vs. 5.6%; p < .0001), they were recognized more often (3.3% vs. 1.5%; p < .0001), and when paired directly they were preferred more often (61% vs. 39%; p < .001). None of this, of MERE EXPOSURE HELPS MAINTAIN A CANON OF ART 329 course, is a surprise. Essentially, by definition, artworks in private collections cannot be in a canon. What drives all of this, at least statistically, would appear to be fre- quency of appearance. The other relationships among frequency, recognition, and preference are the center- piece of the f indings in this study and are a bit complex. Recognition and frequency. Viewers claimed to rec- ognize only 2.7% of all the images, but this varied ac- cording to observer experience, as is shown in the top panel of Figure 3. Those having never taken an art his- tory course, or having taken only one, recognized 1.6% of all images, and those having had at least two courses recognized 11.9% ( p < .001). Those claiming not to go to an art museum each year recognized 1.1% of the im- ages, whereas those claiming to go at least once a year recognized 4.1% ( p < .001). Finally, those never having been to the Musée d’Orsay recognized 1.9%, whereas those having been at least once recognized 13.4% ( p < .001). Multiple regression showed that the number of im- ages viewers claimed to recognize was correlated with how often they went to any museum (r = .49, p < .0001) and how often they had been to the Musée d’Orsay (r = .49, p < .0001), but once these were factored out, not with how many art history courses they had taken (r = .35, n.s.). The f irst two factors accounted for 39% of the variance in recognition judgments across viewers (R = .62, p < .0001). Recognition of individual images ranged from 0% (2 Manets, 9 Monets, 10 Pissarros, 2 Renoirs, and 3 Sisleys) to 25.4% (Renoir’s Bal du Moulin de la Galette, Image 54c and Figure 2E). Rates for each of the 132 images are given in Table 1. The general patterns will be discussed here. Analyses were then conducted predicting viewers’ recognition of all the images from three different sets of frequencies: (1) those from general texts, (2) those from more topical texts with narrower scope but not featuring a single artist, and (3) those from more focused texts and monographs featuring a single artist. The counts from the first group seem the most f irmly in the Impression- ist canon, those from topical books a bit less so, and those from more focused texts less firmly still, leaving those in none of the books except the catalogues raison- nés in the broad base of the corpus. Thus, in moving from high canon to corpus, it is best to compare the fre- quencies of images in (1) the most general texts with (1+2) those in the general group plus the topical texts, with (1+2+3) those in all texts. These can be conceived as different slices through likely cultural exposure. Figure 3. The contrasts between recognition and preference results as a function of observer sophistication and experience in Study 1. Standard errors are shown. .16 .12 .08 .04 .60 .55 .50 N Y Y N Y N Y1 2+ N YN YN Y Took An Art History Course? Visited a Museum in the Past Year? Ever Visited the Musée d’Orsay? P ro b ab il it y of P re fe rr in g th e M or e F re q u en t Im ag e P ro b ab il it y of R ec og n it io n n = 14 n = 137 n = 13 n = 77 n = 87 n = 151 n = 13 330 CUTTING Consider a hypothetical example: If an image ap- peared in five general texts, 15 topical texts, and 25 mono- graphs, the numerical values for the three classes would be 5, 20, and 45. Psychophysical practice suggests that these should be logarithmically transformed. Since zeros occur (most images never appear in general texts) and since the log of zero is undefined, the natural log (n + 1) was used, where n is the value under consideration (More- land & Zajonc, 1977). Thus, the values above would be log (5 + 1), log (20 + 1), and log (45 + 1), or 1.79, 3.04, and 3.83, respectively. Since such measures are always correlated, multiple regression is the best statistical tool for titrating effects of the appearances of images in the different types of academic sources. Claims of image recognition were most correlated with their log frequency of occurrence in general art texts [r = .46; F(1,128) = 7.5, p < .01], but not with the sum of the general and topical texts [r = .41; F(1,128) < 1, n.s.] or with occurrences across all texts [r = .43; F(1,128) = 1.8, n.s.]. The multiple correlation accounted for 23% of the variance in the data [R = .48; F(3,128) = 12.0, p < .0001], but clearly, almost all of the effect came from the frequencies of images in the most general sources. This result is not a surprise. Those images should be the most recognizable. However, in this con- text, it is important to note that there is currently no in- troductory art history course at Cornell and that only 27 of 166 (16%) undergraduates had taken any art history courses. Thus, I claim that recognition reflects general knowledge of particular viewers, not their perusal of in- troductory art history textbooks or encyclopedias in the Cornell libraries or elsewhere. Most of the image pairs were in color, but 15 were black and white. Did this effect recognition? Yes. That is, when the differential frequencies were factored out, there remained an effect of color: Color images were claimed to be recognized 3.7% of the time, but black- and-white images only 0.7% [r = .31; F(1,127) = 9.52, p < .003].12 The most frequently occurring black-and- white stimulus was Image 57n. If comparison color im- ages are restricted to its value (n = 44) and less, the dif- ference is still reliable (2.8% vs. 0.7%, p < .01). Color also improves recognition of objects and scenes in labo- ratory studies (Joseph & Proff itt, 1996; Oliva & Schyns, 2000; Wurm, Legge, Isenberg, & Luebker, 1993). Note that no assumption is made that the observers’ responses necessarily represent the true recognition of a particular painting or pastel. There is no way to verify them. Nonetheless, there are additional interesting trends. For example, against a backdrop recognition of 2.7%, the 16 images by Degas were recognized at a rate of 6.1% ( p < .001), and the 7 of his images that were clearly dancers were recognized at a mean rate of 9.4%. Recog- nition of the dancer images, it would seem, is an exam- ple of generic recognition—recognition by that individ- ual only that he or she had seen images of Degas-like dancers before (for a laboratory analogue, see Monahan, Murphy, & Zajonc, 2000). Given that there are 600 pas- tels and paintings of dancers in the Degas catalogue raisonné (Lemoisne, 1946), this is perhaps not entirely surprising. Preference and frequency. Herein lie the key results of the study. Over all pairs, the viewers preferred the more frequently occurring image of each pair on 59% of all the trials. This highly reliable effect [t(165) = 9.09, p < .0001] is about the size of many mere exposure ef- fects in the literature (e.g., Seamon & Delgado, 1999). Indeed, 48 of the more frequent images in 64 pairs were preferred (with one tie in preference and one in fre- quency; z = 3.9, p < .001). Unlike the recognition results, this effect was uniform across all types of observers, as is shown in the bottom panel of Figure 3. It occurred equally for those who never had had an art history course [59%; t (130) = 8.14, p < .0001] and those who had taken at least one such course [59%; t(27) = 4.01, p < .0001]. It occurred for those not visiting a museum in the past year [59%; t(79) = 5.1, p < .0001], those visiting once [59%; t(46) = 6.8, p < .0001], and those visiting at least twice [58%; t (38) = 5.4, p < .0001], and it occurred equally for those not visiting and those visiting the Musée d’Orsay (59% each, ps < .001). Importantly, when differences in recognition rates were compared with preferences for each of the 66 images pairs, there are no reliable correlation (r = .18, n.s.). Bornstein (1989), among others, noted that although mere exposure effects are a function of number of expo- sures, the effect asymptotes with increasing numbers of presentations. Preferences were then compared against the difference in log values of the images for the three levels of texts in which they appeared. Again, if one image appeared in f ive encyclopedias, 15 topical texts, and 25 monographs, the natural log transformation of the frequencies of 6, 21, and 46 would be 1.79, 3.04, and 3.83, respectively. If its comparison image appeared in 0, 25, and 40 such texts, the log of 1, 26, and 66 would be 0.0, 3.25, and 4.19. Differences in log values would then be 1.79, 20.21, and 20.36. These values would be used as inputs to the regression. Multiple regression analysis showed that viewer pref- erence was not correlated with the difference in log fre- quency of image appearance in the most general texts (r = .36, F < 1, n.s.) or with the differences in the sum of frequencies in the f irst group and the topical texts (r = .37, F < 1, n.s.). However, it was reliably correlated with the difference in frequencies in all occurrences [r = .54; F(1,62) = 11.5, p < .001]. The multiple correlation on preference results accounted for 30% of the variance in the data [R = .55; F(3,62) = 9.1, p < .001], again with most of the effect coming from a single source—this time, differences in overall frequency. Overall frequen- cies for each image, I claim, act as a proxy for the like- lihood and frequency with which an individual may have been exposed to that image in his or her broader cultural experience. Interestingly, the correlation between pref- erences and the differences in occurrences in all books (r = .54) is the same regardless of whether all the occur- rences of the images since 1901 are considered, or only those since 1989. The latter, of course, are likely the oc- MERE EXPOSURE HELPS MAINTAIN A CANON OF ART 331 currences correlated with what is most relevant to these viewers. This result also speaks strongly to the stability of the canon of images across the course of the 20th cen- tury, a topic to which I will return in the conclusion. A variety of other frequency transforms were correlated with preference results, but none provided as strong a correlation as log (n + 1). Given this result, the greater the difference in the logarithms, the stronger the prefer- ence should be. Indeed, this is what occurred. Figure 4 shows the relative preferences for the more frequent image across three groups of image pairs. The increasing trend seen in the f igure is what drives statistically reliability [r = .54; t(64)= 5.1, p < .0001]. Unlike recognition responses, preferences were not af- fected by color versus black-and-white presentation. That is, once the differences in relative frequencies of the various types of books are factored out, there is no re- maining contribution of color [F(1,61) < 1, n.s.]. Nonethe- less, without considerations of frequency, the more fre- quent image in a black-and-white pair was actually preferred more often (67%) than was the more frequent image of a color pair [57%; t(62) = 2.37, p < .01]. This would appear to be due to variance in small numbers: The generally lower frequencies of occurrence for black- and-white pairs generated greater mean difference ratios (4.9:1) than for color pairs (2.8:1). In addition, all digital f iles were inspected for mean lu- minance and RGB values. Preference within pairs was not related to differences in luminance (r = .11, p > .35) or to distributions of red (r = 2.04), green (r = 2.05), or blue (r = .03) colors. Indeed, the multiple correlation of all these variables was also not significant (R = .09, p > .20). STUDY 2 Preference and Recognition in an Older Group The goals of this second study were to replicate the primary results of Study 1 with an older group. In par- ticular, the f irst study showed preferences related to dif- ferences in frequencies of occurrence for pairs of images and no relation between preference and recognition. This joint result is important for demonstrating mere expo- sure. Nonetheless, the lack of relation could be due, in part, to a floor effect, because so few of the images were claimed to be recognized. An older group would likely recognize more. Method Twenty-five pairs of images were selected from the 66 pairs used in Study 1. These are indicated in Table 1—1 Caillebotte, 3 Cézannes, 4 Degas, 3 Manets, 4 Monets, 4 Pissarros, 4 Renoirs, and 2 Sisleys. These were among the more frequent in the database of images from all books (mean frequency of 61.0 vs. overall mean of 32.1 in Study 1). They were also among the more recognized (mean of 4.8% vs. 2.7% in Study 1). No black-and-white pairs were used in this study. To vary presentation format, digital images were mounted in pairs on the same slide as part of a PowerPoint presen- tation. The left–right arrangement of half the pairs was reversed from that of Study 1, and the presentation order was also changed, but otherwise with the same constraints. In all, 13 Caillebotte im- ages appeared in the left, 12 on the right; 14 Orsay images were on the left, 16 on the right. For most of the viewers, the largest dimen- sion of each image subtended about 8º. As a group, 9 faculty mem- bers (mean age = 46 years) and 10 graduate students (mean age = 25 years) viewed the 25-pair sequence; 12 had visited the Musée d’Orsay at least once. Each made preference judgments and marked which images they remembered having seen before. Results and Discussion This group reported recognizing 18.6% of the images, many more than in Study 1 [t(47) = 7.8, p < .0001]. Indi- vidual image rates are given in Table 1. Claims of recog- nition were unrelated to frequencies of appearance in all books (t < 1, n.s.) and in general tests [t(47) = 1.2, n.s.] and were unrelated to their preferences [r = 2.31; t(23) = 1.6, n.s.]. There was no difference in recognition of Caillebotte versus comparison images and, independent of frequency, no superior recognition of Orsay images (ts < 1, n.s.). Nonetheless, as in Study 1, the viewers preferred the more frequent image of each pair—here, 57% of the time [t(23) = 3.6, p < .002]; 17 of 25 pairs showed this effect (z = 2.2, p < .02). Rates for each comparison are given in Table 1. This set of images had about the same prefer- ence margin in Study 1 (58% vs. 42%). In addition, there was a high correlation of preferences among the 25 image pairs used in the two studies (r = .84, p < .0001). Again, preferences were related to the log difference in frequencies across all books [r = .57; F(1,22) = 4.7, p < .05], but less so to the log difference in frequencies in general texts (r = .43, F < 1). Independent of frequency, however, there was no preference for Caillebotte images or Orsay images (ts < 1, n.s.). Thus, the major features of the results of Study 1 were replicated. STUDY 3 Preferences of Children The goal of this study was to determine whether the pattern of preference results found in Studies 1 and 2 Figure 4. Difference in the ratio of overall frequency of the im- ages in the pairs and the mean preference of the more frequent of the pair in Study 1. In general, images were preferred over their m ates as a function of how much more often they occurred. 332 CUTTING might be found in a group of children. Should children’s preferences match those of previous studies, something other than mere exposure must be at work; children sim- ply lack broad exposure to art. Here, I also wanted to focus on a group of images that would be least likely to have been seen before. M ethod Twenty-four different pairs of images were selected from the 66 pairs. These are indicated in Table 1: 2 Cézannes, 2 Degas, 2 Manets, 7 Monets, 5 Pissarros, 3 Renoirs, and 3 Sisleys. Nineteen pairs contained images that were among the least frequent from all the books— mean image frequency of 15.0 versus 32.1 in Study 1. These will be called rare images. For comparison purposes, f ive pairs containing the most frequent images were also included— Image Pairs 6, 8, 18, 22, and 54, with a mean frequency of 146 per image. These will be called common images. Mean Study 1 prefer- ence rates for the more frequent images were 59% for both the rare and the common pairs. Nine of the 24 pairs had been used in Study 2; 5 were common-image pairs. Again, no black-and-white pairs were used in this study. Again, digital images were mounted in pairs on the same slide as part of a PowerPoint presentation. The left–right arrangement was balanced and randomized for the Caille- botte images and for the more frequent images, and the presentation order was randomized anew. Otherwise, the same constraints were followed as those in Study 1. Sixty-three students in a Montessori school participated in three groups as part of an art class. There were 13, 28, 19, and 10 stu- dents, whose ages were 6, 7, 8, and 9 years old, respectively. In ad- dition 5 teachers participated. Each made preference judgments on an answer sheet. Particular care was taken that all the students un- derstood the instructions. Pairs were presented for a minimum of 10 sec each. Questions were allowed during the tests, so presenta- tion rates varied. Results and Discussion These children showed no preference for the Caille- botte (49.5% vs. 50.5%) or Orsay (45.2% vs. 54.8%; ts < 1, n.s.) images. More important, they also showed no preference for the more frequent image of each pair— 51.2% versus 48.8% [t (22) = .26, p > .75]. Common (49.4% vs. 51.6%) and rare (52.0% vs. 48.0%) pairs did not differ in this regard. Interestingly, mean teacher pref- erence was 60% for the more frequent image of each pair [t(22) = 4.1, p < .06]. The children’s responses, however, were far from random; they seemed to like paintings with brighter colors. Responses of each age group correlated re- liably with those of all other age groups [rs > .63; ts(22) > 3.9, ps < .001], but they did not correlate with the pref- erences of the adults of Study 1 for the same images (r = 2.16, p > .40). Overall preferences for more frequent images were 48.7%, 47.1%, 53.0%, and 55.8%, respec- tively, for the 6-, 7-, 8-, and 9-year-old groups. Nonethe- less, the variance was large, and the apparent increasing trend was not reliable, either for all the pairs [t(61) = 1.56, p > .12] or for the rare pairs [t(61) = 1.6, p > .10]. Thus, whatever governed the adult preferences in Studies 1 and 2 is not operative in the preferences of chil- dren. This is an important null result. Although elemen- tary school children may have seen a few Impressionist paintings before, they lack the broad cultural exposure to Impressionist art that adults have experienced. STUDY 4 Complexity Is Not a Mediator of Preference The goals of this fourth study were twofold: to replicate the preference results of Studies 1 and 2 and to explore the possible contributions of what is called stimulus complexity. Bornstein (1989) reviewed the literature on the relation between complexity and preference in labo- ratory experiments on mere exposure. He found that six of nine published studies found stronger mere exposure effects for complex stimuli than for simple stimuli, but more relevant are those using art works as stimuli. Here, the results are mixed. As was mentioned earlier, Berlyne (1970) and Zajonc et al. (1972) found opposing effects: one favoring a preference for complex stimuli, the other for those simpler. Nonetheless, the results of neither of these studies are generally applicable to representational art. Both confined themselves to abstract art (where bits and pieces could be counted in the context of complex- ity), and the latter carved up the artworks (under the as- sumption that a detail is less complex than the whole). Since complexity cannot be defined with rigor in many domains (Goodman, 1972), I let the observers define it for themselves. Method The viewers were 112 students from a classroom population, dif- ferent from those in Study 1, but taking the same class a year later. Only 17% had taken an art history course, and 7% had been to the Musée d’Orsay. The same 25 pairs were used as those in Study 2, again in a PowerPoint presentation, but shown in a different order and with some counterbalanced changes in left– right positions. Again, pairs were presented for about 8 sec each. Viewers were asked to make a judgment about which image in each pair they pre- ferred. In addition, after the first run through of the stimulus set, the pairs were presented a second time, and the viewers were asked to make judgments about which image was more complex. Results and Discussion Again, from the database tallies of all the books, the more frequent image of each pair was preferred over its counterpart [58% vs. 42%; t(24) = 16.7, p < .0001], the same preference margin for these images as in Study 2. Again, 17/25 pairs followed this pattern (z = 2.2, p < .02), but 4 pairs changed polarity of preference. Overall, preferences here were well correlated with those for the same images in Study 1 (r = .80, p < .0001). Individual pair results are again shown in Table 1. The correlation of preference with frequency differences across all the books was reliable and about the same as that in Study 1 [r = .47; F(1,22) = 6.3, p < .02], and again, that for gen- eral texts was not [r = .21; F(1,22) = 1.0, n.s.]. Finally, the Caillebotte images were not preferred over their matched pairs (48% vs. 52%, n.s.), Orsay images were not preferred either (49% vs. 51%, n.s.), and preferences were unrelated to museum trips or art history courses taken. Complexity judgments were not correlated with pref- erences (r = .18; t < 1, n.s.). Individual means for each image are shown in Table 1. Inspecting the relative judg- MERE EXPOSURE HELPS MAINTAIN A CANON OF ART 333 ments for each pair suggests that viewers were simply counting things, usually people, in the pictures. Consider four image pairs exhibiting strongly judged complexity differences. Degas’s Femmes à la terrase d’un café, le soir (“Women outside a café in the evening”) was judged as more complex than his L’Absinthe 81% of the time (Image Pair 8, Figures 1E and 1F). This may be because there are f ive people in the foreground of the former (with many in the background) and only two in the lat- ter. Renoir’s Bal du Moulin de la Galette was judged more complex than his Le Déjeuner des canotiers (“Lun- cheon of the boating party;” Image Pair 54, Figures 2E and 2F) by 85% of the viewers. This is likely because the former has uncountably many people and the latter but a dozen. Pissar ro’s La Côte des Boeufs à Pontoise was judged as more complex than his Les Toits rouges (“The red roofs”) 87% of the time (Image Pair 43, Figures 1D and 1C). Both are views of the Hermitage in Pontoise in winter, but the former has more trunks of tall trees in the foreground. Finally, Manet’s Le Déjeuner à l’atelier (“Lunch in the studio;” with three people) was judged more complex than his Le Balcon (with three people clearly visible and a fourth in shadow; Image Pair 18, Figures 1H and 1G) 91% of the time. This is probably because the table in the former is cluttered with food, and the scene is cluttered with other objects. There is no such clutter in the latter. STUDY 5 Prototypicality is Not a Mediator of Preference Another account for the preference results of the Stud- ies 1, 2, and 4 might be that viewers, when faced with making preference judgments, were comparing images on the basis of what they thought were the most repre- sentative (prototypical) Impressionist paintings. This study was designed to address this issue. M ethod Twenty-one undergraduate students in an advanced visual percep- tion seminar viewed a PowerPoint sequence of 138 images—all 132 used in Study 1, plus 6 more by Gustave Caillebotte. 13 These images were presented singly, and viewers rated them on a scale of 1 to 7 as to how representative each was of Impressionist paintings, with 7 being the most prototypical . Presentation was haphazard, with the constraints that images by the same artist could not follow one an- other, nor could black-and-whit e images. Six students had participated in either Study 1 or 4, and 6 had taken at least one art history course. Results and Discussion Prototypicality judgments were not correlated with the experimental variables of previous interest—the fre- quencies of the images in all the texts or in the introduc- tory texts (rs = 2.05 and .06, respectively, n.s.) or the recognition rates in Studies 1 and 2 (rs < .20, n.s.). The differences in prototypicality judgments within a pair were also not correlated with preferences in Studies 1, 2, or 3 (rs < .14, n.s.) or complexity judgments in Study 4 (r = 2.05, n.s.). Prototypicality judgments for individual images are shown in Table 1. These null results may seem odd. After all, the most frequently occurring im- ages are the prototypes of the canon. Nonetheless, it seems that the viewers were making judgments in a dif- ferent way. There were some striking effects of prototypicality judgments by painter. Most prototypic were the 16 im- ages of Sisley (mean rating = 5.28). This is interesting, because he is clearly the least major of the seven “major” Impressionists, as suggested by the book counts in Table 2. Clustered next and together were the 32 works of Monet (4.96), the 28 of Pissarro (4.93), and the 18 of Renoir (4.96), with the f irst two reliably different from Sisley ( ps < .05). Clustered next, and reliably below these four, were the 16 works of Degas (4.59) and the 10 of Cézanne (4.24). Finally, well below these were the 8 of Manet (2.81) and the 10 of Caillebotte (2.77). Inter- estingly, Cézanne and Manet are often described as not really being Impressionist painters (Cézanne’s most im- portant works are later than the period of the 1870s and 1880s, and Manet’s earlier), and Caillebotte as well. In addition, Degas never painted outdoors, which may have influenced judgments. Other classifications of images also show some inter- esting differences. Of this set of 138 images, 90 can be classified as landscapes, 44 as portraits (often of groups and often outside), and 4 as still lifes. Mean ratings for landscapes (4.96) were reliably higher than those for portraits [4.14; t(132) = 4.71, p < .0001] and still lifes [3.75; t(92) = 5.2, p < .0001]. Portraits and still lifes did not differ. It should be noted that, among these images and throughout their oeuvres, Sisley painted only land- scapes, Pissarro mostly landscapes, Renoir mostly por- traits, and Degas almost exclusively portraits. OVERVIEW Preference The adult viewers of Studies 1, 2, and 4 generally liked the more frequent images of each pair, but the chil- dren of Study 3 did not. The effect in the adults was salient for differences measured across all the books in the Cornell databases; preference was not independently related to frequency differences in general texts. Prefer- ence strength was not a function of whether or not im- ages were in color (Study 1; in Studies 2 and 4, all were in color), nor were they a function of whether or not the observers took trips to museums or attended art history courses. Recognition In Study 1, viewers recognized few of these Impres- sionist images—less than 3%. Low recognition rates are requisite for laboratory demonstrations of mere expo- sure (Kunst-Wilson & Zajonc, 1980). In that study, recog- nition rates were related to their frequency in general texts in the Cornell collections, but not to their frequency in all the books. Recognition was more frequent for color images, and it was also related to viewers’ visits to the Musée d’Orsay and other art museums. In Study 2, a 334 CUTTING more seasoned set of viewers recognized 18% of a smaller set of images, but their recognition rates were not related to any frequency counts. In Studies 1 and 2, the viewers’ recognition rates and preferences were not related, an- other requisite for laboratory demonstrations of mere ex- posure. This pattern has been recognized for quite some time (Zajonc, 1980), and there is neurophysiological ev- idence in its support (Elliott & Dolan, 1998). Art Collections Several conclusions can be drawn. First, at least with respect to this type of analysis and experiment, images from the Caillebotte collection were neither preferred more often nor recognized more often than those matched to them, and the Caillebotte images were not more fre- quently occurring. Second and in contrast, the Musée d’Orsay holdings did occur more often in this sample. This is not a surprise. A systematic culling of images from the Orsay, which owns one tenth of all Impression- ist paintings publicly available, would form the bulk of the core of the canon.14 However, with the same caveats as above, the Orsay’s holdings were neither preferred nor recognized more often than other images matched to their frequencies of occurrence. Third, art in private col- lections is not in the Impressionist canon. These images occurred less often in the literature; they were less fre- quently recognized; and, lacking exposure, they were preferred less. On the Availability of Art Together, all of these trends support the idea that it is not where an image is, or who bought it, but how often it appears that affects public appreciation. Any artwork in a prized location—such as in the Musée d’Orsay—has a great advantage over other artworks, but systematic pro- motion by other museums and authors can overcome this advantage. Preference Judgments and Artistic Quality Surely the most interesting result of these studies is the relation of viewer preferences to how often images occurred in the Cornell libraries. Mere exposure aside, how else might this effect be accounted for? In dis- cussing these results with colleagues, quite a few have suggested that perhaps viewers can simply judge quality, choosing the “better” picture. I don’t believe this for a moment, but this is not the place to deal at length with this important and thorny issue. Here, let me simply ac- knowledge that there are many statements outside the art historical literature (e.g., Kant, 1794/1952; Pirsig, 1974) about people’s culturally independent ability to judge quality, as well as many within it (e.g., Rosenberg, 1967; Woodford, 1983). Nevertheless, there are also more re- cent and culturally sophisticated counters to this claim (e.g., Bal & Bryson, 1991; Cheetham, 2002; Moxey, 1994). Indeed, even Kenneth Clark, director of the Na- tional Gallery London in his 20s and, years later, a BBC icon of the visual arts, wrote in his memoirs (Clark, 1974): At the age of nine or ten I said with perfect confidence “this is a good picture, that is a bad one” . . . This almost insane self-confidence lasted till a few years ago, and the odd thing is how many people have accepted my judge- ments. My whole life might be described as a long, harm- less confidence trick. (p. 47) Nonetheless, rather than trying here to rule out quality as a mediator of these results, let me try one last time to rule in mere exposure in a different way. This also pro- vides an experimental effect that the notion of quality cannot explain. STUDY 6 Preferences From the Combination of Cultural and Classroom Exposure If mere exposure mediates preferences for artworks, it ought to be possible to combine the effects of exposures to art across two situations—the viewers’ personal his- tories with these images outside the classroom and class- room exposure to them. Method All 51 color pairs from Study 1 were used as stimuli. During 21 class periods in an introductory perception course (a year after Study 4 and 2 years after Study 1) and at the beginning of each lec- ture, students were presented 12 (on 18 days) or 13 (on 3 days) im- ages, for a total of 255 presentations, 5 per pair. Across the 21 ses- sions and for each pair, the less frequent image from the Cornell Library tallies (see Table 1) was presented four times; the more fre- quent image was presented only once. Each image was presented singly for about 2 sec as a PowerPoint slide, without comment. Pre- viously, Harrison and Zajonc (1970), Marcus and Hakmiller (1975), and Vanbeseleare (1983) found no effects of presentation rates in the range from 2 to 50 sec; it is the presentation that matters, not its duration. Several constraints governed the composition of a day’s set of slides: Images that would later be a test pair were not both presented, and no more than two images by the same artist could ap- pear successively. More important, the same image did not appear twice on the same day or even on successive days. On a 22nd class period, the 51 pairs of images were presented side by side in a PowerPoint presentation for about 6 sec per pair in a new random sequence. Insofar as possible, three presentation fac- tors were counterbalanced, left and right— more frequent images (25 left, 26 right), Caillebotte images (26/25), and Orsay images (28/30). In addition, no pairs of images by the same painter fol- lowed one another. The delays between exposure(s) and test ranged between 12 and 84 days. Although no studies in Bornstein’s (1989) meta-analysis used delays as long as these, the general result across the literature is that short delays produce weak effects, those up to two weeks relatively strong effects, and naturalistic studies (such as those presented here) with indeterminate delays often produce the strongest effects. Indeed, Harrison (1977) showed that both heterogeneous display sequences (no successively repeating items) and longer delays enhance exposure– affect relationships. The 116 viewers in attendance were asked to indicate on a re- sponse sheet which image of each pair they liked best. They also filled out a brief questionnaire, as in Study 1. Mean self-reported attendance over the 21 exposure sessions was 18 days (median = 19, SD = 3.2); 70% said that they visited the Johnson Art Museum MERE EXPOSURE HELPS MAINTAIN A CANON OF ART 335 on the Cornell University campus at least once a year, 47% said they visited at least one other art museum each year, 14% said they had visited the Musée d’Orsay, and 22% said they had taken at least one art history course. The students also reported spending a mean of 12.5 h per week on the Internet (median = 10, SD = 9.6). For the critical comparisons, the preferences of viewers in this study were compared with those of Study 1, a similar group but without the systematic classroom exposure. Thus, major analyses here are based on a between-group design, looking at differences in preferences across the 51 image pairs. Results and Discussion More frequently published images were no longer pre- ferred, accruing only 48% of all the judgments. This was reliably lower than the 57% preference in Study 1 for these 51 colored-image pairs [F(1,50) = 26.8, p < .001]. Indeed, in 41 of 50 image pairs (with one tie), the more frequent image received a smaller proportion of prefer- ence judgments (z = 4.2, p < .0001). Preference rates for the more frequent image are found in the last column of Table 1. No other results proved statistically reliable: Image pairs that were published more frequently (sum > 50, n = 26) changed, on average, as much as those that occurred less often (sum < 51, n = 25; 9.0% vs. 9.2%, re- spectively), and image pairs whose frequency ratios were relatively large (>2.5, n = 26) changed as much as those whose ratios were nearer unity (< 2.5, n = 25; 10.1% vs. 8.1%, respectively). If observers were able to judge quality alone in the image pairs, their judgments should not have been con- taminated by appearance differences in the classroom. To be sure, quality could still play a role, but such an ac- count must then rely on two processes—mere exposure and quality assessment (however that might be done). My proposal is that these are one-process results and done on the basis of mere exposure inside and outside the classroom. CONCLUSION: M ERE EXPOSUR E IS A MEDIATOR OF CANON MAINTENA NCE How might mere exposure affect an artistic canon, its reception, and its maintenance? All of us, as members of a culture, absorb what is around us. As visual beings, we digest images voraciously, even without noticing. A very small proportion of these images are from the Impres- sionist corpus and canon. Nonetheless, we respond to their occurrences in our future interactions with Impres- sionism. We like the ones we have seen before and, par- ticularly, those we may have seen many times.15 We f ind these images everywhere. Impressionist paintings are not only in galleries, but also in books and on textbook covers, calendars, posters, coasters, tee shirts, and towels, and one can find them readily on the Internet. Mere exposure dictates that every occurrence can matter, particularly when an image is otherwise rare. Museum curators ought to note the full implications of this f inding. Museums already do a reasonably good job at promoting their collections, but placing images every- where and without cost to the public will go a long way toward ratifying the importance of their collections as re- ceived by the broader public. But the competition is stiff; everyone seems to be doing it. Currently, the correlation of what’s in the literature and what’s on the Internet, as shown in Table 2, is not high. If this difference is main- tained, the canons of the future may change in directions independent of goals and interests of art professionals. Thus, I claim that artistic canons are promoted and maintained, in part, by a diffuse but continual broadcast of their images to the public by museums, authors, and publishers. The repeated presentation of images to an au- dience without its necessarily focused awareness or re- membrance makes mere exposure a prime vehicle for canon maintenance. Tacitly and incrementally over time, this broadcast teaches the public to like the images, to prefer them, eventually to recognize them as part of the canon, and to want to see them again. In turn, it seems likely that this implicit education also reinforces the choices made by professionals in what they present to that public. The public’s appreciation rewards museums, scholars, and the publishing industry by demonstrating an interested and responsive audience. And so it goes, with mere exposure cyclically rein- forcing the canons through generations of authors and curators, on the one hand, and of museumgoers and book buyers, on the other. Although it may be tacit, I do not claim that this is necessarily a subversive trend or one to be denigrated. I claim it is part of the same force that binds a culture. It is part of our human nature, built on an evolutionary substrate that makes very good sense. It helps ensure steadiness in culture more generally and relative constancy in artistic canons more particularly. REFERENCE S Bal, M., & Bryson, N. (1991). Semiotics and art history. Art Bulletin, 73, 174-208. Bazin, G. (1958). Impressionist paintings in the Louvre (S. Cunliffe- Owen, Trans.). London: Thames & Hudson. Bérhaut, M. (1994). Gustave Caillebotte: Catalogue raisonné des peintures et pastels. Paris: La Bibliothèque des Arts. Berlyne, D. E. (1970). Novelty, complexity, and hedonic value. Per- ception & Psychophysics, 8, 279-286. Bernac, J. (1966). The Caillebotte bequest to the Luxembourg. Reprinted and translated in D. 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B. (1970, February). Brainwash: Familiarity breeds com- fort. Psychology Today, 4, 33-35, 60-62. Zajonc, R. B. (1980). Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no infer- ences. American Psychologist, 35, 151-175. Zajonc, R. B. (2001). Mere exposure: A gateway to the subliminal. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 224-228. Zajonc, R. B., Crandall, R., Kail, R. V., & Swap, W. (1974). Effects of extreme exposure frequencies on different affective ratings of stimuli. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 38, 667-678. Zajonc, R. B., Shaver, P., Tavris, C., & van Kreveld, D. (1972). Ex- posure, satiation, and stimulus discriminability. Journal of Personal- ity & Social Psychology, 21, 270-280. NOTES 1. Caillebotte left no records concerning the accumulation of his col- lection. He seems to have acquired 57 of the 66 artworks used here in the 7 years up to and including 1882, and probably only 9 in the 12 years thereafter. Among the latter, 3 were gifts (1 from Monet and 2 from Renoir), and 6 were purchased (3 Sisleys and 3 Manets). The Manets were purchased in 1884 at the studio sale to support his widow. Nonetheless, in 1882, Caillebotte retired from Paris and removed him- self from new developments in art. In that year, Georges Seurat had yet to paint his f irst divisionist ( pointilliste) painting; Paul Gauguin was still a stockbroker; Vincent Van Gogh, although a painter for 2 years (having given up teaching and mission work), was still 4 years away from moving to Paris; and Henri Toulouse-Lautrec was a teenage art student. 2. As a part of a larger project, I inspected 30 books on Impression- ism published over the 20th century and found that these seven artists had works appearing in at least 29 of them. The next most frequent artists were Berthe Morisot (25), Mary Cassatt (22), Georges Seurat (21), Frédéric Bazille (19), Paul Gauguin (18), Henri Toulouse-Lautrec (16), Gustave Caillebotte (14), and Vincent Van Gogh (13). 3. Much has been made of this quote, and it takes many different forms. Shikes and Harper (1980), for example, cited it as including Manet rather than Monet. 4. Most recent research on mere exposure methodologically allies it- self with subliminal perception. That is, stimuli are presented briefly and then masked so that observers cannot report what they have seen but can be shown to have processed it through results of priming or prefer- ence (e.g., Kunst-Wilson & Zajonc, 1980; Monahan, Murphy, & Za- jonc, 2000; Moreland & Zajonc, 1977; Seamon, Brody, & Kauff, 1983). These results are interesting and important, but from the perspective of this article, subliminal perception is a laboratory phenomenon used to mimic the processes in real life perception—inattention and forgetting over the long haul. Otherwise, it can have no general interest. Thus, in this context, I am less interested in alternative theories that may explain mere subliminal exposure (e.g., Bonnano & Stilling, 1986; Klinger & Greenwald, 1994; Smith, 1998; Winkielman, Zajonc, & Schwarz, 1997; Zajonc, 2001) than in the more general phenomenon itself. 5. Once found, the images not appearing in Distel (1994) were checked for their provenance (ownership history), to be sure they had been Caillebotte’s. In addition, despite 20 months search in libraries and on the Internet, I was unable to find five of these works. Mention of these appeared without images in Distel (1994) or in images in the cat- alogue raisonné of each painter. They include one Monet, three Pissar- ros, and one Sisley—all listed at the end of the Appendix. 6. A catalogue raisonné assembles and illustrates, typically chrono- logically, the entire corpus of an artist’s work, often with additional ma- terial, such as correspondence. Inevitably, it has inconsistencies and er- rors revealed by later research. In this context, dating works is a particular problem with Cézanne. Thus, Rewald’s (1996) compendium was a necessary revision of Venturi (1936). Similarly, there are dating problems with Degas. For example, Distel (1994) noted that Image 14c (Danseuse espagnol, “Spanish dancer”) was purchased by Caillebotte before May 1879, yet Lemoisne (1946) listed it as having been painted in 1880. Some catalogues raisonnés, such as that of Manet (Jamot & Wildenstein, 1932), occasionally list images thematically (e.g., Image Pair 17), rather than chronologically. 7. Fox (1983), from Kodak data and in the context of predictions about high-definition TV, reported that 35-mm film has a digital reso- lution of about 2,500 3 1,800 pixels, or 4.5 MB. The f iles used in Study 1 were about 65% of that resolution along one dimension. 8. Renoir’s Bal du Moulin de la Galette is almost surely the most re- produced of all Impressionist paintings. For example, in one Paris guidebook (Chastel, 1971), I found only two paintings representing what might be found in the city—Mona Lisa and Bal du Moulin de la Galette. In turn, the Mona Lisa (also La Joconde) is often regarded as the world’s most famous painting (Sassoon, 2001) or, if one counts Michelangelo’s ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, the second most famous (September 24, 1995, London Sunday Times, The Culture, Section 10, p. 29). However, the latter assessment was made not long after the Sis- tine ceiling was cleaned, and with understandable effects of its accom- panied media coverage. 9. Inspecting each entry is necessary: “Monet” is also one of the mid- dle names of both Lamarck and Lavoisier, as well as the Russian word for money; Pierre-Auguste Renoir must be distinguished from his younger son the filmmaker, Jean Renoir (except in the latter’s book about the former); Camille Pissarro must be separated from his sons, particularly Lucien who was also an artist (but who also wrote of his fa- ther); and there are several authors named Sisley, as well as an Italian fashion line. 10. To exclude Postimpressionism is to exclude some descriptions of the work of Cézanne and, to a lesser degree, Degas. However, these works were composed after Caillebotte stopped collecting in 1882. Pis- sarro also had a Neoimpressionist ( pointilliste) period, but this too oc- curred after Caillebotte actively collected. 11. The Orsay comparison images appeared a mean of 39.5 times and the non-Orsay comparisons 25.1 times. Note, however, than many more of the comparison images (27) were from other museums than the Caillebotte images (10). 12. There was no reliable effect of color versus black and white in the counts of images in the Cornell books that effected either recognition or preference, but the effect reported above concerns the presence of color versus black and white in the stimuli as presented to the viewers. 13. The six additional Caillebotte paintings were: Déjeuner (“Lun- cheon,” 1876, private collection), Portraits à la campagne (“Country portraits,” 1876, Musée Baron Gérard, Bayeux, France), Le pont de l’Europe (“The Europe bridge,” Paris, 1876, Musée du Petit Palais, Genève, Switzerland), Peintres en bâtiment (“House painters,” 1877, private collection), Rue de Paris; temps de pluie (“Paris street, rainy weather,” 1877, Art Institute of Chicago), and Boulevard vu d’en haut (“Boulevard viewed from above,” 1880, private collection). Reference citations for these images are Bérhaut (1994) #37, 40, 49, 53, 57, and 154, respectively. 14. This figure was determined through analysis of the catalogues raisonnés of the seven “major” Impressionists and the holdings catalog of the Musée d’Orsay (Musée d’Orsay, 1990). 15. It is often noted that the effects of mere exposure may even de- cline with experience repeated very many times (e.g., Bornstein, 1989; Zajonc, Crandall, Kail, & Swap, 1974). This may well be true in labo- ratory situations or in the real world with massed practice, but it is not clearly the case with exposures distributed over years, even decades. (Continued on next page) http://gessler.ingentaselect.com/nw=1/rpsv/cgi-bin/linker?ext=a&reqidx=/0003-066X^28^2935L.151[aid=23836] http://gessler.ingentaselect.com/nw=1/rpsv/cgi-bin/linker?ext=a&reqidx=/0022-3514^28^2921L.270[aid=2203544] http://gessler.ingentaselect.com/nw=1/rpsv/cgi-bin/linker?ext=a&reqidx=/0022-3514^28^2921L.270[aid=2203544] 338 CUTTING APPENDIX The Caillebotte and Comparison Images, Their Dates (If Known), Their Locations (If Known), and Their Reference Citations From the Caillebotte Legacy and Collection Comparison Images Caillebotte 1. Les Raboteurs de parquet Les Raboteurs de parquet (petit version) “The floor strippers” “The floor strippers (small version)” 1875, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2718) 1876, private collection, Paris Bérhaut (1994) #34; Figure 1A Bérhaut (1994) #35; Figure 1B 2. Vue de toits, effet de neige Rue Halévy, vue d’un sixième étage “Snow-covered roofs in Paris” “Rue Halévy, view from the 7th floor” 1878, Musée d’Orsay (RF 876) 1878, private collection Bérhaut (1994) #96 Bérhaut (1994) #100 Cézanne 3. Au bord de l’étang or Scène champêtre Le Déjeuner sur l’herbe “Couples relaxing by a pond” or “The pond” “The picnic” or “Luncheon on the grass” 1876–1877, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 1876–1877, Musée de l’Orangerie Venturi (1936) #232, Rewald (1996) #244 Venturi (1936) #238, Rewald (1996) #287 4. Baigneurs au repos, III Les cinq baigneurs “Bathers at rest” “The five bathers” 1876–1877, Barnes Foundation 1875–1877, Musée d’Orsay (RF 1982-42) Venturi (1936) # 276, Rewald (1996) #261 Venturi (1936) #268, Rewald (1996) #254 5. Fleurs dans un vase rococo Bouquet au petit Delft or Vase de fleurs “Flowers in a Delft vase” “Flowers in a rococo vase” 1873, Musée d’Orsay (RF 1951-33) 1876, National Gallery of Art, DC Venturi (1936) #183, Rewald (1996) #227 Venturi (1936) #222, Rewald (1996) #265 6. Cour de ferme à Auvers La Maison du pendu, Auvers-sur-Oise “Farmyard at Auvers” “House of the hanged man” 1879–1880, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2760) 1873, Musée d’Orsay (RF 1970) Venturi (1936) #326, Venturi (1936) #133, Rewald (1996) #389; Figure 1C Rewald (1996) #202; Figure 1D 7. Le Golfe de Marseille, vu de l’Estaque* La Baie de l’Estaque vue de l’est “Estaque” “The bay of Estaque looking east” 1878–1880, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2761) 1878–1879, Memorial Art Gallery, Venturi (1936) #428, Rewald (1996) #390 University of Rochester, NY Venturi (1936) #408, Rewald (1996) #394 Degas 8. Femmes à la terrase d’un café, le soir Dans un café or L’Absinthe or Un Café, boulevard Hausmann “The absinthe drinker” “Women outside a cafe in the evening” 1876, Musée d’Orsay (RF 1984) 1877, Musée d’Orsay (RF 12257) Lemoisne (1946) #393; Figure 1F Lemoisne (1946) #419; Figure 1E 9. Choristes or Les Figurants Danseuse au bouquet saluant “The chorus” or “The supernumeraries” “Dancer with bouquet, bowing” 1876–1877, Musée d’Orsay (RF 12259) ~1877, Musée d’Orsay (RF 4039) Lemoisne (1946) #420 Lemoisne (1946) #474 10. Femme sortant du bain Après le bain “Woman leaving the bath” “Nude woman drying her feet” 1876–1877, Musée d’Orsay (RF 12255) 1885–1886, Musée d’Orsay (RF 4045) Lemoisne (1946) #422 Lemoisne (1946) #874 11. La Leçon de danse Danseuses à la barre “Portrait of a dancer at her lesson” “Dancers practicing at the bar” ~1879,Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 1876–1877, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Lemoisne (1946) #450 Lemoisne (1946) #408 12. L’Étoile (Danseuse sur la scène) Danseuse tenant un bouquet à la main “Ballet (The star)” “Arabesque” 1876–1878, Musée d’Orsay (RF 12258) ~1877, Musée d’Orsay (RF 4039) Lemoisne (1946) #491 Lemoisne (1946) #418 MERE EXPOSURE HELPS MAINTAIN A CANON OF ART 339 APPENDIX (Continued) 13. Femme nue, accroupie, de dos Le Tub “Squatting woman seen from the back” “Woman bathing in a shallow tub” ~1879, Musée d’Orsay (RF 12254) 1886, Musée d’Orsay (RF 4046) Lemoisne (1946) #547 Lemoisne (1946) #872 14. Danseuse espagnol Le Café-concert or Chanteuse de café-concert “At the Café des Ambassadeurs” “Study for the bust of a ballet dancer” 1885, Musée d’Orsay (RF 4041) 1880, Musée d’Orsay (RF 12260) Lemoisne (1946) #814 Lemoisne (1946) #608 15. Danseuse nouant son brodequin L’Attente “Seated dancer kneading her ankle” “Dancer and woman with a black umbrella, waiting” 1881–1883, Musée d’Orsay (RF 12271) ~1882, Getty Museum, Malibu, CA Lemoisne (1946) #658 Lemoisne (1946) #698 Manet 16. Angelina Georges Clemençeau “Angelina” “Georges Clemençeau” 1865, Musée d’Orsay (RF 3664) 1879–1880, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2641) Jamot and Wildenstein (1932) #118 Jamot and Wildenstein (1932) #372 17. Les Courses† Courses à Longchamps† “The races” “At the races” 1865, location unknown 1875, National Gallery, Washington Jamot and Wildenstein (1932) #204 Jamot and Wildenstein (1932) #205 18. Le Balcon Le Déjeuner à l’atelier “The balcony” “Luncheon in the studio” 1868–1869, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2772) 1868, Neue Pinakothek, Munich Jamot and Wildenstein (1932) #150; Figure 1G Jamot and Wildenstein (1932) #149; Figure 1H 19. Croquet à Boulogne Plage avec personnages or La Partie de croquet “On the beach at Boulogne” “The croquet game” 1869, Virginia Museum of Art, Richmond 1868–1871, Woll family, private collection Jamot and Wildenstein (1932) #166 Jamot and Wildenstein (1932) #197 Monet 20. Le Mont Riboudet à Rouen au printemps Vue de plaine à Argenteuil “Mt. Riboudet at Rouen in spring” “View of the plain at Argenteuil” 1872, private collection, U.S. 1872, Musée d’Orsay (MNR 855) Wildenstein (1974–1985) #216 Wildenstein (1974–1985) #220 21. Régates à Argenteuil Voilier au Petit-Gennevilliers “Regattas at Argenteuil” “Sailboat at Petit-Gennevilliers” ~1872, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2778) 1874, Lucille Ellis Simon Collection, USA Wildenstein (1974–1985) #233 Wildenstein (1974–1985) #336 22. Le Déjeuner Femmes au jardin “Luncheon in the garden” “Women in the garden” 1873, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2774) 1866, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2773) Wildenstein (1974–1985) #285 Wildenstein (1974–1985) #67 23. Un Coin d’appartement Coin d’atelier “Apartment interior” “Corner of a studio” 1875, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2776) 1861, Musée d’Orsay (MNR 136) Wildenstein (1974–1985) #365 Wildenstein (1974–1985) #6 24. Les Tuileries (esquisse) La Débâcle “The Tuileries” “Ice break up” 1875, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2705) 1880, Museum of Art, University of Michigan Wildenstein (1974–1985) #403 Wildenstein (1974–1985) #565 25. La Plaine de Gennevilliers Vétheuil, vu de Lavacourt or La Plaine d’Argenteuil “Vétheuil, view from Lavacourt” “The plain near Gennevilliers” 1879, Musée d’Orsay (RF 1998) 1877, Fogg Art Museum, Harvard Wildenstein (1974–1985) #528 Wildenstein (1974–1985) #437 340 CUTTING APPENDIX (Continued) 26. La Gare Saint-Lazare La Gare Saint-Lazare, l‘arrivée d’un train “St. Lazare train station, Paris” “Gare Saint-Lazare, the arrival of a train” 1877, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2775) 1877, Fogg Art Museum, Harvard Wildenstein (1974–1985) #438; Figure 2A Wildenstein (1974–1985) #439; Figure 2B 27. La Gare Saint-Lazare: sous le pont Le Pont de l’Europe, gare Saint-Lazare de l’Europe “The Pont de l’Europe” “Gare Saint-Lazare: exterior view” 1877, Musée Marmottan, Paris or “Pont de Rome” Wildenstein (1974–1985) #442 1877, private collection Wildenstein (1974–1985) #447 28. La Gare Saint-Lazare à l’extérieur, le signal Les Voies à la sortie de la gare Saint-Lazare “The Gare Saint-Lazare, the signal” “The tracks in front of the Gare Saint-Lazare” 1877, Landesmuseum, Hannover 1877, private collection, Japan Wildenstein (1974–1985) #448 Wildenstein (1974–1985) #445 29. Pommiers, Vétheuil Paysage, Vétheuil “Apple trees, Vétheuil” “Landscape, Vétheuil” 1878, Wesley M. Dixon Collection, U.S. 1879, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2623) Wildenstein (1974–1985) #490 Wildenstein (1974–1985) #1986 30. L’Église de Vétheuil, neige Vétheuil l’hiver “The church at Vétheuil, snow” “Vétheuil, winter” 1878–1879, Musée d’Orsay (RF 3755) 1879, Frick Gallery, New York Wildenstein (1974–1985) #506 Wildenstein (1974–1985) #507 31. Pruniers en fleurs or Poiriers en fleurs Lilas, temps gris “Blossoming plum trees” “Resting under the lilacs” or “Blossoming pear trees” or “Lilacs, gray weather” 1879, location unknown 1972–1973, Musée d’Orsay (RF 1680) Wildenstein (1974–1985) #519 Wildenstein (1974–1985) #203 32. Le Givre Vétheuil dans le brouillard “Hoarfrost (Vétheuil)” “Vétheuil in the mist” 1880, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2706) 1879, Musée Marmottan, Paris Wildenstein (1974–1985) #555 Wildenstein (1974–1985) #518 33. Chrysanthèmes rouges Chrysanthèmes “Red chrysanthemums” “Chrysanthemums” 1880, location unknown 1878, Musée d’Orsay (RF 1951-36) Wildenstein (1974–1985) #635 Wildenstein (1974–1985) #492 34. La Seine entre Vétheuil et La Roche Guyon Les Glaçons or Débâcle sur la Seine “The Seine between Vétheuil and “The ice-floes” La Roche Guyon” 1880, Musée d’Orsay (RF 1965-10) 1881, private collection, France Wildenstein (1974–1985) #567 Wildenstein (1974–1985) #674 35. Les rochers de Belle-Île Tempêtes, Côtes de Belle-Île “The rocks of Belle-Isle” “Storm at Belle-Isle” 1886, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2777) 1886, Musée d’Orsay (RF 3163) Wildenstein (1974–1985) #1100 Wildenstein (1974–1985) #1116 Pissarro 36. Louveciennes Entrée du village de Voisins “Louveciennes” “Entrance to the village of Voisins” 1871, private collection, Paris 1872, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2456) Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #123 Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #141 37. Le Lavoir, Pontoise Pontoise, Côte de l’Oise “The washhouse at Bougival” “Pontoise, banks of the Oise” 1872, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2732) 1872, Getty Museum, Malibu Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #175 Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #182 38. Paysage avec rochers, Montfoucault Côteau de l’Hermitage, Pontoise “Landscape with rocks, Montfoucault” “Hill at the Hermitage, Pontoise” 1874, private collection, Paris 1873, Musée d’Orsay (RF 1983-8) Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #282 Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #209 MERE EXPOSURE HELPS MAINTAIN A CANON OF ART 341 APPENDIX (Continued) 39. Le Labourer Paysage à Chaponval “The plowman” “Chaponval landscape” 1876, private collection, Paris 1880, Musée d’Orsay (RF 1937–51) Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #340 Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #509 40. Jardin en fleurs, Pontoise L’Hermitage à Pontoise “Garden in bloom, Pontoise” “The Hermitage, Pontoise” 1876, private collection, Paris 1872, private collection, Japan Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #350 Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #529 41. La Moisson à Montfoucault La Meule, Pontoise “Harvest at Montfoucault” “The haystack, Pontoise” 1876, Musée d’Orsay (RF 3756) 1873, private collection, Paris Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #364 Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #223 42. Sous bois avec une femme assise Le Petit pont, Pontoise “In the woods” “Little bridge, Pontoise” 1876, private collection, Paris 1875, Kunsthalle, Mannheim Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #371 Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #300 43. Les Toits rouges, coin du village, effet d’hiver La Côte des boeufs à Pontoise “The red roofs” “La Côte des Boeufs, the Hermitage” 1877, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2735) 1877, National Gallery, London Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #384; Figure 2C Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #380; Figure 2D 44. Printemps à Pontoises, potager et Verger en fleurs, Louveciennes arbres en fleurs “Orchard in blossom, Louveciennes” “Orchard with flowering fruit trees, Pontoise” 1872, National Gallery, Washington 1877, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2733) Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #153 Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #387 45. Les Seigles, Pontoise, côte des Mathurins Gardeuse de vache sur la route du Chou, Pontoise or Les Orges “A cowherd at Pontoise” “Rye fields, Pontoise, seen from the Mathurins” 1874, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 1877, private collection, Japan Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #260 Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #406 46. Chemin sous-bois, en été Au repos sous-bois, Pontoise “Path through the woods” “Resting in the woods, Pontoise” 1877, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2731) 1878, Kunsthalle, Hamburg Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #416 Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #466 47. Lisière de bois or Clairière Le Châlet, la maison rose “Edge of the woods” “The chalet, the pink house” 1878, private collection, Paris 1870, Musée d’Orsay (RF 1937-58) Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #455 Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #82 48. Chemin montant à travers champs. Femme dans un clos Côte des Grouettes, Pontoise “Woman in an enclosure, spring “Path across the fields” sunshine in an Eragny field” 1879, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2736) 1887, Musée d’Orsay (RF 1937-47) Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #493 Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #709 49. La Brouette, verger Automne, l’étang de Monfoucault “The wheelbarrow” “Autumn, Monfoucault pond” ~1881, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2734) 1875, private collection, Paris Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #537 Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #329 Renoir 50. La Liseuse L’Amazone “Girl reading” “Madame Darras” 1874–1876, Musée d’Orsay (RF 3757) 1873, Musée d’Orsay (RF 1965-11) Daulte (1971) #106, Fezzi (1972) #202, Daulte (1971) #93, Fezzi (1972) #103 Wadley (1987) #36 51. La Place Saint-Georges La Mosquée, fête arabe “St. George Place” “The mosque” or “Arab festival in Algiers” ~1875, private collection 1881, Musée d’Orsay (RF 1957-8) Distel (1994) p.65, fig. 55 Fezzi (1972) #462, Hayward Gallery (1985) #56 342 CUTTING APPENDIX (Continued) 52. Étude, torse, effet de soleil Nue or Torse d’Anna “Torso of a woman in sunlight” “Female nude (Anna)” 1875–1876, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2740) 1979, Pushkin Art Museum, Moscow Daulte (1971) #201, Fezzi (1972) #204, Daulte (1971) #213, Fezzi (1972) #250 Hayward Gallery (1985) #36, Wadley (1987) #44 53. La Balançoire La Tonnelle du Moulin de la Galette “The swing” “The arbor” or “The bower” 1876, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2738) 1875–1876, Pushkin Art Museum, Moscow Daulte (1971) #202, Fezzi (1972) #242, Daulte (1971) #197, Fezzi (1972) # 240 Hayward Gallery (1985) #39 54. Bal du Moulin de la Galette, Montmartre‡ Le Déjeuner des canotiers “Ball at the Moulin de la Galette” “Luncheon of the boating party” 1876, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2740) 1881, Phillips Collection, Washington Daulte (1971) #209, Fezzi (1972) #249, Daulte (1971) #379, Fezzi (1972) #468, Hayward Gallery (1985) #40; Figure 2E Hayward Gallery (1985) #52; Figure 2F 55. Bords de Seine à Champrosay Paysage de neige “Banks of the Seine at Champrosay” “Snowy landscape” 1876, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2737) 1875, Musée de l’Orangerie, Paris Fezzi (1972) #256, Wadley (1987) #43 Hayward Gallery (1985) #33, Wadley (1987) #42 56. Le Pont du chemin de fer à Châtou Femme avec parasol dans le jardin “The railroad bridge at Châtou” “Woman with a parasol in the garden” 1881, Musée d’Orsay (RF 3758) 1873, Thyssen-Bornemisza Gallery, Madrid Fezzi (1972) #470 Fezzi (1972) #199, Wadley (1987) #22 57. Le Château des brouillards Chemin montant dans les hautes herbes or Soleil couchant à Montmartre “Path winding through tall grass” “The chateau of the mists” 1876–1877, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2581) (Renoir family home) Fezzi (1972) #141, Wadley (1987) #67 ~1890, private collection Distel (1994) p. 65, Figure 56 58. Jeunes filles au piano§ La Leçon de piano “Young girls at the piano” “Piano lesson” 1892, private collection, Paris ~1889, Joslyn Art Museum, Omaha Hayward Gallery (1985) #90 Daulte (1971) #561, Fezzi (1982) #661, Hayward Gallery (1985) #84 Sisley 59. Les Régates à Molesey Les régates à Hampton Court “Boat races at Molesey, near Hampton Court” “Boat races at Hampton Court” 1874, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2787) 1874, Sammlung E.G. Bührle, Zurich Daulte (1959) #126; Figure 2G Daulte (1959) #125; Figure 2H 60. Une Rue à Louveciennes Un Coin de bois aux Sablons “A street in Louveciennes” “A corner of the woods, the Sablons” ~1876, Musée de Beaux-Arts, Nice 1883, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2079) Daulte (1959) #221 (deaccessioned Daulte (1959) #502 from Musée d’Orsay, RF 2783) 61. La Seine à Suresnes Le Pont à Sèvres The Seine at Suresnes” or “The bridge at Sèvres” “The banks of the Seine” 1877, National Gallery, Prague 1877, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2786) Daulte (1959) #262 Daulte (1959) #267 62. Cour de ferme à Saint-Mammès Village de Voisins “Farmyard at Saint-Mammès” “Village of Voisins” 1884, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2700) 1874, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2019) Daulte (1959) #544 Daulte (1959) #142 63. Lisière de forêt au printemps À repos au bord du ruisseau “Edge of the forest near Fontainbleau” “Resting by a brook” 1885, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2784) 1872, Musée d’Orsay (RF 1693) Daulte (1959) #350 Daulte (1959) #42 MERE EXPOSURE HELPS MAINTAIN A CANON OF ART 343 APPENDIX (Continued) 64. Saint-Mammès Canal du Loing “Saint-Mammès” “Loing canal” 1885, Musée d’Orsay (RF 2785) 1884, Musée d’Orsay (RF 1972-33) Daulte (1959) #629 Daulte (1959) #522 65. Seine à Billancourt La Seine à Bougival “The Seine at Billancourt” “The Seine at Bougival” undated, private collection 1881, Musée d’Orsay (MNR 208) Distel (1994) p. 67, Figure 63 Daulte (1959) #90 66. Bords de la Seine, effet du soleil couchant Bateaux à l’écluse de Bougival “Banks of the Seine, sunset” “Boats at the Bougival lock” undated, private collection 1873, Musée d’Orsay (RF 1690) Distel (1994), p.67, Figure 59 Daulte (1959) #90 Caillebotte Images Not Found Monet Pissarro Une colline rose (Vues de Vétheuil) Coin de village – les choux “A pink hill in Vétheuil” “Village corner – cabbages” undated, location unknown 1875, location unknown not in Wildenstein (1974–1985) Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #312, image not presented Sisley La vallée en été, Pontoise “The valley in summer, Pontoise” Station de bateaux à Auteuil 1877, location unknown “Boat dock at Auteuil” Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #407, undated, location unknown image not presented not in Daulte (1959) Sous-bois en automne, Pontoise “In the autumn woods, Pontoise” 1879, location unknown Pissarro and Venturi (1939) #505, image not presented *Cézanne’s Image 7c is very similar to two others perhaps equally well known: One is in the New York Met- ropolitan Museum of Art (Venturi, 1936, #625), and the other is in the Art Institute of Chicago (Venturi, 1936, #626), both with the same name, “The gulf of Marseille, seen from Estaque.” †Manet’s Image 17c was a study for Courses à Longchamps, 1867, Art Institute of Chicago (Jamot & Wildenstein, 1932, #202). Image 17n is a similar study, but done several years later. ‡Renoir painted two versions of 54c. Caillebotte owned the original. For many years the smaller copy was on loan to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York (see Distel, 1990; White, 1984), but was sold at Christie’s to Ryoei Saito for $78 million in 1990. The week be- fore, Mr. Saito had purchased Van Gogh’s “Portrait of Dr. Gachet” for $82.5 million. Mr. Saito soon went bankrupt, and these two most expensive paintings ever sold (through mid 2003) are now probably in a Tokyo bank vault (Saltzman, 1998). §Under commission from the French state, Renoir painted at least five versions of 58c. That chosen by the government is now in the Musée d’Orsay (RF 755), another in the Musée de l’Orangerie, a third in the Metropolitan Museum, and at least a fourth in a private collection (Hayward Gallery, 1985, pp. 261–263; Wadley, 1987). (Manuscript received December 10, 2001; revision accepted for publication May 17, 2002.) 
work_ioyd55zaufdjnptugf4ttisjca	----	ISSN 1712-8056[Print] ISSN 1923-6697[Online] www.cscanada.net www.cscanada.org Canadian Social Science Vol. 8, No. 4, 2012, pp. 194-197 DOI:10.3968/j.css.1923669720120804.1245 194Copyright © Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture The Comparison and Development of Color Between East and West DU Xuehui[a],* [a]College of Fine Arts, Harbin Normal University, China. *Corresponding author. Supported by Youth academic Backbone support program of general institute of higher learning in Heilongjiang Province. Project number: 1154G33. Received 20 March 2012; accepted 14 August 2012 Abstract Take a panoramic view of the painter’s application of color, almost everyone strengthens his self-cultivation positively. Chinese ancient ancestors established “the five elements” as the symbol of color to the space, and it’s a kind of presentation of spontaneous philosophy. Chinese painting values verve highly, while Western painting lionizes are more about similarity in shape. But the appearance of modernism in the end of 19 century makes them close, in the mean time the art between east and west had achieved a considerable unification which means there is no border between the arts. Key words: Color; The Chinese painting; The western painting; Development D U X u e h u i ( 2 0 1 2 ) . T h e C o m p a r i s o n a n d D e v e l o p m e n t o f C o l o r B e t w e e n E a s t a n d We s t . C a n a d i a n S o c i a l S c i e n c e, 8 ( 4 ) , 1 9 4 - 1 9 7 . Av a i l a b l e f r o m h t t p : / / w w w. c s c a n a d a . n e t / i n d e x . p h p / c s s / a r t i c l e / v i e w / j . c s s . 1 9 2 3 6 6 9 7 2 0 1 2 0 8 0 4 . 1 2 4 5 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3968/j.css.1923669720120804.1245. INTRODUCTION Profit from the difference of color theory and sense between east and west, we have more opportunity to appreciate and borrow ideas from each other. Western painting before impressionism can be defined as the server of the religious system, and the discovery of dynamical color in impressionism is originated from the chromatogram of the sun. The formative character of Chinese painting is namely the “five color” philosophical aesthetics of color. The color of western painting is scientific while Chinese painting is emotional. There are unique laws and processes of the color application in Chinese painting. It rules out the superficiality of nature and shadow. It emphasizes the inherent color of the materiality and expects less in color relationship. It has a direct relation to the “five color” philosophy and the similarity and difference of the material. An excellent painter should be a person with a keen sense of color. Because color in painting is not the pronoun of color we use in our daily life, it endows with more symbolic significance. It can be national, regional, hierarchical and personalized. The painters obtain a new cognition towards the harmony of color. And their own color- discovery drives the development of epochal character on the knowledge of color. The reasonable cognition from Confucius saying “men’s natural instinct are much the same, but their habits are widely different”, before 2000 years is the antecedent leading to the knowledge of color for the contemporary era painters. Take a panoramic view of the painter’s application of color, virtually everyone strengthens his self-cultivation positively. So that it can play a dynamic role during the transmission of effects and emotion in the frame. Virtually every work with huge image beyond the idea that has been handed on from age to age has depended on vivid color and image. It transcends its intrinsic quantity and intensifies repeatedly. “The mountain is in the entirely imaginary” is the kind of artistic conception. T h e a p p e a r a n c e o f i m p r e s s i o n i s m e m b o l d e n s t h e perceptual knowledge of color based on the foundation of rationality. As far back as in the 19th century, the impressionism exerts the function of color superlatively. They actualized “the dynamic expression of color” in heptachromic system and established the methodical system of color grounded on the physical optics. The key factor is the painter drawing directly with the inspiration of the heliolamp, namely to seek the variation of the 195 Copyright © Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture DU Xuehui (2012). Canadian Social Science, 8 (4), 194-197 color relationships. It also sharpens the painter’s inner sensibility of color. Post-impressionism showed the power of emotional color adequately to personalize the color. Fauvism and expressional artists achieve the vivid flavor of various modern color elements via the comprehensive representation of color. The Chinese painting color belongs to “inducible color” which is ruled as “enduing with the color based on the category” by Xie He. The author’s opinion is the color application in Western painting from the Renaissance to impressionism can be classified as above. Both are putting the inherent color on the observed image. The appearance of impressionism is to return to the rationality and scientific, while the Chinese painting color is perceptual all along. THE AESTHETIC ANALYSIS OF CHINESE AND WESTERN COLOR Chinese ancient color is on the foundation of “the five elements”. It established the stable color structure. The symbol of color is changed to the decorative function gradually from the Qin Dynasty. Chinese ancient color trended to a rich and varied development. The color aesthetic in this period is “the five colors”, and it’s the foundational character of eastern color art. It is different from the theory of optic in Western. The ancient color symbol is created on the spontaneous rational conception and it is distinguished from the western. Chinese ancient ancestors established “the five elements” as the symbol of color to the space. The symbol of “the five elements” is a kind of presentation of spontaneous philosophy. As “the painting is mixed by the five colors” recorded in The Chou Rituals, the articles about black, white, blue-green, red and yellow conveyed various color related cognition. It represents the earliest color rationality. Everyone who has seen the Silk painting in Mawangdui or the Dunhuang Mural can feel the demeanour of Chinese Strong coloring. The character of applying rich color leads the human beings. “The painters in ancient like to use the five colors together, so the gentlemen in Tang and Jin prefer the strong colors and delineation.” said by Dong Qi, Qing dynasty. Chinese ancient painting formed the Strong coloring of five colors which represented the whole world. Chinese ancient strong coloring of five colors related to the character of “the five elements” and “the five moralities”. It constituted the spirit and aura of Eastern people’s color activity. According to the color formation of structure, Chinese painting Strong coloring pertains to the comparison of the hue of color. Ancient painter inherited the necessity of spontaneously applying monochrome from the primitive instinct. It abuts the biotic color. And the creating of the juxtaposition of the saturated color and five colors products the relative and relatedness. The pure hue of color can be limited by coaly and gold or silver string in Chinese remote antiquity drawing from. Red yellow and blue-green has its own inherent quality in the limited district. These hues of colors on the entire painting produce the grave and strong characters of the strong coloring simultaneously. Chinese strong coloring painting realized the epochal character of human beings. The character is the change of spontaneous natural ability of color to color consciousness from remote antiquity to the ancient. Chinese remote antiquity strong coloring stands for the preliminary consciousness of color. The theory of “the Chinese ink has five different colors” in Chinese traditional drawing theories is the archetypal concept of “ink is a kind of color”. The ink not only means black in Chinese painting color but also a “color” to adjust the relationship of the frame. Chinese ancient ink and wash paintings manifest the extreme developmental character of mono-color in the period of human beings’ color consciousness. T H E A C A D E M I C E V O L U T I O N O F WESTERN COLOR An ultimate change occurred to the Western oil painting from the last years of 19th century. The narrow art function and all-in-one realistic of Traditional oil painting had attained the high saturation for autologous’ system. Thus it tended to disassembly by the revolution of philosophy and art concept. The creative principles of oil paintings are not the copy or recurrence of the nature. Artistic images of oil paintings constructed freely by the painters are regarded as the new reality. The artists did not portray the nature by means of oil paintings but a medium to convey own spirits and emotions by it. The painters conceive their works by imagination and fantasy. Three painters after impressionism showed initiative to abandon the customary pattern of oil painting. Vincent Van Gogh chose untrammeled and fast or drawing to impart the power in the fully saturated and bright color, and by this means to express worry of the inner soul. Paul Gauguin preferred color and modeling to construct the painting. The space of the work is violated from the traditional form, and the works complete with an atmosphere of mystery. Paul Cezanne groped for using geometric figure to form art image, and the frame he created is a world with autologous order. Their works became the marks of a tremendous change in the oil painting history. Among the oil paintings in the 20th century, different art conception formed different schools. And they protected the art situation from appearing so many trendy. Some elements of the traditional oil drawing skills are treated as embodying of art concepts. They were strengthened frequently or pushed to an extreme. The language of oil painting form is highly valued. For instance: the cubism ignoring the color and choosing the free construction of form and structure, the fauvism emphasizing the balanced effects in the strong color state, the expressionism using the disorderly application of 196Copyright © Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture The Comparison and Development of Color Between East and West color and brush work to express the innermost distortion, the abstract art constructing the frame with point, line and plane simply and the abstract expressionism drawing with the paint cast, splashed and dropped on the canvas. Schools of Western contemporary oil painting are numerous and complicated in the last 100 years. They subrogated each other in succession. THE CONCEPTIVE CONFORMITY OF BLENDING THE EAST AND THE WEST Some Chinese artists counted the Western fine art as the reference object to their autologous artistic creation intentionally or unintentionally during the hundred developing and revolution. Especially for some Chinese painters who persist to explore the innovation from the traditional art and to absorb and appreciate the effective elements in contemporary western art so that they can enrich their art language. There are three aspects for giving a specific analysis of it. First and foremost, Chinese painters abandon the idealistic color completely and turn to present the intimate world of humanity under the influence of irrational philosophy. The substance is to deny the classicalism utterly and apply unsophisiticated and deeply expressive means to reflect the dignified and holy religion. From actual-life point of view, arrange a new angle to describe the objective world and life the artists scientifically and authentically by different quarters. So as express their cognition of perceptual and rational. Secondly, form comes first. They treated “raising forms into individual position” as the basic language of artistic creation. It displays the objective world and the abundant human’s subjective spiritual world. It expands human’s appreciated area of the beauty. The third point is to absorb the outstanding achievement of systematic progress positively. It means to create the painting with artistic character plus the style and features of modern by absorbing and combining dissection, modern chemistry, chromatology, composition studies, perspective science, sociology and psychology together. These three aspects are not only playing a positive role in the development of the western modern art, but also influenced profound and lasting in Chinese painting development. It changes Chinese painting from a traditional form to the modern form. Gao Jianfu, the archetypal figure of Ling Nan School, had gone abroad to Japan with his team, and he maintains to compromise the ancient and modern, western and eastern. It refers to the new Japanese painting school which formed by drawing lessons from the color and shadow of Western painting. It was named as “the mix school of China and Japan” by contemporaries. Nevertheless, in fact it was the result influenced by Western art. The discontentment of the Chinese painting color and the desire of pioneering the new thought precipitate some painters to reform and open-up of the painting system, while Four Books and the Five Classics are controlling them at the same time. The painting is no longer the simple following of tradition, because the old net cannot hold the hope of insatiable thirsts. The revolution of painting began with 1980s. Accompanied by the deeper revolution in 1990s, the innovatory view of Chinese painting color became stronger and stronger. Finally, the first Discussion Forum of Chinese Painting Color Problems was held in Beijing. The forum discussed the cultural value and the existing of painting forms, also it explored the material, skill and the language form of painting. It had compared the history and reality, Eastern and Western. It is the conclusion of these passing days and the securement for the future. The forum can be regarded as a theory pageant of carrying forward the tradition to Chinese painting color. In the colorful morphological space, the shape and color are the leading factors of painting system. Shape as the main elements of any kind of painting should not be despite. And color influences the visual psychology more directly and irritatingly. Chinese painting is one of the very important forms in world culture. It has the closely and nonseparable relationship with the shape, color and texture. We can be aware of the important value of color by the development of Chinese painting. The element of color had gone through the culture baptism from the early stone painting with the trend of color to the Painted Pottery culture, from the strong color of Tang and Song density to the elegant of Ming and Qing. So the painting field is a hundred flowers blooming and a hundred schools of thought striving. The three main stream of contemporary art circle is Traditional Ink and Wash Painting, the Experimental Chinese Ink and Wash Paintings and the Chinese and the West union paintings. With looking back these histories help a lot to the cognition of color developing nowadays. The frame color is the main representative language in both Eastern and Western painting. And we concern more about impressionism when we talk about color. It was impressionism that exerted the perfection of color in 19th. But our Chinese painters are still arguing about the Chinese painting skills at that time. And only a few persons were supporting the color elements in Chinese painting. No one can deny that China Ink and Wash painting have the splendid accomplishment. “Chinese Ink Presenting Five Colors,” only says to express the material with several color gradation. With the fundamental interests of color, Ink and Wash painting is only a black tone painting with one single color. And it cannot replace the color expressing material. There are different forms, seasons and areas which can represent diverse color feelings and stimulate human’s sympathetic response of emotion. In this way can introduce the painter using color to express the emotion. Chinese painting is swiftly developed during the Chinese revolution and open-up. The pattern-form theory of Western modern painting in 1980s made the young artists raring to learn more about Western. The aesthetic 197 Copyright © Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture DU Xuehui (2012). Canadian Social Science, 8 (4), 194-197 concepts of modernism and post-modernism flooded to the painting circle. The young put their mind on the modern art after impressionism. And they tried to get help from the achievement of geometric modeling and chromatics to break through the immovable color and modeling. Painting with meticulous detail has a special growth in the modern time through the curriculum reform of Chinese painting. In that territory, except the viridity and gold-and-green landscape became the lost body of knowledge, Chinese realistic painting personages and fine brushwork flower- and-bird painting have a high occupancy. There is also a large eclosion of meticulous detail painters. Excellent works like Tang Pictures of Music Players and Night breeze. During the development process, some expressive artists deviated from the traditional artistic interests and standard, such as Li Shinan and Li Jin. The latter intensified the power of string and color obviously in a series painting of Tibet. “The color does not bother the ink. So does the ink” became the unchanged persuasion of some painters. They inherited the tradition created by Lin Fengmian to introduce the color lump into the art of ink and wash when relied on the Western expressionism. Representatives are Hairihan and Zhu Zhengeng. Tian liming even put large color lump to analyze the relation between ink and pen into a facula effect. Ling had pointed out “it needs a definite correction of the painting material, skill and method so that it will not restrict or bind the trend of free description.” in the exploration of light, color and ink. It is not happening by chance that the pioneer who insisted on doing things in his own way finally won many successors. Lin Fengmian is very learned in painting. He studied Chinese traditional chiefly when he was young, and later went abroad to France. He concentrated on studying the modeling and color of Western painting. That is why he has a deep realization towards Chinese and Western esthetic spice. He takes harmonizing Chinese and Western and revitalizing the Chinese art as his personal responsibility. His paintings unite the traditional line drawing of Chinese painting, folk interest, the style of cubism and fauvism and the conception of western color. He founded the new way to express the still life and landscape and created to paint with deep ink and color. It advocates the unique flag among the artistic sea. His works lay paint on canvas freely and completely. Moreover repeat pigmentation in the rich and gaudy area and lighten the elegant of pure and transparent. The paintings are endowed with the poetic sense of beauty for the inherent color and shadow. The infiltration of Chinese and Western makes the Chinese painting blend into literalism. The fundamental of Eastern and Western is totally different, so the expression of art before modernism is different too. Eastern art placed extra emphasis on subjective, while Western painting from objective. Eastern art is similar to the poem and Western art are more like drama, therefore Chinese painting is great at verve, and Western painting is strong in similarity of shape. The appearance of modernism in the end of 19th century makes these two paintings closer, and finally the art running up to a border less situation. The development of Chinese painting needs a new thread. The most effectual method is combining the ancient Chinese philosophy and the study of the color system in western painting. It is not the simple copy of Western phenomenon on the painting form, but the leading painters to bring the human color essence and modern color to further development and exploration of initiatively. Based on these thoughts, painters should continue the new visual angle to cogitate and research the main theory advocated as “deep thinking of philosophy”. The content of it is to improve the color conception and color creation to a theoretic knowledge, and exert the expressiveness of the Chinese paintings which have the splendid color potential. Thus to rich the thought and develop Chinese painting, furthermore, it is the direction of positive exploration of “the pen and ink should follow the age”. Following closely to the language character of the color in Chinese painting and digging deeper on its character in philosophy become the theme of promoting Chinese painting. The plenty cultural deposits and organic amalgamation of foreign culture provide a broader space and more expressive and visual impact power to the creation of Chinese painting color. Besides the elements above-mentioned the reflection of humanism, the formation of the painter’s creative appearance and the consociation of colors is more important. The analyzed mentally philosophy theory leads the author’s practice field. As a university teacher, the teaching technique of philosophy and the color concept have influenced the students admiring the tradition and thirty to innovation. Chinese paintings value the artistic conception and it determines whether the frame is perfect or not. In conclusion, painters should exploit their private thought, disposition, emotion and imagination in the creation of painting, and make “self”, “foreign teachers” and “tradition” as a triunity. And let the specific and limited color converge to measureless color rhyme. REFERENCES Chen, Zhidong (1990). The Function and Significance of Chinese Painting Color. The Observation of Art, (10), 71-73. Kong, Xingmiao (2005). The Comparison of Chinese and Western. Henan Art Press. Li, Guangyuan & Li, Li (2006). The Comparison of Chinese and Western. Hebei Art Press. Lin, Fengmian (2006). Chinese Painting New Tradition Chinese Art Research Institution (Doctoral dissertation). Xiong, Wei (2005). The Collision of Aesthetic Conception of Chinese Painting and Philosophical. The Observation of Art, (12), 92. Zhao, Xinge (2001). The Century Collection of Chinese Paintings People (1st ed.). Art Press. 
work_ipyeegjigzczfawl5dh4qc3n5u	----	wp-p1m-38.ebi.ac.uk Params is empty 404 sys_1000 exception wp-p1m-38.ebi.ac.uk no 219521747 Params is empty 219521747 exception Params is empty 2021/04/06-02:36:01 if (typeof jQuery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/1.14.8/js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,String.fromCharCode(60)).replace(/\]/g,String.fromCharCode(62))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} Page not available Reason: The web page address (URL) that you used may be incorrect. Message ID: 219521747 (wp-p1m-38.ebi.ac.uk) Time: 2021/04/06 02:36:01 If you need further help, please send an email to PMC. Include the information from the box above in your message. Otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using PMC: Search the complete PMC archive. Browse the contents of a specific journal in PMC. Find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/ 
work_irqiks7635c7hnekprla4btpvy	----	America, A Proselytizing Society by Eric B. Dent Americans have a history of sharing and being generous. If we find something good in life, we want to tell others about it so that they can share in the goodness. For a few weeks I kept track of all the ways that I was proselytized by people I encountered. I was told, often passionately and emphatically, that I should • Send my kids to a particular school(s) • Become a fan of a certain sports team(s) (I was really harangued about this) • Buy a specific type of car • Do Pilates, the South Beach diet, and the Atkins diet (do I really look that fat?) • Read a particular book(s) • Shop at a certain online site(s) • Take shag dancing lessons • Invest in a particular stock • Go see a certain movie • Eat in a new restaurant • Have laser surgery on my eyes It would take about two more pages to list everything I was proselytized about in just a few weeks. The point is that we are constantly bombarded with advice and recruiting by our family, friends, business colleagues, and others. This proselytizing is simply part and parcel of American discourse. We accept it and we’ve learned how to deal with these unsolicited recommendations. Sometimes the advice of an overbearing mother or friend who lost 100 pounds on the South Beach diet strains our patience. Still, we make adjustments accordingly, perhaps, tuning out mom or eating donuts in front of the friend. There is one dimension of life, though, in which some people believe proselytizing should not be allowed, especially at work - religion (Mitroff & Denton, 1999). Some even say that it is offensive for one person to mention the goodness she has found in her faith to another person. Offensive is a term that should be reserved for the haranguing we receive when moving from one hotbed of ACC basketball to another! Are we really so thin-skinned, fragile, and impressionable in one realm of life that we can’t hear about someone’s religious beliefs but we can hear about their political, sports, shopping, restaurant, and child-rearing ones? I’m not afraid. Tell more your religious beliefs. But, please, don’t tell me how much weight you’ve lost and what diet I should be on. References Mitroff, I. I., & Denton, E. A. (1999). A spiritual audit of corporate America: A hard look at spirituality, religion, and values in the workplace. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. 
work_ix356xb7afdjxm54o4ddiy32ky	----	wp-p1m-39.ebi.ac.uk Params is empty 404 sys_1000 exception wp-p1m-39.ebi.ac.uk no 219521715 Params is empty 219521715 exception Params is empty 2021/04/06-02:36:01 if (typeof jQuery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/1.14.8/js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,String.fromCharCode(60)).replace(/\]/g,String.fromCharCode(62))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} Page not available Reason: The web page address (URL) that you used may be incorrect. Message ID: 219521715 (wp-p1m-39.ebi.ac.uk) Time: 2021/04/06 02:36:01 If you need further help, please send an email to PMC. Include the information from the box above in your message. Otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using PMC: Search the complete PMC archive. Browse the contents of a specific journal in PMC. Find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/ 
work_iyreaeymgvbgxff2nzgkhfypja	----	Revista de Pós-Graduação Multidisciplinar, São Paulo, v. 1, n. 3, p. 225-236, nov./fev. 2018. ISSN 2594-4800 | e-ISSN 2594-4797 | doi: 10.22287/rpgm.v1i3.720 Revista Acadêmica RPGM 225 O ENSINO DE ARTES: IMPRESSIONISMO E LUDICIDADE THE TEACHING OF ARTS: IMPRESSIONISM AND PLAYFULNESS Eliete Braga1, Renata Alves Orselli2 RESUMO O ensino de Artes na escola pública nem sempre recebe o investimento financeiro adequado para mostrar ao aluno a amplitude das artes e suas aplicações. O interesse do adolescente para essa temática precisa ser despertado pelo professor que por sua vez precisa ser criativo para atrair a atenção do aluno com poucos recursos financeiros. Nessa pesquisa, serão verificadas algumas sugestões para trabalhar o tema de pintores impressionistas, especificamente Claude Monet, nas aulas de ensino fundamental dois (6º ao 9º ano). Palavras-Chave: Impressionismo. Ludicidade. Artes. Monet. Adolescentes. ABSTRACT The teaching of Arts in the public school does not always receive adequate financial investment to show the student the breadth of the arts and their applications. The interest of the adolescent to this theme needs to be awakened by the teacher who in turn needs to be creative to attract the attention of the student with few financial resources. In this research, we will check some suggestions to work on the theme of Impressionist painters, specifically Claude Monet, in primary school classes two (6th to 9th). Keywords: Impressionism. Playfulness. Art. Monet. Teenagers. 1 EMEF Ana Maria Alves Benetti e E.E. Délcio de Souza Cunha 2 Faculdade Integrada Campos Salles – FIC BRAGA, E., ORSELLI, R. A. – O ENSINO DE ARTES Revista de Pós-Graduação Multidisciplinar, São Paulo, v. 1, n. 3, p. 225-236, nov./fev. 2018. ISSN 2594-4800 | e-ISSN 2594-4797 | doi: 10.22287/rpgm.v1i3.720 226 1. INTRODUÇÃO O ensino de Artes é algo prazeroso quando há interesse da parte dos alunos, pois chamarem a atenção e envolver o grupo para o aprendizado não é algo simples. Na sala de aula a heterogeneidade e o número de alunos são fatores que contribuem significativamente no processo de ensino, se esse grupo não estiver envolvido para aprender, a aula não cumpre seu propósito. Pois, para muitos estudantes, a arte se resume em desenhos, técnicas e pinturas, porém, aos poucos, a realidade foi se transformando e hoje muitos já conseguem perceber que a Arte envolve outras maneiras de expressão, como dança, teatro, escultura entre outros. Assim, o professor tem o papel importante de mostrar as diversas facetas da Arte para o aluno e envolvê-los de tal forma que sintam prazer em apreciar o belo, a estética da arte. A partir do Ensino da Arte é possível ampliar o contato com conteúdo, temas e atividades antes desconhecidas ou ignoradas, pois abre espaço para debates e discussões sobre diversos assuntos. Com base nesses assuntos, o professor pode escolher o tema que mais envolve o grupo de adolescentes e a partir de então desenvolver uma sequência didática ou projeto. Dessa forma, tem-se como objetivo geral verificar as estratégias que envolvam os adolescentes, a partir de um tema atraente para os alunos com objetivo específico de compreender a importância do ensino da Arte para adolescente na escola pública. Pois, acreditamos que compreender os aspectos teóricos sobre ensino da Arte pode contribuir positivamente no planejamento das aulas para envolver os alunos e tornar a aprendizagem significativa e prazerosa. Entretanto, é importante a compreensão do significado da formação continuada docente para o exercício da prática pedagógica e, principalmente, para a formação da mesma. Do mesmo modo, a formação continuada passa a ser um dos pré-requisitos básicos para a transformação do professor, pois é por meio do estudo, da reflexão, do constante contato com novas concepções, proporcionada pelos programas de formação continuada, seja particular ou pública, que é possível a mudança. Pois, fica mais difícil de o professor mudar seu modo de pensar e do fazer pedagógico se ele não tiver a oportunidade de vivenciar novas experiências, novas pesquisas, novas formas de ver e pensar a escola que na atualidade necessita de relevantes adequações em diversas áreas. Portanto, a formação continuada deve ser capaz de conscientizar os professores de que teoria e prática apresentam os “dois lados da mesma moeda”, isto é, a teoria o ajuda a compreender melhor a sua prática pedagógica e a lhe dar sentido e, consequentemente, que a prática proporciona melhor entendimento da teoria ou, ainda, revela a necessidade de nela fundamentar-se para o melhor uso. 2. REVISÃO DA LITERATURA O ensino de Artes no decorrer do ensino fundamental, propõem que progressivamente os alunos desenvolvam competências de sensibilidade e de cognição em Artes Visuais, Dança, Música e Teatro, produzindo arte e ampliando contato com o patrimônio artístico, exercitando sua cidadania cultural (BRASIL, 1998). BRAGA, E., ORSELLI, R. A. – O ENSINO DE ARTES Revista de Pós-Graduação Multidisciplinar, São Paulo, v. 1, n. 3, p. 225-236, nov./fev. 2018. ISSN 2594-4800 | e-ISSN 2594-4797 | doi: 10.22287/rpgm.v1i3.720 227 Diante disso, a didática fará com que os alunos se desenvolvam nas áreas de artes, o planejamento de ensino é um fator primordial na educação. Assim, segundo Haydt (1997), planejar é prever ações e procedimentos que o professor realizará com seus alunos, assim como as atividades que serão realizadas visando atingir os objetivos educacionais. Para isso, o professor precisa conhecer as necessidades e possibilidades dos alunos, para saber por onde começar, pois alguns já chegam com conhecimento avançado sobre determinado tema e outros nunca ouviram falar de tal assunto, por isso a necessidade de sondar a turma. (HAYDT, 1997) Outro aspecto é conhecer os recursos disponíveis na escola, na maioria dos casos, são poucos recursos existentes e por isso, a criatividade e investimento do professor, entram em ação, apesar de não ser o ideal, mas muitos compram materiais para facilitar a aula. (HAYDT, 1997) Os objetivos devem ser adequados para a turma de acordo com público e distribuir os conteúdos a serem assimilados ao longo do período assim como os recursos a serem utilizados deve ser preparado previamente (HAYDT, 1997). Para o auto o planejamento é um processo envolvendo várias operações mentais como: analisar, refletir, definir, selecionar, distribuir ao longo do tempo, prever formas de agir e organizar. Dessa forma, para o ensino de Artes, todos esses itens são aplicáveis, pois se trata de um processo com o objetivo de ampliar o conhecimento do aluno por meio da Arte em todos os seus aspectos. A educação deve garantir o desenvolvimento dos sujeitos em todas as suas dimensões (intelectual, física, emocional, social, cultural e político), nesse contexto, a escola é o espaço usado para que ocorra essa formação integral. Para Brasil (2010), a unidade educacional assume o papel de articuladora das diversas experiências educativas que os alunos podem vivenciar, respeitando e valorizando os diferentes saberes a partir de uma intencionalidade clara que favoreça a aprendizagem. Dada a importância do processo didático e a unidade escolar como espaço para desenvolvimento integral do aluno, é preciso saber alguns aspectos sobre adolescência, período marcado por comportamentos conflitantes. A adolescência é um período que os adultos costumam chamar de fase do aborrecimento, devido aos grandes conflitos que surgem entre adolescentes e adultos. De acordo com Santrock (2014) os estereótipos dos adolescentes são abundantes, o exemplo de uma fala típica desse grupo de pessoas é em relação ao emprego, apesar de desejarem quando conseguem não querem mais trabalhar. Ouros estereótipos conhecidos são afirmações que os adolescentes são preguiçosos, pensam somente em sexo, entre outros tantos ditos pela sociedade. Segundo Santrock (2014), a mídia tem uma parcela de culpa, pois é recorrente a imagem de adolescentes rebeldes, conflituosos e até mesmo delinquentes, isso acaba generalizando todos como se fosse igual, porém, não mostram o trabalho social que muitos adolescentes desenvolvem como serviço comunitário, por exemplo. Por isso, deve-se pensar no lado positivo do adolescente, já que o estereótipo negativo já está amplamente bem divulgado. Há uma abordagem positiva chamada de Desenvolvimento Positivo dos Jovens (DPJ) usado para enfatizar os pontos fortes e as características positivas desses adolescentes e jovens. BRAGA, E., ORSELLI, R. A. – O ENSINO DE ARTES Revista de Pós-Graduação Multidisciplinar, São Paulo, v. 1, n. 3, p. 225-236, nov./fev. 2018. ISSN 2594-4800 | e-ISSN 2594-4797 | doi: 10.22287/rpgm.v1i3.720 228 “Nessa abordagem (DPJ) são descritos cinco Cs”, vejamos: Competência envolve ter uma percepção positiva das próprias ações em áreas de domínio específico – social, acadêmica, física, carreira, etc. Confiança consiste em ter uma noção positiva global de autoestima e autoeficácia (uma noção de que se pode dominar uma situação e produzir resultados positivos). Conexão caracteriza-se pelas relações positivas com os outros, incluindo família, amigos professores e indivíduos da comunidade. Caráter inclui o respeito pelas regras sociais, compreensão do certo e do errado e integridade. Cuidado/compaixão, inclui demonstrar preocupação emocional com os outros, especialmente com aqueles que estão em sofrimento. (SANTROCK, 2014). Diante desses cinco itens descritos acima, os pesquisadores chegaram à conclusão de que para alcançar essas caraterísticas é necessário ter acesso a contextos sociais positivos, entre eles, os programas de desenvolvimento de jovens e atividades organizadas, envolvendo professores, líderes comunitários e mentores. É de extrema importância a exaltação dos aspectos positivos que o adolescente possa apresentar, pois as ênfases aos estereótipos não trarão resultados positivos. Para Santrock (2014) de acordo com o contexto cultural o adolescente terá um comportamento diferente, para exemplificar o autor cita os adolescentes indianos, cerca de dois terços deles aceitam que os pais escolham os seus casamentos. Nas Filipinas, os jovens sacrificam o seu bem estar para migrarem à outra cidade em busca de trabalho e assim mandar dinheiro para os pais. Além desses exemplos, os jovens do Quênia e de outras artes do mundo aprendem a sobreviver em meio a situações altamente estressantes, alguns por terem sido abandonados pelos pais, entram na prostituição como meio de sobrevivência (SANTROCK, 2014). O autor menciona que além dos fatores culturais e a exaltação dos aspectos positivos, outros processos são importantes para compreender melhor o adolescente, são os chamados de biológicos, cognitivo e socioemocional. O primeiro deles, o processo biológico que se refere às transformações físicas no corpo de um indivíduo, dos genes herdados dos pais, assim como o desenvolvimento do cérebro, os ganhos de altura e peso, o melhor desempenho nas habilidades motoras e as alterações hormonais. Quanto aos processos cognitivos são as mudanças nos pensamentos, na inteligência de um indivíduo, envolve cálculos matemáticos na resolução de um problema por exemplo. Por fim o processo socioemocional envolve as mudanças nas emoções, na personalidade, nas relações com os outros no contexto social de cada pessoa, trata-se daqueles momentos que são rudes com as pessoas, ao mesmo tempo se divertem com os colegas. Esses comportamentos refletem o papel dos processos socioemocionais. Outro aspecto ligado à adolescência é o interesse em jogos, a competição é algo marcante que se estende a vida adulta, usando o jogo como diversão e até mesmo como algo profissional. BRAGA, E., ORSELLI, R. A. – O ENSINO DE ARTES Revista de Pós-Graduação Multidisciplinar, São Paulo, v. 1, n. 3, p. 225-236, nov./fev. 2018. ISSN 2594-4800 | e-ISSN 2594-4797 | doi: 10.22287/rpgm.v1i3.720 229 Há várias definições sobre o jogo e o seu significado para as pessoas, entre elas há uma que mostra o jogo como algo anterior ao que conhecemos sobre cultura: “O jogo está presente em tudo que acontece no mundo (...) é no jogo e pelo jogo que a civilização surge e se desenvolve”. (HUIZINGA 1990). Assim, ao escolher uma brincadeira para determinado objetivo, deve ser levado em consideração por parte do professor o conteúdo trabalhado e o contexto antes de aplicar: “O aluno que está levando a cabo a aprendizagem; o objeto ou objetos de conhecimento que constituem o conteúdo da aprendizagem; e o professor que age, isto é, que ensina com a finalidade de favorecer a aprendizagem” (COLL, 1994 p. 103). O professor precisa atentar para novas formas de ensino e a prática do jogo deve ser visto pelo docente como uma das mais variadas estratégias pedagógicas, com o foco no assunto trabalhado. Após a discussão e a contextualização do assunto é que deve ser aplicado o jogo. A partir da contextualização o sucesso do jogo estará diretamente relacionado à maneira com que o professor planejou a aplicação do momento lúdico. Quando o adolescente é envolvido por jogos o tema trabalhado desperta interesse e cria um ambiente agradável, sem a formalidade de uma aula expositiva, proporcionando aprendizado de uma maneira lúdica. 3. A FORMAÇÃO CONTINUADA DO PROFESSOR A formação continuada é um tema que merece destaque, o conhecimento técnico sobre o assunto a ser ensinado e estratégia são essenciais para que a aula tenha qualidade. Nas aulas de artes, apesar de ser uma disciplina apreciada pelos alunos, se não houver novas estratégias além do desenho pode ocorrer desinteresse por parte dos adolescentes, fase marcada pelo interesse de aprender coisas novas com jeito diferentes. O aluno percebe quando o professor prepara a aula e domina estratégias para ensinar o conteúdo, isso facilita até mesmo na conquista pelo respeito da sala, evitando a indisciplina. Há alguns exemplos de fragilidade no ensino de Artes, vejamos: Muitas são as questões que envolvem os motivos de tantas fragilidades conceituais e metodológicas no campo do ensino-aprendizagem em Arte: a inexistência de recursos humanos, a inexperiência pedagógica e a consequente falta de questionamentos, são as causas apontadas pelo Parecer nº540/77, [...]. Faz-se necessário repensar o papel da Arte na educação escolar frente às reformas curriculares advindas da LDB atual (Lei 9.394/96) e a consequente divulgação dos Parâmetros Curriculares Nacionais-Arte, elaborados pelo MEC [...] que ratificam a presença das diversas linguagens artísticas nas escolas - música, teatro, dança e artes visuais e a Proposta de Diretrizes Curriculares sistematizada pela Comissão de Especialistas de Ensino de Artes Visuais da SESU/MEC. (MAGALHÃES, 2002). Sabemos que a formação continuada do ponto de vista do professor, não é algo simples, devido à longa jornada de trabalho que são submetidos, muitas vezes precisa trabalhar em duas escolas ou até três, além de cuidar dos afazeres domésticos. BRAGA, E., ORSELLI, R. A. – O ENSINO DE ARTES Revista de Pós-Graduação Multidisciplinar, São Paulo, v. 1, n. 3, p. 225-236, nov./fev. 2018. ISSN 2594-4800 | e-ISSN 2594-4797 | doi: 10.22287/rpgm.v1i3.720 230 Para isso o ensino a distância por meio de plataformas na internet vem ao encontro dessa necessidade de formação a qualquer hora do dia ou da noite, após a conclusão do curso, o certificado é emitido e válido em todo o território nacional. Uma das vantagens de cursar a distância é a redução de gastos com alimentação e transporte, arcando apenas com os valores de mensalidades. Pois, há também os cursos a distância oferecida pelas universidades públicas, nesse caso pode ocorrer ofertas de cursos gratuitos. Para Niskier (1999) o ensino à distância proporciona que os processos de educação e de comunicação sejam amplamente divulgados, alcançando um grande número de pessoas e grupos, por meio do uso de vários recursos didático-tecnológicos. A modalidade EAD apresenta, portanto, uma saída para que a formação continuada possa ser realizada pelo professor, apesar de não ser o adequado, mas é a uma alternativa. O ideal é que o professor pudesse ter dentro de sua jornada tempo para formação, mas ainda é uma realidade em poucas cidades brasileiras. A prática docente deve estar diretamente ligada aos benefícios e qualidade para educação, de maneira consciente que sua prática interfere na vida de muitas pessoas, com a formação continuada, conquistada por meio de formação, trocas entre profissionais da educação, pois todas as boas práticas docentes trarão e benefícios, tanto para os alunos, para a escola e para o sistema de ensino quanto para seu desenvolvimento profissional. Quanto à formação, Veigas (2010) apud Freitas (2003) estabelece alguns princípios fundamentais que merecem destaque, o autor afirma que a formação deve ser uma ação continua e progressiva, para isso vária instancias são necessárias para atingir o objetivo. “A prática é ponto de partida e chegada do processo de formação”. O objetivo da formação docente deve ser de preparar o professor para as circunstancias atuais, já que as pessoas estão em constantes transformações às formações devem acompanhar a atualidade (VEIGAS, 2010). A formação humana significa fazer da escola um tempo de vida, permitindo que os estudantes construam a vida escolar. Por isso, é necessário integrar a formação de professores em processos de inovação e de desenvolvimento organizacional da escola. O processo de formação é centrado na vida da escola como a referência dos professores (VEIGAS, 2010 p.20). Para o autor (2010) a formação humana dos professores precisa ser compreendida considerando em seu contexto histórico, tendo em vista que a escola e outras instâncias educativas constituem o espaço fundamental do exercício da docência, por essa razão, o espaço escolar também pode ser destinado para formação. A coordenação pedagógica apresenta um papel importante nesse caso, pois nos momentos destinados a estudos, deverá buscar ter o foco no que acontece na escola e preparar o docente para lidar com a situação. Dessa maneira, vale ressaltar que a formação tanto inicial quanto continuada apresenta um BRAGA, E., ORSELLI, R. A. – O ENSINO DE ARTES Revista de Pós-Graduação Multidisciplinar, São Paulo, v. 1, n. 3, p. 225-236, nov./fev. 2018. ISSN 2594-4800 | e-ISSN 2594-4797 | doi: 10.22287/rpgm.v1i3.720 231 papel importante na educação, em todas as disciplinas, e a escola deve ser considerado um espaço para aprendizado considerado o contexto atual para programar novas formações. 4. IMPRESSIONISMO De acordo com Alvarez-Suárez (2005) no movimento impressionista, o pintor Claude Monet foi um dos artistas que manteve fielmente sua vida nesse movimento, a partir do uso de tintas sensíveis e luminosas. Seus últimos anos foram sofridos devido a uma deficiência visual. Oscar-Claude Monet nasceu em Paris, em 1840 e viveu na cidade portuária de Havre, lá ocorreu seu primeiro contato com a pintura ao conhecer Eugène Boudin, responsável por estimular a pintura ao ar livre, prática que seria essencial no desenvolvimento de sua técnica e seu estilo (J. Bras. Patol. Med. Lab. 2010). Assim, aos 19 anos volta a morar em Paris para estudar pintura, sua família desejava que Monet entrasse na tradicional Escola de Belas Artes, porém escolheu ingressar no Atelier Suisse, pois o programa educacional era mais livre e combinava melhor com as características de Monet. Apesar de gostar de desenho, Monet discordava da prática acadêmica das escolas tradicionais, nesse contexto que Monet conhece Pissaro, Manet, Coubert e outros artistas vanguardistas (J. Bras. Patol. Med. Lab. 2010). Em 1912 com 72 anos de idade recebe o diagnóstico dos médicos, estava com cataratas, ao longo dos anos, a perda na visão impede que o pintor capture nuances e as cores ficam sem sintonia, num tom cada vez mais escuro, mesmo assim, mantém suas pinturas adaptando uma nova posição para trabalhar (ALVAREZ-SUAREZ, 2005). De acordo com Zanchetta (2004) os impressionistas apreciavam pintura ao ar livre para aproveitar a luz do dia e com isso registrava os tons que refletiam nos objetos, algo diferente do que retratado nos quadros por seus contemporâneos. Os pintores impressionistas não concordavam com as correntes artísticas daquele período por acreditarem que todas as coisas podem ser registradas por meio da pintura, não somente as pessoas. De acordo com Zanchetta (2004) a ideia dos pintores impressionistas era expressar algo que não estivesse na razão e nem na emoção e sim mostrar a realidade a partir da visão. Assim, o impressionismo quando surgiu foi uma quebra de paradigmas em relação à pintura, essa mudança gerou críticas e elogios, assim, uma nova concepção de fazer arte se expande pelo mundo. 5. IMPRESSIONISMO E OS JOGOS NA AULA E ARTE Após conhecer um pouco sobre o ensino e a importância da didática, as características dos alunos adolescentes e aspectos sobre impressionismo, será descrito algumas maneiras práticas de trabalhar esse assunto com adolescentes. Os jogos são bem vistos entre os adolescentes por ser algo diferente da rotina escolar, geralmente pautada na cópia de textos e resolução de questões. Dessa forma, a aula fica mais BRAGA, E., ORSELLI, R. A. – O ENSINO DE ARTES Revista de Pós-Graduação Multidisciplinar, São Paulo, v. 1, n. 3, p. 225-236, nov./fev. 2018. ISSN 2594-4800 | e-ISSN 2594-4797 | doi: 10.22287/rpgm.v1i3.720 232 divertida ao sair da rotina e os alunos participam da confecção, sem dúvida se forem envolvidos com o tema, farão trabalhos interessantes. Com assunto sobre impressionismo, deve primeiramente apresentar o assunto aos alunos mostrando as características de pintura, biografia dos pintores e imagens com as principais obras. A partir do conhecimento desses itens, a sugestão é propor aos alunos que formem grupos de até 5 pessoas, sendo que cada grupo será responsável para confeccionar um jogo, a partir do tema estudado em sala de aula. Após a confecção, cada grupo deve apesentar o jogo para a sala e ensinar os outros grupos, jogando com eles. Por fim os alunos terão participado de cinco jogos sobre o mesmo tema. A princípio, o professor pode levar um exemplo de jogos, para mostrar as regras e o esquema visual, já que eles deverão apresentar algo que os colegas queiram participar, ou seja, deve ser algo com capricho. Como exemplo é o jogo do Ludo, um jogo criado pela Comunidade Inamar, visando o aprendizado de crianças, mas que pode ser adaptado para adolescentes, aumentando o grau de dificuldades. Vejamos os conceitos e regras da sua utilização: LUDO Objetivos: Desenvolver o raciocínio lógico; Reforçar as obras Impressionistas; Material: 1 tabuleiro para cada 4 alunos, 2 dados; 4 pinos de cada cor: azul, amarelo, vermelho e roxo. PROCEDIMENTO 1. O ludo pode ser jogado por até quatro participantes. Cada jogador terá quatro pinos da mesma cor. 2. Os jogadores deverão organizar seus pinos nos campos das cores relacionadas aos pinos. 3. O jogador só poderá sair da casa quando a soma dos dois dados for igual a 1 ou a 6. 4. O procedimento é semelhante ao jogo de percurso. Cada participante jogará os dados e a soma dos mesmos será percorrida pelo tabuleiro. 5. Quando um dos pinos caírem nos numerais, o jogador deverá verificar a legenda. BRAGA, E., ORSELLI, R. A. – O ENSINO DE ARTES Revista de Pós-Graduação Multidisciplinar, São Paulo, v. 1, n. 3, p. 225-236, nov./fev. 2018. ISSN 2594-4800 | e-ISSN 2594-4797 | doi: 10.22287/rpgm.v1i3.720 233 6. Quando o adversário cair na casa que já tiver uma embarcação, ele poderá eliminar mandando-a de volta para a casa anterior. 7. Vence quem conseguir chegar até o centro do tabuleiro com os quatro pinos. Após explicar aos alunos as regras e como jogar, cada grupo recebe os itens necessários para o jogo e o professor acompanha aos poucos e esclarece as dúvidas. A princípio pode parecer confuso, mas a partir da segunda vez que brincam se encantam. Nesse exemplo do ludo é interessante levar todos os itens necessários para realizar a partida, assim os alunos já percebem como deve o preparo para aplicar um jogo. Figura 1 – Ludo Fonte: Após essa apresentação e o jogo de Ludo é possível perceber se os alunos gostaram da ideia, o importante é motivá-los para que sintam vontade de participar da confecção dos próximos jogos. Nesse momento, o foco do professor deve ser nas habilidades dos alunos, como visto anteriormente, naquilo que o adolescente faz de melhor, pois sempre surgem falas de que não conseguem fazer. Outro aspecto importante é ressaltar a relação interpessoal, pois trabalho em grupo as ideias são divergentes e não sabe lidar com a situação, nesse momento, o professor acaba sendo mediador de conflitos. Com o trabalho em grupo é possível mostrar aos alunos que futuramente ao trabalharem em empresas, os relacionamentos com pessoas das mais diferentes ideologias podem gerar atritos, nesse ponto, ter controle emocional é essencial para que o objetivo seja alcançado. Após abordar sobre esses temas com alunos, a sala é dividida em grupos, cada um com seu material selecionado para começar a confecção. BRAGA, E., ORSELLI, R. A. – O ENSINO DE ARTES Revista de Pós-Graduação Multidisciplinar, São Paulo, v. 1, n. 3, p. 225-236, nov./fev. 2018. ISSN 2594-4800 | e-ISSN 2594-4797 | doi: 10.22287/rpgm.v1i3.720 234 O jogo da memória é algo simples de montar desde que as imagens sejam impressas previamente com quadros famosos de pintores impressionistas como Monet, com a imagem e o nome da obra. Os alunos recortam e colam as imagens em cartolinas no tamanho de 10x10cm e o jogo está pronto. As cartas devem ser colocadas viradas para cima e os participantes observam atentamente onde está cada imagem. Após quinze segundos de observação, as imagens são viradas para baixo e começa o jogo. A regra é virar a primeira imagem no mesmo lugar, não pode remover, pois saindo do lugar confunde o participante. Se a segunda imagem for à mesma, o participante ganha um ponto e tem mais uma chance de jogar. Esse jogo da memória possibilita exercitar os nomes dos quadros pintados por Monet, trabalhando a mente e o conteúdo de artes. Com as cartas do jogo da memória é possível aproveitar para o jogo do “rouba monte”, porém é preciso que tenha pelo menos 52 cartas, ou seja, precisa de mais cartas que o jogo da memória. Outra sugestão é confeccionar um dominó com imagens das obras de vários pintores impressionistas, para montar um jogo com a quantidade de peças necessárias. O bingo é outra maneira de jogar, as cartelas podem mesclar o nome do pintor e diversas obras impressionistas. Ao ser sorteado, na cartela marca-se o ponto com um pedaço EVA, assim a cartela poderá ser usada posteriormente. São alguns exemplos de jogos comuns que podem ser adaptados para o tema de Artes, no caso, impressionismo de Claude Monet. Mostrando aos alunos o conceito e como jogar, eles devem procurar a partir de seus conhecimentos prévios maneiras de adaptar e até mesmo desenvolver um jogo novo, o incentivo a criatividade também faz parte do ensino das Artes. Esses são apenas alguns exemplos do que pode ser estimulado entre os adolescentes. 6. CONCLUSÕES A partir dessa pesquisa percebe-se que para lecionar Artes é preciso envolver os alunos para que se sintam atraídos pela arte, apreciar o belo. Para isso, o professor precisa compreender aspectos da adolescência e trabalhar o conhecimento de mundo para planejar uma aula lúdica e atrativa. Esse período marcado por transformações reflete no comportamento do aluno, diante disso, se o professor compreender alguns aspectos poderá ter uma base melhor para lidar com os alunos. Uma das ações é focar nas qualidades do aluno, com isso o professor cria um vínculo e assim a interação ocorrerá, o professor consegue envolver o aluno para que crie o desejo de aprender. O ensino da arte será proveitoso se o aluno estiver envolvido e interessado, para isso a escola é o espaço destinado para que ocorra o aprendizado. O professor é peça primordial para que ocorra esse processo. Dessa forma, a didática em sala de aula pode contribuir significativamente BRAGA, E., ORSELLI, R. A. – O ENSINO DE ARTES Revista de Pós-Graduação Multidisciplinar, São Paulo, v. 1, n. 3, p. 225-236, nov./fev. 2018. ISSN 2594-4800 | e-ISSN 2594-4797 | doi: 10.22287/rpgm.v1i3.720 235 para o aprendizado, por isso, a formação continuada é tão importante para o professor, apesar das condições de trabalho e a excessiva carga horária de trabalho, para isso, uma alternativa são os cursos à distância. Além da formação continuada, as estratégias de ensino devem ser pesquisadas e adequadas para o público alvo. Nesta pesquisa os jogos foram utilizados como uma maneira de envolver os alunos sobre o impressionismo, pois os jogos são conhecidos, e quando adaptados com o tema facilita o ensino/aprendizado. REFERÊNCIAS ALVAREZ-SUAREZ, ML. Las cataratas de Monet. Arch Soc Esp Oftalmol. v. 80,  n. 9,  p. 555-556,  set.  2005 .   Disponível em <http://scielo.isciii.es/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0365- 66912005000900013&lng=pt&nrm=iso>. Acessos em  01/ago/ 2017. BRASIL. Secretaria de Educação Fundamental. Parâmetros Curriculares Nacionais: Arte. Secretaria de Educação Fundamental. – Brasília: MEC / SEF, 1998. ______. Resolução CNE /CEB nº04/10. Disponível em: <http://portal.mec.gov.br/dmdocuments/ rceb004_10.pdf. > Acesso em 01/Ago/2017. COLL, Cesar et. al. Desenvolvimento Psicológico e Educação: necessidades educativas especiais e aprendizagem escolar. Porto alegre: Artes Médicas, v3 1994. Comunidade Inamar. Revista Brincar de Aprender. 16º Planejamento, 2010. HAYDT, Regina Célia Cazaux. Curso didática Geral. São Paulo: Ática,1997. HUIZINGA, Johan. Homo Ludens: o jogo como elemento de cultura. São Paulo: Ed. Perspectiva, 2ª edição, (1990). Tradução: João Paulo Monteiro. MAGALHÃES, A. D. T. V. Ensino de arte: perspectivas com base na prática de ensino. In: BARBOSA, A. M. (Org.). Inquietações e mudanças no ensino da arte. São Paulo: Cortez, 2002. NISKIER, Arnaldo. Educação à distância: a tecnologia da esperança: políticas e estratégias para a implantação de um sistema nacional de educação aberta e à distância. 2. ed. São Paulo: Loyola, 1999. J. BRAS. PATOL. MED. LAB. Monet: o pai do impressionismo. Rio de Janeiro:  v. 46,  n. 3,  June  2010 .   Disponível em: <http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1676- 24442010000300001&lng=en&nrm=iso>. Acesso em  13/ Ago/  2017. SANTROCK, Jonh W. Adolescência. Porto Alegre,2014. VEIGAS, Ilma Passos Alencastro. (orgs).A escola mudou. Que mude a formação de professores. BRAGA, E., ORSELLI, R. A. – O ENSINO DE ARTES Revista de Pós-Graduação Multidisciplinar, São Paulo, v. 1, n. 3, p. 225-236, nov./fev. 2018. ISSN 2594-4800 | e-ISSN 2594-4797 | doi: 10.22287/rpgm.v1i3.720 236 Campinas, SP: Papirus, 2010. INFORMAÇÕES DOS AUTORES Eliete Braga é professora no Ensino Fundamental II e médio, licenciada em Matemática e Ciências pela Faculdade Associada Ipiranga (FAI). Atualmente é efetiva na EMEF Ana Maria Alves Benetti e na E.E. Délcio de Souza Cunha. Email: eliete.braga@hotmail.com Renata Alves Orselli é mestre em Semiótica e Tecnologia da Informática e Educação UBC-SP, Pós- graduada em Língua Portuguesa PUC-SP e Língua Brasileira de Sinais - LIBRAS INICID/SP, graduada em Letras e Direito pela Universidade Braz Cubas – UBC/SP e Professora da Faculdade Integrada Campos Salles – FICS2017. renata.orselli@outlook.com 
work_izh4menytvezjcrzcudtcvyrjq	----	Emil Filla, ‘Domenico Theotocopuli El Greco Journal of Art Historiography Number 8 June 2013 Emil Filla, ‘Domenico Theotocopuli El Greco. Notes from an exhibition of El Greco in Munich’1 translated and edited by Matthew Rampley Translator’s introduction: El Greco in Prague: modernism and the reception of an Old Master Emil Filla (1882-1953) was one of the leading modernist painters working in Prague before the First World War. Following a conventional artistic training at the Academy of Fine Art in the city at the beginning of the twentieth century he was, like many of his generation, deeply impressed by an exhibition of work by Edvard Munch in Prague staged in 1905 by the Mánes Union of Fine Artists, the leading artistic association of the time. The impact of Munch was evident almost immediately, and starting from 1907, when he painted The Reader of Dostoyevsky, Filla produced a series of works that mirrored the visual lexicon and formal language of the Norwegian artist, intensifying the gloomy symbolist themes of the latter to an almost unbearable degree. Anxious to avoid the limitations of the provincial art world of Prague, he avidly consumed the most advanced artistic practices of the major art centres of the time, culminating in a quite personal appropriation and interpretation of Cubism. He was also a author of essays in art history and criticism, writing on subjects as diverse as Byzantine art, Caravaggio, Daumier, Rembrandt, Impressionism, Munch and, of course, El Greco.2 Although a member of the Mánes Association, Filla was active in the formation of other avant-garde artistic groups, which eventually led to open conflict with Mánes. The first was Osma (The Eight), which he helped found in 1907, and which included other prominent exponents of Czech Cubism, including Bohumil Kubišta (1884-1918) and Antonín Procházka (1882-1945). Later, in 1911, he formed a successor group called the Skupina výtvarných umělců (The Group of Fine Artists). Skupina also published its own journal, the Umělecký Měsíčník (Art monthly) between 1911 and 1914, and it is from the first volume of that journal that Filla’s article on El Greco is taken. The artists of Skupina did not have a coherent ideology, and this is clear from the pages of the journal, which feature an eclectic range of articles on contemporary by Czech and foreign authors, as well as essays on art history, literary reviews and poems. The choice of visual material in the journal was equally broad, ranging from contemporary art, architecture and design to old masters, African, pre-Columbian and prehistoric art. For all its lack of coherence, this eclecticism revealed how the artists positioned themselves, as exponents of art as a global 1 First published as ‘Domenico Theotocopuli El Greco. Poznámky z Grecovy výstavy v Mnichově,’ Umělecký Měsíčník, 1.1, 1911-1912, 5-8 and 74-78. 2 A selection of Filla’s essays, including that on El Greco, is published in Filla, O Výtvarném Umění, Prague: Karel Brož, 1948. Matthew Rampley (trans.) Emil Filla, ‘Domenico Theotocopuli El Greco. Notes from an exhibition of El Greco in Munich’ 2 practice that transcended traditional spatial and temporal categories. It is this interest in the art of the past that makes Filla’s essay of significance, for it reveals how a contemporary artist (as opposed to an art historian) made sense of history. Naomi Hume has recently suggested that the Skupina artists were distinctive precisely in their concern with the history of art, and in this they were strongly informed by the Vienna School.3 A close reading of Filla’s article reveals obvious traces of Vienna School thinking; the most striking is his repeated reference to the artistic will (vůle umělecká) which is a direct Czech translation of Riegl’s ‘Kunstwollen’. Filla’s interest, too, in how El Greco treated spatial relations, bears more than a passing resemblance to Riegl’s exploration of figure-ground relations in Late Roman Art Industry. It may seem improbable that a modernist painter writing in an avant-garde periodical would be familiar with a text on a hitherto marginalised art historical topic, but as Hume argues, Skupina artists do appear to have been readers of quite minor writings by Vienna School authors, and work by Riegl had already appeared in Czech translation in other modernist publications; in 1908 the architectural journal Styl had published portions of his essay on monument protection and Pavel Janák, later one of the leading representatives of Cubist architecture in Prague, had also published an article in the same issue advocating the adoption of Riegl’s ideas in the treatment of the historic district of Malá Straná in the city.4 Finally, one of the leading interpreters and advocates of Cubism in Prague, Vincenc Kramář, who amassed a significant private collection of works by Picasso and Braque, had been a student of Franz Wickhoff and worked as an assistant for Max Dvořák.5 Riegl also shaped Emil Filla indirectly through the mediations of Wilhelm Worringer. With its sweeping speculative judgements about aesthetic experience, ‘primitive’ culture and its assertions about the psychological functions of art, Worringer’s Abstraction and Empathy represented a significant departure from Riegl, whose theoretical tenets were always developed as a means of analysing specific works of art. Nevertheless, Worringer clearly saw himself as the heir to Riegl, and some of the latter’s work, most notably, the incomplete book manuscript Historical Grammar of the Visual Arts as well as some of his shorter essays, engage in a similar kind of broad historical and philosophical speculation.6 Hence, Filla’s opening assertions that ‘The grounds of every formal change can be sought in a change of worldview and conception of nature,’ or his claim that ‘to understand the specific forms of [the will to art] and the formal expression of a particular artistic era means detecting the worldview of the age concerned, penetrating it, projecting oneself into its spirit’ resonate with the ideas of Worringer and, through him, Riegl. 3 Naomi Hume, ‘Avant-Garde Anachronisms: Prague’s Group of Fine Artists and Viennese Art Theory’, Slavic Studies. 71.3 (2012) 516-45. 4 Pavel Janák, ‘Moderní regulace a regulace Malé Strany’, Styl: Měsíčník pro architekturu, umělecké řemeslo a úpravu měst 1.1 (1908): 155–59 5 On Kramář see Vojtěch Lahoda and Olga Uhrová, Vincenc Kramář: from Old Masters to Picasso. Prague: National Gallery, 2001, and Jana Claverie, Vincenc Kramar : Un théoricien et collectionneur du cubisme à Prague, Paris: RMN, 2002. 6 Alois Riegl, Historical Grammar of the Visual Arts, translated by Benjamin Binstock, New York: Zone Books, 2004. Matthew Rampley (trans.) Emil Filla, ‘Domenico Theotocopuli El Greco. Notes from an exhibition of El Greco in Munich’ 3 Filla’s essay was prompted by an exhibition in Munich of works from the collection of the Hungarian aristocrat Marczell von Nemes, but his text has to be viewed in the context of the wider rediscovery of the painter’s work. Although there had been a modest literature on El Greco in the nineteenth century, he had been a largely marginal figure, often dismissed as incomprehensible or worse.7 As late as 1903 Carl Justi had diagnosed his later works as an example of ‘pathological disturbance.’8 From 1908, however, when the Madrid based art historian Manuel Bartolomé Cossío published a biography of the artist, he enjoyed an astonishing change in critical fortunes. It was Julius Meier-Graefe’s Spanish Journey of 1910, however, that played the decisive role in bringing him to the attention to a central European readership.9 Meier-Graefe saw him as a precursor of Impressionism and hence as an ancestor of modern art. Given his role as a prominent supporter of modernism, his re-reading of El Greco almost guaranteed that the artist would be of interest to contemporary practitioners and hence El Greco became a central figure for modern artists.10 It is in this context that we have to consider Filla’s decision to write about him. His essay engages directly with ongoing debates about El Greco; it dismisses, for example, the idea that El Greco’s work was a pathological symptom or the result of an astigmatism. Meier-Graefe may have linked El Greco with Impressionism, but Filla distances himself from this reading. Instead, it is Cubism that provides the points of reference. His assertion, for example, that El Greco ‘does not seek to offer a single passing view of an object but would prefer to depict it from all sides at once’ is a clear projection of his own artistic concerns onto the past and reflects the emerging consensus about the significance of Cubist painting. Filla was not the only Czech critic to turn to El Greco. Indeed, his essay was not even the only article on the subject in that issue of the Umělecký Měsíčník; it also contained an essay by the historian Josef Borovička that consisted of a rather more pedestrian account of the painter.11 Undoubtedly the best known Czech commentator on El Greco, however, was Max Dvořák, whose essay on ‘El Greco and Mannerism’ has been widely credited as rehabilitating him and allotting him a place in the history of art.12 We now know, however, that Dvořák was building on a critical consensus that had been building up for a decade before he addressed the subject. There are notable parallels between the accounts of Dvořák and Filla. Both stress the spiritual qualities of El Greco’s work and for both, too, this is the symptom of a deeper characteristic of modernity. Considering the chronology of their two essays one might speculate that Filla’s essay may have been source for Dvořák’s 7 Manuel Bartolomé Cossío, El Greco, Madrid: Victoriano Suárez, 1908. For an account of the art historical literature on El Greco during the nineteenth century see Eric Storm, ‘Julius Meier-Graefe, El Greco and the Rise of Modernism’, Mitteilungen der Carl Justi-Vereinigung, 20 (2008): 113-133. 8 Carl Justi, Diego Velazquez und sein Jahrhundert. Bonn, 2nd rev. ed: M. Cohen, 1903, xxv. 9 Julius Meier-Graefe, Spanische Reise, Berlin: Fischer, 1910 10 The modernist reception of El Greco was the subject of a major exhibition in Düsseldorf in 2012, El Greco und die Moderne. See Beat Wismer and Michael Scholz-Hänsel, eds, El Greco und die Moderne, Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz, 2012. 11 Josef Borovička, ‘El Greco: Dojmy ze Španělska,’ Umělecký Měsíčník, 1, 1910-11, 67-73. 12 Max Dvořák, ‘Über Greco und den Manierismus,’ in Dvořák, Kunstgeschichte als Geistesgeschichte, Munich: Piper, 1924, 259-76. See Matthew Rampley, ‘Max Dvořák: Art History and the Crisis of Modernity', Art History, 26.2, 214-237. Matthew Rampley (trans.) Emil Filla, ‘Domenico Theotocopuli El Greco. Notes from an exhibition of El Greco in Munich’ 4 interpretation. There is no direct evidence that the latter read Filla, but the similarities are striking, and given that Dvořák both remained in contact with colleagues in Prague and also showed a keen interest in contemporary art, it is not an improbable conjecture. Indeed, Filla’s essay potentially casts new light on Dvořák’s engagement with contemporary art, which is usually cited in connection with the latter’s short discussion of Oskar Kokoschka.13 Dvořák was deeply concerned with the connections between contemporary art and the work of the old masters. As Hans Aurenhammer has indicated, this was initially centred on the reading of Tintoretto as the ancestor of Impressionism, with clear similarities to the ideas of Meier-Graefe.14 Later, however, Dvořák equated modernism with Expressionism. On the one hand this reflected his efforts at catching up with current artistic developments: Impressionism was, after all, a historical relic by 1900. On the other, it may be the result of the influence of writers such as Filla, who moved beyond Meier-Graefe’s reading of El Greco. Sources may come to light that provide a more definite answer. At the very least, Filla’s essay shows the complex web that bound together artists and art historians in early twentieth-century Prague, and the close intellectual links between Prague and the Vienna School. Matthew Rampley is chair of art history at the University of Birmingham. Recent publications include: The Vienna School of Art History: Empire and the Politics of Scholarship 1847-1918 (2013); Art History and Visual Studies in Europe (co-edited, 2012); Heritage, Ideology and Identity in Central and Eastern Europe (edited, 2012). He is currently working on a critical study of museums as instruments of cultural policy in late nineteenth-century Austria-Hungary. m.j.rampley@bham.ac.uk 13 Max Dvořák, ‘Vorwort’ to Oskar Kokoschka. Variationen über ein Thema (1921). Reprinted in Hans Maria Wingler and Friedrich Welz, eds, Oskar Kokoschka. Das Druckgraphische Wer,. Salzburg: Galerie Welz, 1975, 40-42. 14 Hans Aurenhammer, ‘Max Dvořák, Tintoretto und die Moderne: Kunstgeschichte "vom Standpunkt unserer Kunstentwicklung" betrachtet’, Wiener Jahrbuch für Kunstgeschichte, 49 (1996): 9-39 and 289-294. Journal of Art Historiography Number 8 June 2013 Emil Filla, ‘Domenico Theotocopuli El Greco’ The discovery of El Greco would never have achieved such wide-ranging significance for contemporary cultural life, and would never have prompted such joy as well as bafflement, if it had been restricted to the world of art history, for which it has the value of a new document or experimental object, like the discoveries of Schliemann or the Manchu finds of Pelliot. For the appearance of El Greco has gripped our age much more forcefully; it threw up in the air once more a whirlwind of hidden or obscure issues, and our age saw a part of its ideals in him, as well as answers. For the work of El Greco touches the essential bases of artistic creation for the current generation; their interest in him, bound up with a certain love for him, has made it easier to determine the character of the path of our evolution, and it shows how far removed we have become from our yesterday, and where we are going. In the past every specific artistic will [vůle umělecká] had its god or beloved figure, a related school or stylistic current that echoed its own worldview and embodied new technical needs. To understand the specific forms of that will and the formal expression of a particular artistic era means detecting the worldview of the age concerned, penetrating it, projecting oneself into its spirit, in other words, becoming conscious of the relationship of the individual of the time to the external world, identifying with his philosophy of life. It is through this entire philosophy of life that one is able to understand the individual object, whether by means of the immediate intuition of optical perception, or by means of the synthesis of a multiplicity of similar phenomena into individual basic types, or by the transformation of phenomena into specific, conventional symbols or signs, or, ultimately, by seeing nature merely as the imperfect image of the original ideal world. On the other hand, this philosophy shapes a specific formal drive, creates its essential formal unity and dictates its grammar of forms. The grounds of every formal change can be sought in a change of worldview and conception of nature. The art of a defined epoch does not only decline due to internal decay, in other words, due to an incongruence of content and form, an excess of content over form; it also falls to pieces in the sense that an alien culture and worldview stream in and penetrate a particular generation. These can either intermingle, and create a new formation, or the alien culture can become sovereign and rule over the entirety of artistic production or, for a period, it can kill off any artistic production that arises. If, therefore, El Greco is not merely an archaeological discovery but, far more, is at the centre of our interests, the magnet and patron for our artistic ambitions, then a certain change in our worldview would be necessary for a change in our ideals. There is no need to keep it secret that the worldview as it appeared in the period of Naturalism and Impressionism underwent numerous transformations, and that there are all kinds of signs of a new shared effort, already showing positive results, to go beyond mere negation of and opposition to the past. At the same time, however, it should be pointed out that the case of El Greco does not always mirror their preconceptions. Matthew Rampley (trans.) Emil Filla, ‘Domenico Theotocopuli El Greco. Notes from an exhibition of El Greco in Munich’ 6 Certainly, the Impressionists, especially Bonnard but Cézanne most of all, pointed the way to El Greco, and at first sight there is a certain similarity and unity between them. The point of convergence is provided by colour and the logic of its application, as well as a particular kind of manual technique. Yet only Cézanne, with his constructivist efforts – precisely the quality that set him apart from Impressionism – shows closer affinities to him. If someone were to try to adopt El Greco as the true originator of rendering, manual handling of paint and of their consequent effects, which could have had the widest range of causes, we must pursue this comparison consistently, and lay out his basic characteristic features, which, from the standpoint of the optical truth of Impressionism, appear as irregularities and distortions. We ought to explain his bizarre proportions and the rigid nature of his entire composition. Finally, we would have to descend down to deeper spiritual domains, in order to find the connection between, indeed, the identity of, the genre-like reportage and improvisional directness of Impressionism on the one hand, and the constructive precision, psychological expression and inner drama of El Greco on the other. From a purely technical point of view, Impressionism is completely encompassed by El Greco, but this does not explain him, even if it constitutes an essential part of him. To cite El Greco, whose work involved, in essence, the organic intermeshing of everything, and to explain this or that by reference to El Greco, and just as inappropriate and dangerous as citing the dramas of William Shakespeare. For one can find every dramatic tendency, every problem and every offshoot of dramatic art in Shakespeare. Such universal geniuses only confirm once more that they are exceptional, that they stand apart from the general run of art, and above or outside of individual trends and currents. When we try to determine more closely the nature of our present age the preference for El Greco is characteristic. It is typical for this time, which, with its fluctuations and its ambiguities, has yet to be articulated and remains chaotic, that it should not reach for an essentially more straightforward and less complicated master or artwork, and that it should have become fascinated precisely by El Greco, an indeterminate and complicated phenomenon even in his own time, who most corresponds to its formal drive. At a time when we attempt everything afresh, and are merely prospecting for a distinct and clear goal, El Greco is merely a kind of index of all possibilities. It will be decided in the future which pole this striving, driven by necessity, will decide for, what it will look for and what it will pass over. El Greco represents a transitional point of view, and it is certain that when we decide for one of the basic sides of his work, we shall have to leave him behind as a whole, in order to dedicate ourselves to one particular side or tendency. This relationship to El Greco will then be only a partial one, and will perhaps be more distant than that today. It is precisely because such universality is tied up with the individual, and can therefore not become a general programme, and is the sign of the creative individual, that any yearning for such a universality is ruled out in our age. Universality especially never gravitates towards complexity but rather holds to the greatest simplicity and purity. The fact that our age does not wish to accept all of El Greco, but only considers parts of his production, overlooks others and only accepts what it needs, is evidence that it does not yearn for this universality at all. It interprets the Matthew Rampley (trans.) Emil Filla, ‘Domenico Theotocopuli El Greco. Notes from an exhibition of El Greco in Munich’ 7 remainder, which leaves it at a loss, as a matter of individual caprice, as madness or as personal mysticism. Indeed, last of all, it has recently drawn on a pathological explanation, the astigmatism of his eyes. If we deny these aspects of El Greco, which are an essential part of his artistic quality, this reveals a lack of understanding of the logic of his representation of art, quite apart, for the moment, from considering the psychological aspect of his experience. Up until now our age has found quite inessential technical analogies in El Greco. For the moment the discovery of El Greco is just the discovery of his technique. However, El Greco’s work is higher, more synthetic and more polyphonic, for alongside the cult of the eye and the technical effects the immeasurable content of his spiritual expression should also be brought into account. For it contains hidden within it the power of suggestion, a secret that characterizes all those masters who do not remain attached to the surface of things but who penetrate deep into the essence of the ‘thing-in-itself.’ El Greco typifies the modern age in that he is completely timeless, and in a deeper sense, moreover, than Tintoretto, whose personality means that he stands beyond the usual comparisons, but whose work, in common with other masters, shows all the stylistic traits of his time. El Greco’s year of birth is usually stated as 1548 or 1549; he was thus the same age as Francesco Bassano the Younger. He was a student of Titian, stayed in Rome for a while, and lived in Spain from 1575 until his death in 1614. He was originally Greek. As a foreigner, not only did he have no connection to any particular current, he also played no part in the development of a particular tradition. He lacked the proud commitment to a school of his own and, last of all, he was free of the partisan hostility and jealousy towards the propensities of other schools. In this regard his freedom was greater than that of Italian artists in that, as a foreigner, he was not enmeshed in the problems of his time, and could therefore dedicate himself to the study of ancient art with naïve and unconstrained interest. This was how he understood the laws, the variable logic and possibilities of contemporary as well as older art. When he was born Michelangelo was already working on St. Peter’s cathedral. During his age the sensibility of the Baroque penetrated and governed the whole of life in all directions. But it was issues in Rome in particular that absorbed all artistic interest. Even Titian was shaken by them in a powerful way. In 1522 a copy of the ancient Laocöon made its way into Titian’s house. For a while he then left behind the idyllic reverie, the calm measure, and serious lyrical disposition that he and Venetian tradition had made their own, in order to dedicate himself to new problems. On the whole he resisted these new kinds of impulses, because he felt all too well the conflict between his inner character and the violent, pathetic rhythm that was bound up to this new striving. Nevertheless, as if both troubled and wanting to prove to himself that he could master these new problems, he painted The Resurrection (in the year 1522), The Martyrdom of St. Peter, The Sacrifice of Abraham, Cain and Abel, David and Goliath. Within his production as a whole, these pictures are isolated with their passionate gestures, the vivacious but, at the same time, constrained movement of heavy plastic masses, and their violent contortions of the bodies around their axis. El Greco entered into this upheaval, this new Baroque struggle and was witness to the glorious results of Michelangelo and Tintoretto. Although history tells us that he was a student of Titian, the latter did not have as Matthew Rampley (trans.) Emil Filla, ‘Domenico Theotocopuli El Greco. Notes from an exhibition of El Greco in Munich’ 8 much influence on his earliest works as Tintoretto and Michelangelo. The new impulse was embodied more clearly and with more conviction in the works of Tintoretto, he was more explosive and modern. In comparison with his later works, those of El Greco’s first period clearly betray Venetian tradition and their Baroque character. This is especially the case with The Ascension of the Virgin Mary, the Dresden Healing of the Blind, the Adoration of the Magi in Vienna and The Dying Christ in the Arms of God the Father although as in The Disrobing of Christ each of them cautiously reveals a quality that runs contrary to the Baroque. If we just characterize the Baroque in terms of its tectonics and configuration of masses, we can see that mass is preponderant in the Baroque. While the Renaissance signified a balance between support and entablature, in the Baroque the entablature is preponderant. The works of Michelangelo and Tintoretto always have a calm and broad ground plane, all the essentials strive towards the dominant centre; the upper part of the picture is articulated horizontally, and weighs down on the masses below, which, as if driven by passionate movements, swaying around their own axis, are trying to release themselves from their burden and to be relieved of their own weight. In El Greco’s paintings from the later period the only thing that remains of all that is the passionate movement. This is not, however, the expression of resistance or of the will to overcome. Rather, it is a sudden, light, floating movement, a verticality held aloft by nothing. In The Ascension of the Virgin El Greco preserves the overall layout of Titian’s painting of the same name. The composition is conceived centripetally, the masses are distributed horizontally, surface breadth is preponderant as are contrasts between values, and the roundness of the plastic masses gives them a block-like character. In The Crucifixion, an image from the later period with a similar motif, this heavy stable grounding is absent, the entire picture, from top to bottom is a single stream coursing upwards; the movement is without violence and is, as it were, released from the bondage of gravity. The centre is compressed between the vertical masses on either side, and is wedged in as in his Laocöon. In its proportions the format of the picture is narrowed down and lengthened, round forms give way to sharply angular well defined lines; plastic masses are composed of deep sharp gashes, the breadth of the planes is constricted, to the point where the entire image looks as if it is made up of narrow light and dark strips. All these peculiarities and features, which are typical for the creation of El Greco, and which run counter to the sensibilities of the Baroque, seem to have been taken directly from Gothic. It will always remain undecided, whether he was obeying his innermost self, when he created a link between Baroque and Gothic, or whether he was led onto this path by external factors, the Gothic cathedrals of Spain, which at that time kept the spirit of the Gothic fully alive. This transformation, so characteristic for El Greco, is visible in the paintings of the final period, and it seems that it can be dated to the Burial of Count of Orgaz. In this picture only the upper half, depicting the arrival of the deceased among the heavenly throng, shows nearly all the characteristics of his later painting. The lower portion, however, bears all the signs of both Italian and Spanish tradition. Contemporaries only liked the lower half, and from that point onwards El Greco Matthew Rampley (trans.) Emil Filla, ‘Domenico Theotocopuli El Greco. Notes from an exhibition of El Greco in Munich’ 9 became detached from general understanding, so that this painting represents a division in his life similar to The Nightwatch in Rembrandt’s life. In the upper part of The Burial of Count of Orgaz all feeling of weight and substance has vanished, the movement is light, full of tension, the horizontal orientation of its motion has been transformed into a diagonal upward direction. It is as if from this time onwards El Greco had transferred the entire visible world and every real object across to a realm in which materiality had become spirit, aether and light, a realm in which movement if liberated and every kind of corporeality is replaced by a fluid and illuminated by an inner light, where one material penetrates another, without encountering resistance, and where only reconciliation rules. On this path El Greco increasingly distanced himself from Baroque conceptions, or at least from its basic characteristic. He was no longer in accordance with the Baroque world view and remained isolated, cut off, taking no part in the development of the style as a whole, the mainstream of which continued in its original direction. Thus El Greco was exceptional for his time and was timeless. He could have no successors, and therefore could not be compared with anyone, for only great masters of the same kind can be compared. From The Burial of the Count of Orgaz onwards the pictures of El Greco became flatter and more angular in comparison with his earlier paintings. In his later years he painted over and transformed many of the pictures of his earlier period. This change in the flatness is a striking characteristic of his later period. It is as if, in opposition to conventional practice of the Venetians, he drew closer in his final works to Byzantine and Romanesque art, or to the art of the Italian primitives. In order to understand this tendency towards flatness, which was typical for El Greco, one has to be clear about the premise of all artistic creation: to give higher value to life, to transform its finitude into immortality, and to bring it closer to the infinite. There is no artwork that does not touch these eternal questions, and that is not also an answer to the question concerning the meaning of life, i.e. its purpose and value. The artist turns away from the immediacy of life, from its physical and material duration, continuation and prolongation, and towards artistic activity, the results of which are more certain and enduring, and in which his creative ideas are more fully condensed and concentrated. Thus the artist approaches the boundaries of a deeper knowledge, and on this fateful path he brings about the pure sacrifice whereby he delivers his personality from constant transitoriness, constant nullity and constant futility. Works of art are not only miraculous reactions of the drive to self- preservation, they are, further, the embodiment of the goals that humanity sets itself, depending on its worldview. They create higher values than those that the mere individual ego, lost in arbitrary space and temporally determined changeability, can bring forth. The artist does not seek to use his creative work to prolong his short life, to overcome transience, to pass beyond the unavoidable boundary of death. He seeks furthermore to transform all temporality and finitude into unchanging and eternal essentiality, and thereby to overcome his material being. Like every organism, humans overcome temporal and spatial change by means of duration and methodical growth. The artist endows his work with qualities abstracted from of his essence: unity, cohesion, concentration, solidity, elasticity; he equips it with characteristics that defy change, and transfers to it the postulates of Matthew Rampley (trans.) Emil Filla, ‘Domenico Theotocopuli El Greco. Notes from an exhibition of El Greco in Munich’ 10 our organic existence. Together with the viewer he sees himself rapturously in his work, conscious of the higher value of his creation, his higher beauty and perfection. Only the strict ascetic does not resort to art, indeed rejects every kind of activity. He is like someone who has turned away from life, who has negated his own vitality and devoted himself to forgetting life, and who regards it as impossible to overcome the eternal circle of life and is exhausted by the game of life, conscious that every prolongation of life only bears within it the anguished yearning for still further prolongation. When such a person decides, in spite of everything, to turn to artistic activity, his work does not have the qualities of the organic, of movement and the rhythm of life. Rather, its origins seem to lie in the inorganic, and it expresses stability, solidification and quietude. These two artistic possibilities and this various gradations and methods (which emerge out of a yearning to overcome transience either through the strongest affirmation of life, Dionysian ecstasy, or through euthanasia and the complete denial of vitality) thus appear to be the basic originary paths of artistic creation. When art is considered as a type of human activity that creates play and symbols, that provides us with monuments to our yearning for the absolute and the eternal, and which liberates us from our own finitude and dependence, the formal laws of creation are always the same. They always strive for the same goal. The different ways in which a work of art distinguishes itself from others is of less importance, and arises out of the variety of worldviews of the creators and, even more, the variety of elements to be used in the representation. The character of any artistic element is its capacity to create contrasts. It is only with the latter that we are able to describe objects well known to us and to summon up new representations of them. Each element has an inherent logic. If someone limits themselves to conjuring up and giving form to visual and tactile objects using some element, we speak merely of a good painting or statue and so forth, even if they have used it to its logically correct conclusion. More is needed, however, for such a formation to become a work of art. We demand above all that the object that has been depicted should be purified of all superfluous and inessential components and that it should be torn away from the chance events of everyday life. The creator should either generalize the object (in other words, the object should only incorporate elements it has in common with similar kinds of object) or he should project himself intuitively into the object and fathom what are for him its determining, unique and indescribable features. Thus the creator takes the object from out of the manifold and multiplicity, and stamps it with the mark of law and order, revalues its dependence on other chosen quantities and, inasmuch as he equips it with mathematical precision, makes it into an autonomous cosmos, into an organism liberated from any relation to time and place. In this way he creates a distance between this new self-sufficient unity and the world of change and transience. The artist achieves this effect on the path of abstraction. However it is not enough for the artist to see the final effect; above all he must be familiar with all the means, capacities and logic of the elements required for the representation and composition, elements that rigorously and mechanically bring about the intended Matthew Rampley (trans.) Emil Filla, ‘Domenico Theotocopuli El Greco. Notes from an exhibition of El Greco in Munich’ 11 effect. A rigorous system is necessary for this, one that is predetermined by the view of life and the choice of elements. Following this method, this final forge, the object achieves its final form, which has to be transformed, and which never coincides with optical and empirical intuition, since every artistic system stands at a remove from empirical naturalistic truth. If we view El Greco’s disposition towards line and space on the basis of this assumption about artistic activity, his inclination appears not only to be an enrichment and extension of the means of expression; in addition we see that he uses line, along with other means, as a factor in the process of abstraction. It would be instructive if we compared changes in pictures from different periods with the same motifs. There are five, six or more of them, and they show an experimental character, pointing towards a soul thirsting for better, more perfect, things. The further one goes the more striking the intentional flatness becomes; the entire arrangement is folded out and swiveled into flat planes; the boundaries of the individual planes are drawn sharply and they are arranged, alongside or up against each other, according to the logic of the ground plane of the image. Our present time, with its yearning for greater levels of abstraction and discipline, intuitively as well as formally, and with its reaction against naturalistic forms, led us to El Greco, and to his inclination towards fixed closed compositions. It is his final pictures in particular that we prefer and to which we are closest; we intuit his intentions in them, and they illuminate the path we are to take next. Perhaps our time seizes on flatness because it reduces everything to two dimensions and better mirrors the rigour of the composition, and because its system is more comprehensible and clearer. The flat space simply mirrors our own desire directly and more fully. Yet it should at once be noted that flatness and line do not rule out space. On the contrary, they emphasize it as the most important requirement of representational art. However, they aim to achieve it by using their own qualities and logic. Equally, line and surface do not imply rigidity, quietude, or the negation of life. El Greco’s development aimed towards linearity, and in particular to its qualities of abstraction, but it would be a mistake to believe that El Greco missed out the remaining elements, or denied and neglected them. He also exploited colour and value, and his genius rests on the fact that he knew how to master elements that were diametrically opposed to each other, knew how to co-ordinate them and to concentrate their contrasting effects positively with great force. El Greco valued the potential of every element for abstraction; in other words, he would give an individual component, or part of it, an absolute value, with the others being put in a subordinate relation of dependence on it. With regard to the question of value, he would use a specific gradation or depth of tone as the basis on which the remaining values would be determined, and which would penetrate the whole image. However, he did not make use of focal points, or gradual transitions or bleeding, for otherwise this would conflict with the other elements. Colour and line determine the values, which consist of keeping to fixed and sharp outlines and surfaces. As we have seen, in the course of El Greco’s development these become like light and dark strips. In El Greco light is tied up to linear forms; it do not create some focal point Matthew Rampley (trans.) Emil Filla, ‘Domenico Theotocopuli El Greco. Notes from an exhibition of El Greco in Munich’ 12 illuminating the image, but rather flares up like flames or lightning. In the same way he determines one dominant colour and selects the others according to whether they fit into its scale. El Greco’s entire expression searches for the movement of passion and for life aroused by pathos and drama, which is often intensified to the extremes of painful inflamed tension. Consequently he uses full, absolute, contrasts and pushes them to the outer of limits of expressivity. The mechanics of movement bear in them powerful and violent expression, just as in Michelangelo with his twists and curves; El Greco intensifies the expression by leading and pushing the movement in straight, direct lines that turn in acute angles. In this regard in comparison with El Greco the work of any painter suffers from being rigid and lifeless, and is more like a momentary snapshot or a stream frozen in mid-flow. The basis of this feeling of life lies not only in the methodical disposition of large masses or in the contrasting way they are arranged; El Greco follows his system consistently through to the details. He uses several perspectives in order to fix the illusion of the object; he does not seek to offer a single passing view of an object but would prefer to depict it from all sides at once. By combining together views from different points and from different axes, he achieves an intensified sense of movement by giving the impression that one is seeing the object in a constant flow of movement. On the other hand, although he negates and destroys the fixed standpoint of the viewer, he objectifies the latter’s viewpoint to a heightened level, as if wanting to compel the viewer to forget themselves, to transplant themselves, as it were, into the artwork and become lost in it. Something similar can be seen in the work of the primitives, where the perspective and the proportions of the figures and their surroundings are not governed by where the viewer is standing, but rather by the main object in the representation and the position and importance of the other objects in relation to it. The composition of El Greco’s images, their essential constructive and architectonic nature, is predominantly bound up with the line. Most of all it is the triangular arrangement, with which Albertinelli was already familiar, and which started with Raphael’s Transfiguration, culminating in Venetian painting. This triangular schema, in which the blunt end of the triangle is set against the foot of the image, can be clearly seen, indeed, almost felt, in Jacopo da Ponte Bassano, who followed Tintoretto in making full use of contrasting values, but especially in the work of Francesco the younger. El Greco changes this obtuse angle into an acute one, and lays one triangle against another, their arms, which become the real vehicles of the linear rhythm and drama, arranged alongside each other contrariwise. By means of this system he brings even the outermost pictorial elements into a closed unity, and impresses each part with the relation and law of the whole. El Greco’s tendency to use planes and lines can lead one to suspect him of decorative aims. These words are used in our time to identify contentless works that merely stimulate the retina, and in which external beauty has no relation to its basic motifs. It should be made clear, however, that such decorative art does not arise out of lines and planes, and other formal means play an equally small causal role. Rather, its nature is due to the conflicting and incoherent character of the work itself. Whenever form does not well up at the same time as the idea, together with a Matthew Rampley (trans.) Emil Filla, ‘Domenico Theotocopuli El Greco. Notes from an exhibition of El Greco in Munich’ 13 specific motif, as a result, it never matches the object represented, regardless of how magical and suggestive its effects may be. As a consequently the work is destined to fall apart into form and matter. However, matter has neither form nor quality, and is apathetic toward them, in other words, indifferent to movement and rest, it is without expression, indeterminate. In the case of such decorativity everything is the result of and arises out of the tectonics of its external form; nothing corresponds to or is a consequence of the internal logic of the motif, everything is independent of everything else, it collides with and violates its psychic value. The artist should not only learn to master laws mechanically and mathematically; above all he must also penetrate their psychic and symbolic expression, he must go down into the depths of their spiritual quality and their relation to inner feelings. This totality, this unified starting point, can be seen quite clearly in El Greco’s work. The motif is never sacrificed for some a priori plan or system; it is also the determining basis of all plastic and constructive relationships and components of its logic course. And it is only through this unity that El Greco achieves the miraculous beauty and incomparable expression in his paintings. 
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work_j4fzacvfibhw5p6ht6nyscleim	----	580 consciousness, albeit as fantasies. As with the nurse in the story above, such feelings are immensely powerful. If the patient is the host to difficult behav iour or recurrent relapses, then perhaps the staff are the agents of malignant alienation via negative aggressive feelings. Who is to say that these feelings might not actually begin to "kill off" the patient, inexorably driving the process of alienation to a malignant end? Such an idea may be uncomfortable to even consider; and thus worth consideration. DARRYLWATTS Ham Green Hospital Pill, Bristol BS200HW References HILL, D. (1978) The qualities of a good psychiatrist. British Journal of Psychiatry, 133,97-105. MORGAN, H. G. & PRIEST, P. (1984) Assessment of suicide risk in psychiatric in-patients. British Journal of Psychiatry, 145,467^469. STORR. A. (1968) Human Aggression. London: Penguin. Assessment of parenting DEARSIRS Reder & Lucey provide a timely consideration of some key ideas in an interactional framework for the assessment of parenting (Psychiatric Bulletin, June 1991, 15, 347-348) and with the rapid incor poration of some of the Children's Act provisions into our practice, the era of impressionism as regards assessment of parenting ability must needs pass. In addition to the logical progression expounded by Reder & Lucey, three further headings ought to be borne in mind, even if as child psychiatrists we honestly say we do not know their full import. (a) The setting or context in which the assess ment occurs and this includes the contri bution of the assessor. (b) Cultural factors and differences, which have to include the diversity of influences as well as the assumed norms. (c) The child, whose own individual character and temperament may be such that he or she tests parenting ability and limits of safety beyond imagining. LAWRENCEMCGIBBEN TOMHUGHES Gulson Hospital Coventry CV12HR Intermetamorphosis of Doubles or Double-Golyadkin Phenomenon - a new syndrome? DEARSIRS Owen wonders (Psychiatric Bulletin, May 1991, 15, 302) if he is suffering from Fregoli's syndrome as he Correspondence has become convinced that Mr Thomson, the gentleman who appears wearing a bowler hat is in reality a man with a moustache called Mr Thompson. As Dr Owen is an avid student of Merge, he must know that Thompson and Thompson tend to appear in duplicate forms (see Fig. 1). It is thus far more likely, that they are mis taken each for the other! While this is certainly a variant of a misidentification syndrome or a re duplicative phenomenon, it cannot be considered as Fregoli's syndrome in which Dr Owen (or some body else) would have to be convinced that a sub ject kept his identity but changed his bodily appearance. If Dr Owen mistakes Thomson for Thompson (the one with the stick; Fig. 1) he has to also mistake. Thompson for Thomson-both in terms of physical appearance and actual identity. In this case we are dealing with intermetamorpho- sis (Silva et al, 1989), or, to be completely accurate, 'intermetamorphosis of doubles'. Again, Herge has made an important contribution to the existing body of specialist literature (Kamanitz et al, 1989) by extensive reports of numerous dramatic inci dences caused by Thomson's and Thompson's con fusing experience of being doubles. We suggest the scholarly term 'Double-Golyadkin Phenomenon' for this widely underestimated but highly distress ing condition (modified after Markidis, 1986, after Dostoyevski, 1846, see Förstl et al, Psychiatric Bulletin, 14, 705-707). Fig. I. Thomson (moustache, hat) and Thompson (with a stick). As shown by Dr De Pauw's further study in the field of 'Psychiatry in Literature' (Psychiatric Bulletin, May 1991, 15, 302 after March 1991, 15, 167-168), Correspondence the approach towards German psychiatry should certainly be a most critical one. HANSFÖRSTL ROBERTHOWARD OSVALDOP. ALMEIDA ADRIANOWEN ALISTAIRBURNS JOHNO'BRIAN Institute of Psychiatry De Crespigny Park London SE58A F References K.AMANITZ, J. R., EL-MALLAKH, R. S. & TASMAN, A. ( 1989) Delusional misidentification involving the self. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 177, 695-698. MARKIDIS, M. (1986) Ego, my double (The Golyadkin Phenomenon). Bibliotheka Psychiatrica, 164,136-142. SILVA, J. A., LEONG, G. B., SHANER, A. L. & CHANG, C. Y. (1989) Syndrome of intermetamorphosis: a new perspective. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 30,209-213. A full list of references is available on request from Dr Förstl. DEARSIRS I thank Dr Förstlet al for their interesting and educational reply to my letter. I wonder whether a syndrome has been described which might be applied to a psychiatrist who mistak enly identifies two almost identical syndromes? If so, perhaps this is what I am suffering from. JOHNOwen University Department of Mental Health 41 St Michael's Hill Bristol BS28DZ A register of Munchausen cases? DEARSIRS Davey (Psychiatric Bulletin, March 1991, 15, 167) adds his voice to those calling for a register of Munchausen cases. An interesting natural exper iment with such a register took place some years ago when a knowledgeable patient with feigned Zollinger-Ellison syndrome frequented many hospi tals demanding Omperazole, a drug under investi gation with the details of all receiving patients held on a central register (Daly et al, 1989). This register enabled the patient's travels to be recorded in some detail and the authors comment that he would not have been identified without a register. However, in their letter they suggest that the diagnosis of factitious illness was made before consulting the register. Further evidence that a 'black-list' is not essential for diagnosis is provided by the fact that this same man had already made an inconspicuous entry into the medical literature (Lovestone, 1987). 581 The arguments against a register are strong. We should be cautious at any such breach of confiden tiality and the legal complications may be serious. I wonder at the effect of having a list of patients with feigned physical illness on the practice of liaison psy chiatry. It might contribute to increasing the "is it psychological or organic" type of referral - an often unhelpful dichotomy. Although Davey calls for a register, he fails to actually state why. Making a diagnosis of Munchausen syndrome is in itself not particularly helpful to the patient as we do not know how to treat this condition. Protecting the patient from iatrogenic harm is important, but we can trust our colleagues only to perform invasive procedures when a diag nosis of Munchausen syndrome is not yet being con sidered - and hence a register not consulted. Jones (1988), quoted by Davey, is more explicit. The benefits of a register are economic and to be calcu lated in terms of cost benefit analysis. This is a poor reason - even in the new NHS doctors must strive to be more than accountants. I suspect the reason underlying calls for a register lie within the physician and not the patient. Being 'caught out' or 'conned* is an unpleasant experience and it is understandable that doctors should wish to avoid it. In the spirit of Asher I would propose a fourth variant of Munchausen syndrome 'Homo connus phobia et registerphilia'- a disorder of doctors. SIMONLOVESTONE The Maudsley Hospital Denmark Hill London SES 8A F References DALY, M. J., CARROL, N. J. H., FORRET, E. A. e/a/(1989) Munchausen Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. Lancet 1,853. JONES, J. R. (1988) Psychiatric Munchausen's syndrome: a College register? British Journal of Psychiatry, 153,403. LOVESTONE,S. (1987) Munchausen syndrome presenting as Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome. Southampton Medical Journal, 4, 59-61. The use of carpets in geriatric and psycho-geriatric wards DEARSIRS It is to be hoped that the eloquent and passionate protestations of Dr David Jolley (Psychiatric Bull etin, March 1991, 15, 168-169) do not obscure the issues relating to the use of carpets in geriatric and psycho-geriatric hospital wards. He is partially right. Anyone who has worked in institutions caring for elderly people knows that offensive smells are not uncommon. While carpets are often associated with these smells, the smells are not confined to wards 
work_j4hvjgmfjzbf7geipii4lfvmha	----	Book reviews by the sort of painstaking studies described in this book. This is a 'must' for all those involved in or commencing GABA research. C. D. MAESDEN The Practice of Pediatric Neurology By K. Swaiman and F. Wright. (Pp. 1198; illustrated; £65.70.) Henry Kimpton Pub- lishers: London. 1976. Dr Ford's textbook ofpaediatric neurology enjoyed an exalted reputation well beyond the sphere of interest of paediatricians and paediatric neurologists; indeed there were some who averred that in its time 'Ford' was among the best of all neurological texts. The last revision in 1966 was a valuable but unsuccessful attempt at up- dating; since then there have been impor- tant and extensive advances in paediatric neurology which have sharpened the need for a replacement, and none of the recent texts directed to paediatricians and those with a general interest in paediatric neurology has sufficed as a work of reference. Professor Kenneth Swaiman and Dr Francis Wright, as co-editors of a two- volume treatise, have drawn together con- tributions from 44 other American authors, and are the first to try and fill the vacuum left by Ford. But at £65.70 is it worth it? There are three main sections: 'Evalua- tion of the patient's problems', 'Symptoms and signs of neurologic disease in child- hood', and 'Discussion of neurologic diseases in childhood', and thus there is a commendable emphasis on the clinical basis of paediatric neurological practice. Many of the authors are accepted experts on the subjects about which they write, and their contributions have an authority which others, written by others with less experience, lack. The transatlantic emphasis does not limit coverage of the world literature but there are some surprising gaps. For example, there are only three pages devoted to speech and language, matters which have deservedly attracted great attention in both America and Europe, whilst the sections on neuropsychiatry, which occupies a proportionately large part of a paediatric neurologist's time, seem to lack insight as well as incisiveness. There are tautological difficulties over the relation between migraine and epilepsy (p. 156), while the section on vertigo owes more to adult neurology than to an understanding of the problem in young children. Leber's amaurosis, a much more frequent cause of poor vision in childhood than Leber's disease, is not mentioned, and once again the genetics of the latter disease is inac- curately presented. Evidently the author of the section on movement disorders has not realised that the patients described by Pampiglione and Maia suffered from the same disorder as those presented by Kinsbourne as the dancing eye syndrome. As in many neurological texts, thera- peutics get minimal attention, or is this the malign influence ofFDA? Casual examina- tion of the bibliography reveals sufficient inaccuracies to make one wonder if there has been systematic checking. Illustrations are clear and plentiful but not always relevant. Although this text will serve as an important and valuable reference work, it lacks the authority of Ford. Its place is in departmental libraries-weight as well as price are threats to private bookshelves. JOHN WILSON The Diagnosis and Treatment of Alcoholism By G. G. Forrest. (Pp. 257; no price quot- ed.) Charles C. Thomas: Springfield, Illinois. 1975. The author of this book is a clinical psychologist who is supervisor of an alcoholism rehabilitation programme at Army Headquarters, Fort Carson, Colo- rado. He has a major interest in a psycho- therapeutic approach to the alcoholic and problem drinker. His concepts are eclectic in nature, embracing a much wider range of therapeutic strategies than might be expected in certain transatlantic psycho- analytic strongholds. Misleading stereotypes of the alcoholic, leading to therapeutic nihilism, are initially discussed. Psychotherapeutic tactics are later described. Principles of individual psychotherapy on modified Rogerian lines are lucidly presented. Group psycho- therapy, however, is rightly depicted as being currently the most promising treat- ment modality. Warmth of personality and a positive liking for problem drinker patients-not always easy to achieve-are regarded as important ingredients in the therapist himself. A success rate of 75 % is claimed for group therapy over a six month period-a figure which would seem opti- mistic in the north of Britain where heavy drinking receives strong cultural approval. The book ends with a useful discussion of the follow-up and evaluation of alcohol rehabilitation. This volume is a valuable addition to the already large literature on alcoholism and will be informative to all who are involved in alcohol rehabilitation programmes. A. BALFOUR SCLARE Pathophysiologic, Diagnostic and Thera- peutic Aspects of Headache By M. E. Granger and G. Poch. (Pp. 128; illustrated; SwFr./DM 62-, $24.00.) S. Karger: Basle. 1976. This is the fourth of the series Research and Clinical Studies in Headache edited by Dr Arnold Friedman and Dr Mary Granger, the first of which appeared in 1967. This volume does not pretend to be compre- hensive, but picks out selected topics for its contents. The selection is curious and the topics seem to contain no thread of continuity to link the subjects which are covered. The first chapter on the head in the body image concept is typical of the trendy impressionism perpetrated by the modern day psychologist cumn sociologist. There is little attempt to relate the somewhat speculative conjectures to the patient with headaches, and one's interest wanes a little on encountering'. . . found a tendency for men with high head awareness to be relatively unconcerned about anal aspects of behavior, such as obsessive concern about cleanliness . . .'. A useful survey of headaches associated with diseases of the eye by Myles Behrens covers the major areas of overlap between the ophthalmologist and the neurologist. Spira, Mylecharane, and Lance provide a fascinating account of their experimental pharmacology of humoral and anti- migraine drugs on the circulation of the monkey; to some extent this fills the gap of the lack of an experimental model for migraine, but not completely-as the authors themselves concede. This chapter complements the following one by Dalessio which reviews vasoactive substances, vas- cular permeability, and their role in migraine. Catecholamines, histamine, sero- tonin, kinins, prostaglandins, and 'slow reactive substance (SRS-A)' are considered as vasoactive substances associated with inflammation. Some would doubt the concept of a sterile inflammatory reaction, postulated by Dalessio, in the absence of evidence of a cellular response in the vessel wall in migraine. Succeeding chapters review the role of allergy, the place for investigation by 309 P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / J N e u ro l N e u ro su rg P sych ia try: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /jn n p .4 0 .3 .3 0 9 o n 1 M a rch 1 9 7 7 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ 
work_j6achtxaxbgnxd7uxfnk2owgpm	----	BioMed Central World Journal of Emergency Surgery ss Open AcceCommentary Isn't it time to start speaking about "European surgeons"? Federico Coccolini*1 and Daniel Lazzareschi2 Address: 1General, Emergency and Transplant Unit, Sant'Orsola-Malpighi University Hospital, Bologna, Italy and 2University of Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA Email: Federico Coccolini* - fedecocco@iol.it; Daniel Lazzareschi - vascolazz@calmail.berkeley.edu * Corresponding author Abstract Background: Emergency surgery has become a neglected specialization in Europe and in many other parts of the world. In certain medical fields, emergency surgery isn't even considered an autonomous specialization. However every emergency surgeon must have a good formation in General Surgery but exist huge disparities between different European surgical formative systems. Methods: An analysis of the main problems of the European surgical formative system was conducted. Results: This discrepancy between formative systems is absolutely unacceptable and presents a notable hazard for the European Union, considering that surgical certifications are reciprocally recognized between programs within all European Union states. Conclusion: Considering the increasing possibilities to move inside the European Union, is necessary to improve the European surgical formative system to warrant an uniform formation for all surgeons. Commentary In the January issue of your journal there was an editorial [1] denouncing the grave problem regarding many sur- geons' insufficient preparation when faced with emer- gency surgeries. Emergency surgery has become a neglected specialization in Europe and in many other parts of the world. In certain medical fields, emergency surgery isn't even considered an autonomous specializa- tion. The flawed logic behind this idea is that every sur- geon, skilled and proficient in his or her specific field of expertise, should also be capable of operating normally in the high stress environment of emergency surgery. How- ever, this assertion is incontrovertibly false; this problem must be addressed, beginning with the restructuring of training programs for young surgeons. Both general sur- gery training and emergency surgery specialization must be crafted to better prepare surgeons for emergency inter- ventions. Furthermore, every emergency surgeon should have substantial experience in general surgery before spe- cializing. The stark disparities between different European surgical formative systems are becoming increasingly distinct and recognizable. There are 27 individual countries in the European Union (EU), each of which having a distinctly different formative program. Some of these systems pro- vide young surgeons with satisfactory theoretical and practical instructional backgrounds for the emergency sur- gery field. However, other less fortunate formative sys- tems lack the support and training opportunities necessary to foster competent surgeons. If research were to be conducted, the results would inevitably demonstrate Published: 25 July 2009 World Journal of Emergency Surgery 2009, 4:27 doi:10.1186/1749-7922-4-27 Received: 26 May 2009 Accepted: 25 July 2009 This article is available from: http://www.wjes.org/content/4/1/27 © 2009 Coccolini and Lazzareschi; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Page 1 of 2 (page number not for citation purposes) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=19630987 http://www.wjes.org/content/4/1/27 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0 http://www.biomedcentral.com/ http://www.biomedcentral.com/info/about/charter/ World Journal of Emergency Surgery 2009, 4:27 http://www.wjes.org/content/4/1/27 Publish with BioMed Central and every scientist can read your work free of charge "BioMed Central will be the most significant development for disseminating the results of biomedical researc h in our lifetime." Sir Paul Nurse, Cancer Research UK Your research papers will be: available free of charge to the entire biomedical community peer reviewed and published immediately upon acceptance cited in PubMed and archived on PubMed Central yours — you keep the copyright Submit your manuscript here: http://www.biomedcentral.com/info/publishing_adv.asp BioMedcentral that the most stagnant and inflexible systems exist where there is the least amount of opportunities to learn and practice as a developing surgeon. This is common sense and hardly newsworthy, but it has dramatic implications for those dedicated and capable individuals who wish to improve their surgical skills, yet are hindered by such dys- functional preparatory systems. The main problem is that certain systems do not mandate a minimum theoretical and practical understanding of a given field, whether ini- tially during general surgery exercises or later during spe- cialization. This instructional laxity is absolutely unacceptable and presents a notable hazard for the EU, considering that surgical certifications are reciprocally rec- ognized between programs within all EU states. Every high-risk endeavour requires uniform preparation and training for its respective operatives, just as it is for the standardized emergency protocols regarding airports and airplanes. In this way, standardized courses of action are indoctrinated, thereby encouraging sensible responses when stressful environments prevent one from making calm, calculated decisions on an individual basis. Every- one would benefit from a unified system throughout the EU, one that has been scrupulously cross-examined by dif- ferent parties to ensure high treatment standards. This could only be achieved by actively preparing medical stu- dents, the future doctors of tomorrow, for such a signifi- cant institutional transition. One of the main problems of the aforementioned "lax sys- tem" is the absolute, incontestable authority conferred to its directors, a jurisdiction that can never be effectively challenged or disputed by surgeons in training. Further- more, surgical students cannot choose between programs. Young impressionable surgeons are often forced to remain in the same facility for the duration of the forma- tive program without having the opportunity to experi- ence different systems and techniques, even if the instruction they receive is clearly inadequate. There is no independent oversight governing these programs and consequently no one is ever truly held accountable. Often, the very instructors themselves are the only individuals that scrutinize performance reviews, consider suggestions, or investigate complaints. The EU as an institution has already experienced great political and economic success by embracing the poorer European states alongside their wealthier counterparts, thereby spreading prosperity across the continent. But what about cultural, formative, and scientific discrepan- cies? Shouldn't these be acknowledged as well? Why is it so difficult to continue taking innovative steps in this direction to pioneer a uniform system for medical stu- dents? There are many people ready and willing to make this transition; they need only the support of academic institutions and the ability to demonstrate the transition's effectiveness in an international context throughout the EU. Why don't we rally for a uniform European formative program to standardize the different systems, choosing the best qualities from each of them? Why don't we sup- port an efficient and user-friendly exchange program for young surgeons who desire to broaden their professional and cultural horizons? Why don't we allow individuals to freely choose certain features of one's program, thereby creating a personalized curriculum that more closely reflects the needs and interests of a given student? Why don't we mandate that every young surgeon change his or her hospital at least once during their course of study to widen their professional perspectives? Perhaps these aren't the only solutions, but maybe they could begin to reinvigorate these stagnant systems, better preparing young surgeons both during general surgery training and later during specialization. Competing interests As a Resident Surgeon and as a Student both willing to learn as much as possible to improve our theoretical and surgical skills, we tried to give our contribution to the improvement of a perfectible formative system. The authors declare that they have no financial competing interests Authors' contributions Both authors gave substantive intellectual contributions to the elaboration of the article. F.C. resumed and elabo- rated the information from the different European forma- tive systems. D.L. played an essential role on the evaluation of the information and on the definitive draft of the article. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. References 1. Catena F, Moore E: Emergency surgery, acute care surgery and the boulevard of broken dreams. World Journal of Emergency Sur- gery 2009, 4:4. Page 2 of 2 (page number not for citation purposes) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=19178687 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=19178687 http://www.biomedcentral.com/ http://www.biomedcentral.com/info/publishing_adv.asp http://www.biomedcentral.com/ Abstract Background Methods Results Conclusion Commentary Competing interests Authors' contributions References 
work_j77nl2gfgbexhpsau7b4mfc5za	----	What Is the Common Thread of Creativity? Its Dialectical Relation to Intelligence and Wisdom Robert J. Sternberg Yale University Creativity refers to the potential to produce novel ideas that are task-appropriate and high in quality. Creativity in a societal context is best understood in terms of a dialec- tical relation to intelligence and wisdom. In particular, intelligence forms the thesis of such a dialectic. Intelli- gence largely is used to advance existing societal agendas. Creativity forms the antithesis of the dialectic, questioning and often opposing societal agendas, as well as proposing new ones. Wisdom forms the synthesis of the dialectic, balancing the old with the new. Wise people recognize the need to balance intelligence with creativity to achieve both stability and change within a societal context. So many threads, so few clearly emergent patterns.Such might be a characterization of the articles oncreativity that make up this special section of the American Psychologist. Yet I argue that one common thread emerges. That common thread is the role of creativ- ity in the dialectical progression of ideas. The basic idea underlying this article is that all cultures—including the cultures that comprise fields of knowledge—generate a dialectical process (Hegel, 1807/1931) in which intelli- gence represents a thesis, creativity an antithesis, and wis- dom a synthesis. Intelligence Although definitions of intelligence differ (Sternberg, 2000b), virtually all of these definitions view intelligence as the ability to adapt to the environment (see, e.g., "Intelligence and Its Measurement," 1921; Sternberg & Detterman, 1986, for mul- tiple definitions of intelligence by experts; and Sternberg, 1985: Sternberg, Conway, Ketron, & Bernstein, 1981, for multiple definitions of intelligence by laypeople). Intelligent people are those who somehow acquire the skills that lead to their fitting into existing environments. Some theorists believe that such skills are relatively domain-general (see, e.g., Car- roll, 1993; Jensen, 1998; see also essays in Sternberg & Grigorenko, in press), whereas others believe that they are relatively domain-specific (see, e.g., Ceci, 1996; Gardner, 1983, 1999; see also essays in Sternberg & Grigorenko, in press). Still others believe that such skills have both domain- specific and domain-general properties (see, e.g., Sternberg, 1997a, 1999d). But these diverse views have in common the proposition that the skills constituting intelligence lead people, on average, to be rewarded in terms of whatever the reward structure of a society is. What is considered intelligent in one place may not be in another, as cultural psychologists have appreciated in their studies of intelligence (see, e.g., Serpell, 2000). Intelligent people are rewarded, on average, precisely because they adapt and often can adapt in multiple environments. Contemporary U.S. society is one of many societies around the world that allocates resources in part on the basis of the perceived intelligence of its members. People easily can make the step from the existence of this reward system to the justification of the reward system (Herrnstein & Murray, 1994). However, it is important to realize that it is no coincidence that this system exists: Societies define intelligence largely on the basis of individual differences to account for the fact that some people are more successful than others in school, in life, or elsewhere. As McNemar (1964) pointed out, a concept of intelligence, at least in the sense of what has been measured by psychometric tests of intelligence, might never have arisen in the absence of individual differences. Experimental psychologists histori- cally have been less interested in intelligence than have been differential psychologists, perhaps in part because of the former's lesser interest in individual differences. Creativity Definitions of creativity, like definitions of intelligence, differ (Sternberg, 1999b), but they have in common their emphasis on people's ability to produce products that are not only high in quality but also novel. Products fashioned by intelligent people are high in quality but not necessarily novel. Creativity thus seems in some way to go beyond intelligence. Editor's note. Robert J. Sternberg and Nancy K. Dess developed this section on creativity. Author's note. Preparation of this article was supported by Grant REC- 9979843 from the National Science Foundation, by a grant from the W. T. Grant Foundation, and by a government grant (Grant R206R00001) under the Javits Act Program as administered by the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education. Grantees undertaking such projects are encouraged to express freely their profes- sional judgment. This article, therefore, does not necessarily represent the positions or the policies of the U.S. government, and no official endorse- ment should be inferred. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Robert J. Sternberg, Yale University, The Yale Center for the Psychology of Abilities, Competencies, and Expertise, 340 Edwards Street, P.O. Box 208358, New Haven, CT 06520-8358. Electronic mail may be sent to robert. sternberg @ y ale .edu. 360 April 2001 • American Psychologist Copyright 2001 by the American Psychological Association. Inc. 0003-066X/01/S5.00 Vol. 56. No. 4. 360-362 DOI: 10.IO37//00O3-066X.56.4.36O Many highly creative individuals "defy the crowd" (Sternberg & Lubart, 1991, 1995); that is, they produce products that are good but that are not exactly, and often not even approximately, what other people expect or desire. This view implies that creativity is always a person-system interaction: Creativity is meaningful only in the context of a system that judges it, and what is creative in one context may not be in another (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996; Sternberg & Lubart, 1995). Hence, creativity must be viewed as a property of an individual as that individual interacts with one or more systems. For example, painters who originated the idea of painting Cubist paintings, such as Picasso or Braque, were highly creative in a given time and a given place but might be viewed as less creative today because such an idea is no longer particularly novel. Consider the individuals whose contributions are reviewed in this special section. Linus Pauling's "valence-bond theory transformed chemistry" (see Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2001, p. 339, this issue) and represented a creative breakthrough that defied contemporary views in the field of chemistry. Some of Pauling's other ideas, such as with regard to the structure of DNA (a triple helix) and with regard to the value of Vitamin C in fighting colds, also were crowd- defying, but the ideas were simply wrong, and hence their novelty was not matched by their quality, with the result that they had a short half-life. Charles Darwin's evolution- ary proposal turned on their head not only many scientific ideas but also many religious ideas (see Gruber & Wallace, 2001, this issue). As a result, Darwin was vilified by many during his lifetime, and he continues to be vilified today by certain religious and other ideological groups. Thomas Young's theory of light as a wave was so controversial that, from the standpoint of the physics of 1910, it might be viewed as a "negative contribution" (see Martindale, 2001, this issue). Yet later it would be recognized that this prickly idea was in large part correct because light has properties both of a wave and of a particle. Amabile (2001, this issue) noted how the fiction of John Irving has been described as " 'wildly inventive' " and as " 'bearing little similarity to other recent fiction' " (p. 334). In a similar manner, Ste- phen Donaldson pulled off a unique combination in the world history of literature when he devised his Thomas Covenant series on the basis of the combination of ideas of a character who is a leper and an unbeliever (see Ward, 2001, this issue). Finally, in helping formulate Impression- ism, Claude Monet changed what were the current con- straints of the domain of painting by imposing his own novel ones, for example, in dealing with "how light breaks up on things" (see Stokes, 2001, p. 357, this issue). Creative people often feel underappreciated and at- tacked for their ideas (Sternberg & Lubart, 1995), which is to be expected because their crowd-defying ideas are in- compatible with conventional ways of thinking and vested interests. Many contemporaries are not thrilled to hear that not only their work but also the assumptions on which their work is based are being questioned (Kuhn, 1970). The creative people are correct: Time and again, their work and even they are attacked. What these individuals may fail to realize, however, is their own role in producing these attacks: By serving as an antithesis to one or more societal theses, they are essentially not only creating their own work but also generating their own opposition. An antith- esis is, by its nature, oppositional. Much of the greatest creative work, including all of that reviewed in this special section, is paradigm-rejecting (Kuhn, 1970) or of a kind that has been referred to as "redirecting" or "reinitiating" a field; however, some cre- ative work is, in some respects, less novel and basically forward-increments current ideas (Sternberg, 1998b, 1999c; Sternberg, Kaufman, & Pretz, in press). Such work is less likely to generate opposition, and its nature is closer to that of work representing the products of intelligence: It is adaptive within existing paradigms, whether in science, literature, art, or elsewhere. Parents, teachers, supervisors, and others who appreciate creative work are more likely to appreciate the forward-incremental type of creativity that builds on existing ideas than they are to appreciate the redirecting or reinitiating kinds of creativity that defy ex- isting ideas. On occasion, though, people become known not for inventing new paradigms (crowd-defying creativity) but for working extremely well within existing paradigms. Mozart would probably be a good example of someone whose creativity was largely within, rather than in defiance of, existing paradigms. If much major creativity is defined by its antithetical, crowd-defying nature, what can be said about the psycho- logical ingredients of creativity? It is clear that intelligence is a prerequisite for creativity (see, e.g., Simonton, 1984) because creative products are high in quality. As pointed out by Pauling (see Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2001, this issue), creative people not only generate a lot of ideas but also analyze those ideas and discriminate (intelligently) between their better and their worse ideas. But beyond intelligence and other abilities, creativity appears to be in large part a decision (Sternberg, 2000a): Some people use their intelligence to please the crowd, others to defy it. The most traditionally intelligent ones hope to lead the crowd not only by accepting the presuppositions of the crowd but also by analyzing next steps in thinking and by reaching those next steps before others do (Sternberg, 1998b). Highly creative people decide, among other things, to redefine problems (e.g., as did Monet), analyze their ideas (as did Pauling), attempt to persuade others of the value of their ideas rather than expecting others readily to accept them (as did Darwin), take sensible risks (as has Irving in defying modern novelistic conventions), seek bizarre connections be- tween ideas that others do not seek (as has Donaldson), and realize that existing knowledge can be a hindrance as much as it is a help in generating creative ideas (as did Young; Stern- berg, 2000a). An implication of this view of creativity as being, in part, a decision is that anyone can adopt a creative attitude (Schank, 1988) and think creatively. For a variety of reasons, however, people will not typically reach the heights of creativity of the individuals whose contributions are re- viewed in this special section. Among these reasons are dif- ferent degrees of compatibility between where people's think- ing is and where a field is at a given time in history (see April 2001 • American Psychologist 361 Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2001, this issue). For exam- ple, someone who today spontaneously generates the ideas underlying Impressionism was perhaps born too late to have the impact that Monet, Renoir, and other great Impressionists had at an earlier time. Wisdom Wisdom represents a synthesis of the thesis of intelligence (as traditionally defined) and the antithesis of creativity. Wise individuals balance the need for change (creativity) with the need for stability and continuity (intelligence) in human affairs. They thus are more divergent or legislative in their style of thinking than are many intelligent people, but at the same time, they are more convergent and even conservative in their style of thinking than are many highly creative people (see Sternberg, 1997b). They are perhaps most effective and sought after in positions of leadership because they are likely to balance the need for change (or shaping of the environment) with the need for stability (or adaptation to the environment; Sternberg, 1998a). Indeed, in a study of people's implicit theories, it was found that individuals in business see wisdom and creativity as in- versely related (Sternberg, 1985), perhaps because of cre- ative people's refusal, at times, to recognize the need for stability as well as for change. People can be intelligent without being wise. For example, they may do very well in school and on cognitive tests, but they may make a total mess not only of their own lives but also of the lives of others (Sternberg, 1997a). Robert McNamara, a principal architect of the Vietnam War, was arguably more intelligent than he was wise. As Gardner (1993) pointed out, many creative people as well are not wise, and they may even be foolish in their dealings with other people. The wise person must show, in some degree, both intelligence and creativity, as well as an emer- gent wisdom from that intelligence and creativity. If things go well, wisdom prevails, and some balance between the old and the new is accepted, moving a field forward in its quest for knowledge and understanding. But this forward movement never reaches a final point (Kuhn, 1970). The nature of the dialectic is such that the synthesis becomes the next thesis, and ideas move forward to the next step (Hegel, 1807/1931; Sternberg, 1999a). So the fate of ideas forms a spiral: The ideas of today's intelligence will be questioned by the ideas of tomorrow's creativity, only to be synthesized by the ideas of posttomorrow's wisdom. These ideas, in turn, will become the ideas of later intelligence, which still later will be questioned by creativ- ity, and on the spiral will go through time. REFERENCES Amabile, T. M. (2001). Beyond talent: John Irving and the passionate craft of creativity. American Psychologist, 56, 333-336. Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor- analytic studies. New York: Cambridge University Press. Ceci, S. J. (1996). On intelligence (Expanded ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. New York: Harper Collins. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books. Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York: Basic Books. Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New York: Basic Books. Gruber, H. E., & Wallace, D. B. (2001). Creative work: The case of Charles Darwin. American Psychologist, 56, 346-349. Hegel, G. W. F. (1931). The phenomenology of mind (2nd ed.; J. B. Baillie, Trans.). London: Allen & Unwin. (Original work published 1807) Herrnstein, R. J., & Murray, C. (1994). The bell curve. New York: Free Press. Intelligence and Its Measurement: A symposium. (1921). Journal of Educational Psychology, 12, 123-147, 195-216,271-275. Jensen, A. R. (1998). The g factor: The science of mental ability. West- port, CT: Praeger/Greenwood. Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The structure of scientific revolutions (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Martindale, C. (2001). Oscillations and analogies: Thomas Young, MD, FRS, genius. American Psychologist, 56, 342-345. McNemar, Q. (1964). Lost: Our intelligence? Why? American Psycholo- gist, 19, 871-882. Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2001). Catalytic creativity: The case of Linus Pauling. American Psychologist, 56, 337-341. Schank, R. C. (1988). The creative attitude. New York: Macmillan. Serpell, R. (2000). Intelligence and culture. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of intelligence (pp. 549-580). New York: Cambridge Uni- versity Press. Simonton, D. K. (1984). Genius, creativity, and leadership. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 607-627. Sternberg, R. J. (1997a). Successful intelligence. New York: Plume. Sternberg, R. J. (1997b) Thinking styles. New York: Cambridge Univer- sity Press. Sternberg, R. J. (1998a). A balance theory of wisdom. Review of General Psychology, 2, 347-365. Sternberg, R. J. (1998b). Costs and benefits of defying the crowd in science. Intelligence, 26, 209-215. Sternberg, R. J. (1999a). A dialectical basis for understanding the study of cognition. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), The nature of cognition (pp. 51-78). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.). (1999b). Handbook of creativity. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sternberg, R. J. (1999c). A propulsion model of types of creative contri- butions. Review of General Psychology, 3, 83-100. Sternberg, R. J. (1999d). The theory of successful intelligence. Review of General Psychology, 3, 292-316. Sternberg, R. J. (2000a). Creativity is a decision. In A. L. Costa (Ed.), Teaching for intelligence II (pp. 85-106). Arlington Heights, IL: Sky- light Training. Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.). (2000b). Handbook of intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sternberg, R. J., Conway, B. E., Ketron, J. L., & Bernstein, M. (1981). People's conceptions of intelligence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 37-55. Sternberg, R. J., & Detterman, D. K. (1986). What is intelligence? Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Sternberg, R. J., & Grigorenko E. L. (Eds.), (in press). The general factor of intelligence: How general is it? Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Sternberg, R. J., Kaufman, J. C , & Pretz, J. E. (in press). The creativity conundrum: A propulsion model of kinds of creative contributions. Philadelphia: Psychology Press. Sternberg, R. J., & Lubart, T. I. (1991). An investment theory of creativity and its development. Human Development, 34, 1-31. Sternberg, R. J., & Lubart, T. I. (1995). Defying the crowd: Cultivating creativity in a culture of conformity. New York: Free Press. Stokes, P. D. (2001). Variability, constraints, and creativity: Shedding light on Claude Monet. American Psychologist, 56, 355-359. Ward, T. B. (2001). Creative cognition, conceptual combination, and the creative writing of Stephen R. Donaldson. American Psychologist, 56, 350-354. 362 April 2001 • American Psychologist 
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work_jdaflyl7tjg5fp7x6b6r5hwabi	----	10.11648.j.ajpn.20170502.14 American Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience 2017; 5(2): 26-30 http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ajpn doi: 10.11648/j.ajpn.20170502.14 ISSN: 2330-4243 (Print); ISSN: 2330-426X (Online) Risk Factors for the Misuse of Psychoactive Substances Among University Students in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria Chukwujekwu Chidozie Donald Department of Neuropsychiatry, Faculty of Clinical Sciences, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria Email address: chidozie.chukwujekwu@uniport.edu.ng To cite this article: Chukwujekwu Chidozie Donald. Risk Factors for the Misuse of Psychoactive Substances Among University Students in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria.American Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience. Vol. 5, No. 2, 2017, pp. 26-30. doi: 10.11648/j.ajpn.20170502.14 Received: April 12, 2017; Accepted: April 18, 2017; Published: April 24, 2017 Abstract: The use of psychoactive substances has dire consequences for the individual and the society at large. This study aims to ascertain the risk factors for the misuse of psychoactive substances among University students in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Two hundred and ninety three subjects participated in the study. Questionnaires on risk factors and varieties of psychoactive substances used as well as on socio-demographic variables were administered to each participant.The most commonly used psychoactive substance was Alcohol 178(60.8%). The commonest reason for using a psychoactive substance was peer group influence 166(56.7%). Frustration was significantly associated with academic class (X 2 = 17.358, df=5, p<0.05) and family history of use of the substance (X 2 = 6.22, df=1, p<0.05).Academic class was also significantly associated with peer group influence (X 2 = 28.914, df=5, p<0.05), parental deprivation (X 2 = 20.331, df=5, p<0.05), age (X 2 = 25.595, df=18, p<0.05) and influence of parents who engage in the use and abuse of substances (X 2 = 22.057, df=5, p<0.05).Gender was significantly associated with influence of parents who use psychoactive substances (X 2 = 9.305, df=1, p<0.05).The multiplicity of significant risk factors for psychoactive substance use underscores the need to improve the social support for students and reduce the environmental factors that make the young and impressionable minds more susceptible to drug use. The urgent need for deliberate drug- demand reduction strategies to be quickly employed in schools is imperative. Keywords: Risk, Psychoactive, Substances, Significant, Association, Drugs, Factors 1. Introduction Psychoactive substances refer to brain-altering substances which may or may not have been medically prescribed but are prone to abuse. These substances affect internally perceived mental states such as mood and externally observed activities such as behaviour. “They include alcohol, opioids, cannabinoids, sedatives and hypnotics, cocaine, other stimulants such as caffeine, hallucinogens, tobacco, volatile solvents etc” [1]. The deleterious impact of these substances in humanity is colossal and incalculable. Aside from the staggering cost to society, the physical and psychological difficulties which they precipitate are well documented [1]. It is estimated that 153 to 300 million people (3.4-66% of the world population in the age group 15 to 64years)used psychoactive substances at least once in 2010 [2]. WHO estimates that 5.4million people die annually from tobacco use while 2.5million people die annually as a result of the harmful use of alcohol [3]. 12.4% of all deaths worldwide in the year 2000 was attributed to psychoactive substances and 8.9% of total years life lost is use of the traceable to the use of these substances [3]. A variety of factors which influence the use and misuse of psychoactive substances, have been reported. There include the aging process with its attendant multiple health problems, poor physical health, low socioeconomic status, female gender, co-morbid mental health problems, etc [4, 5, 6]. Tsefaye et al opined that “the rapid economic, social and cultural transitions that most countries in sub-Saharan Africa are now experiencing have created a favourable condition for increased and socially disruptive use of drugs and alcohol” [7]. 27 Chukwujekwu Chidozie Donald: Risk Factors for the Misuse of Psychoactive Substances Among University Students in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria Nevertheless, none of these studies have been carried out in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria, the unofficial centre of Nigeria’s booming oil industry with its attendant elevated violent crime rate and youth restiveness on account of conflict over resource control. The aim of this study therefore is to explore the risk factors for the use of psychoactive substance among university students in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Knowledge of the risk factors will enhance greater understanding of the complex problem of substance abuse. This will enable the development of adequate interventions that will help in the management this global challenge. The study took place within a 4month period (February- May 2015). It is important to note that what is presented in this paper, “Risk factors for the misuse of psychoactive substances among university students in Niger Delta, Nigeria” is part of that large study. 2. Methodology This cross sectional study was conducted among undergraduate students at Madonna University Elele in Rivers State. The school has a student population of 5235 students. 2.1.Instruments: The Instruments Used in the Research Include (1) A questionnaire on risk factors and varieties of psychoactive substances abused; designed by the authors. It consists of 2 sections: a section with ten questions aimed at ascertaining the variety of psychoactive substances abused and another section with eight questions meant to elicit the risk factors for the use of the substances. Subjects were meant to answer “yes” or “no” to the questions. Before the commencement of the study, a pilot study was carried out; the questionnaire was found to have a discriminant validity of 89%. (2) A questionnaire on socio-demographic variables. 2.2.Procedure Via random sampling, 293 students who consented to the study were enlisted. Before the commencement of the study, a verbal consent was sought from the respondents and they were assured of confidentiality as their names were not included in the questionnaire. The students selected, completed the questionnaire during class hours after adequate explanation of what the study was all about and how to fill the questionnaire had been done. The data collection took place for four months (February-May 2015). 2.3.Analysis The data was analyzed using the Statistical Package of the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 15. Statistical methods applied were frequency counts and tables as well as tests for association (chi-square test for categories variables and students t test for continuous variables). 3. Results Two hundred and ninety three subjects participated in this study. The mean age of the subjects was 23.89±3.148 years and the cohort comprises 166males (56.7%) and 127 females (43.3%). The most commonly used psychoactive substance used was alcohol 178(60.8%), while the least used substance was inhalational solvents 75(25.6%). See table 2. The commonest reason for using psychoactive substances was “peer group influence” 166(56.7%). The least common risk factor to use of these substances was “parental deprivation” 97(33.1%). See table 3. Table 4 shows the association between risk factors for abusing these substances and socio demographic variables. The risk factor “frustration” is significantly associated with gender X 2 =9.614, df=1, p<0.05, (the higher the class the more the frustration) as well as with the family history of use of psychoactive substances X 2 =6.221, df=1, p<0.05. Low self esteem is not significantly associated with any socio-demographic variables. Pear group influence is significantly associated with academic class. X 2 =28.914, df=5, p<0.05. Parental deprivation is significantly associated with academic class X 2 =20.331, df=5, p<0.05. Drug abuse for fun and relaxation is significantly associated with age X 2 =25.595, df=18, p<0.05 and academic class X 2 =36.405, df=5, p<0.05. Social influence due to the proximity where substance are sold or brewed is significantly associated with academic class. There is no significant association between ready availability of psychoactive substance and socio- demographic variables. Table 1. Demographic and clinical characteristics of the respondents. VARIABLE FREQUENCY (%) Age (yrs) ≤20 18 (6.1) 21-30 262 (89.4) 31-40 12 (4.1) >40 1 (0.3) Mean age = 23.89 ±3.148yrs Gender Male 166 (56.7) Female 127 (43.3) Year of study Year 1 32 (10.9) 2 46 (15.7) 3 44 (15.0) 4 85 (29.0) 5 73 (24.9) 6 12 (4.1) Family history of use psychoactive substances Positive family history 54 (18.4) Negative family history 239 (81.6) American Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience 2017; 5(2): 26-30 28 Table 2. Proportions of rate of use of psychoactive substances. PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES YES (%) NO (%) Alcohol 178(60.8) 115(39.2) Cannabis 112(38.2) 181(61.8) Cocaine 113(38.6) 180(61.4) Heroine 107(36.5) 186(63.5) Codeine 141(48.1) 152(51.9) Opioids 91(31.1) 202(68.9) Sleeping pills 129(44.0) 164(56.0) Nicotine 128(43.7) 165(56.3) Caffeine 168(57.3) 125(42.7) Inhalational solvents 75(25.6) 218(74.4) Table 3. Frequency of risk factors for use of psychoactive substances. RISK FACTOR YES (%) NO(%) Frustration 148(50.5) 145(49.5) Low self esteem 132(45.1) 161(54.9) Peer group influence 166(56.7) 127(43.3) Parental deprivation 97(33.1) 196(66.9) Drug abuse for fun and relaxation 153(52.2) 140(47.8) Influence of parents who engage in the 117(39.9) 176(60.1) use and abuse of substance 135(46.1) 158(53.9) Social influence due to proximity where it is sold or brewed Readily available 130(44.4) 163(55.6) Based on odd ratios above, the risk factor which leads respondents to indulge in the use psychoactive substance is peer group influence 166(56.7%). The least probable risk factor for use of psychoactive substances is parental deprivation 97(33.1%) Table 4. Association between risk factors for abusing substances and Socio demographic variables. Frustratio nX2, df (p value) Low self esteem Peer group influence Parental deprivation Drug abuse for fun and relaxation Influence of parents who engage in the use and abuse of substance Social influence due to proximity where it is sold or brewed Readily available Socio Demographic VARIABLES Age 16.138, 18 20.922, 18 17.718, 18 10.652, 18 25.595, 18 18.558, 18 23.661, 18 10.842, 18 (0.583) (0.583) (0.474) (0.91) (0.019) (0.420) (0.166) (0.901) Gender (Male/Female) 9.614, 1 9.805, 1 0.493, 1 3.114, 1 0.299, 1 9.365, 1 2.375, 1 0.631, 1 (0.002) (0.002) (0.552) (0.081) (0.637) (0.003) (0.123) (0.427) Academic class (Yr 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) 17.358, 5 10.037, 5 28.914, 5 20.331, 5 36.405, 5 22.057, 5 29.211, 5 9.667, 5 (0.004) (0.074) (0.000) (0.001) (0.00) (0.001) (0.000) (0.085) Family History – Yes/No 6.221, 1 162, 1 0.622, 1 3.541, 1 0.004, 1 5.414, 1 2.176, 1 0.383, 1 (0.016) (0.763) (0.450) (0.98) (0.02) (0.140) (0.538) 4. Discussion This study revealed that the most commonly used psychoactive substance is alcohol. This is in consonance with several other studies done previously [89, 10]. While a study carried out by Daly Jov et al opined that Caffeine is the most widely used psychoactive substance globally [11], another maintained that Cannabis was the most commonly abused among young people [12]. In the Niger Delta region of Nigeria, where this study took place, alcohol is present during all major life transition beginning from birth to death.The birth of a baby is an occasion for celebration with a generous supply of alcohol, conflicts are resolved over a drink, traditional prayers are made with a sprinkle of alcohol on the ground, marriages and other contractual arrangements cannot be sealed without the sharing of a drink, and burial ceremonies are occasions for drinking and revelry [13]. The commonest risk factor identified in this study for the use of psychoactive substances was “peer group influence”. This report is in consonance with findings from other studies [13, 14, 15]. The risk factor, “frustration” is significantly associated with academic class. This is not surprising because, the higher the academic class, the more the pressure, demand and stress associated with rigors of academics. The resultant abuse of psychoactive substances is a maladaptive coping mechanism by those who are vulnerable [16, 17]. 29 Chukwujekwu Chidozie Donald: Risk Factors for the Misuse of Psychoactive Substances Among University Students in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria It was also discovered that drug use and misuse for fun and relaxation was significantly associated with age. Odejide et al noted that students were initiated into drug use in their early childhood and that “adolescents and young adults now form the risk groups in the abuse of alcohol” [18]. The situation in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria is even more problematic. This is because the region has been embroiled in crisis for the past two decades because of conflict over the control of oil. This has led to violence and crime of increasing propensities and most of these vices have been associated with psychoactive substance abuse [19, 20]. Influence of parents was significantly associated with gender. The greater tendency for males to abuse psychoactive substances have been previously documented especially where there is a family history of psychoactive substance abuse [21, 22]. This can be explained by Bandura’s social learning theory which posits that people learn from one another via observation, imitation and modeling [23]. Limitations This is a cross sectional study. Hence the application of its findings to the general population should be done with caution. More longitudinal studies using larger sample size is recommended. 5. Conclusion The multiplicity of significant risk factors for psychoactive substance use underscores the need to improve the social support for students and reduce the environmental factors that make young and impressionable minds susceptible to drug use. The urgent need for deliberate drug-demand reduction strategies to be quickly employed in schools is imperative. References [1] Kaplan H.S., Sadock B.J. (2003). Substance – Related Disorders: In Synopsis of Psychiatry, 8 th Edn., Williams & Wilkins (New York) 2003; 375- 455 [2] United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (Internet). World Drug report 2012 (cited 2013 June 26). http://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and- analysis/WDR2012/WDR2012websmall-pdf(links) [3] World Health Organization, World Health Statistics (Internet). 2008 (cited 2013 Jan). http://www.who.int/whr/2006/whr06en.pdf(links). [4] Beman DS. Risk factors leading to adolescent substance abuse. Adolescence, Roselyn heights 1995; 30 (117). [5] Okpataku CI, Kwanashie HO, Ejiofor JF, Olisah VO. Prevalence and socio demographic risk factors associated with psychoactive substance use in psychiatric out-patinets of a tertiary hospital in Nigeria. Nigeria Med 2014; 55: 460-464 [6] Kaminerr Y. Psychoactive substance abuse and dependence as a risk factor in adolescent – attempted and completed suicide. The American Journal of Addictions. 1992: Doi 10.1111/j.1521-0391.1992.tb00003.x [7] Tsefaye G; Derese A, Hambisa MT, Substance Use and Associated Factors among University students in Ethiopia: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Addiction 2014. Article ID 969837, 8pages. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/969837. [8] Vieira DL, Ribeiro M. Romano M, Laranjeira RR. Alcohol and adolescents: study to implement municipal policies. Rev. Saude Publica 2007; 41: 396-403. [9] Secretaria Nacional de Politicas Sobre Drogas (Internet). Relatoriobrasilerosobredrogas. 2009 (cited 2013 Jun 16). http://www.obid.senad.gov.br/portais/OBID/biblioteca/docum entos/relatorios/328370. pdf [10] Plant M. European School Survey Project on Alcohol and other Drugs (ESPAD Internet) 2007 (cited 2013 Jun 28). http:/www2.uwe.ac.uk/services/marketing/research.pdf/ISHEp dfs/Health17.pdf [11] Daly TW, Holmen J, Fredholm BB Is Caffeine addictive? The most widely used psychoactive substances in the world affects same parts of the brain as cocaine, Lakartidingen 1998, 95: 51-52. [12] Boys A, Marsden J, Strang J. Understanding reasons for drug use amongst young people; a functional perspective. Health Edu Res 2001; 16(4): 457-469. [13] Obot IS. The epidemiology of tobacco and alcohol abuse in Nigeria. in: Obot I.S. (ed). Epidemiology and control of substance abuse in Nigeria. Jos: centre for Research and information on substance abuse. 1993: 432-438. [14] Chukwujekwu DC, Stanley HO, Chu JC, Frank-Briggs A. The prevalence of drug abuse among secondary school students in Eleme, a sub-urban area of Rivers State, Nigeria. Journal of child language and communication disorders in Nigeria 2008; 1(2): 32-42. [15] Ifabumuyi O, Ahmed MH. A Survey of alcoholism of out patients in Kaduna. Nigerian Journal of Psychiatry 1987; 1: 45-49. [16] Thompson RJ, Mata J, Jaeggi SM, Buschkuchi M, Jonides J, Gotib IH. Maladaptive Coping, Adaptive Coping and Depressive Symptoms: Variations of cross age and depressive State. Behave Res Ther. 2010; 48(6): 459-466. [17] Brown GQ, Harris GK, Manual for the Beck Depression Inventory – II. Psychological corporation; San Antonio, TX: 1996. [18] Odejide AO, Ohaeri JU, Adelekan M, Ikuesann BA. Alcohol Treatment system in Nigeria. alcohol and Alcoholism 1989; 24; 347-353. [19] Stanley PC (ed). Alcohol: A silent Killer. Port Harcourt University of Port Harcourt Press – 2003: 1-68. [20] Brisbe S, Ordinioha B, Dienye PO. Intersection between alcohol abuse and intimcile partners violence in a rural Ijaw community in Bayelsa State, South-South. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. Doi: 10.1177/088626051 [21] Substance Abuse and mental Health services administration (SAMHSA). Results from the 2013 National Survey on Drug Use and health: summary of National findings. Rockville; MD; substance Abuse and mental Health services administration 2014. HHS Publication No. (SMA) 14-4863. NSDUH services H-48. American Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience 2017; 5(2): 26-30 30 [22] Piper ME, Cook JW, Schlam TR. Gender, race and education differences in abstinence rates among participants in two randomized smoking cessation trials Nicotine Tob Res. 2010; 12(6): 647-657. [23] Thyer BA, Myers L. Social learning theory: An empirically based approach to understanding human behaviour in the social environment. Journal of Human Behaviour in the social environment 1998; 1:33-52. 
work_jdvykwcuq5djjapxgdzvf2pcg4	----	Book reviews Book reviews Mania-An Evolving Concept. Edited by Robert H Belmaker, HM van Praag. (Pp 393; £18-95.) Lancaster: MTP Press Ltd. 1981. The aim of this book, according to the forthright statement with which it opens, is "to be a 23-chapter comprehensive textbook on manic illness". How well does it achieve these avowed objectives? There is no problem with the first: 23 chapters are indeed listed in the table of contents, and duly appear in sequence within the book itself. There is, however, much less certainty about it being com- prehensive. For example, it provides only the most sketchy advice concerning treatment, scant mention is made of recent observations on the changes in neuro- endocrine activity which occur during the course of a manic illness, and there is little on the range of rating scales available for assessing the severity of a manic illness in a given patient before and after treat- ment. Despite these shortcomings this book has a number of very good sections. The two reviews on the genetics of mania by Fischer, and by Gershon and Rieder are excellent; the chapter on biochemical theories by Post are thoughtful and thought-provoking, as is that on the possible role of cholinergic mechanisms in the pathogenesis of mania by Janowsky and Davis. The extremely long chapter by Robbins and Sahakian on animal models is exhaustive, everything that needed to be said on this topic is said. I also enjoyed Carpenter and Stephen's chapter on diagnosis, finding their warning against overdiagnosing mania at the expense of schizophrenia a timely one; the pendulum of diagnostic fashion has possibly swung too far in that direction. In addition to these more weighty topics there is an evocative anthology of self-descriptions by patients of what it is like to be manic; a chapter on the relationship of creativity to cyclothymia, and a final chapter devoted to describing the strange career of a seventeenth-century manic-depressive rabbinical scholar. In summary, I consider this book to be excellent in parts, but wanting in others; it can be recommended as a most useful source book in the fields of genetics, biochemistry and animal models of mania. TREVOR SILVERSTONE Essentials of Neurosurgery. Robert R Smith. (Pp 321; £17-95.) London: Harper and Row. 1980. As the Preface informs us, this book is written primarily for medical students in response to their repeated requests for a textbook ofrecent vintage, dealing with the fundamentals of the surgery of the nervous system. Not so long ago such a venture for undergraduates would have been frowned upon, neurosurgery being considered an inappropriate study for impressionable students. Even neurology, if it were taught at all, seldom had a specialist instructor to explain its mysteries. Now that the general physician and the general surgeon have all but departed from the teaching scene, their place taken by individual organ specialists, there seems no longer any reason why the interests of the nervous system should not be promoted by its own practitioners. The author of this work is Professor of Neurosurgery at the Univer- sity of Mississippi. The volume provides a balanced and comprehensive review of the present-day work and concerns of the neurosurgical specialist, albeit with some transatlantic bias. Introductory contributions deal with the importance of history taking and the basic techniques of neurological examina- tion, and outline the various specialist examinations. The care of the critically ill neurosurgical patient is considered in detail. Thereafter each chapter covers the usual subjects-trauma, infection, cerebral haemorrhage and ischaemic disorder, cerebral tumour, cord compression, disc degeneration and intractable pain. The problems of the paediatric patient and the technique of examination of the newly born receive special attention. Each chapter begins with a review of relevant anatomy and physiology, and proceeds from symptoms and signs to diagnosis and possibilities of treatment. Differential diagnosis is given extended treatment, equal emphasis being given to medical and surgical alternatives. The possibilities and limitations of surgical measures are explained and considerable effort made to present a balanced view. Details of surgical procedures are laregly passed over, or, to use the author's term, de-emphasized. The only chapter to contain some surgical detail is that on head injury, and the facts are thQse that should not be unfamiliar to anyone having care of the head injured. The Glasgow coma scale is explained and recommended for assessing level of consciousness. The head injury instruction 959 sheet which is given to the patient or his attendants on his discharge from hospital or when hospital admission is not considered essential, has much to recom- ment it. Not all the chapters are written with equal conviction, but for a single author work the content is comprehensive. The style is clear and the text easy to follow; the choice of illustrations and particularly the line diagrams, is very good. The references at the end of each chapter are up to date. A study of the major disorders of the nervous system, some of which such as stroke illness or dementia are of increasing importance in our aging society will equip the embryo doctor for work in many different fields. The neurological patient, properly surveyed, offers an unrivalled experience in the skills of history taking and of clinical assessment. For students before or after qualification, this book provides an excellent foundation for further study of the nervous system, and particularly of those disorders which may have some surgical solution. JJ MACCABE Long-term Effects of Neuroleptics. Edited by F Cattabeni, G Racagni, PF Spano, E Costa. (Pp 660; $78.88.) New York: Raven Press. 1980. This large and expensive book is described as "Advances in Biochemical Psycho- pharmacology, Volume 24", but it is actually the proceedings of yet another symposium, held in Monte Carlo in 1979. It contains no less than 81 papers, dealing with the effects of long term neuroleptic administration on dopaminergic neurons, dopamine receptors, neurotransmitter in- teraction, behaviour and neuroendocrine function. There is also a section on clinical studies. Some of the findings, already available in scientific journals, are impor- tant or at least interesting. Others are trivial in the extreme and could be used as ammunition by anyone opposed to animal experiments. The book is beauti- fully produced but the very variable quality of its contents makes it hard to recommend it. JL GIBBONS Disorders of the Cerebellum. By Sid Gilman, James R Bloedel and Richard Lechtenberg. (Pp 393; $50.00, £25-00. Philadelphia: FA Davis Co. 1981. The Contemporary Neurology Series al- P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / J N e u ro l N e u ro su rg P sych ia try: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /jn n p .4 4 .1 0 .9 5 9 -b o n 1 O cto b e r 1 9 8 1 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ 
work_jhj2s7b3encktn5cfdrc2dtp7i	----	ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСКИЙ КАПИТАЛ, 2019, № 6(126) 182 ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСКИЙ КАПИТАЛ, 2019, № 6(126) ЛИЧНОСТНЫЕ ОСОБЕННОСТИ ПАЦИЕНТОВ С ОСТРЫМИ И ХРОНИЧЕСКИМИ ЗАБОЛЕВАНИЯМИ DOI: 10.25629/HC.2019.06.20 Рыльский А.В. Московский научно-практический центр медицинской реабилитации, восстановительной и спортивной медицины. Россия, Москва Аннотация. При нарушении мозгового кровообращения возможно изменение личностных характеристик пациентов, которые имеют важнейшее значение для дальнейшей психокоррек- ции в комплексном лечении заболеваний. Целью исследования стало изучение личностных особенностей пациентов с нарушением мозговых функций и без. В лаборатории биологиче- ской обратной связи обследованы 2923 пациентов, среди них пациентов с церебро-васкуляр- ной болезнью– 1784 чел, с острым нарушением мозгового кровообращения – 336 чел, с остео- хондрозом – 803 чел. Для определения психологических характеристик использовался шест- надцатифакторный личностный опросник Кеттелла. В результате установлено, что пациенты с перенесенным инсультом в анамнезе – немного замкнуты, эмоционально устойчивы, мечта- тельны, но в то же время зависят от мнения окружающих. Пациенты с церебро-васкулярной болезнью – общительны, решительны, дипломатичны и впечатлительны. Пациенты с остео- хондрозом –несмотря на то, что их мозговая функция не страдает, необщительны, пессими- стичны и нерешительны, им трудно налаживать контакт с незнакомыми людьми. В данном случае, эти особенности вызваны длительным течением заболевания и наличием болевого син- дрома. Ключевые слова: психокоррекция, личностный опросник, острое нарушение мозгового кровообращения, нарушение мозговых функций, церебро-васкулярная болезнь, остеохондроз. Актуальность В настоящее время неоспоримым признан факт, что острые и хронические заболевания ока- зывают влияние на психологическое состояние. Особенно это касается тех пациентов, у которых имеются сосудистые изменения, обуславливающие психопатологические нарушения [1,3,4]. Именно от психологического состояние пациента и его ощущения благополучия/неблаго- получия, зависит течение болезни и эффективность терапии [4, 6]. Целью психологической коррекции является: стабилизация эмоционального фона со сни- жением уровня тревоги, депрессии, напряжения, беспокойства; активация внутренних ресур- сов; выработка навыка планирования и создание адекватной лечебной и жизненной перспек- тивы, что способствует более эффективному восстановлению бытовых навыков; изменение отношения к болезни и лечению [5]. Поэтому исследование психологических характеристик пациентов в зависимости от нару- шения мозговых функций представляется весьма актуальным, т.к. их знание позволит прово- дить комплексную терапию заболеваний, направленную на коррекцию не только соматиче- ских, но и психологических особенностей. Цель исследования Изучить личностные особенности пациентов с нарушением мозговых функций и без. Организация исследования В лаборатории биологической обратной связи (БОС) обследованы 2923 пациентов. Для того, чтобы оценить влияние нарушения мозговой функции на личностные особенности паци- ентов, были проанализированы пациенты с тремя видами диагнозов – церебро-васкулярная болезнь (ЦВБ) – она же хроническая ишемия головного мозга – при которой наблюдается дли- ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСКИЙ КАПИТАЛ, 2019, № 6(126) ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСКИЙ КАПИТАЛ, 2019, № 6(126) 183 тельное и постепенное нарушение функции головного мозга; острое нарушение мозгового кро- вообращения (ОНМК) – которое характеризуется более тяжелым поражением головного мозга в виду внезапности и остроты процесса; остеохондроз (ОХ) – хроническая патология, при ко- торой мозговая функция не страдает. Число пациентов с различными диагнозами было следующим: ЦВБ – 1784 чел., ОНМК – 336, ОХ – 803 чел. В исследовании были пациенты, у которых сочеталось несколько диагнозов – ЦВБ + ОНМК – 143 чел., ЦВБ+ОХ – 736 чел., ОНМК + ОХ – 23 чел., ЦВБ+ОНМК+ОХ – 36 чел. Эти пациенты вошли в группу с наиболее тяжелым заболеванием, т.к. в первую очередь именно оно обуславливает клиническую картину. Средний возраст пациентов составил – 60,7 лет. Мужчин было – 737 человек, женщин – 2186 человек. Методы Для определения психологических характеристик использовался шестнадцатифакторный личностный опросник (Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire, 16 PF) Кеттелла. Статистическая обработка полученных данных была проведена с использованием про- грамм STATISTICA v.10.0, MedCalc software Bvba v.12.6.1.0, MS Exсel 7.0. Данные представ- лены в виде средних значений и стандартных отклонений для непрерывных переменных. Для сравнения непрерывных переменных использовали Т-тест. Достоверными считались резуль- таты при р<0,05. Результаты и их обсуждение При оценке результатов теста по Кеттеллу, отмечено, что по шкале «замкнутость/общи- тельность» у большинства пациентов отмечались средние баллы. Наиболее высокие показа- тели были выявлены у пациентов с ЦВБ – 4,9±2,3 балла. Наиболее низкие – у пациентов с ОНМК – 4,1±2,3 балла (р<0,001), они отличались необщительностью и некоторой скованно- стью. При этом у пациентов с перенесенным инсультом ответы на вопросы по данной шкале занимали достоверно больше времени. Согласно многочисленным данным, у подавляющего числа пациентов, перенесших ОНМК, имеются психопатологические нарушения, обусловленные сосудистыми изменениями. Острое начало болезни сопровождается возникновением у больного растерянности и чувства нереаль- ности происходящего. Такое отрицание произошедшего предохраняет психическую сферу па- циента от чрезмерно сильного потрясения [1,2,5]. Выявленную нами склонность к замкнутости в себе как раз можно объяснить защитной реакцией организма. У больных, страдающих остеохондрозом значения шкалы колебались в районе 4-х баллов и статистически не различались от пациентов с ОНМК, что вероятно объясняется тем фактом, что заболевание носит длительный характер, сопровождается болевым синдромом, а постоян- ное присутствие боли может явиться фактором, провоцирующим развитие не только тревож- ности, но и клинической депрессии, из-за чего пациенты становятся менее общительными, за- крытыми [2]. У пациентов с нарушением мозговых функций (ЦВБ и ОНМК) шкалы, отражающие интел- лект оказались достоверно хуже, чем у пациентов без нарушения мозговых функций (ОХ) – 5,7±2,5 и 4,9±2,3 балла (р<0,001). У пациентов первых двух групп было хуже развито абстракт- ное мышление, а также вербальная культура. Примечательно, что пациентам с ЦВБ на раз- мышления (поиск решений различных задач) требовалось чуть больше времени по сравнению с остальными. В то время как пациенты с ОНМК ответили на вопросы быстрее всего. Наиболее высокий интеллект продемонстрировали пациенты с остеохондрозом – 6,2±2,1 балла – они легко обучаемы и всё быстро схватывают. Оценка показателей эмоциональной стабильности продемонстрировала, что наиболее вы- сокие показатели эмоциональной устойчивости были отмечены у пациентов с ОНМК – 5,2±2,1 балла. У пациентов с ЦВБ и ОХ эти показатели были в среднем на 0,5 балла ниже и достоверно ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСКИЙ КАПИТАЛ, 2019, № 6(126) 184 ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСКИЙ КАПИТАЛ, 2019, № 6(126) между собой не различались. Интересно, что пациенты с нарушениями мозговой функции до- стоверно дольше (почти на 10 сек – р<0,001) отвечали на вопросы , связанные с эмоциональной сферой, вероятно, они раздумывали, подбирая нужные формулировки. Анализ шкалы «подчиненность/доминантность» показал, что у пациентов с ОНМК отме- чались более высокие баллы, им в большей степени свойственно упрямство, напористость, не- желание признавать чужой авторитет. Результаты оценки шкалы «сдержанность/эмоциональность» продемонстрировали им- пульсивность и экспрессивность пациентов с нарушением мозговых функций (ОНМК и ЦВБ) – 4,1±2,2 и 3,5±1,9. У них не только были выше баллы. Но и ответы по данным шкалам они давали быстрее, что так же свидетельствует в пользу большей экспрессивности. У пациентов с ОХ баллы были достоверно ниже – 3,3±1,8. Последним в большей степени были свойственны пессимизм, беспокойство за будущее, что, по нашему мнению, в первую очередь обусловлено болевым синдромом, наличие которого негативно сказывается на настроении. Наиболее высокие баллы по шкале «низкая/ высокая нормативность» поведения были от- мечены у пациентов с ЦВБ – 6,3±1,9 балла. Им свойственна более высокая ответственность и обязательность. У пациентов с ОНМ к ОХ баллы были достоверно ниже (р<0,001) и не разли- чались между собой – 5,7±1,8 и 5,5±2,1 баллов, соответственно, что свидетельствует о мень- шей добросовестности, приоритете своих интересов. По шкале робость/смелость у пациентов с нарушением мозговой функции (ЦВБ и ОНМК) регистрировались достоверно более высокие баллы – 5,7±2,5 и 5,9±2,2 по сравнению с паци- ентами с ОХ – 4,8±2,4 баллов (р<0,001) , но в то же время ответы на вопросы заняли у них достоверно больше времени. Пациентам с ОХ в меньшей степени была свойственна решитель- ность, смелость, им было труднее общаться с незнакомцами. По шкале «жестокость/чувствительность» все пациенты продемонстрировали достаточно высокие баллы. Наибольшую чувствительность и впечатлительность мы выявили у пациентов с ЦВБ – 7,9±2,2 баллов. С показателями пациентов с ОНМК у них отмечались высоко досто- верные различия – 7,2±2,1 баллов (р<0,001). Оценивая «доверчивость/подозрительность» пациентов между группами замечены мини- мальные различия – в частности по этому показателю между собой отмечались только паци- енты из групп ЦВБ и ОХ – 6,2±2,1 и 5,8±2,2 баллов соответственно (р=0,0004). В целом, боль- шинству исследуемых пациентов были присущи некоторая требовательность к другим и само- мнение. Анализ шкалы «практичность/мечтательность» показал, что пациенты с ОНМК более меч- тательны, у них лучше развито воображение, поскольку они набрали достоверно большее ко- личество баллов по данной шкале по сравнению с остальными пациентами – 6,4±1,7 балла по сравнению с 5,7±2,1 баллов у пациентов с ЦВБ и 5,6±1,9 баллов у пациентов с ОХ (р<0,001). Вероятно, некоторая задумчивость, связанная с погружением в собственные мысли, объясняет и тот факт, что на ответы по данной шкале им понадобилось в среднем на 12-14 сек больше по сравнению с остальными пациентами. Более дипломатичными, по нашим данным, оказались пациенты с ОХ – 7,0±1,8 баллов, чуть менее проницательными оказались пациенты ЦВБ – 6,8±1,7 баллов (р=0,009). Самыми прямолинейными были пациенты с ОНМК – 6,2±1,4 баллов (р<0,001). Они были более откро- венны, но одновременно непосредственны, наивны. При этом, несмотря на откровенность и прямоту, время на раздумывание над ответами у них было почти на 10 секунд дольше. Оценка тревожности показала, что это характеристика у пациентов с нарушением мозговых функций (ЦВБ и ОНМК) проявлялась в меньшей степени по сравнению с пациентами с ОХ – 6,0±2,2 балла и 6,1±2,2 балла против 6,9±1,4 баллов (р<0,001). С другой стороны, более высо- кие баллы у последних свидетельствуют о некоторой склонности к пессимизму, что мы уже отмечали ранее в ответах на другие шкалы и связываем с длительным присутствием болевого синдрома. ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСКИЙ КАПИТАЛ, 2019, № 6(126) ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСКИЙ КАПИТАЛ, 2019, № 6(126) 185 Анализ шкалы «консерватизм/радикализм» показал, что большинство пациентов всех трёх групп предпочитают следовать традициям и устоям и готовы терпеть трудности и неудобства, лишь бы ничего не менять. По шкале «конформизм/нонконформизм» пациенты с ОНМК оказались более зависимыми от мнения окружающих, поскольку их баллы – 6,5±2,6 были достоверно меньше (р<0,05), чем в группе с ЦВБ – 7,3±2,0 балла и ОХ – 7,2±2,2 балла. Этот факт можно объяснить тем, что вследствие заболевания эти пациенты часто нуждаются в помощи других людей, соответ- ственно, они привыкают считаться с мнением окружающих. Косвенно этот факт подтверждает и то, что они долго обдумывали свои ответы, вероятно, соотнося их с тем, как они должны звучать по мнению окружающих. Оценка по шкале «Q3: расслабленность/напряженность» у большинства пациентов была средней и колебалась в районе 5 баллов, при статистическом анализе наименьшие показатели были выявлены у пациентов с ОХ – 5,0±1,9, что свидетельствует о том, что они в меньшей степени способны противостоять желаниям и эмоциям. Наиболее высокие показатели были отмечены у пациентов с ОНМК – 5,5±2,0 – способность контролировать себя у них развита несколько сильнее. Оценка по шкале «Q4: расслабленность/напряженность» показала, что пациенты с ЦВБ и ОХ более собраны и обладают более высоким уровнем мотивации, в то же время у них нередки проявления агрессии и излишней нервозности – 7,1±2,0 и 7,0±2,3 баллов. Показатели пациен- тов с ОНМК оказались ниже – 6,8±2,6, что говорит о том, что они не слишком организованы, вялы, их спокойствие нередко граничило с апатией. При подсчете времени, затрачиваемого на ответы по данной шкале, в группе пациентов с ОНМК показатель был наиболее высоким. Более подробно все описываемые характеристики представлены в таблицах 1 и 2. Таблица 1 – Количество баллов по шкалам опросника Кеттела у пациентов с различными диагнозами Количество баллов по показателю Основной диагноз ЦВБ р, при сравнении с ОНМК ОНМК р, при сравнении с ОХ ОХ р, при сравнении с ЦВБ Шкала А: Замкнутость/ общительность 4,9±2,3 <0,001* 4,1±2,3 0,121 4,3±2,2 <0,001* Шкала В: Низкий/высокий интеллект 5,7±2,5 <0,001* 4,9±2,3 <0,001* 6,2±2,1 <0,001* Шкала С: Эмоциональная нестабильность/ стабильность 4,5±2,1 <0,001* 5,2±2,1 <0,001* 4,6±2,1 0,492 Шкала Е: Подчиненность/ доминантность 5,2±2,3 0,020* 5,5±2,3 0,002* 5,1±2,3 0,157 Шкала F: Сдержанность/ экспрессивность 3,5±1,9 <0,001* 4,1±2,2 <0,001* 3,3±1,8 0,010* Шкала G: Безответствен- ность/ответствен- ность 6,3±1,9 <0,001* 5,7±1,8 0,065 5,5±2,1 <0,001* Шкала Н: Робость/смелость 5,7±2,5 0,154 5,9±2,2 <0,001* 4,8±2,4 <0,001* Шкала I: Жестокость/ чувствительность 7,9±2,2 <0,001* 7,2±2,1 0,0004* 7,6±1,8 0,001* ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСКИЙ КАПИТАЛ, 2019, № 6(126) 186 ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСКИЙ КАПИТАЛ, 2019, № 6(126) Количество баллов по показателю Основной диагноз ЦВБ р, при сравнении с ОНМК ОНМК р, при сравнении с ОХ ОХ р, при сравнении с ЦВБ Шкала L: Доверчивость/ подозрительность 6,2±2,1 0,052 5,9±2,2 0,512 5,8±2,2 0,0004* Шкала M: Практичность/ мечтательность 5,7±2,1 <0,001* 6,4±1,7 <0,001* 5,6±1,9 0,579 Шкала N: Прямолиней- ность/ дипломатичность 6,8±1,7 <0,001* 6,2±1,4 <0,001* 7,0±1,8 0,009* Шкала О: Спокойствие/ тревожность 6,0±2,2 0,630 6,1±2,2 <0,001* 6,9±1,4 <0,001* Шкала Q1: Консерватизм/ радикализм 4,5±1,9 0,617 4,6±2,1 0,127 4,8±1,8 <0,001* Шкала Q2: Конформизм/ нонконформизм 7,3±2,0 <0,001* 6,5±2,6 0,0006* 7,2±2,2 0,187 Шкала Q3: Расслабленность/ напряженность 5,3±2,0 0,062 5,5±2,0 0,0002* 5,0±1,9 0,003* Шкала Q4: Расслабленность/ напряженность 7,1±2,0 0,002* 6,8±2,6 0,042* 7,0±2,3 0,426 Таблица 2 – Время, затрачиваемое на ответы на вопросы по шкалам опросника Кеттела у пациентов с различными диагнозами Время, затраченное на ответы по шкале Основной диагноз ЦВБ р, при сравнении с ОНМК ОНМК р, при сравнении с ОХ ОХ р, при сравнении с ЦВБ Шкала А: Замкнутость/ общительность 120,5±38,7 0,004* 127,3±46,5 0,044* 122,3±37,9 0,207 Шкала В: Низкий/высокий интеллект 315,1±132,9 <0,001* 287,3±148,1 0,048* 303,6±123,9 0,020* Шкала С: Эмоциональная нестабильность/ стабильность 165,9±60,9 0,254 169,9±47,5 <0,001* 155,6±54,6 <0,001* Шкала Е: Подчиненность/ доминантность 160,5±61,4 0,003* 171,1±64,8 0,009* 162,1±64,6 0,662 Шкала F: Сдержанность/ экспрессивность 147,9±61,4 0,020* 155,6±54,5 0,002* 143,9±58,8 0,112 Шкала G: Безответствен- ность/ ответственность 119,9±45,5 <0,001* 132,8±54,3 <0,001* 119,2±42,4 0,676 ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСКИЙ КАПИТАЛ, 2019, № 6(126) ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСКИЙ КАПИТАЛ, 2019, № 6(126) 187 Время, затраченное на ответы по шкале Основной диагноз ЦВБ р, при сравнении с ОНМК ОНМК р, при сравнении с ОХ ОХ р, при сравнении с ЦВБ Шкала Н: Робость/смелость 142,6±52,9 0,002* 152,4±53,9 <0,001* 136,0±52,8 0,004* Шкала I: Жестокость/ чувствительность 116,2±42,5 0,030* 121,8±46,5 0,651 119,3±97,7 0,269 Шкала L: Доверчивость/ подозрительность 140,3±58,2 0,172 145,2±52,9 0,009* 135,7±57,3 0,093 Шкала M: Практичность/ мечтательность 166,3±67,6 0,004* 178,0±60,6 0,002* 163,5±77,0 0,393 Шкала N: Прямолинейность/ дипломатичность 128,8±49,9 0,008* 136,7±54,0 0,006* 126,9±55,0 0,403 Шкала О: Спокойствие/ тревожность 168,6±58,4 0,068 175,2±68,2 0,003* 162,3±66,3 0,015* Шкала Q1: Консерватизм/ радикализм 139,8±48,8 <0,001* 160,8±70,6 <0,001* 136,9±51,6 0,165 Шкала Q2: Конформизм/ нонконформизм 121,6±49,6 <0,009* 131,6±51,2 <0,001* 110,7±43,6 <0,001* Шкала Q3: Расслабленность/ напряженность 112,0±42,6 0,102 116,6±45,9 0,005* 108,1±47,3 0,050 Шкала Q4: Расслабленность/ напряженность 163,2±117,0 0,441 158,2±50,9 0,0002* 142,8±58,3 <0,001* Заключение Таким образом, нами отмечено, что в зависимости от нарушения мозгового кровообраще- ния, пациентам становятся присущи различные личностные особенности. Пациенты с перенесенным инсультом в анамнезе – немного замкнуты, эмоционально устойчивы, мечтательны, но в то же время зависят от мнения окружающих. Пациенты с ЦВБ – общительны, решительны, дипломатичны и впечатлительны. Пациенты с остеохондрозом – несмотря на то, что их мозговая функция не страдает, необщительны, пессимистичны и нере- шительны, им трудно налаживать контакт с незнакомыми людьми. В данном случае, эти осо- бенности вызваны длительным течением заболевания и наличием болевого синдрома. Специалистам необходимо учитывать все это многообразие личностных характеристик для развития разнонаправленных механизмов совладания у больного, что позволит повысить эф- фективность психокоррекционных воздействий, а, следовательно, улучшит качество жизни пациента. Литература 1. Грибанова Н.В., Куташов В.А. Лекарственная безопасность и препараты, неблагопри- ятно влияющие на мозговое кровообращение // Центральный научный вестник. 2016. Т. 1, № 1 (1). С. 18-20. 2. Доронин Б.М., Доронина О.Б. Некоторые актуальные вопросы диагностики и лечения боли в спине // Неврология, нейропсихиатрия, психосоматика. 2010.-№4. С. 24-28. ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСКИЙ КАПИТАЛ, 2019, № 6(126) 188 ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСКИЙ КАПИТАЛ, 2019, № 6(126) 3. Инсульт: Руководство для врачей. /под ред. Л.В. Стаховской, С.В. Котова. М.: ООО «Медицинское информационное агентство», 2013. 400 с.: ил. 4. Куташов В.А., Будневский А.В., Припутневич Д.Н., Суржко Г.В. Психологические осо- бенности пациентов с последствиями острого нарушения мозгового кровообращения, затруд- няющими социальную адаптацию // Вестник неврологии, психиатрии и нейрохирургии. 2014. № 8. С. 8-13. 5. Маликова Т.В. и др. Психологическая защита: направления и методы. СПб., 2008. 230 с. 6. Налчаджан А.А. Психологическая адаптация: механизмы и стратегии. 2-е изд. М.: Эксмо, 2010. 368 с. Рыльский Алексей Васильевич. E-mail: 79165850111@yandex.ru Дата поступления 05.04.2019 Дата принятия к публикации 10.06.2019 PERSONAL FEATURES OF PATIENTS WITH ACUTE AND CHRONIC DISEASES DOI: 10.25629/HC.2019.06.20 Rylsky A.V. Moscow Scientific and Practical Center for Medical Rehabilitation, Restorative and Sports Medicine. Russia, Moscow Abstract. In case of violation of cerebral circulation, it is possible to change the personal charac- teristics of patients who are crucial for further psychocorrection in the complex treatment of diseases. The aim of the study was to study the personality characteristics of patients with and without brain function disorders. In the biofeedback laboratory, 2,923 patients were examined, among them patients with cerebrovascular disease – 1,784 people, with acute cerebrovascular accident – 336 people, with osteochondrosis – 803 people. To determine the psychological characteristics, Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire, 16 PF was used. As a result, it was established that patients with a history of stroke – a little closed, emotionally stable, dreamy, but at the same time dependent on the opinions of others. Patients with cerebrovascular disease are sociable, decisive, diplomatic and impressionable. Patients with osteochondrosis, despite the fact that their brain function does not suffer, is uncommu- nicative, pessimistic and indecisive, it is difficult for them to establish contact with strangers. In this case, these features are caused by a long course of the disease and the presence of pain. Key words: psychocorrection, personality questionnaire, acute cerebrovascular accident, im- paired brain function, cerebrovascular disease, osteochondrosis. Rylsky Alexey Vasilyevich. E-mail: 79165850111@yandex.ru Date of receipt 05.04.2019 Date of acceptance 10.06.2019 
work_jibylaycr5fctn6q6wdazxrihi	----	Pulsar Astronomy — 2000 and Beyond ASP Conference Series, Vol. 202, 2000 M. Kramer, N. Wex, and R. Wielebinski, eds. M e a n , i n d i v i d u a l p u l s e s a n d s p e c t r u m o f G e m i n g a r a d i o e m i s s i o n V.M. Malofeev a n d 0 . 1 . Malov Pushchino Radio Astronomy Observatory, Lebedev Physical Institute, 142292, Pushchino, Moskow reg., Russia A b s t r a c t . T h e m e a s u r e m e n t s of profiles at 102, 87, 59 a n d 40 MHz are presented. Geminga shows unique character of radio emission: t h e most steep s p e c t r u m , the large changes of pulse widths, phases of pulse time of arrival a n d t h e presence of giant pulses. After the p r e s e n t a t i o n of our first Geminga observations (Malofeev & Malov, 1997) we continued t h e investigations of this pulsar a n d present new interesting d a t a briefly. T h e m e a s u r e m e n t s were carried out using t h e Large P h a s e d Array (Pushchino) at 102 MHz. New observation confirmed t h e t e m p o r a l changes of the form, w i d t h a n d t h e pulse phase. A few examples of integrated profiles are presented a t F i g . l . T h e integration of 30000 p e r i o d s is not enough t o o b t a i n the stable mean profile (two last profiles at F i g . l ) . T h e interpulse separated at ~ 180° from t h e m a i n pulse is displayed for t h e last series of observations. T h e distribution of pulsewidths a n d pulse phases (Fig.2) show a b n o r m a l very broad profile at 102 MHz. O u r observations at t h e a n o t h e r radio telescope (cross-type) p e r m i t t o find the radio emission of Geminga at 40, 60, 87 MHz with similar pecularities men- tioned above. To u n d e r s t a n d t h e u n s t a b l e form a n d w i d t h of t h e integrated profiles we carried out t h e observations of individual pulses or t h e groups of pulses. These observations have shown positive results at all frequencies d u r i n g a few percentage of the observing time (Fig.3). T h e most impressionable effect is t h e existence of t h e giant pulses d u r i n g ~ 0 . 1 % of observing t i m e (Fig.4), when the flux density can reach ~ 10 Jy. It is worth noting t h a t giant pulses can exist d u r i n g all period, t h e examples are presented a t Fig.4a (the second giant pulse) a n d Fig.3a (the first pulse). Geminga shows t h e most steep s p e c t r u m among all pulsars. S p e c t r a l index is > 5. S p e c t r u m shows low-frequency turnover w i t h a m a x i m u m a b o u t 60 MHz (Malofeev - these proceedings). A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s . T h i s work was p a r t l y s u p p o r t e d by R F B R ( P r No 97-02-17372) and INTAS (grant No 96-0154). R e f e r e n c e s Malofeev V.M., Malov O.I. 1997, N a t u r e , 389, 697. 241 terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0252921100059583 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:09, subject to the Cambridge Core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0252921100059583 https://www.cambridge.org/core 242 Malofeev and Malov P\\ ,L I | t l ! vhi ; • £ < * . ; t w ;X*J £ ^ x o :'•»* Phase (deg) Fig. 1. Mean pulse profiles in new sorits (a. h. c\. The sums of integrated profiles (e. d). PIU.NL* (ms) };ig. 2. Distributions of 1 lit* pulse-width (a. hi and phases of pulse time of arrival (e. d) lor main (MP) and imerpulse (IP). P l u s c t p u i i ' d s i Physt;<(k»(i) lig. 3. ft samples of individual pulses ;\\ 11 VIM/un; integrated proiiks at 41 Ml iy (hi. Arrows down and up are shown pluses ui* the main pulse and ike imcrpulsc. Hiasc \tk-y.) fig. i I'xampJCK (*f ujoupsof jjSKAit fnilws ;il S"1 N'M/ Willi Tiifcyr.UKii o!'? ohscn'injiiiciioiisialifiniJ 55 pcrtsnts terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0252921100059583 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:09, subject to the Cambridge Core http://PIu.nl* file:///tk-y https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0252921100059583 https://www.cambridge.org/core 
work_jizbbtgievfmvhs7efktvb55gq	----	S0040298213001228jlp 125..126 letter to the editor From Robin Maconie Oliver Soden is an engaging new contributor to Tempo and I am delighted he has taken my crabby review of Stockhausen to task (Tempo Vol. 67, No. 265, p. 121). He is quite right to do so. I would gladly discuss my ‘negative con- clusions’ with him at length if for the life of me I knew what he is referring to, since Mr Soden does not appear to recognize objections most of which are technical in nature and all of which are clearly spelt out in black and white in my review. Whether DJ Nihal is Anglo-Indian or Anglo-Ceylonese is neither here nor there. The point that matters is that he represents a fusion of English and what used to be called Continental Indian cultures, following the same convention of treating exotic peoples as generic ‘Indians’ as did Purcell in The Indian Queen and Rameau in Les Indes Galantes. The relatively benign but tangibly racist conscious- ness in Stockhausen’s musical output in works as varied as Hymnen, Mikrophonie II and Telemusik is as distasteful and significant today as Debussy’s disdain a hundred years ago for ‘la musique nègre’ when referring to the rag- time idiom of ‘Gollywog’s Cakewalk’ or Stravinsky’s Le Sacre du Printemps. I am making the point that for this production, we should recognize that skin colour was a factor. Yellow and red are the colours of Mittwoch, and that includes people. I can live with that, but others may not. Tempo readers should at least have a choice. I attended the dress rehearsal and two other full performances, which is to say, I endured more than 15 hours of sometimes crippling dis- comfort, in the aftermath of a further continuous 40 or so hours’ flight from New Zealand to attend. Physical discomfort is not an excuse for complaint unless it is being used, as I suspect in this case, as a cover for production inadequa- cies, and as a deliberate distraction. That the same tactics were employed by Goebbels at mass rallies in the 1930s – ‘a weary audience is a more impressionable audience’ – makes a gro- tesque kind of historical sense if deployed to cover up technical and other production deficiencies. Technical issues include sound projection and movement in space, and the translation of elec- tronic sounds moving in artificial space into real players moving in real space. Inside the building audio quality was acceptable, but hardly three-dimensional or holographic. Outside the building (e.g., the Helicopter-String Quartet) spatial movement was physically real but for the audience, aurally confined to fixed speakers and large screens. The contradictions were over- whelming. Nothing worked quite as one was led to anticipate. Players swinging in midair were physically suspended but their music otherwise bereft of movement, and their (projected) sound also fixed in space. The most challenging final scene, Michaelion, in which a polyphony of ribbons of sound should interweave in a very much more mobile way, as suggested by the score choreography, also failed to deliver, partly due to the impossible logistics of the environ- ment, and partly because the sounds of voices and instruments cannot be directed like laser beams without some kind of technical interven- tion. This and other fundamental problems, along with the role of the Operator as receiver and transmitter of voices in an outer space in which sound does not travel, were left high and dry by the composer, challenges for future generations to deal with as and when they reach a position to recognize them; and no amount of adhering to the existing score is going to change that. In the three performances I attended I looked closely out for and did not once see or hear any metronomes. What I did observe were groups of ‘skilled’ and ‘dedicated’ performers with no idea (excepting perhaps the string quartet) of why they were doing what they were doing, or how all of what they were doing should fit together. What is the point of skill and dedica- tion if you have no idea? Why was the sudden departure of the choir conductor not a moment of intense drama? (he does not return). Why were the performances of the swinging players of Orchester-Finalisten not in the least bit terrified? I do not believe Graham Vick – or his advisors – ever intended or were even capable of interpret- ing Stockhausen’s musical symbolism. Given the Tempo 67 (266) 125–126 © 2013 Cambridge University Press doi:10.1017/S0040298213001228 125 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0040298213001228 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:04, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0040298213001228 https://www.cambridge.org/core acoustical challenges of the location – a chemical factory, for God’s sake, which I would compare to staging a performance of Britten’s The Burning Fiery Furnace at Auschwitz – Team Stockhausen are no less to blame for the non-realization of Stockhausen’s dramatic and technical demands. Having lived with this music for some consider- able time I am bound to protest at the trivialization of the composer’s dramatic inten- tions by those entrusted with preserving his legacy and reputation. 7 Maine Street, Dannevirke 4930, New Zealand letter to the editor126 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0040298213001228 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:04, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0040298213001228 https://www.cambridge.org/core 
work_jjudq2ltxbgoxdq26upy7ac6by	----	Tania Woloshyn and Anne Dymond, Introduction, RIHA Journal 0041 RIHA Journal 0041 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" Special Issue "New Directions in Neo-Impressionism" Introduction Tania Woloshyn and Anne Dymond [1] The last few years have witnessed significant moments in the history and scholarship of neo-impressionism: new publications, such as Robyn Roslak's Neo- Impressionism and Anarchism in Fin-de-Siècle France (Ashgate, 2007) and the edited volume, Seurat Re-viewed (ed. Paul Smith, Pennsylvania State University Press, 2010), have questioned neo-impressionism's politics and its paternity, respectively; new large- scale exhibitions, including "Neo-Impressionism from Seurat to Paul Klee" (Musée d'Orsay, Paris, 2005), a retrospective on Théo van Rysselberghe (1862-1926) (Palais des Beaux-Arts, Brussels and the Gementeemuseum, The Hague, 2006), a retrospective on Maximilien Luce (1858-1941) (Musée des Impressionnismes, Giverny, 2010), and "Cross, from Neo-Impressionism to Fauvism" (Musée Marmottan, Paris, 2011-2012), have brought renewed focus on neo-impressionist artists; and milestones contributing to that history, with 2010 marking the centenary of the death of Henri-Edmond Cross (1856- 1910) and 2011 witnessing the unfortunate passing of Françoise Cachin, the former director of the Musée d'Orsay, the granddaughter of Paul Signac (1863-1935), and the foremost authority on his work. [2] It is therefore a fitting time to reconsider the artistic production and contextual themes around neo-impressionism, a much maligned movement that has often been described as a series of artistic, political and scientific failures. Its new direction after the death of Georges Seurat (1859-1891) in 1891, under the self-declared leadership of Signac, has been posited less as a renewal towards alternative but equally radical luminous experiments than a progressive degeneration from its original – that is, Seurat's – conception. Seurat as progenitor, as the "father" of neo-impressionism, in the presiding narrative of the movement has meant that art-historical literature has overwhelmingly privileged Seurat's oeuvre to "explain" neo-impressionism, not least its technique – the point (pointillism) or divided facture (divisionism). While Seurat's production is indisputably key to the history of neo-impressionism, critically analyzing the movement beyond the celebrity of Seurat – its developments after the artist's untimely early death in 1891, its diverse practitioners (most of whom remain "minor" artists), and the origins of that very narrative – opens up fresh interpretations with new insights and significant new research. The time is ripe for a reappraisal of this movement. [3] Together, the papers within this Special Issue reveal how the intense focus on the early years of the movement has occluded many facets of its later developments. The authors bring to light how multi-faceted and multivalent the movement always was. They explore, collectively and individually, how neo-impressionism defied seemingly fixed License: This text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en_US RIHA Journal 0041 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" categories, and how attempts to define and limit it were continually being tested, both during Seurat's lifetime and after. [4] Michelle Foa's article explores the paradigmatic nature of biography as an interpretive strategy and the possibilities for its resistance, focusing on Seurat. She examines critics' persistent need for palpable authorial presence and the resultant anxiety around the supposed depersonalization of artistic production in neo- impressionism for critics of all stripes in the nineteenth century. Indeed, she convincingly argues that the desire to map Seurat's pictures onto his life drove critics' perceptions that his life was devoid of incident, as regular as his brushmarks. But she reveals that biography and anti-biography were always complicated; Seurat was deeply conflicted about the issue, claiming both paternity of the style and yet repeatedly resisting the biographical and its links to the subjective and the personal. Above all, Foa's article prompts us to recognize how important the celebrity status of Seurat's paternity was and continues to be. [5] Such concerns are taken up in a different way in Marnin Young's article, which closely examines responses, both critical and painted, to the death of Seurat. In 1891, neo-impressionism seemed to occupy two diametrically-opposed positions in the interpretive field: both scientific and thus objective, yet also symbolic. He persuasively argues that, in the aftermath of Seurat's death, critics subsumed neo-impressionism into symbolism, with even the pseudo-science of Charles Henry being understood as idealist. Young explores the responses of Signac and others, giving a nuanced account of the critical posturing and positioning of the early 1890s. Young and Foa both reveal how fraught interpretation was for the movement's practitioners: for all its supposed theory, the central terms in which neo-impressionism might be understood were fluid and slippery. [6] Katherine Brion equally considers how neo-impressionists elided dichotomies in the 1890s, focusing on that between theoretical propaganda and "propaganda of the deed" within anarchist theory. She argues that Signac sought to transcend this division between theory and action in his painting, as she re-reads his paintings as non-verbal acts that would use both reason and emotion to create an enduring aesthetic and social harmony. [7] Tania Woloshyn too nuances our understanding of the deep connections between neo-impressionism and the anarchist movement, as she reads the Mediterranean works of Cross, Signac and Van Rysselberghe through the anarcho-communist traditions which understood the Maures region as a "free land," conducive to the desired harmonious future. She too tackles the ongoing interpretive debates, here between site-specificity and imagination, inflected through the medical, geographical, and political literature of the day. Through her examination of Jean Grave's 1908 novel Terre Libre: Les Pionniers (1908), she convincingly situates the imagined anarchist ideal of the neo-impressionists License: This text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en_US RIHA Journal 0041 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" in a landscape perceived not as "utopian," but rather as a tropical-French Mediterranean hybrid set in the sunny Maures. [8] Like Woloshyn and Brion, Anne Dymond contributes new insight into later neo- impressionism. Her examination of Parisian art criticism in the late 1890s and early 1900s challenges standard explanations of the resurgence of interest in neo- impressionism in the early twentieth century. This resurgence is often interpreted as a delayed reaction to Signac's 1898 text, D'Eugène Delacroix au néo-impressionnisme; however Dymond's essay attributes the surge in interest to the group members' positioning as leaders of the renewed Salon des Indépendants, where Signac's proposal for the decoration of the Mairie d'Asnières was highly esteemed for its decorative potential, in 1901. [9] Claire Maingon's article also expands the standard focus of scholarship, by considering the impact of Claude Monet on neo-impressionism both before and after Seurat's death. Maingon reframes our understanding of series painting, important for Seurat, Monet and Signac, which in all cases moved beyond the realist/symbolist divide, and her essay reveals that the lines of influence moved both ways. Like the other papers in the volume, her analysis of the fertile connections between artists – in this case, between Monet and Seurat, Charles Angrand (1854-1926) and especially Signac – reveals how limited the categories of analysis have been. [10] Fae Brauer's piece brings these considerations into the wider sphere of artists working alongside the neo-impressionists, as she considers the impact of compulsory military service on the art, artists and political action in the period. Her essay brings to light much new information about military service in creating a masculinized environment that was contested by artists such as Luce and "Le Douanier" Henri Rousseau (1844- 1910), adding another component to our understanding of the depth of the neo- impressionist commitment to political action. [11] This Special Issue, "New Directions in Neo-Impressionism," is the product of three fruitful years of discussions and collaborations, stretching back to 2009 when Woloshyn began planning a conference on new, exciting scholarship on neo-impressionism. Initial talks between Woloshyn, Professors Robert Wallis and Anthea Callen led to the organization of the conference, of the same title, in November 2010. This international, bilingual conference brought together emerging and established scholars of neo- impressionism to the heart of London, at Richmond, the American International University in London. The speakers, many of whom have contributed important articles to this Special Issue, included Richard Shiff, Françoise Baligand, Jane Block, Michelle Foa, Marnin Young, Katherine Brion, Monique Nonne, Claire Maingon, Karen Stock and Anne Dymond. It was Dymond who, in 2011, proposed publication of those conference papers as a Special Issue. The enthusiasm, encouragement and expertise of RIHA Journal's main License: This text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en_US RIHA Journal 0041 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" editor, Regina Wenninger (ZI, Munich), and her colleague Anne-Laure Brisac-Chraïbi (INHA, Paris) have made our publication possible, and we would like to express our thanks to the RIHA Journal team and the peer reviewers for their input and support. We are also honored that this is the first Special Issue of RIHA Journal and, like the editors, we feel strongly that Open Access is a vital tool for the academic dissemination of art history and visual culture. Indeed, because so many neo-impressionist works, both images and archival documents, remain within private collections, an open, international forum is the only way to make neo-impressionism, quite simply, accessible – both in its sense of being available and of being comprehensible – to future scholars of this field. We need more access, more collaboration and more international interaction to further research on neo-impressionism. RIHA fosters such beliefs, and the following Special Issue is a humble project towards this goal – the first, we hope, of many. <top> License: This text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en_US 
work_jkn4nolv4bf37o5awsned3danq	----	Improving quality of life for Department of Veterans Affairs nursing home residents through music and art Guest Editorial Improving quality of life for Department of Veterans Affairs nursing home residents through music and art The large dining room is quiet. Residents sit in a grouping around the piano. Several are wide awake, their eyes bright with anticipation; two are conversing with the young lady in a white lab coat, others are dozing in their seats, and still others are walking aimlessly around the room. A young man enters carrying a music case. He greets several resi- dents by name, welcoming them to the group. He goes to the piano, opens his case and pulls out his trumpet, and begins to play a tune. The conversation stops, sleeping resi- dents wake up, aimless ambulation is directed toward the sound, and all attention is focused on the young man. If you look to the entrance, additional residents are making their way into the room. When the young man finishes the song, questions erupt, “What was that? How do you do that?” The young man begins to tell about how a trumpet is played, what kind of music can feature a trumpet, and the enjoyment he gets from playing music. This launches a discussion about who played an instrument, who enjoyed music, and who would like to listen to more music featuring a trumpet. One resident Mr. A, who had been sleeping and rarely spoke, became very alert and told the group that he had played the trumpet, a fact that had not been known about the resident. The young man brought out an alternate mouthpiece and let the resident play. This resident, who was lost in his world of dementia, placed the trumpet to his lips, found the proper position, and played a few notes. The look of joy on his face was exquisite, allowing all around to clearly see the man he had been before dementia robbed him of himself. A Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) Nursing Research Initiative grant has supported the study, “The effect of exercise on muscle function and cost in VA nursing home residents.” Our hypothesis was that exercise would support and increase functional abilities, but we felt more than just exercise was con- tributing to the improvement. There- fore, we devised a study that compared an exercise group with a nonexercise group that receives a comparable level of staff attention and positive reinforcement to deter- mine whether changes in function normally associated with low-intensity exercise are from the exercise or other factors. This study is currently being conducted and the intervention phase will conclude in March 2006. The nonexercise group partici- pants attend a music and art activity three times a week. Two sessions are art-oriented and the third music-oriented. The responses to the music and art programs have reminded us that even residents with profound dementia retain their humanity. Although a resident may seem completely lost to the world, he or she may still be able to respond intellectually. For exam- ple, Mr. B’s dementia had robbed him of intelligent speech; he rarely spoke and when he did, it was largely nonsense sounds. Yet he participated in the art programs, watched alertly, and responded emo- tionally to the pictures. When asked if he enjoyed the pictures, he was able to comment, “They are so beautiful.” During a presentation about Norman Rockwell, he wept while looking at a picture of an old man with his grandson who were watching a ship sail away. His humanity and emotionality overcame the dementia for those moments. Not all residents respond to the program; many who have had limited exposure to art and music are difficult for us to engage. Cultural background may also contribute to a resident’s lack of participation. We found that individualizing the approach helped involve residents. Mr. C, an African-American resident, did not enjoy European art, but he enjoyed programs on Mary Grant, RN, MA Clinical Nurse Specialist, Geriatrics Long Term Care, VA Maryland Health Care System xi JRRD, Volume 42, Number 4, 2005 xii African-American artists and culture. We attempted to tailor a program to his needs. We brought him library books, especially children’s picture books, by and about African Americans. After we introduced books to him and spent time reading with him, he became more engaged with the environment, stopped lying in bed with covers over his head, and took an active role in his daily care. He looked forward to the activity and his general attitude and motivation improved; this supported his return to the community. Collage is a tool that provides a window into the personhood of many residents. While it can be a labor-intensive project, the rewards can be many, particularly for residents with severe dementia. Residents may not be able to provide their personal history but through the process of creating a col- lage, may reveal much about themselves and their past. Working with a helper, the resident is exposed to magazines and pictures. The helper observes the resident for response to the picture. The response may be as pronounced as a big smile or remark, or it may be as small as a blink or a sound. When a response is noted, the picture is placed on paper for the collage. Families have responded to many of these collages with statements that reflect recogni- tion of the objects in the pictures. Talking about the pictures provides an avenue for reminiscence that can facilitate caregiving and promote feelings of self-worth in the resident. A caregiver who knows something of a resident’s past can be very reassur- ing to that resident who is wandering through the disorientation of dementia. Staff have found that knowing details of the resident’s life allows them to direct conversation during care; this reduces resis- tance to the care and engages the resident in mean- ingful interaction. Residents who have participated in this research project appear to have benefited from exposure to an ongoing activity that stimulates their artistic senses. Their reactions indicate that the universal language of art and music can be successfully incor- porated into the routine activity of a nursing home. Staff have reveled in the insight and understanding of those residents who cannot tell their own stories. As the data collection phase of this research project comes to a close, we look to the analysis for confirmation of our hypothesis. However, the music and art activities introduced in the course of the investigation have clearly affected the quality of life for the participants. The group is sitting around a table. They have just viewed a slide show about Impressionism and are talking about how putting designs and colors together can create an impression of what is in their mind. They each have a piece of poster paper and an assortment of colored tissue paper in front of them. Mr. D, after prompting and assistance from the leader, began to tear the tissue into various shapes and meticulously place them on the paper. He arranged them in a design of his own making stating, “I’ve never made art before.” He became more animated and attempted to help others with their projects. Generally, in sessions, Mr. D keeps to himself and is reluctant to actively participate. Cre- ating his own art appeared to open a channel of communication and expression for him. He asks routinely when he can try some other types of art. At the end of a day in nursing home care, it is about the difference we can make in the life of the residents entrusted to our care. Art and music can truly touch individuals in ways we have anticipated and, more importantly, in ways we had not imagined. The residents identified in this editorial are ficti- tious; the anecdotes reflect actual occurrences dur- ing art and music sessions in the nursing home. Mary Grant RN, MA mary.grant2@va.gov DOI: 10.1682/JRRD.2005.06.0105 Improving quality of life for Department of Veterans Affairs nursing home residents through music and art Mary Grant RN, MA Clinical Nurse Specialist, Geriatrics Long Term Care, VA Maryland Health Care System 
work_jmjzibluo5gdtamsaxlw22yxpe	----	Article DOI: 10.32481/djph.2021.01.002, Copyright (c) 2021 Delaware Academy of Medicine / Delaware Public Health Association Guest Editor Karen M. Lopez, DVM, MPH Diplomate – American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine; Deputy State Veterinarian, Delaware Department of Agriculture I can only compare the experience to that of a child meeting his or her favorite superhero or sports star. She was my own personal professional hero, and I was getting to have dinner with her that night! I first learned of Conservation through Public Health (CTPH), a non-profit, non-governmental organization based in Uganda, during my second year of veterinary school, while attending a presentation made by an upperclassman on her experience doing a research project with the center over the summer. That was my first introduction to Dr. Gladys Kalema-Zikusoka. She is the veterinarian that made the connection that cases of scabies in the mountain gorillas living in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park were associated with scabies illnesses in the human communities surrounding the forest. The first outbreak occurred in 1996 with a subsequent outbreak in 2001-2002. Fortunately for this endangered species, treatment with Ivermectin led to successful resolution of illness in the gorillas, aside from one fatal case in a gorilla infant. CTPH was founded upon this realization that the health of the gorillas was dependent on the health of humans – and vice-versa – as the species encroached on each other’s habitats.1 For the reader of this journal issue, it also serves as a textbook example of the One Health concept. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) define One Health as “a collaborative, multi-sectoral, and transdisciplinary approach – working at the local, regional, national, and global levels – with the goal of achieving optimal health outcomes recognizing the interconnection between people, animals, plants, and their shared environment.”2 Classically, zoonotic diseases have served to exemplify the One Health concept, and indeed, several of these diseases and their collaborators will be highlighted in this issue. But the interrelationships between human, animal, and environmental health extend beyond hosts, pathogens, and their environments to issues concerning occupational health, mental health, chronic disease, and food security.2 The 2018 fatal case of rabies in a Delaware woman served as an impetus for the launch of a small One Health project here in the First State. A multi-agency educational committee consisting of representation from Delaware Departments of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation/Division of Fish & Wildlife, Health and Social Services/Division of Public Health and the Public Health Laboratory was formed to address a perceived lack of public knowledge on the risk of rabies. The educational project debuted at the 2019 Delaware State Fair, where simple public messaging encouraging rabies vaccination of pets and keeping a safe distance from wildlife was shared through games, prizes, and informational materials.3 We believe that education such as this could have prevented the tragic death of the Delaware citizen the year prior, where neither interactions with domestic nor wild animals could be ruled out as routes of exposure for rabies. This was the first confirmed case of human rabies in Delaware since 1941. Plans to continue outreach at future Delaware State Fairs and other events in the state have been postponed at this time due to lack of personnel and financial resources for the endeavor due to COVID-19, but our intention is to resume activities once feasible. Article DOI: 10.32481/djph.2021.01.002, Copyright (c) 2021 Delaware Academy of Medicine / Delaware Public Health Association How did I come to have the opportunity to meet my hero over dinner back in 2016? Well, I was coming to the end of my own One Health expedition as a volunteer with Veterinarians Without Borders during the last few months of my veterinary public health and preventive medicine residency. I had spent the last four weeks traveling throughout the West Nile region of Uganda with several other American veterinarians, educating local veterinarians, animal health technicians, cattle traders, butchers, and farmers on high consequence animal diseases and zoonotic disease prevention. I found myself in Kampala preparing to depart for my next destination, emailing with one of my mentors who was a personal friend of Dr. Kalema- Zikusoka. Knowing how exciting it would be for me to meet her while I was in country, phone calls were made, emails were sent, and the next thing I knew, Gladys was my dinner guest that evening. I giddily listened to her discuss CTPH projects: testing of gorilla fecal samples from night nests to evaluate for the presence of pathogens of concern to the gorillas and humans, family planning education and intervention with collaboration from local religious leaders, transport of human sputum samples by volunteers to regional hospitals to test for tuberculosis followed by initiation of treatment of case patients, and group livestock income-generating projects to support the Village Health and Conservation Team volunteers working in the community.4,5 Perhaps you are a reader who has never previously heard of One Health. On the other hand, you may be a regular transdisciplinary collaborator who is well versed in the concept. Regardless, I hope that this issue brings to light some of the One Health issues facing our state and region, and draws attention to some of our outstanding colleagues dedicated to One Health issues. My wish, though… my wish would be that this issue reaches even one impressionable reader and lights a spark of realization in him/her that the grand health challenges that we face can only be solved by working together through a One Health approach. Dinner is on me. References 1. Conservation through Public Health. (2019). About us. Retrieved from: https://ctph.org/about-us/ 2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infection Diseases. (2018, Nov 5). One health basics. One Health. Retrieved from: https://www.cdc.gov/onehealth/basics/index.html 3. Lopez, K. (2019). Rabies outreach: 2019 Delaware State Fair. Proceedings of the 123rd Annual United States Animal Health Association Meeting. (n.p.) 4. Conservation through Public Health. (2019). Alternative livelihoods. Retrieved from: https://ctph.org/alternative-livelihoods-program/ 5. Gaffikin, L., & Kalema-Zikusoka, G. (2010). Integrating human and animal health for conservation and development: Findings from a program evaluation in southwest Uganda. Conservation through Public Health, Evaluation and Research Technologies for Health, and John Snow, Inc. Retrieved from: https://publications.jsi.com/JSIInternet/Inc/Common/_download_pub.cfm?id=11196&lid=3 Guest Editor References 
work_joihi7ate5fbzp25tc756mm3jm	----	Joseph Conrad's "Heart of Darkness": A Casebook (review) Joseph Conrad's "Heart of Darkness": A Casebook (review) Nic Panagopoulos Conradiana, Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2007, pp. 83-85 (Review) Published by Texas Tech University Press DOI: For additional information about this article [ This content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the COVID-19 pandemic. ] https://doi.org/10.1353/cnd.2007.0007 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/217061 https://doi.org/10.1353/cnd.2007.0007 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/217061 Gene Moore, ed. Joseph Conrad’s “Heart of Darkness”: A Casebook. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. 279 pp. ISBN 0-19-515996-9 Gene M. Moore’s casebook on Heart of Darkness deftly navigates between the rocks of prejudiced readings and the banks of insufficiently informed responses to offer the reader its own critical journey into the heart of Conrad’s controversial novella that is as stimulating as it is instructive. Indeed, what distinguishes this casebook from existing study aides is the way it respects the darkness and indeterminacy of Heart of Darkness while inviting us to reappraise its status as one of the grand narratives of high modernism as well as a scathing indictment of colonial practices—assumptions which are taken for granted by most Conrad scholars. Characterized by its editor’s attention to detail as well as a balanced and judicial approach, this latest anthology brings together some of the classic essays on Heart of Darkness such as Ian Watt’s “Conrad’s Impres- sionism” (1979) and Zdzislaw Najder’s “To the End of the Night” (1983) together with new or recently unearthed material such as G. F. W. Hope’s “Joseph Conrad’s First Cruise on the Nellie” (2000) and Cyril Clemens’s “A Chat with Joseph Conrad” (1966). In so doing, the case- book balances erudite criticism by seasoned experts with more relaxed pieces written by people who had met Conrad but were not literary scholars, producing a variety of styles and perspectives rarely found in such collections. Another characteristic of this casebook is the way it includes essays from a wide spectrum of theoretical approaches ranging from postcolo- nialism to reader-response criticism and radical feminism to polite after-dinner banter, deliberately setting the different perspectives in fruitful interplay or open antagonism with one another, depending on how one looks at it. Thus, the penultimate essay in the casebook, David Denby’s “Jungle Fever” (1995), can be read as an answer to some of the more polemical pieces that make no bones about questioning Conrad’s achievement in the novella such as Nina Pelikan Strauss’s “The Exclu- sion of the Intended from Secret Sharing in Conrad’s Heart of Darkness” (1987) or Rino Zhuwarara’s “Heart of Darkness Revisited: The African Response” (1994). Moore himself wisely avoids being drawn into the fray by privileging any single perspective: all voices are heard and respected, and the reader is encouraged to judge for him or herself just what all the fuss is about. R E V I E W S 83 The inclusion of Max Beerbohm’s well-known parody of Conrad’s style entitled “The Feast” (1912) is indicative of the editor’s impish (one is tempted to say iconoclastic) sense of humor as it clearly reveals some- thing Conrad devotees, hypnotized by the “great man’s” authority, are often keen to overlook: the accomplishment is more stylistic than philo- sophical, and what we take for essence is quite often merely form. If one hasn’t read Beerbohm’s hilarious and sobering spoof, this is a good opportunity to do so. However, if the last essay in the casebook by Cyril Clemens represents in any way an authentic record of a chat with Joseph Conrad, as its title claims, then it goes a long way to explaining why we are still talking about the author of Heart of Darkness a century or so later, as it presents Conrad quoting verbatim whole pages from books that he had read from memory: a remarkable feat by any stan- dards and one which explains how so many different authors and texts find themselves embedded within Conrad’s own work. The introduction to the casebook traces the history of the novella’s reception by readers and scholars alike while setting out the basic crit- ical approaches that have been applied to Heart of Darkness since F. R. Leavis admitted Conrad to the “great tradition” in 1948. Beginning with the psychological criticism that was popular in the 1950s and arriving at the New Historicism that is fashionable today, Moore detects a pattern in Conrad studies in which the “cutting edge of literary criticism seems to swing (like Poe’s fatal pendulum) between formal and cultural- historical approaches every twenty years or so,” the implication being that if one is not following the swing, one risks either becoming history or getting deconstructed (7). In the introduction, Moore does not shy away from confronting one of the most contentious issues surrounding Heart of Darkness: its repre- sentation of Africans and Africa. Although he does not include Chinua Achebe’s famous attack on Conrad for being a “bloody racist” in “An Image of Africa” (1977), Moore does concede that this essay “changed the very nature of Conrad studies” by outlawing once and for all the notion that Africa does not itself deserve attention as a cultural or his- torical entity, but merely serves as “an exotic backdrop for more impor- tant or ‘universal’ self-confrontations” in the tale (6). As Moore politely points out, the terms racist and racism were unknown during Conrad’s lifetime, so it may not be altogether paradoxical that Conrad could object to what, in “Geography and Some Explorers,” he called “the vilest scramble for loot that ever disfigured the history of human con- science” while at the same time failing “to deplore a prejudice that was as yet nameless in both English and French” (7). C O N R A D I A N A84 The texts in the casebook have been chosen with great care and ordered in such a way as to give a balanced and comprehensive overview of the subject as well as making for interesting reading. Thus, the casebook begins with Heart of Darkness’s companion piece, “An Out- post of Progress,” which reflects Conrad’s views on Europe’s colonial venture in Africa even more unambiguously than they may have appeared to some readers of Heart of Darkness. Moore places this piece first to suggest that the two works need to be read in conjunction, if we are to fully understand the lessons that Conrad’s Congo experience taught him. Next comes what is perhaps the flagship of the casebook, Patrick Brantlinger’s “Victorians and Africans: The Genealogy of the Myth of the Dark Continent” (1985)—a brilliant forty-five-page essay analyzing Victorian attitudes to the continent and peoples of Africa through an examination of such phenomena as social Darwinism, humanitarianism, as well as the slave trade and abolitionism. After this impressive demonstration of how New Historicism can advanta- geously contextualize a text like Heart of Darkness, Moore places a piece which is remarkably similar in tone, yet written three quarters of a cen- tury earlier by someone we would not immediately associate with Conrad studies: Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. The rhetorically powerful and well-informed extract from Arthur Conan Doyle’s The Crime of the Congo brings home the fact that we are not the first people in history to ask crucial ethical questions regarding the true nature of the colonial enterprise and the so-called project of spreading the light of civilization to the dark corners of the globe— questions that are as relevant today as they have always been, it seems. As Moore points out in the end of his introduction, “The heart of Conrad’s darkness lies not only in Africa or in ancient London, but also in the bosom of the beholder, male or female, black or white” (7). Reading the casebook, as reading Heart of Darkness, therefore, one becomes very wary of using the verb to enlighten, for one may merely be projecting onto others what one refuses to acknowledge in oneself: this is an acquisition that more than justifies the attention paid to these texts. N I C P A N A G O P O U L O S University of Athens R E V I E W S 85 
work_jp2g7ibogfbw7hywcowicsg254	----	Microsoft Word - ene126BF.rtf Further Section Psychiat Neurol 1966;151:126–128 Libri Martin Reichardt: Schadelinnenraum, Hirn und Korper. Ein Beitrag zur Hirn-pathologie und Konstitutionspathologie. Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart 1965. 523 S., Preis: DM72.-. Martin Reichardt legt in diesem umfangreichen Buch, das Konrad Rieger ge-widmet und dessen Vorwort am 91.Geburtstag des Verfassers geschrieben ist, eine iiberaus umfassende und sehr genaue Darstellung seines Lebenswerkes vor. Es sind dies die wahrend fast 40 Jahren, seit 1904, von ibm an der Wiirzburger Psychiatri-schen Klinik durchgefuhrten messenden Untersuchungen an mehr als 700 Gehirnen und Schadeln seeliscb kranker und 31 hirngesunder Menschen. Damit ist ein der jiingeren Generation nicb.t mehr gegenwartiges Material in iibersichtlicher Weise zuganglich gemacht und kommenden Forschern, die die be-handelten Probleme wieder aufgreifen wollen, der Weg geebnet. Dieses Material ist einzigartig, da die MeBmethode, mit der Reichardt seinerzeit die Hirnschwellung entdeckt hat, nirgends mit dieser Konsequenz durehgeftihrt worden ist. Es offnet sich hier ein sonst nicht durchforschtes Gebiet, auf dem die meisten Fragen noch kaum beantwortet sind. Weitere Untersuchungen derselben Art und in groBerem Stil konnen damit angeregt werden, die besonderen Erfolg versprechen, wenn sie kombiniert mit mikroskopischen und chemischen Hirnuntersuchungen durchge-fuhrt sind. Das Werk gliedert sich in zwolf groBe Kapitel, deren beide ersten den Schadelinnenraum und die KorpergroBe sowie das Hirngewicht zum Inhalt haben. Sie bieten die Grundlage zu Reichardts Methode, was sich kurz folgendermaBen aus-driicken lafit: Das Hirngewicht besagt nur etwas bei Kenntnis des zugehorigen Schadelvo-lumens. Dessen GroBe wiederum wird bestimmt, von dem AusmaB des Hirnwachs-tums. Da das Hirnwachstum aber abhangig ist von der KorpergroBe, ist der indivi-duelle Schadelinnenraum in zahlenmafiige Yerbindung zum Gesamtorganismus zu bringen, wenn man ihn zur KorpergroBe in Beziehung setzt. Durch die beiden Zah-len: Schadelvolumen zu Hirngewicht sowie: Schadelvolumen zu KorpergroBe erhalt man feste Werte, die aufeinander bezogen und unter normalen und abnormen Ver-haltnissen verglichen werden konnen. Die Ergebnisse solcher Untersuchungen an dem vorliegenden Material sind nun in dem Buch nach vielen Richtungen kritisch und scharfsinnig analysiert worden. Ebenso werden die Fragestellungen, die sich daraus ergeben, eingehend erwogen. Einzelheiten dariiber miissen in dem Werk selbst nachgelesen werden. Die gemessenen Werte sind in 90 Tabellen, ubersichtlich nach verschiedenen Gesichts-punkten geordnet, jeweils den einzelnen Kapiteln beigegeben. Aus der Einleitung sei erwahnt eine Tabelle mit Ubersicht fiber die Verhaltniszahlen von Hirn und Schadelinnenraum der Gesamtfalle nach klinischer Diagnose geordnet, wobei sich fur gewisse Krankheitsgruppen Unterschiede ergeben. Im zweiten Kapitel sind von besonderem Interesse die vergleichenden Tabellen der prozentualen Differenz von Gehirn- und Schadelvolumen nach dem Lebensalter geordnet fur Schizophrene, Katatone und katatoniforme organische Hirnerkrankungen. Das dritte Kapitel bringt Schilderungen der Hirnventrikel nach ihrer Weite und ihren Formverande-rungen bei den einzelnen Krankheiten, wobei sich interessante Fragestellungen er- Libri 127 geben. Derartige Beobachtungen und Messungen sind moglich gewesen, weil der grbBte Teil der Gehirne auf Frontalsclmitten fotografisch festgehalten ist. Kapitel 4 berichtet iiber verkleinertes und vergroBertes Hirn- und Schadelwaehstum sowie fiber Hydrocephalic Hier gibt es nicht selten relativ zu Heine Gehirne und solche, die leicht zu groB gewachsen sind, als KonstitutionsanomaKen. Isoliert ist ahnliches auch am Kleinhim zu finden, dessen GroBen- und Wachstumsdifferenzen das um-fangreiche siebente Kapitel gewidmet ist. Die Kapitel 5, 6 und 8 besprechen die meBbaren Hirnzustande nach heftigen Hirnsymptomen vor dem Tod, bei sympto-matischen Psychosen und bei plbtzlichem Tod aus zerebraler Ursache. Kapitel 9 bringt die Flfissigkeitsverhaltnisse im Schadel bei der Sektion zur Sprache, Kapitel 10 die Quellungsfahigkeit der Hirnsubstanz in Formol mit ihren individuell er-heblichen Unterschieden. Auf fast 50 Seiten belehrt das Kapitel 11 fiber die Ver-schiedenheiten des spezifischen Gewichtes und des Volumens des Schadeldaches bei einzelnen Hirnkrankheiten und bei den beiden Geschlechtern sowie fiber die Ver-haltnisse der Schadelnahte und der Impressiones digitatae. Kapitel 12 endlich bringt verschiedene Erganzungen und eine Darstellung der Untersuchungsmetho-dik. Das Bueh ist keine leichte Lektfire. Es bietet reiche Tatsachen und Zahlen, die freilich oft noch nicht ohne weiteres deutbar sind. Wiederholt wird eingehend auf die an sich einfache Methodik hingewiesen, wobei immer wieder die Notwendig-keit genauester Durchfuhrung betont ist. Der Verfasser bemerkt selbst dazn, man moge sich durch die langweiligen und langatmigen Schilderungen nicht abschrecken lassen. Die Hauptsache sei, mit eigener Initiative vorzugehen und sich selbst durch praktische Betatigung einzuarbeiten. Alles in allem stellt das Werk eine imponierende Leistung des Verfassers dar. Es zeugt von Scharfsinn, Konsequenz und Arbeitsenergie, wie sie selten einem Manne von 91 Jahren gewahrt sind. E. Grfinthal (Waldau-Bern) Sigmund Freud — Karl Abraham: Briefe 1907—1926. S.Fischer, Frankfurt a.M. 1965. 371 S., brosch. Preis: DM 14.80/sFr. 17.30 Die Lektfire dieser Briefe ist schon wegen des gepflegten Stiles und des hohen kulturellen Niveaus der Autoren ein GenuB. Vor allem aber ist der Briefwechsel eine ganz besonders wertvolle zeitgenossische Quelle, welche fiber die Anfange, die Entwicklung, die Widerstande von auBen her und die Kampfe innerhalb der psycho-analytischen Bewegung AufschluB gibt. Zugleich gewahrt sie einen Einblick in die private Lebenssphare, die familiaren Freuden und Sorgen des groBen Meisters und eines seiner ersten, wertvollsten und vertrautesten Mitarbeiters und Freundes, der selber bis zu seinem frfihen Tode durch zahlreiche Arbeiten befruchtend auf die psycho analytischen Erkenntnisse eingewirkt hat. Im Gegensatz zu Freud, der manchmal allzu vertrauensselig war, dachte Abraham, obwohl erffillt von unent-wegtem Optimismus, viel realistischer. Ihm ist es - wie aus dem Briefwechsel ge-schlossen werden kann — weitgehend zu verdanken, daB die psychoanalytische Bewegung die Sturme nach der Sezession von C.G. Jung und die Wirren der Nach-kriegszeit uberstanden und sich schlieBHch siegreich durchgesetzt hat. Einiges wfirde man jetzt rfickblickend wohl etwas anders beurteilen. Zum Beispiel muB 128 Libri uns die Forderung durch Eugen Bleuler, der es trotz der einmutigen Ablehnung und Verhohnung der Bewegung durch die ziinftigen Wissenschaftler wagte, sich mit Psychoanalyse zu befassen, mit Bewunderung erfullen, auch wenn er von Anfang an nicht immer mit Freud einig ging und mit der Zeit immer kritischer und ambivalenter wurde. — Wie sehr Freud es selber empfand, daB seine Theorie vom "Wesen und Aufbau der Libido nicht gesichertes Wissen, sondern nur ein Vor-stellungsbild ist, das sich mit der Erweiterung unserer Erkenntnisse stets wandeln wird, hat er selber in einem Brief vom 4.3.24 bekannt, in welchem er schreibt: «...Was wurde fur ein Unheil geschehen? (Namlich wenn gewisse Modifikationen der Technik und der Theorie vorgenommen werden.) Man konnte mit der groBten Gemiitsruhe unter demselben Dach zusammenleben und nach einigen Jahren Arbeit wiirde es sich herausstellen, ob die einen einen wertvollen Fund iibertrieben oder die andern ihn unterschatzt haben.» Der Briefwechsel Freud-Abraham ist ein einzigartiges Dokument ftir jeden, der sich fur die Entwicklung der psychoanalytischen Bewegung von den Anfangen bis zur endgultigen Entfaltung interessiert und eine Fundgrube fiir wertvolle Hin-weise wissenschaftlicher und personlicher Art. 0. Briner (Rosegg, Solothurn) B. Stokvis und D. Langen: Lehrbuch der Hypnose. Eine Anleitung fur Arzte und Studierende. 2.AufL, neubearbeitet von D. Langen. S.Karger, Basel/New York 1965. 104 S. Preis: sFr./DM 39.- Der fest kartonierte Band enthalt eine Lehrschallplatte, eine Farbenkontrast-tafel (dazu Foto der Anwendung) und eine kritische 827 Nummern umfassende bis 1963 reichende Literaturiibersicht. Der Bearbeiter der zweiten Auflage (der Titel der ersten von 1955 lautete «Hypnose in der arztlichen Praxis*) ISBt trotz z.T. erhebUcher Kurzungen, Straffung des Textes und Weglassen der Fallbeschreibun-gen und Fotos den Autor B. Stokvis weiterhin «in seiner Eigenart sichtbar werden», beriicksichtigt aber auch verstandlicherweise die «zweigleisige Standardmethode» seines Lehrers Kretschmer, fiber die er eine besondere Schrift verfafit hat. Es wird Nachdruck auf die Kombination von analysierenden und umfibend suggestiven Verfahren gelegt. Die Behauptung, der Hypnosearzt ermangle der Eigenschaften des Analytikers, sei schon theoretisch falsch und lasse sich praktisch widerlegen. Der Arzt mfisse die Eigenschaft besitzen, «die ganze Klaviatur der seehschen Krankenbehandlung zu spielen». J.H. Schultz warne mit Recht vor ein-seitiger Uberschatzung der tiefenpsychologischen Methoden. Nicht so sehr die Methode heile, sondern die Personlichkeit des Arztes, der sie anwendet. D. Die Hypnose erfreut sich in den letzten Jahren einer steigenden Beliebtheit. Sie gehort unbedingt in die Hand des Arztes. Das Buch nennt sich zwar ein Lehrbuch aber es dtirfte jedem Kenner klar sein daB man sich auch nach einem Lehrbuch die*Methode nicht selbst aneignen kann auch nicht mit Hilfe der Schallplatte. Man soil auch seine Erwartungen beziiglich der erreichbaren Erfolge nicht zu hoch schrauben. Auch bei rascher Symptomenheilung ist eine analytische Nachbehand-lung notig. — Im fibrigen laBt das Buch — sehr gut und verstandlich geschrieben — keine Besprechung irgendwelcher theoretischer oder praktischer Fragen seines Themas offen und ist Studierenden und Praktikern auBerordenthch zu empfehlen. H. Jancke (Bayreuth) 
work_jw2vnjxltrcplkl6czxd47x2zi	----	General Practice Stigma at Medical School and Beyond — Do We Need to Take Action? Contents British Journal of General Practice, August 2008 581 Viewpoint BackPages THE 582 ESSAY Workplace-based assessment and the art of performance Amar Rughani 585 ESSAY Hypertension guidelines: thresholds, targets, and teratogenicity Una Martin 586 SERIAL A patient’s diary: episode 20 — A trip to Barcelona John Salinsky 587 APPRECIATION Professor Jan Van Es John Horder 588 REPORTAGE Cannes Castoffs? The 62nd Edinburgh International Film Festival David Watson 590 Mud wrestling Mike Fitzpatrick SERIAL Top tips in 2 minutes — Diabetic feet Anthony P.Coll 592 Choice remarks James Willis GENERAL PRACTICE STIGMA AT MEDICAL SCHOOL AND BEYOND — DO WE NEED TO TAKE ACTION? Disappointingly, I write as a fourth year medical student to express my concern at the attitudes experienced by many medical students and indeed junior doctors towards general practice as a career choice. Time and time again, in the clinical setting I am asked what I might like to do as a career. My usual reply of General Practice or Accident and Emergency is almost always greeted with a somewhat bemused expression from the enquiring doctor. I can almost see the look of distress in their eyes; how could he want to become a GP? Some offer advice, ‘Stick with emergency medicine’ they’ll tell me, ‘at least there are some exciting moments in A&E’. Unfortunately among many of my medical student colleagues the same foregone conclusion has already been reached, perhaps partially a result of exposure to these views. At a recent get-together some friends and I were discussing career options. ‘You don’t still want to be a GP do you Dan?’ enquired one. Well, actually yes I would rather quite like to. ‘But Dan, it’s a waste, you’ll be so bored’. So, I tell them I’m considering a career in academic general practice with an interest in medical education. Does that make it seem better? No. They’re still hugely underwhelmed. While I believe the profile of general practice is being raised in some areas, these negative attitudes make me uneasy. Far too frequently I am subject to criticisms about a career path I am interested in following. At times, the negativity has been so profound that I’ve found myself thinking that perhaps I shouldn’t be a GP. Would my friends lose respect for me if I was? Varying views of hospital practitioners concerning general practice exist but I must protest at the widespread stigmatisation of this hugely rewarding branch of primary care in full view of somewhat impressionable medical students. Although naturally, general practice isn’t for everyone, I wholeheartedly disagree that it is an unexciting speciality. Far from it; where else in modern medicine do doctors have the chance to form a doctor–patient relationship, rich both medically and socially? The old cliché that anything can and does present to general practice certainly applies. GPs are required to maintain a vast knowledge of medicine and perform many other roles. There are of course, emergencies in general practice not to mention the wealth of exciting teaching and research opportunities available. General practice in the UK is fast becoming the flagship of the NHS with reform and a wider range of primary care-based services. To reflect these changes, competition for GP training posts is fierce, an encouraging sign. Nevertheless, it is important to recognise that many extremely able candidates may be being actively discouraged from following a career in general practice, with constant negative comments and connotations arising from a predominantly hospital-based life as a medical student. There is a glimmer of hope in some areas of undergraduate education, with ever-increasing proportions of medical programmes carried out in the community, increasing exposure to GP teachers. However, raising the profile of general practice is an absolute necessity, particularly among medical undergraduates and junior doctors. It provides a challenge which must not be taken lightly by the Royal College of General Practitioners and other primary care institutions. Medical schools must do much more to actively promote and dedicate time to the speciality. Academic departments of primary care surely also have a role in inviting and encouraging students into the rich world of primary care academia, even if just for a flitting undergraduate project. It is about time medical students had real exposure to the innovative, exciting, and tremendous world of general practice and more importantly to have someone to champion its cause and tell the other side of the story. Daniel S Furmedge DOI: 10.3399/bjgp08X319774 
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work_keoy4zy5zjdhvb6oddmyvz24mi	----	ica-template-v2 Expressive map design: OGC SLD/SE++ extension for expressive map styles Sidonie Christophea, Bertrand Duménieua, Antoine Massea, Charlotte Hoaraua, Jérémie Orya, Mathieu Brédifa, François Lecordixa, Nicolas Melladob, Jérémie Turbetb, Hugo Loic, Thomas Hurtutd, David Vanderhaegheb, Romain Vergnec and Joëlle Thollotc a Univ. Paris-Est, LASTIG, IGN, ENSG, F-94160 Saint-Mande, France; firstname.surname@ign.fr b IRIT, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, UT1C, UT2J, France; firstname.surname@irit.fr c Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Inria; firstname.surname@inria.fr d Polytechnique Montréal, Canada; thomas.hurtut@polymtl.ca Abstract: In the context of custom map design, handling more artistic and expressive tools has been identified as a carto-graphic need, in order to design stylized and expressive maps. Based on previous works on style formalization, an approach for specifying the map style has been proposed and experimented for particular use cases. A first step deals with the analysis of inspiration sources, in order to extract ‘what does make the style of the source’, i.e. the salient visual characteristics to be automatically reproduced (textures, spatial arrangements, linear stylization, etc.). In a second step, in order to mimic and generate those visual characteristics, existing and innovative rendering techniques have been implemented in our GIS engine, thus extending the capabilities to generate expressive renderings. Therefore, an extension of the existing cartographic pipeline has been proposed based on the following aspects: 1- extension of the symbolization specifications OGC SLD/SE in order to provide a formalism to specify and reference expressive rendering methods; 2- separate the specification of each rendering method and its parameterization, as metadata. The main contribution has been described in (Christophe et al. 2016). In this paper, we focus firstly on the extension of the cartographic pipeline (SLD++ and metadata) and secondly on map design capabilities which have been experimented on various topographic styles: old cartographic styles (Cassini), artistic styles (watercolor, impressionism, Japanese print), hybrid topographic styles (ortho-imagery & vector data) and finally abstract and photo-realist styles for the geovisualization of costal area. The genericity and interoperability of our approach are promising and have already been tested for 3D visualization. Keywords: map design, geovisualization, map style, expressive rendering, SLD 1. Introduction In the context of custom cartographic representation with geovisualization tools, some issues are still at stake, as abstraction levels and visual variables are still difficult to select to fit users’ needs and preferences. Furthermore, some geographic spatio-temporal phenomena are still hard to represent in an understandable way. A way of personalizing a map is to draw inspiration from existing artistic styles. In practice, this is complex to achieve in a GIS because there is currently no formal way to describe an artistic (complex) style. Rendering techniques are more and more used in map design, to manage photo- or non-photo-realistic rendering and pseudo-natural effects or to mimic artistic and old practices in cartography (Patterson et al. 2004; Trapp et al. 2011; Jenny & Jenny 2012; Semmo et al. 2013; amongst others). However, there techniques cannot be easily used and con-trolled within a GIS to reproduce a given style. We address the issue of the specification of ‘what the style of a map is’, based on previous works on style formalization, both in expressive rendering (Grabli et al. 2004, Willats & Durand 2005, amongst others) and in map design (Kent & Vujakovic 2009, Beconyte 2011, Christophe 2012, amongst others). Our main contribution has been published in (Christophe et al. 2016), we focus here on how the extending style formalization in map design allows, in a generic and interoperable way, to design various topographic styles. In a first step, cartographic needs and design rules have been explored, based on both interviews with cartographers (mainly producers for current map design, and “artist-cartographers” for hand-drawing map design at the time), and the analysis of map design specifications (generalization and legend specification), in order to extract expected salient visual characteristics of ‘what the style of a map’ could be. These requirements are described in the context of several expected styles: current topographic French and Swiss maps (Ory et al. 2015), mountain (by hand) maps, Cassini maps, impressionism and watercolor styles (Christophe et al. 2016). Then, expressive rendering techniques are picked- up from expressive rendering area, and implemented in GIS tools, in order to be able to re-produce or mimic these visual characteristics of map styles. Among these techniques, existing methods for surface filling and line stylization using raster textures have been investigated (Christophe et al. 2016) and an innovative method for Proceedings of the International Cartographic Association, 1, 2017. This contribution underwent single-blind peer review based on submitted abstracts | https://doi.org/10.5194/ica-proc-1-21-2017 | © Authors 2017. CC BY 4.0 License. 2 of 3 vectorial texture generation has been proposed (Loi et al. 2013, Loi 2015). Another important issue is the existing standard formalisms available to manage the map style: in GIS, we mainly rely on the OGC Symbology Encoding (SE) which provides stylization blocks, related to each type of geometry (Müller 2006). And cartographic data are structured accordingly to the OGC Styled Layer Descriptor specification (SLD) (Lupp 2007). These specifications are efficient to specify a typical GIS rendering but not sufficient to man-age expressive rendering techniques and related style specifications with a GIS engine. In order to split the style specification, the rendering techniques specification and implementation levels, we thus propose: − to add metadata composed of expressive method descriptors that can be called through the extended SE specifications; − to extend the SE specifications by adding new controllable expressive elements (ExpressiveStroke and Expressive Fill) which can refer to the name of an expressive method descriptor and describe its set of parameters, defined in the previous metadata. The GIS engine capabilities have been extended based on the use of OpenGL as a rendering engine. The rendering methods have been implemented using GLSL shaders programs as text parameters and GLSL uniforms for parameter values. Fig. 1. Various map styles: watercolor, Cassini (Christophe et al. 2016), and ortho-imagery/vector hybrid (Hoarau & Christophe 2016). This extension and adaptation of the traditional cartographic pipeline, based on the split of the style specification, the rendering techniques specification and their implementation, has been experimented to generate various map styles such as: old cartographic styles (Cassini), artistic styles, i.e. watercolor, impressionism, or Japanese print in Figure 1 (Christophe et al. 2016), hybrid topographic styles (ortho-imagery & vector data) (Hoarau & Christophe 2016) and finally abstract and photo-realist styles for the geovisualization of costal area (Masse & Christophe 2016). The system flexibility is ensured by the access to the parametrization of styles and rendering techniques, at different levels of difficulty and thus expertise. Style specification and stylization techniques have then been experimented for 3D Visualization, validating our proposition (Brasebin et al. 2016). Further works will provide users interfaces in order to facilitate the map style control by various users with various potential uses. 2. Acknowledgements This work was supported by a grant overseen by the French National Research Agency (ANR) as part of the MapStyle project [ANR-12-CORD-0025]. 3. References Beconyte, G. 2011. Cartographic styles: criteria and parameters. In 25th International Cartographic Conference. 3-8 July 2011, Paris, France. Brasebin M., Christophe S., Jacquinod F., Vinesse A., Mahon H. 3D geovisualization and stylization to manage comprehensive and participative local urban plans, ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci., IV-2-W1, 83-91, doi:10.5194/isprs-annals-IV- 2-W1-83-2016, 2016 Christophe S., Duménieu B., Turbet J., Hoarau C., Mellado N., Ory J., Loi H., Masse A., Arbelot B., Vergne R., Brédif M., Hurtut T., Thollot J., Vanderhaeghe D.. Map Style Formalization: Rendering Techniques Extension for Cartography. Pierre Bénard; Holger Winnemöller. Expressive 2016 The Joint Symposium on Computational Aesthetics and Sketch- Based Interfaces and Modeling and Non-Photorealistic Animation and Rendering, May 2016, Lisbonne, Portugal. The Eurographics Association, Non- Photorealistic Animation and Rendering, 2016, Non- Photorealistic Animation and Rendering. Proceedings of the International Cartographic Association, 1, 2017. This contribution underwent single-blind peer review based on submitted abstracts | https://doi.org/10.5194/ica-proc-1-21-2017 | © Authors 2017. CC BY 4.0 License. 3 of 3 <http://expressive.richardt.name/2016/>. <10.2312/exp.20161064>. <hal-01317403> Grabli, S., Turquin, E., Durand, F., and Sillion, F. 2004. Programmable style for NPR line drawing. Rendering Techniques 2004 (Eurographics Symposium on Rendering). ACM Press Hoarau C., Christophe S. 2016. Cartographic continuum rendering based on color and texture interpolation to enhance photo-realism perception. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (in press). DOI:10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2016.09.012 Jenny, H., Jenny, B., 2012. Recycling Cartographic Masterworks – Challenges in Adapting Example-based Texture Synthesis for Panoramic Map Creation. In: Proc. of AutoCarto2012 Conference, Columbus, Ohio, USA, September 16-18, 2012. Kent, A. and Vujakovic, P. 2009. Stylistic diversity in european state 1 : 50 000 topographic maps. Cartographic Journal, The, 46(3):179-213. Loi, H. Programmable Synthesis of Element Textures and Application to Cartography. Graphics. Université de Grenoble, 2015. English. Loi, H., Hurtut T., Vergne R., Thollot J. 2013. Discrete Texture Design Using a Programmable Approach, SIGGRAPH Talks, 2013. Lupp M. 2007. Styled layer descriptor implementation specification. Open Geospatial Consortium Document Number: OGC 05-078r4, Version: 1.1.0 (jun 2007). URL: http://www.opengeospatial.org/standards/sld. Masse A., Christophe S. 2016. Améliorer la perception du réalisme dans la géovisualisation du littoral - utilisation de données spatio-temporelles hétérogènes. Revue Internationale de Géomatique (RIG) vol.26, n.4 (4-2016), pp 403-424 http://dx.doi.org/10.3166/rig.2016.00008. Müller M. 2006. Symbology Encoding Implementation Specification, version 1.1.0, OpenGIS Implementation Specification, 05-077r4, OpenGIS Consortium (jul 2006). URL: http://www.opengeospatial.org/standards/symbol. Ory, J., S. Christophe, S.I. Fabrikant and B. Bucher. 2015. How do map readers recognize a topographic mapping style?, The Carto-graphic Journal. 52(2):193- 203, May 2015. DOI:10.1080/00087041.2015.1119459. Patterson, T., Kelso, N. V., Mar. 2004. Hal Shelton Revisited: Designing and Producing Natural-Color Maps with Satellite Land Cover Data. Cartographic Perspectives (47), 28–55. Semmo, A., Kyprianidis, J. E., Trapp, M., Döllner, J., 2013. Real-Time Rendering of Water Surfaces with Cartography-Oriented De-sign. Proc. of International Symposium on Computational Aesthetics in Graphics, Visualization, and Imaging (CAe), Anaheim, California, USA. pp. 5–14. Trapp, M., Beesk, C., Pasewaldt, S., Döllner, J., 2011. Interactive rendering techniques for highlighting in 3d geovirtual environments. In: Kolbe, T. H., Knig, G., Nagel, C. (Eds.), Advances in 3D Geo-Information Sciences. Lecture Notes in Geoinformation and Cartography. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 197–210. Willats, J. and Durand, F. (2005). Defining pictorial style: Lessons from linguistics and computer graphics. Axiomathes, 15(3). Proceedings of the International Cartographic Association, 1, 2017. This contribution underwent single-blind peer review based on submitted abstracts | https://doi.org/10.5194/ica-proc-1-21-2017 | © Authors 2017. CC BY 4.0 License. Expressive map design: OGC SLD/SE++ extension for expressive map styles 1. Introduction 2. Acknowledgements 3. References 
work_jve2xl7bnbcgvb7b7mf4atow5u	----	psp75061389.tif Development of Attitude Strength Over the Life Cycle: Surge and Decline Penny S. Visser and Jon A. Krosnick Ohio State University This article explores the relation of age to manifestations and antecedents of attitude strength. Three studies demonstrate that susceptibility to attitude change is greater during early and late adulthood than during middle adulthood. Three additional studies demonstrate that attitude importance, cer- tainty, and perceived quantity of attitude-relevant knowledge are greater in middle adulthood than during early or late adulthood. These antecedents may therefore explain life cycle shifts in susceptibil- ity to change. Susceptibility to change, importance, certainty, and perceived knowledge differ from one another in terms of their correlations with education, gender, and race, challenging the notion that attitude strength is a unitary construct. Evidence that people incorrectly believe that susceptibility to change declines steadily over the life course reinforces the distinction between operative and recta- attitudinal measures of attitude strength. For decades, psychologists, sociologists, political scientists, and other social scientists have engaged in a lively debate over the relation b e t w e e n age and one o f the defining features o f attitude strength: susceptibility to attitude change ( f o r reviews, see A l w i n , Cohen, & Newcomb, 1991; Sears, 1975, 1981, 1983). Several hypotheses about this relation have b e e n ad- vanced, and the b u l k o f the empirical, evidence supports o n e o f them, the hypothesis that susceptibility is high d u r i n g early adulthood and significantly lower later in life. However, these investigations have involved methods that invite alternative ex- planations for the apparent relation b e t w e e n age a n d susceptibil- ity to change. Penny S. Visser and Jon A. Krosnick, Department of Psychology, Ohio State University. This research was supported by Grant 5T32-MH19728-03 from the National Institute of Mental Health (which provided a predoctoral fel- lowship to Penny S. Visser) and Grant SBR-9022192 from the National Science Foundation (which provided a fellowship to Jon A. Krosnick at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences). Study 3 was made possible by a grant from the Electric Power Research Institute to Industrial Economics, Inc. We thank Laura Lowe for her role in collecting those data. A portion of this research was presented by Penny S. Visser to the graduate school at Ohio State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the master of arts degree. We thank Richard Herrmarm, Philip Tetlock, and Paul Sniderman for providing data sets and John Cacioppo and Richard Petty for very helpful suggestions. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Penny S. Visser, who is now at the Department of Psychology, Princeton Univer- sity, Green Hall, Princeton, New Jersey 08544-1010, or Jon A. Krosnick, Department of Psychology, Ohio State University, 1885 Neff Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210. Electronic mail may be sent to pvisser@ princeton.edu or krosnick@osu.edu. I n this article, we describe studies taking a n e w approach to exploring susceptibility to attitude change across the life span, avoiding the pitfalls p l a g u i n g prior studies. We also explore the relation b e t w e e n age and various attitude features believed to be responsible for attitude strength. I n doing so, we g a i n n e w insights into the n a t u r e and structure o f attitude strength gener- ally. We b e g i n b y reviewing the hypotheses we tested a n d de- scribing previous tests o f them. Hypotheses Regarding the Relation Between Age and Susceptibility to Attitude Change Five principal views o f susceptibility to attitude change across the life span have b e e n proposed. The increasing persistence hypothesis suggests that susceptibility is high i n early adulthood a n d gradually decreases across the life span ( G l e n n , 1974, 1980; see F i g u r e 1 A ) . This hypothesis is predicated on the idea that attitudes reflect the a c c u m u l a t i o n o f relevant experiences across the life span, each o f which contributes to increasing stability. I n addition, as individuals age, they typically b e c o m e increasingly entrenched in social networks o f others with similar life experi- ences and worldviews (Berelson, Lazarsfeld, & McPhee, 1954; Newcomb, Koenig, blacks, & Warwick, 1 9 6 7 ) , which is likely to reinforce existing attitudes. A second view, the impressionable years hypothesis, is based o n the n o t i o n that core attitudes, beliefs, a n d values are crystal- lized d u r i n g a period o f great plasticity in early adulthood (Sears, 1975). This period o f plasticity is thought to reflect the transition f r o m adolescence to adulthood, marked by n e w f o u n d interest in events outside o n e ' s i m m e d i a t e surroundings and a b u d d i n g political worldview ( D a w s o n & Prewitt, 1969). For the first time, y o u n g adults are able to participate in political elec- tions, they c a n choose to serve i n the military, a n d they m a y enter the work_force full time. In these ways a n d m a n y others, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1998, Vol. 75, No. 6, 1389-1410 Copyright 1998 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 0022-3514/98/$3.00 1389 1390 V I S S E R A N D K R O S N I C K A II1 t - r" 0 o ~ W 0 i i i i f ~ ~ i i , i , , , J 18 23 2 8 33 3 8 4 3 48 53 58 63 68 73 78 83 88 Age (in years) B 1 CD e- CU 0 ,,Q .,j 0 , , , , i , i , , , , i i 1 18 23 2 8 33 38 43 4 8 53 5 8 63 68 73 78 83 88 Age (in years) C G) O1 c0 r . O q) 2 o m .4D O . u) , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 18 23 2 8 33 38 43 48 53 58 63 68 7 3 78 83 88 Age (in years) Figure 1. The increasing persistence hypothesis (A), the impression- able years hypothesis (B), and the life-stages hypothesis (C). young adults interact for the first time with social and political institutions and begin to formulate opinions on a wide range o f issues. During this time, they also learn a great deal about their social and political surroundings (Strate, Parrish, Elder; & Ford, 1989), which further contributes to the increasing crystallization of their views o f the world. According to the impressionable years hypothesis, the basic orientations formed during this pe- riod o f early adulthood remain largely unaltered throughout the remaining adult years (Carlsson & Karlsson, 1970; Mannheim, 1952; Ryder, 1965). Thus, the impressionable years hypothesis suggests that susceptibility to attitude change is high during early adulthood but drops sharply after this period and remains low throughout the remainder o f the life span (see Figure 1B). T h e life stages hypothesis also predicts high susceptibility to change during early adulthood and lower susceptibility through- out middle adulthood, for all o f the reasons just outlined. But this hypothesis predicts high susceptibility to attitude change in later life as well (Sears, 1981, 1983; see Figure 1C). This upturn in susceptibility at the end o f the life cycle may occur because o f decreases in social support for one's attitudes due to the deaths o f friends or social withdrawal (Burt, 1990; Lang & Carstensen, 1994; Marsden, 1987). In addition, both the early and late adult years are associated with a multitude of role transitions (GlaSer & Strauss, 1971; Steckeurider & Cutler, 1989) that may alter people's perceptions o f the social and political world, thereby undermining the justifications that rein- forced many o f their attitudes. Finally, cognitive skills decline toward the end o f the life cycle (see, e.g., Verhaeghen & Salt- house, 1997), so people may become less and less able to ac- tively resist attitude change through counterarguing. What we call the "perpetual susceptibility" hypothesis is a sort o f null hypothesis proposing no relation between age and susceptibility to attitude change. And cross cutting all of the preceding hypotheses are two assertions about the general level o f susceptibility to change across the life cycle. The lifelong openness hypothesis proposes that individuals are at least some- what susceptible to attitude change throughout their lives (Brim & Kagan, 1980; Gergen, 1980; Lernet; 1984), whereas the persis- tence hypothesis suggests that most o f individuals' fundamental orientations are established so firmly during preadult socialization that susceptibility to attitude change thereafter is very low (Da- vies, 1965; Easton & Dennis, 1969; Hess & Torney, 1967). P r e v i o u s I n v e s t i g a t i o n s A variety o f methods, always focused on social and political attitudes, have been used in testing these hypotheses. One set o f studies tracking aggregate changes in the attitudes o f birth cohorts has generally revealed large attitude shifts in young cohorts and much smaller shifts in middle-aged and older co- horts (Converse, 1976; Converse & Markus, 1979; Crew, Sarl- vik, & Alt, 1977; Cutler & Kaufman, 1975; Glenn, 1974; Jen- nings & Niemi, 1981; Markus, 1979; Mueller, 1973; Nunn, Crockett, & Williams, 1978). Some o f these investigations have been cited as supporting the impressionable years hypothesis (e.g., Crew et al., 1977; Mueller, 1973), whereas others have been interpreted as supporting the increasing persistence hypoth- esis (e.g., Glenn, 1974; Nunn et al., 1978). Such aggregate measures o f attitude change, however, can be misleading, be- cause a great deal o f cross-cutting attitude change may occur at the individual level that cancels out at the aggregate level. To overcome this problem, a number o f researchers have as- sessed individual-level attitude stability using test-retest corre- lations o f the same attitude measure taken at two or more points ATTITUDE STRENGTH 1391 in time ( e . g , Campbell, Dunnette, Lawler, & Weick, 1970; Jen- nings, 1996; Jennings & Markus, 1984; Jennings & Niemi, 1978; Johansson & Campbell, 1971; Markus, 1979; Newcomb et al., 1967). In general, these studies have revealed weaker t e s t - r e t e s t correlations among younger adults than among older adults, as the impressionable years and increasing persistence hypotheses predict.1 However, t e s t - r e t e s t correlations are not pure measures o f attitude stability. In addition to genuine attitude change, such correlations reflect random measurement error in attitude re- ports. Thus, weaker correlations among younger age groups may indicate lower attitude stability or may simply reflect more measurement error. To separate true attitude change from random measurement error, a number o f studies have used panel data to estimate attitude stability more purely via structural equation modeling or related techniques. Although one o f these studies yielded results consistent with the increasing persistance hypothesis ('I~ler & Schuller, 1991), most have supported the impression- able years hypothesis, showing that attitude stability was lowest among 18-25-year-olds and was higher throughout the rest o f the life cycle ( A l w i n et al., 1991; Krosnick & Alwin, 1989; Sears & Funk, 1996). 2 Eliminating measurement error in estimates o f attitude stabil- ity certainly represents a methodological improvement, but this general approach to hypothesis testing still has limitations. Atti- tude stability (no matter how purely estimated) is an imperfect measure o f susceptibility to attitude change because stability reflects both susceptibility to change and opportunity for change. The more attitude-challenging experiences a person has, the more likely attitude change is. And i f exposure to attitude-chal- lenging experiences varies across the life span, attitude stability is likely to be an inaccurate index o f susceptibility to change. I n an effort to more directly assess the relation o f age to susceptibility, "l~ler and Schuller (1991) included measures o f potentially change-inducing experiences in their investigation o f attitude stability across the life span. And, indeed, exposure to some potentially change-inducing experiences was more fre- quent among younger adults. Furthermore, "l~yler and Schuller ( 1991 ) found that the correlation between the reported positive or negative nature o f the attitude-relevant experiences and subse- quent attitudes was highest among older respondents, which they interpreted as evidence that older adults w e r e more susceptible to change than younger adults. Although this correlation may be evidence that relevant per- sonal experiences influenced attitudes, the reverse could have been true instead: Attitudes could have influenced the reported nature o f experiences via self-fulfilling prophecies; people who expected to have bad experiences may have behaved in ways that made the experiences bad. Or attitudes could have shaped the way people perceived their experiences, leading the experi- ences to appear consistent with positive or negative expectations. Alternatively, attitudes may h a v e biased recall o f experiences, such that they were remembered as more consistent with current attitudes than they actually were ( C o n w a y & Ross, 1984; Lydon, Zanna, & Ross, 1988; Ross, McFarland, & Fletcher, 1981). I f these alternative processes were more common or more power- ful among older a d u l t s t h a n among young adults, they would have misleadingly inflated apparent levels o f susceptibility to change among the former individuals. Thus, although incorporating measures o f change-inducing experiences represented a step in the fight direction, this general approach to investigating the relation between age and suscepti- bility to attitude change is inherently limited. It is difficult if not impossible to precisely assess the number and nature o f change-inducing experiences respondents have had and to gauge their impact correlationally, Furthermore, nearly all prior studies o f these issues have suf- fered from a confounding o f age with cohort composition in ways that may have distorted the results obtained. For example, during the last 45 years, the proportion o f young adults attending college has been rising consistently (U.S. Bureau o f the Census, 1953, 1993). In 1952, 18% o f 18-24-year-olds in the United States had completed 1 or more years o f college, whereas this figure was 45% in 1993 (U.S. Bureau o f the Census, 1953, 1993); thus, current 18-year-olds are more educated, on average, than current 65-year-olds. Because better educated people are less susceptible to political attitude change (Sears & Gahart, 1980; ZaUer, 1990), the relatively high levels o f education in the youngest cohorts may have caused their rates o f attitude change to appear misleadingly low. To generate a clean compari- son o f different age groups, one mast control for differences between groups in terms o f educational attainment. Patterns o f mortality can also distort comparisons o f age groups in representative cross-sectional samples o f adults. For example, women tend to live longer than men, so older age groups are likely to be disproportionately female (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1995). Because women may be more susceptible to attitude change than men (Eagly & Carli, 1981), the greater number o f women among the oldest age group may produce an illusory rise in susceptibility among this group, thus perhaps masking a true decline in susceptibility at the end of the life cycle. The demographic composition o f age groups is also likely to differ in terms o f race. Non-Whites have shorter life expectan- cies than Whites, which means that older age groups may be disproportionately White (Centers for Disease Control and Pre- vention, 1995; Markides & Black, 1996). On some issues, racial minority and majority group members m a y hold attitudes that differ in extremity, personal importance, or other factors associ- ated with resistance to attitude change (see, e.g., Petty & Kros- nick, 1995). Therefore, controlling for race may also provide • a more accurate assessment o f the relation between age and susceptibility to attitude change. T h e P r e s e n t I n v e s t i g a t i o n A more direct investigation o f the relation between age and susceptibility to attitude change would require exposing adults o f various ages to an identical change-inducing experience and Sears (1981) suggested, howeve~ that careful exploration of the full adult life span yields a different pattern in at least one domain: In a large panel survey, he found that test-retest correlations for racial atti- tudes were lowest among very young adults and among very old adults, consistent with the life stages hypothesis. 2 Like Sears ( 1981 ), Krosnick and Alwin (1989) found a curvilinear pattern of attitude stability across the life cycle. However, they also found decreased reliability among the oldest respondents, which accounted for the drop in attitude stability at the end of the life cycle in their data and may also account for the pattern reported by Sears ( 1981 ). 1 3 9 2 VISSER AND KROSNICK g au ging its impact. C o n d u c t i n g a laboratory e x p e r i m e n t along these lines w o u l d b e quite challenging, b e c a u s e it w o u l d b e e x t r e m e l y difficult to recruit c o m p a r a b l y representative samples o f adults o f various ages to v i s i t a laboratory. B u t large, repre- sentative samples are relatively easy to contact in a t e l e p h o n e survey, and computer-assisted t e l e p h o n e i n t e r v i e w i n g systems readily p e r m i t the e x e c u t i o n o f e x p e r i m e n t a l manipulations ( s e e S n i d e r m a n & Grob, 1996). In the first t w o studies r e p o r t e d here, w e used precisely this approach. In the context o f t e l e p h o n e interviews, representative samples o f adults were asked to express their attitudes o n vari- ous social and political issues; they w e r e then subjected to poten- tially change-inducing experiences, and attitude change was as- sessed. This p e r m i t t e d gauging o f differences b e t w e e n age groups in rates o f attitude change. In o u r third study, age-related differences in thought-induced attitude c h a n g e w e r e explored, again within the context o f a telephone s u r v e y o f a representative s a m p l e o f adults. In o u r final three studies, w e b r o a d e n e d the f o c u s b y e x a m i n i n g s o m e o f the possible causes o f the o b s e r v e d relation b e t w e e n age and susceptibility to attitude change. S t u d y 1 O u r first study f o c u s e d o n attitudes toward foreign p o l i c y positions. Respondents w e r e presented with a hypothetical sce- n a r i o o f an international conflict and w e r e asked to express their attitudes t o w a r d U.S. military intervention in that situation. T h e n all respondents w e r e asked whether t h e y w o u l d change their minds i f the United Nations r e c o m m e n d e d the o p p o s i t e o f their initial preference. C o n t r o l l i n g f o r attitudes t o w a r d the United Nations and d e m o g r a p h i c c o m p o s i t i o n o f the age groups, w e assessed the relation o f age to attitude change. M e t h o d Sample The data analyzed in this study were collected via telephone inter- views with a representative sample of 1,511 English-speaking U.S. adults living in private households. The data were collected by the Ohio State University Survey Research Unit (then called the Polimetrics Labora- tory) between April and June 1996 (for details, see Herrmann, "Fetlock, & Visser, 1997). Measures Attitudes toward U.S. military intervention. Respondents were told about a military conflict between two hypothetical countries and were given information about the military strength of the attacking country, the history of the relationship between the two countries, and the impor- tance of the attacked country to U.S. economic and security interests. Respondents were then asked " I f the attacker cannot be talked into withdrawing, should our government use our military to push back the invaders, or should we stay out of it?" Respondents who said we should stay out were asked " I f the United Nations believes that Americans should use military force in this conflict, would you be willing to change your mind about using our military?" Respondents who initially said we should use military force were asked, instead, " I f the United Nations believes that Americans should not use military force in this conflict, would you be willing to change your mind about using our military?" A measure of attitude change was coded 0 for respondents who said they would not change their minds and 1 for respondents who said they would change their minds. Forty-six percent of respondents said they would change their minds, and 54% said they would not. Attitudes toward the United Nations. Respondents were asked to indicate their feelings toward the United Nations on a scale ranging from 0 to 100, where 50 represented neutrality; higher numbers repre- sented warmer, more favorable feelings; and lower numbers represented colder, less favorable feelings. Demographic measures. Educational attainment was coded 0 for people who did not graduate from high school, .25 for high school graduates, .50 for people who attended college but did not graduate, .75 for college graduates, and 1 for people who completed postgraduate work. Gender was coded 0 for female respondents and 1 for male respon- dents, and race was coded 0 for Whites and 1 for non-Whites. Age was measured in years and recoded to range from 0 (age 18) to 1 (age 89, the highest age in the sample). 3 Results Relations o f A g e to Education, Gender, a n d R a c e A s expected, age was marginally significantly correlate d with education, such that older age groups c o n t a i n e d f e w e r highly educated p e o p l e than did younger age groups ( r = - . 0 6 , p < .05, n = 1,276). 4 Also, older age groups contained dispropor- tionately f e w e r minorities than did y o u n g e r cohorts ( r = - . 11, p < .01, n = 1,276), although n o significant relation appeared b e t w e e n gender and age ( r = .04, ns, n = 1,276). C o n t r o l l i n g f o r the d e m o g r a p h i c c o m p o s i t i o n o f the age groups was therefore necessary to e x p l o r e the e f f e c t o f age on attitude change. 5 I m p a c t o f A g e on Susceptibility to Change We first r e g r e s s e d the attitude change m e a s u r e on age and the three other d e m o g r a p h i c variables ( s e e c o l u m n 1 o f Table 1). Consistent with the increasing persistence hypothesis, the linear e f f e c t o f a g e was statistically significant and negative ( B = - 0 . 1 2 , p < .05), m e a n i n g that the likelihood o f change d e c r e a s e d w i t h increasing age. However, the i m p r e s s i o n a b l e years and life stages hypotheses predict quadratic effects o f age, w h i c h w e tested b y adding age squared as a predictor in the regression equation ( s e e c o l u m n 2 o f Table 1). T h e linear e f f e c t o f age in this equation was negative and significant ( B = - 0 . 4 7 , p < . 0 5 ) , and the quadratic e f f e c t was positive and marginally significant ( B = 0.38, p < .10). B e c a u s e the e f f e c t o f age c u b e d ( s h o w n in c o l u m n 3 o f Table 1) was not significant ( B = - 0 . 6 9 , ns), the linear and quadratic age effects in c o l u m n 2 p r o v i d e d a c o m p l e t e descrip- tion o f the robust relation o f age to attitude change. 3 Nine respondents did not report their ages and were not included in our analyses. Small numbers of respondents were not included in our subsequent studies for the same reason. 4 Because we had strong a priori expectations of the directions of age- related differences, we present one-tailed hypothesis tests throughout. s The predicted relations between age and both gender and race are due to differential rates of mortality, and, as such, they should be evident only at the end of the life cycle. And the predicted relation between age and education reflects cohort differences in educational attainment between Americans born before and after the 1930s and should also be evident only at the end of the life cycle. To capture these relations, therefore, we have reported the correlations between each of these demo- graphic factors and age squared. ATI'rrUDE STRENGTH 1393 em e4 • --, I ¢ q O e q ¢,4 o= a ~ o% o e q o i I i I ~ ~ ~ ~ ' I i I I I I I I I e ~ ¢~¢5 ¢5 ¢5 ¢~ d I I I I I I I I I I t ~ O x ~ v v *¢ v To understand the shape o f this relation, we used the regres- sion equation that included the quadratic effect o f age to estimate rates o f attitude change at various ages across the life span. We plugged into this equation the mean sample values o f gender, race, education, and attitudes toward the United Nations for the full sample, and we calculated the predicted attitude change rate for each o f a wide array o f ages ( f o r an explanation o f the procedure, see Cohen & Cohen, 1983, pp. 2 2 8 - 2 2 9 ) . Figure 2 provides a graphic representation o f the regression equation presented in column 2 o f Table 1. As Figure 2 illustrates, attitude change decreased with increasing age up to about age 60, at which point attitude change became increasingly common with increasing age. This is consistent with the life stages hypothesis. Other Correlates o f Susceptibility to Change Attitude change was related sensibly to attitudes toward the United Nations: People with more positive attitudes changed more often (B = 0.49, p < .01 ).6 However, contrary to some prior literature, attitude change rate was not significantly corre- lated with gender, race, or education (B = - 0 . 0 4 , - 0 . 0 2 , and 0.01, respectively). Study 2 Although the shifts in respondents' attitude reports observed in Study 1 may have been due to genuine attitude change, they may also simply have been due to what Kelman (1958) called compliance. Specifically, respondents may have perceived the attitude-challenging questions to be suggesting that the inter- viewer or researcher believed that they should change their atti- tudes in response to the new information provided. Conse- quently, to convey impressions o f themselves as cooperative people to their interviewers, some respondents may have claimed that the new information would change their attitudes when this was not, in fact, the case. Because young adults may be especially concerned with presenting favorable self-images (Reifman, Klein, & Murphy, 1989; Tesch, 1983), the evidence o f greater attitude change among such individuals could have been due to a greater chronic concern with conveying favorable impressions to their interviewers rather than a greater general susceptibility to attitude change. We explored this alternative explanation in Study 2. Study 2 involved an experimental design similar to that used in Study 1. Respondents were asked to express their attitudes toward various policies involving issues o f race. Immediately after each attitude measurement, respondents were presented with a counterattitudinal argument, and attitudes toward the policy were then remeasured. Here, we were able to assess the relation between age and susceptibility to attitude change controlling for age-related differences in the motivation to make favorable impressions on others. 6 We also estimated an additional regression model that included terms representing the interactions between attitudes toward the United Nations and (a) age, (b) age squared, and (c) age cubed. None of these interac- tion terms were significant predictors of attitude change. 1 3 9 4 VISSER AND KROSNICK 0.58 0 0.56 ~ 0.54 ~ ~ 0.48 "6 ~ 0.48 0.44 0.42 4) L 0.40 i i i , i , , i i f , i i i , 1 8 2 3 2 8 3 3 38 43 48 53 58 6 3 8 8 7 3 78 83 88 A g e (in y e a r s ) Figure 2. Relation of age to attitude change in Study 1. Method Sample The data analyzed in this study were collected via telephone inter- views with a representative sample of 1,113 English-speaking adult resi- dents of the five-county San Francisco-Oakland Bay area in northern California (for details, see Sniderman & Piazza, 1993).7 The data were collected by the Survey Research Center of the University of California, Berkeley, between August and October 1986. Measures Four items asked respondents whether they supported or opposed (a) increased federal spending on programs to help Blacks, (b) antidiscrimi- nation housing laws, (c) antidiscriminatory employment laws, and (d) preferential admission to colleges and universities for Black students (for the questions' wordings, see Sniderman & Piazza, 1993, pp. 142- 146). Immediately after each of these questions, respondents were pre- sented with a brief counterattitudinal challenge from an unspecified source, and attitude change was measured. For example, respondents initially supportive of preferential admission to colleges and universities for Black students were asked "Would you still feel that way, even if it means fewer opportunities for qualified Whites, or would you change your mind?" Conversely, respondents initially opposed to the admission policy were asked "Would you still feel that way, even if it means that hardly any Blacks would be able to go to the best colleges and universities, or would you change your mind?" Responses were coded 0 for people who said they would not change their minds on any of the issues and 1 for people who said they would change their minds on at least one issue. Seventy-three percent of the respondents said they would change their opinions on at least one issue, and 27% said they would not change their opinions on any issues. 8 As a means of assessing motivation to make favorable impressions on others, respondents were asked "How important is it to you to be accepted by other people: very important, somewhat important, or not important?" Responses were coded 3, 2, and 1, respectively. Education, gender, race, and age were measured and coded as in Study 1. Results Relations of Age to Education, Gender, and Race O l d e r age cohorts contained significantly f e w e r w e l l - e d u c a t e d p e o p l e than y o u n g e r cohorts ( r = - . 2 9 , p < .01, n = 1,086), but age was unrelated to gender ( r = - . 0 2 , ns, n = 1,086) and race ( r = - . 0 3 , ns, n = 1,086). Relation of Age to Susceptibility to Change W h e n d e m o g r a p h i c characteristics w e r e controlled, the linear relation o f age to attitude change was marginally significant and negative, w h i c h is consistent with the increasing persistence hypothesis ( B = - 0 . 0 9 , p < .10; see c o l u m n 4 o f Table 1). However, the quadratic e f f e c t o f age was also positive and sig- nificant ( B = 0.69, p < .05; see c o l u m n 5 o f Table 1 ), and the negative linear e f f e c t o f age was significant in the equation that i n c l u d e d the quadratic e f f e c t o f age ( B = - 0 . 5 9 , p < .01 ). T h e c u b i c e f f e c t o f age was again not significant ( B = - 0 . 0 5 , ns; see c o l u m n 6 o f Table 1 ). F i g u r e 3 illustrates the rates o f attitude change p r e d i c t e d b y the equation in c o l u m n 5 o f Table 1, and they are again clearly in line with the life stages hypothesis: Attitude change rates were highest a m o n g the youngest and oldest adults. Other Correlates of Susceptibility to Change A s expected, p e o p l e w h o had a greater n e e d to b e a c c e p t e d b y others w e r e m o r e likely to change their attitudes ( B = 0.09, p < .05).9 B e c a u s e the relation b e t w e e n age and attitude change r e m a i n e d significant even when this variable was i n c l u d e d in the r e g r e s s i o n equation ( s e e c o l u m n 5 o f Table I ) , n e e d f o r acceptance c a n n o t account for the o b s e r v e d age-related differ- ences in susceptibility to change. Attitude change was also m o r e c o m m o n a m o n g less e d u c a t e d respondents than a m o n g m o r e educated respondents ( B = - 0 . 1 6 , p < .01 ), and m o r e change o c c u r r e d a m o n g w o m e n than a m o n g m e n ( B = - 0 . 0 6 , p < .01). N o relation appeared b e t w e e n attitude change rate and race ( B = 0.05, ns). S t u d y 3 T h e results o f Study 2 suggest that the age-related differences in attitude change o b s e r v e d in Studies 1 and 2 w e r e not the result o f a stronger motivation a m o n g particular age groups to b e responsive to the perceived expectations o r wishes o f the 7 A potentially important advantage of these data is the inclusion of people living in dormitories or serving in the military in the sampling frame. Such individuals were excluded from the National Election Study surveys analyzed in many past studies of aging and attitude change. As Krosnick and Alwin (1989) noted, people living in dormitories (and perhaps people serving in the military as well) are likely to be primarily young adults. If those individuals were more resistant to attitude change (because of their high levels of education, strong social networks, or other factors) than their peers who were not living in dormitories or serving in the military, excluding the former from past analyses may have been partly responsible for the age-related differences observed previously. Our results are not subject to this confound and can therefore make a clearer statement about age-related differences. s Other ways of ceding the attitude change dependent variable yielded comparable results to those reported subsequently. 9 We also estimated an additional regression model that included terms representing the interactions between the importance of being accepted by others and (a) age, (b) age squared, and (c) age cubed. None of these interaction terms were significant predictors of attitude change. ATTITUDE STRENGTH 1 3 9 5 a . 6 9 i i I i i i i i i i t i i i i m 18 2 3 2 8 3 3 3 8 43 4 8 5 3 58 6 3 6 8 7 3 7 8 83 8 8 9 3 A g e ( i n y e a r s ) o 8 9 77 ILl 71 Figure 3. Relation of age to attitude change in Study 2. interviewer. However, t h e a n a l y s e s i n S t u d y 2 r e l i e d o n a s i n g l e i t e m to m e a s u r e t h i s m o t i v a t i o n . T h e r e l i a b l e a s s o c i a t i o n b e - t w e e n s e l f - r e p o r t s o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f b e i n g a c c e p t e d b y o t h e r s a n d s u b s e q u e n t a t t i t u d e c h a n g e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s i n g l e i t e m d i d c a p t u r e m e a n i n g f u l v a r i a n c e in t h e m o t i v a t i o n t o m a k e f a v o r a b l e i m p r e s s i o n s o n others, b u t a m o r e p r e c i s e m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h i s m o t i v a t i o n m a y h a v e y i e l d e d d i f f e r e n t results. For a s t r o n g e r t e s t o f t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n , w e t u r n e d to a d e s i g n t h a t c o m p l e t e l y r e m o v e d t h e i n t e r v i e w e r f r o m t h e a t t i t u d e c h a n g e p r o c e s s , e l i m i n a t i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t o b s e r v e d a t t i t u d e shifts m a y s i m p l y r e f l e c t s e l f - p r e s e n t a t i o n a l c o n c e r n s . C o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a p e r s u a s i v e m e s s a g e is n o t r e q u i r e d f o r a t t i t u d e c h a n g e to occur. S i m p l y t h i n k i n g a b o u t a n a t t i t u d e o b j e c t c a n c a u s e p e o p l e to b e c o m e m o r e p o s i t i v e o r m o r e n e g a t i v e t o w a r d t h e o b j e c t ( s e e , e.g., N e i j e n s , 1987; Tesser, M a r t i n , & M e n d o l i a , 1 9 9 5 ) . I f a g e is i n d e e d r e l a t e d t o s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to a t t i t u d e c h a n g e , t h o u g h t - i n d u c e d a t t i t u d e c h a n g e s h o u l d b e p a r t i c u l a r l y p r o n o u n c e d a m o n g t h e y o u n g e s t a n d o l d e s t r e s p o n d e n t s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f a p p a r e n t a g e - r e l a t e d d i f f e r e n c e s i n s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to a t t i t u d e c h a n g e w e r e a r t i f a c t s o f t h e i n t e r v i e w c o n t e x t , t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h o u g h t - i n d u c e d a t t i t u d e c h a n g e s h o u l d n o t v a r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y a c r o s s a g e g r o u p s . I n S t u d y 3, w e t e s t e d t h e s e h y p o t h e s e s . T h e a t t i t u d e c h a n g e m e a s u r e u s e d h e r e w a s a b i t d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t u s e d i n S t u d i e s 1 a n d 2. I n t h o s e studies, r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h a c o u n t e r a t t i t u d i n a l m e s s a g e a n d r e p o r t e d w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e n e w i n f o r m a t i o n w o u l d c a u s e t h e m to c h a n g e t h e i r attitudes. S t u d y 3 m e a s u r e d a t t i t u d e s e i t h e r b e f o r e o r a f t e r p e o p l e w e r e i n d u c e d to t h i n k a b o u t t h e o b j e c t so t h a t w e c o u l d d i r e c t l y a s s e s s a t t i t u d e c h a n g e . Method Sample For this study, a representative sample of 505 English-speaking adults living in private households in Ohio were interviewed by telephone. The survey was conducted by the Ohio Stute University Survey Research Unit (then called the Polimetrics Laboratory) between December 1995 and January 1996. Measures Respondents' attitudes toward global warming were assessed via the following question: Scientists use the term "global warming" to refer to the idea that the world's average temperature may be about 5 degrees Fahrenheit higher in 75 years than it is now. Overall, would you say that global warming would be good, bad, or neither good nor bad? As a means of best capturing the attitude change that occurred, good and neither good nor bad were coded 0, and bad was coded 1. Education, gender, race, and age were measured and coded the same as they had been in Studies 1 and 2. Thought Induction The thought induction manipulation used was inspired by the struc- tured reasoning tusk used in the Choice Questionnaire (Neijens, 1987). Respondents were randomly assigned to be asked about their attitudes toward global warming either before the structured thinking exercise or after it. In the thinking exercise, participants answered a series of questions about whether or not they thought global warming would affect seven aspects of the environment. Respondents were randomly assigned to be asked about either one set of seven aspects (sea levels, water shortages, the number of different kinds of plants in the world, the overall number of plants in the world, the number of plants in the county in which the respondent lived, natural scenery in the world, and natural scenery in the county in which the respondent lived) or another (annual rainfall, hurricanes and tornadoes, the number of different types of animals in the world, the overall number of animals in the world, the number of animals in the county in which the respondent lived, animal migration, and availability of food for human consumption). Respondents also reported the certainty with which they held each belief and how good or bad each expected consequence would be. For example, respondents were asked " I n the next 100 years, do you think global warming would cause the level of the oceans in the world to go up, to go down, or would global warming have no effect on the sea level?" Some respondents volunteered that global warming would cause the sea level to go up in some places and down in others, and interviewers accepted such answers. Respondents were then asked "How sure are you of your answer to that question? Extremely sure, very sure, somewhat sure, or not sure at all?" Finally, respondents who said that global warming would affect the sea levels were asked whether the change they expected (sea levels going up or down or both) would be good or bad for most people in the w o r d and to what degree. For example, respondents who said that global warming would cause the sea levels to go up were asked "For most people in the world, would the sea level going up be good, bad, or neither good nor b a d ? " Respondents who said " g o o d " or " b a d " were asked "Would it be very [good/bad], or somewhat [good/bad] ? " Simi- lar questions were asked with respect to all of the other potential conse- quences of global warming. Results Relations of Age to Education, Gender, and Race O l d e r a g e c o h o r t s c o n t a i n e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y f e w e r w e l l - e d u c a t e d p e o p l e t h a n y o u n g e r c o h o r t s ( r = - . 1 2 , p < .01, N = 505 ) a n d f e w e r r a c i a l m i n o r i t i e s ( r = - . 1 1 , p < .05, N = 5 0 5 ) , b u t a g e w a s u n r e l a t e d to g e n d e r ( r = .05, ns, N = 5 0 5 ) . 1396 VISSER AND KROSNICK Impact of the Thought Induction on Attitudes To examine the impact o f the thought induction on attitudes toward global warming, we regressed attitudes on a dummy variable coded 0 for people who expressed their attitudes before the thought induction exercise and 1 for people who expressed their attitudes after the thought induction. The question order manipulation significantly affected attitudes: Thinking about po- tential consequences caused respondents to express significantly more negative attitudes (B = 0.16, p < .001). Relation of Age to Susceptibility to Change To determine whether the magnitude o f this thought-induced attitude change varied by age, we conducted additional regres- sions predicting attitudes with question order, age, and the prod- uct o f question order and age. A significant regression coefficient for this interaction term would indicate that thought-induced attitude change varied as a function o f age. To control for com- positional differences across age groups, we included education, gender, and race in the regression, along with interaction terms between each o f these demographics and question order. The interaction between age represented linearly and question order was not significant (B = - 0 . 1 3 , ns; see column 7 o f Table 1 ). However, when we added age squared and the interac- tion between age squared and question order to the equation, the quadratic effect o f age on attitude change was positive and significant (B = 1.64, p < .05; see column 8 o f Table 1 ), and the negative linear effect o f age on attitude change was also significant in that equation (B = - 1 . 5 0 , p < .05). The cubic effect o f age on attitude change was again not significant (B = 0.03, ns; see column 9 o f Table 1 ). Figure 4 illustrates the rates o f attitude change predicted by the equation in column 8 o f Table 1. As in Studies 1 and 2, there is clear support for the life stages hypothesis here: Attitude change rates were highest among the youngest and oldest adults. 0 0 45 ~40 • 35 2O mO)~ 15 ~ lO a . , i , i i i i , , i i i i i 18 23 28 33 38 43 48 53 58 63 68 73 78 83 86 A g e ( i n y e a r s ) 5 0 Figure 4. Relation of age to attitude change in Study 3. Other Correlates of Susceptibility to Change In this study, none o f the demographic control variables were associated with attitude change (Bs = 0.17, 0.07, and - 0 . 0 1 for education, gender, and race, respectively). M e t a - A n a l y s i s o f S t u d i e s 1, 2, a n d 3 The pattern o f results across Studies 1, 2, and 3 appears quite consistent; in one case, however, a key aging effect was on the boundary o f significance. It seemed worthwhile, therefore, to assess the robustness o f the observed effects by meta-analyzing the data from all three studies. Doing so revealed that, when assessed simultaneously, the linear and quadratic effects o f age on attitude change susceptibility were significant (z = 3.69, d = 0.15, p < .001, and z = 3.13, d = 0.12, p < .001, respec- tively). More important, the linear and quadratic effects o f age on attitude change were homogeneous, meaning that they did not vary significantly across the three studies, X : ( 2 , N = 2,803) = 0.53, ns, and X2(2, N = 2,803) = 0.86, ns, respectively. S t u d y 4 Up to this point, we have focused on variation across the life span in resistance to attitude change. To better understand the meanings o f our findings, it is useful to recognize that resistance to change is one o f the four defining qualities o f strong attitudes (Krosnick & Petty, 1995). According to Krosnick and Petty, strong attitudes are those that ( a ) resist change, ( b ) persist over time, ( c ) influence thinking, and ( d ) motivate and guide behavior. Thus, i f one wants to understand why attitudes are most resistant to change in middle adulthood, it is useful to consider what causes attitude strength. Fortunately, a sizable literature now exists regarding the causal antecedents o f attitude strength. There is evidence, for example, that attitudes based on a great deal o f knowledge tend to be stronger than attitudes based on very little knowledge (Wood, Rhodes, & Biek, 1995). Similarly, attitudes about which people are highly certain tend to be stronger than attitudes about which they are less certain (Gross, Holtz, & Miller, 1995). Attitude importance is another antecedent o f attitude strength: Attitudes that people consider personally important tend to be more resistant to change, more stable over time, more likely to influence thinking, and more likely to direct behavior (Boninger, Krosnick, Berent, & Fabrigar, 1995). In fact, roughly a dozen such antecedents o f attitude strength have been identified in past work (for a review, see Petty & Krosnick, 1995). In light o f this literature, it seemed worthwhile to broaden the scope o f our investigation by exploring the relation o f age to such ante- cedents o f attitude strength. We begin by considering some o f the social and psychological processes by which various antecedents o f attitude strength may come to rise and fall over the adult l i f e span, thereby producing the observed age-related differences in susceptibility to change. We then briefly describe two other issues in the attitude strength literature that our next studies explored: the structure of attitude strength antecedents and the distinction between meta-attitudinal and operative indexes o f attitude strength and its antecedents. Underlying Mechanisms When young people enter adulthood, begin to vote in elec- tions, and otherwise take on active social responsibilities, they ATTITUDE STRENGTH 1397 are presumably inspired to learn about their places in the social world and the relevance o f public issues to their material inter- ests, reference groups or individuals, and values. As a result, people may come to attach increasingly more personal impor- tance to public issues ( s e e Boninger, Krosnick, & Berent, 1995). And this increase in personal importance may lead people to seek out information on these issues, leading to an accumulation o f relevant knowledge in memory (see, e.g., Boninger, Krosnick, Berent, & Fabrigar, 1995). Late in the life cycle, social and cognitive disengagement may occur, as people retire from the workforce and focus on new challenges o f their daily lives (e.g., transitions in places o f residence, emerging physical health prob- lems, and spousal caregiving). This increasing disconnection from the active workings o f social institutions may cause de- clines in the personal importance people attach to public issues. Simultaneously, declines in cognitive skills (e.g., Verhaeghen & Salthouse, 1997) may cause people to become less able to store and retrieve issue-relevant knowledge from memory. Thus, the personal importance o f public issues and knowledge about them may rise in early adulthood and fall in late adulthood, just as susceptibility to attitude change apparently does. Attitude importance and knowledge both reduce the likelihood o f attitude change, because they reinforce attitudes socially and cognitively (see, e.g., Boninger, Krosnick, Berent, & Fabrigar, 1995; Wood et al., 1995). Therefore, i f importance and knowledge surge just after early adulthood and decline late in life, they may be partly responsible for the surge and decline in resistance to attitude change. Structure o f Attitude Strength Antecedents Results o f this sort would also speak to another debated issue within the attitude strength literature: whether or not the various antecedents o f attitude strength (e.g., knowledge, certainty, and personal importance, among others) are manifestations o f a sin- gle, unitary underlying construct. For the most part, these ante- cedents are all positively associated with one another, and they are all positively associated with the four defining features o f strong attitudes (resistance to change, stability over time, and impact on thinking and on behavior). Because o f this, many attitude researchers have assumed, during the last five decades, that all o f these defining features and their antecedents are mani- festations o f a single underlying latent factor appropriately called attitude strength (for a review, see Krosnick, Boninger, Chuang, Berent, & Carnot, 1993). There has been empirical support for this single-construct view from some factor-analytic studies (e.g., Verplanken, 1989). However, other investigators have suggested that two underlying constructs are present (Bassili, 1996; Pomerantz, Chaiken, & Tordesillas, 1995) or have found evidence o f three distinct con- structs (Abelson, 1988; Lastovicka & Gardner, 1979), and still others have found evidence o f four (Erber, Hodges, & Wilson, 1995). Finally, some investigators have concluded that all o f the antecedents o f attitude strength are essentially independent o f each other and that no higher order attitude strength construct or constructs exist ( K r o s n i c k et al., 1993; Krosnick & Petty, 1995). Evidence that attitude importance and knowledge rise and fall together across the life span would be consistent with the single-factor view o f attitude strength antecedents, as well as with the midrange hypothesis that importance and knowledge both reflect a single underlying factor, even if other antecedents o f strength do not (Erber et al., 1995; Pomerantz et al., 1995). Meta-Attitudinal Versus Operative Indexes o f Attitude Strength This study offered an opportunity to explore another interest- ing question about the structure o f attitude strength as well. Bassili (1996) recently proposed a distinction between meta- attitudinal and operative indexes o f attitude strength ( s e e also Greenwald & Banaji, 1995, on indirect vs. direct measures). The former involve p e o p l e ' s perceptions o f their attitudes, whereas the latter describe the operation o f the attitudes more directly, unmediated b y perceptions. In our first three studies, we focused on the relation o f age to an operative index o f strength: actual rates o f attitude change. Here, we explored the relation o f age to the corresponding rneta-attitudinal index: peo- p l e ' s perceptions o f the susceptibility o f their attitudes to change. In short, we asked: Are people aware that they are especially susceptible to attitude change at the beginning and end o f the life cycle? Perceptions o f attitudinal qualities can at times be quite divergent from reality. For example, Krosnick et al. (1993) found surprisingly weak correlations between direct measures Of the volume o f attitude-relevant knowledge and p e o p l e ' s per- ceptions o f how much such knowledge they possessed ( m o r e generally, see Nisbett & Wilson, 1977). Just as some psycholo- gists have endorsed the increasing persistence hypothesis, the impressionable years hypothesis, or the life stages hypothesis, so may laypersons as well. This would reinforce the utility o f distinguishing between meta-attitudinal and operative measures in general and with regard to susceptibility to change in particu- lar. The data we analyzed for this study provided an opportunity to explore this question, and we did so. Method Sample In 1984, the National Opinion Research Center's General Social Sur- vey involved face-to-face interviews with 1,473 noninstitutionalized En- glish-speaking people 18 years of age or older living within the continen- tal United States. Measures Attitude importance, perceived attitude-relevant knowledge, and per- ceived likelihood of attitude change were assessed for six political issues: pornography, the death penalty, gun control, crime, law enforcement, and race relations, r° Importance. Respondents were asked how important each issue was to them, and the response options were one of the most important (coded 1 ), important (coded .66), not very important (coded .33), and not important at all (coded 0). The six importance scores were averaged to yield a single importance score for each respondent) 1 ro The wordings of all questions used for these analyses are shown in the cumulative General Social Survey codebook, which is available from the National Opinion Research Center. tl When the analyses reported in this study and the ones to follow were done separately for each issue individually, the same patterns emerged, although a bit more weakly. 1398 VISSER AND KROSNICK Perceived knowledge. Respondents were asked how much informa- tion they had about each issue, and the response options were all the information you need (coded t ), most of the information (coded .66), some information (coded .33), and very little information (coded 0). Perceived knowledge scores were averaged across the issues to yield a single perceived knowledge score for each respondenC 2 Perceived likelihood of attitude change. Respondents were asked how firm their opinion on each issue was, and the response options were very likely to change (coded 1 ), somewhat likely to change (coded .66), somewhat unlikely to change (coded .33), and very unlikely to change (coded 0). Likelihood of change scores were averaged across all six issues to yield a single score for each respondent. Demographic measures. Education, gender, and race were measured and coded in the same manner as in the previous studies. Results Relations of Age to Education, Gender, and Race A g e was significantly associated with education, gender, and race as expected. O l d e r age cohorts c o n t a i n e d f e w e r w e l l - e d u - cated p e o p l e ( r = - . 2 4 , p < .01, n = 1,465), f e w e r w o m e n ( r = - . 0 5 , p < .01, n = 1,467), and f e w e r racial minorities ( r = - . 0 5 , p < .01, n = 1,467) than did younger age cohorts. Relation Between Attitude Importance and Perceived Knowledge Consistent with p r e v i o u s studies (see, e.g., K r o s n i c k & A b e l - son, 1992; K r o s n i c k et al., 1993), the t w o attitude strength antecedents w e r e only w e a k l y correlated with o n e another ( r = .17, p < .01, n = 1,410). Thus, these aspects o f attitudes were largely independent. Relation of Age to Attitude Importance W h e n assessed alone, the linear e f f e c t o f age o n attitude i m p o r t a n c e was positive and significant ( B = 0.10, p < .05), indicating that i m p o r t a n c e increased with increasing age ( s e e c o l u m n 1 o f Table 2 ) . However, the quadratic effect o f age was significant and negative ( B = - 0 . 5 4 , p < .01 ), and the linear e f f e c t o f age was positive and significant when the quadratic e f f e c t was i n c l u d e d in the equation ( B = 0.56, p < .001; see c o l u m n 2 o f Table 2 ) . T h e c u b i c e f f e c t o f age was not significant ( B = - 0 . 4 5 , ns). A s F i g u r e 5 illustrates, attitude i m p o r t a n c e r o s e in early adulthood, up to age 50, and i m p o r t a n c e b e g a n to fall after about age 65. Thus, attitude i m p o r t a n c e was l o w e s t precisely when attitude change was most c o m m o n . A s c o l u m n 2 o f Table 2 illustrates, attitude i m p o r t a n c e was greater a m o n g better educated respondents than a m o n g less edu- cated respondents ( B = 0.12, p < .01), greater a m o n g w o m e n than a m o n g m e n ( B = - 0 . 1 2 , p < .001), and greater a m o n g n o n - W h i t e s than a m o n g Whites ( B = 0.10, p < .01). T h e s e relations again attest to the value o f controlling for these d e m o - graphics in exploring the relation o f age to attitude importance. Relation of Age to Perceived Knowledge The results o f regressions predicting perceived k n o w l e d g e w e r e quite similar to those i n v o l v i n g i m p o r t a n c e ( s e e Table 3 ) . T h e linear e f f e c t o f age was positive and significant in predicting perceived k n o w l e d g e ( B = 0.11, p < .05). W h e n the quadratic effect o f age was a d d e d to the equation, the linear e f f e c t o f age was positive and significant ( B = 0.93, p < .001), and the quadratic e f f e c t was significant and negative ( B = - 0 . 9 4 , p < .001 ). T h e c u b i c e f f e c t o f age was n o t significant ( B = - 0 . 0 3 , ns). F i g u r e 6 illustrates that p e r c e i v e d k n o w l e d g e rose early in the life c y c l e and fell after about age 55. Interestingly, the d e m o g r a p h i c correlates o f perceived k n o w l - edge were s o m e w h a t different f r o m those o f importance. Whereas w o m e n attached m o r e i m p o r t a n c e to these issues, m e n r e p o r t e d h a v i n g m o r e k n o w l e d g e about t h e m ( B = 0.18, p < .001 ). Whereas W h i t e s attached less i m p o r t a n c e to the issues than d i d n o n - W h i t e s , W h i t e s r e p o r t e d h a v i n g m o r e k n o w l e d g e about t h e m than did n o n - W h i t e s ( B = - 0 . 1 4 , p < .01). A n d whereas education was m o d e s t l y positively related to i m p o r - tance, the positive relation o f education to perceived k n o w l e d g e was much stronger ( B = 0 . 5 5 , p < .001 ). Thus, although i m p o r : tance and perceived k n o w l e d g e were positively correlate d with o n e another and had equivalent relations to age, they w e r e dis- tinct in terms o f their d e m o g r a p h i c correlates. Relation of Age to Perceived Likelihood of Change Perceptions o f likelihood o f attitude change w e r e partly accu- rate and partly inaccurate ( s e e Table 4 ) . A negative and signifi- cant linear e f f e c t o f age appeared ( B = - 0 . 4 4 , p < .001), m e a n i n g that perceived likelihood o f change d e c r e a s e d with age. T h e quadratic and c u b i c effects o f age were nonsignificant ( B = 0.16 and B = 0.66, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) , m e a n i n g that perceptions o f likelihood o f change d e c r e a s e d steadily across the life cycle. This is especially clearly illustrated in F i g u r e 7, w h i c h p r o v i d e s a graphic representation o f the r e g r e s s i o n equation f r o m c o l u m n 1 o f Table 4. Thus, p e o p l e w e r e correct in r e c o g n i z i n g that they were highly susceptible to attitude change during early adulthood, but they did not r e a l i z e that susceptibility increased late in life. Perceived likelihood o f attitude change was also distinct f r o m actual susceptibility in terms o f correlations with other d e m o - graphics. A meta-analysis o f the results o f Studies 1, 2, and 3 r e v e a l e d that less educated p e o p l e manifested significantly m o r e attitude change than m o r e educated p e o p l e ( d = - 0 . 0 9 , z = 2.26, p = .01 ), w o m e n manifested significantly m o r e attitude change than m e n ( d = - 0 . 0 8 , z = 2.22, p = . 0 1 ) , and the c o m b i n e d e f f e c t o f race o n susceptibility was not significant ( d = 0.01, z = 0.29, ns). In line with this last finding, r a c e was also not associated with perceived likelihood o f change ( B = - 0 . 0 5 , ns). However, m o r e e d u c a t e d respondents perceived a greater likelihood o f change than less educated respondents ( B = 0.10, p < . 0 5 ) , and m e n r e p o r t e d marginally significantly m o r e p e r c e i v e d likelihood o f attitude change than w o m e n ( B = 0.05, p < .10). Thus, perceived likelihood o f change did not m a t c h actual likelihood o f change in terms o f correlations with these t w o d e m o g r a p h i c variables, in addition to age. 12 Shifts over the life course in answers to this question could be due to changes either in the perceived volume of knowledge one possesses or in the volume of knowledge one thinks one needs. Regardless, how- ever, any shifts observed reflect changes in the gap between these two. This is clearly a meta-attitudlnal measure of knowledge, one presumably based at least in part on actual levels of knowledge (see Krosnick et al., 1993). ATI]TUDE STRENGTH 1 3 9 9 0 ~ 0 0 0 0 d d o d d ~ " a ~ ~ . . . . I o ~ o o o o " N o o o o o " I I ~ . o o o " . . . ~ m ~ o I t d d d d N ' I I * ~ o ~ o I • . 0 ,...~ • t ' N O ,.o ,-.., 8. v V o. v O v Discussion A l t h o u g h attitude i m p o r t a n c e and p e r c e i v e d k n o w l e d g e e x - hibited similar trajectories across the life cycle, they had distinct d e m o g r a p h i c correlates, suggesting that these antecedents o f attitude strength are not manifestations o f a c o m m o n underlying construct. Similarly, the meta-attitudinal m e a s u r e s o f attitude change in this study and the operative m e a s u r e s o f change u s e d in Studies 1, 2, and 3 s e e m n o t to h a v e tapped the same c o n - struct: T h e meta-attitudinal and operative m e a s u r e s had distinct d e m o g r a p h i c correlates, and they also e x h i b i t e d different pat- terns o f change across the life span. This suggests that the dis- tinction b e t w e e n meta-attitudinal and operative indexes o f atti- tude strength is a useful one. T h e distinction b e t w e e n the recta-attitudinal m e a s u r e o f atti- tude change and the attitude change m e a s u r e s used in Studies 1 and 2 is subtle but important. B e c a u s e these latter t w o studies r e l i e d o n self-reported attitude change rather than direct obser- vations o f change, o n e m i g h t t h i n k they w e r e recta-attitudinal indexes, n o t operative ones. Yet, the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n age and susceptibility to change o b s e r v e d in Studies 1 and 2 was repli- c a t e d in Study 3 with a p u r e l y operative m e a s u r e o f change, and the e f f e c t there was h o m o g e n e o u s w i t h the effects in Studies 1 and 2. Therefore, when a n s w e r i n g the question " W o u l d y o u change y o u r m i n d i f . . . ? " respondents w e r e apparently de- scribing actual attitude change that o c c u r r e d at that m o m e n t rather than m o r e generic guesses about their likelihood o f change: R e i n f o r c i n g this conclusion, w e o b s e r v e d a different relation b e t w e e n age and a purely recta-attitudinal m e a s u r e o f attitude change. Study 5 To e x p l o r e the replicability o f the findings o f Study 4, w e turned to another set o f national survey data to assess the relation o f age to attitude i m p o r t a n c e using a different set o f political issues. M e t h o d Sample In 1984, the Center for Political Studies at the University of Michigan conducted face-to-face interviews with a nationally representative proba- bility sample of American adults for the National Election Study. During the weeks immediately preceding the 1984 U.S. presidential elec- tion, interviews were conducted with 2,257 people living in private households. Measures Attitude importance. Respondents were asked to express their atti- tudes on four political issues: government services, U.S. involvement in Central America, improving the economic status of women, and federally guaranteed jobs. 13 After each attitude question, respondents were asked how important it was to them that the federal government adhere to their 13 The wordings of all questions used for the analyses in this study, as well as those used in Study 6, are shown in the codebooks for the 1984 and 1996 American National Election Studies, which are available from the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research at the University of Michigan. 2 . 7 2 2 . 7 0 _• 2 . 6 8 2 . 6 6 2 . 6 4 2 . 6 2 2 . 6 0 2 . 5 8 2 . 5 6 2 . 5 4 i 18 23 2 8 3 3 3 8 43 48 53 58 63 68 73 78 83 88 2 . 4 4 2 . 4 2 2 . 4 0 Ca 2 . 3 8 ~ 2.36 1 2 . 3 4 ~ , 2 . 3 2 ~ 2.30 . 2 . 2 8 ~ 2.28 0 . 2 . 2 4 2 . 2 2 2 . 2 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 1 8 18 2 3 28 33 38 43 4 8 53 5 8 6 3 68 73 78 83 88 Age (in years) 1 4 0 0 VISSER AND KROSNICK Age (in years) Figure 5. Relation of attitude importance to age in Study 4. Figure 6. Relation of perceived knowledge to age in Study 4. preferred policy on that issue (extremely important, very important, somewhat important, or not important at all, coded t, .66, .33, and 0, respectively). 14 Answers to these questions were averaged to form an overall index of attitude importance. Demographic measures. Education, race, and gender were coded as they had been in previous studies. Results Relations of Age to Education, Gender, and Race A g e was significantly associated with education and r a c e as expected: O l d e r cohorts contained f e w e r w e l l - e d u c a t e d p e o p l e ( r = - . 2 9 , p < .01, n = 1,904) and f e w e r racial minorities ( r = - . 0 5 , p < .05, n = 1,902). A g e was not associated with gender ( r = - . 0 2 , ns, n = 1,902). Relation of Age to Attitude Importance T h e relation o f age to attitude i m p o r t a n c e here was c o m p a r a - ble to that seen in Study 4 ( s e e c o l u m n s 4 - 6 o f Table 2 ) . T h e linear e f f e c t o f age was significant and positive when tested b y itself ( B = 0.06, p < .05) and when tested along with a quadratic e f f e c t o f age ( B = 0.35, p < .001 ). T h e quadratic e f f e c t o f age Table 3 Unstandardized Regression Coefficients Predicting Perceived Attitude-Relevant Knowledge in Study 4 Predictor Regression 1 Regression 2 Regression 3 Age 0.11"* 0.93**** 0.92* Age squared -0.94**** - 0 . 9 0 Age cubed - 0 . 0 3 Gender 0.19"*** 0.18"*** 0.18"*** Race -0.13"** -0.14"** -0.14"** Education 0.57**** 0.55**** 0.55**** R 2 .069 .074 .074 Note. n = 1,462. * p < .10 (nmrginally significant). < .001. **p < .05. ***p < .01. ****p was also significant and negative ( B = - 0 . 3 6 , p < .01), and the c u b i c e f f e c t o f age was not significant ( B = 0.13, n s ) . A s F i g u r e 8 illustrates, i m p o r t a n c e r o s e during early adulthood, peaked at about age 45, and b e g a n to drop after about age 65. S t u d y 6 O u r final study m a d e use o f another national survey data set to e x a m i n e the relation o f age to another antecedent o f attitude strength: certainty. Attaching i m p o r t a n c e to a public issue, as w e l l as the extensive thought and i n f o r m a t i o n gathering that f o l l o w f r o m importance, m a y m a k e a person increasingly confi- dent in his o r her attitude. Thus, the d y n a m i c s o f attitude i m p o r - tance and perceived k n o w l e d g e d o c u m e n t e d in Studies 4 and 5 m a y p r o d u c e parallel changes in attitude certainty over the life cycle. I f this is true, certainty m a y b e partly responsible for the shifts in resistance to change o v e r the life span, b e c a u s e certainty enhances resistance to attitude change (see, e.g., Gross et al., 1995). A n d i f certainty manifests the same surge and d e c l i n e o v e r the life course as the other antecedents o f strength, this w o u l d r e i n f o r c e the one-factor v i e w o f attitude strength anteced- ents. Study 6 e x p l o r e d these possibilities and assessed the repli- cability o f the relation b e t w e e n age and attitude i m p o r t a n c e with yet another set o f political issues. Method Sample In 1996, the Center for Political Studies at the University of Michigan conducted face-to-face interviews with a nationally representative proba- bility sample of American adults for the National Election Study. During 14 The phrasing of this question was not optimal in that it addressed the federal government instead of simply asking about the personal importance of the issue (see Boninger, Krosnick, Berent, & Fabrigar, 1995). However, the fact that Study 5 replicated the findings of Studies 4 and 6 regarding attitude importance (in which the simpler importance questions were asked) reinforces confidence in this measure as tapping attitude importance. ATTITUDE STRENGTH 1401 Table 4 Unstandardized Regression Coefficients Predicting Perceived Likelihood o f Attitude Change in Study 4 0.46 - 0.36 Predictor Regression 1 Regression 2 Regression 3 ~ 0.44 Age -0.44**** -0.59*** -0.25 Age squared 0.16 - 0 . 7 5 ~- 0.42 Age cubed 0.66 I= Gender 0.05* 0.05 0.05* Race -0.05 - 0 . 0 5 - 0 . 0 5 "O Education 0.10" 0.10"* 0.09** ._~ 0.40 R 2 .028 .028 .029 0.38 Note. n = 1,461. * p < .10 (marginally significant). ** p < .05. *** p < .01. **** p < .001. the weeks immediately preceding the 1996 U.S. presidential election, 1,714 people living in private households were interviewed. Figure 8. M e a s u r e s , i t i i , r i i i i i i i i I 18 23 28 33 38 43 48 53 58 63 68 73 78 83 88 93 A g e ( i n y e a r s ) Relation of attitude importance to age in Study 5. 0 . 2 8 g) O) 0 . 2 7 Attitude importance. Respondents were asked to express their atti- tudes on five political issues: government spending on social services, defense spending, government assistance to Blacks, abortion, and envi- ronmental protection. After each attitude question, respondents were asked how important each issue was to them personally (extremely important, very important, somewhat important, not too important, or not important at all, coded 1, .75, .50, .25, and 0, respectively). Answers to these questions were averaged to form an overall index of attitude importance. Attitude certainty. For each of the same five issues, respondents were asked to express the certainty with which they held their attitude (very certain, pretty certain, or not very certain, coded 1, .50, and 0, respec- tively). Answers to these questions were averaged to create an overall index of attitude certainty. Demographic measures. Education, race, and gender were coded as they had been in previous studies. m c 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.23 O 0.22 0.21 • "; 0.20 0.19 0 . 1 8 i 0.17 0 . 1 6 0 . 1 5 , i i i i i ¢ ~ i i i , , i i i 18 23 28 33 38 43 48 53 58 63 68 73 78 83 88 A g e ( i n y e a r s ) Relation of perceived likelihood of attitude change to age in Figure 7. Study 4. Results Relations o f A g e to Education, Gender, a n d Race O l d e r cohorts c o n t a i n e d significantly f e w e r w e l l - e d u c a t e d p e o p l e ( r = - . 1 8 , p < .001, n = 1,709), and f e w e r racial minorities ( r = - . 0 7 , p < .01, n = 1,702). A g e was not associ- ated with gender ( r = - . 0 3 , ns, n = 1,702). Relation B e t w e e n Attitude Importance a n d Certainty T h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n attitude i m p o r t a n c e and attitude cer- tainty was positive ( r = .41, p < .001, n = 1,710), b u t was far e n o u g h f r o m perfect to suggest that the t w o attributes are partly independent o f o n e another. Relation o f A g e to Attitude Importance T h e relation o f age to attitude i m p o r t a n c e here essentially replicated that seen in Studies 4 and 5 ( s e e c o l u m n s 7 and 8 o f Table 2 ) . A l t h o u g h the linear e f f e c t o f a g e alone was not sig- nificant ( B = 0.00, ns), the e f f e c t was positive and significant ( B = 0.29, p < .001 ) w h e n the quadratic e f f e c t was included, and the quadratic e f f e c t was negative and significant ( B = - 0 . 3 2 , p < .00I ). A l t h o u g h the c u b i c e f f e c t o f age was signifi- cant ( B = - 0 . 5 0 , p < .05), it did n o t notably alter the relation o f i m p o r t a n c e to age, and the effects o f age here w e r e n o t significantly different f r o m those o n i m p o r t a n c e that w e ob- served in Studies 4 and 5: age, X2(2, N = 5,219) = 0.75, n s ; age squared, X2(2, N = 5 , 2 1 9 ) = 1.50, ns; and age cubed, X2(2, N = 5,219) = 2.72, ns. ~ F i g u r e 9 p r o v i d e s a graphic representation o f the regression equation presented in c o l u m n 9 o f Table 2. A s F i g u r e 9 illustrates, i m p o r t a n c e again i n c r e a s e d across early adulthood, peaked at about age 50, and b e g a n to fall after about age 65. A l t h o u g h attitude i m p o r t a n c e was not as l o w a m o n g y o u n g adults here as it was in Studies 4 and 5, the s a m e basic trajectory o f attitude i m p o r t a n c e across the life c y c l e e m e r g e d in these data. E d u c a t i o n was n o t significantly related to attitude i m p o r t a n c e ( B = 0.02, ns). A s in the p r e v i o u s studies, n o n - W h i t e s attached 0.80 0.78 0.76 ~- 0.74 ~ 0 . 7 2 E 0 . 7 0 • ~ 0 . 6 8 • ~ 0 . 8 8 ~ 0 . 6 4 0 . 6 2 0 . 6 0 A g e ( i n y e a r s ) 0 . 7 7 0.75 ¢~, 0.73 " i 0.71 0.69 0 . 6 7 0.65 0.63 0.61 0.59 , , , g i J , i , i i i i i i J 18 23 28 33 38 43 48 53 58 63 68 73 78 83 88 93 m i i i , , c i i i i i , i i 18 23 28 33 38 43 48 53 58 63 68 73 78 83 88 93 A g e ( i n y e a r s ) Figure I0. Relation of attitude certainty to age in Study 6. Figure 9. Relation of attitude importance to age in Study 6. 1402 VISSER AND KROSNICK more importance to their attitudes on these issues than did Whites (B = 0.04, p < .001 ). And, again, there were no differ- ences between men and women in the importance they attached to these issues (B = 0.01, ns). Relation of Age to Certainty Consistent with the other strength antecedents, certainty in- creased early in the life cycle and declined late in the cycle (see Table 5 and Figure 10). The linear effect o f age alone was negative and significant (B = - 0 . 0 8 , p < .001). When the linear and quadratic age effects were estimated simultaneously, the linear effect was positive and significant (B = 0.23, p < .01), and the quadratic effect was negative and significant (B = - 0 . 3 6 , p < .001 ). The cubic effect o f age was not significant (B = 0.01, ns), The associations between certainty and the other demograph- ics were consistent with the associations between importance and those demographics. Certainty was unrelated to education (B = 0.00, ns), significantly greater among men than among women (B = 0.03, p < .01), and significantly greater among non-Whites than among Whites (B = 0.04, p < .01). Table 5 Unstandardized Regression Coefficients Predicting Attitude Certainty in Study 6 Predictor Regression 1 Regression 2 Regression 3 Age -0.08**** 0.23**** 0.24 Age squared -0.36**** -0.37 Age cubed 0.01 Gender 0.03**** 0.03**** 0.03*** Race 0.04*** 0.04*** 0.04*** Education 0.01 0.00 0.01 R 2 .021 .030 .030 Note. n = 1,696 * * * p < . 0 1 . ****p <.001. G e n e r a l D i s c u s s i o n Our findings have general implications regarding the litera- tures on attitude change and on the structure o f attitude strength antecedents. We discuss these implications in turn before con- sidering the limitations o f our evidence and directions for future studies. Attitude Change Aging and Susceptibility to Change Using methods that overcome various limitations o f past stud- ies, Studies 1, 2, and 3 support the life stages hypothesis and challenge the perpetual susceptibility hypothesis, the impres- sionable years hypothesis, and the increasing persistence hypoth- esis. Because considerable attitude change was evident even among the least susceptible age groups, our findings are more in line with the lifelong openness view than with the persistence hypothesis. It is interesting to note that our findings in this regard offer an extension o f some very old laboratory studies o f susceptibility to persuasion among preadults. For example, Whipple (1909) described a study by Stern ( 1 9 0 7 - 1 9 0 8 ) in which susceptibility to attitude change was found to be three times greater among 7 - 1 4 - y e a r - o l d s than among 16-19-year-olds. Similarly, Stukat (1958) found almost three times as much attitude change among 8-year-olds as among 14-year-olds, with a smooth decline in susceptibility between these ages. And Marple (1933) found that attitude change was greater among high school seniors than among college seniors, who in turn manifested more change than did older adults. In none o f these studies was representative sampling o f age groups done, so it is impossible to know whether the various age groups can legitimately be compared with one another. Furthermore, these studies did not offer oppor- tunities to differentiate among the increasing persistence, im- pressionable years, and life stages hypotheses, because they did not compare older adults o f different ages. But Stern ( 1 9 0 7 - 1908), Stukat (1958), and Marple (1933) nonetheless provided ATTITUDE STRENGTH 1403 evidence consistent with the claim that susceptibility to attitude change declines during preadulthood, a finding that resonates with our own evidence regarding the adult portion o f the life cycle. Reconciling the Present Findings With Other Evidence Although our finding of greater susceptibility to attitude change during early adulthood than during middle adulthood is consistent with most previous correlational research, our evi- dence o f greater susceptibility during late adulthood is inconsis- tent with most o f the existing literature. One possible explana- tion for this discrepancy is the methods o f analysis used. Virtu- ally without exception, previous investigations have divided samples into several discrete age groups and examined the aver- age level o f attitude stability for each group. This strategy re- quires researchers to lump together spans o f ages to achieve subsamples that are sufficiently large to yield reliable parameter estimates for each group. This is particularly necessary at the upper end o f the life cycle; survey samples include relatively small numbers o f very old adults, because o f mortality and other factors. As a result, the oldest age group in previous investigations has often spanned a wide range (e.g., ages 65 to 90 years) but has contained many more people at the younger end o f the range than at the older end. Averaging across these individuals may therefore have masked changes that occur at the very end o f the life cycle, because the oldest members o f the group were far outnumbered by the younger members o f the group. In the studies reported here, we took an analytic approach not yet used in any studies o f aging and attitude change. Rather than arbitrarily breaking the samples into subgroups, we used linear and nonlinear regression models to more precisely assess the relation between age and susceptibility to change across the entire adult life cycle. And, in fact, when we reanalyzed our data using the traditional approach, our results were notably different. For example, we broke the sample from Study 1 into five age categories ( 1 8 - 2 5 , 2 6 - 3 5 , 3 6 - 5 0 , 5 1 - 6 5 , and 6 6 - 9 7 years), and we gauged the average proportion o f respondents in each group who exhibited attitude change. Consistent with most pre- vious research, we found striking evidence o f increased suscep- tibility to change among young adults. Also consistent with this literature, we found no evidence o f an upturn in susceptibility at the end o f the life cycle: The mean rates o f attitude change for these age groups (adjusted for differences between groups in education, gender, and race) were .57, .49, .44, .45, and .43, respectively. Comparable results were obtained when we conducted similar analyses with the data from Studies 2 and 3. Thus, the methods o f analyses used seem likely to account for the discrepancy between our results and the results o f prior investigations regarding susceptibility to attitude change at the end o f the life cycle. One other difference between the current research and previ- ous investigations may also have contributed to the discrepancy. As we have discussed, earlier investigations used attitude stabil- ity as an index o f susceptibility to attitude change, which is likely to underestimate true susceptibility to change among peo- ple who experience few attitude-challenging experiences. If older adults were particularly unlikely to encounter these sorts o f experiences, attitude stability levels would paint a distorted portrait o f susceptibility to change at the end o f the life cycle. Thus, when the dependent variable is attitude stability rather than attitude change, even linear and nonlinear regression analy- ses may yield misleading evidence about the late adult years. Understanding the Relation Between Age and Susceptibility to Attitude Change Virtually without exception, previous investigations o f aging and attitude change have been entirely descriptive. The causal mechanism or mechanisms underlying the relation between age and susceptibility to attitude change have gone largely ignored. The present investigation provides an initial step toward under- standing causal underpinnings by documenting relations o f age to antecedents o f attitude strength. Specifically, we found that attitude importance, perceived knowledge, and certainty surged and declined roughly in parallel with changes in susceptibility to attitude change. Changes in these antecedents o f attitude strength may therefore provide clues about the causal mecha- nisms responsible for the dynamics o f susceptibility to attitude change. In particulaz; resistance to change may increase because peo- ple attach more importance to their attitudes, think more fre- quently and deeply about them as a result (see Boninger, Kros- nick, Berent, & Fabrigar, 1995), and consequently develop a confidence and sense o f knowledgeability that motivates resis- tance to change. And resistance to change may decline later because importance, perceived knowledge, and certainty drop. Future investigations directly testing these mediation hypotheses (by measuring susceptibility to change as well as importance, perceived knowledge, and certainty in the same representative sample survey) clearly seem to be warranted. In addition to antecedents o f attitude strength, a number o f other mechanisms may also be partly responsible for the relation o f age to susceptibility to attitude change. Our initial discussion o f the life stages hypothesis alluded to some o f these mecha- nisms. For example, early and late adulthood are both periods o f relatively frequent role transitions during which individuals are resocialized to new sets o f demands and expectations (Gla- ser & Strauss, 1971; Steckenrider & Cutler, 1989). Often, role adoption encourages certain attitudes and discourages others (Bogardus, 1927), and the adoption o f new roles can lead to changes in attitudes (e.g., Lieberman, 1950). The density o f role transitions in early and late adulthood may contribute to a general increase in susceptibility to attitude change as individu- als reconsider their relation to the social w o r d and redefine their social identities. Changes in social networks may also play a role in the relation between age and susceptibility to change. When discussing so- cial and political issues, people strategically select friends and discussion partners with whom they agree (Byrne, 1961; Huck- feldt & Sprague, 1987, 1988; Newcomb, 1961), and, as a result, discussions with such individuals reinforce their original atti- tudes. People also selectively misperceive the views o f their discussion partners when those views are at odds with their own (Huckfeldt & Sprague, 1987, 1988), further inflating people's perceptions o f social support for their attitudes. Thus, having large social networks with whom one comes into frequent con- tact may reduce susceptibility to change. 1404 VISSER AND KROSNICK And the sizes o f p e o p l e ' s social networks change over the life span. As people move from young adulthood to the middle adult years, they increasingly discuss important matters with a wide range o f people outside o f their families (Marsden, 1987). This trend reverses, however, at the end o f the life cycle: Relative to middle-aged adults, older adults have far fewer people with whom they discuss important matters (Burt, 1990; Lang & Cars- tensen, 1994; Marsden, 1987). Increased susceptibility to atti- tude change at the beginning and end o f the adult life cycle may be due in part to these changes in social support. A number o f other potential mechanisms may account for heightened susceptibility to attitude change during early adult- hood but not late adulthood. For example, because young adult- hood is typically the point o f entry into the political realm, attitudes are likely to be formed one at a time, in relative isola- tion from one another. But as a person ages, he or she is likely to come to see the interrelations among various attitudes and the applicability o f overarching principles such as ideologies or values. Consequently, among middle-aged adults, attitudes are more often embedded within overarching cognitive structures and are more strongly associated with other cognitive elements (Daniels & Clark-Daniels, 1995; Kirkpatrick, 1976). Such asso- ciations stabilize attitudes (Ostrom & Brock, 1969; Scott, 1968) and thus may partly account for the decline in susceptibility to change after early adulthood. Because young adults have had fewer life experiences, they may also have had fewer opportunities to behaviorally commit themselves to their attitudes (e.g., describing their attitudes to others or engaging in attitude-congruent behaviors). Behavioral commitment increases resistance to change (Brehm & Cohen, 1962; Hovland, Campbell, & Brock, 1957; Kiesler, 1971) and may partially account for the heightened susceptibility to atti- tude change at the beginning o f the adult life cycle. Still other processes may uniquely account for the decline in resistance to attitude change later in adulthood. For example, recent meta-analyses have revealed relatively large changes across the life span in cognitive functioning (Salthouse, 1992; Verhaeghen, Marcoen, & Goossens, 1993; Verhaeghen & Salt- house, 1997). Performance o f cognitive tasks declines beginning at approximately age 20, but the rate o f decline becomes espe- cially steep after age 50 (Salthouse, 1992, 1996; Verhaeghen et al., 1993). Thus, the oldest adults may find it hardest to generate effective counterarguments in the face o f persuasive appeals, increasing their susceptibility to attitude change~ Finally, late adulthood may see an increase in susceptibility to change because attitudes may become strikingly obsolete at that time. Young adults apparently form attitudes on a range o f political issues for the first time, and these attitudes remain through middle adulthood. Yet, during these middle adult years, the political world in which the attitudes were formed begins to change because o f technological and social innovations and the march o f time more generally. Thus, for example, people who came o f age during the Great Depression probably found that as the c o u n t r y ' s economic conditions improved, the atti- tudes they formed early in adulthood were less and less suitable to new world conditions. Because social reform and structural change occur slowly, dramatic discrepancies between o n e ' s early-formed attitudes and current world conditions are not likely to occur until late in adulthood. And this may make people especially open to change at that time. In addition, the very meaning o f some attitude objects may change over the several decades that divide early and late adult- hood. In the contemporary political context, for example, the term welfare calls to mind a certain set o f programs that assist a particular subset o f the population. In the 1950s, welfare referred to an entirely different set o f programs that assisted a different subset o f people. Likewise, support for civil rights in the early part o f the 20th century meant support for integration o f workplaces, neighborhoods, schools, and other social institu- tions. But in recent years, support for civil rights has meant support for redistribution o f economic resources and opportuni- ties to offset past inequalities (Schuman, Steeh, & Bobo, 1985). Thus, some people who formed attitudes toward civil rights decades ago may find that those attitudes are no longer applica- ble, therefore opening them up to change. And this should occur most among the oldest adults, whose attitudes were formed longest ago. A l l of these processes, summarized in Table 6, represent plau- sible mechanisms for the observed relation between age and susceptibility to attitude change, and each implies something different about which o f the myriad social, psychological, and biological aspects o f aging are responsible for changes over the life cycle in susceptibility to attitude change. We look forward to future research that investigates the role o f each o f them, along with other potential mechanisms. One possibility that we were able to test with the data from Study 2 turned out not to be a plausible mechanism o f the relation between age and susceptibility to change. That data set included a measure o f the number o f adults living in respon- dents' households, providing one index o f domestic social sup- Table 6 Potential Mechanisms of Decreasing and Increasing Susceptibility to Attitude Change During Early and Late Adulthood Early adulthood Late adulthood Increasing recognition of the relevance of public issues to one's material interests, values, and reference groups, resulting in increased attitude importance Acquisition of knowledge about the social and political world Increasing certainty with which attitudes are held Frequent role transitions Growing social networks Increasing attitude constraint Increasing opportunities for behavioral commitment to attitudes Decreasing attitude importance Decreasing retrievable knowledge Decreasing certainty with which attitudes are held Frequent role transitions Shrinking social networks Declining cognitive resources with which to generate effective counterarguments Increasing obsolescence of attitudes Changes over time in the meaning associated with particular attitude objects ATrlTUDE STRENGTH 1405 port. Linear and nonlinear ordinary least squares regression models revealed that the proportion o f respondents who lived alone increased sharply from young adulthood to middle adult- hood (from about 16% to about 30%), remained steady across the middle adult years (at about 30%), and rose steeply during the late adult years (to about 40% among 65-74-year-olds and about 50% among those 75 years old or older). Thus, social support decreased at roughly the same time that susceptibility to attitude change increased, raising the possibility that the for- mer may mediate the relation between age and susceptibility to change at the end o f the life cycle. However, this measure o f social support was unrelated to attitude change, both in the full sample (B = 0.00, ns) and among the subsample o f respondents 50 years old or older (B = 0.06, ns). Social support in the form o f living companions, therefore, cannot account for the age-related differences in sus- ceptibility to change observed in Study 2. This surprising result illustrates the importance o f formally testing the possible mech- anisms o f the relation between age and susceptibility to change. Other intuitively appealing mechanisms o f this relation, many o f which we outlined earlier, may also be rejected when sub- jected to empirical scrutiny. Societal Implications Our findings have interesting implications for social change across history, both in the past and in the future. To understand some o f these implications, it is useful to begin with Figure 11, which displays the distribution o f age in the American adult population starting in 1950 and projected out to 2050 (U.S. Bureau o f the Census, 1953, 1993). The width o f each band in this figure represents the proportion o f adults in each age group in each year. The consistent widening o f the solid band at the top represents the consistent growth of the 65-year-old and older age group, a process often referred to these days as the " g r a y - ing" of America. The hump in the band at the bottom between 1970 and 1980 represents the baby boom generation, which began to reach age 18 in the late 1960s. That hump is also apparent in each o f the older age groups, but it moves progres- sively to the right (representing the aging o f the baby boomers). If the perpetual susceptibility hypothesis had been true, these changes in the age distribution o f Americans would have no implications at all. And if the impressionable years hypothesis had been true, the growth o f the oldest age group would have had no implications for change in the susceptibility o f the Ameri- can public to attitude change across this 100-year period. But because the life stages hypothesis seems correct, the growing band o f older Americans signals a likely steady increase in the susceptibility o f the population to attitude change. Therefore, increased volatility in public opinion may be apparent in the future, especially during periods o f intense public debate (e.g., during presidential election campaigns). Because the 18-24-year-old group was disproportionately large between 1970 and 1980, and because these individuals were presumably highly susceptible to change, the malleability o f the aggregated public's views on political issues was probably a bit higher during those years than before or after. The national turmoil o f the late 1960s and early 1970s is no doubt attributable primarily to dramatic events such as the Vietnam War and Wa- tergate, but the reverberation o f such events throughout those years (and even today) may have been especially loud and sus- tained because an easily influenced age group was unusually large at that time. Impact o f Education, Gender, and Race on Susceptibility to Change Social psychologists have had long-standing interest in the relation o f other demographics to attitude change susceptibility, most notably gender (e.g., Coope~; 1979; Eagly, 1978; Mac- c o b y & Jacldin, 1974). In a meta-analysis o f 148 studies that explored gender differences in influenceability, Eagly and Carli (1981) found that women were significantly more open to change than were men. Consistent with Eagly and Carli's find- Figure 11. Age distribution of U.S. adults. 1406 VISSER AND KROSNICK ings, our own meta-analysis combining Studies 1, 2, and 3 revealed that women manifested attitude change significantly more than men. In line with ZaUer's (1990) findings, less educated people manifested significantly more attitude change than more edu- cated people (d = - 0 . 0 9 , z = 2.06, p = .04). Because education is strongly correlated with intelligence (Ceci, 1991), this finding may reflect the well-documented greater resistance to attitude change among more intelligent people when a persuasive mes- sage is easy to comprehend and equally exposed to everyone, as was the case here (e.g., Eagly & Warren, 1976; Rhodes & Wood, 1992). However, educational attainment is correlated with many other individual differences as well (see, e.g., Hyman, Wright, & Reed, 1975; Nie, Junn, & Stehlik-Barry, 1996). Thus, our finding encourages further study of the psychological sources of this relation. Given that the oldest age cohort was less educated and more predominantly female than the younger age cohorts, the relation of education to susceptibility would have been systematically distorted if we had not controlled for these characteristics. In contrast, the combined effect of race on susceptibility was not significant (d = 0.02, z = 0.32, p = .75), so controlling for this. variable here had no effect. But our documentation of the expected relation between race and age suggests that other inves- tigators of aging should be attentive to this aspect of changing cohort composition over the life course. Structure o f Attitude Strength One Construct or Many? To the extent that antecedents of attitude strength are all mani- festations of a single underlying construct, they should exhibit similar trajectories across the adult years. Whereas susceptibility to attitude change, attitude importance, and perceived knowl- edge manifested nearly identical relations with age, attitude cer- tainty increased less dramatically early in the life cycle and declined more slowly, beginning at an earlier age. More strik- ingly, different attitude attributes correlated differently with gen- der, race, and education. Averaging across Studies 4, 5, a n d 6 , attitude importance was significantly higher among women than among men ( d = 0.06, z = 3.43, p < .01), whereas men reported higher levels of knowledge, d = 0.24, t(1456) = 5.60, p < .01, and certainty, d = 0.14, t(1691) = 2.96,p < .01. Non-Whites reported higher attitude importance (averaging across Studies 4, 5, and 6; d = 0.14, z = 5.65, p < .01) and higher certainty than Whites, d = 0.13, t(1691) = 2.70, p < .01, but Whites reported having more knowledge than non-Whites, d = 0.i2, t(1456) = 2.83, p < .01. And more educated people reported higher attitude importance (averaging across Studies 4, 5, and 6; d = 0.07, z = 3.31, p < .01 ) and much higher knowledge, d = 0.43, t (1456) = 9.93, p < .01, but education was completely unrelated to certainty. Thus, no two of these attributes manifested the same relations with all three demographics. Taken together, then, this body of evidence challenges the single-construct view of attitude strength. In fact, the distinction between importance and perceived knowledge is inconsistent with even the modest suggestion that importance and perceived knowledge reflect a single latent factor (e.g., Erber et al., 1995; Pomerantz et al., 1995). It therefore seems wise, when studying attitude strength, to measure multiple dimensions, each with multiple items (to eliminate measurement error), and to assess the effects of each dimension individually, no matter what a factor analysis suggests about the potential to combine dimen- sions into a single meta-dimension. Meta-Attitudinal Versus Operative Indexes o f Strength Although attitude change susceptibility fell after early adult- hood and rose again late in life, people are apparently not aware of this, Rather, in Study 4, we observed a negative linear relation between age and perceived susceptibility to attitude change. Therefore, people were partly correct, in that they perceived susceptibility to drop after early adulthood, but they were incor- rect in their beliefs about the rest of the life cycle. Likewise, partial accuracy appeared when gauged by correlations between susceptibility to change and other demographics. Women cor- rectly recognized that they were more susceptible to attitude change than men, and people recognized that there was no robust relation of race to attitude change. However, highly educated people perceived themselves to be especially open to attitude change, whereas, in fact, they were unusually resistant to change. All of this reinforces the claim that meta-attitudinal measures of attitude properties can differ significantly from operative mea- sures of those same properties (see also Bassili, 1996; Krosnick et al., 1993). Thus, there seems to be theoretical value in further exploration of the origins and consequences of both meta-attitu- dinal and operative indexes, because the conclusion one reaches in any given investigation may hinge on which type of measure is used. Limitations Aging Effects Versus Birth Cohort Effects The age-related differences in attitude attributes documented here could be due to progress through the life cycle, as we have presumed, or they could be due to differences between birth cohorts in the nature of their socializing experiences (Mann- helm, 1952). That is, the young adults in our samples may manifest constant attitude attributes throughout their lives, and the older adults may manifest different but constant attributes throughout their lives. The differences we have documented may be attributable not to changes over the life course but to differ- ences in the early life experiences of these individuals. It is impossible to rule out this alternative explanation with the data we analyzed, because age and cohort effects are inevitably confounded. However, many longitudinal studies conducted over 30 years indicate that attitude change has been more common among young adults than among older adults, reinforcing the generalizability of the early life cycle pattern we saw (e.g., Alwin et al., 1991; Krosnick & Alwin, 1989). And even the relatively small number of attitude change data sets we analyzed were collected over a span of more than 10 years, long enough for members of the youngest cohort in the earliest data set to move into middle adulthood when the latest data set was col- lected. The replication across the three data sets provides at least tentative support for the generalizability of our effects across cohorts. As additional survey data are collected from ATTITUDE STRENGTH 1407 different birth cohorts at different points in their life cycles v i a methods such as those used in Studies 1, 2, and 3 here, it will be possible to further explore the generalizability o f our results regarding the life cycle. O b j e c t D o m a i n s Another useful direction for future research would be to ex- plore the relation between age and susceptibility to attitude change in other domains o f objects. Our studies and most in this literature have focused on political attitudes. Early adulthood is typically the period during which many individuals begin at- tending to and becoming behaviorally engaged in the political process, whereas people may become cognitively and socially disengaged from politics late in life. Some issues become espe- cially relevant to people as they reach the end o f the life cycle (e.g., government spending on social security), but most social and political issues probably seem increasingly irrelevant to people as they grow old. This dynamic may account for the life cycle shifts we observed. In contrast, attitudes toward other sorts o f objects may crys- tallize much earlier in life and may be no more susceptible to change during early adulthood than later in life. Food prefer- ences, for example, may be established during childhood and may remain relatively invulnerable to change throughout adult- hood. And some attitudes may remain central to p e o p l e ' s lives throughout old age, so they may become no more open to change late in the life cycle. Thus, the life stages hypothesis may be correct regarding only some attitudes. Alternatively, the crystallization o f any given attitude may not occur independently o f other attitudes. Instead, life experiences across a broad range o f domains may contribute to an increase in the stability o f all attitudes early in adulthood. That is, through the accumalation o f diverse experiences, individuals may arrive at a constellation o f attitudes and beliefs that capture a sense o f order and understanding o f the social environment. Once a consonant system o f attitudes and beliefs i s established, individ- uals may resist changes to any element within the system. Such resistance may be driven b y the motivation to avoid dissonance within the system or by a general sense o f mastery o f o n e ' s social environment and confidence in the validity of o n e ' s views. And late in life, as people have more restricted behavioral op- portunities and interact with more narrow groups o f people, all o f their preferences may weaken. Partly consistent with this latter view, several diverse lines o f research suggest that early adulthood is a period o f relative plasticity across many domains. For example, personality traits gradually increase in stability during young adulthood (Nessel- roade & Baltes, 1974) and become highly stable across the remaining adult years (Caspi, Bem, & Elder, 1989; I~osta, McCrae, & Arenberg, 1983; McCrae & Costa, 1994; Schuerger, Tait, & Tavernelli, 1982; Schuerger & Witt, 1989; Schuerger, Zarrella, & Hotz, 1989). Similarly, self-images exhibit consider- able instability during early adulthood but show much greater stability later in life (Mortimer, Finch, & Kumka, 1982). Many social identities, too, show this pattern o f stability. Identification with a political party, for example, tends to be substantially less stable during young adulthood than it is during middle adulthood ( A l w i n et al., 1991; A l w i n & Krosnick, 1991). Even antecedents o f attitude strength, such as attitude-relevant knowledge, are less stable in early adulthood than they are later in adulthood (Jennings, 1996). The findings o f each o f these lines o f inquiry, along with our own results, provide convergent evidence o f the malleability o f young adulthood. These additional indexes o f malleability suggest that the pattern we observed here regarding early adulthood may describe a wide range o f psychological phenomena. 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Received January 5, 1998 Revision received July 12, 1998 Accepted July 22, 1998 • Call for N o m i n a t i o n s The Publications and Communications (P&C) Board has opened nominations for the editorships of the J o u r n a l of Abnormal Psychology, J o u r n a l of Comparative Psychology, J o u r n a l of Exl~rimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: Attitudes and Social Cognition,Professional Psychology: Research and P r a c t i c e , Psychological Review, and Psychology, Public Policy, a n d L a w for the years 2001-2006. Milton E. Strauss, Phi3; Charles T. Snowdon, Phi); James H. Neely, Phi); Arie W. Kruglanski, PhD; Patrick H. DeLeon,.PhD, JD; Robert A. Bjork, PhD; and Bruce D. Sales, JD, PhD, respectively, are the incumbent editors. Candidates should be members o f APA and should be available to start receiving manuscripts in early 2000 to prepare for issues published in 2001. Please note that the P&C Board encourages participation by members o f underrepresented groups in the publication process and would particularly welcome such nominees. Self-nominations are also encouraged. To nominate candidates, prepare a statement of one page or less in support of each candidate. Send nominations to the attention of the appropriate search c h a i r - - • David L. Rosenhan, PhD, for J o u r n a l o f A b n o r m a l Psychology Lauren B. Resnick, Phi), for J o u r n a l of Comparative Psychology Joe L. Martinez, Jr., PhD, for j E P : Learning, Memory, and Cognition Sara B. Kiesler, PhD, for J P S P : Attitudes a n d Social Cognition Judith P. Worell, PhD, for Professional Psychology: Research and P r a c t i c e Lyle E. Bourne, Jr., Phi), for Psychological Review Lucia A. Gilbert, PhD, for Psychology, Public Policy, a n d Law - - t o the following address: c/o Karen Sellman, P&C Board Search Liaison Room 2004 American Psychological Association 750 First Street, NE Washington, DC 20002-4242 The first review of nominations will begin December 7, 1998. 
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work_kjisevtlevcirdhgkczawatlmq	----	The Journal of Neuroscience June 1986, 6(6): 1643-1661 Preference for Autogenous Song by Auditory Neurons in a Song System Nucleus of the White-Crowned Sparrow Daniel Margoliash Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125 Neuronal activity in the hyperstriatum ventrale, pars caudale (HVc) is associated with and necessary for the production of song by songbirds. HVc neurons also respond to acoustic stim- uli. The present investigation assessed the auditory response properties of neurons in HVc by testing with the individual bird’s own (autogenous) song and the songs of conspecific birds. Throughout HVc, multiunit clusters preferentially responded to autogenous song. Selectivity for autogenous song was apparent even when compared to similar intradialect songs, and neuronal clusters preferred autogenous song over the (tutor) song model that birds heard during the impressionable phase early in life. The responses to autogenous song were stable in the adult. HVc neurons were sensitive to the acoustic parameters of autogenous song and consistently exhibited a diminished response to mod- ified song. In Contras& field L neurons, which are presumed to be a source of auditory input to HVc, did not exhibit selectivity for autogenous song and showed no special sensitivity to the acoustic parameters of autogenous song. These observations im- plicate song (motor) learning in shaping the response properties of HVc, but not field L, auditory neurons. It is proposed that HVc auditory neurons may contribute to a bird’s ability to dis- criminate among conspecific songs by acting as an “autogenous reference” during perception of those songs. The song of oscine passerines (songbirds) is an attractive system for investigating the neural mechanisms of learning. In many species, song shows local variation, termed dialects (e.g., Marler and Tamura, 1962). Within each dialect, song conforms to a common pattern, although there are individual differences im- portant for intradialect recognition (Falls, 1982). Dialects are culturally transmitted by young birds learning the songs of adult conspecifics (individuals of the same species), so that the ac- quisition of song is disrupted by sensory deprivation early in life. In the white-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys), isolation of juveniles from a conspecific song model during an impressionable phase (critical period) that closes at 50-100 d of age renders the adult songs abnormal, although these songs retain some wild-type attributes (Marler, 1970). Furthermore, deafening prior to the acquisition of song renders the adult pattern completely abnormal and unstable (Konishi, 1965). In contrast, deafening an adult white-crowned sparrow has little or no effect on the maintenance of adult song (Konishi, 1965). Thus, the motor substrates for song are fixed during the emer- Received Aug. 27, 1985; revised Nov. 4, 1985; accepted Nov. 5, 1985. I thank Dr. Mark Konishi, who provided support and encouragement through- out these experiments. The manuscript benefitted considerably from the comments of Drs. Catherine Carr, Mark Konishi, Terry Takahashi, Susan Volman, and Hermann Wagner. The 40 songs used as stimuli in these experiments will be deposited with the Cornell University Library of Natural Sounds, catalog no. 35241-35280. This work was supported by a Del E. Webb research fellowship to D. M. and NIMH Grant MH 40455 to M.K. Correspondence should be addressed to Dr. Margoliash, Department of Anat- omy, University of Chicago, 1025 E. 57th St., Chicago, IL 60637. Copyright 0 1986 Society for Neuroscience 0270-6474/86/061643-19$02.00/O gence (“crystallization”) of adult song by comparison of vocal feedback to an internalized song reference (“template”) acquired during the impressionable phase. These observations demon- strate that the genetic contribution is insufficient to specify the wild-type song of an adult white-crowned sparrow. Initial insights into the neural correlates of song learning have recently been described. Neurons in the hyperstriatum ventrale, pars caudale (HVc), a telencephalic nucleus necessary for and active during song production (McCasland and Konishi, 198 1; Nottebohm et al., 1976), respond to auditory stimuli (Katz and Gurney, 198 1; Margoliash, 1983a, 1984; Margoliash and Ko- nishi, 1985; McCasland and Konishi, 1981; Paton and Notte- bohm, 1984). One relatively rare class of HVc auditory neurons, the “song-specific” neurons, are strictly combination-sensitive, requiring a temporal sequence of consecutive song phrases to elicit excitation (Margoliash, 1983a). Song-specific neurons ex- hibit intra- and interdialect song selectivity comparable to the neighbor/stranger discrimination of territorial white-crowned sparrows. The selectivity of these neurons is conferred by their specificity to the acoustic parameters of the individual bird’s own (autogenous) song, and it is autogenous song that is con- sistently the optimal stimulus for song-specific neurons. Spec- ificity for the fine details of an individual’s song clearly suggests a role for song learning in establishing the response properties of song-specific neurons. The use of autogenous song to search for these infrequently encountered neurons, however, may have introduced a sampling bias (Margoliash, 1983a). The present study, with multiunit recordings, demonstrates that the response properties of the majority of HVc auditory neurons are also selective for autogenous song, proving that these properties re- sult from some aspect of song learning. Furthermore, the re- sponse properties of field L neurons, a putative source of au- ditory input to HVc (Kelley and Nottebohm, 1979), do not exhibit such selectivity. Thus, auditory response properties in the adult HVc may result from plasticity local to HVc. Brief reports of this work have appeared (Margoliash, 1984; Mar- goliash and Konishi, 1985). Materials and Methods The procedures used for recording the songs of birds, the computer techniques used to manipulate the song stimuli, and the preparation of animals for acute recordings have been described (Margoliash, 1983a, b). Briefly, birds were housed individually in sound-attenuation cham- bers and induced to sing by subcutaneous implantation of testosterone. An individual’s song was tape-recorded and entered into a computer (PDP 1 l/40). The zero-crossings and amplitude envelope of the signal identified the time-varying frequency and amplitude parameters of the song, permitting accurate reproduction of the original song while facil- itating its modification (Margoliash, 1983b). One to several days before the days of experiment, a stainless-steel pin used to restrain head move- ments was glued to the skull of anesthetized birds (Equithesin, Jensen Salsbery). During experiments, the birds were acutely anesthetized with 20% urethane (Sigma), body temperature was monitored intracloacally, and maintained with external heating. The head was immobilized by fixing the pin, while the body, wrapped in a cloth jacket and comfortably 1643 1644 Margoliash Vol. 6, No. 6, Jun. 1986 A B Figure 1. Quantification of mul- tiunit activity. A, Five consective traces of multiunit response to the stimulus (C’), the bird’s own song. B, Averaged responses from 50 rep- etitions of the stimulus, termed “summed response” (see text). The baseline represents the level of activ- ity from spontaneous activity. C, Bird’s own song, a Bodega Bay dialect C song, is represented as functions of frequency and amplitude vs. time. Bodega Bay songs comprise 3 distinct parts, or phrases: the introductory whistle (I+‘), followed by a buzz (B), and trill (T). Often, as in this case, the first phrase comprises 2 distinct whis- tles. The trill may be further subdi- vided into syllables and notes. The strong activity to the first and third phrases seen in A is reflected in the histogram in B. Note also the post- stimulus inhibition below baseline ac- tivity. All traces are time-aligned. suspended, was relatively free to move. A small fenestra in the cranium exposed the dura overlying either left or right HVc or field L. Penetra- tions with glass-coated platinum/iridium electrodes were systematically placed at regular intervals (typically 100 or 200 pm for HVc, 300 pm for field L). Search stimuli included tone and noise bursts as well as song, but in these experiments the use of song to quantify neuronal response properties was emphasized. At the end of an experiment, the bird was administered a lethal dose of Equithesin, exsanguinated with saline, and fixed in 10% formalin by intracardial perfusion. Electrolytic lesions were reliably observed in standard frozen sections (30 pm) stained with cresyl violet. The waveforms produced by multineuronal activity were quantified by measuring the rectified area under the curve. To achieve this, mul- tineuronal activitv (e.g.. Fig. 1A) was diaitallv sampled at 5 kHz. Once _._I - digitized, each sample was rect&d, thai is, ihe absolute value of each sample point subtracted from the value measured at quiescence was calculated. The values for each 50 consecutive samples (i.e., 10 msec) were summed together as an index of the total neuronal activity during the 10 msec bin. Digital sampling of the neuronal activity commenced with the onset of a song stimulus (e.g., Fig. 1C) and ended 5 set later (i.e., 500 consecutive 10 msec bins were collected), to permit sampling after the recovery of the baseline background activity. (The song stimuli used were never longer than 2.8 sec.) The repetition rate was one song per 12 sec. After each repetition of a song, the values for that iteration were added to a running average of bin values maintained over all stimulus presentations. This function, termed “summed response” (e.g., MSEC Fig. lB), represented the time-varying neuronal response to the stim- ulus. The value expected from spontaneous activity was calculated as the average value over the last second of the summed response (Fig. 1 B). A measure of the overall response strength, in arbitrary units, was calculated over the duration of the stimulus as the sum of all bin values above spontaneous baseline minus the sum of all bin values below spontaneous baseline. The relative response strength of a test song as compared to the individual bird’s own song was represented as a ratio of the overall response strength of test song over bird’s own song. This technique offers several advantages over counting spikes in mul- tineuronal activity. First, in contrast to choosing an essentially arbitrary threshold level for counting the spiking activity of a cluster of neurons, the present technique does not require a threshold to be specified. Thus, a potential source of unconscious bias introduced by the experimenter is eliminated. Furthermore, the technique is sensitive to the larger signal produced by several spikes occurring simultaneously and, as a result of averaging, can extract signals embedded in noise. To minimize the greater weighting assigned to larger spikes, the rectified value for each sample was not squared, which would have resulted in a standard mea- sure-the rms value of the signal. In any case, the bias toward larger spikes is constant across all stimuli at a given recording site. The strong dependency of the magnitude of the measured response on the distance between neurons and the recording surface of the elec- trode constitutes the primary disadvantage of this technique. To control for any fluctuations in the strength of response, the response to the reference stimulus (autogenous song-see below) was monitored every The Journal of Neuroscience Neural Correlates of Song Learning 1645 Table 1. Number of comparisons between the bird’s own song (BOS) and other songs No. sites No. comparisons: BOS vs Field Bird BOS HVc L Rev TB Fra AFra AAmu Tutor Dialect RI5 BBay Y46 Ab Yl3 BBay Y85 BBay R7 la BBay R7P BBay Y62 BBay Y48a Ab 033 Chc Y8 Failed Y14 Rev-FM Y87 For-FM 20 6 13 3 2 4 1 4 16 14 9 18 4 4 2 2x4 1x4 13 13 13 (10) (10) (10) (10) 4 2 3x4 2x4 8 2 6x4 4x4 2 4 2 5x4 5x4 4 2 1 1x4 1x4 (17) 13 9 9 (18) (13) (17) (18) (4 x 6) (39) (37) (34) (37) (17 x 6) Of the 8 birds in these experiments wild-caught as adults, 6 sang normal Bodega Bay dialect songs (BBay), while 2 sang an abnormal song (Ab). The 4 other birds were hand-raised and tutored in the laboratory. Two ofthose learned computer- synthesized songs incorporating forward (For-FM) or reversed (Rev-FM) frequency modulation, while a third failed to learn Rev-FM song (Failed). A fourth bird chose the white-crown song when given a choice between 5 sympatric species songs and conspecific song (Chc). At multiple recording sites in HVc and/or field L, the bird’s own song (BOS) was compared to reversed BOS (Rev), tone-burst (TB), and frequency-shuffled (Frq) song variants, frequency (AFrq) and amplitude @Amp) shifted versions ofBOS, as well as the songs birds weTe tutored with early in life (Tutor) and intradialect conspecific songs (Dialect). The data for field L are shown in brackets. For pairs of numbers, the first represents the number of recording sites, the second the number of different songs presented at each site. o Birds with chronically implanted electrodes. 11 x 3 13 x 3 (10 X 3) 2x3 2 x 10 6x3 2 x 10 8x3 2 x 10 3x3 2x3 16 x 2 (17 x 2) 14 x 2 9 (17) 15-30 min. In many cases, the magnitude of the response to a stimulus did not vary substantially over a period of several hours. Thus, although this technique is inappropriate when the absolute efficacy of a stimulus is to be quantified across several recording sites, it is well suited for quantification of the relative efficacy of several stimuli at a fixed re- cording site. Several experiments necessitated the comparison, at a given recording site, of the overall response strength elicited by song stimuli of different durations. It should be noted that the duration of a complex stimulus will affect any overall measure of response strength in a complex way, depending on the degree of phasic and tonic components of the response and on the relative duration of the components of the stimulus that elicit excitation and inhibition. Fortunately, experimental factors served to moderate these potential problems. In particular, a given neuronal cluster in HVc typically exhibited a similar profile for the summed response to each intradialect song. Thus, the relative contribution of the phasic and tonic components to the overall response strength was relatively constant across the various song stimuli. Second, many of the songs used in these experiments were samples drawn from one dialect, and thus incorporated phrase components of similar durations. In this report, for all comparisons across songs of differing duration, the overall response strengths were calculated uncorrected for song duration, as is reported herein, and normalized for song duration. Although the values of relative response strength were slightly affected by the correction, the statistical significance of the results remained unaltered (with the ex- ceptions noted). One control experiment (see Results) required a series of recording sessions in birds carrying electrodes chronically implanted in HVc. For these, the aforementioned preparatory procedure was modified. The end of each electrode was attached in electrical contact with a small pin. The electrode was designed to permit the placement of as many as 8 electrodes in both hemispheres’ HVc. During a single surgical pro- cedure, birds whose individual song was unknown to the experimenter were anesthetized with Equithesin. When an electrode penetration into HVc identified neurons with robust song-related auditory activity, the electrode was fixed into position with acrylic cement so that the shaft of the pin protruded from the cement. An appropriate recording site was defined as a multiunit cluster exhibiting robust excitatory responses to one of a set of the three intradialect songs (see below) to be used in subsequent chronic recording sessions. An attempt was made to position the second electrode of the pair at an appropriate site in HVc within close proximity of the first electrode (typically within 300 pm). Subsequent to the recovery from surgery, the birds participated in a series of chronic recording sessions. A fully awake individual was re- strained as described above and presented with various songs. Record- ings were made with each pair of electrodes serving as inputs to a differential amplifier, thus minimizing artifactual signals induced by body movements. While the recording sites and electrodes remained viable, with these procedures it was possible to record chronically from as many as four pairs of electrodes simultaneously over a period of days and months. Occasionally, while recording from the chronically implanted birds, and infrequently with the acutely anesthetized preparations, the dis- tinctive bursting nature of the background activity in HVc (see Results) disappeared. Concomitant with the change in background activity, the responsiveness to auditory stimuli was compromised. These changes served as accurate physiological predictors of an ensuing brief episode of struggling in response to restraint. Struggling was not a response to pain: The chronic recording procedure merely involved an initial slip- on connection to the firmly implanted pins. Within 15-45 set after cessation of struggling, the characteristic background activity returned, and robust auditory responses were again evident. The fluctuation in activity suggests that the responsiveness of HVc auditory neurons is sensitive to the behavioral state of the animal. I have also previously observed (unpublished results) that activity in HVc is quite sensitive to the depth of anesthesia and the anesthetic agent. To minimize variability in the results, therefore, data collection was suspended during episodes of altered background activity. The data for this report were obtained from 12 birds (Table 1) induced to sing with exogenous testosterone. No systematic differences were 1646 Margoliash Vol. 6, No. 6, Jun. 1986 A f 20 I RESPONSE RE. BOS Figure 2. Response to intradialect songs relative to response to bird’s own song (BOS). A, Overall response to each of 3 sample songs: W73 (black), G88 (coarse stipple), and W9 1 Cfine stipple). Virtually all pre- sentations of these songs elicited weaker response (< 1 .O) than BOS (n = 48 per sample song). B, Response to each phrase of sample song relative to the response to the corresponding phrase of BOS: whistle (black), buzz (coarse stipple), and trill yine stipple). At most recording sites, all phrases of each sample song elicited a weaker response than BOS. observed in the response properties of the 5 males (033, R71, R75, R77, Y 14) and the 7 females, so the data were combined for statistical purposes. For 5 acutely anesthetizedanimals (033, R75, Y8, Y 14, Y73), the responses of 69 neuronal clusters distributed throughout HVc were auantified with respect to their selectivity for song. In 3 of the birds (033, Y 14, Y73), an additional 45 clusters thus quantified were also recorded in field L. while in another bird devoted solelv to field L cY87). 30 sites were quantified. Three birds (R71, R77, Y62) that were per- manently implanted with 11 pairs of electrodes in HVc prior to the induction of song survived over an extended period ranging from 94 to 130 d, during which the viable recording sites were sampled a total of 60 times. In the final acute recording session with these 3 birds, an extensive battery of 10 intradialect songs was presented. To compensate for a technical failure that resulted in the loss of the final day’s data for Y62, another acutely anesthetized individual (Y85) was also presented with the 10 intradialect songs at each of two recording sites. The re- maining 2 individuals (Y46, Y48) yielded little data. Results Response properties in H Vc Several physiological criteria helped identify the HVc: After penetrating through the overlying area parahippocampus, elec- trodes encroaching on HVc encountered a dramatic increase in spontaneous activity, which was highly irregular and of a dis- tinctive, bursting nature. Throughout the HVc, many neurons exhibited clear responses to acoustic stimuli. At some locations, neurons responded only to tones of higher or (infrequently) lower frequency than present in song; at these sites, song was a poor stimulus. At other locations, no acoustic stimulus pre- sented was effective, or all acoustic stimuli elicited only weak responses. Often, however, neurons responded to tone and bandpass-filtered noise bursts of frequencies occurring in white- crowned sparrow song (~3-6.5 kHz). For these neurons, song often elicited strong excitation. Consistently, the individual bird’s own song proved to be a most effective stimulus. Throughout HVc, responses to autog- enous song shared a number of similarities, many of which are represented in Figure 1. This multiunit cluster comprised at least 4 different units (Fig. 1.4). While the largest of the units exhibited weak or no response to the song stimulus, the other units exhibited stimulus-related activity, as judged by excitation during song and inhibition following the termination of song. The summed response (Fig. le) for this and most other re- cording sites was excitatory throughout the bird’s own song. Overall inhibition to autogenous song was observed at only one of the 92 sites that exhibited robust auditory responses, while inhibition of background activity after the termination of song was common, occurring at 54% (50/92) of the recording sites. The 92 presentations of autogenous song comprised a total of 30 1 phrases, of which only 7 phrases elicited inhibition (see Fig. 1 for terminology of components of song). Different phrases often elicited varying amounts of excitation. For example, the multiunit cluster of Figure 1 responded strongly to the whistle and trill of the bird’s own song, while giving only weak responses to the intervening buzz. In birds whose song comprised 3 or more phrases, for 22% of the recording sites (19/88) one phrase elicited at least half of the total response. That phrase was com- monly ( 13/ 19) the trill, typically the longest phrase of the white- crowned sparrow’s song. In 35% (31/88) of the recording sites, 2 phrases contributed to 80% or more of the response. Those 2 phrases were often the whistle and trill (25/3 1). The buzz typ- ically elicited the least response, although occasionally (4/88) the buzz was the most effective phrase of autogenous song. Selectivity for autogenous song Six of the birds contributing to these experiments sang individ- ual versions of the Bodega Bay, California, dialect, while 2 fe- males from that locale produced unusual songs, with abnormal whistle and lacking either trill or buzz (Table 1). In 7 of these birds, HVc auditory neurons were tested for selectivity among different songs of the same dialect. For each bird the efficacy of the bird’s own song was compared to 3 “sample” songs (W73, G88, W91; see Fig. 6) chosen as a small set representative of the range of variation within the Bodega Bay dialect. Although all these songs were similar to each other, in 135 pairwise comparisons between autogenous song and an intradialect sam- ple song, in only 10 did one of the sample songs elicit a stronger response than the individual’s own song (Fig. 2A). Averaged across all 48 comparisons, each sample song elicited roughly half of the response to autogenous song (W73: 0.407 f 0.644; G88: 0.476 + 0.464; W91: 0.610 + 0.346). The sample songs elicited excitatory responses of a nature similar to the response to the bird’s own song. In comparing responses to autogenous and sample songs, song phrases were a useful unit of song for analysis. If a phrase (e.g., whistle) from the bird’s own song did not elicit excitation, neither did the corresponding phrase (e.g., whistle) from the conspecific sample songs. The 13 5 presentations of the sample songs comprised a total of 432 phrases. Only 10% (42/432) of these phrases elicited greater response than the corresponding phrases from the birds’ own songs (Fig. 28). Frequently, a phrase from the bird’s own song elicited much stronger excitation than the corresponding phrase from a sample song. Thus, the diminished responses to the sample songs reflected a decrease in the efficacy of all phrases of conspecific song. The degree of intradialect song selectivity of HVc multiunit clusters was further quantified. At 2 recording sites in each of 3 birds (R7 1, R77, Y85; see Fig. 3), the responses to 10 different songs, all from the Bodega Bay dialect, were compared with the response to autogenous song. The 10 test songs (Fig. 4) were The Journal of Neuroscience Neural Correlates of Song Learning 1647 81R71 6- I 1 I I I 500 1000 1500 2000 8- R77 6- !z 4- I Y m- 2- 560 10’00 15bo 20;; 81Y85 6- N Figure 3. Songs of 3 birds. At 2 re- cording sites for each bird, the re- 2- i 500 sponse to autogenous song was com- pared to the responses to an extensive intradialect repertoire (see Fig. 4). Note the songs are similar to each oth- er. Frequency (ordinate) vs time (ab- S&X2). quite similar in general morphology to each other and to the songs of the experimental subjects. Each test song comprised an initial phrase of 2 whistles of similar frequency, a rapid frequency- and amplitude-modulation buzz typically of higher mean frequency, a two- or three-part trill, and an occasional terminal buzz. These 10 test songs spanned the range of vari- ation found within the Bodega Bay dialect (unpublished obser- vations). Although the test songs were rather similar to autog- enous song, of 60 pairwise comparisons (Table 2), for only 10 did a test song elicit a stronger response than the bird’s own song (6 if compensated for song duration). Thus, the selectivity for song observed in HVc reflected genuine specificity for au- togenous song, rather than being capriciously generated by use of the limited set of sample songs. Stability of song selectivity A final experiment was conducted to verify that the aforemen- tioned song selectivity was not capriciously generated by ex- periment-introduced sampling bias. Four adult birds (R7 1, R77, Y48, Y62) whose songs were not known to the experimenter were chosen. In these birds, 12 pairs of electrodes were im- planted in HVc (see Materials and Methods). Chronic recording sessions commenced following recovery from surgery, and tes- tosterone was subsequently implanted. As song developed, the magnitude of the response elicited by the sample songs exhibited considerable fluctuation from day to day (Fig. 5). Since the magnitude of response for the 3 songs covaried, the fluctuation was probably due to the movement of the electrode relative to nearby neurons, perhaps as a result of morphological modifi- cation as HVc responded to hormone. After the birds came into full song, autogenous song was included as one of the test songs. In light of the significant daily fluctuation in response magnitude, it is remarkable that half of all recording sites exhibited a stronger response when first tested with autogenous song than to any of the prior presentations of the sample songs (Fig. 5). Furthermore, for all 60 pairwise com- parisons of autogenous and sample songs in all birds at all re- cording sites over all the days of experiment, autogenous song elicited the stronger response (5 comparisons changed sign when corrected for song duration). Although the magnitude of the response to song was labile, the profile of the summed response remained stable over a pe- 1648 Margoliash Vol. 6, No. 6, Jun. 1986 ’ G83 6 1 560 10-00 1500 2000 I]044 1 ” , ;4 ---\\\\\\\ 2H 500 1000 1500 2000 560 rdoo 1500 2000 ’ W76 6. ; 47 -- 2. 500 1000 1500 2000 "1 W78 0 6 ;4 2 500 1000 1500 2000 VI91 560 10.00 15bo 2000 “1 Y80 500 1000 1500 2000 Figure 4. Songs of 10 Bodega Bay white-crowned sparrows representative of the range of intradialect variation. The trills are more constant between individuals than are the whistles or buzzes. The 3 sample songs (W73, G88, W91) are included. Note the songs are similar to each other. riod of many weeks. For 5 of the recording sites in the chronically implanted birds, neuronal activity could be recorded for at least 25 d. At 3 of these locations, neuronal clusters exhibited largely invariant responses to autogenous song, as judged by the con- stancy of the shape of the summed response over a period of 97 d (Fig. 6, A-C). At another site, somewhat greater variability was encountered (Fig. 60) while the fifth site exhibited sub- stantial fluctuation. The invariance of the profile of the summed response to autogenous song suggests that the response prop- erties of HVc auditory neurons are not normally modified in the adult white-crowned sparrow. Translocation of the electrode to a nearby recording site or cellular damage and recovery over a period of many weeks may reasonably explain the variability exhibited at some recording sites. Comparison of autogenous song with tutor song The adult, autogenous song of the white-crowned sparrow may be an accurate reproduction of the song model tutored early in life. Alternatively, a white-crowned sparrow may fail to learn the tutor song model (Konishi, 1985; Marler, 1970). In such a case, a bird sings an abnormal song wholly different from the tutor model. Recordings in 3 birds (033, Y8, Y 14) were directed at the question of whether HVc auditory neurons prefer autog- enous song over the songs that the birds were tutored early in life during the impressionable phase. These 3 birds were hand- reared. Their exposure to song during the impressionable phase and their subsequent singing histories were known. 033 was tutored with a choice paradigm-five sympatric species songs, including a Lincoln sparrow song, as well as a conspecific song (designated WCSCHC). Initially, 033 sang 3 distinct songs: 2 improvised alien songs and an accurate copy of the white crown tutor song (Fig. 7; see also Fig. 9, Konishi, 1985). By the time of the present experiments, however, 033 had discarded the 2 alien songs in preference for his conspecific song. 033 received 16 penetrations into HVc spaced at 100 pm. In 15 pairwise comparisons of autogenous song and WCSCHC, the responses to the conspecific tutor song were generally quite strong (0.989 f 0.310) and the tutor song elicited a stronger response in 6 cases. Thus, in this bird, HVc auditory neurons did not prefer autogenous song to the tutor song (p > 0.1; one- tailed sign test). In contrast, autogenous song elicited a stronger response than the alien Lincoln sparrow tutor song in all 16 pairwise comparisons, and the responses to the alien song were consistently weak (0.324 + 0.4 13). The Journal of Neuroscience Neural Correlates of Song Learning 1649 DAYS AFTER HORMONE IMPLANT Figure 5. Stability of song selectivity. Response to the sample songs (W73, GM, W91) at 6 recording sites in 3 birds (solid lines). After the birds sang, response to autogenous song was also measured (dashed lines). On any one day, autogenous song always elicited the strongest response. Note that the strength of response for all songs covaried (see text). Response is measured in absolute, arbitrary units. Across graphs, the height of the ordinate represents the same strength of response. Y 14 sang a moderately accurate copy of an artificial, com- puter-synthesized tutor song consisting of artificial introductory tone bursts followed by a trill consisting of unnatural elements with a low to high frequency direction of frequency modulation (Fig. 8; see also Konishi, 1978). Y 14’s song shared many im- portant features with the tutor song, including “pure” whistles with minimal frequency modulation, nearly identical mean fre- quencies for the whistles (3.48 and 4.56 kHz for Y14 vs 3.40 kHz and 4.30 kHz for the tutor song), and reversed direction of frequency modulation in the trill. The details of the trill, however, varied significantly from the tutor model. Y14 re- ceived 8 penetrations into HVc. Of 9 HVc recording sites in Y 14, for 7 the bird’s own song elicited a stronger response than the tutor song, while at the other 2 sites the tutor song elicited Table 2. Pairwise comparison of the efficacy of bird’s own song (BOS) with 10 intradialect test songs BOS Test songs Site G77 G83 G88 044 W73 W76 W78 W91 Y75 Y80 LY R71 ; 0.82 0.26 0.64 0.86 0.59 1.01 0.72 0.61 0.56 0.49 0.011 0.75 0.29 0.78 0.28 0.28 1.06 0.27 0.21 0.17 0.16 0.011 R77 ; 0.93 0.61 0.81 0.89 1.05 0.45 0.50 0.62 0.53 1.03 0.055 1.20 0.24 0.53 1.07 0.67 1.55 0.76 0.36 0.51 0.52 0.172 Y85 ; 1.59 0.42 0.80 0.74 0.62 0.84 0.57 0.48 0.68 0.88 0.011 1.26 0.49 0.69 0.85 0.91 0.96 0.51 0.27 0.57 1.32 0.055 Six recording sites in 3 birds. Values are strength of response for test songs with respect to BOS; for values x 1.0 the test song elicited a weaker response than BOS. For R71 and R77, 25 repetitions per song; for YSS, 20 repetitions per song. One song/ 12 sec. E One-tailed sign test. 1650 Margoliash Vol. 6, No. 6, Jun. 1966 Figure 6. Long-term stability of profile of summed response to autogenous song. Numbers are days after first test with autogenous song. Each panel represents one recording site. The shape of the response does not change in A and B, changes slightly in C, and is more variable in D. Arrowheads demark the offset of each phrase of autogenous song, which was R7 1 for A and B, Y62 for C, and R77 for D. Response, in arbitrary units, vs time; abscissa represents 3.0 sec. marginally (2 and 15%) stronger responses (p = 0.09; one-tailed sign test). Overall, the responses to the tutor song were reason- ably strong (0.667 k 0.306). Y8 was also tutored the reversed frequency modulated tutor song; but failing to learn it, the bird sang a song wholly different from the tutor song (Fig. 8). Y8 received 14 penetrations into HVc. At all 14 recording sites the bird’s own song elicited a stronger response than the tutor song (p < 0.00 1; one-tailed sign test). In contrast to Y 14, the responses to the tutor song in Y8 were generally very weak (0.287 -I- 0.336). In summary, the efficacy of tutor song was measured either by overall response strength to tutor song or by the number of times tutor song elicited a stronger response than autogenous song. Autogenous song typically elicited a stronger response, and a positive correlation was observed between the similarity of autogenous and tutor songs, and the efficacy of tutor song. Lack of local d&erences in song selectivity in H Vc The spatial distribution of the song selectivity ofresponses with- in HVc was explored with 2 different search strategies. Three birds (033, Y 14, Y73) received a series of closely spaced pen- etrations. For example, Y73 received 8 penetrations spaced at The Journal of Neuroscience Neural Correlates of Song Learning 1651 8 ,WCSCHC T&l 10’00 l&O 20‘00 8 ILINCOLN 560 1600 15-00 20'00 100 pm in a single rostrocaudal row through HVc. In some cases, it was possible to record from 2 or more sites in HVc separated in depth by 200 pm. All 13 of the recording sites were tested with autogenous song and the set of intradialect sample songs. Without fail, at all sites (all but one song at one site if corrected for song duration) Y73’s song elicited a stronger re- sponse than each of the sample songs (Fig. 9). As was commonly observed in other birds, throughout HVc the phrases of Y73’s song that elicited strong excitation were predictive of which phrases of conspecific song, if any, would also elicit strong ex- citation. Furthermore, those phrases of conspecific song that elicited strong excitation at one site typically were effective at all recording sites where the corresponding phrase from the bird’s own song was also effective (Fig. 9). In two birds (R75, Y8) penetrations were distributed through- out HVc. For example, the 11 electrode penetrations into R75 involved the entire rostrocaudal extent and all but the extreme lateral and medial aspects of HVc (Fig. 10). The enhanced re- sponse to autogenous song as compared to the sample songs was observed throughout the nucleus. As described above, the profile of the response to the sample songs varied systematically Figure 7. 033 was tutored the songs of 5 sympatric species, including Lin- coln sparrow (LINCOLN), as well as a conspecific model ( WCSCHC). The final song the bird developed (BOS) is an accurate copy of the conspecific model, except that it lacks an initial whistle. with the response profile to autogenous song. For R75, in only 23 of 33 pairwise comparisons did autogenous song elicit a stronger response than a sample song. However, R75’s song was unusually brief-only 1695 msec-compared to 2380, 2239, and 23 10 msec for the three sample songs W73, G88, and W93, respectively. With a correction for the overall duration of song, the instances of a sample song supplanting R75 as the most effective stimulus were decreased to 3 (Fii. 10). Even without this correction, the enhanced response to autogenous song is statistically significant 0, = 0.0183, z = 2.09). The fact that in only 1 of 18 tests did reversed autogenous song elicit a stronger response than forward song (see below) suggests that the phys- iology was normal for R75 and that the unusually poor selec- tivity resulted from limitations of the analysis. To date, no consistent systematic organization of the re- sponses to song of neighboring multiunit clusters has been ob- served, nor has a clear tonotopic organization for HVc been discerned. During these experiments, however, it was frequently observed that all neurons contributing to the response of a mul- tiunit cluster exhibited similar phrase selectivity. As an example, all the neurons of Figure IA responded to the whistle and the 1652 Margoliash Vol. 6, No. 6, Jun. 1986 8.Y8 2- 6 81 TUTOR Figure 8. Y8 and Y 14 each were exposed to TUTOR song during the impressionable phase. Y 14 achieved a good copy, whereas Y8 failed. The TUTOR song is an artificial, com- outer-svnthesized model (Konishi. i978). - 500 1000 1500 2000 trill, while none responded to the buzz. Twenty-five of 44 mul- tiunit recording sites tape-recorded for off-line analysis exhib- ited similar activity as judged by visual inspection. These ob- servations constitute weak evidence that auditory neurons in HVc are topographically organized. Song parameters underlying selectivity for autogenous song A series of experiments was designed to delineate the specificity for acoustic parameters of autogenous song that resulted in the aforementioned selectivity for song. The initial tests measured the efficacy of the bird’s own song as a function of changes in the overall amplitude and frequency of song. For changes in the intensity of song, individual clusters exhibited considerable variability in response strength (Fig. 11A). At 13 recording sites in 5 birds, song was presented with peak amplitude values rang- ing from 40 to 80 dB (re. 0.0002 dyn/cmz) in 10 dB increments. Only 2 of the resultant curves were strictly monotonic, and of the 52 pairs of points separated by 10 dB steps, 17 showed lowered response strength for the greater amplitude song. On average, the population response increased monotonically and roughly linearly with stimulus amplitude (Fig. 1 lB), 1.19% per dB at these moderate levels of intensity. However, only 38% of the overall variance was accounted for by the change in ampli- tude. In contrast to the effect of modification of the intensity of song, changes in the overall frequency of song resulted in a systematic change in response. For 17 multiunit clusters in 5 birds, the response strength was measured while the bird’s own song was frequency shifted by f 1 kHz in 500 Hz increments. For 16 of the 17 resultant curves, the optimal frequency was the unshifted version of song; of the 68 pairs of points separated by 500 Hz, only one showed a (3%) greater response to the song with the larger frequency shift (Fig. 12A). Thus, the averaged response exhibited a strictly monotonic decrease in strength with increasing frequency shift (Fig. 12B). It should be noted that for several of the songs used in these experiments, frequency shifts of 500 Hz leave these songs within the normal range of intra- dialect variation (unpublished observations). Time-varying parameters of song The contribution of the temporal aspects of song to the responses ofthe population of HVc auditory neurons was explored initially w 91 G 88 w 73 Fi gu re 9. Su m m ed re sp on se s to b ird ’s ow n so ng ( Y 73 ) an d th e 3 sa m pl e so ng s (W 9 1, G 88 , W 73 ). Th e so ng s tim ul i ar e sh ow n as s on ag ra ph s, bo tto m tra ce s. A s ys te m at ic re la tio ns hi p ex is ts be tw ee n th e ph ra se s of Y 73 ’s so ng th at el ic it ex ci ta tio n an d th e ph ra se s of t he sa m pl e so ng s th at el ic it ex ci ta tio n. N ot e th at W 9 1 el ic ite d al m os t as s tro ng a re sp on se as Y 73 at P ~T TI P rm m rd in ~ sit es . wh ile C T8 8 an d W 73 w er e les s ef &c tiv e st im ul i. Tw en ty re pe titi on s pe r hi st og ra m , ba se lin es ar e 3 se t in du ra tio n. 1654 L 1.6 12 3 I I B Margoliash Vol. 6, No. 6, Jun. 1966 NR NR NR NR 111 NR AL NR 3 4 5 NR NR Figure 10. Distribution of song selectivity within HVc of bird R75. Penetrations in rostrocaudal rows were made at a series of mediolateral locations, from L = 1.6 mm with respect to midline, to L = 2.4 mm with respect to midline (left column). Numerals and dashed lines indicate the location of each penetration, and fiduciary lesions are demarked by bold arrowheads Small arrowheuds delineate the ventral border of HVc; the calibration bar (bottom) is 200 pm. The response at each penetration to the 3 sample songs (W73, G88, W91) as compared with the response to the bird’s own song (BOS) is shown in the graphs on the right side (see example, bottom right). (For this bird only, the response strength is corrected 1656 Margoliash Vol. 6, No. 6, Jun. 1986 f 0.0 0.5 1 .o 1.5 2.0 BIRD’S OWN SONG : REVERSED re. FORWARD 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3 TEST SONGS : REVERSED re. FORWARD Figure 13. Efficacy of reversed song relative to norm& forward song. A, For 62 clusters in 7 birds, reversed re. forward autogenous song. Reversed song is almost always less effective (< 1.0). B, Efficacy of reversed sample songs (W73, G88, W91) re. normal sample song. These songs are also less effective backward than forward. Twenty or 50 rep- etitions per song. The second song variant also was designed to manipulate the frequency modulation. For each phrase of tone-burst song (Fig. 14C9, the frequency was set to the mean (sometimes mode or median) frequency of the original phrase from which it was derived. (The slight frequency modulation that persists in the buzz and trill of tone-burst song is an unavoidable result of rapid amplitude modulation.) Thus, while the amplitude and amplitude modulation of tone-burst song were identical to the original song, the frequency components and therefore the spec- trum of each phrase were substantially different. As in frequen- cy-shuffled song, the whistle and buzz were relatively spared by this manipulation as compared to the trill. Throughout HVc, the frequency-shuffled song variant was less effective than the normal song. Of 3 1 presentations of frequency- shuffled song, only 3 elicited stronger responses than the re- sponse to autogenous song (Fig. 154). The extent of this effect varied with different phrases of song. The efficacy of the trill was seriously compromised (0.245 f 0.234, mean & SD), while the response to the whistle was less affected (0.445 -t 0.290). Presumably, this is a consequence of the elimination of normal parameters of trill (i.e., linear frequency modulation), while leaving the normal parameters of the whistle (i.e., frequency jitter) relatively unaffected. The response to the buzz was the least affected (0.693 f 0.257), although the effect of frequency shuffling the buzz is intermediate between the effect on whistle and trill. However, this discrepancy may reflect the relatively minor contribution of the response to the buzz to the overall response. A similar result was obtained when HVc neurons were pre- sented with tone-burst song. Of 36 recording sites where tone- burst song was presented, only 3 elicited stronger responses than did autogenous song (Fig. 15B). The effect was dramatic for the response to the trill (0.007 * 0.244) and was relatively weak for the response to the whistle (0.647 -+ 0.280) and the response to the buzz (0.720 f 0.246). Given that the whistle is the first phrase of song and is a rather “pure” sound to begin with, it is remarkable that HVc multiunit clusters consistently (33/36) pre- ferred the fine frequency modulation of the whistle over the spectrally similar tone burst. Response properties in jield L and surrounding areas That HVc auditory responses are modified during ontogeny does not establish the site of plasticity. To address this issue, a survey of field L and surrounding areas was undertaken. Field L is a telencephalic auditory area that receives direct thalamic input (Karten, 1968). Field L also projects to the “shelf’ (Kelley and Nottebohm, 1979), a cell-sparse zone ventral and medial to HVc. The dendrites of HVc neurons invade the shelf (L. Katz, unpublished observations); this putative connection is currently the only known pathway for auditory input to HVc (see Mar- goliash, in press, for discussion). Penetrations were made through field L and the surrounding mediocaudal neostriatum and caudal hyperstriatum in four birds (033, Y14, Y73, Y87). Data were also collected from HVc in 3 of the birds, permitting direct comparison. 033, Y14, and Y73 received 11,8, and 8 penetrations in HVc and 3, 5, and 3 penetrations into field L, respectively. 033 and Y14 had been raised in the laboratory-these birds were tested with the tutor songs. Y73 sang a Bodega Bay dialect song and was tested with the 3 intradialect sample songs previously described. In these 3 birds, of 78 pairwise comparisons of the responses of HVc clus- ters to autogenous and test songs, in only 7 cases did autogenous song elicit the weaker response. In contrast, of 8 1 pairwise com- parisons in field L, for 49 the test songs elicited greater responses than autogenous song (Fig. 16). Thus, field L did not prefer autogenous song over other intradialect songs, nor did field L prefer autogenous song as compared with the tutor song model. A systematic representation of frequency is the most prom- inent organizational feature of field L (Bonke et al., 1979; Lang- ner et al., 198 1; Leppelsack, 198 1) and was consistently dis- cerned with the multiunit recordings employed here. During the course of these experiments it was observed that this tonotopic organization extends far beyond the classical boundaries of field L to include structures both caudal and rostra1 to field L proper. The tonotopic organization is continuous across the lamina hy- perstriatica (LH), although the sluggish response to tone bursts of neurons in the LH often makes it difficult to determine a best frequency (Mtiller and Leppelsack, 1985; see also Scheich et al., 1979). The tonotopic organization of field L provided considerable insight into field L responses to frequency-shifted song. While an attempt was made to sample field L systematically in its entirety, the size of field L and surrounding auditory structures precluded a complete scan. During the most thorough scan con- ducted to date, Y87 survived for almost 2 d, during which 11 penetrations were made. These penetrations were spaced 300 pm apart in 2 rows located at 900 and 1200 pm lateral to the midline and covered the full anteroposterior extent of field L. At 17 sites in field L and surrounding structures, responses were measured to autogenous song frequency-shifted ? 1.5 kHz in 500 Hz increments. Summed over the entirety of field L, the responses showed no systematic preference for the unmodified song, in clear contrast with HVc (Fig. 17). In the caudal region of field L, where low frequencies are represented, song shifted downward in frequency elicited the strongest response; the op- posite was the case in the rostra1 high-frequency region of field L. Thus, the large error bars associated with field L responses to frequency-shifted song (Fig. 17) are a simple consequence of the underlying tonotopic organization. For 3 birds, the relative efficacy of forward and reversed song was also measured. Of the 60 recording sites, 22 exhibited great- The Journal of Neuroscience Neural Correlates of Song Learning 1657 C 2 Y 8 -I Y73 6- 500 1000 1500 2000 8 Y73/TB 6- 4-o-v s O,)JICOCmlCLC~ Figure 14. A, Normal song of bird Y73. B, Frequency-shuffled version 2- of the song (see text). Note that each phrase has approximately the same range of frequencies and that the am- 2000 plitude modulation is identical to that in A. C, Tone-burst version of the song 500 1000 1500 MSEC (see text). Amplitude modulation is identical to that in A, while spectrum has changed. er responses to reversed song (Fig. 18). In clear contrast to HVc, the overall response to reversed song in field L was quite strong (0.969 + 0.654) and at best a slight preference for the forward song emerged (p > 0.02, z = - 1.94). Not infrequently a phrase of reversed song elicited a stronger response than the corre- sponding phrase of forward song. This was rarely observed in HVc recordings. As may be predicted by the efficacy of reversed autogenous song, field L did not show specificity for the frequency modu- lation within the bird’s own song. Of 65 presentations of fre- quency-shuffled song (Fig. 19A), 36 elicited stronger responses than autogenous song. Thus, field L did not systematically prefer autogenous song over frequency-shuffled song (p > 0.02, z = 0.74). Similarly, field L did not prefer autogenous song over tone-burst song: 22 of 61 field L clusters responded more vig- orously to tone-burst song as compared with autogenous song (Fig. 19B; p > 0.02, z = -2.05). In fact, over the extent of field L investigated, the frequency-shuffled song elicited stronger re- sponses than autogenous song (1.199 f 1.296) while the re- sponses to the tone-burst song variant were roughly equal to the responses to autogenous song (1.052 f 0.786). By themselves, these data do not convey the full magnitude of the differences encountered when comparing field L with HVc. Although very weak responses were often encountered for one or more of the sample songs, the tutor songs, the frequency- shuffled song, the tone-burst song, or reversed song, responses 2, 3, or even 4 times stronger than the response to the bird’s own song were also observed. In hundreds of comparisons in HVc, this was never observed. In field L, the bird’s own song rarely emerged as the optimal stimulus when the complete bat- tery of tests were performed, in contradistinction, this was the rule, not the exception, in HVc. Discussion HVc auditory response properties are shaped by autogenous song The present results demonstrate that auditory neurons in HVc are selective for autogenous (self-produced) song. Throughout HVc, multiunit sites exhibit stronger responses to autogenous song than to a wide variety of conspecific songs (i.e., songs of other individuals of the same species). The efficacy of autoge- nous song is apparent even when compared to a repertoire of similar songs from the same dialect area. Thus, HVc auditory 1658 N q 31 z 0.0 0.5 1 .o 1.5 2.0 FREQUENCY SHUFFLED SONG re. BOS Margoliash Vol. 6, No. 6, Jun. 1966 HVc BE fn’5 - f P p” - N q 36 B =5 - I 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 TONE BURST SONG re. BOS Figure 15. Response to song variants. A, Response to frequency-shuf- fled song relative to bird’s own song (BE?) at 3 1 multiunit clusters in 7 birds. B, Response to tone-burst song re. BOS at 36 recording sites in 7 birds. At most recording sites the song variants were less effective (< 1 .O) than BOS. Twenty repetitions per song. neurons are sensitive to slight differences between autogenous song and the songs of conspecifics. Although these results are based on multiunit recordings, and are biased toward clusters exhibiting robust song-related activity, the consistency of the results suggests that the majority of HVc auditory neurons ex- hibit the selectivity for autogenous song. The song selectivity of HVc auditory neurons is conferred by their sensitivity to the idiosyncratic acoustic parameters of au- togenous song. This is evidenced by the systematic degradation of the efficacy of autogenous song on manipulation of its acoustic parameters. For example, as the overall frequency of autogenous song is increased, the strength of the response to song decreases monotonically. Nevertheless, the sensitivity of HVc auditory neurons to autogenous song is not based solely on a simple specificity to static or overall acoustic parameters (see also Mar- goliash, 1983a). Reversing the song, which does not modify static parameters, consistently degrades the stimulus efficacy. Furthermore, when the dynamic (time-varying) frequency, but not amplitude, components of autogenous song are modified, the stimulus efficacy is also degraded. This is evident even with a song variant that approximates the spectral properties of each phrase of autogenous song. Thus, the dynamic frequency com- ponents of each phrase of song are important parameters for HVc auditory neurons. The sensitivity of HVc auditory neurons to the direction of song and to the frequency modulation in the whistle, buzz, and trill song phrases are examples of temporal facilitation. A pulsed tone-burst song variant with the same amplitude modulation as autogenous song systematically elicits weaker responses. Clearly, quantification of HVc responses to tone bursts is in- adequate to describe the response properties of the majority of HVc neurons. Had these experiments relied on the classical tone-burst paradigm to the exclusion of testing with behaviorally relevant stimuli, a critical aspect of HVc auditory response prop- erties would have escaped notice. 0.0 0.5 1 .o 2.0 TEST SONGS re. BOS Figure 16. Comparison of song selectivity in field L and HVc within the same birds. The strength of response of various test songs in 3 birds relative to the strength of response of the bird’s own song (BOS). The test songs include tutor songs as well as intradialect conspecific songs (see text). Note that in HVc the responses to the test songs are weaker (< 1.0) than the response to BOS, while field L does not exhibit any systematic selectivity. In the histograms, all values ~0.0 or >2.0 are collapsed. Previously, a limited population of auditory neurons in HVc that exhibit temporal facilitation, “song-specific” neurons, have been described (Margoliash, 1983a). Song-specific neurons also exhibit selectivity for autogenous song. Nevertheless, important aspects of the response properties of song-specific neurons differ from the larger population of HVc auditory neurons. Song- specific neurons (1) exhibit greater song selectivity; (2) do not respond or respond very weakly to single tone bursts; (3) are strictly song phrase “combination sensitive” (Suga et al., 1978), that is, they respond well to a sequence of two consecutive song phrases but not to the individual phrases; (4) do not respond to nonsequential phrase sequences, reversed song, or at multiple phrases in a song; and (5) exhibit phasic response properties, responding with a short burst of activity after the onset of the second phrase in the sequence. These patterns of activity con- trast with the present results. Many multineuronal clusters in HVc respond to tone bursts with varying degrees of strength, and they respond vigorously to individual phrases, typically with a tonic (sustained) component. HVc multiunits also re- spond to nonsequential phrases (e.g., response to whistle and trill but not to the intervening buzz), to reversed song (albeit less strongly than to normal song), and at several phrases in a song. It is unlikely, therefore, that the present results reflect the contribution of the relatively scarce song-specific neurons. How- ever, these data are consistent with the hypothesis that song- specific neurons derive their response properties from circuits local to HVc (Margoliash, 1983a). Developmental plasticity of HVc auditory neurons A plethora of behavioral observations have established that the adult song of the white-crowned sparrow reflects a learning pro- The Journal of Neuroscience Neural Correlates of Song Learning 1659 I I I I 1 I I -1500 - 1000 -500 0 600 1000 1500 FREQUENCY SHIFT (HZ) Figure 17. Field L responses to changes in overall frequency of au- togenous song. Note flat response and large error bars (see text). Twenty- one recording sites in 2 birds. The corresponding data for HVc (Fig. 12B) are shown for comparison. cess. Young white-crowned sparrows of the Nuttallii race can learn to sing interdialect songs (Marler, 1970), computer-syn- thesized songs (Konishi, 1978), the songs of sympatric species (Konishi, 1985), and even the songs of allopatric species (Bap- tista and Petrinovich, 1984). Birds reared in acoustic isolation develop abnormal songs (Marler, 1970), as do birds deafened early in life (Konishi, 1965). These observations demonstrate that the action of innate mechanisms are insufficient to generate normal songs. Instead, many parameters of an individual’s song, especially the fine details of the notes and syllables (Marler and Sherman, 1985), are aquired by learning. HVc neurons are “tuned” to those parameters, so that in contrast to the range of songs that can form appropriate tutor models, the responses of HVc auditory neurons are selective for a single song, the bird’s own. Hence, HVc auditory neurons are specifically modified by some aspect of the song-learning experience. When is this selectivity established? The profound effects of deafening on song development (Konishi, 1965) demonstrate that a bird cannot know how to sing until he practices. The details of an individual’s song are established by a process of overproduction and attrition, improvisation and invention, as well as copying (Marler and Peters, 198 1, 1982). Thus, the pro- cess of song crystallization is the earliest time during develop- ment when the adult properties of HVc auditory neurons can be specified. Indeed, autogenous song elicits stronger responses than the song tutored earlier in life during the impressionable phase (see also Margoliash, 1983a). The preference in HVc for autogenous song is independent of whether a bird accepts or fails to accept the tutor model, demonstrating that the adult auditory response properties of HVc are not specified by the early exposure to the tutor model. Furthermore, the present results demonstrate the stability of adult HVc auditory response properties over a period of months. If white-crowned sparrow HVc auditory neurons are specified by song, do not exhibit plasticity in the adult, and are specified after exposure to the tutor song model, then they must be specified during song crys- tallization. Specification of the response properties of auditory neurons in HVc may be coincident with the establishment of the adult motor pattern for song, suggesting the role of these neurons during the development of song. If neurons in HVc have access to the template, then while a bird practices singing, auditory neurons in HVc may be activated as fortuitous patterns of motor activity induce auditory feedback that matches the input from the template. In turn, activity in these neurons may tend to stabilize the ongoing motor activity. As the appropriate motor HVc ii 5 Field L c.5’0 - L 0.0 0.5 1 .o 1.5 2.0 BIRD’S OWN SONG : REVERSED re. FORWARD Figure 18. Effect of reversing autogenous song on responses of field L clusters. Only a slight preference for forward song (38/60) is present. Sixty recording sites in 3 birds. The corresponding data for HVc (Fig. 13A) are shown for comparison. patterns are reinforced, perhaps the inhibition of auditory re- sponsiveness during singing (McCasland and Konishi, 1981) emerges, emancipating singing from auditory feedback (see Mar- goliash, in press). Site of plasticity-comparison with field L The present results demonstrate that neurons in field L, which project to the shelf and may be a source of auditory input to [ 8-A Field L 8-B Field L 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 FREQUENCY SHUFFLED SONG re. BOS TONE BURST SONG re. BOS Figure 19. Field L responses to frequency-shuffled song variant (A) and tone-burst song variant (B). The corresponding data for HVc (Fig. 15) are shown for comparison. All responses are measured re. response to bird’s own song (Bob’). In contrast to HVc, many sites in field L respond more vigorously (> 1 .O) to the song variants than to BOS. All values 50.0 or 22.0 are collapsed. Margoliash Vol. 6, No. 6, Jun. 1986 HVc (Kelley and Nottebohm, 1979; L. Katz, unpublished ob- servations-see Margoliash, in press), lack selectivity for autog- enous song and do not exhibit specificity for the acoustic pa- rameters of autogenous song. In particular, for field L recordings the relative response strength to frequency-shifted versions of autogenous song can largely be predicted from the underlying tonotopic organization of field L. This indicates that an inter- esting transformation of information occurs between the pri- mary auditory telencephalon and HVc. These differences suggest HVc, but not field L, as a site of plasticity of auditory neurons associated with song (motor) learning. The response properties and location of those field L neurons that project to the shelf has yet to be determined, how- ever. In this regard, it is a significant caveat that the present experiments relied on multiunit recordings and that the full extent of field L was not mapped. Nevertheless, the striking differences between field L and HVc demonstrate that auditory neurons in these two areas are shaped by different develop- mental processes. Indeed, it has been reported that the response properties of some field L neurons are influenced by exposure to song during the impressionable phase (Leppelsack, 1983). In that experiment, however, the effects of song exposure during the impressionable phase and during adult singing were not distinguished. HVc as an “autogenous reference” What is the behavioral significance of auditory responses in the adult HVc? The reproductive success of the white-crowned spar- row is likely to be dependent on the ability to distinguish among a set of rather similar conspecific songs. The song of the white- crowned sparrow varies within and across dialect and subspe- cific boundaries (Baptista, 1975; Baptista and King, 1980; Marler and Tamura, 1962). Territorial males can distinguish neighbors from strangers solely on the basis of song, and the songs of strangers from without the dialect elicit distinctly different re- sponses than do the songs of strangers from within the dialect (Baker et al., 198 la; Milligan and Vemer, 197 1). Female white- crowned sparrows distinguish between songs from their home dialect and from songs of other dialects (Baker et al., 1981b), but whether they mate assortatively with males singing home dialect songs remains controversial (Tomback and Baker, 1984; cf: Petrinovich and Baptista, 1984). The selectivity for song observed in HVc suffices to distin- guish among inter- and intradialect songs, suggesting that HVc contributes to that discrimination. If so, then the representation of autogenous song contributes to song recognition. Certain be- havioral observations lend support to this notion. Although the strength of response elicited when territorial males are exposed to playback of autogenous song is intermediate between their responses to neighbors’ and strangers’ songs (Falls, 1982), the degree of response to a stranger’s song may depend on the sim- ilarity of that song to the bird’s own (McArthur, 1985). Fur- thermore, birds are known to distinguish between the songs of neighbors broadcast from within or outside of their territory (Richards, 198 1). This discrimination, which requires a deter- mination of the distance from the speaker to the responding bird, is thought to be based on the increasing degradation of song resulting from increasing transmission distances through the acoustic habitat. The proposal that a bird utilizes an internal reference of song to assess the degradation of the songs of neigh- boring conspecifics (Morton, 1982) has enjoyed some experi- mental support (McGregor et al., 1983). I propose that HVc contributes to the discrimination of the songs of conspecifics by providing a reference component (see also Margoliash, in press). In such a scheme, differences between conspecific and autogenous song would be memorized, forming the parametric basis for song recognition. This does not imply that conspecific songs similar to autogenous song need have special behavioral significance. This proposal is a form of a “motor theory” of song perception (Margoliash, 1985) and, in similarity to the “motor theory” of speech perception (Liberman et al., 1967), suggests a linkage between production and per- ception. Unlike another recent hypothesis of song perception (Williams and Nottebohm, 1985), the current proposal does not require activity in brain-stem motor nuclei as an integral part of the perceptual process. For both theories, the possible con- tribution of HVc to song recognition in females that exhibit a reduced song system and experience little or no singing (e.g., zebra finch) remains unresolved. The stable representation of autogenous song in the adult white-crowned sparrow’s HVc suggests that the site of plasticity associated with adult song recognition is other than HVc. It is difficult to reconcile these observations with the proposal that plasticity in HVc, perhaps mediated by neurogenesis, contrib- utes to conspecific song recognition in canaries (Nottebohm, 1984). To what extent autogenous song is represented in the HVc of other species, however, has yet to be explored satisfac- torily. It should also be noted that in some species, such as the canary, adults acquire new song elements seasonally. The pres- ent results suggest that in these species HVc auditory neurons may exhibit plasticity as song changes throughout adulthood. References Baker, M. C., D. B. Thompson, and G. L. 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work_kkawku2ud5bavh55imxvlgnoti	----	EJELS Janar 2019.indd European Journal of Economics, Law and Social Sciences IIPCCL Publishing, Graz-Austria Vol. 3 No. 1 January, 2019 ISSN 2519-1284 Acces online at www.iipccl.org 293 From Expressionism to Kosovo`s Abstract Expressionism PhD Agnesa Muharremi- Kastrati Professor at the Faculty of Arts, University of Pristina, Kosovo PhD Ilir Muharremi Professor at the Faculty of Education, University of Pristina, Kosovo Abstract In this paper we have included the most essential characteristics of the historical developments of this artistic movement and the most remarkable names of the fi eld who have lived in Kosovo. Some artists such as Abdurrahim Buza, Qamil Grezda, Kujtim Buza, Muslim Mulliqi, Tahir Emra, Nysret Salihamixhiqi, Rexhep Ferri, Xhevdet Xhafa etc., of the old generation were inspired by this movement in the modern Art in Kosovo, which was also refl ected to their art works for a long time. In this paper we will write about the history of the beginning of the classical direction up to modern and conceptual art. Many Kosovo`s artists, such as Muslim Mulliqi, Tahir Emra, Xhevdet Xhafa, Rexhep Ferri, Daut Berisha, Karmon Fan Ferri and some others from the new generation of the Faculty of Arts in Prishtina for the fi rst time have transitet from their traditional elements (in their art works) to new concepts of modern contemporary art. Thus, we thank the artists from the three generations that are involved in our Topic “From Expressionism to Kosovo`s Abstract Expressionism”. Through the presentation of their research work they have reached the concept of new movements that derive from the classic expressionism involved in European and world historiography starting from Paris until the late sixties of abstract expressionism by the well-known American painter Jackson Pollock who tries to geometric expressionism, informel, Pop Art, and so on.. In this paper we have analyzed the most prominent names of Kosovo`s Art and Kosovo`s paintings which are generally involved with this concept and until the last cycles of work they have remained faithful to the direction of expressionism. Keywords: Painter, sculptor, directions (Pictorial movement), Art works, artistic experiences, impressive and expressive refl ection. Introduction Vincent Van Ghog, Henri de Toulouse -Lautrec, Edvard Munch and James Ensor were artists that belonged to the Expressionism period between 1874 -1900. Vincent Van Ghog was the fi rst artist who expressed through the colour the passion of human drama or as he said “With red and green colors can express the most terrible human experiences”. The expressionism in Kosovar Art began from the XIX century with the fi rst generation of fi gurative creators. This generation appeared immediately aft er The First World War with painter: Abdurrahim Buza, Qamil Grezda, Shahin Kryeziu. Vol. 3 No. 1 January, 2019 European Journal of Economics, Law and Social Sciences IIPCCL Publishing, Graz-Austria ISSN 2519-1284 Acces online at www.iipccl.org 294 Fig.1-Self portrait, by Abdurrahim Buza They were mostly inspired by the landscape of Dukagjini, from the diffi cult economic and political situation and especially the position of Albanians that degraded to the extreme. All of these worries were refl ected in their emotional souls and through colors they expressed the passion of human drama, centuries -old suff ering of the various invaders, especially the Serbo-Sllav. Fig.2-Walking, by Kadrush Rama The fi rst trends of “modern elements” have started from this generation and were refl ected from realism, impressionism and post impressionism. Abdurrahim Buza and Qamil Grezda were both painters from Gjakova and they painted motifs and expressive images with fl att ering colors. Through the phenomenon of colors they tried to emphasize the symbolism and the deep psycho-sociological signifi cance. Impressive and expressive directions in Kosovo were very short period because in this country many Albanian people began to leave their homeland from the Serbian regimes. Abdurrahim Buza and Qamil Grezda, two famous Albanian painters were sett led in the Republic of Albania and stayed there until the end of their lives. The Art works of these two Albanian famous artists were full of expressive lines and forms, pure colors which give us nostalgia nowadays. Their creativity was never stopped even during the diffi cult moments of invasions. The fi rst art generations, who have studied in Secondary Art School in Peja, were the fi rst artists in Kosovo of expressive direction. This Art School from 1948/49 was the fi rst School of Art in Kosovo. Some generations from this school continued education to Art Academies in Europe and European Journal of Economics, Law and Social Sciences IIPCCL Publishing, Graz-Austria Vol. 3 No. 1 January, 2019 ISSN 2519-1284 Acces online at www.iipccl.org 295 Former Yugoslavia. When they fi nished their graduation, they returned in Kosovo with great artistic experiences (and were inspired from European artist’s works). The fi rst painter of these generation was the Muslim Mulliqi and I mention other artists next to Mulliqi: Tahir Emra, Rexhep Ferri, Xhevdet Xhafa, sculpture-Agim Cavdarbasha, Nusret Salihamixhiqi, Kadrush Rama, Nebih Muriqi, Esat Valla and many others. Introduction The expressionis in Kosovar Art began from the XIX century with the fi rst generation of fi gurative creators. This generation appeared immediately aft er The First World War with painters: Abdurrahim Buza, Qamil Grezda, Shahin Kryeziu. The Art School from 1948/49 was the fi rst School of Art in Kosovo. Some generations from this school continued education to Art Academies in Europe and Former Yugoslavia. When they fi nished their graduation, they returned in Kosovo with great artistic experiences (and were inspired from European artist’s works). Fig.3-Towers, by Muslim Mulliqi Artistic directions such as: neoclassicism, realism, romanticism, impressionism and other in XX century –fauvism, expressionism, surrealism, cubism to postmodern art, were refl ected to Albanian artists from Kosovo. In this study we present the best artists from Kosovo with their best Art expressive works. The fi rst painter was Muslim Mulliqi with his works (social themes) until other art works themes “Invasion of New Fields”. All of his cycles (Art Works) contained expressive elements from dark colors to fi guration forms or many portraits with characters from the Ethnic Albanian Lands. The fi rst composition cycle “Sharraxhij ve” and “Hamajve” expressed human drama, historical moments, sizifi an’s life where people for decades and centuries were subordinated, abused and enslaved. They also leave their country and sett le in the centers of Former Yugoslavia for the bett er life. All of this drama was expressed through their pictures (portraits especially through eyes) art works. The artist –Muslim Mulliqi with grey and red –blue colors represented expressive dramatic feelings. In addition to contentious content of psycho-social, characters (were painted) from his cycle (“Hamajve”) has much dark colors with lights on their tired faces (tired from hard work) and psychological loads. The color for Mulliqi became like a symbol of human destiny. The same way of paint were in other of his paintings –a cycle of towers: “Towers from Junik”, “Halili and his family”, “Halili in front of Tower”, etc. Vol. 3 No. 1 January, 2019 European Journal of Economics, Law and Social Sciences IIPCCL Publishing, Graz-Austria ISSN 2519-1284 Acces online at www.iipccl.org 296 These motifs became a source of inspiration for many other artists. Towers have been a symbol of sustainability of existence, wars and a philosophy which has took a place inside their chambers where they were taken with important historical actions for the Albanian people. The painter Mulliqi at his cycle of Art Works calls- “Invasion of New Heavenly spaces “has used a light and expressive colors. I also noticed the expressive colors at the Art works of painter-Tahir Emra, such as: “Toka e kuqe (The red Land), “Homazh Martireve (Homage to the Martyrs), “Elegji per Kosoven (Oration for Kosovo).The expressive elements expressed to the Dukagjini Landscape’s from “Cabrati” to the “ Carshia e Madhe e Gjakoves”. Conclusions Colors, motifs and many expressive elements were as symbol to express more painting in abstract and expressive style. Artistic directions such as: neoclassicism, realism, romanticism, impressionism and other in XX century –fauvism, expressionism, surrealism, cubism to postmodern art, were refl ected to Albanian artists from Kosovo. In this study we presented the best artists from Kosovo with their best Art expressive works. Fig.4- Homage for Martyrs, by Tahir Emra This painter in the later working showed other way of working (learned and took from his studies in Belgrade). This kind of paint (this painting) in Kosovo’s Art aft er 60s brings expressionism vocation bett er than from 30s. This actuality brings for the fi rst time in Kosovo and in Albanian painting the Informel (the pictorial movement- This artistic notion that was born of expressionism). The Informel Art was last until 2000 in paintings of Tahir Emra, until his new cycle called “Elegji per Kosoven”. At all of his Art Works, he has focused colors and some other elements, sands and sheets. Xhevdet Xhafa is the other painter who has treated the expressionism, abstract –expressionism to some way of Informel Art at his Art Works. Xhafa has his Art Work called “Autobiografi a (Autobiography), in this work he applies two fi gurative elements: form and color, and in many other ways the light element features the compositional plasticity through objects and these objects has transposed into compositions. So, beyond the contentious part of his works, Xhafa the fi gurative expression presents European Journal of Economics, Law and Social Sciences IIPCCL Publishing, Graz-Austria Vol. 3 No. 1 January, 2019 ISSN 2519-1284 Acces online at www.iipccl.org 297 also through his fl att ering colors and he enters among modern Albanian creators and his art works belongs in the direction of abstract expressionism. Agim Cavdarbasha is the best Albanian sculpture of Contemporary Art in Kosovo, who has been a creator in the fi eld of sculpture since the young age. Many of his sculptures such as: “portraits Pieta”, “Kafazi (Cage)”, “Sofra (Eating Table)”, and some of his new later sculptures in bronze and marble have expressive and abstract elements where he has expressed the aesthetic concept of the forms and he has transformed into symbolic meaning. So many authors from Kosovo have a lot of Art Works with expressive and abstract direction with geometrical and object ways to Pop Art direction. In this study we focus and analyze to the best artists, painters, sculptures from Kosovo, who have been constantly dealing with this concept of expressionism until their last Art works in other directions. At some creators we have focused in to their works in details and more analyzing by mentioning the development way of this artistic direction. References PhD, Hivzi Muharremi “Metamorfozat e Gjuhes fi gurative (The Metamorphosis of the fi gurative language)“ ,Rilindja, Prishtina, Kosovo 1986. Karin H.Grime “Impresionizam” Knjizara Vulkan (Bookshop Vulkan), Taschen 2008. Pjer Frankastel “Impresionizam” Edition Umetnost i Oblik,Metaphysica, izdavacka kuca (Bookstore) intepretor Veljko Nikitovic, Srbij a 2018. Stephen Polcari “Abstract Expressionism and the modern experiences”, Cambridge University Press 1993. Robert L.Herbert “Impressionism: Art, Leisure and Parisien Society”, Yale University Press, 1991. 
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work_krztae4wazdwbofrbpz4nxmete	----	TITLE LONG TERM EFFECTS OF “PROSPERITY IN YOUTH” ON CONSUMPTION: EVIDENCE FROM CHINA By K. Sudhir and Ishani Tewari October 2015 COWLES FOUNDATION DISCUSSION PAPER NO. 2025 COWLES FOUNDATION FOR RESEARCH IN ECONOMICS YALE UNIVERSITY Box 208281 New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8281 http://cowles.yale.edu/ Long Term Effects of “Prosperity in Youth” on Consumption: Evidence from China* ` K. Sudhir Yale School of Management k.sudhir@yale.edu Ishani Tewari Yale School of Management ishani.tewari@yale.edu October 2015 * We thank participants at the 2015 TPM Conference in Atlanta, the 2015 Marketing Science Conference in Baltimore, the 2015 China India Insights Conference in New York and the Yale Marketing Group Lunch Seminar for feedback. Qiaowei Shen generously provided the fast food outlet data used in the paper. We are grateful for a research grant from Andrew Redleaf of Whitebox Advisors through the International Center for Finance at the Yale School of Management. Long Term Effects of “Prosperity in Youth” on Consumption: Evidence from China Abstract We test for the long-term impact of experiencing “prosperity in youth” (PIY) on non- traditional category consumption. Using unique twenty-year panel data of individuals from nine Chinese provinces with varying levels of per-capita GDP and rates of per-capita GDP growth, we find robust evidence for the PIY effect. We find both a direct effect of one’s own prosperity and an indirect effect of the prosperity of one’s province during youth on long-term consumption. In particular, the indirect PIY effect is driven more strongly by individuals with low incomes during youth—suggesting that norms and aspirations created by the consumption of non-traditional categories by the rich during one’s youth have significant impact on long- term consumption—almost the same magnitude as the direct effect. The analysis also highlights the importance of separating cohort effects from life cycle effects for taste based products. We highlight the marketing implications for non-traditional categories in emerging markets. Key Words: cohort effects, lifecycle effects, emerging markets, China, prosperity in youth, impressionable years hypothesis, long-term effects 1 Introduction Marketers often tout the large numbers of new middle class consumers in emerging markets in describing their market potential in making the case for entry into these markets. Indeed the estimated size of the middle class for emerging markets such as China (300 million) and India (150 million) dwarf the populations of many large developed economies. In a 2009 article, title “Food Fight,” the Economist captured the excitement around selling to the “emerging market billions” well: “Across the developing world, millions perhaps billions of people are currently forming tastes that will endure for the rest of their lives. Put one of Kraft's Oreos or Cadbury's Flakes in their hands and they may become loyal customers for decades to come.” However, for many types of taste based non-traditional products, sales never reach the exuberant expectations at the time of entry into these markets. As an example, despite entering India as early as 1995, with the idea that it would be easy to gain share against traditional Indian breakfast items such as idlis and vadas, Kellogg’s had insignificant sales for breakfast cereal in 2011.2 Similarly, P&G found that despite rising affluence it was not easy to successfully market sanitary napkins to middle class women in India.3 The reality is that conflict with traditional tastes, values, norms and habits limits consumption for many non- traditional categories, even if consumers can afford them. Marketers of non-traditional categories therefore need to identify consumer segments who can both afford the product, and are also willing to adopt new attitudes and habits. 2 Bolton (2012) in an HBR article notes: “Kellogg’s invested $65 million in 1995, establishing an operational and marketing presence to launch Corn Flakes, Wheat Flakes, and its “innovation” — Basmati Rice Flakes — throughout the country with the goal of building a $3 billion business, confident as the managing director of Kellogg India noted: “Our only rivals are traditional Indian foods like idlis and vadas.” The article goes on to ask, “How is it possible that Kellogg could envision building a $3 billion business in India, invest $65 million in the first year alone, and end up, 16 years later, with only $70 million in annual revenues? And how can other business leaders avoid making similar mistakes?” 3 A young Indian woman quoted in a Business Insider article (Srivastava 2014) states: "Although I belonged to a very well-to-do family, we had to use discarded cloth during periods, which we had to wash and reuse. It was not about affordability. It was because of the shame associated with buying sanitary napkins." 1 Given this motivation, we introduce the idea that “prosperity in youth” (hereafter “PIY”) can serve as a basis of segmentation and a useful predictor of long-term consumption of non- traditional categories. Our focus on PIY is guided by the “impressionable years hypothesis” (Krosnick and Alwin 1989) in social psychology, which suggests that individuals are most open to forming new attitudes and change in attitude during late adolescence and early adulthood.4 Non-traditional categories (e.g., coffee) are higher priced relative to substitute traditional categories (tea) in emerging markets and consumption of non-traditional categories communicate a sense of modernity and “cool.” We postulate that experiencing prosperity during youth increases the consumption of non-traditional categories over the long-term through two mechanisms. The first is a direct effect through one’s own prosperity during youth. Higher personal income during youth allows a consumer to buy and consume the non- traditional product when attitudes and habits are being formed. This past experience can impact consumption over the long-term. A second indirect effect is through prosperity in one’s surroundings during youth. Prosperity in one’s surroundings increases the consumption of non-traditional categories, which in turn can create favorable norms, attitudes and aspirations towards consumption of these categories. This can impact long-term consumption of these categories. In fact, the indirect effect can occur for a consumer even in the absence of a direct effect; i.e., even if one cannot afford and consume a non-traditional product in one’s youth, the favorable attitudes formed due to the surrounding prosperity during one’s youth can have 4 As Giuliano and Splimbergo (2014) state summarizing several studies in social psychology, the historical environment during the impressionable years shapes the “basic values, attitudes, and world views of individuals.” An anatomical explanation is provided in Glenn (1980) who describes the adolescent brain as in a transitional period with different anatomical and neurochemical features than the adult brain. In particular in this transitional state, “the volume of grey matter in the cortex gradually increases until about the age of adolescence, then sharply declines as the brain prunes away neuronal connections that are deemed superfluous to the adult needs of the individual.” In a similar vein, the “increasing persistence hypothesis” proposes that people become gradually more resistant to change throughout their lives. They experience a decrease in flexibility and responsiveness to the wider social environment around them due to a “decline in energy and loss of brain tissue, to disengagement and a decrease in interest in events distant from one’s immediate life, and to the accumulation of friends who share similar world views” 2 a positive impact on future consumption, when the individual becomes becoming rich later in life.5 Our goal in this paper is to empirically test for the long-term effects of PIY. This is difficult as it is critical to isolate lifestage (age) and cohort effects on consumption, before isolating PIY which is an intra-cohort effect. First, this requires rare-to-find individual level panel data on consumption that spans across a large number of years that spans multiple life stages of an individual. Second, testing for the direct PIY effect requires that there has to be substantial variation in the level of prosperity experienced across and within individuals over time. Third, as individuals within a birth cohort shares a large number of experiences— economic conditions, technological progress, cultural norms and many other unobservable characteristics, it is not normally possible to identify the indirect PIY effect at the level of each province, unless there is variation in the timing of when different provinces experienced prosperity. China provides an ideal setting to empirically test for the PIY effect. As a rapidly growing emerging market, it has not only a high overall rate of income growth, but there is also substantial heterogeneity in the levels and rate of income growth across individuals and provinces. Figure 1a shows the GDP per capita for the different Chinese provinces in the sample. It is clear that not only are the levels different, but the growth rates are substantially different across the provinces. This makes it feasible to test for the direct and indirect PIY effect in China. Second, we were able to access a very long panel dataset of individual consumption for Chinese individuals. The China Health and Nutrition Survey tracked the consumption, preferences and health outcomes of over 8000 households from nine Chinese provinces over a twenty-year period from 1992-2011 allowing us to study the panel 5 In discussing the role of product placement in glamorous Chinese movies such as Tiny Times (a Chinese version of Sex and the City), Bloomberg BusinessWeek quotes a Shanghai college student about the potential long-term benefit of such placement among youth who currently cannot afford such luxuries: “The movie is somewhat detached from our current lives now, and we can’t afford a lot of those luxuries. But some of the brands we may buy as we get older.” 3 consumption behavior of over 100,000 individuals. The survey collected detailed information on not only household consumption across multiple non-traditional and traditional categories, but also the changing income levels and other demographics of these individuals. Thus we are able to control for a rich set of contemporaneous factors, demographics, life stage (age) and cohort effects in isolating the PIY effects in a robust manner. The data on consumption and preferences for non-traditional categories over time in which we should not expect PIY effects provides us an opportunity to conduct falsification tests. Finally, additional data on the number of fast food outlets across different provinces allows us to rule out plausible supply side explanations in isolating the PIY effect. Our key findings are as follows. First, we find strong evidence of a cohort effect-- “millennials,” born during the nationally high growth decades (1980s and 1990s) are more likely to consume non-traditional categories like coffee, western snacks, and fast food. Second, we find evidence of the “prosperity-in-youth” (PIY) effect; individuals who experience direct prosperity in youth or spent their youth in richer provinces are more likely to consume new categories in the future—even 20 years later. Importantly, the intra-cohort PIY effect absorbs all of the cohort effects, making it a very powerful and effective segmentation construct than pure cohort effects in that it can leverage geography, income and time more effectively for segmentation. Our estimates imply that if a person spent their youth in coastal Jiangsu (the richest province in our sample) instead of in Western Guizhou (the poorest), their likelihood of coffee consumption would be more than doubled. Third, disentangling the direct and indirect channels of the PIY effect, we find that although higher incomes at both the personal (own-income) and societal (provincial income) level are significant predictors of consumption in non-traditional categories, the effect of the latter is larger in magnitude. Further, the indirect PIY effect affects all individuals, but the effect is almost double in magnitude among individuals, who had low incomes during their youth and therefore could not afford these categories during youth. This suggests that indirect effect creates aspirations for future consumption among the poor to consume non-traditional 4 categories when they became richer. Falsification tests build confidence in the PIY results. First, the PIY effect does not hold for traditional categories. Second, a placebo test that assigns individuals “fake” ages yields no significant correlation between past prosperity and adoption, suggesting that the prosperity during youth is truly the underlying explanatory factor driving the results. Finally, we rule out plausible supply-side explanations driving the PIY effect. These results have broader implications for marketing in emerging markets. First, the fast growth of the past two decades in China will have persistent effects on current non-traditional category consumption. Second, given the considerable heterogeneity in growth across different provinces of China, the propensity to consume non-traditional categories will differ for people of the same age if they live in different locations during their youth., This suggests that the market potential will differ by consumer age and geography and should be used for effective segmentation and targeting. Further, the finding that reaching the impressionable youth demographic can have long-term benefits for sales via the direct and indirect channel can guide marketing programs. For youth consumers whose new category adoption over the long-run is driven mainly by affordability, low price points will allow them to try out new and expensive categories during this malleable period. Further, the indirect effect on poor consumers through the aspirational channel suggests that marketers may want to invest in aspirational advertising for these non-traditional categories in richer provinces to shape long- term attitudes and future consumption. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 discusses the relevant background literature. Section 3 describes the data and Section 4 describes the analysis. Section 5 concludes. 2 Related Literature Our analysis of the PIY effect relates to and contributes to four areas of existing research. First, we augment a small, recent literature that explores the effect of an individual’s past 5 experience on current consumption. Bronnenberg et al. (2012) and Atkin (2012) use data on consumption of migrants in US and India respectively to show that the purchases/consumption of migrants continue to be impacted by the consumption patterns in states from which they originated—even several years after they migrated to new states. Kuneng and Yaklolev (2014) demonstrate cohort effects in vodka/beer consumption tied to habit persistence and product availability. Beer became available in Russia more freely after 1989 (breakup of the Soviet Union); cohorts that came of age before 1989 and had formed drinking habits by then continue to consume vodka at higher rates, while those who came of age after 1989 consume beer at higher rates. Eizenberg and Salvo (2014) find that Brazilian households exhibit persistence in the soda brands they consume (premium or private label) based on what they chose when they first entered the middle class and started drinking soda. Older cohorts faced large price differentials between national and private labels when they first entered the middle class. They therefore started with cheaper private labels. They continued to buy the private labels at higher rates than the younger consumers who entered the middle classes after the price differentials were reduced. Each of the above studies focus on one dimension of past experience (i) geography (Bronnenberg et al. 2012 and Atkin 2012), (ii) time (Kuneng and Yaklolev 2014) and (iii) income shift (Eizenberg and Salvo 2014). The PIY effect encompasses all three of the dimensions, and shows that “where” (geography) and “when” (a particular point of time in one’s life) one attains adulthood and prosperity can have long-term effects on consumption. Therefore income and geography at a point of time in one’s life (youth) are a valuable joint basis for segmentation in high-growth emerging markets. Its practical value as a segmentation basis is particularly high in emerging markets, where markets and consumer characteristics are changing rapidly and heterogeneously across geographies. Second, our work is related to a broader literature in social psychology, political science and economics about how susceptibility to attitude changes over an individual’s lifecycle. There are two key hypotheses about susceptibility to new attitudes over a life time; (1) the 6 life stages hypothesis, and (2) the impressionable years hypothesis. The life stages hypothesis suggest that openness to different attitudes vary over age; for instance youth tend to be more liberal and become more conservative as they become middle aged. This is well summarized by the saying: “If you are not a radical at twenty, you have no heart; if you are still one at forty, you have no head.” The consumption related implication is that that differing needs drive consumer needs at different life stages. For example, financial products tend to have needs at different life stages (e.g., Li et al. (2005). One has very simple financial needs at eighteen (checking account/credit card), but much more complex financial needs during middle age (mortgage, insurance etc.), and again simpler needs when older (e.g., retirement products). The “impressionable years” hypothesis, in contrast and will be our preferred hypothesis in this paper due to the nature of the categories we study, suggests that an individual is most open to attitude change during youth, and subsequently retains these stable attitudes over their lifetime. In terms of consumption, these are likely true for many taste- based products such as music, movies and food. Our estimated age and cohort effects can shed insights on which of these two hypotheses are supported by the data. Empirically, several papers demonstrate support for the impressionable years hypothesis in multiple settings, though not in the domain of consumption. Schuman and Corning (2012) find evidence for the “critical years” (essentially equivalent to the impressionable years) phenomenon that national and world events (e.g., WWII, the Vietnam War, fall of the Berlin Wall) experienced during later childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood wield disproportionately larger effects on memories, attitudes, and actions in later life. It has been also used to explain political attitudes, voting behavior, political socialization, and partisan realignment in political science (e.g., Krosnick and Alwin 1989; Sears and Funk 1999; Osborne, Sears and Valentino 2011). Giuliano and Spilimbergo (2014) exploit cross-regional variation in occurrence of recessions during youth to show evidence that this makes individuals more favorable towards redistributive policies; they also provide an extensive 7 review of the literature relating the effect of macroeconomic conditions during particular life- stages on economic outcomes. Third, our paper is related to the literature on identification of the cohort effects. Membership in a cohort implies sharing experiences such as macroeconomic episodes during the same period of their lives or viewed from another angle, going through common life-cycle events such as marriage at similar points in time. In trying to ascertain whether the economic environment specific to a cohort creates preferences that persist over time, this paper is essentially estimating an intra-cohort effect. The well-known econometric challenge is that cohort, life-stage (age) and time are linearly correlated (Heckman and Robb 1985). The basic problem arises because there is a linear relationship between these variables: age equals period minus cohort (year of birth). A common approach to break this linear dependency is to make a normalization assumption by bunching people of multiple birth years into one cohort on the grounds that they share common experiences, which are the basis of the cohort effect. In this paper, similarly we assume that households born in the same half-decade have the same cohort effects. To the best of our knowledge, the only empirical marketing work relating to cohort effects are Rentz, Reynolds and Stout (1983) and Rentz and Reynolds (1981, 1991), who study the impact of changing US age distribution on soda and coffee consumption respectively using repeated cross-sectional data. They circumvent the linear dependency identification issues using the normalization assumption of combining multiple age classes into one cohort. The key conclusion in Reynolds and Stout is that contrary to a simple reading of the age profile for soda consumption, which might suggest that soda consumption would decline as the US population aged, the cohort analysis showed that soda consumption would not decline (an insight that proved to be true). Rentz and Reynolds (1991) use the cohort analysis to forecast coffee consumption more accurately than a cross-sectional analysis. In this paper, we go beyond cohort identification to focus on PIY-which is an intra-cohort effect. This is feasible given that we have detailed individual data, and there is substantial intra-cohort variation in 8 China due to the cross-regional variation in differential income growth across Chinese provinces and own income exposure at youth at the individual level. Finally, our paper is related to the literature on new product adoption that explores the relationship between personal characteristics and new-product adoption behavior. This literature finds that “innovative” consumers can be characterized by socio-demographics, especially age, income and education (Gatignon and Robertson 1991, Dickerson and Gentry 1983, Im and Bayus 2003). Note that we control for current characteristics, but in contrast to these streams of work, our emphasis is on past experience during youth rather than current characteristics of individuals in influencing adoption. We postulate that past experiences may in fact be equally or more important relative to the influence of contemporaneous observables on adoption/consumption. Further, our work suggests that “innovativeness” as a trait may be explained by past experience of prosperity and geography at a particular age. 3 Data Our data is primarily drawn from the China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS), conducted in multiple waves over a twenty-year period. Specifically, we have data from 1989, 1991, 1993, 1997, 2000, 2004, 2006, 2009 and 2011.6 A major advantage of this dataset is that it spans China during a period of enormous spatial and temporal change. The data cover nine provinces that vary substantially in geography, current as well as historic economic development, and public resources. The map in Figure 1(b) shows the CHNS provinces on which we base our analysis shaded in dark green. The provinces along the east coast (Jiangsu, Liaoning and Shandong) are more advanced and have higher GDP levels and growth rates relative to the inland/northeastern provinces (Guanxi, Guizhou, Heilongjiang, Henan, Hubei and Hunan). We use all the waves except the first one (as information on category 6 The survey is a collaborative effort between the Carolina Population Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the National Institute of Nutrition and Food Safety at the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Details are at http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/china. 9 consumption was not collected in the first wave). We keep individuals aged 15-85 in every wave giving us an unbalanced panel of 30903 individuals across 8394 households. We report the descriptive statistics in Table 1. The key dependent variable for our analysis is consumption of three relatively “new” non-traditional categories in China: coffee, fast foods (like KFC and McDonalds) and salty snack foods (like potato chips, pretzels, French fries). Consumption is a dummy variable indicating whether an individual drinks or eats that category during the time of the data collection. Additionally, for coffee, we also construct a share which measures how much coffee s/he drinks relative to tea (i.e. amount of coffee divided by sum of coffee and tea). For our main regressions, we use all three categories. However the length of our panel is shorter for fast food and snacks; so we focus on for which we have the longest panel of data, when we need to further sub-segment markets (as we do when we test for the aspirational mechanism). We also consider measures of preferences as a dependent variable measuring consumption to assess the robustness of the results. The survey asks individuals how much they like fast food or snacks. If they dislike them very much or somewhat we code this as “low preference” and if they like them very much or somewhat then we code this as “high preference.” We construct our main independent variables i.e. the measures of “prosperity”—(i) provincial income during ages 18-28 and (ii) personal income during ages 18-28 as follows. For the former, we use macroeconomic data from the EMIS Emerging Markets database. This database provides time-series on the gross domestic (province) product per capita across China. Given our long panel, we know where an individual lived when they were 18-28. We construct an average of the provincial income across all available years for an individual in this range. We construct the personal household income during ages 18-28 from the information in the panel itself.7 7 Our choice of this particular age bracket is a slightly longer than some other writing about the impressionable years hypothesis (who typically use 18-25, e.g., Giualiano and Spilimbergo (2014)); but given that our survey is conducted 10 In addition we have information on other socio-demographic and household characteristics like gender, relationship to head, education, urban or rural status. We also have information on contemporaneous household income and contemporaneous province income. The contemporaneous income measures are particularly important to help control for the current “affordability” effect that is likely correlated with prosperity experienced during youth. Given the time, province in which lived, and age of the individual, we are able to estimate time, province and age fixed effects. In addition, we use information from the birth decade (1940s, 1950, 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, or 1990s) of the individual to isolate cohort effects. Together, these fixed effects on time, province, age, and cohort absorb any variation in adoption coming from common national-level shocks, unchanging province characteristics, life- cycle effects and cohort-specific characteristics. 4 Empirical Analysis We begin by providing some model-free evidence of cohort and PIY effects. Next, we describe our model specification and our empirical strategy to identify cohort and PIY effects. We then perform robustness analysis and falsification checks. Finally, we explore the mechanism underlying the PIY effect. 4.1 Model-Free Evidence of Cohort and PIY Effects Figure 1(c) depicts the growth of non-traditional or Western-inspired categories based on our panel data, which spans the period of rapid economic development in China. We view categories as “non-traditional” if they were not widely available or consumed in China prior to the takeoff of growth, roughly around the early 1980s. Often these categories were commonplace in the West and introduced in Chinese markets by Western firms. For every three years and sometimes an individual may not appear in a particular year, we aggregate income over at least three observations (9 years) rather than just two to have a robust income measure. However, the results do remain robust to the alternative 18-25 year definition. 11 example, coffee has only relatively recently experienced rising acceptance among the Chinese, traditionally a tea-consuming society. Pioneered by Nestle in the early 1990s, instant coffee began gaining popularity and over time, this growing taste has fueled double-digit growth and myriad ways of consumption: coffee shops, fresh grounds, pods—rivaling the variety observed in Western markets. Even though tea still retains a substantially higher market share, coffee volume is climbing steadily. The aggregate growth rates shown in Figure 1(c) mask substantial heterogeneity in category adoption across age, cohort and geography. In trying to isolate the cohort and geography effect in a model-free graphical manner, we hope to build intuition towards uncovering the presence of a “prosperity-in-youth” effect. The left-hand column of Figure 2 shows coffee, fast food and snack adoption across the age distribution, revealing a mostly monotonically declining profile over age. On first glance, this appears consistent with a life cycle hypothesis of consumption. If coffee is more likely to be consumed earlier in life (starting around age 18), the declining profile over the age distribution is simply due to within- individual variation in consumption over their lifecycle. For example, youth may prefer coffee because it is more fashionable or because it is more potent, but may lose preference for coffee as they grow older. On the other hand, this particular decline for aggregate coffee consumption over the age distribution can arise due to across-consumer variation alone. Specifically, even if different cohorts have flat consumption profiles across age (and thus no within-individual variation), but if younger cohorts were more likely to consume coffee, then we would generate the declining for aggregate coffee consumption. With cross-sectional data, separating these “age” (within-individual) and “cohort” (across-individual) effects would not be feasible. We leverage our panel structure of the data to disentangle the two effects. To more directly observe cohort effects in consumption habits among Chinese household members, we plot coffee drinking probability by cohort (as defined by decade of birth) in each year from 1993 to 2011, as in the right-hand side panel of Figure 2. Modern categories 12 capture a growing share of an individual’s beverage intake especially for younger generations born in the 1980s and 1990s. Individuals born before the mid-1960s (or who came of age before the end of the Cultural Revolution) do not increase adoption over time. For example, younger generations show increasing interest in coffee and are much more likely to be coffee drinkers than the older cohorts both cross-sectionally and over time. Also, the increasing total height of the bars over time indicates that there is an increasing propensity in the overall population to drink coffee. The evidence so far seems to indicate the possible role of a cohort effect, with younger and impressionable cohorts more likely to consume coffee, fast food and soda, driving the expansion of these new categories. Given our interest on the role of prosperity in shaping preferences, the next question is whether we can link this cohort effect to particular market conditions like economic growth prevailing during youth. The Chinese economy has experienced rapid economic growth, averaging over 9% annually during the past thirty years. As shown in Figure 1(a), this high growth rate is geographically heterogeneous with growth rates generally higher in coastal areas relative to the inland regions. The cohorts born in 1980s and 1990s were in their youthful years during the nationally high-growth period. To probe further into a possible correlation between provincial prosperity and youth, we turn to Figure 3. Here, we plot consumption in 1993 and 2011 for those born after 1980 (blue) and those born before (red) for high (dashed) and low (solid) income provinces. This definition of “high” and “low” is based on being above and below the median sample level in the top panel. In the bottom panels, we compare the richest (Jiangsu) and poorest (Guizhou) province. Regardless of how growth is defined, the difference in consumption between youth and adults in poor and rich provinces is clear. The steepest slope i.e. the biggest jump in consumption over the time period is for youth in rich provinces and the smallest is for the older generations in poor provinces. In fact, in the top panel, consumption is virtually identical for older generation regardless of their location. In contrast, for the youth, the slope is much higher for 13 the youth in richer provinces. Thus these descriptive model-free analysis shows evidence of “prosperity in youth.” We next explore the “prosperity in youth” hypothesis more formally through regression analysis, controlling for both time-varying and time-invariant factors. 4.2 Model Specification We begin by estimating the following specification to isolate the cohort effect on consumption from age, time, province and contemporaneous individual effects: ipt it c a t p iptCategory X (1.1) where iptCategory is a dummy variable indicating whether individual i in province p consumes the category at time t. iptCategory is appropriately redefined when the dependent variable is preference for the category; or share of coffee relative to coffee and tea. In (1.1) above, itX is a vector personal characteristics which may be time-varying (age, contemporaneous incomes, educational status) or time-invariant (gender, relationship to head, income during youth, rural/urban). We capture the cohort, age and time fixed by c , a and t respectively. The time fixed effect captures common national shocks. We control for unchanging characteristics of a province through province fixed effects p . We estimate the regression using the probit model when the dependent variable is consumption and OLS when the dependent variable is preference or share. The reported standard errors are clustered at the individual level. We next add the direct and indirect intra-cohort PIY effect by including the individual i’s own income during youth (18-28) and the per-capita GDP of the province in which the individual lived during youth (18-28) below: 18 28 18 28 1 2log( ) log(GDP-pc )ipt i ip it c a t p iptCategory I X (1.2) As discussed earlier, we treat individuals born in the same half-decade as belonging to the same cohort. The PIY effect to be estimated in (1.2) relies on intra-cohort variation and is 14 identified off the cross-province variation in prosperity which impacts differently even individuals within cohorts. 4.3 Time, Age, Cohort Effects We begin by reporting the results of the estimation equation (1.1) for the three categories. The estimates are presented in Table 2. The estimated age, cohort and time fixed effects are shown graphically in Figure 4 for ease of interpretation. First, the time effects displayed in panel (a) of Figure 4, show that consumption in all three non-traditional categories is rising over time on average across provinces. This is not surprising, given the overall economic, and social attitudes towards non-traditional consumption. Second, the age or lifecycle effects reported in panel (b), shows a monotonic decline, but the decline is relatively flat across all three categories. In fact, the confidence intervals around these estimates are not statistically significantly different from zero, which is the difference relative to age bracket 15-20. This supports the hypothesis that there are no significant life cycle effects in these taste-based product categories. This is in contrast to the earlier age profile from the raw data that did not include time and cohort fixed effects (see Figure 2), where the decline with age was very sharp. These results highlight that a naïve model of age and consumption when used to forecast and segment emerging markets can be highly misleading. Finally we discuss the estimated cohort effects, shown in Panel (c). The omitted category is the 1940-45 birth cohorts, so the effects reported are relative to this cohort. In contrast to the age effects, the cohort effects are significantly different from zero at least for later cohorts. Across all categories, there is a strong pattern of increasing coefficients on later birth cohorts. The estimates imply that being born in the early 1990s increases coffee drinking probability by 5% and in the late 1990s by 12%. For categories like snacks or fast food, cohorts beginning in the late sixties and late seventies, who came of age in the eighties and 15 nineties begin to display higher consumption likelihoods, which continues to increase for even younger cohorts. Finally, in Table 2, we see that contemporaneous income has a strongly positive and significant effect on consumption across all categories. This is not surprising and has face validity in that we expect richer individuals to be more likely to consume non-traditional categories, which are generally priced higher than traditional foods. The basic message from the estimates in Table 2 and Figure 4 is that younger cohorts are more likely to adopt modern categories, but there are very little lifecycle effects over age. Next, we seek to parse out the cohort effects, by assessing the role of China’s increasing prosperity in driving and the experience of it during youth-when tastes are being formed. We therefore explore this link between prosperity in youth and consumption. 4.4 The “Prosperity in Youth” (PIY) Effect We report the results of our specification (1.2) to explore the PIY effect in Table 3. Table 3 shows the coefficients on of one s personal income ( direct effect ) during ages 18 through 28 as well as the average provincial income during ages 18 through 28 (“indirect effect”)—on adoption of new categories. Results for each of the three categories are in separate panels (a), (b) and (c) for coffee, fast food and snack adoption respectively. Each of the columns adds additional controls or fixed effects. Column (1) in all panels shows strong support for the hypothesized direct and indirect PIY effect. We see that (i) the direct effect of one’s personal income during the youth years is always positive and statistically significant; and (ii) the indirect effect through provincial income at 18-28 is also positive and statistically significant. Interestingly, the indirect effect is almost double the direct effect in terms of magnitude for all three categories. Next we look across columns to see how the PIY estimates change with additional controls. First, we control for contemporaneous income in Column (2). Including current income tends to reduce the direct PIY effect in all three categories. This should not be 16 surprising due to the expected correlation between an individual’s past and present income. Surprisingly, however, the coefficient on the provincial income remains stable (or even becomes stronger) even with the inclusion of contemporaneous personal or provincial income. Interestingly, the addition of cohort fixed effects changes the magnitude of the PIY effect very little. However it increases the standard errors of the indirect PIY effect. This suggests that the intra-cohort effects captured by PIY captures most of the cohort effects. We validate this in panel (d), where we report the pseudo 2R of adding cohort effects in addition to PIY. There is little explanatory power beyond PIY in cohort effects. This suggests that cohort effects are almost entirely be explained by the PIY effect. Finally, in column (4), we add the age fixed effects. This has little impact on the direct effect for all categories. For the indirect effect, we find little effect on coffee and fast food, but the magnitude of the indirect effect increases for snacks. We now interpret the PIY effects based on estimates in column (4), our most complete specification. A 10% increase in per capita GDP in an individual’s province while they are young, boosts coffee drinking probability by .001 percentage points and a 10% increase in own income boosts this by .0004 percentage points. The mean coffee drinking probability in the sample is .025, so this implies increases of 4% due to the indirect effect and 2% due to the direct effect. Given that China was growing at around 10% GDP rates every year for almost three decades, the effects of income on cumulative coffee consumption over time can be very significant indeed. Specifically the estimated 4% (2%) increase in coffee consumption per year due to 10% income growth compounded over 10 years translates to a 48% (22%) increase in consumption in 10 years. The province effect for snacks and fast food are also roughly the same magnitude. As we would expect, contemporaneous measures of prosperity i.e. an individual’s current household income and the current province income continue to affect consumption of all three categories. Coefficients on other individual characteristics like gender, education status and rural residence show that being male, a student and residing in urban areas is also positively 17 correlated with adoption of modern categories. The rural dummy is strongly negative and significant, reflecting the widely acknowledged gap in socio-economic conditions between rural and urban areas in China—that also impact consumption. Next we examine the fraction of variance explained by the different set of variables. The results are reported in panel (d). Column (1) reports the pseudo- 2R with only demographics and province fixed effects. Columns (2)-(5) of panel d show the pseudo- 2R corresponding to the models estimated in Columns (1)-(4) in panels (a)-(c) of Table 3. Columns (2) and (3) show that the direct effect and indirect effect of PIY add additional explanatory power. In terms of relative share of the variance explained by the direct and indirect effects on consumption, the indirect effect explains 22%, 48% and 48% of the total PIY effect for coffee, fast food and snacks respectively. Column (4) shows no incremental explanatory power relative to Column (3) demonstrating that the intra-cohort PIY effect has explained virtually all of the cohort effects. This provides empirical evidence that PIY can explain all of the cohort behavior in Chinese consumption of non-traditional goods. Finally, we provide a measure of the economic magnitudes of the PIY effect by reporting how much of the per-capita consumption of the different categories is explained by the PIY effects. To do so, we report in panel (e) how a 1% change in one’s own youth income or provincial per-capita GDP at youth will reduce average consumption. For coffee, a 1% reduction in own income at youth reduces average adoption rates by 12% while a 1% reduction in one’s provincial GDP at youth reduces average adoption rates by 18% respectively.8 The joint effect of a 1% reduction in income and provincial GDP at youth is a reduction in average adoption by 28%. The corresponding numbers for fast food and snacks are smaller, but similar in relative magnitudes. These large effects suggest that the PIY effects are not merely statistically significant, but are economically and managerially very significant. 8 The total effect is less than the sum of the direct and indirect effect as there is correlation in the variables and the nonlinear probit link between the variables and probability of consumption. 18 4.5 Robustness Checks We conduct a series of robustness checks. First, we replicate results so far with consumption data with other dependent variables such as preference for the category and share of consumption. Next, we conduct a variety of falsification checks to assess the robustness of the PIY effect. Other Dependent Variables: Preferences and Shares Our main analysis was based upon the consumption dummy (behavior) as the dependent variable. For coffee, we have information on the relative share of consumption of coffee relative to tea and coffee. We can therefore use share of coffee as a dependent variable and repeated the main analysis. We report the results in Table 4a). Our results for the direct and indirect PIY effect on the relative consumption of the non-traditional category (coffee) to relatively traditional one (tea) are similar to the results from the main analysis for coffee adoption. For fast food and snacks, we also had preference information for the category from the survey. Here, the individual answers on a scale of 0-4 whether she does not consume, dislikes very much, dislikes somewhat, likes somewhat, or likes very much the category in question. We classify the score on this scale as high or low preference. We report the results in Table 4(a). Our results for the direct and indirect PIY effect are similar to the main analysis in both categories. Controlling for province level unobservable trends It is possible that unobservable province level factors correlated with income at youth may also be correlated with current income and this may explain the individual’s adoption today. For example, if people in a province generally tend to be more modern and progressive both in the past and contemporaneously this could influence both income and adoption. Insofar, this is a time invariant characteristic, it will be taken care of by province fixed effects. 19 However if there are trends, we have not accounted for and these could explain the estimated PIY effect. In Table 5, we control for linear province specific trends to absorb evolving unobservables. Both the direct and indirect PIY effects generally remain significant for all three categories. The magnitudes of the effects are similar to Column (4) of Table 3 for coffee and fast food, but there is drop in the magnitude of the indirect PIY effect for the western snacks category. Overall the continued significance and relatively large magnitudes of the effect boosts confidence in the robustness of the PIY effects. Falsification Checks To further bolster confidence in our findings, we conduct two falsification tests. First, we test whether PIY matters for traditional categories like fruits and vegetables, where a priori, we should not expect to see them as they are already well-accepted as indicated by the fact that fruits and vegetables are adopted by virtually everyone (over 99%). While, this means that it is not possible to do the adoption test of PIY on these categories, we can still perform the test with the preference data. The results are reported in Table 6. As expected, we find no effect of PIY on the fruit and vegetable categories, supporting our premise that PIY effects are likely to be strong in new non-traditional categories. Next, we run placebo test to check whether some other unobservable trends may drive the intra-cohort PIY effects we estimate. To do this we randomize the cohort by assigning random “fake” birth years to individuals instead of their true ones. This implies that we are also assigning them false income-at-youth measures and ages. We then run the basic specification (1.2) for coffee with 100 such false assignments to see if the prosperity effect still holds— suggesting some other unobservable factor drives the PIY results. The distribution of the t- statistic for the coefficients from the 100 regressions is plotted in online Figure 5. The mean t- stat for the “fake” regressions is centered around zero with a mean of 0.113. The lack of significance in these falsification runs makes it unlikely that the PIY results are driven by other unobserved factors. 20 4.6 Exploring the Mechanism behind the Indirect PIY effect We conclude with exploring two alternative mechanisms underlying the indirect PIY effect due to provincial prosperity. Why should someone growing up in a rich province at youth, be more likely to purchase non-traditional categories in the future? We explore two plausible reasons relating to aspirational motives and second related to supply/availability. Aspirational Motives We explore the idea that a young person who does not have enough income during youth may nevertheless form aspirations for consuming non-traditional categories when they are in richer provinces where larger numbers of richer people are consuming the product s/he cannot consume today. Such individuals may buy in the category when they become richer later in life.9 If such an aspirational mechanism is present, we expect the indirect PIY effect to be stronger among poorer youth. To test this, we segment households using a median split based on their level of prosperity in youth and measure the indirect PIY effects for the richer and poorer segments at youth. If the indirect PIY effect is positive and stronger among the poorer segment, we consider that as supporting the aspirational mechanism. As a falsification check, and to check some unobserved factors about the poor during youth that persists across time are not driving this result, we also segment the market by current income (not youth income) and test whether the indirect PIY effect is stronger among the currently poorer segment. If the aspirational mechanism is driving the result, we should not find a larger effect among the poor. Note, we still control for the main effect of contemporaneous income and expect it to wield a strong positive effect. Table 7 reports the results. Columns (1) and (2) report the regression results for coffee adoption and coffee share with the rich/poor classification based on youth income. Columns (3) and (4) report the same results where the rich/poor classification is based on current income. Based on Columns (1) and (3), we find significant indirect effects for both the rich 9 “Aspirations, not current income.” New York Times August 17th 2012. 21 and poor, but consistent with aspirational motives, the indirect effects are stronger for individuals who were poor when they were young. As expected for the falsification tests (results reported in Columns (2) and (4), we do not find significance for the indirect effect if the individuals are classified as rich or poor based on current income. Overall, these set of results support the idea that aspirations play a role in the indirect effect. The magnitudes of the indirect PIY effect on low-income and high-income households shed additional insight on the indirect effect. Earlier, we had noted that the magnitude of the indirect PIY effect was double in magnitude to that of the direct effect. Now by splitting the effects of the rich and the poor, we find that indirect effects affect them both, but the poor are affected almost twice as much as the rich. Thus the long run effect of PIY for the rich and the poor are about the same—while the direct effect contributes to half of the PIY effect for the rich, the indirect effect drives most of the PIY affect for the poor. Supply Next we test for the role of supply factors for the indirect PIY effect. It is possible that incomes at youth are essentially capturing availability of new categories—presence of the supply-side or firms. In this case, the effect of prosperity at youth in the province could be driven by greater availability of the product, which then creates a long-term effect. That is, a youth in a poor province may simply not be able to buy coffee or fast food because there are no retail stores offering these or even if there are, the poor youth may not be the target of advertising or informational activity. To test this, we obtain a province-level panel dataset that measures the number of fast food outlets entering China from 1988 to 2007. KFC and McDonald, two of the largest and oldest players in this category, are the firms represented. We run (1.2) with fast food as the focal category and include controls for supply through the log number of outlets in the market at youth and also contemporaneously. If the PIY coefficients remain significant even after inclusion of these supply variables, then we can conclude that PIY is not entirely driven by availability. Table 8 shows that inclusion of these variables strengthens the indirect PIY effect and preference for fast foods. 22 5 Conclusion In this paper, we explore how a consumer’s experiences of “prosperity in youth” impact their consumption behavior well into the future, specifically the propensity to consume new non-traditional categories. We label this the “prosperity-in-youth” effect. We find that the PIY effect has both a direct and indirect effect. The direct effect, due to one’s own prosperity at youth, increases propensity to consume non-traditional expensive categories, and this has long-term impact on consumption well into the future. The indirect component, due to the prosperity in the province in which the individual lives also affects consumption, and surprisingly is almost twice in magnitude relative to the direct effect. For the rich, the direct and indirect components of PIY are roughly equal, but for the poor, the PIY effect is entirely due to the indirect component. Our results highlight the importance of taking into account cohort effects, as a naïve age- consumption relationship may lead to the misleading conclusion that consumption of non- traditional categories declines with age in China. In contrast, we find that young people begin consumption of non-traditional categories during youth as China has experienced rapid of prosperity recently but these consumption attitudes persist over time. This means that conversion of youth have significant long-term effects that simply do not decay over time/ Interestingly, we find that the intra-cohort PIY effect that we propose in this paper absorbs all of the cohort effects; there is little explanatory power for cohort effects, beyond the PIY effect. Our findings have several implications for firms introducing new categories in emerging markets. First, a homogenous segmentation strategy in high-growth and heterogeneous emerging markets may not be appropriate as the target segment varies across time and space. Leveraging this heterogeneity can serve as an effective segmentation and targeting tool. Second, targeting the appropriate youth segments today will not just expand current sales but also future sales, as the preferences formed during the impressionable years remain sticky. 23 From a branding perspective, this suggest that cultivating tastes towards a brand early in the lifecycle of a new category may create a first-mover advantage that lasts over a long time (Carpenter and Nakomoto, 1989). Third, richer provinces are even more attractive for targeting, because even for poor, young consumers in those provinces who cannot afford the category, favorable tastes that will persist into the future are being formed today. Taken together our findings have important implications for firms in rapidly changing and heterogeneous emerging markets. Getting the right estimate of initial market potential and the trajectory for growth is critically important for managers entering emerging markets. Our evidence suggests that the youth who have experienced prosperity directly or indirectly (by living in richer provinces) in their “preference formative impressionable years” need to be over-weighted in estimating market potential for “sticky” taste and attitude products. The right potential and growth forecasts help to set the right expectations for success and commit the right level of resources at the time of introduction. and enables the development of a feasible plan for ramping up commitment and resources over time. Otherwise the entry becomes a failure, leading to disappointment, potential downsizing or even withdrawal, leaving many managers careers damaged irrevocably for no real fault of their own. While our results support the idea that economic prosperity during youth increases persistent lifetime consumption behavior, future research should delve deeper into the different mechanisms that could be at work. For example, is our identified aspirational effect moderated through the presence of social networks that influence category adoption? While we did not find significant effect of supply side (store availability) on the PIY effect in the fast food market, this would be worth additional exploration in other categories. We hope this paper stimulates additional research on the long-term effects of experiences during youth on a variety of outcomes of interest to marketers in new settings—e.g., consumption across diverse categories, voting choices and attitudes towards new trends such as health and wellness, sustainability. 24 References Atkin, David. "Trade, Tastes, and Nutrition in India." American Economic Review 103.5 (2013): 1629-63. 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Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(5), 814–830. 27 Figure 1: Background on growth and geographic coverage (a) Province Growth 1978-2011 (b) Provinces Covered in CHNS Data (dark green) 0 20 00 0 40 00 0 60 00 0 G D P p c R M B 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 Year Guanxi Guizhou Heilongjiang Henan Hubei Hunan Jiangsu Liaoning Shandong 28 (c) Growth of Non-Traditional Categories (a) Coffee (b) Fast Food (c) Snacks Notes: (a) depicts the GDP percapita in different provinces of China during the period 1978-2011, with darker shades implying higher growth rates. Data is from the China Statistical Yearbook. (b) shows the geographic coverage of our data, the dark shaded provinces are the ones included in the sample. (c) plots the average share of individuals within our sample drinking coffee, and consuming fast food, snacks in the survey year. .0 1 .0 2 .0 3 .0 4 .0 5 .0 6 C of fe e 1995 2000 2005 2010 SURVEY YEAR .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 (m ea n) h ig hf st fo od 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 SURVEY YEAR .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1 (m ea n) h ig hs na ck 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 SURVEY YEAR 29 Figure 2: Age and Cohort –wise Category Consumption (a) Coffee Adoption by age (left) and cohort (right) (b) Fast Food Adoption by age (left) and cohort (right) (c) Snack Adoption by age (left) and cohort (right) Notes: The left panel figures show the local polynomial-smoothed life-cycle profiles of category adoption by age. The darker shaded bands around the smoothed lowess plot is the 95% CI. The right panels show average adoption within sample by cohort, as defined by decade of birth. 0 .0 2 .0 4 .0 6 % C of fe e A do pt io n 20 40 60 80 Age kernel = epanechnikov, degree = 0, bandwidth = 3.64, pwidth = 5.47 L o c al p o ly n om ia l s m o o t h 0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 1993 1997 2000 2004 2006 2009 2011 Born 1940s Born 1950s Born 1960s Born 1970s Born 1980s Born 1990s 0 .2 .4 .6 .8 % F as t F oo d A do pt io n 20 40 60 80 Age kernel = epanechnikov, degree = 0, bandwidth = 2.98, pwidth = 4.48 L o c al p o ly n om ia l s m o o t h 0 1 2 3 4 5 2004 2006 2009 2011 Born 1940s Born 1950s Born 1960s Born 1970s Born 1980s Born 1990s .2 .4 .6 .8 % S na ck F oo d A do pt io n 20 40 60 80 Age kernel = epanechnikov, degree = 0, bandwidth = 3.51, pwidth = 5.27 L o c al p o ly n om ia l s m o o t h 0 1 2 3 4 5 2004 2006 2009 2011 Born 1940s Born 1950s Born 1960s Born 1970s Born 1980s Born 1990s 30 Figure 3: Coffee Penetration, by Provincial Income and Youth Demographic (a) Province Classification by Above and Below Median Income (b) Province Classification by Richest (Jiangsu) and Poorest (Guizhou) Province Note: (a) plots % of coffee drinkers in 1993 and 2011 by demographics (youth/non-youth) and provincial economic prosperity (higher than median income in sample/lower than median income sample (b) plots % of coffee drinkers in 1993 and 2011 by demographics (youth/non-youth) and richest (Jiangsu)/poorest (Guizhou) province 0 .0 2 .0 4 .0 6 .0 8 .1 C of fe e D rin ki ng % 1993 2011 Year Youth in High-Growth Non-Youth in High-Growth Youth in Low-Growth Non Youth in Low-Growth 0 .0 5 .1 C of fe e D rin ki ng % 1993 2011 Year Youth in Jiangsu Non-Youth in Jiangsu Youth in Guizhou Non Youth in Guizhou 31 Figure 4: Cohort, Age and Time Fixed Effects from Table 2 (a) Period/Year Effects (b) Age Effects (c)Cohort Effects Note: The figures above plot coefficients from specification (1.1) in Table 2 for all three modern categories. (a), (b) and (c) plots the estimated coefficients from the five-year age bracket dummies, birth cohort coefficients and survey year dummies respectively. Standard error bars are displayed. -. 6 -. 4 -. 2 0 es tim at e 1997 2000 2004 2006 2009 2011 Year Coffee -1 .5 -1 -. 5 0 es tim at e 2004 2006 2009 Year FF -2 -1 .5 -1 -. 5 0 es tim at e 2004 2006 2009 Year Snacks -1 .5 -1 -. 5 0 .5 1 1. 5 es tim at e 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 61-65 66-70 Age Bracket Coffee -1 .5 -1 -. 5 0 .5 1 1. 5 es tim at e 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 61-65 66-70 Age Bracket FF -1 .5 -1 -. 5 0 .5 1 1. 5 es tim at e 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 61-65 66-70 Age Bracket Snacks -. 5 0 .5 1 1. 5 2 es tim at e 1945-49 1950-54 1955-59 1960-64 1965-69 1970-74 1975-79 1980-84 1985-89 1990-94 1995-99 Birth Cohort Coffee 0 .5 1 1. 5 2 2. 5 es tim at e 1945-49 1950-54 1955-59 1960-64 1965-69 1970-74 1975-79 1980-84 1985-89 1990-94 Birth Cohort FF -. 5 0 .5 1 1. 5 2 es tim at e 1945-49 1950-54 1955-59 1960-64 1965-69 1970-74 1975-79 1980-84 1985-89 1990-94 Birth Cohort Snacks 32 Figure 5: Distribution of T-statistics in Placebo Tests Notes: The figure plots the distribution of the t-statistic of the coefficient estimate for the baseline coffee regression in (1.2) runs 100 times. In each of the runs, individual is assigned a random false birth year. 0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 D en si ty -2 -1 0 1 2 t 33 Table 1: Summary Statistics A. Key Variables N Mean SD Min Max HH Income 46546 10733 18813 300 657000 Province GDP per capita 44044 15375 13736 1234 62290 Age 46509 42.788 12.424 6 71 Male % 46546 0.499 0.500 0 1 Rural % 46546 0.672 0.470 0 1 Student % 44898 0.044 0.205 0 1 B. Overall and Cohort-wise Category Choice Mean 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s Coffee Drinking 0.025 0.009 0.018 0.025 0.037 0.070 0.097 Coffee Share 0.031 0.007 0.018 0.027 0.048 0.153 0.255 Tea Drinking 0.389 0.426 0.409 0.397 0.368 0.262 0.207 Fast Food 0.497 0.145 0.215 0.342 0.516 0.733 0.865 Snacks 0.355 0.308 0.384 0.503 0.638 0.811 0.931 Fruit (preference) 3.650 3.563 3.624 3.683 3.707 3.768 3.979 Vegetables (preference) 3.787 3.806 3.838 3.824 3.790 3.699 3.697 34 Table 2: Cohort Effects in Non-Traditional Category Consumption (1) (2) (3) Coffee Fast Food Snacks 1945-49 -0.168 0.0537 -0.0305 (0.12) (0.11) (0.09) 1950-54 -1.25E-01 1.76E-01 -4.60E-02 (0.13) (0.14) (0.12) 1955-59 -0.0864 0.193 -0.07 (0.15) (0.17) (0.15) 1960-64 -0.0183 0.394** 0.0548 (0.18) (0.20) (0.18) 1965-69 0.0193 0.587*** 0.294 (0.21) (0.22) (0.20) 1970-74 0.164 0.727*** 0.368 (0.24) (0.25) (0.23) 1975-79 0.207 0.954*** 0.511* (0.27) (0.28) (0.26) 1980-84 0.37 1.094*** 0.671** (0.30) (0.32) (0.30) 1984-89 0.514 1.432*** 0.946*** (0.34) (0.36) (0.34) 1990-94 0.778* 1.679*** 1.084** (0.40) (0.44) (0.45) 1995-99 1.162* -0.479 (0.64) (0.83) log Current Income 0.246*** 0.118*** 0.106*** (0.02) (0.01) (0.01) Time, geog, agebr FE yes yes yes Observations 47,255 27,921 27,929 Note: The specification in all columns is a probit where the dependent variable is a dummy =1 if the individual consumes the category in the row heading and 0 otherwise. The sample for coffee is larger as the variable is available starting from 1993 but only from 2004 for the other categories. All columns control for year, province, rural/urban and five-year age bracket fixed effects. The omitted cohort is those born in 1940-44. The observations for fast food in the 1995-99 cohort bin were collinear (no variation in adoption) and thus dropped. Robust standard errors clustered at the individual level are in parenthesis. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 35 Table 3: “Prosperity” Effect in Non-Traditional Category Consumption (a) Coffee (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) log Income 18-28 0.201*** 0.142*** 0.141*** 0.143*** 0.145*** (0.03) (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) log GDPpc 18-28 0.120*** 0.216*** 0.200** 0.231* 0.229* (0.04) (0.05) (0.09) (0.12) (0.12) log Current Income 0.170*** 0.170*** 0.160*** 0.162*** (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) log Current GDPpc 0.23 0.24 0.21 (0.00) (0.40) (0.40) (0.40) (0.62) Male 0.056 0.0668 0.0674 0.0664 0.0683 (0.05) (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) Student -0.0116 0.0468 0.0443 0.0557 0.0613 -0.0511 (0.07) (0.07) -0.0721 (0.07) Rural -0.654*** -0.605*** -0.605*** -0.599*** -0.597*** (0.04) (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) Time & Province FE yes yes yes yes yes Cohort FE No no yes yes yes Age Bracket FE No no no yes yes Province time-trends No no no no yes Observations 17,729 11,812 11,812 11,651 11,651 36 (b) Fast Food (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) log Income 18-28 yrs 0.196*** 0.177*** 0.177*** 0.176*** 0.175*** (0.03) (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) log GDPpc 18-28 yrs 0.358*** 0.378*** 0.373*** 0.304** 0.300** (0.04) (0.05) (0.09) (0.12) (0.12) log Current Income 0.157*** 0.158*** 0.149*** 0.153*** (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) log Current GDPpc (0.01) (0.00) 0.07 3.210*** (0.62) (0.62) (0.63) (1.19) Male 0.0919** 0.0644 0.0644 0.0712 0.074 (0.05) (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) Student 0.105* 0.0693 0.0677 0.0631 0.0589 -0.0544 (0.08) (0.08) (0.08) (0.08) Rural -0.727*** -0.678*** -0.678*** -0.669*** -0.676*** (0.05) (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) -0.0616 Time & Province FE Yes yes yes yes Yes Cohort FE No no yes yes yes Age Bracket FE No no no yes yes Province time-trends No no no no yes Observations 3,469 3,469 3,469 3,440 3,362 37 (c) Western Snacks (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) log Income 18-28 yrs 0.187*** 0.158*** 0.132*** 0.137*** 0.138*** (0.03) (0.03) (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) log GDPpc 18-28 yrs 0.353*** 0.346*** 0.365*** 0.422*** 0.241* (0.03) (0.04) (0.05) (0.09) (0.13) log Current Income 0.126*** 0.130*** 0.130*** (0.02) (0.03) (0.03) log Current GDPpc 1.600** 1.637** 1.03 (0.80) (0.80) (1.27) Male 0.256*** 0.236*** 0.227*** 0.244*** (0.05) (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) Student 0.136** 0.115 0.109 0.0719 -0.0579 (0.08) (0.08) (0.09) Rural -0.501*** -0.458*** -0.462*** -0.452*** (0.05) (0.07) (0.07) (0.07) Time & Province FE Yes yes yes yes yes Age Bracket FE No no no no yes Cohort FE No no no yes yes Province time-trends No no no yes yes Observations 3,392 5,641 5,459 3,392 3,362 Note: The specification in all panels (a)-(c) is a probit where the dependent variable is a dummy =1 if the individual consumes the category and 0 otherwise. The columns progressively add covariates and the FE indicated. The last column in all tables controls for a province-wise linearly increasing time-trend. All columns control for year as well as relationship to the head. Robust standard errors clustered at the individual level are in parenthesis. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 38 (d) PIY Explanatory Power: Pseudo- 2R Demographics Direct PIY Effect Indirect PIY Effect Cohort FE Age Bracket FE Coffee 0.151 0.169 0.173 0.173 0.174 Fast Foods 0.328 0.355 0.368 0.368 0.37 Snacks 0.31 0.331 0.341 0.342 0.345 (e) PIY Effect on Average Consumption Direct PIY Indirect PIY Direct+Indirect PIY Coffee 0.12 0.18 0.28 Fast Foods 0.06 0.11 0.17 Snacks 0..05 0..09 0.13 39 Table 4: “PIY” Effect—Other Measures (a) Coffee Share (1) (2) (3) (4) log Income 18-28 0.171*** 0.116** 0.118** 0.123*** (0.0459) -0.0469 (0.05) (0.05) log GDPpc 18-28 yrs 0.305*** 0.373*** 0.387*** 0.437*** (0.0624) -0.063 (0.11) (0.15) log Current Income 0.115*** 0.116*** 0.119*** (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) log Current GDPpc 0.16 0.16 0.12 (0.47) (0.47) (0.47) Male 0.387*** 0.413*** 0.412*** 0.403*** (0.07) (0.07) (0.07) (0.07) Student 0.0295 0.0386 0.0387 0.0381 -0.0862 (0.09) (0.09) -0.0874 Rural -0.426*** -0.405*** -0.407*** -0.405*** (0.07) (0.07) (0.07) (0.07) Time & Province FE yes yes yes Yes Cohort FE no no yes Yes Age Bracket FE no no no Yes Observations 3,907 3,907 3,907 3,907 40 (b) Preferences Snacks Fast Food Direct Both Direct Both log HH income 18-28 yrs 0.0717*** 0.0602** 0.0987*** 0.0906*** (0.02) (0.02) (0.03) (0.03) log GDPpc 18-28 yrs 0.214*** 0.149* (0.08) (0.08) log Current Income 0.0416** 0.0433** 0.0680*** 0.0693*** (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) log Current GDPpc 0.696* 0.689* 0.786** 0.775** (0.37) (0.37) (0.39) (0.39) Male 0.238*** 0.227*** 0.107** 0.0996** (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) Student 0.0216 0.0259 -0.00961 -0.00589 -0.0524 -0.0526 -0.0539 -0.0541 Rural -0.191*** -0.189*** -0.325*** -0.323*** (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) Time, geo, agebr,cohort FE yes yes yes yes Observations 6,028 6,028 6,025 6,025 Note: Panel (a) reports tobit regressions with share of coffee, relative to coffee and tea as the DV. Panel (b) reports ordered logit regressions with stated preference for the indicated category on a scale of 0-4 as the DV. All columns control for year, province, rural/urban, five-year age bracket and cohort fixed effects as well as relationship to the head. Robust standard errors clustered at the individual level are in parenthesis. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 41 Table 5: “Prosperity” Effect in Non-Traditional Category Consumption: Accounting for Province Level Unobservable Trends Coffee Fast Food Snacks log Income 18-28 0.145*** 0.175*** 0.138*** (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) log GDPpc 18-28 0.229* 0.300** 0.241* (0.12) (0.12) (0.13) log Current Income 0.162*** 0.153*** 0.130*** (0.03) (0.02) (0.03) log Current GDPpc (0.00) 3.210*** 1.03 (0.62) (1.19) (1.27) Male 0.0683 0.074 0.244*** (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) Student 0.0613 0.0589 0.0719 (0.07) (0.08) (0.09) Rural -0.597*** -0.676*** -0.452*** (0.06) -0.0616 (0.07) Time & Province FE yes Yes yes Cohort FE yes yes yes Age Bracket FE yes yes yes Province time-trends yes yes yes Observations 11,651 3,362 3,362 42 Table 6: Falsification Test—PIY Effect in Traditional Category Adoption Fruits Vegetables Preference Preference log HH income 18-28 yrs 0.0396 0.0875 (0.04) (0.05) log GDPpc 18-28 yrs 0.0837 -0.209 (0.13) (0.16) log Current HH Income 0.0639** 0.02 (0.03) (0.03) log Current GDPpc 0.52 -0.49 (0.61) (0.73) Male 0.435*** 0.147** (0.07) (0.07) Student 0.0239 0.111 -0.0835 -0.0941 Rural 0.202*** 0.147** (0.06) (0.07) Time, geo,agebr,cohort FE yes yes Observations 4,849 5,700 Notes: Ordered logit regressions with stated preference for the indicated category on a scale of 0-4 as the DV 43 Table 7: Aspirations: Heterogeneity by Income Bracket in Coffee Consumption (1) (2) (3) (4) Low Relative Income as Youth Low Relative Income as Adult Adoption Share Adoption Share Low Relative Income -1.553* -2.318** -0.845 -1.365* (0.81) (1.05) (0.54) (0.74) Low Relative Income*log GDPpc 0.168** 0.257** 0.0613 0.116 (0.08) (0.11) (0.05) (0.07) log HH income 18-28 0.144*** 0.138** (0.05) (0.06) log GDPpc 18-28 0.188 0.360** (0.13) (0.16) log Current Income 0.157*** 0.129*** 0.200*** 0.198*** (0.03) (0.04) (0.02) (0.03) log Current GDPpc 0.11 0.10 0.615*** 0.39 (0.41) (0.48) (0.23) (0.29) Male 0.0874 0.410*** -0.0175 0.293*** (0.06) (0.07) (0.04) (0.04) Student 0.055 0.0524 0.0812 0.0449 (0.07) (0.09) (0.06) (0.08) Urban -0.569*** -0.392*** -0.569*** -0.432*** (0.06) (0.07) (0.03) (0.04) Time, geo,agebr,cohort FE, other covar yes yes yes yes Observations 11,652 3,922 11,652 3,922 Note: The specification in all columns 1 and 3 is a probit where the dependent variable is a dummy =1 if the individual consumes coffee and 0 otherwise. The specification in all columns 2 and 4is a tobit where the dependent variable is the total share of coffee—ratio cups of coffee to total cups of coffee and tea. Low Relative Income at youth (adult) is defined as a 1 if youth income at age 18-28 (adult income is average over ages 30-60) is less than the mean province income. All columns control for year, province, rural/urban, five-year age bracket and cohort fixed effects as well as all the demographics from previous tables. Robust standard errors clustered at the individual level are in parenthesis. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 44 Table 8: Effect of Supply Conditions on Fast Food Consumption Adopt Pref log Income 18-28 0.0940** 0.0188 (0.04) (0.04) log GDPpc 18-28 0.376** 0.359*** (0.16) (0.14) log Current Income 0.210*** 0.181*** (0.03) (0.03) log Current GDPpc 1.52 2.33 (1.88) (1.61) log FF outlets 18-28 -0.117 -0.0795 (0.09) (0.07) log Current FF outlets 1.958*** 1.043** (0.598) (0.523) Time, geo, agebr, cohort FE yes yes Observations 2,061 2,916 Note: The specification in column (1) is a probit where the dependent variable is a dummy =1 if the individual consumes the category in the row heading and 0 otherwise. In column (2) it is an ordered logit where the dependent variable is the stated preference for the indicated category on a scale of 0-4. Each column includes variables that measure the log number of fast food (KFC and McDonald’s) outlets in the province during the individuals youth as well as the log of the current number of these outlets. All columns control for year, province, rural/urban, five-year age bracket and cohort fixed effects as well as Male, student status, rural/urban location and relationship to the head. Robust standard errors clustered at the individual level are in parenthesis. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 45 
work_kufh4ok64rerbffe3m7pzjlmtm	----	Two case reports | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. Corpus ID: 201064473Two case reports @inproceedings{Shen2018TwoCR, title={Two case reports}, author={Baile Shen and Haizhong Jiang and Z. Li and Z. Wang and Haojun Song and X. Ding}, year={2018} } Baile Shen, Haizhong Jiang, +3 authors X. Ding Published 2018 Rationale:Hemangioblastomas in the kidney are rare. Although a few cases of renal hemangioblastoma (RH) have been reported, the content of these articles mainly focused on clinical and pathological research, with minimal descriptions of radiologic findings. Moreover, there are no descriptions of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with enhancement of this condition. Herein, we report 2 cases of RH with computed tomography (CT) and MRI findings. Patient concerns: Twopatients presented to our… Expand Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper Figures from this paper figure 1 figure 2 References SHOWING 1-10 OF 115 REFERENCES SORT BYRelevance Most Influenced Papers Recency Posterior fossa hemangioblastomas: MR imaging. S. Lee, J. Sanches, A. Mark, W. Dillon, D. Norman, T. H. Newton Medicine Radiology 1989 86 View 1 excerpt Save Alert Research Feed Radiologic Features and Surgical Strategy of Hemangioblastomas with Enhanced Cyst Wall. Q. Wang, Si Zhang, Jian Cheng, W. Liu, Xuhui Hui Medicine World neurosurgery 2017 3 Save Alert Research Feed Extraneural hemangioblastoma of the kidney: the challenge for clinicopathological diagnosis Y. Wu, T. Wang, Pei-pei Zhang, Xiaoqun Yang, J. Wang, Chaofu Wang Medicine Journal of Clinical Pathology 2015 10 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Angioleiomyoma: a clinical, pathological and radiological review P. Ramesh, S. R. Annapureddy, F. Khan, P. Sutaria Medicine International journal of clinical practice 2004 138 View 1 excerpt Save Alert Research Feed Sporadic Hemangioblastoma of the Kidney: a rare renal tumor Y. Liu, X. Qiu, E. Wang Medicine Diagnostic Pathology 2012 22 View 2 excerpts Save Alert Research Feed Hemangioblastoma of pelvic cavity: report of a case and review of literature. Huijuan Shi, H. Li, Tiantian Zhen, F. Zhang, A. Han Medicine International journal of clinical and experimental pathology 2014 6 PDF View 1 excerpt Save Alert Research Feed Optic Nerve Hemangioblastoma: Review. Shaurya Darbari, R. Meena, D. Sawarkar, R. Doddamani Medicine World neurosurgery 2019 1 View 1 excerpt Save Alert Research Feed Sporadic Hemangioblastoma of the Kidney in a 29-Year-Old Man Chung-Chieh Wang, Shuo‐Meng Wang, J. Liau Medicine International journal of surgical pathology 2012 18 View 2 excerpts Save Alert Research Feed Angioleiomyoma of Uterus: A Clinicopathologic Study of 6 Cases M. Gupta, M. Suryawanshi, R. Kumar, A. Peedicayil Medicine International journal of surgical pathology 2018 6 Save Alert Research Feed Sporadic hemangioblastoma of the kidney: an underrecognized pseudomalignant tumor? J. Vérine, W. Sandid, C. Miquel, Jean-Michel Vignaud, P. Mongiat-artus Medicine The American journal of surgical pathology 2011 32 Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 3 4 5 ... Related Papers Abstract Figures 115 References Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. Learn More → Resources DatasetsSupp.aiAPIOpen Corpus Organization About UsResearchPublishing PartnersData Partners   FAQContact Proudly built by AI2 with the help of our Collaborators Terms of Service•Privacy Policy The Allen Institute for AI By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our Privacy Policy, Terms of Service, and Dataset License ACCEPT & CONTINUE 
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work_kz3njogdfng2vgxypatp44cswy	----	Inhaling smoke causes smoke inhalation: put that in your hookah pipe! Marco L.A. Sivilotti, MD, MSc*; Riyad B. Abu-Laban, MD, MHSc3 Emergency physicians need no reminders to be vigilant for accidental carbon monoxide poisoning. Because its earliest symptoms are vague and mimic a viral illness, carbon monoxide has been coined ‘‘the great masquerader.’’ Missing the diagnosis risks continued exposure in patients discharged back to the same environment and represents a lost opportunity to identify other victims. In this issue, La Fauci and colleagues warn us about an unusual cause of carbon monoxide poisoning: smoking a narghile, commonly known as a water pipe or hookah.1 Case reports are valuable not just for cautioning us, as so many do, to ‘‘be aware’’ but also when they identify the leading edge of something big. And hookah smoking is becoming increasingly popular in Canada, with a self-reported past-year prevalence of about one-quarter of young adults in a recent survey.2 The history of the hookah dates back some 500 years to South Asia and the Middle East, where its use remains widespread. In recent years, hookah cafés have sprouted up in cities across Canada, and hookah pipes and supplies can be purchased openly in stores or on the Internet. Most Canadian hookah smokers are young urbanites who smoke tobacco or other plant products flavoured with aromatic herbs. Beyond legitimate concerns regarding the chronic health effects of hookah smoking, the case by La Fauci and colleagues highlights the potential for acute, single- session toxicity from the great masquerader, carbon monoxide. An important distinction exists between the hookah and other types of smoking. Unlike cigarettes or a pipe, the primary source of combustion in a hookah is charcoal, which is separated from the shisha (tobacco or other plant material being smoked) by a perforated shield. As a result, users predominantly inhale smoke from the charcoal itself when they draw from the mouthpiece. In fact, most of the carbon monoxide found in hookah fumes originates from the charcoal rather than the shisha. From the perspective of carbon monoxide exposure, it is irrelevant whether the shisha contains tobacco, cannabis, aromatic herbs, or even pine needles. In this respect, smoking a hookah is much like breathing the smoke from a smoldering coal fire. Although the water trap cools and humidifies the smoke, it does not filter out carbon monoxide, which is poorly soluble in water. Cooling and humidifying the smoke can in fact increase the dose of carbon monoxide inhaled by allowing users to take much longer draws and to tolerate longer smoking sessions— 3 hours in this case report.3 The flavouring or aromatic herbs added to many types of shisha may also contribute to an illusion that the smoke is nontoxic or even beneficial and may increase the hookah’s appeal in young or inexperienced smokers.4 The carbon monoxide concentration found in hookah fumes varies but increases under conditions of incomplete combustion, such as could occur with a poorly applied windshield or a suboptimal configura- tion of the smoldering charcoal.5 Even under optimal From the *Department of Emergency Medicine, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, and 3Department of Emergency Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC. Correspondence to: Dr. Marco L.A. Sivilotti, Department of Emergency Medicine, Queen’s University, 76 Stuart Street, Kingston, ON K7L 2V7; marco.sivilotti@queensu.ca. Submitted October 18, 2011; Accepted October 28, 2011. This article has been peer reviewed. CJEM 2012;14(1):3-4� Canadian Association of Emergency Physicians DOI 10.2310/8000.2011.110703 EDITORIAL/COMMENTARY N EDITORIAL 2012;14(1) 3CJEM N JCMU https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.2310/8000.2011.110703 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:06, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.2310/8000.2011.110703 https://www.cambridge.org/core conditions, it far exceeds the carbon monoxide in the exhaust of the 2000 Toyota 4-Runner truck one of us drives. In the blood, measured carboxyhemoglo- bin levels are much higher in hookah smokers than in cigarette smokers.6 In one human volunteer stu- dy, carboxyhemoglobin levels exceeded 20% after 30 minutes in 3 of 45 subjects ‘‘instructed to smoke at their own regular pace and pattern.’’7 In another study performed in a hookah café, patrons inhaled on average 130 6 21 L of smoke containing 150 6 26 mg of carbon monoxide in 1 hour. To put this dose of carbon monoxide in perspective, only about 600 mg of carbon monoxide is needed to bind half of all the hemoglobin in an adult. And hookah smokers in the foothills or mountainous areas should consider that even moderate altitude increases the toxicity of carbon monoxide. Smoking outdoors does not make the hookah safer. The session described by La Fauci and colleagues was on an open beach, not a tiny, smoke-filled room. It is also noteworthy that the patient was a teenage girl. With more young Canadian women smoking the hookah, the potential for carbon monoxide exposure during pregnancy increases. The fetus develops in a low-oxygen environment downstream of the placenta and is exquisitely sensitive to even low levels of carbon monoxide. Moreover, none of the patient’s smoking companions presented for assessment—an unfortu- nate circumstance often seen with carbon monoxide exposure. Poisoning prevention will be the focus of the March 2012 SafeKids Week, an event that will emphasize public health advocacy, legislation, and education. It is clear that hookah smoking can cause acute carbon monoxide toxicity. Would it not be ironic if our youth are turning to the hookah in part because of the stigma of cigarette smoking?4 Given the healthy respect emergency physicians have for carbon monoxide, this case by La Fauci and colleagues raises several important questions regarding injury prevention. Should the Canadian emergency medicine community enter the debate on the legality of hookah cafés? To date, this debate has largely centred on the applic- ability of municipal bylaws and the chronic toxicity of tobacco smoke.8 Should we join the call for extending smoking bans to public parks and outdoor spaces, meant to further denormalize smoking in the eyes of impressionable children?9 Should we expect Health Canada to consider banning the hookah based on the Canada Consumer Product Safety Act, new legislation intended to protect the public from products that are dangerous to health when used as intended? Or should we simply content ourselves by educating our patients and colleagues to ‘‘be aware’’ of what seems obvious: that inhaling smoke, or burning charcoal indoors for that matter, can be a bad idea? Neither traditional practices nor popular youth trends should be immune from scrutiny and common sense. Competing interests: At least one of the authors reports having smoked tobacco from the narghile during his travels and at his wedding; however, he received no compensation and frequently developed a headache related to this exposure. Keywords: carbon monoxide, hookah, narghile, smoking, water pipe REFERENCES 1. La Fauci G, Weiser G, Steiner IP, Shavit I. Carbon monoxide poisoning in narghile (water pipe) tobacco smokers. CJEM 2012;15:00-00. 2. Dugas E, Tremblay ML, Low NCP, et al. Water-pipe smoking among North American youths. Pediatrics 2010;125: 1184-9, doi:10.1542/peds.2009-2335. 3. Cobb CO, Shihadeh A, Weaver MF, Eissenberg T. Waterpipe tobacco smoking and cigarette smoking: a direct comparison of toxicant exposure and subjective effects. Nicotine Tob Res 2011;13:78-87, doi:10.1093/ntr/ntq212. 4. Roskin J, Aveyard P. Canadian and English students’ beliefs about waterpipe smoking: a qualitative study. BMC Public Health 2009;9:10, doi:10.1186/1471-2458-9-10. 5. Sajid KM, Akhter M, Malik GQ. Carbon monoxide fractions in cigarette and hookah (hubble bubble) smoke. J Pak Med Assoc 1993;43:179-82. 6. Zahran FM, Ardawi MS, Al Fayez SF. Carboxyhemoglobin concentrations in smokers of sheesha and cigarettes in Saudi Arabia. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1985;291:1768-70, doi:10.1136/ bmj.291.6511.1768-a. 7. Hakim FM, Hellou EB, Goldbart AM, et al. The acute effects of water-pipe smoking on the cardiorespiratory system. Chest 2011;139:775-81. 8. CBC Radio. Q. Should hookah be exempt from anti-smoking rules? Available at: http://www.cbc.ca/q/blog/2011/09/06/ should-hookah-be-exempt-from-anti-smoking-rules/ (accessed October 15, 2011). 9. Colgrove J, Bayer R, Bachynski KE. Nowhere left to hide? The banishment of smoking from public spaces. N Engl J Med 2011;364:2375-7, doi:10.1056/NEJMp1104637. Sivilotti and Abu-Laban 4 2012;14(1) CJEM N JCMU https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.2310/8000.2011.110703 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:06, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.2009-2335 http://dx.doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.2009-2335 http://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fntr%2Fntq212 http://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fntr%2Fntq212 http://dx.doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-2458-9-10 http://dx.doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-2458-9-10 http://www.cbc.ca/q/blog/2011/09/06/should-hookah-be-exempt-from-anti-smoking-rules/ http://www.cbc.ca/q/blog/2011/09/06/should-hookah-be-exempt-from-anti-smoking-rules/ http://www.cbc.ca/q/blog/2011/09/06/should-hookah-be-exempt-from-anti-smoking-rules/ http://www.cbc.ca/q/blog/2011/09/06/should-hookah-be-exempt-from-anti-smoking-rules/ http://www.cbc.ca/q/blog/2011/09/06/should-hookah-be-exempt-from-anti-smoking-rules/ http://www.cbc.ca/q/blog/2011/09/06/should-hookah-be-exempt-from-anti-smoking-rules/ http://dx.doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMp1104637 http://dx.doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMp1104637 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms 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work_l376ydartvbwxltcusr7kjzohu	----	Painting-91: a large scale database for computational painting categorization Painting-91: a large scale database for computational painting categorization Fahad Shahbaz Khan, Shida Beigpour, Joost van de Weijer and Michael Felsberg The self-archived postprint version of this journal article is available at Linköping University Institutional Repository (DiVA): http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-111511 N.B.: When citing this work, cite the original publication. The original publication is available at www.springerlink.com: Khan, F. S., Beigpour, S., van de Weijer, J., Felsberg, M., (2014), Painting-91: a large scale database for computational painting categorization, Machine Vision and Applications, 25(6), 1385-1397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00138-014-0621-6 Original publication available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00138-014-0621-6 Copyright: Springer Verlag (Germany) http://www.springerlink.com/?MUD=MP http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-111511 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00138-014-0621-6 http://www.springerlink.com/?MUD=MP http://twitter.com/?status=OA%20Article:%20Painting-91:%20a%20large%20scale%20database%20for%20computational%20painting%20categorization%20http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-111511%20via%20@LiU_EPress%20%23LiU Noname manuscript No. (will be inserted by the editor) Painting-91: A Large Scale Database for Computational Painting Categorization Fahad Shahbaz Khan, Shida Beigpour, Joost van de Weijer, Michael Felsberg Received: Abstract Computer analysis of visual art, especially paintings, is an interesting cross-disciplinary research domain. Most of the research in the analysis of paint- ings involve medium to small range datasets with own specific settings. Interestingly, significant progress has been made in the field of object and scene recognition lately. A key factor in this success is the introduction and availability of benchmark datasets for evaluation. Surprisingly such a benchmark setup is still missing in the area of computational painting categorization. In this work, we propose a novel large scale dataset of digital paintings. The dataset consists of paintings from 91 different painters. We further show three ap- plications of our dataset namely: artist categorization, style classification and saliency detection. We investi- gate how local and global features popular in image classification perform for the tasks of artist and style categorization. For both categorization tasks, our ex- perimental results suggest that combining multiple fea- tures significantly improves the final performance. We show that state-of-the-art computer vision methods can correctly classify 50% of unseen paintings to its painter in a large dataset and correctly attribute its artistic style in over 60% of the cases. Additionally, we explore the task of saliency detection on paintings and show experimental findings using state-of-the-art saliency es- timation algorithms. Fahad Shahbaz Khan, Michael Felsberg: 1Computer Vision Laboratory, Linköping University, Sweden Shida Beigpour: 2Norwegian Colour and Visual Computing Laboratory, Gjovik University College, Norway Joost van de Weijer: 3Computer Vision Centre Barcelona, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Spain Keywords Painting categorization, visual features, image classification. 1 Introduction Visual art in any of its forms reflects our propensity to create and render the world around us. It is well known that the true beauty lies in the eye of the be- holder. Be it a Picasso, a Van Gogh, or a Monet mas- terpiece, paintings are enjoyed by everyone (Ramachan- dran and Hirstein, 1999). Analyzing visual art, espe- cially paintings, is a highly complicated cognitive task (Goguen, 1999) since it involves processes in different visual areas of the human brain. Significant amount of research has been done on how our brain responses to visual art forms (Ramachandran and Hirstein, 1999; Goguen, 1999; Cinzia Di Dio, 2007). In recent times several works (Shamir and Tarakhovsky, 2012; Shen, 2009; Siddiquie et al, 2009; Carneiro et al, 2012; Shamir, 2012) have aimed at investigating different aspects of computational painting categorization. The advent of internet has provided a dominant platform for photo sharing. In today’s digital age, a large amount of art images are available on the in- ternet. This significant amount of art images in digi- tized databases on the Internet are difficult to manage manually. It is therefore imperative to look into auto- matic techniques to manage these large art databases by classifying paintings into different sub-categories. An art image classification system will allow to automat- ically classify the genre, artist and other details of a new painting image which has many potential appli- cations for tourism, crime investigations and museum industries. In this paper, we look into the problem of computational painting categorization. 2 Fig. 1 Example of paintings from our dataset. Each image is provided with two labels: artist and style. The task is to auto- matically categorize an image to its artist and style. Most of the research done in the field of computa- tional painting categorization involves medium to small datasets. Whereas the success of image classification to large extent is due to the availability of large scale chal- lenging datasets such as the popular PASCAL VOC se- ries (Everingham et al, 2010) and SUN dataset (Xiao et al, 2010). The public availability of these large scale datasets, the large number of images with a wide va- riety of categories and standard evaluation protocols, are some of the crucial factors for their success. To the best of our knowledge, such a dataset still does not exist for analyzing digital paintings. Therefore, we propose a novel dataset for digital paintings consisting of 4266 images from 91 different painters. In addition, we label the images with the artistic style to which the painting belongs. Figure 1 shows some example images with an- notations provided in our dataset. Recently, Carneiro et al (2012) investigate the problem of digital painting processing and propose a novel dataset. The dataset deals with the difficult problem of visual theme catego- rization and pose estimation. However, it differs from ours in a number of aspects. Firstly, the data set only contains monochromatic images. Secondly, the dataset lacks labels for artist and style categorization. Thirdly, no eye fixation data is provided for the dataset. The problem of computational painting categoriza- tion can be sub-divided into two tasks namely: artist classification and style classification. The task of artist categorization involves classifying a painting to its re- spective painter. Whereas style categorization deals with the problem of categorizing artist by school of art such as Cubbism, Baroque, and Impressionism. Both tasks are highly challenging since there exist large variations in style even within the images of the same painter. For example, the work of Wassily Kandinsky is known to have many different styles. The range of his work includes paintings influenced by the old Russian icon style, landscape paintings with strong color and his ab- stract paintings with geometric shapes. Other than the inherent difficulty within the problem, the images avail- able on the internet are acquired under different con- ditions. These factors make the problem of automatic painting categorization very challenging. In this paper, we focus on both artist and style categorization prob- lems. Significant amount of progress has been made in re- cent years in the field of object and scene recognition (Zhang et al, 2007; Everingham et al, 2010; Elfiky et al, 2012; Khan et al, 2011; Rojas et al, 2010; Khan et al, 2009). Most of this success is attributed towards creat- ing efficient visual features and sophisticated learning schemes. Local features with the bag-of-words approach have shown to provide excellent performance for ob- ject and scene recognition. The bag-of-words approach works by vector quantizing local features into a visual vocabulary. A histogram is then constructed over these visual words which is then input to a classifier. A va- riety of local features such as shape, color, texture etc. are used for classification. In this work we investigate both local and global features, popular in image classi- fication, for computational painting categorization. Saliency estimation in natural images is a well stud- ied domain in computer vision (Vikram et al, 2012; Liu et al, 2011; Itti et al, 1998; Harel et al, 2006). Visual saliency detection involves capturing the most distinc- tive regions in an image. Human fixations are used to compare the performance of saliency algorithms. Gen- erally human eye movement and fixations are estimated using eye-tracking data. How humans see art especially paintings and the accompanied processing in the brain is still an open research problem (Quiroga and Pedreira, 2011). The task is challenging since perceiving paint- ings is a highly variable personal experience. Recent works have shown that estimating saliency in digital paintings have many potential applications such as non- photorealistic rendering and style transfer (Condorovici et al, 2011). To also address this aspect, we perform an eye-tracking experiment on a subset of 182 paintings. As a possible application of this data, we evaluate ex- isting saliency methods on painting images. Concluding, we make the following contributions: – We introduce a new large scale dataset of 4266 paint- ing images from 91 different painters. – We show how the state-of-the-art visual features used for image classification perform for the task of artist and style categorization. – We perform an eye-tracking experiments to obtain human fixation data on a selection of 182 paintings. 3 – We analyze several computational saliency methods and compare their performance to human fixations. The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we discuss related work. In Section 3 we introduce our dataset. The analysis on the task of artist and style categorization with experimental results are provided in Section 4. In Section 5 we provide an overview of saliency algorithms. Section 6 finishes with a discussion and concluding remarks. 2 Related Work Recently several works have aimed at analyzing visual art especially paintings using computer vision techniques (Shamir and Tarakhovsky, 2012; Sablatnig et al, 1998; Shen, 2009; Jiang et al, 2006; Siddiquie et al, 2009; Carneiro et al, 2012; Shamir, 2012; Johnson et al, 2008). The work of Sablatnig et al (1998) explore the struc- tural signature using the brush strokes in portrait minia- tures. A multiple features based framework is proposed by Shen (2009) for classification of western painting im- age collections. Shamir and Tarakhovsky (2012) pro- pose an approach for automatically categorizing paint- ings by their artistic movements. Zujovic et al (2009) present an approach based on features focusing on salient aspects of an image to classify paintings into genres. The work of Shamir et al (2010) is based on automati- cally grouping artists which belong to the same school of art. Nine artists representing three different schools of art are used in their study. Similarly, this paper also aims at exploiting computer vision techniques for the analysis of digital paintings. Computational painting categorization has many in- teresting applications. One such application is auto- matic classification of paintings with respect to their painters. A low level multiple feature based approach is proposed by Jiang et al (2006) to categorize tra- ditional Chinese paintings. In their approach texture, color and edge size histograms are used as low level features. Two types of feature learning schemes are em- ployed. At the first level C4.5 based decision trees are used for pre-classification. As a final classifier, an SVM based framework is employed. A discriminative kernel approach based on training data selection using Ad- aBoost is proposed by Siddiquie et al (2009). Recently Carneiro et al (2012) propose a new dataset of monochro- matic artistic images for artistic image understanding. This suggests that automatic digital painting classifica- tion is still an open research problem. In this paper, we investigate the state-of-the-art object recognition meth- ods for the task of painting and style classification. Artist Labels Style Labels Theme Labels Eye-tracking data This paper Y Y N Y PrintART dataset N N Y N Artistic genre dataset N Y N N Artistic style dataset N Y N N Painting genre dataset N Y N N Artist and genre dataset Y Y N N Western paintings dataset Y N N N Table 1 Comparison of our dataset with other datasets in the literature. Note that the most distinguishing feature of our work is the introduction of a large scale public dataset with both artist and style annotation. Additionally, we also provide eye-tracking data for paintings. The advent of large scale image classification datasets have contributed to the research field in an enormous fashion. One such example is the popular PASCAL VOC benchmark series (Everingham et al, 2010). Several key factors such as the public release of the datasets, large number of images and classes, and common evaluation criteria contribute to the success of these datasets. This is apparent from the significant improvement in classi- fication performance of different approaches over recent years (Everingham et al, 2010). Other than classifica- tion, research in the field of object detection has also progressed at a rapid pace due to the emergence of PAS- CAL VOC datasets. Furthermore, the emergence of Im- ageNet dataset (Deng et al, 2009) has transformed the problem of image classification from several categories to several hundred categories. Other than image clas- sification, a large scale scene classification dataset is proposed by Xiao et al (2010). Murray et al (2012) pro- pose a large scale database for aesthetic visual anal- ysis. This suggests that the significant improvement in performance of computer vision applications is di- rectly related to the availability of large scale bench- mark datasets. To the best of our knowledge, such a large scale benchmark dataset for the analysis of digi- tal paintings is still missing. 2.1 Relation to Existing Datasets We provide a comparison of our dataset to existing databases containing painting images. We further out- line the characteristics of all these datasets. PrintART dataset(Carneiro et al, 2012): The artis- tic dataset consists of 988 monochromatic images. The dataset contains 27 theme classes. Unlike other datasets used for artist and style classification, this dataset con- tains local and global annotations for visual themes. Furthermore, pose annotations of images are also pro- vided. Artistic genre dataset(Zujovic et al, 2009): This dataset comprises of 353 different paintings categorized into 5 artistic genres namely: abstract impressionism, 4 Fig. 2 Example images from the dataset. The images are collected from the internet thereby making the analysis of paintings a challenging task. cubism, impressionism, pop art and realism. The im- ages have been collected from the internet. Artistic style dataset(Shamir et al, 2010): The artistic style dataset consists of 513 paintings of 9 dif- ferent painters. The artists included in the study are: Monet, Pollock, Van Gogh, Kadnisky, Dali, Ernst and deChirico. Painting genre dataset(Siddiquie et al, 2009): The painting genre dataset is challenging and consists of 498 painting images. The styles used in their study are: abstract expressionist, baroque, cubist, graffiti, impres- sionist and renaissance. The images have been collected from the internet. Artist and genre dataset(Shamir and Tarakhovsky, 2012): The dataset introduced in the work of(Shamir and Tarakhovsky, 2012) comprises of 994 paintings rep- resenting 34 painters. The images have been collected from the internet and used to perform both artist and style classification. Artist identification dataset(Johnson et al, 2008): 101 paintings are used to analyze the the brushwork and identification of Van Gogh’s paintings. The paintings have been acquired from van Gogh and Kroller-Muller museums. Out of 101 paintings, 82 have been mostly at- tributed to van Gogh. Whereas 6 paintings have been denoted to be non van Gogh and 13 paintings are open to debate by experts. Western paintings dataset(Shen, 2009): In this work, the dataset is collected from the internet and con- sists of 1080 images from 25 different painters. Most of the artists in this dataset are active painters from 16th to 18th century. Table 1 provides a comparison of characteristics of current datasets with ours. A key criteria for a bench- mark dataset is to be sufficiently larger than the ex- isting ones while providing consistent annotations and evaluation protocols for future analysis. In summary, the dataset proposed in this paper is introduced in the spirit of encouraging research in the direction of com- putational painting categorization. Inspired from the recent success and contribution of benchmark datasets in the field of image classification and visual aesthetics, we believe the extensive analysis provided in this paper will take this research line one step further. 3 Dataset Construction Our main contribution in this work is the creation of a new and extensive dataset of art images1. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first attempt to create a large scale dataset containing painting images of various artists. The images are collected from the internet. The dataset consists of 4266 images of 91 artists. The artists in our dataset come from different eras. Figure 2 shows example images of different artist categories from our dataset. There are variable number of images per artists ranging from 31 (Frida Kahlo) to 56 (Sandro Botticelli). The large number of images and artist cateogries make the problem of computational painting categorization extremely challenging. Table 2 shows the list of painters in our dataset. 3.1 Annotations In our dataset we provide two types of annotations namely: labels for artist and style. Artist labels: Each image in the dataset is associ- ated with one class label. The class label denotes the artist of the respective painting. There are 91 classes in the dataset. Table 2 shows the artist categories in our dataset. Style labels: We further perform style classification to analyze the relationships between different paint- ing styles. The Style classification here refers to the school of arts to which an artist belongs to. Art histo- rians often categorize different painters with respect to 1 The dataset is available at http://www.cat.uab.cat/~joost/ painting91.html 5 1:ALBRECHT DURER (43) 24:FRANCISCO DE GOYA (49) 47:JACQUES LOUIS DAVID (50) 70:PETER PAUL RUBENS (50) 2:AMEDEO MODIGLIANI (50) 25:FRANCISCO DE ZURBARAN (50) 48JAMES ENSOR (50) 71:PICASSO (50) 3:ANDREA MANTEGNA (47) 26:FRANS HALS (50) 49:JAMES MCNEILL WHISTLER (50) 72:PIERRE AUGUSTE RENOIR (50) 4:ANDY WARHOL (32) 27:FRANZ MARC (50) 50:JAN VAN EYCK (40) 73:PIETER BRUEGEL THE ELDER (45) 5:ARSHILLE GORKY (33) 28:FREDERIC EDWIN CHURCH (50) 51:JAN VERMEER (35) 74:PIET MONDRIAN (38) 6:CAMILLE COROT (50) 29:FRIDA KAHLO (31) 52:JASPER JOHNS (50) 75:RAPHAEL (39) 7:CARAVAGGIO (41) 30:GENTILESCHI ARTEMISIA (50) 53:JEAN ANTOINE WATTEAU (50) 76:REMBRANDT VAN RIJN (47) 8:CASPAR DAVID FRIEDRICH (49) 31:GEORGES BRAQUE (50) 54:JEAN AUGUSTE DOMINIQUE INGRES (50) 77:RENE MAGRITTE (50) 9:CLAUDE LORRAIN (50) 32:GEORGES DE LA TOUR (50) 55:JEAN FRANCOIS MILLET (50) 78:ROGER VAN DER WEYDEN (39) 10:CLAUDE MONET (36) 33:GEORGES SEURAT (38) 56:JEAN MICHEL BASQUIAT (43) 79:ROY LICHTENSTEIN (50) 11:DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI (50) 34:GEORGIA O’KEEFE (50) 57:JOACHIM PATINIR (40) 80:SALVADOR DALI (46) 12:DAVID HOCKNEY (50) 35:GERHARD RICHTER (50) 58:JOAN MIRO (50) 81:SANDRO BOTTICELLI (56) 13:DIEGO VELAZQUEZ (39) 36:GIORGIO DE CHIRICO (50) 59:JOHN CONSTABLE (50) 82:THEODORE GERICAULT (50) 14:EDGAR DEGAS (51) 37:GIORGIONE (47) 60:JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM TURNER (50) 83:TINTORETTO (50) 15:EDOUARD MANET (45) 38:GIOTTO DI BONDONE (48) 61:KAZIMIR MALEVICH (50) 84:TITIAN (51) 16:EDVARD MUNCH (49) 39:GUSTAVE COURBET (40) 62:LUCIO FONTANA (50) 85:UMBERTO BOCCIONI (50) 17:EDWARD HOPPER (50) 40:GUSTAVE MOREAU (50) 63:MARC CHAGALL (44) 86:VINCENT VAN GOGH (42) 18:EGON SCHIELE (50) 41:GUSTAV KLIMT (36) 64:MARK ROTHKO (50) 87:WASSILY KANDINSKY (50) 19:EL LISSITZKY (50) 42:HANS HOLBEIN THE YOUNGER (43) 65:MAX ERNST (50) 88:WILLEM DE KOONING (43) 20:EUGENE DELACROIX (48) 43:HANS MEMLING (50) 66:NICOLAS POUSSIN (50) 89:WILLIAM BLAKE (45) 21:FERNAND LEGER (50) 44:HENRI MATISSE (50) 67:PAUL CEZANNE (50) 90:WILLIAM HOGARTH (39) 22:FRA ANGELICO (47) 45:HIERONYMUS BOSCH (50) 68:PAUL GAUGUIN (51) 91:WINSLOW HOMER (50) 23:FRANCIS BACON (50) 46:JACKSON POLLOCK (41) 69:PAUL KLEE (50) Table 2 A list of painters with the number of images respectively in our dataset. The large amount of painters in our dataset pose a challenging problem of automatic classification. a certain style. Several recent works have aimed at in- vestigating the problem of style classification (Zujovic et al, 2009; Arora and Elgammal, 2012; Siddiquie et al, 2009) In our study we have categorized 50 painters into 13 different painting styles. We have taken care not to categorize painters which clearly belong to more than one style, and have only categorized painters for which the large majority of their paintings, considered in our dataset, were correctly described by the style label. The styles used in this paper are: abstract expres- sionism, baroque, constructivism, cubbism, impression- ism, neo-classical, popart, post-impressionism, realism, renaissance, romanticism, surrealism and symbolism. 3.2 Eye tracking: Where do people look at in a painting? Here we present an experiment done on a subset of our dataset which covers 182 images (2 image per painter). 10 subjects were asked to freely view the images in the way that each painting was viewed by 3 different users. We follow a similar protocol as in Judd et al (2009) to design and execute the experiment. We use the SMI table-mounted eye tracking device. The iView XTMsystem is a dark pupil eye tracking system that uses infrared illumination and computer-based image processing to register movements of the eyes in real- time. We used a 5 point calibration system. In our ex- periment, users were presented with each image for 6 seconds and before presenting each image the observer fixated on a cross in the center of the gray screen for half a second. We discarded the first fixation of each scan path to avoid the initial fixation on the center. Figure 3 shows some examples of the results obtained using the eye tracker processed by BeGazeTM2.1 software2. We will make the fixation data from the eye tracker publicly available along with the fixation map which is averaged over the subject who viewed each paining. 4 Computational Painting Categorization In this section we show two main applications of our dataset namely: artist and style categorization. For artist categorization the goal is to associate a painting image with a painter who painted it. Style categorization in- volves classifying paintings with respect to a certain style of art. We use both the global and local (bag-of- words) feature based image representations for the two classification tasks. We also evaluated the bio-inspired visual object recognition framework (Jim Mutch, 2008) for the painting categorization task. 4.1 Global Features Global image representations work by describing an im- age as a whole with a single vector. A variety of global features are used to construct an image-wide histogram representation. Here, we provide a brief introduction of the global features used in our evaluation. LBP(Ojala et al, 2002): Local binary patterns (LBP) is the most commonly used texture descriptor for image description. The descriptor has shown to obtain state- of-the-art results for texture classification. Here we use it to extract texture content from painting images. In this work, we use a rotation invariant uniform pattern based representation of LBP with a pixel neighborhood of 20 and radius size of 2. The dimensionality of final 2 The software at: www.smivision.com/en/gaze-and-eye- tracking-systems/products/begaze-analysis-software.html 6 Fig. 3 Example of eye tracking experiment results. Each row from top to down represents: the original image, scanning path for 3 different users marked in different colors, the heat-map em- phasizing the highest fixation times. histogram is 383. In our experiments we also try only the rotation invariant extension without uniform pat- terns of LBP. However inferior results were obtained. Color LBP: To obtain a joint color-texture descrip- tion, we also use a color LBP approach. In this case we computed the LBP codes on the R,G and B color channels. The final descriptor is a concatenation of the texture codes from the individual color channels. As a result, a 1149 dimensional histogram for each image is used for image description. GIST(Oliva and Torralba, 2001): The GIST is a holistic descriptor that captures the spatial structure of an image. As a preprocessing, we resize the image into 128x128 size. The output of each Gabor-like filter is averaged on a 4x4 grid. The final dimensionality of the descriptor is 320. Color GIST: As in LBP, we also compute the GIST features on the R,G,B color channels. The final descrip- tor is the concatenation of 3 channels with a dimension- ality of 960. PHOG(Bosch et al, 2007): This descriptor captures the local shape of an image along with its spatial layout. We use the standard settings with 20 orientation bins where the orientations are in the range [0,360]. The final dimensionality of the histogram is 1700. Color PHOG: Here again we compute the PHOG de- scriptor on the R,G,B channels making the dimension- ality of final descriptor to 5100. 4.2 Local Features We use the popular bag-of-words framework for local features. The bag-of-words based image representation is the most successful approach for object and scene recognition (Csurka et al, 2004; Lazebnik et al, 2006; Khan et al, 2012b; van de Sande et al, 2010). The tech- nique works by first detecting local features either by using interest points or by dense sampling strategies. The next stage involves describing the detected regions in an image. Many features such as color, texture and shape have been employed to describe visual informa- tion. The feature extraction is followed by vocabulary construction where the local features are quantized into a visual codebook. Generally, a visual vocabulary is constructed using K-means Algorithm. The final stage involves assigning each descriptor to a single visual- word in the codebook. As a result of this, a histogram is constructed by counting the number of occurrences of each visual-word in an image. The resulting histogram is then input to a machine learning algorithm for classi- fication. We employ the bag-of-words framework for the task of painting categorization and evaluate a variety of visual features commonly used in object and scene recognition. 4.2.1 Feature Detection Dense sampling scheme is often advantageous since all regions in an image provide information for the cate- gorization task. The technique works by scanning the image with either single or multiple scales at fixed lo- cations forming a grid of rectangular windows. In this work, we use a dense single scale grid with a spacing of 5 pixels. 4.2.2 Feature Extraction The feature extraction stage involves describing the de- tected regions of an image. In this paper, we investigate a variety of visual features for image description. Color names(van de Weijer et al, 2009): We use color names since they have shown to be superior to its counterparts for object recognition, object detection, action recognition, visual tracking and texture classi- fication (Khan et al, 2012b,a, 2013a; Danelljan et al, 2014; Khan et al, 2013b). Complete LBP(Guo et al, 2010): We also use a texture descriptor within the bag-of-words framework. In complete LBP, a region in an image is represented by its center pixel and a local difference sign-magnitude transform. SIFT(Lowe, 2004): To capture the appearance of an image, we use the popular SIFT descriptor. The SIFT descriptor has shown to provide superior performance for object recognition, texture recognition and action recognition tasks (Mikolajczyk and Schmid, 2005; Zhang 7 Task LBP Color-LBP PHOG Color-PHOG GIST Color-GIST SIFT CLBP CN SSIM OPPSIFT RGBSIFT CSIFT CN-SIFT Combine HMAX Artist CLs 28.5 35.0 18.6 22.8 23.9 27.8 42.6 34.7 18.1 23.7 39.5 40.3 36.4 44.1 53.1 21.7 Style CLs 42.2 47.0 29.5 33.2 31.3 36.5 53.2 46.4 33.3 37.5 52.2 47.4 48.6 56.7 62.2 32.8 Table 3 Recognition performance on our dataset. Top row: results on the artist classification task. CN-SIFT provides superior performance compared to SIFT alone. Bottom row: results on style classification problem. Combining all the visual cues significantly increase the overall performance. Note that in both tasks HMAX provides inferior results to single best visual cue. et al, 2007; Lazebnik et al, 2005; Khan et al, 2013b). The Dominant orientation is not used for the computa- tion of SIFT. The SIFT descriptor works on grey level images while ignoring the color information. The result- ing descriptor is a 128 dimensional vector. Color SIFT(van de Sande et al, 2010): To incor- porate color information with shape in an early fusion manner, we employ the popular Color SIFT descriptors. In our experiments, we use RGBSIFT, OpponentSIFT and CSIFT which were shown to be superior by (van de Sande et al, 2010). SSIM(Shechtman and Irani, 2007): Unlike other descriptors mentioned above, the self similarity descrip- tor provides a measure of the layout of an image. The correlation map of a 5x5 size patch is computed with a correlation radius of 40 pixels. Consequently, a 30 dimensional feature vector is obtained with a quantiza- tion of 3 radial bins and 10 angular bins. 4.2.3 Visual Vocabulary and Histogram Construction The feature extraction stage is followed by vocabulary construction step within the bag-of-words framework. To construct a visual vocabulary, we employ the K- means Algorithm. The quality of a visual vocabulary depends on the size of the vocabulary. Generally, a larger visual vocabulary results in improved classifica- tion performance. We experimentally set the size of vi- sual vocabulary for different visual features. The opti- mal performance for SIFT descriptor is obtained when a visual vocabulary of 1000 words is employed. The per- formance gets saturated over 1000 visual-words. Simi- larly, we use a visual vocabulary of 500 for complete LBP, Color names, SSIM respectively. A visual vocab- ulary of 1500 visual-words is used for Color SIFT meth- ods. Finally, a histogram over the visual words is con- structed by counting the occurrence of each visual word in an image. We also constructed a late fusion represen- tation of SIFT and Color names (CN-SIFT) by concate- nating the two histogram representations. The concate- nated image representation is then input to the SVM classifier. 4.3 Bio-inspired object recognition In this work, we also investigate how a bio-inspired ob- ject recognition framework (Jim Mutch, 2008) performs for the task of paining categorization. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time such a framework is in- vestigated for painting categorization task. The method starts with an image of grayscale pixels and then ap- plies Gabor filters at all positions and scales. The Gabor filters are computed using 4 orientations with multiple units at each position and scale. Afterwards, invariance with respect to position and scale is achieved by al- ternating template matching and max pooling opera- tions. Each image is represented by constructing a fixed length feature vector. Finally, the method employs an all-pairs linear SVM. We use the same parameter set- tings, as in the original method, throughout our exper- iments. 4.4 Evaluation Protocol We follow the standard criteria used in image classi- fication to evaluate the performance of our system on the tasks of artist and style classification. We fix the training size for each category to 25 and the rest of the instances are used for testing. We randomly sam- pled the images into training and testing. To ensure a fair comparison and reusability, we intend to release the train/test splits. For classification, we use a one vs all Support Vector Machines (SVM) with a χ2 ker- nel (Zhang et al, 2007). Each test instance is assigned a category label of the classifier providing the highest performance. The final categorization result is obtained as a mean recognition rate per category. 4.5 Combining Multiple Visual Features Combining multiple visual cues is shown to provide ex- cellent results for object and scene recognition (Gehler and Nowozin, 2009; van de Sande et al, 2010). Here, we also investigate to what extent the visual features are complementary to each other for painting categoriza- tion task. To this end, we follow the standard protocol by combining the kernel outputs of individual visual features. In the work of Gehler and Nowozin (2009), it has been shown that a simple addition or product of different kernel responses provide excellent results com- pared to more sophisticated Multiple Kernel Learning (MKL) methods. In our experiments, we found that the 8 (a) best results (b) lowest results Fig. 4 Artist categories with best and lowest classification performance on our dataset. The best performance is achieved on painting categories such as Claude Lorrain, Roy Lichtenstein, Mark Rothko, Fernand Leger etc. Whereas, on categories such as Titian, Manet, Courbet etc. inferior results are obtained. addition of different kernel responses provide superior results compared to the product operation. 4.6 Artist Classification We first present our results on the task of artist clas- sification. The dataset consists of 91 artists with 2275 training images and 1991 test instances. The first row of Table 3 shows the results obtained using different features for this task. As a single visual cue, color alone provides inferior performance with a classification ac- curacy of 18.1%. The color variants of LBP, GIST and PHOG always provide improved performance. The three ColorSIFT descriptors achieve inferior performance com- pared to intensity based SIFT descriptor for artist clas- sification. The best single feature is CN-SIFT which provides a classification performance of 44.1%. The re- sults show that late feature fusion provides superior performance compared to channel-based early fusion (ColorSIFT). Previously, late fusion has also shown to provide superior performance compared to channel-based fusion for object recognition, object detection and ac- tion recognition (Khan et al, 2012b,a, 2013a). In the work of Khan et al (2012b), it has been shown that late fusion possesses the feature compactness property achieved by constructing separate visual vocabularies for both color and shape. This property is especially de- sirable for categories where one of the visual cues varies significantly. The ColorSIFT descriptors lack this prop- erty since a joint visual vocabulary of color and shape is constructed. The bio-inspired HMAX approach provides inferior performance with mean classification results of 22.1%. Combining all feature kernels additively provides a sig- nificant gain of 9.0% over single best feature alone. This shows that the different features are complementary to each other. For example paintings of Claude Lorrain category are ideal-landscape paintings providing a view of the nature. Most of the paintings in this category contains pastoral figures with an inspiration from the countryside around Rome. Color plays a pivotal role for this category. For example the performance obtained using LBP and ColorLBP on this category is 64% and 80% respectively. The result shows that computer nowadays can cor- rectly classify 50% of the paintings to its painter in a large dataset of over 90 painters. Figure 4 shows artist categories with highest and lowest recognition rate. The method provides inferior performance for cat- egories such as Titian, Manet, Courbet, Ernst, Gior- gione, Velazquez etc. The best performance is achieved on Claude Lorrain, Roy Lichtenstein, Mark Rothko, Fernand Leger, Frans Hals and Franz Marc etc. 4.7 Style Classification Style classification associates many different painters with respect to a specific painting genre. School of arts or genres are higher level semantic classes. The prob- lem is different to artist categorization in that a style is shared across many different painters. In our study, we have categorized 50 painters into 13 different painting styles. The painters in our dataset are divided into 13 diversified styles namely: abstract expressionism, baroque, constructivism, cubbism, impressionism, neoclassical, popart, post-impressionism, realism, renaissance, roman- 9 Fig. 5 The confusion matrix for style categories. The Y-axis shows the style categories in our dataset. The confusion among categories seem to agree with the art historians. For example, there exist confusion between Baroque and Renaissance artwork since most paintings contain interior of buildings. ticism, surrealism and symbolism. Several painters are categorized into different school of arts. For example, Abstract Expressionism is represented by Jackson Pol- lock, Willem de Kooning and Mark Rothko; Construc- tivism by Kazimir Malevich, Wassily Kandinsky and El Lissitzky etc. The second row in Table 3 shows the results ob- tained using different visual features for style catego- rization. Color names provide a classification accuracy of 33.3%. SIFT provides a recognition performance of 53.2%. The late fusion of Color names and SIFT im- proves the performance compared to SIFT alone. For style categorization again, the color variants of LBP, PHOG and GIST significantly improve the performance compared to their intensity based counterparts. Com- bining all the visual features provides a significant im- provement with a mean classification accuracy of 61.2%. The results are very encouraging since the images are collected from different sources, across different illumi- nation, compression methods and artifacts. All these factors and the inherent complexity of the problem makes this task extremely challenging. Figure 5 shows the confusion matrix for the style categorization task. The confusions are visually under- standable, and are often with periods which are adja- cent in time. The largest confusions are between paint- ing styles baroque, renaissance and neo-classical, be- tween realism and romanticism, and between impres- sionist and post-impressionists. 5 Computational Saliency Estimation in Paintings We provide eye fixation data for 182 paintings (two per painter) from the data set. Here we look at one of the potential applications of such data. We turn the fixa- tion data of the three observers per image into a sin- gle saliency map by averaging their fixation time maps, and use this data to evaluate existing saliency methods. The computed saliency maps are thresholded at differ- ent values and compared to the average fixation map to construct an ROC curve. From this, we compute the area under curve (AUC) score for each saliency method. We evaluate several state-of-the-art saliency algo- rithms. These approaches have shown to obtain good results on several natural image datasets, but their gen- eralization to art images has not yet been investigated. Here, we provide a brief introduction to the saliency methods used in our evaluation. Center Surround Method(Vikram et al, 2012): This approach provides a saliency map by computing local saliencies over a rectangle region of interest in an image. The method is able to capture local contrast without requiring any training priors. Salient Object Method(Liu et al, 2011): This ap- proach works by formulating the saliency estimation as image segmentation problem by separating the salient objects from the background. A variety of features such as multi-scale contrast, center-surround histogram, and color spatial distribution are employed to describe a salient object at local, regional, and global level. These features are then combined using Conditional Random Field to detect salient regions in an image. Itti and Koch Method (Itti et al, 1998): This approach employs a bottom-up feed-forward feature- extraction mechanisms. The method combines multi- scale image features into a single topographical saliency map. The scales are created using dyadic Gaussian pyra- mids. Graph based Method (Harel et al, 2006): This approach is bottom-up and based on graph computa- tions. The method empoys Markov chains over various image maps by treating distribution over map locations as activation and saliency values. The activation maps are generated from raw features. Signature based Method (Hou et al, 2012): This approach proposes a binary, holistic image descriptor which is defined as a sign function of the Discrete Co- sine Transform (DCT) of an image. The method ap- proximates the spatial location of a sparse foreground for saliency estimation. Spectral residue based (Hou and Zhang, 2007): This approach works by analyzing the log-spectrum of an input image by extracting the spectral residual of an image in spectral domain. The proposed technique is fast and generates saliency maps in spatial domain. To evaluate the performance of saliency algorithms we use area under the ROC curve as in Judd et al 10 CH CS SO Ik GB SB SR 0.50 0.76 0.74 0.77 0.79 0.76 0.63 Table 4 Comparison of different saliency approaches on the paintings. CH denotes to chance. Whereas CS, SO, IK, GB, SB, SR denote to center surround, salient object, Itti and Koch, graph based, signature based, and spectral residue based approach re- spectively. Note that most of the saliency algorithms provide im- proved performance compared to baseline. (2009). As a baseline, we use the chance model. Table 4 shows the performance of different saliency algorithms on the paintings. Other than the spectral residue ap- proach (Hou and Zhang, 2007), all the other techniques provide significantly improved results compared to the baseline (chance). The best results are obtained using the Graph based Method (Harel et al, 2006) (GB) with a score of 0.79. To further validate the statistical significance of the performance obtained using different saliency methods, we perform a paired non-parametric Wilcoxon signed- rank test on the ROC results. Let A and B be variables representing area under the ROC curve obtained on all the images by two different saliency methods. The me- dian values of the two random variables are represented as µA and µB. The Wilcoxon test is then used to test the null hypothesis N0 : µA = µB compared to the alterna- tive hypothesis N1 : µA 6= µB at 95% significance level. Table 5 shows a comparison of different approaches using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test. A positive num- ber (1) at a location (r,c) indicates that the improve- ment obtained using the saliency method r is statisti- cally significant compared to the results obtained using saliency method c. A negative number (-1) indicates that the improvement obtained using saliency method r is statistically worse compared to method c. A zero (0) indicates that the two saliency methods are consid- ered statistically equivalent. Other than the Spectral residue method (SR), all saliency approaches are sig- nificantly better statistically compared to the baseline chance method (CH) (95% confidence level). 6 Conclusion In this work, we have proposed a new large dataset of 4266 digital paintings from 91 different artists. The dataset contains annotations for artist and style catego- rization tasks. We also perform experiments to collect eye-tracking data and evaluate state-of-the-art saliency methods for saliency estimation in art images. CH SB SO SR CS IK GB CH 0 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 SB 1 0 1 1 0 0 -1 SO 1 -1 0 1 -1 -1 -1 SR 1 -1 -1 0 -1 -1 -1 CS 1 0 1 1 0 0 -1 IK 1 0 1 1 0 0 -1 GB 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 Table 5 Wilcoxon signed-rank test on the saliency methods pre- sented in Table 4. A positive number (1) at a location (r,c) shows that the results obtained using the saliency method r has been considered statistically better than that obtained using the method c (at 95% confidence level). A negative number (-1) shows the opposite where as a zero (0) indicates no significant difference between the two saliency methods. 6.1 Computational Painting Categorization We study the problem of both artist and style classifica- tion on a large dataset. A variety of local and global vi- sual features are evaluated for the computational paint- ing categorization tasks. Among the global features, the best results are obtained using Color-LBP with a accu- racy of 35.0% and 47.0% for artist and style classifica- tion respectively. Within the bag-of-words based frame- work, the best results are obtained using CN-SIFT with an accuracy of 44.1% and 56.7% for artist and style classification respectively. We further show that com- bining multiple visual cues further improves the results with a significant gain of 9.0% and 5.5% for artist and style classification respectively. Furthermore, we also evaluate the bio-inspired framework (HMAX) for com- putational painting categorization tasks. In summary, we show that the computer can correctly classify the painter for 50% of the paintings, and in 60% of the images can correctly assess its art style. While significant amount of progress has been made in the field of object and scene recognition, the problem of computational painting categorization has received little attention. This paper aims at moving the research of computational painting categorization one step fur- ther in two ways: the introduction of a new large dataset of art images and a comprehensive evaluation of visual features commonly used in the object recognition lit- erature for computational painting categorization. The results obtained on both artist and style classification tasks clearly suggest the need of designing more power- ful visual features specific to the painting categorization tasks. 11 6.2 Computational Saliency Estimation in Paintings We also investigate the problem of saliency estimation in digital paintings. We provide eye fixation data for a subset of our dataset. We further evaluate several state- of-the-art saliency algorithms for estimating saliency in art images. These methods have shown to provide ex- cellent results for natural images. Our results show that these standard saliency algorithms provide similar per- formance for saliency estimation in art images. In this work, we evaluate the state-of-the-art saliency methods on a subset of painting images. We hope that our work will motivate other researchers to further in- vestigate the problem of saliency estimation in digital paintings. Future work involves a comprehensive eval- uation of saliency methods on a large number of paint- ing images together with more subjects for obtaining the ground-truth. Another potential research direction is to use the saliency estimation results for the task of computational painting categorization. The saliency es- timation can be used either in a bottom-up or top-down manner to accentuate salient regions in an image with respect to a certain category label. Acknowledgements This work has been supported by SSF through a grant for the project CUAS, by VR through a grant for the project ETT, through the Strategic Area for ICT re- search ELLIIT, and CADICS. References Arora R, Elgammal A (2012) Towards automated clas- sification of fine-art painting style: A comparative study. In Proc. ICPR Bosch A, Zisserman A, Munoz X (2007) Representing shape with a spatial pyramid kernel. In Proc. CIVR Carneiro G, da Silva NP, Bue AD, Costeira JP (2012) Artistic image classification: An analysis on the print- art database. In Proc. ECCV Cinzia Di Dio GR Emiliano Macaluso (2007) The golden beauty: Brain response to classical and re- naissance sculptures. Plos One 2(11) Condorovici RG, Vranceanu R, Vertan C (2011) Saliency map retrieval for artistic paintings inspired from human understanding. In Proc. SPAMEC Csurka G, Bray C, Dance C, Fan L (2004) Visual cate- gorization with bags of keypoints. In Proc. Workshop on Statistical Learning in Computer Vision, ECCV Danelljan M, Khan FS, Felsberg M, van de Weijer J (2014) Adaptive color attributes for real-time visual tracking. In: CVPR Deng J, Dong W, Socher R, Jia L, Kai L, Li FF (2009) Imagenet: A large-scale hierarchical image database. In Proc. CVPR Elfiky N, Khan FS, van de Weijer J, Gonzalez J (2012) Discriminative compact pyramids for object and scene recognition. PR 45(4):1627–1636 Everingham M, Gool LJV, Williams CKI, Winn JM, Zisserman A (2010) The pascal visual object classes (voc) challenge. IJCV 88(2):303–338 Gehler PV, Nowozin S (2009) On feature combination for multiclass object classification. In Proc. ICCV Goguen J (1999) Art and the Brain. Imprint Academic Guo Z, Zhang L, Zhang D (2010) A completed modeling of local binary pattern operator for texture classifi- cation. TIP 19(6):1657–1663 Harel J, Koch C, Perona P (2006) Graph-based visual saliency. In Proc. NIPS Hou X, Zhang L (2007) Saliency detection: A spectral residual approach. In Proc. CVPR Hou X, Harel J, Koch C (2012) Image signature: High- lighting sparse salient regions. PAMI 34(1):194–201 Itti L, Cristof K, Ernst N (1998) A model of saliency- based visual attention for rapid scene analysis. PAMI 20(11):1254–1259 Jiang S, Huang Q, Ye Q, Gao W (2006) An effective method to detect and categorize digitized traditional chinese paintings. PRL 27(7):734–746 Jim Mutch DGL (2008) Object class recognition and localization using sparse features with limited recep- tive fields. IJCV 80(1):45–57 Johnson R, Hendriks E, Berezhnoy IJ, Brevdo E, Hughes SM, Daubechies I, Li J, Postma E, Wang JZ (2008) Image processing for artist identification. IEEE Signal Processing Magazine 25(4):37–48 Judd T, Ehinger KA, Durand F, Torralba A (2009) Learning to predict where humans look. In Proc. ICCV Khan FS, van de Weijer J, Vanrell M (2009) Top-down color attention for object recognition. In: ICCV Khan FS, van de Weijer J, Bagdanov AD, Vanrell M (2011) Portmanteau vocabularies for multi-cue image representations. In: NIPS Khan FS, Anwer RM, van de Weijer J, Bagdanov AD, Vanrell M, Lopez AM (2012a) Color attributes for object detection. In Proc. CVPR Khan FS, van de Weijer J, Vanrell M (2012b) Mod- ulating shape features by color attention for object recognition. IJCV 98(1):49–64 Khan FS, Anwer RM, van de Weijer J, Bagdanov A, Lopez A, Felsberg M (2013a) Coloring action recog- 12 nition in still images. IJCV 105(3):205–221 Khan FS, van de Weijer J, Ali S, Felsberg M (2013b) Evaluating the impact of color on texture recognition. In Proc. CAIP Lazebnik S, Schmid C, Ponce J (2005) A sparse tex- ture representation using local affine regions. PAMI 27(8):1265–1278 Lazebnik S, Schmid C, Ponce J (2006) Beyond bags of features: Spatial pyramid matching for recognizing natural scene categories. In Proc. CVPR Liu T, Yuan Z, Sun J, Wang J, Zheng N, Tang X, Shum HY (2011) Learning to detect a salient object. PAMI 32(2):353–367 Lowe DG (2004) Distinctive image features from scale- invariant points. IJCV 60(2):91–110 Mikolajczyk K, Schmid C (2005) A performance evalu- ation of local descriptors. PAMI 27(10):1615–1630 Murray N, Marchesotti L, Perronnin F (2012) Ava: A large-scale database for aesthetic visual analysis. In Proc. CVPR Ojala T, Pietikainen M, Maenpaa T (2002) Multiresolu- tion gray-scale and rotation invariant texture classi- fication with local binary patterns. PAMI 24(7):971– 987 Oliva A, Torralba AB (2001) Modeling the shape of the scene: A holistic representation of the spatial en- velope. IJCV 42(3):145–175 Quiroga RQ, Pedreira C (2011) How do we see art: an eye-tracker study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 5(98) Ramachandran V, Hirstein W (1999) The science of art: A neurological theory of aesthetic experience. Journal of Consciousness Studies 6(7):15–51 Rojas D, Khan FS, van de Weijer J, Gevers T (2010) The impact of color on bag-of-words based object recognition. In: ICPR Sablatnig R, Kammerer P, Zolda E (1998) Hierarchical classification of paintings using face- and brush stroke models. In Proc. ICPR van de Sande KEA, Gevers T, Snoek CGM (2010) Eval- uating color descriptors for object and scene recogni- tion. PAMI 32(9):1582–1596 Shamir L (2012) Computer analysis reveals similarities between the artistic styles of van gogh and pollock. Leonardo 45(2):149–154 Shamir L, Tarakhovsky JA (2012) Computer analysis of art. JOCCH 5(2):1–7 Shamir L, Macura T, Orlov N, Eckley DM, Goldberg IG (2010) Impressionism, expressionism, surrealism: Automated recognition of painters and schools of art. ACM TAP 7(2):8–16 Shechtman E, Irani M (2007) Matching local self- similarities across images and videos. In Proc. CVPR Shen J (2009) Stochastic modeling western paintings for effective classification. PR 42(2):293–301 Siddiquie B, Vitaladevuni SNP, Davis LS (2009) Com- bining multiple kernels for efficient image classifica- tion. In Proc. WACV Vikram T, Tscherepanow M, Wrede B (2012) A saliency map based on sampling an image into random rect- angular regions of interest. PR 45(9) van de Weijer J, Schmid C, Verbeek JJ, Larlus D (2009) Learning color names for real-world applications. TIP 18(7):1512–1524 Xiao J, Hays J, Ehinger KA, Oliva A, Torralba A (2010) Sun database: Large-scale scene recognition from abbey to zoo. In Proc. CVPR Zhang J, Marszalek M, Lazebnik S, Schmid C (2007) Local features and kernels for classification of texture and object catergories: A comprehensive study. IJCV 73(2):213–218 Zujovic J, Gandy L, Friedman S, Pardo B, Pappas T (2009) Classifying paintings by artistic genre: An analysis of features and classifiers. In Proc. MMSP Fahad Shahbaz Khan is a post doctoral research fel- low in Computer Vision Laboratory, Linköping Univer- sity, Sweden. He has a master in Intelligent Systems De- sign from Chalmers University of Sweden and a PhD de- gree in Computer Vision from Autonomous University of Barcelona, Spain. His research interests are in color for computer vision, object recognition, action recogni- tion and visual tracking. He has published articles in high-impact computer vision journals and conferences in these areas. Shida Beigpour is an Associate Professor at the Fac- ulty of Computer Science and Media Technology in Gjovik University College (Hgskolen i Gjvik) and Re- searcher at the Norwegian Colour and Visual Comput- ing Laboratory. She received her M.Sc. degree on Ar- tificial Intelligence and Computer Vision in 2009, and her Ph.D. of Informatics (Computer Vision) in 2013 from Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Spain. Her main research interests are Color Vision, Illumination and Reflectance analysis, Color Constancy, and Color in Human Vision. She has published articles in high- impact journals and conferences and is a member of the IEEE. Joost van de Weijer is a senior scientist at the Com- puter Vision Center. Joost van de Weijer has a mas- ter in applied physics at Delft University of Technology and a PhD degree at the University of Amsterdam. He obtained a Marie Curie Intra-European scholarship in 13 2006, which was carried out in the LEAR team at IN- RIA Rhne-Alpes. From 2008-2012 he was a Ramon y Cajal fellow at the Universitat Autonma de Barcelona. His research interest are in color for computer vision, object recognition, and color imaging. He has published in total over 60 peer reviewed papers. He has given sev- eral postgraduate tutorials at major ventures such as ICIP 2009, DAGM 2010, and ICCV 2011. Michael Felsberg received PhD degree (2002) in en- gineering from University of Kiel. Since 2008 full pro- fessor and head of CVL. Research: signal processing methods for image analysis, computer vision, and ma- chine learning. More than 80 reviewed conference pa- pers, journal articles, and book contributions. Awards of the German Pattern Recognition Society (DAGM) 2000, 2004, and 2005 (Olympus award), of the Swedish Society for Automated Image Analysis (SSBA) 2007 and 2010, and at Fusion 2011 (honourable mention). Coordinator of EU projects COSPAL and DIPLECS. Associate editor for the Journal of Real-Time Image Processing, area chair ICPR, and general co-chair DAGM 2011. Försättsblad khan2014painting 
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work_lclgfezqn5ecbn7pskyfivrbuq	----	Virtual Mentor Virtual Mentor American Medical Association Journal of Ethics October 2011, Volume 13, Number 10: 681-683. FROM THE EDITOR The Physician as an Evolving Moral Actor “Trust me, I’m a doctor!” concludes Gene Simmons, of the classic hard rock band Kiss, in a television advertisement for the soft drink Cherry Dr. Pepper [1]. In this 2010 commercial, Simmons, Doctor Love himself, taps a deep-seated public sentiment concerning the prescriptive authority of physicians; the 30-second spot is amusing because an aging, steel-and-leather-clad musician would otherwise have no such claims to this kind of respect. Physicians have long been held in high respect. The earliest shamans and witch doctors derived authority from local deities, the practitioners themselves often undergoing ritual initiations to distinguish themselves from the rest of their communities as minor prophets [2]. As medical science evolved, so did the status of the physician. The seventeenth-century story of a man’s selling his soul to the devil was raised to tragic proportions because that man was Doctor Faustus. This fall, tens of thousands of American medical students will take part in white coat ceremonies that symbolize their initiation into the select group of modern healers. Medicine remains an august profession, but the source of the knowledge from which its authority springs has since shifted completely from god-given providence to technocratic excellence. But what of the physician’s moral status in this more secular system—the trustworthiness the Dr. Pepper commercial references? Are we to assume that with education automatically comes moral excellence? There must be more than the respect afforded to those who have obtained advanced degrees; after all, there are no rock stars on television hawking products by claiming to be lawyers, or even PhD- level marine biologists. Perhaps it’s that medicine is the business of helping people. But absent the presumed necessary association of medicine with moral authority, is it now possible for a bad person to be a good doctor? In this month’s issue of Virtual Mentor, we remove physicians from the clinic to explore their moral influence—while members of society, doctors are no ordinary citizens. In 11 articles, we address the additional responsibilities of physicians need to earn and maintain a position of moral authority in our contemporary society. The reality is that physicians, like all people, aren’t perfect, and more than 2 percent smoke cigarettes despite a preponderance of evidence against doing so. Sonja Boone, MD, notes in her case commentary that a physician’s responsibility begins with personal behavior because they serve as powerful role models, particularly to impressionable children. Citing the Hippocratic maxim “primum non tacere”—first www.virtualmentor.org Virtual Mentor, October 2011—Vol 13 681 do not be silent—Stephanie Toth, MD, suggests that physicians should tactfully intervene if they recognize that a colleague’s personal habits apply this normative power in harmful ways. This month’s excerpt from the American Medical Association’s Code of Medical Ethics pertains to physicians’ responsibility to maintain their own health and to intervene when they observe impaired colleagues. Sometimes, interventions by colleagues are not enough to correct personal transgressions. Valarie Blake, JD, MA, looks at cases in which medical boards have been challenged for taking action against physicians for their conduct. In our policy piece, Herbert Rakatansky, MD, explores the rationale of medical boards in their evaluation of physician behavior. He notes that with respect to artists and composers, for examples, we can love the art while disliking the producer. Medicine is different. Doctors do not create products; rather, the patient-doctor relationship is itself the product. If trust is lost, all is lost. Once a physician acquires moral authority through deeds and work, how should this goodwill be employed? In our second clinical case discussion, Grayson Armstrong describes the power of physician advocacy as participatory citizens of influence, even on issues not immediately relevant to medicine. Thomas Bledsoe, MD, describes the limits of this advocacy and offers suggestions on how to act within those limits without forfeiting the trust of patients who may oppose a particular political view. In an op-ed, Ford Vox, MD, describes what happens when the limits of advocacy are breached, offering the participation of University of Wisconsin family medicine physicians in pro-labor protests against state-level changes in February 2011 as a recent example. By writing dubious “sick notes” for protesters, the physicians themselves became the story, thereby deflecting public opinion from their cause. Acts of aggressive advocacy by physicians, he explains, require particular contemplation, lest we lose control of our narrative and prescriptive powers granted by society. That doesn’t mean doctors should shy away from social or political advocacy. Steven Rivoli, a second-year student of osteopathic medicine and alternate delegate to the AMA House of Delegates, argues in an op-ed that advocating to end discrimination is part and parcel of medicine’s duty to further the best interests of the public. Despite its being a divisive issue, he notes, the denial of civil marriage to GLBT couples has adverse effects on their health; for physicians to stay silent about it would not be in keeping with the way we approach other social determinants of health. In a journal review of “Expectation and Obligations: professionalism and medicine’s social contract with society,” by Cruess and Cruess (2008), medical and law student Michael S. Sinha identifies four obligations physicians derive from their contract with society. He suggests that the physician assumes a civic duty greater than that of the average citizen, with a responsibility to take action to improve the community. Virtual Mentor, October 2011—Vol 13 www.virtualmentor.org 682 After all, he notes, society subsidizes medical education, then pays the big bucks, because it “expects a greater return on investment.” Examining further society’s implied contract with medicine in VM’s medicine and society section, Nadia N. Sawicki, JD, MBe, asks why society seems to feel justified in imposing such high standards of personal conduct on physicians. If we value them for clinical competence and their fiduciary ethic of care toward patients, Swicki says, then we should judge physicians on those grounds alone. As is often the case in medical practice, issues that arise outside the clinic do not necessarily stay there. Janice Miller, MD, describes the challenges of professional practice when the physician’s simultaneous status as neighbor bleeds into the clinical sphere. But even in the setting of urban academic medicine, external forces shape the way physicians view themselves as professionals. In a narrative, Diane Plantz, MD, explores job satisfaction and burnout among employed physicians and housestaff who have increasingly found themselves to be paid cogs in biomedical behemoths. Despite the changes in practice models and work restrictions, she notes, satisfaction remains in actively helping patients—a part of medicine that will never change. In sum, through historical precedent and continued efforts from the body of medicine, today’s physicians maintain a level of moral authority in interpersonal and social contexts. As practice models and science continue to change, it is important that physicians protect that which makes us special. We hope you learn from and enjoy this issue of Virtual Mentor. References 1. Dr. Pepper: Dr. Love (Gene Simmons) [video]. YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yv6qRO7uwnY. Accessed September 20, 2011. 2. Keniston K. The medical student. Yale J Biol Med. 1967;39(6):346-358. Steve Y. Lee, MD PGY-1 Internal Medicine Boston University School of Medicine The viewpoints expressed on this site are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the AMA. Copyright 2011 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. www.virtualmentor.org Virtual Mentor, October 2011—Vol 13 683 
work_leuafnchd5amjnzdpaqzsd2my4	----	The Mass Media before the Bar | Film Quarterly | University of California Press Skip to Main Content Close UCPRESS ABOUT US BLOG SUPPORT US CONTACT US Search search input Search input auto suggest search filter All Content Film Quarterly Search User Tools Register Carnegie Mellon University Carnegie Mellon University Sign In Toggle MenuMenu Content Recent Content Browse Issues All Content Purchase Alerts Submit Info For Authors Librarians Advertisers Reprints & Permissions About Journal Editorial Team Contact Us Skip Nav Destination Article Navigation Close mobile search navigation Article navigation Volume 4, Issue 1 Autumn 1949 This article was originally published in Hollywood Quarterly Previous Article Next Article Article Navigation Research Article| October 01 1949 The Mass Media before the Bar Arthur J. Freund Arthur J. Freund Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Hollywood Quarterly (1949) 4 (1): 90–97. https://doi.org/10.2307/1209389 Split-Screen Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data PDF LinkPDF Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn Email Guest Access Tools Icon Tools Get Permissions Cite Icon Cite Search Site Citation Arthur J. Freund; The Mass Media before the Bar. Hollywood Quarterly 1 October 1949; 4 (1): 90–97. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/1209389 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search search input Search input auto suggest search filter All Content Film Quarterly Search This content is only available via PDF. Copyright 1949/1950 The Regents of the University of California Article PDF first page preview Close Modal Send Email Recipient(s) will receive an email with a link to 'The Mass Media before the Bar' and will not need an account to access the content. *Your Name: *Your Email Address: CC: *Recipient 1: Recipient 2: Recipient 3: Recipient 4: Recipient 5: Subject: The Mass Media before the Bar Optional Message: (Optional message may have a maximum of 1000 characters.) Submit × Citing articles via Google Scholar CrossRef Latest Most Read Most Cited Pixels, Police, and Batons: Hong Kong Cinema, Digital Media, the 2019 Protests, and Beyond Review: Mary Ellen Bute: Pioneer Animator, by Kit Smyth Basquin Review: Everyday Movies: Portable Film Projectors and the Transformation of American Culture, by Haidee Watson Review: Making Worlds: Affect and Collectivity in Contemporary European Cinema, by Claudia Breger Review: Women in the Irish Film Industry: Stories and Storytellers, edited by Susan Liddy Email alerts Article Activity Alert Latest Issue Alert Close Modal Recent Content Browse Issues All Content Purchase Alerts Submit Info for Authors Info for Librarians Info for Advertisers About Editorial Team Contact Us Online ISSN 1533-8630 Print ISSN 0015-1386 Copyright © 2021 Stay Informed Sign up for eNews Twitter Facebook Instagram YouTube LinkedIn Visit the UC Press Blog Disciplines Ancient World Anthropology Art Communication Criminology & Criminal Justice Film & Media Studies Food & Wine History Music Psychology Religion Sociology Browse All Disciplines Courses Browse All Courses Products Books Journals Resources Book Authors Booksellers Instructions Journal Authors Journal Editors Librarians Media & Journalists Support Us Endowments Membership Planned Giving Supporters About UC Press Careers Location Press Releases Seasonal Catalog Contact Us Acquisitions Editors Customer Service Exam/Desk Requests Media Inquiries Print-Disability Rights & Permissions Royalties UC Press Foundation © Copyright 2021 by the Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. Privacy policy   Accessibility Close Modal Close Modal This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only Sign In or Create an Account Close Modal Close Modal This site uses cookies. By continuing to use our website, you are agreeing to our privacy policy. Accept 
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work_ljuwkrmwobc7zmx3inhosc36cm	----	444 EPITOME. - [April, and realities of life. The somatic constitution showed that eight were pure pyknics, and only one showed no pyknic traits at all. The course of the disease is very protracted, six of the patients being over 8o years. Only three showed clinical symptoms of cerebral arteriosclerosis. The author believes that the pathogenic factor is represented by changes in the brain, which could consist of arteriosclerosis or senile degeneration, and that the personality constitutes the pathoplastic factor. But he presumes that the cycloid temperament (personality) at the same time tends to prevent dementia and volitional inertia, in contrast with the non-cycloid seniles, who do not use their abilities, even if they are preserved to a certain extent. S. L. LAST. Mental Aspects of Brain Tumours in Psychotic Patients. (Journ. Nerv. and Ment. Dis., vol. lxxviii, pp.@ and 500, Oct—Nov., 1933.) Jameison, G. R., and Henry, G. IV. From their experience with 26 psychotic patients who developed brain tumour, the presence of which was established at autopsy, the authors draw various conclu sions. They point out that there is no psychosis characteristic of brain tumour. The clinical picture of brain tumour manifestations, superimposed upon a psychosis, is characterized by changing contrasts and incongruities in the symptoms and signs, and by evidence of organic disease of brain, which becomes increasingly obvious. More than half of the patients are depressed, and a larger percentage are distinctly apprehensive. At least one-fourth of the patients were suicidal. One fourth had some insight into the fact that a serious complication had arisen in their illness. G. W. T. H. FLEMING. General Paretics Before and After Malarial Treatment : An Experimental Psycho logical Investigation [Progressive Paraivtiker vor und nach der Malaria behandlung : Eine experi@nentellpsychologische A rbeit] . (Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Neurol. u. Psvchiat., vol. cxlvi, p. 66r, 1933.) lVeisfeld, M. The author examined 29 paretics with various tests. He sets out to show how the improvement achieved by malarial treatment can be demonstrated by different tests. Such tests were carried out twice, first before, secondly after the treatment. The following different psychical and psychomotor functions were tested in this investigation : Memory, impressionability, the mental horizon (and imaginative power), calculation, intellectual activity, the intelligence (in a more restricted sense than usual), the power to deliver moral judgments, attention, handwriting and manual speed. As the results are given in figures, the improvement can be expressed in percentages. Of all the cases, 45% only showed an improvement in the power to reach moral judgments, 56% @flattention and 6, % in their manual speed, whereas 68—78% of the patients had better results in the various other tests. The author is not satisfied with the explanation given by other authors that the intellectual improvements are due to an increase in activity only, but holds that the various functions themselves have been changed for the better by the malarial treatment. S. L. LAST. Psychic Trauma and Hvperlh3roid Conditions [El trauma psIquico y los estados hipertiroideos@.(La Semana Med., vol.xli,p.@ Feb.8, 1934.)RodrIguez, A. D'A., and Lejtman, S. Nine cases, uncomplicated by pathological antecedents or concurrent ailments, have been fully studied. The emotional shock constantly reacts upon the thyroid function, and is capable of disturbing it even in quite healthy subjects. The cases present a clinical picture which is nearly always incomplete; the diagnosis is at times difficult, but not impossible. The history of psychic trauma with the immediate commencement of the symptoms should put us on the track of the 
work_lma5pslbmjcj7jyxramt7mux7u	----	480 N E W PUBLICATIONS. [June, M R . L. C. Cox, of State College, Pennsylvania, has been appointed instructor in mathematics at Purdue University. D R . J. R. C O N N E R , of the Johns Hopkins University, has been appointed associate in mathematics a t Bryn Mawr College. D R . J. I. T R A C E Y has been appointed instructor in mathe- matics in the academic department of Yale University. D R . R. M . W I N G E R has been appointed instructor in mathe- matics at the University of Illinois. M R . H . BATEMAN, of Bryn Mawr College, has accepted a teaching scholarship at the Johns Hopkins University. M R . W. V. LOVITT, of the University of Washington, has been appointed instructor in mathematics a t Harvard Uni- versity; Mr. A. L. M I L L E R has been advanced to an instructor- ship in mathematics. PROFESSOR A. E . H A Y N E S , of the University of Minnesota, has retired after thirty-eight years continuous service as a teacher. PROFESSOR S. W. SHATTUCK, of the University of Illinois, will retire a t the end of the present academic year. He has been connected with the department of mathematics since the founding of the University in 1868. PROFESSOR M . C. ARZELÀ, of the University of Bologna, died a t St. Stephen di Magra, March 16, 1912, at the age of 65 years. He was a member of the Academy dei Lincei and of t h e national Italian society of sciences. N E W P U B L I C A T I O N S . I. HIGHER MATHEMATICS. ADHÊMAR (R. d'). Leçons sur les principes de l'analyse. Tome 1; Séries. Déterminants. Intégrales. Potentiels. Equations intégrales. Equa- tions différentielles et fonctionelles. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1912. 8vo. 6+324 pp. Fr. 10.00 BACHELIER (L.). Calculs des probabilités. Tome 1. Paris, Gauthier- Villars, 1912. 4to. 7+518 pp. Fr. 25.00 CALVET-AZAL. Essai sur la notion de quantité imaginaire. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1912. 8vo. 48 pp. License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 1912.] NEW PUBLICATIONS. 4 8 1 CERVALLO (E.). Le calcul des probabilités et ses applications. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1912. 8vo. 9+171 pp. Fr. 6.50 LIEBMANN (H.). See MARKOFF (A. A.). MANGOLDT (H. v.). Einführung in die höhere Mathematik. 2ter Band: Difïerentialrechnung. Leipzig, Hirzel, 1912. 8vo. M. 15.40 MANNING (H. P.). Irrational numbers and their representation by- sequences and series. New York, Wiley. 12mo. 6 +123 pp. Cloth. $1.25 MARKOFF (A. A.). Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung. Nach der 2ten Auflage des russischen Werkes übersetzt von H. Liebmann. Leipzig, Teubner, 1912. 8vo. 7+318 pp. Cloth. M. 13.00 MEISSNER (O.) Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung nebst Anwendungen. (Mathematische Bibliothek, herausgegeben von W. Lietzmann und A. Witting.) Leipzig, Teubner, 1912, 8vo. 4 + 6 4 pp. M. 0.80 M Ü H E (A.). Beweis des Fermatschen Prinzips. 2te, ergânzte Auflage. Berlin, Reimer, 1912. 8vo. 4 pp. M. 0.75 II. ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS. BARLOW. Table of squares, cubes, square roots. New York, Spon, 1911. 12mo. 200 pp. $1.50 BERTRAND (G.). Trattato di algebra elementare. Prima traduzione italiana, con note ed aggiunte di E. Betti. Nuova edizione, per cura di A. Socci. 15a impressione. Firenze, Le Monnier, 1912. 16mo. 7+531 pp. L. 3.00 BETTI (E.). See BERTRAND (G.). BORCHARDT (W. G.). Junior algebra examples. London, Rivingtons, 1912. 8vo. 198 pp. 2s. HENSING (K.). Geometric 3tes Heft. Leipzig, Hoffmann, 1911. 8vo. pp. 115-254. M. 1.60 HUNTINGTON (E. V.). Four place table of logarithms and trigonometric functions. Unabridged edition. London, Spon, 1912. 3s. LESSER (O.). See SCHWAB (K.). LINNICH (M.). See SCHWAB (K.). MILNE (W. J.)* Key to first year algebra. New York, American Book Co., 1912. 12mo. 288 pp. $0.80 R O P P ( C ) . Calculator and short-cut arithmetic. 10th edition, revised and enlarged. Chicago, Ropp, 1912. 8vo. 192 pp. $1.25 SALOMON (A.). Leçons d'algèbre. 7e édition. Paris, Vuibert, 1912. 16mo. 267 pp. Fr. 2.00 SCHMEHL ( C ) . Lehrbuch der Stéréométrie für höhere Lehranstalten. Giessen, Roth, 1912. 8vo. 6+160 pp. M. 2.50 SCHWAB (K.) und LESSER (O.). Mathematisches Unterrichtswerk. Für höhere Mâdchenschulen bearbeitet von M. Linnich. Iter Teil. Wien, Tempsky, 1911. 8vo. 143 pp. Cloth. M. 2.00 . Geometrie. Bearbeitet von M. Linnich. 2ter Teil. Leipzig, Freytag, 1912. 8vo. 184 pp. Cloth. M. 2.50 SOCCI (A.). See BERTRAND (G.). License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 482 NEW PUBLICATIONS. [June, 1912.] TABLES de logarithmes à cinq décimales et pour les fonctions trigono* métriques. Par F. I. C. Edition double: Division sexagésimale et division centésimale. Paris, Gigord, 1912. 16mo. 8+255 pp. TESTI (G. M.). Elementi di matematica. Fascicolo I I , 5a edizione corretta. Livorno, Giusti, 1912. 16mo. 7 + 7 8 pp. L. 0.80 WALLENTIN (F.). Maturitâtsfragen aus der Mathematik. Auflösungen. 6te Auflage. Wien, Gerold, 1912. 8vo. 6+236 pp. Cloth. M. 4.50 I I I . APPLIED MATHEMATICS. ABRAHAM (M.). Theorie der Elektrizitât. Iter Band: Einführung in die Maxwellsche Theorie der Elektrizitât. Mit einem einleitenden Abschnitte von A. Föppl. 4te, umgearbeitete Auflage, herausgegeben von M. Abraham. Leipzig, Teubner, 1912. 8vo. 18+410 pp. Cloth. M. 11.00 ANNUAIRE pour Tan 1912, publié par le Bureau des Longitudes. Avec des notices scientifiques. Paris, Gauthier-Villars. Fr. 1.50 BAKKER (G.). Théorie de la couche capillaire des corps purs. Tome I I : La couche capillaire des corps purs et ses phases homogènes et adja- centes. (Collection Scientia.) Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1912. 8vo. 80 pp. Boards. Fr. 2.00 BiGOURDAiN (G.). See D E L A M B R E (J, B . J . ) . BUCHHQLZ (H.). See KLINKERFUES (W.). CHAPMAN (S.). The kinetic theory of a gas constituted of spherically symmetrical molecules. London, Dulau, 1912. 4to. Sewed. 2s. 6d. CHINI (M.). Corso speciale di matematiche, ad uso dei chimici e dei naturalisti. 2a edizione, con aggiunte e modificazioni. Livorno, Giusti, 1912. 8vo. 12+297 pp. L. 4.00 CRANDALL (C. L.). Textbook on geodesy and least squares. New York, Wiley. 8vo. 1 0 + 329 pp. Cloth. $3.00 DALLWITZ (W. V.). Warmelehre in Theorie und Anwendung. Iter Band: Wârmetheorie und ihre Beziehungen zur Technik und Physik. Berlin, Volckmann, 1912. 8vo. 18+331 pp. Cloth. M. 11.25 DELAMBRE (J. B. J.). Grandeur et figure de la terre. Ouvrage augmenté de notes, de cartes, et publié par les soins de G. Bigourdain. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1912. 8vo. 8+402 pp. Fr. 15.00 DELSOL (M. E.). Note sur le vol des oiseaux. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1911. 8vo. 22 pp. Fr. 1.00 DITTMANN (E.). Berechnung elektrischer Leitungsnetze. Strelitz, Hit- tenkofer, 1911. M. 5.00 ESPITALLIER et CHASSERIAUD (R.). Cours d'aviation. Livre I : Ap- pareils d'aviation et propulseurs. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1911. 4to. 295 pp. Fr. 13.00 FÖPPL (A.). See ABRAHAM (M,). FRISCHAUF (J.). See SOLDNER (J.). GRAMONT (A. de). Essais d'aérodynamique. 2e série. Paris, Hachette, 1912. 4to. 115 pp. Fr. 3.50 License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 1 9 1 2 . ] NEW PUBLICATIONS. 4 8 3 GROSSMANN ( H . ) . Agenda 1912 pour l'horlogerie, la bijouterie et la petite mécanique. 9e année. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1911. 32mo. 372 p p . F r . 2.00 GTJILHAUMON (J. B.). Astronomie et navigation suivies de la compen- sation des compas. 5e édition. Paris, Berger-Levrault, 1912. 8vo. 615 p p . F r . 10.00 H A U C K (G.). Vorlesungen über darstellende Geometrie. Herausgegeben von A. H a u c k . I t e r B a n d . Leipzig, Teubner, 1912. 8vo. 1 2 + 3 3 9 p p . Cloth. M . 12.00 H O S M E R ( G . L . ) . Azimuth. New York, Wiley, 1909. l ô m o . 5 + 73 p p . Morocco. $1.00 I N G A L L S (J. M . ) . Interior ballistics. 3d edition. New York, Wiley, 1912. 8vo. 221 p p . Cloth. $2.50 J E A N S (J. H . ) . T h e m a t h e m a t i c a l theory of electricity and magnetism. 2d edition. London, Cambridge University Press, 1911. 15s K I N G (W. I . ) . T h e elements of statistical method. New York, Macmillan, 1912. 12mo. 245 p p . Cloth. $1.50 K L I N K E R F U E S (W.). Theoretische Astronomie. Neubearbeitung v o n H . Buchholz. 3te, verbesserte u n d vermehrte Auflage. Braunschweig, Vieweg, 1912. 8vo. 3 8 + 1 0 7 0 + 1 1 p p . Cloth. M . 50.00 K O E N E N (M.). Grundzüge für die statische Berechnung der Beton- u n d E i s e n b e t o n b a u t e n . 4te, neubearbeitete Auflage. Berlin, E r n s t , 1912. M . 2.00 K R I E M L E R ( C ) . Einführung in die energetische B a u s t a t i k . Berlin, Springer, 1911. M . 2.40 K Ü S T E R (F. W . ) . Logarithmische Rechentafeln für Chemiker, P h a r - mazeuten, Mediziner und Physiker. 12te, neuberechnete Auflage. Leipzig, Veit, 1912. 8vo. 107 p p . Cloth. M . 2.40 L O N E Y (S. L.). An elementary treatise on statics. London, Cambridge University Press, 1912. 8vo. 402 p p . 12s. L U C A S (A.). See M A S S E N E T (G.). M A S S E N E T (G.) et L U C A S (A.). Eléments de la théorie d u navire. Paris, Challamel, 1912. 8vo. 6 + 1 2 0 p p . M A Y E R (R.). Die Mechanik der Wârme. 2te Abhandlung. H e r a u s - gegeben von A. v o n Oettingen. (Ostwalds Klassiker N r . 180.) Leipzig, Engelmann, 1911. M . 1.60 M E I E R ( K . ) . Mechanics of heating and ventilation, with charts for cal- culation a n d examples. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1912. 8vo. 9 + 1 6 1 p p . $5.00 M E R B A C H (P. A.). Studiën über die Mechanik der magnetischen E r - scheinungen. H a m b u r g , Hephaestos-Verlag, 1912. 8vo. 18 p p . M . 0.60 M E R R I M A N (M.). E l e m e n t s of mechanics. F o r t y lessons for beginners in mechanics. New York, Wiley. 12mo. 172 p p . Cloth. $1.00 . Treatise on hydraulics. 9 t h edition, revised and reset. New York, Wiley, 1912. 8vo. 10 + 565 p p . Cloth. $4.00 and JACOBY (H. S.). A textbook on roofs and bridges. P a r t I I I : Bridge design. 5 t h edition, p a r t l y rewritten. New York, Wiley, 1912. 8vo. 8 + 414 p p . Cloth. $2.50 License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 484 N E W PUBLICATIONS. [June, 1912.] M I L L E R (E. F.) a n d others. Problems in thermodynamics and heat engineering. New York, Wiley, 1911. 8vo. 3 + 6 7 p p . $0.75 M U L L E R (E.). Technische Uebungsaufgaben für darstellende Geometrie. 4tes Heft. Wien, Deuticke, 1911. M . 1.25 N E R N S T (W.). See P O L L I T Z E R (F.). O C A G N E (M. d ' ) . See S E C O D E LA GARZA (R.). O E T T I N G E N (A. v o n ) . See M A Y E R (R.). P A R K E R (G. W . ) . T h e elements of hydrostatics. London, Longmans, 1912. 8vo. 3s. P E R K I N S (H. A.). An introduction t o general thermodynamics. New York, Wiley, 1912. 12mo. 1 8 + 2 4 7 p p . Cloth. $1.50 P F A R R (A.). Die T u r b i n e n für Wasserkraftbetrieb. I h r e Theorie u n d K o n s t r u k t i o n . 2te, teilweise umgearbeitete und vermehrte Auflage. 2 B a n d e . Berlin, Springer, 1912. Cloth. M . 40.00 P L E M E L J (J.). Potentialtheoretische Untersuchungen. (Gekrönte Preis- schrift.) Leipzig, Teubner, 1911. M . 6.00 P O L L I T Z E R (F.). Die Berechnung chemischer Affinitâten nach dem N e r n s t - schen Wârmetheorem. M i t einem Vorwort von W. Nernst. S t u t t - gart, E n k e , 1912. 8vo. 171 p p . M . 3.60 R I E C K E (E.). Lehrbuch der Physik. I t e r B a n d : Mechanik, Molekular- erscheinungen, Akustik u n d Optik. 5te, vermehrte und verbesserte Auflage. Leipzig, Veit, 1912. 8vo. 1 6 + 6 0 0 p p . Cloth. M . 13.00 R Y A N (W. T . ) . Design of electrical machinery. I n three volumes. Volume 1. New York, Wiley, 1912. 8vo. 9 + 109 p p . $1.50 S A T T E R L Y (J.). Junior h e a t . London, Clive, 1912. 8vo. 192 p p . 2s. S E C O D E LA G A R Z A (R.). Les nomogrammes de l'ingénieur. Avec une préface de M . d'Ocagne. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1912. 8vo. 12 + 196 p p . Fr. 12.00 S E L L A N D E R (H. W . ) . Lightning calculator for marine engineers. 2d edition, revised a n d enlarged. San Francisco, King's Bookstore, 1912. 16mo. 141 p p . Boards. $2.50 S O L D N E R (J.). Theorie der Landesvermessung. (1810.) Herausgegeben v o n J . Frischauf. (Ostwalds Klassiker N r . 184.) Leipzig, Engel- m a n n , 1911. M . 1.60 License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 
work_lmyiepy3wjdxjgmiqig6vonqym	----	News Section 63 A Guide to the Concerto edited by Robert Layton. O.U.P. (paperback), £12.99. Arthur Rubinstein: a Life by Harvey Sachs. Weidenfeld & Nicholson, £25.00. The Penguin Guide to Compact Discs by Ivan March, Edward Greenfield and Robert Layton. New Edition, Revised and Updated. Penguin, £18.00. Klassizistische Moderne: Werkeinjuhrungen, Essays, Quellentexte edited by Felix Meyer. Publications of the Paul Sacher Foundation Volume 4 (to accompany the concert series '10 Jahre Paul Sacher Stiftung'). Canto d'Amore: Classicism in Modem Art and Music 1914-1935 edited by Gottfried Boehm, Ulrich Moesch and Katharina Schmidt. Offentliche Kunstsammlung Basel, Kunstmuseum and Paul Sacher Foundation, Basel. (This volume accomp- anies the exhibition at the Basle Kunstmuseum of 27 April-11 August 1996.) Don Carlos and Company: The true stories behind eight well-loved operas by Christopher Morgan. Oxford University Press, £10.99 (paperback). Britten: War Requiem by Mervyn Cooke and Philip Reed. Cambridge University Press Cambridge Music Handbooks, no price quoted. Letters to the Editor From John C.G. Waterhouse May I belatedly comment on Michael Graubart's letter in Tempo 195, referring to the octatonic elements in Petrassi's Noche oscura? He cautiously suggests that 'the octatonic scale would [probably] have been rare' in 20th-century Italian music, and that Petrassi may therefore have derived his use of it from Bartok and from the Russian tradition, especially Stravinsky. Petrassi did indeed learn much, over the years, from Stravinsky and Bartok; yet one should not underestimate the octatonic tendencies discernible in some Italian music even as early as the 1920s. I would draw attention especially to the enter- prising minor composer Vito Frazzi (1888-1975), whose pupils included Dallapiccola, Bartolozzi, Bucchi and Bettinelli, to name but a few. Not only did Franzi make extensive - though as yet largely instinctive - use of octatonic processes in his opera Re Lear (composed in 1922-28, though not staged until 1939), but his treatise Scale alternate (Florence: Forlivesi, 1930) seems to pre- date all other systematic theoretical studies of the subject - even though conscious practical use of the octatonic scale can be traced back at least as far as Rimsky-Korsakov! (Rimsky's own surviving statements on the subject, though thought- provoking, are too fragmentary to amount to a 'system'.) It is no coincidence that Frazzi was himself an admirer of the 19th-century Russian nationalists; but is it possible that his pioneering attempt to set octatonic processes on a firm theoretical basis may itself have influenced Petrassi at an impressionable early stage of his career? Certainly Dallapiccola - whose own octatonic practices are the subject of Michael Eckert's 'Octatonic Elements in the Music of Luigi Dallapiccola' (The Music Review XLVI/1, February 1985, pp.35-48) - must surely have picked up such ideas at least partly from his teacher. Unfortunately very little has been written about Frazzi in English (though my own brief entries on him in The New Grove and Opera Grove may at least help to 'place' him, and Eckert says a little about him in his first four paragraphs). However, those who know Italian can find a magnificently thorough account of his signi- ficance as a theorist in Giorgio Sanguinetti, 'II primo studio teorico sulle scale ottatoniche: le scale "alternate" di Vito Frazzi' (Studi musicali XXII, 1993, pp.411-446). 21 Arless Way Harborne Birmingham B17 0RD From Paul Rapoport In his CD review in Tempo 198, Guy Rickards inadvertently found an omission in my recent catalogue of Vagn Holmboe's music. The title Sinjonia in memoriam displaced two others: Symphony No.9 ('Sinfonia in memoriam (Nr.9)' was written by someone else on Holmboe's ms.), and Metamorfose (which is the only title he did write on the ms.: Danish for Metamorphosis). Although this work may in retrospect be a precursor to those he subtitled Symfonisk metamorfose, it was not so called. Furthermore, I numbered those four works; the composer did not consider them a series. Holmboe's working titles are often important. Another for his Thirteenth Symphony was https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0040298200005738 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:05, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0040298200005738 https://www.cambridge.org/core 64 Letters to the Editor 'L'estremo vale della viola'. But he never consider- ed that a real, public title, and it's not in my book. I thank Mr Rickards for considering my catalogue 'authoritative', which certainly does not mean maximally detailed, nor even wholly correct. School of Art, Drama & Music McMaster University Hamilton Ontario (concluded from p. 59) said that Flagello left some pieces in short score only when he died). The music of his mentor, Giannini, expounds with great skill the neo-baroque revivalism so popular amongst Italian composers in the earlier part of this century. Especially eloquent is the Prelude and Fugue for strings (1955), by turns elegiac and joyful. Flagello trumps him with his Serenata (1968), one of his finest creations. The gently nocturnal Canteloubeian first movement soon yields to the gawky Passe-Pied and the even more nocturnal Siciliana. The concluding Giga could easily be by William Alwyn, but it is the breadth of Flagello's versatility that calls to mind so many other musical figures, rather than any craven imitation. Of the other composers represented, Morton Gould (1913-96) rarely wrote tone poems. Harvest (1945) is one such; open strings and shimmering vibraphone recalling Cowell and Roy Harris. Works for speaker and orchestra (often on lincolnesque themes) abound in American music and tend to the stereotypical. Joseph Schwantner's New Morning for the World (1982), to texts by Martin Luther King, calls for a time and a place too but no one can deny the lofty nobility of King's prose, matched in equal measure by the arresting grandeur of Schwantner's alarums and excursions, the tender central theme and the quiet resolve of the ending. But Flagello is the star of these three releases and he is well served by some good orchestral playing (very good indeed when the Oregon Symphony are on hand). A disc of his chamber music is due soon. Another welcome revival is well under way. Bret Johnson Boosey & Hawkes Music Publishers Limited Music from the Americas John Adams b.1947 Dominick Argento b.1927 Jack Beeson b.1921 Leonard Bernstein 1918-1990 Elliott Carter b.1908 Daniel Catan b.1949 Carlos Chavez 1899-1978 Aaron Copland 1900-1990 David Del Tredici b.1937 Jacob Druckman 1928-1996 Irving Fine 1914-196 Carlisle Floyd b.1926 Alberto Ginastera 1916-1983 Barbara Kolb b.1939 Benjamin Lees b.1924 Steven Mackey b.1956 Walter Piston 1894-1976 Steve Reich b.1936 Ned Rorem b.1923 Christopher Rouse b.1949 Virgil Thomson 1896-1989 Michael Torke b.1961 BOOSEY 295 Regent Street, London W1R 8JH Tel 0171 -580 2060 Promotion Fax 0171 -637 3490 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0040298200005738 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:05, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0040298200005738 https://www.cambridge.org/core 
work_luf6qncubnfn3lwwbbjfq2hoei	----	Virtues of Art and Human Well-Being ©2008 The Aristotelian Society Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume lxxxii doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8349.2008.00168.x Virtues of Art Peter Goldie and Dominic McIver Lopes I—PETER GOLDIE VIRTUES OF ART AND HUMAN WELL-BEING What is the point of art, and why does it matter to us human beings? The answer that I will give in this paper, following on from an earlier paper on the same subject, is that art matters because our being actively engaged with art, either in its production or in its appreciation, is part of what it is to live well. The focus in the paper will be on the dispositions — the virtues of art production and of art appreciation — that are necessary for this kind of active engagement with art. To begin with, I will argue that these disposi- tions really are virtues and not mere skills. Then I will show how the virtues of art, and their exercise in artistic activity, interweave with the other kinds of virtue which are exercised in ethical and contemplative activity. And fi- nally, I will argue that artistic activity affords, in a special way, a certain kind of emotional sharing that binds us together with other human beings. I Introduction. The central idea that I want to argue for is that artistic virtues — virtues of art production and of art appreciation — are as much genuine virtues as ethical and intellectual virtues, and that, as such, their exercise, like the exercise of these other virtues, is done for its own sake and is constitutive of human well-being.1 In a recent paper, ‘Towards a Virtue Theory of Art’ (Goldie 2007a), I began to explore this idea, in an Aristotelian spirit, by drawing an analogy between ethics and art. This paper picks up from where that one finished. The concern I want to address now is, roughly, whether the exercise of the virtues of art really is an exer- cise of virtue, and thus partly constitutive of human well-being, or whether instead what I claim to be the virtues of art are really not virtues proper. Rather, the concern is, they are more like local skills 1 Unless the context suggests otherwise, by intellectual virtues I mean the virtues which are expressed in what Aristotle called contemplative activity or the rein, thus excluding practi- cal wisdom, which I will subsume under the ethical virtues. I will say more about contem- plation later. o I — PETER GOLDIE180 ©2008 The Aristotelian Society Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume lxxxii doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8349.2008.00168.x whose exercise is by no means constitutive of human well-being. This is a real challenge. Art and artistic activity, when well done, are, we might all accept, a Good Thing. But there are many good things in a human life that are not themselves constitutive of well- being and that are not sought after for their own sake. Some of these are luxuries, such as excellent food, designer clothes and pri- vate swimming pools, which we often delight in partly because we have them and others do not. Others are skills and the products of skills, such as the ability of a cobbler to make a good shoe, some- thing which is good of its kind. And yet other good things are neces- sities, such as nourishment, sleep, leisure, protection from the elements and good health. But, at least for Aristotle, leading an eth- ical and intellectual life is more than just necessity, skill or optional extra; it is what living well or well-being consists of. The challenge, then, is to show that artistic activity, whether of production or ap- preciation, is really expressive of the virtue of art, and really is just as much part of what well-being consists of.2 Why does this matter? What would be materially different if artis- tic activity were just a luxury or a skill, or, like sleeping, just a neces- sary condition for leading a good life? The central concern here is that artistic activity should be both non-instrumentally valuable and partly constitutive of human well-being.3 But the point is not just an abstract one about the kind of value in artistic activity. The point is also one about human psychology, about motivation. Having a good night’s sleep is instrumentally valuable, valuable only in so far as it enables one to lead a good life. Shoes are valuable only for the purpose of wearing on your feet, and the exercise of the skill of making them is valuable only for this purpose and is not valuable for its own sake. A luxury item (a mink coat for example) might be valued for its own sake as well as for its purpose (of keeping out the cold), but still it should be thought of as an optional extra, so that its possession and use is neither necessary for leading a good life nor a constituent part of it.4 In contrast, if I am right, the activities of art-making and of art appreciation are part of a good life, and are 2 Aristotle drew an analogy between art and ethics, but did not himself include artistic activ- ity in his account of well-being— although see my remarks about the rein later. 3 I will leave intrinsic value to one side, and will not consider what the relation is between non-instrumental and intrinsic value. 4 Christine Korsgaard (1983) discusses examples such as these, of what she calls ‘mixed value’. The mink coat is, in fact, her example. o VIRTUES OF ART 181 ©2008 The Aristotelian Society Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume lxxxii doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8349.2008.00168.x not done for some further end, but for the sake of art, under the concept of art, as I put it in my earlier paper, following Richard Wollheim.5 So, if I am right, in engaging in artistic activity, of pro- duction and of appreciation, one would be as mistaken to be moti- vated only by some further end as one would be if one were to think that a contemplative activity such as doing philosophy should be done only for some further end — valuable only in so far as it gives rise to a pleasant feeling perhaps, or enables one to make a living or impress one’s colleagues.6 This, then, is why the challenge matters. To begin with, I will consider, and respond to, a concern that the dispositions— what I claim to be virtues — of art-making and art ap- preciation seem intuitively to be unlike the ethical virtues in two im- portant respects. First, they are much more local than the ethical virtues, which require a high degree of what is called cross-situa- tional consistency. Putting it very roughly, we have no problem with someone who has only a very local artistic ability, but we expect more of ethics — it is not enough just to be honest with one’s friends, say, one should be honest period. This might seem to imply that the virtues of art are not really virtues but skills — abilities that have only a very limited range of application. I will argue that this is not the case: one of the marks of the dispositions of art-making and art appreciation being virtues (and not mere skills) is that they do have a wider range of application within the arts than might at first ap- pear. And yet this still reveals a difference with the ethical virtues— a difference now that is one of degree. I will argue that this differ- ence of degree is one important feature of the artistic virtues which they share with the intellectual virtues, rather than with the ethical virtues. Secondly, what I claim to be the virtues of art seem to be unlike the ethical virtues in another respect: the ethical virtues are motiva- tionally demanding in ways that the artistic virtues are not. The point is a familiar one. If someone fails on an occasion to do what is required of his ethical virtue, honesty for example, then we will think the less of him, whereas this does not seem to apply where the 5 In Goldie (2007a), I discussed the difficulties surrounding motivation, and in particular what kinds of motivation can reasonably be included as falling ‘under the concept of art’. 6 The ‘only’ is important here. Much artistic (and intellectual) activity is done both for its own sake and for some further end, and will thus be examples of Korsgaard’s mixed value. For example, shields, swords and religious artefacts can be made under the concept of art, as well as for some further end. I — PETER GOLDIE182 ©2008 The Aristotelian Society Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume lxxxii doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8349.2008.00168.x artistic virtues are concerned. In this respect, again, they seem more like skills, which one can exercise on an appropriate occasion if one chooses, but which one is not required to exercise. But I think that the answer to this concern is very much along the same lines as the first, namely that there is a kind of demandingness in relation to the artistic virtues, but that, in this respect too, the artistic virtues are analogous more to the intellectual virtues than to the ethical virtues. If one were to insist that these other kinds of virtue must be like the ethical virtues in all respects if they are to be virtues proper, then one will find oneself excluding not only the artistic virtues but also the intellectual virtues that are expressed in contemplation.7 The next part of my response is to show that, in spite of there be- ing important normative and psychological differences between the three broad kinds of virtue, the exercise of the virtues of art-making and art appreciation are, in important ways, intimately interwoven with the exercise of both the ethical and the intellectual virtues, and this has important consequences for the virtues of art. In particular, I will show how our use of certain thick concepts has application across all three domains. The differences between the virtues, then, should not mask these important connections— connections made manifest in the fact that the exercise of all kinds of virtue is constitu- tive of well-being. Finally, I will try to develop a discussion of something which I think is distinctive of the virtues of art that I touched on at the end of my last paper: the idea that the exercise of the virtues of art-mak- ing and art appreciation, when properly virtues and not mere skills, binds us together, unites us, in emotional sharing with our fellow human beings. II The Virtues of Art: Cross-Situational Consistency and Demanding- ness. When we think about someone’s ethical virtue, such as hones- ty, we expect it to be expressed in thought, feeling and action across 7 It might be suggested here than an appeal to contemplation as a virtuous activity will only be persuasive to someone who has already bought into an Aristotelian picture of what a vir- tuous life consists of. Perhaps. But one should not forget here that my notion of contempla- tion, which I discussed in Goldie (2007a), is a broad and ecumenical one, of putting to use an enquiring mind, and with this notion in place, contemplation does seem more intuitively to be partly constitutive of a human being’s good life. VIRTUES OF ART 183 ©2008 The Aristotelian Society Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume lxxxii doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8349.2008.00168.x a wide domain within the ethical. But this does not seem to be the case with the virtues of art, a fact which seems to threaten the claim that the virtues of art really are virtues, rather than more localized skills. Consider someone who is honest only with friends and loved ones. She cannot be said to be an honest person, or to have the char- acter trait or virtue of honesty, for we expect more of such a person. This is what Rosalind Hursthouse says we should expect of the hon- est person: [W]e expect a reliability in their actions; they do no lie or cheat or pla- giarize or casually pocket other people’s possessions. You can rely on them to tell you the truth, to give sincere references, to own up to their mistakes, not to pretend to be more knowledgeable than they are; you can buy a used car from them or ask for their opinion with confidence … [W]e expect them in conversation to praise or defend people, real and fictitious, for their honesty, to avoid consorting with the dishonest, to choose, where possible, to work with honest people and have honest friends, to be bringing up their children to be honest … [W]e expect them to uphold the ideals of truth and honesty in their jobs … (Hurst- house 1999, pp. 10, 11, 12)8 Hursthouse’s point can be put like this. An honest person’s disposi- tion, his virtue, which is expressed in honest thoughts, motivations, feelings and actions, must not be restricted in its domain; rather, it must be expressed consistently, and in a fully engaged way, across a wide range of different ethical situations, just as her examples illus- trate. If it were restricted just to friends and loved ones, for exam- ple, or just to one’s colleagues, or just to matters of claiming one’s expenses, it would not be a virtue proper but a more localized dis- position. This idea of cross-situational consistency does, indeed, seem to capture what we expect of an honest person: a tendency to be honest only in certain aspects of one’s ethical life does detract from our willingness to ascribe the virtue. One worry here which I should mention, and then put to one side, might seem to threaten across the board the very idea of the virtues. The worry is that is our virtue ethics expects more than is psychologically possible of the honest person; that it is not psycho- logically realistic to expect such cross-situational consistency as Hursthouse’s discussion seems to require. Much work has been 8 I cite and discuss this passage in Goldie (2004). I — PETER GOLDIE184 ©2008 The Aristotelian Society Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume lxxxii doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8349.2008.00168.x done recently in social psychology which seems to show that these expectations are indeed unrealistic, and these finding have been adopted by a number of philosophers recently to support the claim that there are no virtues of the kind that virtue ethics postulates; and so virtue ethics is in deep trouble.9 My reply to this, which I have ar- gued for elsewhere, is that this degree of cross-situational consisten- cy implied by our notion of the ethical virtues arises because we are idealistic about them: we consider, of ourselves and of others, that if we are an honest person we ought to think and act honestly in all these diverse kinds of situation, and not just when it concerns our friends and loved ones, or when it concerns our expenses claims.10 And it is for this reason that failure to be honest in one domain de- tracts from our willingness to call the person honest. Now, this might rescue the virtues, and virtue ethics, but it might seem also to result in even more pressure being put on the idea of the virtues of art. For we are not idealistic about these in at all the same way as we are in respect of the ethical virtues. Consider the artist who is an excellent sculptor, or the art appreciator who is a knowledgeable and sensitive appreciator of the works of the impres- sionists. According to me, these are virtues of art-making and art appreciation, activities pursued for their own sake, and constitutive of well-being. And yet we do not expect cross-situational consisten- cy from these people: if the excellent sculptor cannot paint or play music, or if the appreciator of impressionism fails to appreciate ba- roque music or German expressionism, then this does not detract from our willingness to call them excellent at art-making or excel- lent at art appreciation. I think this is true: we do hope for cross-situational consistency in ethics more than we do in art.11 But I do not agree that this implies that the relevant artistic traits are not virtues. The first part of my response is that cross-situational consistency is a matter of degree, and that the virtues of art also require a cer- tain degree of consistency. What is required, I think, is that the pos- sessor of the trait, the putative virtue of art, has what might be summarized as a certain artistic receptivity, sensitivity, or openness outside their particular local domain of interest— such as sculpting 9 See, for example, Harman (1999) and Doris (2002). 10 See my discussion in Goldie (2004, chs. 3 and 4). 11 There are a number of reasons for this, connected to a general need for reliability in vir- tues which directly involve the concerns of others, which I will not consider here. VIRTUES OF ART 185 ©2008 The Aristotelian Society Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume lxxxii doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8349.2008.00168.x or impressionism. Let me explain what I mean. In my earlier paper on this, I mentioned a wide range of traits that we are concerned with when considering a virtue of art: traits such as imagination, insight, sensibility, vision, creativity, wit, au- thenticity, integrity, intelligence, persistence, open-mindedness, and courage (Goldie 2007a, p. 383). Many of these underlying traits will be clustered in constituting the trait of being a good artist or be- ing a knowledgeable and sensitive appreciator of art. Now, what would we say of the person who had this latter trait of art apprecia- tion, specialized in impressionism, but who was unwilling to make any effort to deploy the range of underlying traits in relation to oth- er aspects of art appreciation outside his local domain of interest, refusing to consider even the possibility of any merit in, for exam- ple, German expressionism, or in early Sienese painting, let alone in music or any of the other arts? If he was not in any way open to the possibility of merits in these areas, if his receptiveness were restrict- ed only to the local domain of impressionism, then I think we would be inclined to say that what he has is just a skill, with a very nar- rowly focused domain of application. And the same kinds of com- ments would apply to an unreceptive sculptor. Moreover, as a matter of psychology, I suspect that such a person, lacking the re- quired kind of receptivity, would characteristically be pursuing his artistic activity not for its own sake (under the concept of art), but rather would be doing what he does merely for some instrumental reason — as a pastime, perhaps (that is, as a way to pass the time), or as a way to make money. For if one’s goal is merely to make money, or merely to pass the time, one’s interest in the arts will typ- ically be limited to those activities that serve this further purpose. To sum up the first part of my response to the challenge of cross- situational consistency, we do, after all, expect a certain amount of cross-situational consistency in the exercise of the virtues of art— more than might appear at first sight. The second part of my re- sponse to this challenge is concerned with the fact that, in spite of what I have said, there does remain a significant difference of degree of cross-situational consistency in the ethical virtues and the virtues of art. For example, we do not expect the same level of ability from a sculptor across a range of other media, or the same level of knowl- edge from the expert on impressionism across other styles of paint- ing. I readily acknowledge this fact, but I do not accept that this remaining difference in degree with the ethical virtues implies that I — PETER GOLDIE186 ©2008 The Aristotelian Society Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume lxxxii doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8349.2008.00168.x the artistic virtues are really not virtues proper. For the difference in degree with the ethical virtues is to be found also in relation to the intellectual virtues. For example, if a good, intellectually virtuous philosopher specialized in modal realism or the philosophy of reli- gion, we would not expect them to have the same level of knowl- edge and ability in other spheres of philosophy. However, the first point remains, that receptivity or open-mindedness are required of the philosopher, just as they are of the artist or art appreciator. It is, one might say, part of intellectual and artistic virtue to see how dif- ferent areas of activity connect with each other, and to be open to what is worthwhile outside your area of specialization; it would be a mistake to think that what is worthwhile is restricted to what you find to be worthwhile. Now let us turn to the demandingness of virtue, the second im- portant respect in which the virtues of art (as I claim them to be) are different from the ethical virtues. Philippa Foot (1978, pp. 7–9) has argued that a virtue, unlike a skill, is not a ‘mere capacity’, but a dis- position that ‘must actually engage the will’.12 Kindness is a virtue. If someone is a kind person, and yet is not motivated to act in a kind way on an occasion when kindness is appropriate, just because she does not feel like it, then we would think the less of her; the disposi- tion, kindness, has failed actually to engage the will. Whereas if someone plays the violin very well, and on an occasion chooses not to play it because she does not feel in the mood, we do not think any the less of her, or of her violin-playing ability. Violin-playing is not demanding in the same way as kindness. So, it is said, violin-playing must be a skill rather than a virtue. This distinction, though, very much like the one regarding cross- situational consistency, is not as sharp as might at first appear. For there really is a kind of demandingness in relation to violin-playing which applies on occasions where one is fully engaged.13 It is one thing suddenly to decide that you are not in the mood to play the vi- olin to entertain your fellow guests after a dinner, and another thing to choose to stop playing during a string quartet concert perform- 12 For a detailed discussion of the contrasts between virtue and skill, see Zagzebski (1996, pp. 106–16). 13 I discuss this idea of being fully engaged in Goldie (2007b, pp. 347–62). Marcia Eaton (1989) discusses the idea that ‘it is useful to view the aesthetic person as one who sees what is required in the way of attention and reflection’ (p. 163), and that ‘You should enjoy trees and sunsets and music, where again the should is the “meaning-of-life” should’ (p. 175). So Eaton too finds a certain demandingness in art. VIRTUES OF ART 187 ©2008 The Aristotelian Society Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume lxxxii doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8349.2008.00168.x ance. Moreover, there is another kind of demandingness that comes with artistic virtue: the demand to care about what one is engaged in; mere virtuosity of performance is not enough. But still, it is clear that there is here too a remaining difference of degree with the ethical virtues. And, again as in the earlier discus- sion, there is a similarity with the intellectual virtues that are ex- pressed in contemplation. Must doing philosophy, for example, ‘actually engage the will’ in the way that Foot says it must if it is to be expressive of a virtue? Surely not— or there is no hope for many of us. Surely it is not a condition of having intellectual virtue that one must engage in doing philosophy when the moment is appropri- ate even if one is not ‘in the mood’ (although there is again the pos- sibility of being fully engaged in the activity). And again, we expect more than just cleverness or virtuosity of argumentation; there is here too the demand to care, and to care for the right reasons. As Aristotle said, having the right feelings is part of what it is to be vir- tuous, part of what it is really to be committed to the activity for its own sake. It is beginning to look as if there are a number of respects — we have seen two so far— in which the virtues of ethics, of the contem- plative intellect, and of art should not all be seen as having the same normative or psychological structure; and in these respects, the vir- tues of art seem to be closer to the virtues of the intellect than to the ethical virtues. There is a third respect in which this is the case, and this is in our overall judgement of the character of a person. If some- one is lacking in an ethical virtue then we are inclined to make a judgement that he is, at least in this respect, not a good person, whereas if someone is lacking in an intellectual virtue that is re- quired for contemplation, or is lacking a virtue of art, we are not in- clined to make the same judgement of him as a person. Once again, it seems, we should not always take the ethical virtues as the para- digm in our analysis of the notion of virtue, against which all other kinds of virtue must be measured. But, in spite of these important differences, the three broad kinds of virtue do not each stand alone, normatively or psychologically. In- deed, as I now want to show, the exercise of the virtues of art-making and art appreciation are, in important ways, intimately interwoven with the exercise of the more familiar ethical and intellectual virtues, and this has important consequences for the virtues of art. I — PETER GOLDIE188 ©2008 The Aristotelian Society Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume lxxxii doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8349.2008.00168.x III The Interweaving of the Virtues of Art with the Other Virtues. A rather quick route to the adoption of the virtues of art as virtues proper would be to identify them with the ethical virtues, somewhat in line with the familiar saying that beauty is goodness and goodness beauty. Recently, for example, Colin McGinn has advanced what he calls the aesthetic theory of value, which holds ‘that virtue coincides with beauty of soul and vice with ugliness of soul’ (McGinn 1999, p. 93).14 However, even disregarding the normative and psychologi- cal differences that I have just been discussing, I would prefer a more cautious route, drawing on what McGinn says, without adopting his aesthetic theory of value. Let me try to map out that route. The notion of thick and thin ethical concepts (Willams 1985) is now a familiar one. Thick ethical concepts, concepts such as ‘brave’, ‘brutal’, and ‘compassionate’, are concepts which have both an eval- uative and a descriptive content, and their application typically pro- vides the thinker with reasons for action. In contrast, thin ethical concepts such as ‘good’ and ‘right’ are evaluative, but have minimal descriptive content, and they are less directly connected to action. In addition to these thick and thin ethical properties, McGinn draws our attention to a third category of ethical concepts, concepts which are thick, in the sense that they have more descriptive content than concepts such as ‘good’ and ‘right’, but which also have a distinctive aesthetic flavour. McGinn says this: These are almost wholly neglected in standard discussions of moral concepts, for reasons that go deeper than mere arbitrary selectivity— since they suggest a conception of moral thought that is alien to the en- tire outlook of twentieth-century philosophical ethics. There are many terms of this type: for example, on the positive side, ‘fine’, ‘pure’, ‘stain- less’, ‘sweet’, ‘wonderful’; and on the negative side (which is richer), ‘rotten’, ‘vile’, ‘foul’, ‘ugly’, ‘sick’, ‘repulsive’, ‘tarnished’. These words, or their uses in moral contexts, have certain distinguishing characteris- tics. They are highly evaluative or ‘judgemental’, expressing our moral attitudes with particular force and poignancy, somewhat more so than words like ‘generous’ and ‘brave’. Correspondingly, they are less ‘de- scriptive’ than those words, telling us less about the specific features of the agent, though they are more descriptive than words like ‘good’ and 14 My position is closer to that of Eaton, who argues that ‘moral value and aesthetic value really come together at the deep, meaning-of-life level’ (Eaton 1989, p. 171). VIRTUES OF ART 189 ©2008 The Aristotelian Society Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume lxxxii doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8349.2008.00168.x ‘right’. They convey a moral assessment by ascribing an aesthetic prop- erty to the subject’. (McGinn 1999, pp. 92–3) There is a converse point to be made in relation to the artistic do- main, a point which McGinn mentions, and also in relation to the intellectual domain: we use many concepts that would seem to be primarily ethical in our artistic and intellectual thought and talk: ethical concepts such as ‘brave’, ‘gentle’, ‘brutal’, ‘generous’, ‘sensi- tive’ and ‘dishonest’, as well as concepts that are ethical in a broader sense of the ethical, such as ‘nervous’, ‘tentative’, ‘clumsy’, ‘offen- sive’ and ‘thorough’. In and across all three domains, these inter- weaving concepts can be applied to a variety of things: to persons, to states of character, to motives, to actions, to the product of ac- tions in states of affairs or in artworks or in intellectual works of philosophy, and so on. We can as readily call the brushstrokes in an artwork brutal or the philosophical argument crude as we can call the action of a generous person fine.15 So there seems to be an interweaving of our conceptual repertoire across these three domains. Let me focus for a moment on the use of ethical concepts in the intellectual and in the artistic domain, and re- turn in particular to my earlier example of honesty. In the intellectu- al domain of philosophy, for example, we can have an honest argument or a dishonest approach to a difficult counter-argument; and in the artistic domain, we can have an honest depiction of the hardship of life, or a dishonest approach to the problem of painting a portrait of one’s patron. Now, where intellectual and artistic activ- ities have these kinds of ethical connections, we also tend to find that the degree of cross-situational consistency and demandingness is greater, closer to what one would expect in the ethical domain. So if someone is an honest person, we would expect him to be honest in his intellectual or artistic activity as well as in his ethical dealings with other people, and we would think less of him if he was not. And this would apply even where the thick concept is being used in a rather metaphorical sense, as for example, in the sense that a picture can be dishonest. Similar remarks apply to the virtue of integrity, and to many others.16 It begins to look as if the virtues of honesty, 15 Notably, ‘fine’ is often the translation given for the Greek word kalon, which is ascribed both to ethical actions and to, for example, the action of an athlete as he returns to his place after throwing the discus. 16 Integrity is discussed in Zagzebski (1996, p. 162), where she discussed the connections between the intellectual and the moral virtues. I — PETER GOLDIE190 ©2008 The Aristotelian Society Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume lxxxii doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8349.2008.00168.x integrity and so on have application across the whole field of human activity, and not just in the directly ethical sphere, the sphere which is directly concerned with our dealings with other people.17 Similar issues arise in relation to intellectual concepts when used in the ethical and the artistic domain. Dominic McIver Lopes says this in relation to the cognitive value of pictures: ‘One demand that fine pictures obviously make of us is that we be “fine observers”. Here there is a symmetry between what is required of pictures’ mak- ers and what is required of their viewers’ (Lopes 2006, p. 148). Be- ing a fine observer demands ‘delicacy of discrimination’, ‘accuracy in seeing’, and ‘adaptability of seeing’, and fine observation, he says, is ‘one intellectual virtue fostered or reinforced by looking at pictures’ (Lopes 2006, p. 150). Fine observation, then, is an intellectual vir- tue, and yet a connected thick concept such as ‘delicacy of discrimi- nation’ has a home in art production and art appreciation just as much as it does in an intellectual activity such as doing philosophy. And, of course, delicacy of discrimination has a home too in the eth- ical domain: for example, it is an integral part of the virtue of kind- ness or of generosity — the ability to see what is the kind thing to do to help an independently-minded person, or to see what is the right sort of generosity to the friend who has little money of her own.18 I now want to turn to my final task: to develop the idea that the exercise of the virtues of art-making and art appreciation, when properly virtues and not mere skills, binds us together, unites us, with our fellow human beings in shared emotional experience. IV Artistic Activity, Well-Being, and Emotional Sharing. Virtues, so I maintain, are dispositions which are valued as necessary for virtu- ous activity, and virtuous activity is what well-being consists of. One such virtuous activity is contemplative activity, or what Aristo- tle called the ria — the ‘theoretic life’. In my earlier paper, I suggest- 17 With thick ethical concepts having application across the whole field of human activity, the concern might arise that, in the end, all virtues will be subsumed under the ethical. If the ethical is understood broadly, as concerned with how one should live, this might well be correct, but I would maintain that under this meta-category one would still need a category of the ethical, narrowly understood as being directly concerned with our dealings with oth- ers. Thanks to M. M. McCabe for raising this concern. 18 For discussion, see Goldie (2007b). o VIRTUES OF ART 191 ©2008 The Aristotelian Society Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume lxxxii doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8349.2008.00168.x ed a broad, ecumenical understanding of this, as ‘putting to use an enquiring mind, engaging in, and discoursing about, the vast range of deeply important things with which Aristotle was himself con- cerned’ (Goldie 2007a, pp. 384–5). This paper is not intended as exegesis of Aristotle’s views, but it is instructive, I think, to see just how inclusive Aristotle’s notion of the rein (the activity of contemplation) is, and even how artistic ac- tivity might be assimilated into it. Sarah Broadie interprets Aristo- tle’s notion as one which ‘covers any sort of detached, intelligent, attentive pondering, especially when not directed to a practical goal’ (Broadie 1991, p. 401). And she then goes on to add something which brings it closer to including artistic activity than does my ear- lier suggestion: ‘Thus it can denote the intellectual or aesthetic ex- ploration of some object, or the absorbed following of structures as they unfold when we look and stay looking more deeply, whether by means of sensory presentations or abstract concepts’ (Broadie 1991, p. 401, my italics). And Terence Irwin, in his translation of the Ni- comachean Ethics, notes that the rein, the activity of contempla- tion, is ‘cognate with “theasthai” (“gaze on”) and indicates having something in clear view and attending to it’; his translation of the rein as ‘study’, then, is ‘study in the sense in which I study a face or a scene that I already have in full view; that is why the visual as- sociations of the rein are appropriate’ (Aristotle 1985, p. 427). So why could the object of contemplation in the rein not be an art- work just as much as a Pythagorean theorem or a philosophical ar- gument? I leave that question hanging. Earlier on in this paper, I suggested that, in a number of respects, the virtues of art are closer to the intellectual virtues than they are to the ethical. We can now see that this is also the case when we turn to the related activities which are expressive of these two kinds of vir- tue: contemplative activity is closer to art appreciation and art-mak- ing than it is to ethical activity. First, the way in which the intellectual virtues and the virtues of art are, and should be, expressed by an in- dividual will depend on a number of factors relating to that particu- lar individual, including, for example, what skills and other abilities he has; whereas this is not so in the same way with ethical activity. Secondly, contemplative activity is closer to art appreciation and art- making than to ethical activity in that the first two can directly yield, in profoundly important ways, self-understanding. (The ‘directly’ is important here: the ethical virtues can also yield self-understanding, o o o o o I — PETER GOLDIE192 ©2008 The Aristotelian Society Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume lxxxii doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8349.2008.00168.x in the sense that one might come to understand that one is selfish as a result of having done a selfish thing.) Contemplation, such as engag- ing in a philosophical exploration of the nature of virtue, whether ethical, artistic or contemplative, can deepen our understanding of ourselves and of what makes a good life. And thinking about these things can in turn lead us to change our life. Similarly, engaging in ar- tistic activity can deepen our self-understanding and change our life, enhanced perhaps by a theoretical understanding of the role of art in human well-being.19 Artistic contemplation of Picasso’s Guernica can yield a deeper and fuller understanding of the awfulness of war, especially wars which cause mass death of civilians. And this might lead us to conduct our lives accordingly, standing out against the pro- motion of such wars. These remarks, recalling Lopes’s discussion of what he so nicely calls ‘fine observation’, are ‘symmetrical’ between the virtues of art-making and of art appreciation: the artist too can change his life by doing what he does. However, and this is my last point, I do want to claim that there is something valuable about artistic activity that is not in the same way shared by contemplative intellectual activity, nor by ethical activity, although it substantially contributes to the latter. Artistic activity also involves emotional sharing: as expressed in Joseph Conrad’s marvellous words, the artist speaks to ‘the subtle but invincible con- viction of solidarity that knits together the loneliness of innumerable hearts; to the solidarity in dreams, in joy, in sorrow, in aspiration, in illusions, in hope, in fear, which binds men to each other, which binds together all humanity — the dead to the living and the living to the unborn’ (Conrad 1897/1963, p. xlviii).20 Emotional sharing arises where two or more people experience an emotion of a certain kind, directed to a particular shared object or to a shared kind of object, and those people are aware that they are experiencing the same emotion towards the same object (see Goldie 2000). For example, you and I are on a rollercoaster, and we share the same thrills, as well as the knowledge that we each have this shared emotion. That we each know this may well enhance the ex- 19 Amelie Rorty makes this point about the relation between contemplation and the exercise of the more practical virtues: ‘The phronimos who has also contemplated the species has perfected his knowledge’ (Rorty 1978, p. 350); ‘contemplating humanity and the energeiai that are its proper functions and ends perfect and fulfil that life’ (Rorty 1978, p. 351). 20 In the preface to his The Nigger of The ‘Narcissus’. I discuss this passage in Goldie (forth- coming). VIRTUES OF ART 193 ©2008 The Aristotelian Society Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume lxxxii doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8349.2008.00168.x perience of the emotion, and our screams and yells may well be more extreme than they would have been if we had been on our own. Of course this is a familiar thing in our experience of plays and films: we tend to find the experience of the good comedy or the good tragedy more worthwhile in a full theatre, with all the mem- bers of the audience fully engaged in what is being enacted.21 But I intend much more than that, and I read much more than that into Conrad’s words. What we have in artistic activity is an intimate awareness of the permanent possibility of emotional sharing. When appreciating a picture such as Guernica, for example, alone in the gallery, we are aware that the artist, and the picture, ‘speaks to’ our shared human responses, as Conrad puts it — to responses that we know we can and do share with others. We share them not only with the artist, through our artistic engagement with the work that is the product of his virtuous activity. We share them also with those to whom we are closely connected and with others of our own cul- ture, and yet more widely, across cultures and generations, to in- clude ‘all humanity’.22 This, I believe, is what is special about artistic activity. Again, there may be analogies here with contemplative intellectu- al activity, for this too might well yield up shared intellectual emo- tions, such as a shared feeling of amazement at the subtlety of a Pythagorean theorem, or a shared wonder at the complexity of the double helix.23 Nevertheless, what may well be unique about artistic activity is that it can reach out to the full gamut of human experi- ence and human emotion, to everything that is part of the human condition, not just our rational nature, but including our many silli- nesses, our irrational fears and hopes, our unethical envies, our illu- sions of our own immortality, our fantasies. This kind of emotional sharing, as part of artistic activity, is valuable in its own right, and, of course, it is also valuable in so far as it plays a role in the deploy- ment of our ethical virtues, in leading a good ethical life in our inter- 21 A point is worth making briefly here, about tragedy. In our engagement with tragedy, we may experience, and share with others, painful emotions, such as grief and desolation. It is no paradox for me to say that the experience of these painful emotions, as part of the expression of the virtue of artistic appreciation, is partly constitutive of well-being. For my account of well-being is not in any way hedonistic. 22 And here again, to echo Lopes’s earlier remarks, there is a ‘symmetry’ between artist and viewer. 23 For discussion of the intellectual emotions, see Stocker (2004). I — PETER GOLDIE194 ©2008 The Aristotelian Society Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume lxxxii doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8349.2008.00168.x action with others, and in our self-knowledge. We might finally note here that Aristotle thought that one of the reasons why a life of contemplation was the supreme virtuous activ- ity is that it is a God-like life: ‘For someone will live it not in so far as he is a human being, but in so far as he has some divine element in him’ (Aristotle 1985, 1171b27). I think this is something that would finally and definitively mark out artistic activity from purely intellectual contemplation. One might even be tempted to say that what is marvellous about artistic activity is its very humanness — its being something that cannot be shared by the gods, for they cannot appreciate from the inside what ‘binds together all humanity’ in the same way that we humans can.24 Department of Philosophy Room 4.048, Arthur Lewis Building University of Manchester Manchester m13 9pl uk peter.goldie@manchester.ac.uk REFERENCES Aristotle 1985: Nicomachean Ethics, trans. T. Irwin. Indianapolis: Hackett. Broadie, Sarah 1991: Ethics with Aristotle. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Conrad, Joseph 1897/1963: The Nigger of The ‘Narcissus’, ed. C. Watts. London: Penguin. Doris, J. 2002: Lack of Character: Personality and Moral Behaviour. Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press. Eaton, M. 1989: Aesthetics and the Good Life. London and Toronto: Asso- ciated University Presses. Foot, Philippa 1978: ‘Virtues and Vices’. In her Virtues and Vices and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy. Berkeley, ca: University of California Press. Goldie, Peter 2000: The Emotions: A Philosophical Exploration. Oxford: Clarendon Press. —— 2004: On Personality. London: Routledge. —— 2007a: ‘Towards a Virtue Theory of Art’. British Journal of Aesthetics, 47, pp. 372–87. 24 Many thanks to Dom Lopes and to M. M. McCabe for kindly reading earlier drafts and for making such wonderfully helpful comments and suggestions. VIRTUES OF ART 195 ©2008 The Aristotelian Society Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume lxxxii doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8349.2008.00168.x —— 2007b: ‘Seeing What is the Kind Thing to Do’. Dialectica, 61, pp. 347– 62. —— forthcoming: ‘La Grande Illusion as a Work of Art’. In W. Jones and S. Vice (eds.), Ethics in Film. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Harman, Gilbert 1999: ‘Moral Philosophy Meets Social Psychology’. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 99, pp. 315–31. Hursthouse, Rosalind 1999: On Virtue Ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Korsgaard, Christine M. 1983: ‘Two Distinctions in Goodness’. Philosophi- cal Review, 92, pp. 169–95. Lopes, Dominic McIver 2006: Sight and Sensibility. Oxford: Oxford Uni- versity Press. McGinn, Colin 1999: Ethics, Evil, and Fiction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Rorty, Amelie 1978: ‘The Place of Contemplation in Aristotle’s Ni- comachean Ethics’. Mind, 87, pp. 343–58. Stocker, M. 2004: ‘Some Considerations About Intellectual Desire and Emo- tions’. In Robert C. Solomon (ed.), Thinking about Feeling: Contempo- rary Philosophers on Emotion, pp. 135–50. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Williams, Bernard 1985: Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy. London: Fon- tana Press. Zagzebski, Linda Trinkaus 1996: Virtues of the Mind. Cambridge: Cam- bridge University Press. 
work_lzucnwzf4bexvbhzv3ehdgwohy	----	Marnin Young, The Death of Georges Seurat: Neo-Impressionism and the Fate of the Avant-Garde in 1891, RIHA Journal 0043 RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" This article is part of the Special Issue "New Directions in Neo-Impressionism." The issue is guest- edited by Tania Woloshyn and Anne Dymond in cooperation with Regina Wenninger and Anne-Laure Brisac-Chraïbi from RIHA Journal. External peer reviewers for this Special Issue were Hollis Clayson, André Dombrowski, Chantal Georgel, Catherine Meneux, Robyn Roslak, and Michael Zimmermann. * * * The Death of Georges Seurat: Neo-Impressionism and the Fate of the Avant-Garde in 1891* Marnin Young Abstract This essay examines the critical and artistic responses to the death of Georges Seurat in 1891. While some at the time saw the avant-garde divided between scientifically-oriented neo-impressionism and mystical symbolism, the posthumous understanding of Seurat's work increasingly collapsed the two categories. In particular, the neo-impressionist embrace of the aesthetic of Charles Henry, in which compositional lines produced predictable effects on the viewer, made it possible to see Seurat's paintings in purely formal, indeed idealist, terms. The neo-impressionist avant-garde consequently struggled to define its distinctive nature over the course of the year, with important consequences for later art. Contents Introduction Neo-Impressionism and Symbolism in 1891 Denis's Neo-Impressionism Signac's Symbolism Conclusion Yesterday I went to Seurat's funeral. I saw Signac who was deeply moved by this great misfortune. I believe you are right, pointillism is finished, but I think it will have consequences which later on will be of the utmost importance for art. Camille Pissarro, letter to his son Lucien, 1 April 18911 Introduction [1] When the body of Georges Seurat (1859-1891) entered the family vault in Père Lachaise cemetery, the artist's last work, Cirque, still hung in room five of the Salon des Indépendants (Fig. 1). At the time, the published reviews of the exhibition suggested a certain lack of enthusiasm for the canvas. The critics agreed that it was a work of * This paper originated in a seminar on Camille Pissarro at the University of California, Berkeley. For feedback on that original version, I would like to thank Tim Clark and Katherine Kuenzli. Subsequent comments on the completely revised version, first presented at the "New Directions in Neo-Impressionism" conference in London, especially from Todd Cronan and the anonymous reviewers, have proved helpful as well. Many thanks to Tania Woloshyn, Anne Dymond, and Regina Wenninger for their editorial assistance. Unless otherwise indicated, translations are mine. 1 Camille Pissarro, letter to Lucien Pissarro, 1 April 1890, in: Correspondance de Camille Pissarro: Tome 3/1891-1894, ed. Janine Bailly-Herzberg, Paris 1988, 54: "Je suis allé à l'enterrement de Seurat hier; j'ai vu Signac qui est bien affecté de ce grand malheur. Je crois que tu as raison, c'est fini le pointillé, mais je pense qu'il se dégagera d'autres conséquences qui seront d'une très grande conséquence plus tard pour l'art"; trans. in Camille Pissarro, Letters to His Son Lucien, ed. John Rewald, New York 1995, 158. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en_US RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" "experimental interest" by a "pure theoretician of impressionism," whose concern with the "science of colors" had led him to expand "the love of pointillism all the way to the picture frames."2 But even those who hesitantly admired the painting's "happy result," declined to judge the qualities of the "process" – that is, the neo-impressionist technique.3 1 Georges Seurat, Cirque (The Circus), 1890-91, oil on canvas, 185 x 152 cm. Musée d'Orsay, Paris (source: The Yorck Project/Wikimedia Commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Georges_Seurat_019.jpg) 2 Arsène Alexandre, "Le Salon des Indépendants," in: Paris (20 March 1891), 2: "Quant à son grand tableau du Cirque, il sera fort discuté; mais si on veut bien se dire qu'il a avant tout un intérêt d'expérimentation, l'on devra reconnaître que cette expérience est curieuse, et qu'il en doit forcément sortir quelque chose un jour ou l'autre." M. F., "Le Salon des Indépendants," in: Le XIXe siècle (20 March 1891), as quoted in Eric Darragon, "Pégase à Fernando: À propos de Cirque et du réalisme de Seurat en 1891," in: Revue de l'art 86 (1989), 44-57, here 56, n. 7: "Le grand tableau de M. Seurat, le Cirque, malgré des agencements de lignes assez curieux en leur bizarrerie, est sans perspective aucune. C'est une œuvre de pur théoricien de l'impressionnisme." Ch. Formentin, "Chez les Artistes Indépendants," in: Le Jour (27 March 1891), as quoted in Darragon, "Pégase à Fernando," 56, n. 14: "le Cirque de M. Seurat où la science des couleurs fait pardonner presque l'incorrection du dessin." Paul ***, "L'Exposition des Indépendants," in: Le National (21 March 1891), as quoted in Darragon, "Pégase à Fernando," 56, n. 6: "Et cette peinture charentonnesque n'est pas le cri suprême du genre. Il y a M. Seurat qui pousse l'amour du pointillé jusqu'à pointiller ses cadres." 3 L. Roger-Milès, "Exposition des Indépendants," in: Le Soir (26 March 1891), as quoted in Darragon, "Pégase à Fernando," 56, n. 8: "Nierez-vous parce qu'il y a cette complexité d'effets recherchés, nierez-vous que M. Seurat ne soit un artiste? Ce serait là une grande injustice; on peut discuter ses procédés, on ne peut nier la résultante heureuse des effort accomplis." License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Georges_Seurat_019.jpg RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" [2] Perhaps no single incident crystallized the seeming failure of Cirque to capture and hold an audience than the one later related by Charles Angrand. On about 23 March, he and Seurat witnessed Pierre Puvis de Chavannes enter room five, pause to study some works by Maurice Denis (1870-1943), and then proceed past Cirque without stopping.4 So upsetting was this pointed indifference that Seurat reportedly fled the exhibit.5 Angrand never saw him again. 2 Georges Seurat, Chahut, 1889-90, oil on canvas, 169 x 141 cm. Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo (source: The Yorck Project/ Wikimedia Commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Georges_Seurat_013.jpg) [3] In the wake of his untimely demise some six days later, however, Seurat's fortunes rather typically began to rise. In early April, critics started focusing not on the artist's scientific and impressionist concerns, but rather on how neo-impressionism might be folded into the increasingly dominant theoretical understanding of symbolism. To take a notable example, the co-founder of La Revue wagnérienne, Teodor de Wyzewa, reversing years of coolness to neo-impressionism, loudly lamented the painter's death.6 Jules Antoine gave one possible explanation for such a reconciliation: "Seurat was attempting to get out of 4 Charles Angrand, letter to Gustave Coquiot, quoted in Coquiot, Seurat, Paris 1924, 166-167. Angrand dates the incident to the Monday or Tuesday before Easter 1891, that is 23 or 24 March. No doubt Seurat was especially disappointed with the reaction to his painting, as he had worked hard organizing the hanging of the exhibition. For his part, Angrand played a special role in the painting: he appears in the first row of circus spectators. 5 Charles Angrand, letter to Paul Signac, 1900, cited in Robert L. Herbert, "Seurat and Puvis de Chavannes," in: Yale Art Gallery Bulletin 25:2 (October 1959), 22-29, here 29. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Georges_Seurat_013.jpg RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" Realism, which he found limited. He produced, in this new way, two works: Le Chahut [Fig. 2] and Le Cirque, conceived in a symbolic spirit."7 Before long, even Félix Fénéon came to admit that "Seurat's Cirque is symbolic."8 Indeed, a consensus gradually emerged that Seurat's work approached more closely symbolism than the impressionism with which he had once been associated, and by early 1892, neo-impressionism had in many respects become indistinguishable from symbolism. [4] This essay seeks to explain these shifts in Seurat's posthumous reception by placing them within the context of contemporaneous art theory and production. As a close analysis of the avant-garde in 1891 makes clear, neo-impressionism entered a crisis following the death of Seurat in large part because it had already been collapsed into a rising artistic movement that many perceived, perhaps incorrectly, to be its antithesis. Seurat's painting became a site of contestation, and the very meaning of neo- impressionism was at stake. Would his art, and by extension neo-impressionism as a whole, be understood as a scientific and socially-engaged version of impressionism or as a Wagnerian painting, fundamentally symbolic in spirit? <top> Neo-Impressionism and Symbolism in 1891 [5] To call Seurat's Cirque "symbolic" is, of course, to beg the question of definition. Certainly, at first glance the painting's subject matter and pointillist technique offer no obvious relation to contemporary conceptions of symbolism. In what way, for example, could they be said to "express Ideas by translating them into a special language"?9 Seeking to explain Seurat's work in precisely these terms, however, Wyzewa approvingly cited the painter's concern with the expressive potential of colors and lines: He wanted to know why certain combinations of colors produced an impression of joy, and he made, with this concern in mind, a sort of catalogue where each nuance was associated with the emotion it suggested. In its turn the expressive power of lines seemed to him to be a problem that could be given a definitive solution, for lines too have in them a secret power of joy or melancholy.10 6 Teodor de Wyzewa, "Georges Seurat," in: L'Art dans les deux mondes 22 (18 April 1891), 263- 264. 7 Jules Antoine, "Georges Seurat," in: La Revue indépendante 19:54 (April 1891), 89-93, here 92: "Il a produit dans cette nouvelle voie deux œuvres: Le Cahut et Le Cirque, conçues dans un esprit symbolique." 8 Félix Fénéon, "Quelques peintres idéistes," in: Le Chat noir (1 September 1891), reprinted in Félix Fénéon, Oeuvres plus que complètes, ed. Joan Ungersma Halperin, Geneva 1970, vol. 1, 200-202, here 202: "Le Cirque de Seurat est symbolique." 9 G.-Albert Aurier, "Le Symbolisme en peinture: Paul Gauguin," in: Mercure de France 2 (March 1891), 155-165, here 160: "d'exprimer, en les traduisant dans un langage spéciale, les Idées." 10 Wyzewa, "Georges Seurat," 263: "Il voulait savoir pourquoi telles alliances de tons produisaient une impression de tristesse, telles autres, une impression de gaité: et il s'était fait, à ce point de vue, une sorte de catalogue où chaque nuance était associée à l'émotion qu'elle suggérait. L'expression des lignes, à son tour, lui était ensuite apparue comme un problème capable d'une solution définie; car les lignes aussi ont en elles un secret pouvoir de joie ou de mélancolie"; trans. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" [6] Fénéon also thought the "symbolic" quality of any painting came from its formal power to directly affect a viewer. "A work of art," he wrote, "is eloquent through its internal rhythm – irreducible to our consciousness – and not through its program."11 Such a belief in the immediate and expressive power of Seurat's experiments in color and line carried forward in later formalist accounts of the painting and of the artist's career as a whole. Roger Fry, for one, claimed that the canvas was "a deliberate demonstration of the effect of ascending lines."12 Robert Goldwater in turn took precisely this focus on the expressive use of line to indicate the artist's belonging to the symbolist generation.13 This formalist- symbolist reading of Seurat came to dominate the literature, and recent art historians have consistently underlined the painter's deep concern with controlling the effects his paintings might have on their spectators.14 [7] Even in 1891, however, there were those who pointed to other ways of seeing Seurat. In his widely-read obituary, Gustave Kahn pointed to a very different "symbolic" content in Chahut. "If you are looking at all costs for a symbol," he wrote, "you will find it in the contrast between the beauty of the dancer, an elegant and modest sprite, and the ugliness of her admirer; you will also find it in the hieratic configuration of the canvas and its subject, a contemporary ignominy."15 Kahn speaks here with some authority on the contents and effects of the painting. Not only did he own it, he had played a crucial role in disseminating the theories that lay behind it.16 Likewise, his understanding of the social and political critique such a painting implied flowed from his close ties to the anarchist left, something he shared with many of Seurat's friends and admirers. [8] Robert Herbert has consequently interpreted Kahn's analysis to mean that Chahut and Cirque were intended as "satires upon the middle class."17 Cirque thus offers not only a picture of a modern circus – Gustave Coquiot identified it as the Cirque Fernando in in Paul Smith, Seurat and the Avant-Garde, New Haven 1996, 108-109. 11 Fénéon, "Quelques peintres idéistes," 202: "Mais c'est par ses rythmes internes irréductibles à notre conscience, non par son programme, qu'une œuvre d'art est éloquente"; trans. in Joan Ungersma Halperin, Félix Fénéon: Aesthete and Anarchist in Fin-De-Siècle Paris, New Haven 1988, 226. 12 Roger Fry, "Seurat," in: The Dial 81:3 (September 1926), 224-232, here 224. 13 Robert J. Goldwater, "Some Aspects of the Development of Seurat's Style," in: The Art Bulletin 23:2 (June 1941), 117-130; see also, Goldwater, Symbolism, New York 1979, 147. 14 See, for example, Martha Ward, Pissarro, Neo-Impressionism and the Spaces of the Avant- Garde, Chicago 1996; and, Smith, Seurat and the Avant-Garde. 15 Gustave Kahn, "Seurat," in: L'Art Moderne 11:14 (5 April 1891), 107-110, here 109: "Si vous cherchez à tout prix un symbole, vous le trouverez encore dans l'opposition de la beauté de la danseuse, luxe de féerie modeste, et la laideur de l'admirateur; aussi vous en trouverez un dans le faire hiératique de cette toile et son sujet, une contemporaine ignominie." 16 See Gustave Kahn, "De l'esthétique du verre polychrome," in: La Vogue 1 (18 April 1886), 54- 65. 17 Robert L. Herbert and Eugenia W. Herbert, "Artists and Anarchists: Unpublished Letters of Pissarro, Signac, and Others," in: The Burlington Magazine 102:692 (November 1960), 473-482, here 480. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" Montmartre18 – but more importantly a negative engagement with the emerging mass cultural forms of entertainment. The recuperation of this socio-political content has decisively closed the door on any reductively formalist account of Seurat's painting.19 But a strictly social-historical or political reading of neo-impressionism likewise founders in the face of the evidence of the painter's social engagement with symbolism and his own silence on political matters. Even Kahn ultimately concluded that Seurat's "way of seeking the symbol […] lay in the interpretation of the subject, not the subject itself."20 Any serious account of Seurat is consequently forced to acknowledge the seeming contradiction between an "iconography drawn from cheapened urban experience" and an "art of resolute formal autonomy."21 [9] This interpretative problem first came to the fore in the struggles over Seurat's legacy in the months following his death. Even as certain political claims for neo-impressionism became more explicit in 1891, the formalist-symbolist reading came to dominate. Although Kahn was by no means the only one to propose a way around this divide – he was, after all, a serious symbolist himself – the blurring of boundaries between neo- impressionism and symbolism made it increasingly difficult to understand Seurat's Chahut and Cirque as critical representations of modernity. By the end of the year, key artists seeking to reanimate Seurat's ambitions found it all but impossible to hold together the distinctive formal characteristics of his style with its intended social-critical function. [10] Three weeks after Seurat's funeral, Pissarro sent yet another letter to his son Lucien in London, attaching an article by Albert Aurier entitled "Symbolism in Painting" clipped from the March issue of the Mercure de France. Venting spleen at the defense of Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) and his Vision après le Sermon (Fig. 3), the painter mocked the critic's claims: "How tenuous is the logic of this littérateur. According to him what in the last instance can be dispensed with in a work of art is drawing or painting: only ideas are essential, and these can be indicated with a few symbols."22 What seems to have especially infuriated Pissarro was the claim that his own impressionism (and what Aurier 18 Coquiot, Seurat, 102. 19 On the relation of Seurat's late work to modernity, see especially Eric Darragon, "Pégase à Fernando"; Jonathan Crary, Suspensions of Perception: Attention, Spectacle, and Modern Culture, Cambridge, MA 1999, 149-280; and, Howard G. Lay, "Pictorial Acrobatics," in: Montmartre and the Making of Mass Culture, ed. Gabriel P. Weisberg, New Brunswick 2001, 145-179. 20 Kahn, "Seurat," 110: "Cette façon vraiment picturale et artiste de chercher le symbole (sans se soucier du mot) dans l'interprétation d'un sujet, et non dans le sujet, était, à son avis, la plus vraiment suggestive, et il n'est pas seul de cette opinion"; trans. in Henri Dorra, Symbolist Art Theories, Berkeley 1994, 174. 21 Thomas Crow, Modern Art in the Common Culture, New Haven 1996, 6. 22 Pissarro, letter to Lucien, 20 April 1891, in Correspondance, 66: "Tu verras combien ce littérateur raisonne sur une pointe d'aiguille; à l'écouter, à la rigueur il n'est pas nécessaire de dessiner ou peindre pour faire de l'art, les idées suffisent, indiquées par quelques signes"; trans. in Pissarro, Letters, 163-164. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" called the "harlequin-like vision of the pointillists"23) could be dismissed because they offered simply "the faithful translation devoid of any sense of the beyond of an exclusively sensory impression, of a sensation."24 Better an honest realism based firmly in sensation, Pissarro surely thought, than the escapist and reactionary fantasy Gauguin offered. 3 Paul Gauguin, La Vision après le Sermon (La lutte de Jacob avec l'ange) (The Vision after the Sermon [Jacob and the Angel]), 1888, oil on canvas, 72.2 x 91 cm. Scottish National Gallery of Art, Edinburgh (source: The Yorck Project/Wikimedia Commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Paul_Gauguin_137.jpg) [11] In the same letter, Pissarro lashed out at his former student in terms that still resonate in present-day accounts of the artist: I do not hold his vermilion background against Gauguin […] I hold it against him that he failed to apply his synthesis to our modern philosophy, which is absolutely social, anti-authoritarian and anti-mystical. […] Gauguin is no visionary, he is a trickster who has sensed that the bourgeoisie is in full retreat, as a result of the great ideas of solidarity springing up among the people – an idea that is still not conscious of itself, but one that will bear fruit, the only legitimate one! – The symbolists are in the same boat! What do you think? That's why we should be fighting them like the plague!25 23 Aurier, "Symbolisme en peinture," 156: "l'arlequinesque vision des pointillists." 24 Aurier, "Symbolisme en peinture," 157: "la fidèle traduction sans nul au-delà d'une impression exclusivement sensorielle, d'une sensation." 25 Pissarro, 20 April 1891, Correspondance, 66: "Je ne reproche pas à Gauguin d'avoir fait un fond vermillon […] je lui reproche de ne pas appliquer sa synthèse à notre philosophie moderne qui est absolument sociale, anti-autoritaire et antimystique. […] Gauguin n'est pas un voyant, c'est un malin qui a senti un retour rétrograde de la bourgeoisie en arrière par suite des grandes idées de solidarité qui germent dans le peuple, idée inconsciente mais féconde et la seule légitime! Les symbolistes sont dans le même cas! Qu'en penses-tu?...Aussi il faut les combattre comme la License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Paul_Gauguin_137.jpg RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" [12] Gauguin and symbolism had clearly become the enemy, and for many the differences were obvious. Critics in 1891 consistently divided the avant-garde between Seurat and Gauguin, pointillistes and cloisonnistes, impressionnistes and idéistes.26 Nonetheless, Pissarro's spite must have been fueled in no small part by the perception that the symbolists had made inroads to the neo-impressionist camp. He knew full well that Seurat and his closest follower, Paul Signac (1863-1935), had attended the banquet celebrating the symbolist Jean Moréas in February, and indeed that they went to another one, on March 23, in honor of Gauguin's imminent departure for Tahiti.27 That Seurat found himself raising a glass in celebration of his key rival only hours after seeing Puvis reject him must have left a bitter taste in the mouth. [13] No one in March 1891 could have missed the threat symbolism had come to pose to the once-dominant neo-impressionist avant-garde. Pissarro was no exception. Against the background of "gambits" and jockeying that followed the death of Seurat and of Gauguin's "going away," the heated tone of his correspondence was surely fueled by a need to distinguish the good and the bad not only within the broader avant-garde, but within neo-impressionism itself.28 And what troubled him most was the abandonment of sensation for something else entirely, something quite unsettling to the dyed-in-the-wool materialist. Even if in private Gauguin complained about perceived injuries from "Pissarro and company,"29 and the neo-impressionists in turn mocked Gauguin's pretentiousness,30 in public the interests of the camps were worryingly close. Or rather, for some, they did not seem mutually exclusive. <top> peste!"; trans. in T. J. Clark, Farewell to an Idea: Episodes from a History of Modernism, New Haven 1999, 80. On the context of this letter, see Belinda Thomson, "Camille Pissarro and Symbolism: Some Thoughts Prompted by the Recent Discovery of an Annotated Article," in: The Burlington Magazine 124:946 (January 1982), 14-21, 23. 26 See Emile Verhaeren, "Le Salon des artistes Indépendants," in: La Nation (22 March 1891), reprinted in Emile Verhaeren, Écrits sur l'art, ed. Paul Aron, Brussels 1997, 416-418; Gaston Lesaulx, "A propos des Indépendants: Impressionnistes et idéistes," in: La Bataille (31 March 1891), 3; and, Jules Antoine, "Critique d'Art. Pavillon de la Ville de Paris, Exposition des Artistes Indépendants," in: La Plume 49 (1 May 1891), 157. 27 Halperin, Fénéon, 219-20. 28 On "gambits," see Griselda Pollock, Avant-Garde Gambits, 1888-1893: Gender and the Color of Art History, New York and London 1992; on "the going away," see Charles Harrison, Francis Frascina, and Gill Perry, Primitivism, Cubism, Abstraction: The Early Twentieth Century, New Haven and London 1993, 3-34. 29 Paul Gauguin, letter to Emil Schuffenecker, [Brittany, 1890], quoted in Arsène Alexandre, Paul Gauguin: Sa vie et le sens de son oeuvre, Paris 1930, 154: "Quant à ceux qui peuvent me faire de tort, Pissarro et compagnie, c'est plus pour mon talent qu'ils crient que pour mon caractère." 30 Paul Signac, letter to Félix Fénéon, Brussels, 10 February 1891, quoted in Halperin, Fénéon, 222: "Be in Love, Be Mysterious, Be Symbolist, Be Boulangist, Be always well dressed, Be Grenadine {syrup}: Trust old Gauguin!" License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" Denis's Neo-Impressionism [14] If one painting at the Salon des Indépendants in 1891 exemplified the attempted harmonization of Gauguin-style mystical symbolism with neo-impressionist technique it was Denis's Mystère catholique (Fig. 4). 4 Maurice Denis, Mystère catholique (Catholic Mystery), 1890, oil on canvas, 51 x 79 cm. Private collection (© VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2012. Photo: © Rennes, Musée des Beaux-Arts, photo: Louis Deschamps. Reprod. from: Guy Cogeval et al., eds., Maurice Denis, 1870-1943, exh. cat., Paris 1994, p. 127, cat. 8) [15] The artist's first contribution to the Indépendants, the small painting seems to have been chosen with due deliberation. Dated to May 1890, it was the third version of the painting Denis had completed since April 1889. Each variation of the canvas contained the same scene: in a nineteenth-century interior, a white-clad Virgin Mary leans toward the angel Gabriel, who, adorned in modern Catholic vestments, approaches from the left, led by two altar boys carrying candles. On a windowsill, behind which a hilly landscape in early spring can be seen, a single white lily – a conventional symbol of the Virgin, found especially in scenes of the Annunciation31 – sits in a vase, echoing the curve of Mary's body. Even if stylistic inspirations in Fra Angelico and Byzantine art might have been missed, everyone in 1891 would have recognized the painting's belonging to a very conventional iconography. The Greek inscription at top right (ΑΣΠΑΣΜΟΣ, aspasmos: "greeting") signals the text of Luke 1:29 and marks the moment of the Virgin's Cogitatio: "What is this greeting?" Denis himself later referred to the painting as an Annunciation, but he apparently chose the less "banal" title in 1891 in deference to the symbolist poets he then admired.32 Of course, the religious content of the painting could not have been 31 See George Ferguson, Signs and Symbols in Christian Art, Oxford 1954, 33. 32 See Maurice Denis, "Le Symbolisme et l'art religieux moderne," in: La Revue des jeunes 21 (1918), as quoted in Maurice Denis, 1870-1943, exh. cat., Paris 1994, 128: "J'avais exposé aux Indépendants une Annonciation que j'appelais, par crainte d'être banal, Mystère Catholique." License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" ignored against the background of the emerging Catholic Ralliement to the Third Republic.33 That the Feast of the Annunciation passed while the painting hung at the Indépendants must have likewise raised a few eyebrows. Yet, the aspasmos of the Mystère catholique might also have functioned as Denis's own cryptic "greeting" to his (modern) public; the vestments and setting indicate a desire for the painting to be seen as belonging to modernity, not tradition.34 [16] Perhaps nothing in Mystère catholique marked Denis's avant-garde ambitions more obviously than his seeming embrace of neo-impressionism. Across the canvas, the painter applied small dot-like brush marks (points) on top of background planes of color. The result is by no means divisionist – hues are subdued throughout, and simultaneous contrast is avoided – but for many, the painting could not be anything but neo- impressionist. In his review of the exhibit, for example, Emile Verhaeren declared Denis "a new disciple of pointillist painting," grouping him in with Seurat, Signac, and Maximilien Luce.35 The Belgian poet was not naïve about neo-impressionism – he owned several paintings by Seurat, had corresponded extensively with him, and for years had reviewed the exhibits of the Indépendants in Paris and their avant-garde equivalent, Les XX, in Brussels.36 That a critic of such sophistication could nonetheless place one of Gauguin's followers in Seurat's camp seems astonishing in hindsight, but such was the state of play in 1891. [17] Denis's neo-impressionism was not an isolated case. Around this time, other members of what came to be known as the Nabis adapted elements of the pointillist technique. In 1890, Edouard Vuillard produced several paintings – for instance, Grand-mère à l'évier (Grandmother at the Sink, 1890, private collection) – that made use of various colored 33 The Vatican's policy of Ralliement can be dated from November 1890, when Cardinal Lavigerie gave a speech calling for Catholic loyalty to the Republic. See Richard Thomson, The Troubled Republic: Visual Culture and Social Debate in France 1889-1900, New Haven 2004, 120. On Denis and Catholicism, see Katherine M. Kuenzli, The Nabis and Intimate Modernism: Painting and the Decorative at the Fin-de-Siècle, Farnham and Burlington 2010, 105-148. 34 Although scaled for exhibition, the 1889 version of the Mystère catholique (now in the Musée Départmental Maurice Denis, Saint-Germain-en-Laye) does not contain the aspasmos inscription, suggesting that Denis may have added the Greek specifically for the exhibition of the 1890 version at the Indépendants. He later produced three smaller versions of the pointillist painting for private buyers. 35 See Verhaeren, "Le Salon des artistes indépendants," 417: "Un nouvel adepte de la peinture pointilliste est M. Denis." This article was probably more widely read in its abridged form in L'Art Moderne 14 (5 April 1891), 111-112. In this second publication, the critic's grouping of Denis with the pointillistes rather than the cloisonnistes remained unchanged. 36 See Robert L. Herbert, "Seurat and Emile Verhaeren: Unpublished Letters," in: La Gazette des Beaux-Arts 54 (December 1959), 315-328. As indicated by Théo Van Rysselberghe's 1903 painting La Lecture par Emile Verhaeren (The Lecture by Emile Verhaeren, Museum voor Schone Kunsten, Ghent), the poet continued to function as one of the strongest links between neo-impressionist painting and symbolist literature. Image available online at http://www.mskgent.be/en/collection/1900-three-portraits/theo-van-rysselberghe-the-lecture-by- emile-verhaeren (accessed 28 June 2012). License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en http://www.mskgent.be/en/collection/1900-three-portraits/theo-van-rysselberghe-the-lecture-by-emile-verhaeren http://www.mskgent.be/en/collection/1900-three-portraits/theo-van-rysselberghe-the-lecture-by-emile-verhaeren http://www.mskgent.be/en/collection/1900-three-portraits/theo-van-rysselberghe-the-lecture-by-emile-verhaeren RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" points.37 Pierre Bonnard's key contribution to the Salon des Indépendants – the four decorative panels known as Femmes au jardin (Women in the Garden, 1891, Musée d'Orsay) – manifests a similar paint application. Notably, the background of the first panel, Femme à la robe à pois blancs (Woman in a Polka-Dot Dress), consists entirely of green dots, echoing but not identical to the polka-dot dress of the female figure. This tongue-in-cheek assimilation of the pointillist technique, without divisionism, points to a highly decorative adaptation of neo-impressionism that leaves sensation-based color theory behind. Fénéon later criticized Denis for precisely this twist on le point: "As for the manner: little dots that he brocades on flat background colors, to add some sort of epidermal life to the painting."38 Though the subject matter sits some distance from Seurat's and the use of pointillism is quite different, Denis attempts to adapt neo-impressionism to symbolism. Or more accurately, he does not perceive them to be antithetical. [18] In 1891, only Adolphe Retté, a symbolist poet and a friend of Denis, had anything to say about Mystère catholique.39 Despite a shared enthusiasm for mysticism and idealism, the critic in fact discussed the painting in primarily formal terms – "what melody of lines and what smoothness of tone!" he proclaimed.40 Tellingly, the terms parallel those used to describe Seurat in the same review: Consider le Cirque: what an intense sensation of radiant joy, what an undulating music the lines make […] Everything plays a part in producing the desired effect: the palpitating orange light in which the picture is bathed, the linear layout, which is made up entirely of curves inflected and precipitated in the direction of the main motif.41 [19] The analogy Retté here proposes between painting and music was widespread and derives from various sources, including Schopenhauer, Wagner, and Charles Henry. Echoing Wyzewa, the ultimate Wagnerian, it also points to one of the crucial overlaps in artistic practice at this moment: the belief in the ability of lines and colors and other formal elements to convey an emotional, spiritual, or intellectual meaning. In Seurat, the direction of lines and color harmony in Cirque are seen to carry feelings of cheerfulness, where for Denis, they seek to impart a spiritual response, what Retté calls the "symbol of 37 On Vuillard and neo-impressionism, see Guy Cogeval, Edouard Vuillard, exh. cat., Washington, D.C. 2003, 58-59. 38 Fénéon, "Quelques peintres idéistes," 200: "Comme moyen d'exécution: un pointillis, qu'il broche sur des fonds à plat, pour douer le tableau de quelque vie épidermique." 39 Denis had befriended Retté in 1890, around the time he finished the third version of Mystère catholique, and apparently asked him to give a positive review of the Indépendants in 1891. See Kuenzli, The Nabis, 37. 40 Adolphe Retté, "Septième exposition des Artistes Indépendants: Notes cursives," in: L'Ermitage (May 1891), 293-301, here 299: "quelle mélodie de lignes et quelle douceur de ton!" 41 Retté, "Artistes Indépendants," 294: "Voyez le Cirque: quelle intense sensation de joie lumineuse, quelle ondayante musique de lignes. […] Tout concourt à l'effet cherché: la palpitante lumière orangée qui baigne le tableau, l'ordonnance du dessin tout en courbes infléchies et précipitées dans le sens du motif essentiel." License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" grace."42 The shared belief here is that formal devices can structure, indeed determine, an emotional or aesthetic effect in the viewer. [20] The origins and development of this "affective formalism" can be found in French art theory dating back to the early 19th century and before.43 From Nicolas Poussin to Eugène Delacroix, a strain of thinking about painting sought increasingly to clarify how color and line could be organized by artists to produce coordinated and predictable effects on a spectator. In the writings of Charles Blanc, in particular, these earlier attempts at expressive use of form were theorized and made coherent for later artistic production. Seurat was obviously not the only reader of Blanc's 1867 Grammaire des arts du dessin who seized upon propositions like this one: "Straight or curved, horizontal or vertical, parallel or divergent, all lines have a secret relationship with the feelings."44 Broadly speaking, then, the theoretical underpinnings of neo-impressionism were nothing new – Signac would later emphasize its origins in the color theory of Delacroix45 – only the means of achieving the ends had changed. [21] The writings of Charles Henry, which first appeared in 1885, seemed to offer both a recapitulation of these older notions of formal expressiveness, and something more adaptable to the artistic moment of the late 1880s. Especially appealing to Signac and others within the neo-impressionist camp was the notion that, as Christine Poggi puts it, "both color and the directional movement of line expressed universal human emotions independently of their descriptive or anecdotal function."46 His (pseudo-)science sought to determine, in other words, which forms produced which effects. Whether or not Seurat quoted directly from this dictionary of form-effect in Chahut and Cirque, the contemporaneous articulation of his own aesthetics parallels that of Henry. In a widely cited statement, the artist clearly identified a direct relation between cheerful, calm, and sad effects and certain precise combinations of color, tint, and line.47 Kahn, among others, attributed this understanding directly to Henry's influence. For many, then, 42 Retté, "Artistes Indépendants," 299: "symbole de la grace." 43 Much of what I say in this and the following paragraph is indebted to the work of Todd Cronan, whose forthcoming book Matisse, Bergson and the Philosophical Temper of Modernism (The University of Minnesota Press) offers a more extended account of this history and its consequences for modernist painting. The absence of the names Charles Baudelaire, Humbert de Superville, and David Sutter from my own account indicates its obvious simplification. 44 Charles Blanc, Grammaire des arts du dessin: Architecture, sculpture, peinture, Paris 1867, 532: "Droites ou courbes, horizontales ou verticales, parallèles ou divergentes, toutes les lignes ont un rapport secret avec le sentiment." 45 See Paul Signac, D'Eugène Delacroix au Néo-Impressionnisme, Paris 1899. 46 Christine Poggi, In Defiance of Painting: Cubism, Futurism, and the Invention of Collage, New Haven 1992, 170. 47 See Kahn, "Seurat," 1891, 109. Seurat's subsequent letter to Maurice Beaubourg, which he never mailed, is now more famous, but it did not appear in print until the 1920s. Before then, Jules Christophe's biography of Seurat, which Kahn quotes, contained the only known statement by the artist on the wider theoretical basis of his art. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" Seurat's later work was, for better or worse, an experimental test of certain theoretical precepts, ones that very soon became identified with symbolist aesthetics. This is precisely what Wyzewa and others found alluring in Seurat's late work. [22] Critics of various stripes shared the view that Chahut and Cirque should be understood in light of the turn to Henry-inspired formalism. In March of 1890, Georges Lecomte declared that in neo-impressionism, "a cheerful sensation [une sensation de gaité] will not be expressed only by bright reds, oranges, greens, and so forth… but by lines directed from low to high and by angles whose summits are turned towards the base. Everything will be calculated with this concern in mind."48 A year later, Alphonse Germain riffed on the analysis: "In Cirque everything has been put together according to harmony by analogy, the reconciliation of opposites, with cheerful sensations in mind [en vue des sensations gaies]: ascending lines in complementary directions […] successive contrast of tones, a very strong orange dominant, accentuated by a frame opposed in its tones and tints to the whole."49 When Retté thus described the "palpitating orange light," the "linear layout," and the "curves inflected and precipitated" in the same painting, he merely echoed a widespread critical consensus about Seurat's adaptation of Henry's theoretical refinements. The only difference he sees in the case of Denis is that the neo- impressionist theoretical apparatus has been grafted on to a wholly religious iconography. [23] Although relatively few recognized it at the time, we now know the depth of Denis's own commitment to this kind of formalism. In 1890, a few months after completing Mystère catholique, he published under the pseudonym Pierre Louis the now famous "Definition du néo-traditionnisme." The opening sentence goes a long way towards explaining the seeming incongruity of a pointillist Annunciation: "Recall that a picture – before being a battle horse, a nude woman, or some anecdote – is essentially a plane surface covered with colors in a certain assembled order."50 Often seen as a shot across the bow of 48 Georges Lecomte, "Société des artistes Indépendants. Sixième exposition," in: L'Art moderne (30 March 1890), 100-101, here 100: "Une sensation de gaieté ne sera pas seulement exprimée par des vermillons, des oranges, des verts, etc…. mais par des lignes dirigées de bas en haut et par des angles dont le sommet et tourné vers le bas. Tout sera calculé dans ce souci." 49 Alphonse Germain, "A l'exposition des Indépendants," in: Moniteur des arts (27 March 1891), as quoted in Eric Darragon, "Pégase à Fernando," 56, n.9: "Tout, dans le Cirque de Seurat, est combiné d'après l'harmonie par l'analogie, la conciliation des contraires, en vue des sensations gaies: ascendance des lignes se complémentant par leurs directions […] contraste successif des tons, dominante orangé très écrite qu'accentue un cadre en opposition de tons et teintes l'ensemble." 50 Pierre Louis [Maurice Denis], "Définition du néo-traditionnisme," in: Art et critique 65 (23 August 1890): 540-542, here 540: "Se rappeler qu'un tableau – avant d'être un cheval de bataille, une femme nue, ou une quelconque anecdote – est essentiellement une surface plane recouverte de couleurs en un certain ordre assemblées"; trans. Peter Collier in: Art in Theory, 1815-1900: An Anthology of Changing Ideas, ed. Charles Harrison and Paul Wood with Jason Gaiger, Oxford 1998, 863. The "Beaux-Arts" section of Art et Critique had been filled in the previous weeks by Jules Antoine's "Les peintres néo-impressionnistes," in: Art et critique 63 (9 August 1890), 509-510; 64 (16 August 1890), 524-526. For the interest and controversy Denis's article immediately raised, see Alphonse Germain, "Du tempérament peintre," in: Art et critique 70 (27 September 1890), 618-620; and, Pierre Louis [Maurice Denis], "A M. Alphonse Germain," in: Art et critique 73 (18 October 1890), 667-668. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" naturalism, this quote remains a ubiquitous piece of evidence in the story of modernism. Only a few at the time, however, seized on it as an explanatory tool. Remarkably, Fénéon – and only he – drew a direct comparison between this statement and neo-impressionism in his comments on the Salon. In a dialogue with "Willy" published in Le Chat noir, he argued that the neo-impressionists realized Denis's formalism more persuasively even than the symbolists: Better than those I first listed for you, my dear Willy, and who assume a drab coloring or cacophonic of aleatory allegories [here he is referring to Gauguin, Denis, and others] these painters realize the definition established by Pierre-Louis Denis himself: 'A picture – before being a battle horse, a nude woman, or some anecdote – is essentially a plane surface covered with colors in a certain assembled order.'51 [24] Importantly, and tellingly, Fénéon was the very first to judge modern works of art by this particular standard, and he applied it to Seurat and company. Although it rests on a less "scientific" formalism than that of the neo-impressionists, it is well to note that Denis deliberately chose to show the most pointillist version of Mystère catholique at the Salon des Indépendants, thereby begging the very comparison Fénéon proposes. The critic simply confirms what Denis surely intended to convey by following the publication of his neo-traditionist treatise with the display of an explicitly neo-impressionist painting: the two terms rhyme. Whether the public understood Denis moving into the territory of neo- impressionist practice or neo-impressionism moving into the theoretical gravity of symbolism, the underlying proposition is that they occupy the same space. <top> Signac's Symbolism [25] If there was one painting at the Salon des Indépendants that matched in turn Denis's conceptual fluidity it was Signac's Portrait de Félix Fénéon, Opus 217 (Sur l'émail d'un fond rythmique de mesures et d'angles, de tons et de teintes, le portrait de M. Félix Fénéon en 1890) (Portrait of Félix Fénéon, Opus 217 [Against the Enamel of a Background Rhythmic with Beats and Angles, Tones, and Tints, Portrait of M. Félix Fénéon in 1890]) (Fig. 5). Significantly, the picture portrays the one critic who explicitly drew together the two sides of the avant-garde around the theoretical question of formalist-symbolism, and it does so in a manner that insists on that same conjunction. Fénéon stands in profile, his left hand holding a dandyish top hat, gloves, and cane, his right hand extending a cyclamen flower. That the bloom has frequently been mistaken for 51 "Artistes Indépendants: Sténographie par Willy," in: Le Chat Noir (21 March 1891), reprinted in Fénéon, Oeuvres, 1:181-182, here 182: "Mieux que ceux que je vous énumérais d'abord, mon doux Willy, et qui revêtent d'un coloriage terne ou cacophonique d'aléatoires allégories, ces peintres réalisent la définition établie par Pierre-Louis Denis lui-même: 'Un tableau – avant d'être un cheval de bataille, une femme nue, ou une quelconque anecdote – est essentiellement une surface plane recouverte de couleurs en un certain ordre assemblées'." Halperin attributes this text to Fénéon alone; "Willy" was the penname of Henry Gauthier-Villars. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" a "decadent lily"52 no doubt stems from the "unambiguous" reference to Oscar Wilde's legendary promenades through the streets of London carrying a lily or sunflower.53 The Irish writer thought these flowers especially "decorative,"54 and Signac's botanical choice likely derived from a similar sensibility.55 Of note, the "circle" (κύκλος, or kýklos) embedded etymologically in the flower's name serves as a cryptic symbolic link to the prominent swirling background of the painting. This "decorative" fan of "beats and angles, tones and tints," manifested neo-impressionism's formalist tendencies in their most pronounced limit case. The Wagnerian musical analogy is, of course, built into the "rhythmic" title, and the opus number – Signac used these regularly at this time – signals a quasi-abstract ambition. 5 Paul Signac, Portrait de Félix Fénéon, Opus 217 (Portrait of Félix Fénéon, Opus 217), 1890, oil on canvas, 73.5 x 92.5 cm. Museum of Modern Art, New York (© Museum of Modern Art. Reprod. from: Anne Distel et al., eds., Signac, 1863-1935, exh. cat., Paris 2001, p. 203, cat. 51) 52 Robert L. Herbert, Neo-Impressionism, exh. cat., New York 1968, 140. See also, Masterpieces from the David and Peggy Rockefeller Collection, exh. cat., New York 1994, 38. 53 David Sweetman, Explosive Acts: Toulouse-Lautrec, Oscar Wilde, Félix Fénéon and the Art & Anarchy of the Fin de Siècle, New York 1999, 225. See also, Herbert, Neo-Impressionism, 141. Wilde had become close to French symbolists at the very moment that Signac's painting appeared in public. He first attended one of Stéphane Mallarmé's famous mardis on 24 February 1891, where he likely met, among others, Retté and Fénéon. The two French writers later assisted Wilde with his French-language publications. See Richard Ellmann, Oscar Wilde, New York 1988, 335, 341; and, Halperin, Fénéon, 46. 54 Ellmann, Wilde, 166. 55 See Paul Signac, letter to Félix Fénéon, 21 July 1890, quoted in Françoise Cachin with Marina Ferretti-Bocquillon, Signac: Catalogue raisonné de l'oeuvre peint, Paris 2000, 40: "Ce ne serait point un banal portrait, mais un tableau très composé, très agencé en lignes et teintes. […] Un Félix décoratif." License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" [26] Not surprisingly, the picture's spiraling patterns and colors were widely understood as an experimental demonstration of color-harmony theory and the expressive use of line. Arsène Alexandre, who had close ties to the neo-impressionist camp, jokingly suggested the painting would illustrate Henry's next book.56 Given Signac's close friendship and collaboration with the theorist, to say nothing of his own past work – the 1888 Application du Cercle Chromatique de Mr Charles Henry (Application of Charles Henry's Chromatic Circle)57 comes to mind – Alexandre was perhaps only half-joking.58 Indeed, the painting has been understood as the most Henry-esque of all.59 Despite, or perhaps because of, its theoretical strengths, critics and the public alike puzzlingly dismissed the canvas. Verhaeren called it "cold and dry."60 Henry Gauthier-Villars (aka Willy) reported a visitor's comment to her companion: "Look, dearest, at this ginger bread man on a background of vomit."61 Even Signac's friends struggled to find much of worth. Fénéon's own silence might have been diplomatic – he did display the work prominently for the rest of his life – but Pissarro thought it "bizarre."62 For him, the background failed both as a purely decorative motif and as the record of a sensation. That Signac might have intended the excessiveness of his painting "to mock the current rage for the occult and the pseudoreligious mysticism"63 went almost completely unremarked. Retté alone seemed to intuit the gesture, but far from seeing the painting as a satire of symbolism, he declared it another form of symbolism, however "summary" in nature.64 [27] That the critic who most explicitly praised the formalist characteristics of Denis's Mystère catholique also situated Signac within the symbolist sphere, points to an otherwise unremarked artistic consonance between their two paintings. Indeed, they both share a 56 Alexandre, "Le Salon des Indépendants," 2: "on devra voir, non pas un simple caprice du coloriste, mais une demonstration expérimentale des theories sur la couleur et sur la ligne, qui seront exposées dans le prochain ouvrage de Charles Henry." 57 Image available online at http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the- collections/90008981?rpp=20&pg=1&ft=Signac%2c+Paul+%28French%2c+1863- 1935%29&pos=3 (accessed 28 June 2012). 58 Among other things, Signac had provided visual aids for a talk Henry gave to artisans at the Bibliothèque Forney on 27 March 1890. The lecture was later published as Harmonies de formes et de couleurs, Paris 1891. See Herbert and Herbert, "Artists and Anarchists," 481, n. 48. 59 See José Argüelles, "Paul Signac's 'Against the Enamel of a Background Rhythmic with Beats and Angles, Tones and Colors, Portrait of M. Félix Fénéon in 1890, Opus 217'," in: The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 28:1 (Autumn 1969), 49-53. 60 Émile Verhaeren, "Le Salon des Indépendants," 417: "Ce portrait froid et sec ne nous séduit guère autant que les paysages de même peintre." 61 Henry Gauthier-Villars, "Le Salon Des Indépendants," in: La Revue indépendante 19:54 (April 1891), 107-113, here 110: "L'ésoterisme de ces beautés scientifiques dérouta, le jour de l'ouverture, une adorable jeune femme aux cheveux auburn, qui murmura, musique de rêve: 'Voyez, dearest, ce monsieur en pain d'épice sur fond de vomi.'" 62 Camille Pissarro, letter to Lucien Pissarro, 30 March 1891, Correspondance, 50. 63 Halperin, Fénéon, 146. 64 Retté, "Artistes Indépendants," 295: "C'est, en tout cas, d'un symbolisme quelque peu sommaire." License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/90008981?rpp=20&pg=1&ft=Signac%2C+Paul+(French%2C+1863-1935)&pos=3 http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/90008981?rpp=20&pg=1&ft=Signac%2C+Paul+(French%2C+1863-1935)&pos=3 http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/90008981?rpp=20&pg=1&ft=Signac%2C+Paul+(French%2C+1863-1935)&pos=3 http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/90008981?rpp=20&pg=1&ft=Signac%2C+Paul+(French%2C+1863-1935)&pos=3 RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" pointillist technique and a similar composition, with prominent figures on the right tilting to the left. Given the traditional symbolic association of the magenta on white coloration of the cyclamen with the Virgin's bleeding heart – the flower is sometimes called "bleeding nun" – the two flowers perhaps complement each other more than the artists could have imagined.65 That the paintings make use of such highly conventionalized symbols draws them into dialogue about the newer kind of symbolism they both pursue. In any case, the pictures revel in the mixture of the exotic and the everyday: in Denis's case the Annunciation taking place in a modern house; in the Signac, Fénéon's aesthete outfit and "Yankee" beard, against a crypto-Japoniste background. The works sum up certain tendencies towards the decorative (especially the flattening arabesque), the exotic mixed with the quotidian, the use of symbolist motifs, all of which add up to a deliberately artificial pictorial whole. At the same time, their subject matter and general philosophical tack could not be more different: Catholic versus anarchist, French versus international, traditional versus modern. For all their differences, however, these two works gravitate towards a common ground of a synthetic reconciliation of symbolism and neo-impressionism. [28] The ground of this reconciliation is, to spell it out, a certain shared embrace of a widely- held formalist-symbolist aesthetic. Here is Vuillard's personal paraphrase of Denis's aesthetic theory in late August 1890: "Conceive of a picture really as a series of harmonies, moving away from the naturalistic idea."66 And this from October: "The word harmony means nothing but science, knowledge of relationships and colors."67 On the other side, Seurat and Signac believed, as Alexandre paraphrased it, that "any given scene is an ensemble of lines from which one tries to find a result with a view to producing a determined effect."68 [29] It becomes clear, then, that by the time of Seurat's death, neo-impressionism had already committed itself to a certain kind of formalism that for all intents and purposes was indistinguishable from symbolism, at least as defined by a significant sector of the Parisian avant-garde. The question became, within the neo-impressionist camp – and here the nature of Pissarro's complaints to Lucien become clearer – how to distinguish the progressive, materialist, and political content of neo-impressionism from the perceived reactionary iconography of an artist like Denis. No one – certainly not Retté or Fénéon – really thought the two sides were the same. What the short-lived symbolist adaptation of neo-impressionist technique seemed to indicate, however, was that 65 See Ferguson, Signs and Symbols in Christian Art, 30. 66 Edouard Vuillard, Journal, 31 August 1890, as quoted in Guy Cogeval, Vuillard: Post- Impressionist Master, New York 2002, 25. 67 Vuillard, Journal, 30 October 1890, as quoted in Cogeval, Vuillard: Post-Impressionist Master, 20. 68 Alexandre, "Le Salon des Indépendants," 2: "une scène quelconque est un ensemble de lignes dont il s'agit de dégager une résultante en vue de produire un effet déterminé." License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" Seurat's Henry-inspired late style already rested on an affective-formalism that could be understood as identical with some of the most reactionary aesthetic tendencies of the day. 6 Paul Signac, Saint-Briac, Le Port Hue, Opus 212 (Saint-Briac, Port of the Ville Hue, Opus 212), 1890, oil on canvas, 65 x 81 cm. The Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts, Moscow (source: Wikimedia Commons, photo: Deror Avi, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File %3ABeach_at_Saint-Briac_IMG_6925.JPG) [30] Given this state of affairs, certain critics began working hard to pry apart neo- impressionism and symbolism. Robert Bernier, for instance, writing in La Revue Socialiste in May of 1891, noted real concerns about the "mystical current" in the art of the day. Although clearly sharing Pissarro's attitudes, the critic explicitly advanced his critique in light of the bloody massacre of workers by French troops at Fourmies on the First of May. Looking back at the Salon des Indépendants, he finds only the neo-impressionists offering any opposition to the reactionary tendency in art and in politics. Not surprisingly, Bernier especially admired the work of Luce, which he saw as a powerful example of "scientific materialism."69 With Luce, against the mysticism of the times, he also placed Seurat and Signac. Surprisingly, and tellingly, however, he does not mention any of Seurat's works by name, and rather than the portrait of Fénéon, Bernier favors Signac's landscapes. That the seascapes of Saint-Briac (Fig. 6) would qualify as "socialism in art" no longer surprises – accounts of Signac's politics now fill the literature; that the critic passed in silence over the more prominent neo-impressionist works, however, speaks volumes about the ambiguity of the moment.70 He seems to imply that Cirque and the 69 Robert Bernier, "Le Socialisme en art," in: La Revue socialiste 13:77 (May 1891), 603-604. 70 On Signac and politics, see John G. Hutton, Neo-impressionism and the Search for Solid Ground: Art, Science, and Anarchism in Fin-de-Siècle France, Baton Rouge 1994; Anne Dymond, "A Politicized Pastoral: Signac and the Cultural Geography of Mediterranean France," in: The Art Bulletin 85:2 (June 2003), 353-370; and Robyn Roslak, Neo-Impressionism and Anarchism in Fin- License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ABeach_at_Saint-Briac_IMG_6925.JPG http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ABeach_at_Saint-Briac_IMG_6925.JPG RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" portrait of Fénéon simply do not suffice as progressive, political alternatives in the aftermath of Fourmies. [31] For his part, Fénéon was "especially captivated" by Saint-Briac, les balises, Opus 210 (The Beacons at Saint-Briac, Opus 210).71 That this canvas could, consequently, have exemplified the neo-impressionists outdoing Denis on his own formalist ground, suggests that it could equally well be understood as symbolist. Symbolist, that is, in the effects it sought to produce on the viewer. As Françoise Cachin once put it, "the subject is no more than an excuse for the vibration of color and the symbolism of lines."72 Whether such a work would be understood as the materialist record of a sensation or as a formal arrangement of colors and lines frames any interpretation of neo-impressionist painting. For Bernier and Pissarro, this is the nub of the political matter. A painting based on sensation, they believed, could critically engage with historical and material reality. It necessarily represents the world, and as such it situates the world within an ideological framework structured by the temperament and intentions of the artist. Symbolist painting, on the other hand – ideational and formalist – makes no such demands; indeed, when taken to an extreme, the formalist-symbolist logic divorces art from the artist entirely, leaving only the effect a work produces on a spectator.73 The avant-garde in April 1891 could consequently be divided between those who held to the artist's sensation and those who pushed towards artistic affect. [32] In the summer of 1891, Signac seems to have put his money on affect. Although done from the motif in Brittany, the series of five paintings known as La Mer: Les Barques (Concarneau) remain among the least convincing representations of a location and moment that he ever produced. The uncanny repetitions and rhythms in these pictures seem to confirm the symbolist bent of Signac's formalism. That the five works first appeared at the 1892 exhibit of Les XX in Brussels under the musical and very abstract titles of Scherzo (opus 218), Larghetto (opus 219), Allegro maestoso (opus 220), Adagio (opus 221), and Presto (finale) (opus 222) offers strong evidence for Signac's conviction that a formalist-symbolist aesthetic could provide the appropriate framework for the understanding of his work and for the avant-garde as a whole.74 de-Siècle France: Painting, Politics and Landscape, Burlington 2007. 71 Félix Fénéon, letter to Paul Signac, 7 March 1934, quoted in Anne Distel et al., eds., Signac, 1863-1935, exh. cat., Paris 2001, 200: "Balises à St Briac m'a particulièrement capté." It seems clear, despite the later date, that Fénéon is recalling his initial reaction in 1891. Image available online at http://www.19thc-artworldwide.org/spring_05/articles/rosl_10.html (accessed 28 June 2012). 72 Françoise Cachin, Paul Signac, trans. Michael Bullock, Greenwich 1971, 39. 73 See Todd Cronan, "Paul Valéry's Blood Meridian, Or How the Reader became a Writer," in: nonsite.org 1 (25 January 2011), http://nonsite.org/issues/issue-1/paul-valery-from-author-to- audience (accessed 26 June 2012). 74 In 1891, Signac was hardly alone in seeing landscape painting as a privileged site for the production of affect. See Alphonse Germain, "Le paysage décoratif," in: L'Ermitage 2:11 (November 1891), 644: "Le paysage décoratif […] doit, de plus souvent possible, correspondre à un état d'âme License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en http://www.19thc-artworldwide.org/spring_05/articles/rosl_10.html http://nonsite.org/issues/issue-1/paul-valery-from-author-to-audience http://nonsite.org/issues/issue-1/paul-valery-from-author-to-audience http://www.19thc-artworldwide.org/spring_05/articles/rosl_10.html RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" [33] Something, however, made him balk when he brought the paintings back to Paris for the Salon des Indépendants. Robyn Roslak and others have puzzled over Signac's decision to rename the paintings for their second public exhibition – Presto (finale) (opus 222) – for example, became Brise, Concarneau.75 These new names for the same works emphasize the representation of the motif, not the effects of the painting on a viewer. Perhaps Signac wished to keep alive some kind of dialectical interplay between sensation and affect, but it is not completely convincing that these works actually achieve that doubleness. Perhaps what worried him was the accelerating assimilation of neo- impressionism into the expanding legions of symbolism. That Aurier could review the Indépendants in April 1892 using language that Signac would have recognized as his own may have simply emphasized the problem that had emerged: objects, considered abstractly, the diverse combinations of lines, planes, shadows, colors, constitute the vocabulary of a mysterious but miraculously expressive language that one must know in order to be an artist. [...] Charles Henry, who would not be suspected for having symbolist ties, preoccupies himself with this problem and has written several interesting notes, although too superficial, on the signification of linear directions and chromatic combinations.76 [34] Here Aurier binds Henry's formalism to symbolism in ways that seem quite evident given the critical reception of neo-impressionism the year before. And if confirmation of the correctness of this maneuver were needed, one could point to an interview published in L'Echo de Paris the previous year, and reprinted several times, in which Henry clearly embraced art that was "very idealist, mystical even."77 Perhaps this realization of shared affinities is what prompted Aurier's meeting with Signac in Marseilles that summer.78 In et synthétiser toujours – par une dominante expressive des lignes et de colorations affectives (gaies ou mélancoliques, sévères ou riantes, selon la destination de la pièce)," as quoted in Robyn Roslak, "Symphonic Seas, Oceans of Liberty: Paul Signac's La Mer: Les Barques (Concarneau)," in: Nineteenth-Century Art Worldwide: A Journal of Nineteenth-Century Visual Culture 4:1 (Spring 2005), n. 52, http://www.19thc-artworldwide.org/index.php/spring05/302-symphonic-seas- oceans-of-liberty-paul-signacs-la-mer-les-barques-concarneau (accessed 26 June 2012). 75 Roslak, "Symphonic Seas," n. 12. Image available online at http://www.19thc- artworldwide.org/spring_05/articles/rosl_08.html (28 June 2012). 76 G. Albert Aurier, "Les Symbolistes," in: Revue encyclopédique (1 April 1892), 480: "les objets, c'est-à-dire, abstraitement, les diverses combinaisons de lignes, de plans, d'ombres, de couleurs, constituent le vocabulaire d'une langue mystérieuse, mais miraculeusement expressive, qu'il faut savoir pour être artiste. […] Charles Henry, qu'on ne saurait suspecter d'attaches symbolistes, s'est préoccupé de ce problème et a écrit quelques notes intéressantes, bien que trop superficielles, sur la signification des directions linéaires et des combinaisons chromatiques." 77 Charles Henry, as quoted in Jules Huret, Enquête sur l'évolution littéraire, Paris 1891, 414: "Je ne crois pas à l'avenir du psychologisme ou du naturalisme, ni, en général, de toute école réaliste. Je crois, au contraire, à l'avénement plus ou moins prochain d'un art très idéaliste, mystique même, fondé sur des techniques absolument nouvelles." The interview with Henry originally appeared as part of a series, including one with Aurier, which ran from March to July in L'Echo de Paris. The interview with Henry was reprinted in L'Art moderne 11 (25 October 1891), 343-344. For a brief gloss on the larger issues in Huret's interviews, see Clark, Farewell to an Idea, 416, n. 46. 78 Aurier visited Signac when the latter stopped in Marseilles on the 1892 sailing trip that eventually took him to Saint-Tropez. It seems the writer had in mind writing an article on Seurat, but he died of typhoid before he could complete it. See Patricia Mathews, Aurier's Symbolist Art Criticism and Theory, Ann Arbor 1986, 14-15. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en http://www.19thc-artworldwide.org/spring_05/articles/rosl_08.html http://www.19thc-artworldwide.org/spring_05/articles/rosl_08.html http://www.19thc-artworldwide.org/spring_05/articles/rosl_08.html http://www.19thc-artworldwide.org/index.php/spring05/302-symphonic-seas-oceans-of-liberty-paul-signacs-la-mer-les-barques-concarneau http://www.19thc-artworldwide.org/index.php/spring05/302-symphonic-seas-oceans-of-liberty-paul-signacs-la-mer-les-barques-concarneau RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" any case, by the middle of 1892, the two sides of the avant-garde had become so deeply intertwined in their theoretical commitments and critical defenses, that Pissarro's old nemesis began to see them alike. By 1896, Denis would openly trace the origins of his artistic concerns not just to Gauguin, but to the various artists interested in the "laws of harmony that govern the relations of colors, the agencies of lines (researches of Seurat, Bernard, C. Pissarro)."79 Perhaps not coincidentally, at the very same moment, Pissarro insisted that he no longer be included on any list of neo-impressionists.80 [35] For better or worse, Signac saw this coming. The anonymous publication of his major theoretical and political declaration of principles, "Impressionnistes et révolutionnaires," in the June 1891 issue of La Révolte is not usually understood against the backdrop of this move deep into symbolist territory. Rather, it stands most typically as the key document tying neo-impressionism to the anarchist left. When Signac insists on the working-class enthusiasm for neo-impressionism at the Salon des Indépendants of 1891 – and the tract is, among other things, a review of the exhibition – he makes a claim that the movement must be understood to play a role in the great political conflicts of the day, but it must do so through form as much as content. "Only artists haunted by a pure art," he writes, "and in particular the impressionist painters, whose technique is the negation of the old artistic routines, deserve the sympathy of all those who applaud the breakdown of ancient prejudices."81 What Signac meant by "pure art" is not entirely clear, but he surely worried about the perceived collapse of the terms "pure art" and "symbolism" to describe the same field of practice. It is only on the heels of his declaration of allegiance to "pure art" that he explicitly rejects the mystical and reactionary tendencies of what he calls the "symbolist-impressionists."82 The point had to be drawn out with crystal clarity in June of 1891 precisely because it had been hugely ambiguous in March. <top> Conclusion [36] Ultimately, the differences between Signac's pure art and Denis's formalist-symbolism remain to be defined. A painting like Le Chenal de Gravelines, Petit-Fort-Philippe (Fig. 7) 79 Maurice Denis, "Notes sur la peinture religieuse," in: L'Art et la vie 54 (October 1896), reprinted in Denis, Théories, 1890-1910: du symbolisme et de Gauguin vers un nouvel ordre classique, Paris 1920, 33-34. 80 Camille Pissarro, letter to Henry van de Velde, 27 March 1896, in: Correspondance de Camille Pissarro: Tome 4/1895-1898, ed. Janine Bailly-Herzberg, Paris 1989, 180-181: "je ne saurais accepter me ranger au milieu des néos […]." 81 [Paul Signac], "Impressionnistes et révolutionnaires," in: La révolte 40 (13-19 June 1891), 3-4, here 4: "les seuls artistes hantés par l'art pur et particulièrement les peintres impressionnistes, dont la technique est la négation des vieilles routines artistiques, méritent toute la sympathie de ceux qui applaudissent à l'écroulement des préjugés surannés"; trans. Christopher Miller in: Art in Theory: 1815-1900, 795-798, here 797. 82 [Signac], "Impressionnistes et révolutionnaires," 4. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" – one of the landscapes Seurat showed alongside Cirque in 1891 – can still be said to demonstrate a drift towards an art concerned, as Robert Herbert puts it, "not with nature but arrangements of forms."83 But Michael Zimmermann best sums up neo- impressionism's claims and ambitions in about 1891: "The new language of art," he writes, "seemed to correspond to the nature of man, to the psychomotor automatism that regulates our aesthetic sensitivity. It was thought that the impressions evoked in the observer by the various individual features of a picture – colour, brightness, and line – could be defined."84 Artistic effects could be made predictable and automatic, and their prior origins in the world or the mind of the artist would be made irrelevant. The port of Gravelines and the Cirque Fernando gradually fade from view, displaced by the "cheerful sensation" of the effect of ascending lines. Such was the consequence, it would seem, of Seurat's embrace of a "symbolic spirit." 7 Georges Seurat, Le Chenal de Gravelines, Petit-Fort-Philippe (The Channel of Gravelines), 1890, oil on canvas, 73.34 x 92.71 cm. Indianapolis Museum of Art, Indianapolis (source: The Yorck Project/Wikimedia Commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Georges_Seurat_017.jpg) [37] 1891 was, as T. J. Clark puts it, a "watershed in the history of modernism." For him, the transition "has to do with the rise of Symbolism, and the Symbolists' wish to type the previous thirty years of avant-garde activity as positivist, naturalist, or materialist, and for that reason still deeply bourgeois."85 Martha Ward also marks the significance of the moment, if only for the history of neo-impressionism. "In the early 1890s," she writes, "shaken by the death of Seurat and searching for new direction, neo-impressionism 83 Robert L. Herbert, ed., Georges Seurat, 1859-1891, exh. cat., New York 1991, 349. 84 Michael Zimmerman, Seurat and the Art Theory of His Time, Antwerp 1991, 387. 85 Clark, Farewell to an Idea, 129. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Georges_Seurat_017.jpg RIHA Journal 0043 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" would take on the appearances of its nemesis [i.e. symbolism]."86 Both these lines of analysis are persuasive, and in a sense what I have argued here is an elaboration of and response to these two art historians. I would only want to expand on their analysis by insisting that the collapse in 1891 of a viable avant-garde alternative to symbolism meant the triumph of a certain kind of affective-formalism that fundamentally altered the field of cultural production in the century that followed. [38] How this initial posthumous reception came to structure the understanding of Seurat's artistic project as a whole should now be clear. Whether, on the other hand, the artist himself understood the consequences of his embrace of Henry's aesthetics will likely remain a matter for debate. There is, however, one small but revealing piece of evidence to suggest that he did finally recognize, perhaps too late, the impending fate of his art and of the wider avant-garde. In a much-quoted 1890 letter to Fénéon, in which he complains of his near-exclusion from the critic's history of neo-impressionism, Seurat picks out Georges Lecomte's affective-formalist account for particularly sharp scorn: "Already Mr. Lecomte had sacrificed me to Charles Henry […]."87 Although it might seem that Seurat merely sought to underline here the originality of his own inventions before 1886, the terse phrasing suggests a deeper, more unsettling reading: that Lecomte (and others) had simply replaced the painter with the theory.88 If so, the death of Georges Seurat came ultimately, we might say, not with the sudden onset of diphtheria in late March 1891, but at the unfortunate moment he convinced his viewers that his paintings were neither the record of sensation nor the representation of a world, but simply affect- producing machines. <top> 86 Ward, Pissarro, 203. 87 Georges Seurat, letter to Félix Fénéon, 20 June 1890: "Déjà Mr Lecomte m'avait sacrifié à Charles Henry […]," reprinted in Seurat: Correspondances, Témoignages, notes inédites critiques, Paris 1991, 243, trans. in Herbert, Georges Seurat, 383. Apparently in response to this letter, Fénéon and Lecomte paid a visit to Seurat, only to find him gone. 88 For some time, Seurat had been concerned about the acknowledgement of his authorship of the neo-impressionist technique. See Seurat, letter to Signac, August 26, 1888, in Herbert, Georges Seurat, 408. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en Introduction Neo-Impressionism and Symbolism in 1891 Denis's Neo-Impressionism Signac's Symbolism Conclusion 
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work_mcgd4uvpnvbb5jpgvelbckectq	----	A Regional Response to the Impressionistic Challenge: Painters of Laguna Beach, 1900-1940 | California History | University of California Press Skip to Main Content Close UCPRESS ABOUT US BLOG SUPPORT US CONTACT US Search search input Search input auto suggest search filter All Content California History Search User Tools Register Carnegie Mellon University Carnegie Mellon University Sign In Toggle MenuMenu Content Recent Content Browse Issues All Content Purchase Alerts Submit Info For Authors Librarians Reprints & Permissions About Journal Editorial Team Richard J. Orsi Prize Contact Us Skip Nav Destination Article Navigation Close mobile search navigation Article navigation Volume 63, Issue 3 July 1984 Previous Article Next Article Article Navigation Research Article| July 01 1984 A Regional Response to the Impressionistic Challenge: Painters of Laguna Beach, 1900-1940 Robert M. Frash Robert M. Frash Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar California History (1984) 63 (3): 252–255. https://doi.org/10.2307/25158235 Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn Email Tools Icon Tools Get Permissions Cite Icon Cite Search Site Citation Robert M. Frash; A Regional Response to the Impressionistic Challenge: Painters of Laguna Beach, 1900-1940. California History 1 July 1984; 63 (3): 252–255. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/25158235 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search search input Search input auto suggest search filter All Content California History Search This content is only available via PDF. Copyright 1984 CHS Article PDF first page preview Close Modal You do not currently have access to this content. Sign in Don't already have an account? Register Client Account You could not be signed in. Please check your email address / username and password and try again. Email address / Username ? Password Sign In Reset password Register Sign in via your Institution Sign in via your Institution Citing articles via Google Scholar CrossRef Latest Most Read Most Cited Mexican American Parrhesia at Troy: The Rise of the Chicana/o Movement at the University of Southern California, 1967–1974 Breaking the Eleventh Commandment: Pete McCloskey’s Campaign against the Vietnam War Fishing on Porpoise: The Origins of Dolphin Bycatch in the American Yellowfin Tuna Industry Keepers of the Culture at 3201 Adeline Street: Locating Black Power Theater in Berkeley, California Suburban Cowboy: Country Music, Punk, and the Struggle over Space in Orange County, 1978–1981 Email alerts Article Activity Alert Latest Issue Alert Close Modal Recent Content Browse Issues All Content Purchase Alerts Submit Info for Authors Info for Librarians About Editorial Team Richard J. Orsi Prize Contact Us Online ISSN 2327-1485 Print ISSN 0162-2897 Copyright © 2021 Stay Informed Sign up for eNews Twitter Facebook Instagram YouTube LinkedIn Visit the UC Press Blog Disciplines Ancient World Anthropology Art Communication Criminology & Criminal Justice Film & Media Studies Food & Wine History Music Psychology Religion Sociology Browse All Disciplines Courses Browse All Courses Products Books Journals Resources Book Authors Booksellers Instructions Journal Authors Journal Editors Librarians Media & Journalists Support Us Endowments Membership Planned Giving Supporters About UC Press Careers Location Press Releases Seasonal Catalog Contact Us Acquisitions Editors Customer Service Exam/Desk Requests Media Inquiries Print-Disability Rights & Permissions Royalties UC Press Foundation © Copyright 2021 by the Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. Privacy policy   Accessibility Close Modal Close Modal This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only Sign In or Create an Account Close Modal Close Modal This site uses cookies. By continuing to use our website, you are agreeing to our privacy policy. Accept 
work_mg4uqr2hubeovh5z2rrinf4aa4	----	Massimo Morisi (a cura di), Regioni e rappresentanza politica. Questioni e materiali di ricerca sui consigli regionali, Milano, Franco Angeli, 1987, pp. 253, L. 24.000. | Italian Political Science Review / Rivista Italiana di Scienza Politica | Cambridge Core Skip to main content Accessibility help We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings. 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Questioni e materiali di ricerca sui consigli regionali, Milano, Franco Angeli, 1987, pp. 253, L. 24.000. Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 June 2016 Riccardo Motta Article Article contents Abstract Get access Share Cite Abstract An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content. Type Recensioni Information Italian Political Science Review / Rivista Italiana di Scienza Politica , Volume 18 , Issue 3 , December 1988 , pp. 523 - 525 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0048840200012685[Opens in a new window] Copyright Copyright © Società Italiana di Scienza Politica  Access options Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. If you should have access and can't see this content please contact technical support. Cited by 0 No CrossRef data available. 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work_mknznwgek5dypj2mt5foipey4m	----	Modernity reconsidered GYORGY BODN/~tR M O D E R N I T Y R E C O N S I D E R E D I am pleased to welcome the participants at the third conference of Bayreuth University and the Institute of Literary Studies o f the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, and I am happy to verify the in- volvement o f Prcs University in our decennial cooperation. I d o n ' t think I need to overemphasize the importance o f this cooperation in terms of the spiritual and intellectual opening it represents. The given historical circumstances under which Hungarians have been compelled to live in the past few decades make the setting up and organization of such a series of conferences a true achievement. I have always believed in it and I fully believe in its future too. Naturally, the continuity of our cooperation has not depended solely on our intentions. It is hardly possible to maintain a scien- tific programme unless it undertakes the task of clarifying real re- search problems. I believe in our attempts to do so with precision. I am convinced of the fact that the history of literature is a dia- logue and this dialogue is the confrontation of different historical situations and interpretations. Consequently classical modernity - - the first turning point of twentieth century literature - - is not only a counterpart o f postmodernism, but its prehistory, too. Classical i or aesthetical - - modernity had as its central topics the depress- ing conflicts of art and life, imagination and reality, reflection and vitality. Although when qualifying the conflict of art and life as depressing, we call into question the family relationship between the Modern and the Postmodern paradigm, however, we do .not exclude the justification of raising this question. Tracing back Post- modernism is not an unauthorized act even if it leads us to discover Neohelicon XXI/1 Akad~miai Kiadr, Budapest John Benjamins B. V., Amsterdam 10 GYORGY BODNAR negative answers. But in this tracing back the system's theoretical line of argumentation, which states that every system is completely valid only i.n itself, may help us; thus, a reply formulating the re- conciliation o f the conflict between life and art is as much a symp- tom of a hopeless fight for completeness as the conception o f au- tonomy in Postmodernism. It is a point to take into consideration that this autonomy wishes to construe itself upon the deconstructed role o f the writer and Aristotelian-mimetic poetics, as well as upon the maintenance o f the intertextual state of creation, and upon the abandoning of causal teleology. That is, it wishes to construe itself on answers which, in the absence of the issues of the aesthetics o f mimesis, would land in an infinite space without any points o f reference. It is not to say that their validity should be called into question, just a warning that these questions and replies are com- ponents o f a historical process, and they do not contain their truth- fulness in themselves; this lies, instead, in the historical process. If Modernism and Postmodernism have a common denominator, it must be the desire for the autonomy of art. And if there is a para- digm change between the two, it appears in the struggle against the principle o f mimesis: the characteristic Post-Modern work is about itself, that is, it presents the consciousness attached to itself as a form exact in the process of elaboration. But if it is true, as a pure formula, that the autonomous work can define itself only after its completion, why should we expect that the literary process leading to autonomy to take a teleological form? Almost every trait of the work liberated from the constraints of mimesis appears in a more or less pure form as of the beginnings of Modernism. Besides those that I have mentioned, here we find devices such as the overt admission of fictionality, abandoning the rational causality principle, and as a consequence, challenging the rational epic reliability, as well as the degradation of the role o f the plot and the ragged and open structure; all these devices contrib- uted to the development of the Modernist poetics of the novel, a poetics sceptical about the truth of nineteenth century Realism. The MODERNITY RECONSIDERED 11 work, then, was led to an intertextual position, where the text is not a realization o f a teleology any more, but rather a relation and a phenomenon o f progressive nature. And this very strategy is hid- den in the narrative mode which does not yet aim at aimlessness but crosses the borderlines o f representation and information, and wishes to translate the colours, the music and the spiritual essences which have no r o o m in the boxes o f conceptions. And one should also mention the problem o f literary language. This problem has haunted verbal art from the very beginnings but it was in m u c h greater emphasis through the ideal o f autonomous literature, at the time o f the birth o f M o d e m i s m than in the earlier conceptions o f literature. The closed system o f everyday language must have been rendered open not only by Post-Modem literature; every work gen- erating its single motives b y its literariness makes use o f language as another system which strives to block the automatism o f every- day communication, in order to t u m the attention towards the world o f experiences beyond conceptions, and in order to represent - - to use Endre A d y ' s beautiful and exact phrasing - - the halo round the m o o n o f words. The historical connection between the M o d e m and the Post- M o d e m can be discovered not only in devices and poetic princi- ples but also in the underlying ideas and issues o f the age. It is well known that philosophical scepticism and alienation h a v e already motivated M o d e m ambitions, and although these ambitions did not incline the hierarchized world view o f the nineteenth century to take anarchy upon themselves, they presented, from the time o f Impressionism, only a nonhierarchized world representation as valid. As can b e seen, the debates about Post-Modernism have con- vinced m e to take the side o f those who do not want to reduce the importance o f the new motivations behind Post-Modernism but are reluctant to oppose in a dogmatical way Modernism and Post-Mod- ernism. 12 GYORGY BODN/~,R I hope my opening remarks have convinced you of the fact that this conference is not only an exchange of abstract ideas, but the confrontation of the principles and methods for research into the whole of twentieth century literature, which includes the require- ment of universality. 
work_mxsbmfa2mfc7rg5fbiedeei5eq	----	ISSN 1648-4142 print / ISSN 1648-3480 online DOI: 10.3846/1648-4142.2008.23.167–171 www.transport.vgtu.lt TRANSPORT 2008 1. Introduction The identity of transportation in the country’s ports is mainly in a multimodal form. Since the transported car- go via sea should be transported into the country in one of the different forms of road or rail transportation. Or if it is transit cargo, the cargo must be transported to other countries. Thus, in ports, all multimodal terminals or, in other words, multi-purpose terminals which could serve ground transportation vehicles, loading and unloading have been available. In other countries, in order to satisfy this need, they have embarked on creating and making “freight villages”. These villages (multimodal terminals) are able to offer storage services, transportation imple- mentation, loading and unloading operations and the classification of cargo collection. Other services in these villages are: organization of final cargo delivery, coordi- nation of cargo transportation flows, special storage and parking spaces which can satisfy the different needs of cargo transportation (Konings 1996). 2. Definition of freight villages (multimodal terminals) A freight village is defined as an area in which all ac- tivities related to cargo transportation, logistics and dis- tribution, domestic and international transportation are conducted by its different managers (Palšaitis and Bazar- as 2004). These managers can be presented as proprietors or tenants of the buildings and their facilities (such as storage houses, centres for storing semi-bulk cargo, of- fices, parking). Also, for following the free competition rules, the freight village should have access to all compa- nies related to the above-mentioned activities. A freight village should also be equipped with public facilities to serve the mentioned objectives. If possible, a freight vil- lage should include all public services for cargo and its users (RTD Programme … 2000). In order to attract the multimodal transportation for loading and discharging cargo, a freight village should preferably be served by different modes of transporta- tion (such as road, rail, domestic waters, and air). Finally, it is necessary for a freight village to be managed by the participation of both public and private sector. In other words, we can name a freight village as a terminal because a freight village is an appropriate example of different ac- tivities in the transportation chain. In fact, a freight village is created to concentrate the cargo transportation tasks in a vast space and area, also to prevent the excessive spread of storage houses, transshipment centres and preparatory bases of companies users (RTD Programme … 2000). 23(2): 167–171 A N A L Y T I C A L P R O B L E M A T I C A L P A P E R THE FEASIBILITY STUDY ON CREATION OF FREIGHT VILLAGE IN HORMOZGAN PROVINCE Shahryar Afandizadeh1, Reza Moayedfar2 1Dept of Civil Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran 2Dept of Civil Engineering, Valiasr University of Rafsanjan, Rafsanjan, Iran, e-mail: rmoayedfar@iust.ac.ir Received 14 October 2007; accepted 1 February 2008 Abstract. The purpose of the present study is to study the feasibility of creating a freight village (multimodal ter- minal) in patronage grounds of the special economic zone of Shahid Rajaie port in Hormozgan Province. To do so, first, some explanations have been presented in terms of familiarization and study of a freight village and its structural models in different countries of the world. Then, the current status of patronage grounds in the special economic zone of Shahid Rajaie port has been studied. Therefore, the proposed models for the special economic zone of Shahid Rajaie port have been implemented and have undergone sensitivity analysis, and finally the results of the analyses and the assessment of different options of sensitivity analysis on the present parameters in the model have been presented. Keywords: multimodal transportation, freight village, total turnover, sensitivity analysis. 168 Sh. Afandizadeh, R. Moayedfar. The feasibility study on creation of freight village in Hormozgan... 3. The study of structural models of freight village At present, the following main models have the most common use (Galloni 1999): the Urban model; which amalgamates the trans- portation activities around big cities and changes the ground transportation models from trucks to smaller vehicles; Italian model (Interporti model); which com- bines the freight village with a multimodal ter- minal of the Italian railway transportation; the combined port cargo transportation model; which merges with other port zones, samples of which already exist; The Simultaneous impressionability model in which all parameters are affected by the creation of freight village at the same time. 4. The study on the current status of the special economic zone of Shahid Rajaie port The special economic zone of Shahid Rajaie port, because of its placement in a special geographic zone and as an edge relating to the southern sea borders, can be the reagent of the area’s special performance with regard to climatic and cultural specifications. In conclusion, whatever makes up the appearance and facial features of a port, should be able to efficiently present the area’s identity in a framework of general view to the observer. In fact, the urban view of Shahid Rajaie port defines the placement of applications related to the main performance of the port on the natural ground and the relation of the seashore on one side to the northern heights on the other side. At present, the view which Shahid Rajaie port offers to the observers who enter the port through the national road network (from north) and the observers who enter the port through the south- ern sea paths, is defined as a special view and presents the special identity of the port. Therefore, the study and in- vestigation of the present situation can help to keep the present outlook before presenting the construction rules and regulations, and even in a mitigated case it can im- prove it (Final studies … 2003). Consideration of patronage grounds in the special economic zone of Shahid Rajaie port as a freight village Zone no. 5 which includes all storing lands of Shahid Ra- jaie port up to now consists of a two-part collection which is known as patronage grounds and 150-hectares grounds. The patronage grounds which have an area of about 750 hectares totally are predicted for and allocated to storage purposes. According to previous studies, the development and conduction of streets and areas for delivering to its ap- plicants are under way. The above-mentioned areas have the capability to be used as a freight village (or multimodal terminal) because of the following reasons: First, these grounds are vast enough for this use. Second, from the transportation point of view and regarding the place of the Shahid Rajaie port it has the ca- pability of multimodal transportation, and due to its ac- cess to different transportation types such as rail, land and • • • • sea transportations are related to one another. The exist- ing railroad on patronage grounds is connected to Bafgh- Bandar Abbas railroad, and in terms of sea transportation it is connected to Persian Gulf waters, and land transpor- tation is connected to the north-south transit corridor. Also, the access to air transportation is available as Bandar Abbas air port is close to Shahid Rajaie port. Third, the terminals in the special economic zone of Shahid Rajaie port can be organized as multimodal ter- minals to transport the existing cargo to another mode of transportation in a way that the mentioned areas be a freight village as a centre to develop the multimodal transportation (Final studies … 2003). 5. Proposing the model The objective of offering our proposed model is to study the degree of improvement in the efficiency of Shahid Rajaie port’s performance in terms of the total number of loading and unloading activities (export, import and cargo transit), in the case of using the patronage grounds of Shahid Rajaie port as a freight village (multimodal ter- minal). In order to estimate the considerable effect in the port’s total turnover, as mentioned earlier, the simultane- ous impressionability model is used. The simultaneous impressionability models include three famous mathematical models as follows (Tsam- boulas and Kapros 2003; Konings 1996): 1. The Linear model with the general form of y = a · x1 + b · x2 + ... + c. 2. Cruff model with the general form of y = a · x1 b · x2 c... . 3. Exponential model with the general form of y = a · 1 2 ...x xb c⋅ , where: y – dependent variable or total port’s turnover to the separation of cargo groups; x1, x2, … – independent variables or the related specific features to each port, (in- cluding area, capacity , the number of cranes, etc,.); a, b, c, … – calibration coefficients. The required features and characteristics for doing the modeling are variables which have a role in the port’s total turnover. These variables are: the area of the port terminal; the capacity of terminal (container, general, and bulk); the number of cranes (rail crane and cranes in the area); the number and length of the existing docks in the port; the cargo loading and discharging time (service time and waiting time); the implementation of the proposed model in the special economic zone of Shahid Rajaie port. • • • • • • 169Transport, 2008, 23(2): 6. Demodulation of proposed model for the special economic zone of Shahid Rajaie port In order to conduct the modeling process, according to the related features of Shahid Rajaie port which were mentioned in the previous section, using the SPSS9 soft- ware, the mentioned models were calibrated for an 11- year period (1991–2001), then it was evaluated accord- ing to the 2002 data. It is worth mentioning that in some models because coefficients of single variables used in the model were not statistically significant, some inte- grated parameters such as dock length to the terminal area, the number of the cranes to the area of the terminal, etc. have been used. All the parameters that are used in these models are presented in Table 1. The modeling trend has been conducted in a way that the combination of different variables in the model has been used according to statistical tests including R2 (for determining the correlation between the independ- ent variables and dependent variables), T-test (for deter- mining the significance level of the combination of the model in relation to the dependent variables), F-test (for determining the significance level of the combination of the model variable in relation to the dependent variable), model evaluation according to the percentage of error compared to the reality has been measured and finally the best combination has been proposed as the optimum and best model. The calibrated models for Shahid Rajaie port in two cases (linearity & nonlinearity) are presented in Tables 2 and 3. Table 1. Several used parameters at modeling process Parameter type Title of parameter Abbreviation Comments Single parameter Terminal area Ta --- Terminal capacity Tc --- Total number of cranes Nc --- Number of docks Nd --- Length of Docks Ld --- Service time St --- Waiting time Wt --- Composed parameter Terminal capacity to terminal area Tcu Tc/Ta Number of cranes to terminal area Ncu Nc/Ta Number of docks to terminal area Ndu Nd/Ta Length of Docks to terminal area Ldu Ld/Ta Average length of each Dock Lda Ld/Nd Service time to waiting time Swt St/Wt Performance parameter Total container turnover Cco --- Total bulk turnover Bco --- Total general cargo turnover Gco --- Table 2. Calibrated models for Shahid Rajaie port (nonlinear case) Shahid Rajaie port general cargo 19 2.1 7.24.6 10gco ncu ela−= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ R2 F test Percentage of evaluation error 0.8 good 15 t-test constant value 1st variable 2nd variable 3rd variable 4th variable good good good --- --- Shahid Rajaie port bulk cargo 11 6.24 2.8933.327 10dbo gdp ela− −= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ R2 F test Percentage of evaluation error 0.8 good 11 t-test constant value 1st variable 2nd variable 3rd variable 4th variable good good good --- --- Shahid Rajaie port container cargo 0.745205co tc= ⋅ R2 F test Percentage of evaluation error 0.86 good 18 t-test constant value 1st variable 2nd variable 3rd variable 4th variable Good Good --- --- --- Shahid Rajaie port Semi Bulk cargo 7 4 20 2.89 * 10 1.004 (5.9 10 ) 0.88 (2.2 10 ) 1.45 gdp ncu ela enu elu sbo − − = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ R2 F test Percentage of evaluation error 0.75 good 22 t-test constant value 1st variable 2nd variable 3rd variable 4th, 5th variable good good good good good 167–171 170 Sh. Afandizadeh, R. Moayedfar. The feasibility study on creation of freight village in Hormozgan... Having considered Table 2, in majority of models, R2 is lower than 0.8 and also percentage of evaluation error is very high. For this reason, all of the nonlinear models have been rejected. Having considered Table 3, R2 of all models are between 0.95 and 0.98 which shows an appropriate correlation between the dependent vari- able that is the total turnover of the ports and the inde- pendent variables(the port features). The value/amount of T-test and Freight village-test in all models regarding the significance of independent variables and correlation between each independent variable and dependent vari- able is completely appropriate. The low amount of aver- age error of evaluation, that is, the difference between the results of model and observation in 2002 illustrates the accordance of model with the reality. The total turnover of Shahid Rajaie port during the 1990’s obtained from the model and observation is illus- trated in Figs. 1–3. Considering the presented graphs, the approximate accordance of the model curve with the observation curve for the three groups of cargo, that is, bulk cargo, general cargo and container cargo is a witness of the ap- propriate accuracy of the calibrated models for Shahid Rajaie port. The total turnover of Shahid Rajaie port has been shown in Table 4. Sensitivity analysis As it was mentioned before, creating a freight village on patronage grounds of the special economic zones of Shahid Rajaie port and increasing the loading and un- loading facilities in it, could make an improvement in the port characteristics or features. These improvements include the number of cranes, terminal capacity, dock length, service time and waiting time. This improvement increases the first 3 characteristics and decreases the sec- ond 3 characteristics. In order to study the effect percentage of each of the mentioned parameters in the total turnover in the project horizon, the calibrated models underwent the sensitivity analysis. To do this, first it is necessary to predict the year of project horizon. In order to predict the total turnover of Shahid Rajaie port in the project horizon year (2011), Table 3. Calibrated models for Shahid Rajaie port (linear case) Shahid Rajaie port general cargo 215.7 49.38 588.1gco ncu ldu swt= ⋅ + ⋅ − ⋅ R2 F test Percentage of evaluation error 0/95 good 15 t-test constant value 1st variable 2nd variable 3rd variable 4th variable --- bad good good --- Shahid Rajaie port bulk cargo 22.396 10 11.632 2825bco tc ld wt−= ⋅ ⋅ + ⋅ − ⋅ R2 F test Percentage of evaluation error 0/98 good 15 t-test constant value 1st variable 2nd variable 3rd variable 4th variable --- bad good good --- Shahid Rajaie port container cargo 58717 35281 8402cco ta st ldu= ⋅ − ⋅ − ⋅ R2 F test Percentage of evaluation error 0/98 good 1 t-test constant value 1st variable 2nd variable 3rd variable 4th variable --- good good good --- 6000 4000 2000 0 Fig. 1. The total turnover of Shahid Rajaie port during the 1990’s obtained from model and observation (General cargo) Fig. 2. The total turnover of Shahid Rajaie port during the 1990’s obtained from model and observation (bulk cargo) Fig 3. The total turnover of Shahid Rajaie port during the 1990’s obtained from model and observation (Container cargo) 171Transport, 2008, 23(2): first, the related characteristics of the port such as termi- nal area, its capacity, number of cranes, etc. considering the trend of its changes during the 1990’s could be pre- dicted. Then by using the calibrated models for Shahid Rajaie port, in the project horizon year 2011, the weight of bulk cargo groups is equal to 9930 thousand tons, gen- eral cargo group is 2900 thousand tons, and the contain- er cargo group would be equal to 1404000 TEU. The results of sensitivity analysis process are shown in Table 5. Considering Table 5, in the case of implementation of a freight village and increasing in the loading and un- loading facilities in Shahid Rajaie port, the 20 % increase in the dock length will increase both the bulk and gen- eral cargo more than the other parameters and will have a more considerable effect on the port’s total turnover (35 %). The second parameter, that has the most effect is the average service time per ship (19 % increase in total turnover). In the case of container cargo, terminal area parameter with 28 % increase in the total turnover would have the highest increase in the total turnover of the port comparing to the other parameters, i.e. dock length and service time. 7. Conclusions The results of the sensitivity analysis of the three: bulk, general and container cargoes show that parameters such as dock length, terminal area and average service time per ship can have a considerable effect on changing the total turnover of the port, but implementing improvement in the mentioned parameters at the same time would have a more considerable effect (for example, the 20 % increase in the dock length and 20 % decrease in the service time simultaneously would lead to 52 % increase in the total turnover of general cargo). This means that the creation of a freight village on patronage grounds of the special economic zone of Shahid Rajaie port without increasing the loading and unloading facilities (admission capacity, number and length of docks in the port) can only affect and decrease the cargo average waiting time in storage. This occurs because of the fast and quick transportation of cargo from port to a freight village and then to the fi- nal destination. This, considering the results of sensitivi- ty analysis, could have a slight effect on the improvement of Shahid Rajaie port’s total turnover. Also, increasing the loading and unloading facilities, (such as admission capacity, the length and number of the docks , etc., of the port) without creating the freight village and appropriate backshore facilities (for transporting unloaded cargo to the final destination and also quick transportation of the cargo into the port to load the ships) can considerably increase the average waiting time of the cargo in the stor- age and service time for each ship which results in lower- ing the port efficiency and its total turnover. References Final studies & design of patronage grounds at special econom- ic zone of Shahid Rajaie port, Ports & Shipping Organiza- tion, June 2003. Galloni, G. Conclusions and Recommendations. FV-2000 Inter- national Conference, Barcelona, 17 June 1999. Available from Internet: <www.bo.interporto.it/fv2000/galloni/GGC.htm > Johannessen, S.; Solem, O. 2002. Logistic organizations: ide- ologies, principles and practice, The International Journal of Logistics Management 13(1): 8–16. Konings, J. W. 1996. Integrated centres for the transshipment, storage, collection and distribution of goods – a survey of the possibilities for a high-quality intermodal transport concept, Transport Policy 3(1): 3–11. Palšaitis, R.; Bazaras, D. 2004. Analysis of the perspectives of intermodal transport and logistics centres in Lithuania, Transport 19(3): 119–123. RTD Programme “FV-2000 – Quality of Freight Villages Struc- ture and Operations”, Contract Number, IN-97-SC2115, 2000. Tsamboulas, D. A.; Kapros, S. 2003. Freight Village evaluation under uncertainty with public and private financing, Trans- port Policy 10(2): 141–156. Table 4. Total turnover of Shahid Rajaie port based on model & observation (2002) Shahid Rajaie port Bulk cargo (1000 ton) General cargo (1000 ton) Container cargo (Teu) Observation 13302 809905 Model 11217 805022 Table 5. Sensitivity analysis of calibrated models at Shahid Rajaie port (2011) General Cargo 20 % increase in number of cranes 20 % increase in Dock length 20 % decrease in service time 4 % increase in total turnover 35 % increase in total turnover 18 % increase in total turnover Bulk Cargo 20 % percent increase in admission capacity 20 % increase in Dock length 20 % decrease in waiting time 4 % increase in total turnover 19 % increase in total turnover 3 % increase in total turnover Container Cargo 20 %increase in terminal area 20 % decrease in service time 20 % increase in Dock length 28 % increase in total turnover 1 % increase in total turnover No change 167–171 
work_mxx5bzlr5rglnaay3og4simfdu	----	Faculty of Business Economics and Entrepreneurship International Review (2019 No.1-2) 21 A HYBRID MODEL OF COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE BASED ON BOURDIEU CAPITAL THEORY AND COMPETITIVE INTELLIGENCE USING FUZZY DELPHI AND ISM-GRAY DEMATEL (STUDY OF IRANIAN FOOD INDUSTRY) NAEINI Ali Bonyadi1,MOSAYEBI Alireza2, MOHAJERANI Neda3 1 Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran (IRAN) 2 Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran (IRAN) 3 Alzahra University Tehran (IRAN) E-mails: alireza.mosayebi88@gmail.com ABSTRACT Competitive advantage is an important issue emphasized in management and strategic planning over the past few years. This study was aimed to comprehensively evaluate competitive advantage and design and explain a hybrid model of competitive advantage based on Bourdieu capital theory and competitive intelligence using fuzzy Delphi and ISM-Gray DEMATEL in Iran Food Industry. This article applies a method to managers, with the findings indicating that the firms will not be able to achieve competitive advantage in the market unless they are formed by a high start-up capital and a high competitive intelligence and awareness on the part of the managers as to the business conditions. Such factors enable organizations to make better use of their own cultural and social capitals. Also, the optimal use of social and cultural capitals ameliorates the competitive advantages of the organizations. The authenticity and the economic values added of organizations are further enhanced by obtaining competitive advantage. Promoting organizations’ credit and brand improves their economic and market value added, which, in turn augment their capitals and economic assets. Keywords: competitive advantage, economic capital, social capital, symbolic capital, cultural capital, competitive intelligence JEL:L10 UDC: 005.332.4:338.439(55) COBISS.SR-ID 277949708 22 Faculty of Business Economics and Entrepreneurship International Review (2019 No.1-2) INTRODUCTION As far as food industry is concerned, there exists a major need for planning in many countries due to the following reasons (Antelo, Magdalena, & Reboredo, 2017; Chavas, 2017; Perez, Ribera, & Palma, 2017; Nestle, 2013; Vasconcellos, 2003; Kress-Rogers & Brimelow, 2001; Traill & Pitts, 1998; Menrad, 2004): • Major parts of its value reside in the native country, hence providing a suitable employment condition. • It provides more profits and values added in every stage of supply chain • Regarding the locality of the chain of raw material to consumption (value chain), food industry and agriculture are less sensitive to and can survive in the face of external risks. • High effect of new technologies in increasing the speed and quality as well as reducing the production costs. • Food industry notably impacts the lifestyle and culture of various social classes. The increased net value of agricultural products improves indigenous investment in this sector. Moreover, as a result of the availability of food and conversion industries, the brokerage of agricultural products diminishes, thereby leading to a more healthy economy. Supplying food and providing food security are of great importance, a direction in which conversion industry plays a critical role. Owing to the high competition in this field, many manufacturing companies try to achieve competitive advantage, hence higher market share, profitability, authenticity and so forth ((Harris & Ogbonna, 2001; Klimek & Hansen, 2017; Massa & Testa, 2009; Topliceanu, Bibire, & Nistor, 2015(. In so far as Iran economy is concerned, food and agriculture occupy prominent positions. The agriculture sector plays a major part in economy because of the availability of potential facilities, arable areas, climate variation, high population and employment in rural parts, presence of economic superiority such as relative superiority of investment in this field and the value of manufacturing assets and capital. Currently, Iran economy is in dire need for the development of products that promote domestic economy and improve non-petroleum exports because. In this regard, conversion industries have a high importance because they play critical roles in domestic economy and, simultaneously, affect non-petroleum export (Valentine; John & Rice, 2013; Tehran Times, 2012). According to Porter’s competitive advantage model, the higher the attraction of an industry the more the investment and the competition within that industry becomes. In such contest, the firm with the higher competitive advantage can prevail (Davcik & Sharma, 2016; Hsu, 2013; Perren, 2013; Rui, Zhang, & Shipman, 2017; Wongprawmas & Canavari, 2017). Broadly speaking, environmental and organizational factors affect competitive advantage. The former refers to achieving competencies through external opportunities, whereas the latter considers the competitive advantage in the context of resource-based view (RNV), competence- based competition (CBC) and dynamic capabilities view (DCV). The main focus of the present study is DCV which refers to the renovation of structures according to environmental conditions. DCV deals with relational and network capabilities, trust, cooperation and inter- organizational alliance ((Borseková, Vaňová, & Vitálišová, 2016; Jensen, Cobbs, & Turner, 2016; Peters, Wieder, Sutton, & Wakefield, 2016; Teixeira & Werther, 2013)). Competitive intelligence in DCV includes identifying the nature of change, predicting future market trends, competition, technology, innovation, and customers’ preferences and behavioral patterns. The main areas covered by DCV are competitor-related intelligence, Faculty of Business Economics and Entrepreneurship International Review (2019 No.1-2) 23 technology intelligence, strategic intelligence and social intelligence. Market intelligence monitors the current and future demands of customers and their tendency to new markets, segmentation opportunities, major changes in market and competitors distribution. Competitor intelligence evaluates the evolution of competitors’ competitive strategies via systematic monitoring of competitors’ structure, new alternative products and the newcomers of industry. Technology intelligence refers to the profits of current and new technologies and predicts the technologies which will be outcompeted and those that will prevail. Strategic intelligence includes financial and tax rules, political, and human resource and social issues. These four types of intelligence, all interrelated, consider and analyze the socio-behavioral trends ((Ali Köseoglu, Ross, & Okumus, 2016; Mariadoss, Milewicz, Lee, & Sahaym, 2014; Sewdass & Toit, 2014; Shih, Liu, & Hsu, 2010). Competitive advantage may bring economic value added (EVA) and market value added (MVA). EVA, also called economic profit, is an indicator for the evaluation of financial performance according to surplus wealth calculated by the deduction of capital cost from the operational profit (after deduction of tax), (Borseková et al., 2016; Davcik & Sharma, 2016; Peters et al., 2016 Lieberman, Garcia-Castro & Balasubramanian, 2017). Bourdieu (1984), a sociologist, developed a comprehensive theory about the social and organizational capital and advantage creation which can be considered as the essence of many theories and visions of advantage. According to Bourdieu, humans do not live in a vacuum but in a number of fields that are composed of elements including economic, cultural, social and symbolic capitals. He who accords with such elements is able to achieve advantage. 1- Economic capital: The word capital first came to mean “physical” until 1960s. Physical capital usually refers to building and machinery (Shi, Connelly & Hoskisson, 2017) 2- Social capital, Bourdieu argues, represents a collection of relationships, contacts, familiarities, friendships and debts (symbolic debts) that form networks. 3- Symbolic capital is a set of related customs to honor or gratitude rules, belonging to a person or a group. Such capital stems from one’s charisma, experience, religion, race, prestige, dignity, respect and individual capabilities. Symbolic capital is a part of cultural capital that means legitimating, defining and evaluating. According to Bourdieu, symbolic capital can be considered as a separate capital and as the upper bound of other capital types. 4-Cultural capital, Bourdieu holds, refers to information on cultural beliefs and customs and is a behavioral criteria, promoting success and achievement. Cultural capital refers to the ability to perceive and apply cultural goods that appease sustainable tendencies accumulated through socialization. Bourdieu maintained that the theory, on top of macro-level impacts, can lead to variation and competitive advantage in micro communities such various industries and organizations ((Barthélemy, 2017 ; Baxter & Chua, 2008; Cooper & Coulson, 2014; Ihlen, 2005, 2007; Kitchin & David Howe, 2013; Sieweke, 2014). Reviewing various studies, especially those conducted in the field of food industry, it was revealed that, despite the importance of this sector, there have been few studies proposing a compendious and practical model for achieving competitive advantage. The main objective of the present, therefore, was to find out how the indices proposed by Bourdieu can create competitive advantage in food industry, how competitive intelligence can bring about competitive advantage in food industry and other factors affecting competitive advantage. 24 Faculty of Business Economics and Entrepreneurship International Review (2019 No.1-2) METHODOLOGY This is an applied study conducted as a descriptive survey in which a combination of library and field methods were implemented. Library method was used to identify research variables, indices and dimensions of economic, cultural, social an intellectual capitals and competitive intelligence. A survey was carried out to collect the required data. Statistical population includes all corporations working within Iran food industry. Sampling was performed by non- randomized judgment method where eight firms were proposed by national standard organization, health and medical ministry and food and drug organization. The first three firms, chosen based on market share over the past five years (playing major roles in the export of non- petroleum products), were interviewed to identify the native and food-specific indices. The size of the sample did not matter in this study, rather the importance was allocated to experts in group decision making. The experts had to meet the following criteria: • Education in the fields related to strategic management • MA degree • A minimum of ten-year experience in marketing or strategic planning and management • Work experience as manager or assistant for at least for 5 years Interviews were continued until a theoretical saturation was reached (46 experts were interviewed). For Delphi procedure, ten experts with better status were selected. The questionnaires were based on a pairwise comparison of all elements, hence its validity. Moreover, they were submitted to nine experts (chosen out of the interviewees) for content validity evaluation and modified according to their comments. Furthermore, all model factors and criteria were compared pairwise and the highest possible number of questions were asked, thereby eliminating any need for reliability check. Research procedure algorithm was designed based on a scientific methodology as depicted in figure 1. Figure1. Research execution algorithm Step four: Model evaluation Model evaluation through submitting through a survey among experts Step three: proposing final model Step three: proposing final model of sustainable competitive advantage in food industry using structural- interpretive approach Step two: Determining variables relations pattern Evaluation of the relations (interaction, influencing and impressionability) among the variables using gray DEMATEL Step one: Identifying indices of sustainable competitive advantage using Fuzzy Delphi Determining the indices of sustainable competitive advantage in food industry based on Bourdieu capital theory and competitive intelligence via literature review and interviewing Faculty of Business Economics and Entrepreneurship International Review (2019 No.1-2) 25 DATA ANALYSIS Descriptive statistics Descriptive statistics was used to describe the collected data. Demographic properties of the respondents are presented in table 1. According to the table, most respondents (89%) were married; 41% were 50-60 years old; 57% had MA degree and 54% had a work experience of 10 to 15 years. Table 1. Demographic properties of the respondents 89 Married Marriage status 11 Single 19 30-40 years Age 28 40-50 41 50-60 8 >60 39 Bachelor and lower Education 57 MA 4 PhD 30 5-10 Work experience 54 10-15 34 >15 Inferential statistics Identifying the key factors affecting competitive advantage in food industry using fuzzy Delphi Identifying factors affecting competitive advantage is difficult and the background of competitive advantage is scarce in food industry; problem solving, accordingly, requires the cooperation of experts. In this regard, fuzzy Delphi was used to determine the key factors affecting competitive advantage and representing the core of this research. Fuzzy Delphi was performed as follows: At first, via literature review, 59 factors affecting competitive advantage were selected out of which, 36 factors were finally chosen based on the comments of nine experts in the context of Bourdieu capital theory and competitive intelligence together with two additional variables. Fuzzification was performed using Likert’s five-point scale with identical distances. Fuzzy counterparts of the linguistic variables are presented in Table 2. Table 2. Fuzzy numbers of linguistic variables (Bujadzief, 2002) Triangular fuzzy numbers Linguistic variables (0.75, 1, 1) Very high (0.5, 0.75, 1) High (0.25, 0.5, 0.75) Average (0, 0.25, 0.5) Low (0, 0, 0.25) Very low 26 Faculty of Business Economics and Entrepreneurship International Review (2019 No.1-2) A questionnaire was then prepared and submitted to the experts based on the proposed items and linguistic variables represented in Table 3. In the second part of the survey, another questionnaire was prepared where the proposed items together with the previous comments of each expert and their differences (defuzzified means) were submitted to the expert panel. If the difference between experts’ comments in two consecutive steps is lower than the very low threshold (0.1), the survey is stopped (Cheng and Lin, 2002). Finally, a consensus was achieved among the experts as to the components including EVA, national and international award, application of multiple brands, co-branding with famous firms, creating distinctive images, sustainable market share index, observed competitive advantage index, permanent use of global knowledge and organizational learning culture, keeping up with high standards, embedded credits and scientific quality, ethical issues, manufacturing machinery and excellent software and hardware, raw materials in supply chain, high startup capital, professional employees, international vision of managers, suitable pricing approach, appropriate strategies and policies, an accurate understanding of domestic and global technology, R&D unit and permanent monitoring of market and customers’ demands, entrepreneurial vision of top management, effective interaction with customers, cooperation with social and public organizations, timely alliance with competitors for market control, using network and WOM in advertising instead of media, internal trust and consistency between managers and staff, and creating trust among the customers with the differences lower than the very low threshold (0.1) between the first and second steps; thus the survey was stopped with the significant difference being about 9 components. In the third step of the survey, model criteria and components were modified and a third questionnaire was prepared and submitted to the experts. However, in this step, 27 out of 36 components were stopped and the survey was conducted on the remaining nine components. The disagreement among the experts as regards the nine items was lower than 0.1, hence the survey was stopped. Compared with the previous steps, there existed, a suitable consensus among the expert in this step. Out of the various components, top managers’ brand in food industry (with a score of -0.12) and cooperation with customers through branding process (0.11) were removed from the model due to disagreement among experts. Therefore, after three steps, two criteria were removed and a model with 34 items was developed. Factors affecting competitive advantage were identified according to fuzzy Delphi method. Developing final model using ISM-Gray DEMATEL Gray multiple-criteria decision making models were used to determine the associations among the variables. For this purpose, gray DEMATEL technique was used where following the determination of the causal relations among the variables, interpretive-structural technique was applied to develop the final model. Calculating interrelations using GDEMATEL The main objective of this study was to elucidate competitive advantage based on Bourdieu capital theory and competitive intelligence using ISM-Gray DEMATEL. The main criteria included competitive intelligence, social capital, economic capital, symbolic capital, EVA, cultural capital, competitive advantage and MAV. The criteria were indexed with Ci to facilitate their tracking through the research. Faculty of Business Economics and Entrepreneurship International Review (2019 No.1-2) 27 Table 3. Criteria of achieving competitive advantage in food industry and its symbols C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 Competitive intelligence Economic capital Social capital Symbolic capital Economic value added Cultural capital Competitive advantage Market value added Primarily, interrelations among the indices were identified, forming a matrix for the relationships among the main criteria. The interrelations of the main criteria were achieved by DEMATEL method, so the experts were enabled to express their ideas as to the severity and direction of the effects. It should be mentioned that DEMATEL matrix (interrelations matrix) is cause-effect, influencing the impressionability of the variables. Direct relation matrix In group DEMATEL technique, based on the ideas of certain experts, simple arithmetic mean was used and a direct relation matrix was formed. First, experts’ ideas were individually grayed. The primary matrix of each expert was formed as follows: )1( In this matrix, 𝑍𝑖𝑗 𝑘 stands for the effect of the element i on element j based on kth expert vision. In order to form final direct relation matrix, the mean of experts’ comments was calculated for each element: (2) And a direct relation matrix (X) was calculated by estimating the gray mean of experts’ comments. Table 4. Gray direct relation matrix X C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C1 [0, 0.3] [0.32, .62] [0.4, 0.66] [0.55, 0.4] [0.67, .16] [0.42,0.78] [0.47, .72] [0.44, 0.3] C2 [0.45, 0.6] [0, 0.3] [0.55, 0.4] [0.51, 0.36] [0.41, 0.56] [0.34, 0.62] [0.43, 0.68] [0.53, .48] C3 [0.38, 0.66] [0.31, 0.48] [0, 0.3] [0.47, 0.32] [0.41, 0.72] [0.36, 0.66] [0.31, 0.6] [0.46,0.62] C4 [0.23, 0.48] [0.2, 0.5] [0.45, 0.68] [0, 0.3] [0.43, 0.28] [0.48, 0.62] [0.43, 0.64] [0.38, .66] C5 [0.22, 0.42] [0.19, 0.4] [0.35, 0.64] [0.34, 0.5] [0, 0.3] [0.41, 0.76] [0.27, 0.52] [0.44, 0.66] C6 [0.32, 0.62] [0.39, 0.56] [0.55, 0.64] [0.44, 0.66] [0.44, 0.58] [0, 0.3] [0.6, 0.38] [0.38, 0.7] C7 [0.3, 0.42] [0.31, 0.44] [0.31, 0.48] [0.31, 0.56] [0.35, 0.64] [0.36, 0.54] [0, 0.3] [0.2, 0.5] C8 [0.22, 0.42] [0.19, 0.4] [0.34, 0.62] [0.29, 0.44] [0.25, 0.48] [0.4, 0.62] [0.21, 0.48] [0, 0.3] Calculating the normal direct relation matrix Direct relation matrix was normalized using the following formula: (3) 28 Faculty of Business Economics and Entrepreneurship International Review (2019 No.1-2) (4) (5) The sum of the upper and lower bounds of each row was individually calculated. The elements of the lower bound were divided by the largest sum of the lower bounds. Elements of the upper bound were divided by the largest sum of the upper bounds. Therefore, ⊗ S = [ 1 4.4 , 1 3.3 ] (6) Normalized matrix (N) of the main criteria was formed as follows: Table 5. Normalized matrix of the main criteria (N) N C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C1 [0, 0.092] [0.072, 0.19] [0.09, 0.202] [0.124, 0.122] [0.151, 0.049] [0.095, 0.239] [0.106, 0.22] [0.099, 0.092] C2 [0.101, 0.183] [0, 0.092] [0.124, 0.122] [0.115, 0.11] [0.092, 0.171] [0.077, 0.19] [0.097, 0.208] [0.119, 0.147] C3 [0.086, 0.202] [0.07, 0.147] [0, 0.092] [0.106, 0.098] [0.092, 0.22] [0.081, 0.202] [0.07, 0.183] [0.104, 0.19] C4 [0.052, 0.147] [0.045, 0.153] [0.101, 0.208] [0, 0.092] [0.097, 0.086] [0.108, 0.19] [0.097, 0.196] [0.086, 0.202] C5 [0.05, 0.128] [0.043, 0.122] [0.079, 0.196] [0.077, 0.153] [0, 0.092] [0.092, 0.232] [0.061, 0.159] [0.099, 0.202] C6 [0.072, 0.19] [0.088, 0.171] [0.124, 0.196] [0.099, 0.202] [0.099, 0.177] [0, 0.092] [0.135, 0.116] [0.086, 0.214] C7 [0.068, 0.128] [0.07, 0.135] [0.07, 0.147] [0.07, 0.171] [0.079, 0.196] [0.081, 0.165] [0, 0.092] [0.045, 0.153] C8 [0.05, 0.128] [0.043, 0.122] [0.077, 0.19] [0.065, 0.135] [0.056, 0.147] [0.09, 0.19] [0.047, 0.147] [0, 0.092] Calculating the full relation matrix For this purpose, the identity matrix (I) was formed and then deducted from the normalized matrix; the resulting matrix was inversed and, ultimately, the normalized matrix was multiplied by the inversed identity matrix: ( ) 1 T N I N − =  − )7( Table 6. Total relation matrix (T) of the main criteria using gray values T C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C1 [0.108, 0.621] [0.166, 0.492] [0.232, 0.612] [0.257, 0.257] [0.283, 0.629] [0.23, 0.559] [0.234, 0.562] [0.234, 0.676] C2 [0.201, 0.549] [0.099, 0.59] [0.259, 0.682] [0.25, 0.25] [0.233, 0.532] [0.214, 0.545] [0.225, 0.579] [0.251, 0.633] C3 [0.17, 0.595] [0.149, 0.597] [0.126, 0.78] [0.22, 0.22] [0.211, 0.548] [0.196, 0.614] [0.182, 0.668] [0.216, 0.66] C4 [0.138, 0.605] [0.125, 0.559] [0.213, 0.638] [0.118, 0.118] [0.208, 0.63] [0.214, 0.594] [0.201, 0.619] [0.194, 0.612] C5 [0.123, 0.634] [0.111, 0.598] [0.178, 0.659] [0.173, 0.173] [0.103, 0.64] [0.185, 0.544] [0.154, 0.669] [0.191, 0.619] C6 [0.173, 0.617] [0.178, 0.588] [0.255, 0.699] [0.231, 0.231] [0.233, 0.604] [0.137, 0.539] [0.254, 0.737] [0.216, 0.652] C7 [0.139, 0.581] [0.135, 0.535] [0.169, 0.639] [0.167, 0.167] [0.177, 0.494] [0.174, 0.477] [0.097, 0.668] [0.144, 0.603] C8 [0.115, 0.559] [0.104, 0.527] [0.164, 0.583] [0.152, 0.152] [0.145, 0.516] [0.171, 0.494] [0.132, 0.597] [0.089, 0.642] Plotting the network relation map Estimating the threshold value specifies the network relation map (NRM). This method enables us to ignore negligible relations and plot the significant ones. NRM shows the relations whose values are higher than threshold value in matrix T. For this purpose, gray values were converted to white values. Full relation matrix is presented in the following table: Faculty of Business Economics and Entrepreneurship International Review (2019 No.1-2) 29 Table 7. Total relation matrix (T) of the main criteria using crisp values C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 Tw 0.364 0.329 0.422 0.257 0.456 0.395 0.398 0.455 C1 0.375 0.344 0.471 0.424 0.382 0.379 0.402 0.442 C2 0.383 0.373 0.453 0.362 0.379 0.405 0.425 0.438 C3 0.372 0.342 0.426 0.386 0.419 0.404 0.410 0.403 C4 0.379 0.355 0.418 0.388 0.371 0.364 0.411 0.405 C5 0.395 0.383 0.477 0.421 0.419 0.338 0.495 0.434 C6 0.360 0.335 0.404 0.352 0.336 0.325 0.382 0.373 C7 0.337 0.315 0.373 0.346 0.331 0.332 0.364 0.365 C8 The mean of matrix T is calculated to estimate the threshold values of the relations. Once threshold values are determined, all values of matrix T lower than threshold are regarded as zero, meaning that the causal relation is ignored. In this study, threshold value was estimated 0.387. Since this matrix is used as the input matrix in ISM, significant relations are assigned 1 and those with values lower than threshold are assigned zero. The pattern of significant relations is presented in the below table. Table 8. Pattern of significant relations of the main criteria C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 Tm 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 C1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 C2 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 C3 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 C4 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 C5 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 C6 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 C7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C8 Interpretive structural modeling Interpretive structural modeling was first proposed by Sidge in 1977. In this study, after identifying the criteria and indices, the relation between the indicators and dimensions resulted in analysis using the conceptual relation. Next, the interrelations of the main criteria were determined to obtain the super matrix of causal relations pattern using experts’ comments, enabling experts to express their ideas about the severity and direction of the effects. The resulting matrix (interrelations matrix) shows the cause-effect, influence and impressionability of the variables. Formation of structural self-interaction matrix Structural self-interaction matrix is formed by criteria and indices and their comparison through four statuses of the conceptual relations. The resulting information was summarized based on ISM and the final structural self-interaction matrix was formed (Azar and Bayat, 2008). Reachability matrix is formed by converting the self-interaction matrix to a 0 and 1 two- value matrix. In this matrix, elements of the main diameter are assigned 1. Secondary relations have to be controlled, meaning that if A results in B and B results in C, then A must result in C, otherwise the table12 is to be adjusted such that it shows the secondary relations. The reachability matrix of ISM technique is presented in the last table. 30 Faculty of Business Economics and Entrepreneurship International Review (2019 No.1-2) Determining the relations and levels of criteria and indices So as to determine the relations and levels of criteria and indices, we extracted the sum of inputs and outputs for each criterion. The total outputs set includes the criterion and those influenced by the criterion, while the total inputs set includes the criterion and those affecting it. A two-tailed relations pattern of the criteria was then determined. Table 9. Sum of inputs and outputs for the determination of the level Output, influence Input, impressionability C1,C3,C5,C6,C7,C8 C1,C6 Competitive intelligence C2,C3,C4,C6,C7,C8 C2,C4 Economic capital C3,C7,C8 C1,C2,C3,C7,C8 Social capital C2,C4,C5,C8 C2,C4,C5,C6,C7 Symbolic capital C4,C5 C1,C4,C5,C6,C7 EVA C1,C4,C5,C6,C7,C8 C1,C2,C6 Cultural capital C3,C4,C5,C7,C8 C1,C2,C3,C6,C7 Competitive advantage C3,C8 C1,C2,C3,C4,C6,C7,C8 MVA The first row which is the intersection of the two sets is equal to achievable (inputs) set, indicating the first level of priority. If intersection of the inputs set and outputs set is equal, the corresponding variable is placed in the highest position of ISM hierarchy. After determining the level, the criterion whose level is determined is removed from the set and a new set of inputs and outputs is formed where the level of the next variable is obtained. Table10. Determining the first level in ISM hierarchy level Shared Input, impressionability Output, influence 1 C1,C6 C1,C6 C1,C3,C5,C6,C7,C8 Competitive intelligence 1 C2,C4 C2,C4 C2,C3,C4,C6,C7,C8 Economic capital C3,C7,C8 C1,C2,C3,C7,C8 C3,C7,C8 Social capital C2,C4 ,C5 C2,C4,C5,C6,C7 C2,C4,C5,C8 Symbolic capital C4,C5 C1,C4,C5,C6,C7 C4,C5 EVA C1,C6 C1,C2,C6 C1,C4,C5,C6,C7,C8 Cultural capital C3,C7 C1,C2,C3,C6,C7 C3,C4,C5,C7,C8 Competitive advantage C3,C8 C1,C2,C3,C4,C6 ,C7,C8 C3,C8 MVA Therefore, competitive intelligence and economic capital are the variables of the first level which were then removed and a new set of inputs and outputs was formed without considering the variables of the first level. Once the Intersection set is determined, variables whose intersection is equal to inputs set are considered as the variable of the second level. Table 15 presents the calculation process of determining the second level in Ism hierarchy. Table11. Determining the second level in ISM hierarchy level Shared Input, impressionability Output, influence 2 C3,C7,C8 C3,C7,C8 C3,C7,C8 Social capital C4,C5 C4,C5,C6,C7 C4,C5,C8 Symbolic capital C4,C5 C4,C5,C6,C7 C4,C5 EVA 2 C6 C6 C4,C5,C6,C7,C8 Cultural capital C3,C7 C3,C6,C7 C3,C4,C5,C7,C8 Competitive advantage C3,C8 C3,C4,C6,C7,C8 C3,C8 MVA Faculty of Business Economics and Entrepreneurship International Review (2019 No.1-2) 31 According to the results, social capital and cultural capital are the variables of the second level. To determine the elements of the third level, those placed in the second level are removed and a new set of inputs and outputs is formed without considering the variables of the second level. The intersection set is determined and the variables whose intersection is equal to inputs set are considered as the variables of the third level. Table12. Determining the elements of the third level level Shared Input, impressionability Output, influence C4,C5 C4,C5,C7 C4,C5,C8 Symbolic capital C4,C5 C4,C5,C7 C4,C5 EVA 3 C7 C7 C4,C5,C7,C8 Competitive advantage C8 C4,C7,C8 C8 MVA According to the calculations, competitive advantage is determined as the variable of the third level. Table13. Determining the elements of the fourth level level Shared Input, impressionability Output, influence 4 C4,C5 C4,C5 C4,C5,C8 Symbolic capital 4 C4,C5 C4,C5 C4,C5 EVA C8 C4,C8 C8 MVA Symbolic capital and EVA were selected as the variables placed at the fourth level. Finally, MVA was determined as the variable of the last level. The final pattern of the variables’ levels is presented in Figure 4 which illustrates the significant relation of the variables of each level with those positioned in the lower level along with the significant interdependencies of each row’s elements. Adding the variables’ names, we reach: Figure 2. Basic model developed by adding variables’ names 32 Faculty of Business Economics and Entrepreneurship International Review (2019 No.1-2) CONCLUSION The main objective of this study was to explain and develop a hybrid model of competitive advantage based on Bourdieu capital theory and competitive intelligence using fuzzy Delphi and ISM-Gray DEMATEL in Iran food industry. Based on the results, certain recommendations are proposed to managers and decision makers of the food industry. Based on Delphi results, managers and decision makers of food industry should pay a great deal of attention to EVA, national and international award, application of multiple brands, co- branding with famous firms, creating distinctive image, sustainable market share index, observed competitive advantage index, permanent use of global knowledge and organizational learning culture, keeping up with high standards, embedded credits and scientific quality, ethical issues, manufacturing machinery and excellent software and hardware, raw materials in the supply chain, high startup capital, professional employees, international visions , suitable pricing approach, appropriate strategies and policies, a thorough understanding of domestic and global technology, R&D unit and permanent monitoring of market and customers’ demands, entrepreneurial vision of top management, effective interaction with customers, cooperation with social and public organizations, timely alliance with competitors for market control, using network and WOM for advertising instead of media, internal trust and consistency between managers and staff, and establishing trust among the customers for planning. Based on the results of modeling tests and evaluation via ISM-DEMATEL, it is recommended that administrators promote competitive intelligence, and truly understand i business and startup capital to achieve competitive advantage. In doing so, an organization can make better use of social and cultural capital. Optimal use of social and cultural capital improves the competitive advantage of these organizations in the market, enhancing their credit, EVA and MVA Based on experts’ emphasis on certain indices, it can be concluded that the following can positively affect profitability via increasing customers’ satisfaction and promoting sale: Increasing investment in advertising rate and R&D system, reducing price and strengthening the customer relation management and customer experience management, and paying a lot of heed to such communication tools as personal interaction and relationships with foreign distributers. Increasing customer satisfaction influences their loyalty to the brand and its power and reputation (symbolic capital), thereby promoting market share (competitive advantage). Possessing a market-oriented export approach is an indispensable part of superior export performance. Accordingly, it is indispensable to increase export marketing skills in firms seeking regular export, through allocating sufficient resources to export marketing R&D. Notwithstanding the rather high cost of R&D, such practices reduce the uncertainty of export marketing decisions. Faculty of Business Economics and Entrepreneurship International Review (2019 No.1-2) 33 REFRENCES [1] Ali Köseoglu, M., Ross, G., & Okumus, F. (2016). Competitive intelligence practices in hotels. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 53, 161-172. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2015.11.002 [2] Antelo, M., Magdalena, P., & Reboredo, J. C. (2017). Economic crisis and the unemployment effect on household food expenditure: The case of Spain. Food Policy, 69, 11-24. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2017.03.003 [3] Ayse, Valentine; Nash, Jason John; Leland, Rice (January 2013). "The Business Year 2013: Iran". London, U.K.: The Business Year: 138. ISBN 978-1-908180-11-7. [4] Barthélemy, J. (2017), The impact of technical consultants on the quality of their clients' products: Evidence from the Bordeaux wine industry. Strat. Mgmt. J., 38: 1174–1190. doi:10.1002/smj.2531 [5] Baxter, J., & Chua, W. F. (2008). Be(com)ing the chief financial officer of an organisation: Experimenting with Bourdieu's practice theory. Management Accounting Research, 19(3), 212-230. doi:10.1016/j.mar.2008.06.001 [6] Borseková, K., Vaňová, A., & Vitálišová, K. (2016). Smart Specialization for Smart Spatial Development: Innovative Strategies for Building Competitive Advantages in Tourism in Slovakia. 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B., Garcia-Castro, R. and Balasubramanian, N. (2017), Measuring value creation and appropriation in firms: The VCA model. Strat. Mgmt. J., 38: 1193–1211. doi: 10.1002/smj.2565 [20] Mariadoss, B. J., Milewicz, C., Lee, S., & Sahaym, A. (2014). Salesperson competitive intelligence and performance: The role of product knowledge and sales force automation usage. Industrial Marketing Management, 43(1), 136-145. doi:10.1016/j.indmarman.2013.08.005 [21] Massa, S., & Testa, S. (2009). A knowledge management approach to organizational competitive advantage: Evidence from the food sector. European Management Journal , .141-129 ,)2(27doi:10.1016/j.emj.2008.06.005 [22] Menrad, K. (2004) Innovation in the food industry in Germany. Research Policy 33(6-7), 845–878. [23] Nestle, M. (2013). Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health. California Studies in Food and Culture. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520- 95506-6. 534 pages. [24] Perez, M. P., Ribera, L. A., & Palma, M. A. (2017). Effects of trade and agricultural policies on the structure of the U.S. tomato industry. Food Policy, 69, 123-134. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2017.03.011 [25] Perren, L. (2013). Strategic discourses of ‘competitive advantage’: Comparing social representation of causation in academia and practice. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 29(3), 235-246. doi:10.1016/j.scaman.2012.12.001 [26] Peters, M. D., Wieder, B., Sutton, S. G., & Wakefield, J. (2016). Business intelligence systems use in performance measurement capabilities: Implications for enhanced competitive advantage. International Journal of Accounting Information Systems, 21, 1- 17. doi:10.1016/j.accinf.2016.03.001 [27] Rui, H., Zhang, M., & Shipman, A. (2017). Chinese expatriate management in emerging markets: A competitive advantage perspective. Journal of International Management. doi:10.1016/j.intman.2017.01.002 [28] Sewdass, N., & Toit, A. D. (2014). Current state of competitive intelligence in South Africa. International Journal of Information Management, 34(2), 185-190. doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2013.10.006 [29] Shi, W., Connelly, B. L. and Hoskisson, R. E. (2017), External corporate governance and financial fraud: cognitive evaluation theory insights on agency theory prescriptions. Strat. Mgmt. J., 38: 1268–1286. doi:10.1002/smj.2560 [30] Shih, M.-J., Liu, D.-R., & Hsu, M.-L. (2010). Discovering competitive intelligence by mining changes in patent trends. Expert Systems with Applications, 37(4), 2882-2890. doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2009.09.001 [31] Sieweke, J. (2014). Pierre Bourdieu in management and organization studies—A citation context analysis and discussion of contributions. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 30(4), 532-543. doi:10.1016/j.scaman.2014.04.004 [32] Teixeira, E. d. O., & Werther, W. B. (2013). Resilience: Continuous renewal of competitive advantages. 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ISBN 978-0- 7514-0431-9. 301 pages. https://books.google.com/books?id=39oVBbtt6IEC&printsec=frontcover https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95506-6 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95506-6 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2017.03.011 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2017.03.011 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2017.03.011 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.02.198 https://books.google.com/books?id=-g_iw4ocyAgC&printsec=frontcover https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7514-0431-9 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7514-0431-9 Faculty of Business Economics and Entrepreneurship International Review (2019 No.1-2) 35 [35] Vasconcellos, J.A. (2003). Quality Assurance for the Food Industry: A Practical Approach. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-203-49810-1. 448 pages. 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work_mytkx56znvhs5a2nsyrzle34s4	----	[PDF] History of art paintings through the lens of entropy and complexity | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.1073/pnas.1800083115 Corpus ID: 52099234History of art paintings through the lens of entropy and complexity @article{Sigaki2018HistoryOA, title={History of art paintings through the lens of entropy and complexity}, author={H. Y. D. Sigaki and M. Perc and H. V. Ribeiro}, journal={Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences}, year={2018}, volume={115}, pages={E8585 - E8594} } H. Y. D. Sigaki, M. Perc, H. V. Ribeiro Published 2018 Physics, Mathematics, Computer Science, Medicine Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Significance The critical inquiry of paintings is essentially comparative. This limits the number of artworks that can be investigated by an art expert in reasonable time. The recent availability of large digitized art collections enables a shift in the scale of such analysis through the use of computational methods. Our research shows that simple physics-inspired metrics that are estimated from local spatial ordering patterns in paintings encode crucial information about the artwork. We… Expand View on NAS pnas.org Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper 36 CitationsHighly Influential Citations 1 Background Citations 12 Methods Citations 5 Results Citations 1 View All Figures and Topics from this paper figure 1 figure 2 figure 3 figure 4 figure 5 View All 5 Figures & Tables statistical cluster Categories Paper Mentions News Article Physicists Come Up With Intriguing Way to Measure Art's Evolution | Smart News Smithsonian Magazine 11 March 2019 Blog Post Physicists Come Up With Intriguing Way to Measure Art's Evolution Smart News 11 March 2019 News Article Computer Program Measures the Entropy of Art Scientific American 5 March 2019 News Article Críticos artificiales del arte humano La Vanguardia 14 December 2018 Blog Post Математики свели историю живописи к изменению двух параметров N+1: научные статьи, новости, открытия 1 September 2018 News Article Kann man die Kunstgeschichte berechnen? Frankfurter Allgemeine 29 August 2018 News Article Berechenbare Bilder: Forscher erzählen Kunstgeschichte mit Big Data APA 29 August 2018 36 Citations Citation Type Citation Type All Types Cites Results Cites Methods Cites Background Has PDF Publication Type Author More Filters More Filters Filters Sort by Relevance Sort by Most Influenced Papers Sort by Citation Count Sort by Recency Dissecting landscape art history with information theory Byunghwee Lee, M. Seo, +4 authors S. K. Han History, Medicine Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2020 2 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Beauty in artistic expressions through the eyes of networks and physics M. Perc Medicine Journal of the Royal Society Interface 2020 3 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Open-ended cumulative cultural evolution of Hollywood film crews Peeter Tinits, O. Sobchuk Sociology Evolutionary Human Sciences 2020 2 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Aesthetical Issues of Leonardo Da Vinci’s and Pablo Picasso’s Paintings with Stochastic Evaluation G.-Fivos Sargentis, Panayiotis G Dimitriadis, D. Koutsoyiannis Art 2020 4 Save Alert Research Feed Quantifying the development of user-generated art during 2001–2010 M. Yazdani, J. Chow, L. Manovich Computer Science, Medicine PloS one 2017 7 PDF Save Alert Research Feed The human quest for discovering mathematical beauty in the arts Stefano Balietti Computer Science, Medicine Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2020 PDF View 1 excerpt, cites background Save Alert Research Feed Complexity Analysis of Escher’s Art A. Lopes, J. Machado Computer Science, Medicine Entropy 2019 3 PDF View 2 excerpts, cites background and methods Save Alert Research Feed Computing the relevant colors that describe the color palette of paintings. J. Nieves, L. Gomez-Robledo, Y. Chen, J. Romero Computer Science, Medicine Applied optics 2020 View 1 excerpt, cites background Save Alert Research Feed Demographic Influences on Contemporary Art with Unsupervised Style Embeddings N. Huckle, Noa García, Yuta Nakashima Computer Science ECCV Workshops 2020 2 PDF View 1 excerpt, cites background Save Alert Research Feed Understanding and Creating Art with AI: Review and Outlook Eva Cetinic, James She Computer Science ArXiv 2021 PDF View 1 excerpt Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 3 4 ... References SHOWING 1-10 OF 96 REFERENCES SORT BYRelevance Most Influenced Papers Recency Large-Scale Quantitative Analysis of Painting Arts D. Kim, S. Son, H. Jeong Computer Science, Medicine Scientific reports 2014 41 PDF View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Topological invariants can be used to quantify complexity in abstract paintings E. D. L. Calleja, R. Zenit Computer Science Knowl. Based Syst. 2017 4 View 1 excerpt Save Alert Research Feed Historical Grammar of the Visual Arts A. Riegl, J. Jung, Benjamin Binstock Art 2004 54 Save Alert Research Feed Quantification of artistic style through sparse coding analysis in the drawings of Pieter Bruegel the Elder J. Hughes, Daniel J. Graham, D. Rockmore Computer Science, Medicine Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2010 101 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Pattern and Decoration: An Ideal Vision in American Art, 1975-1985 T. Balducci, Michael Botwinick, A. Danto, J. Perrault, A. Swartz Art 2007 8 Highly Influential View 3 excerpts, references background Save Alert Research Feed Data Science and Digital Art History L. Manovich Art 2015 49 Save Alert Research Feed Statistics of colors in paintings and natural scenes. C. Montagner, J. Linhares, M. Vilarigues, S. Nascimento Art, Medicine Journal of the Optical Society of America. A, Optics, image science, and vision 2016 25 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Quantifying the development of user-generated art during 2001–2010 M. Yazdani, J. Chow, L. Manovich Computer Science, Medicine PloS one 2017 7 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Fractal analysis of Jackson Pollock's painting evolution J. Álvarez-Ramírez, C. Ibarra-Valdez, E. Rodriguez Art 2016 9 Save Alert Research Feed Order-fractal transitions in abstract paintings E. D. L. Calleja, F. Cervantes, J. L. Calleja Physics 2016 7 Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 3 4 5 ... Related Papers Abstract Figures and Topics Paper Mentions 36 Citations 96 References Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. 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work_n3omiglrhzdabn3pkkjkaf5hdq	----	Radio Frequency and Microwave Electronics Illustrated, 2001, 849 pages, Matthew M. Radmanesh, 0130279587, 9780130279583, Prentice Hall PTR, 2001. Foreword by Dr. Asad Madni, C. Eng., Fellow IEEE, Fellow IEE Learn the fundamentals of RF and microwave electronics visually, using many thoroughly tested, practical examples RF and microwave technology are essential throughout industry and to a world of new applications-in wireless communications, in Direct Broadcast TV, in Global Positioning System (GPS), in healthcare, medical and many other sciences. Whether you're seeking to strengthen your skills or enter the field for the first time, Radio Frequency and Microwave Electronics Illustrated is the fastest way to master every key measurement, electronic, and design principle you need to be effective. Dr. Matthew Radmanesh uses easy mathematics and a highly graphical approach with scores of examples to bring about a total comprehension of the subject. Along the way, he clearly introduces everything from wave propagation to impedance matching in transmission line circuits, microwave linear amplifiers to hard-core nonlinear active circuit design in Microwave Integrated Circuits (MICs). Coverage includes: A scientific framework for learning RF and microwaves easily and effectively Fundamental RF and microwave concepts and their applications The characterization of two-port networks at RF and microwaves using S-parameters Use of the Smith Chart to simplify analysis of complex design problems Key design considerations for microwave amplifiers: stability, gain, and noise Workable considerations in the design of practical active circuits: amplifiers, oscillators , frequency converters, control circuits RF and Microwave Integrated Circuits (MICs) Novel use of "live math" in circuit analysis and design Dr. Radmanesh has drawn upon his many years of practical experience in the microwave industry and educational arena to introduce an exceptionally wide range of practical concepts and design methodology and techniques in the most comprehensible fashion. Applications include small-signal, narrow-band, low noise, broadband and multistage transistor amplifiers; large signal/high power amplifiers; microwave transistor oscillators, negative-resistance circuits, microwave mixers, rectifiers and detectors, switches, phase shifters and attenuators. The book is intended to provide a workable knowledge and intuitive understanding of RF and microwave electronic circuit design. Radio Frequency and Microwave Electronics Illustrated includes a comprehensive glossary, plus appendices covering key symbols, physical constants, mathematical identities/formulas, classical laws of electricity and magnetism, Computer-Aided-Design (CAD) examples and more. About the Web Site The accompanying web site has an "E-Book" containing actual design examples and methodology from the text, in Microsoft Excel environment, where files can easily be manipulated with fresh data for a new design. Published: 3rd March 2012 Radio Frequency and Microwave Electronics Illustrated Inductance Calculations Working Formulas and Tables, Frederick W. Grover, 2004, Science, 286 pages. Hoping to simplify matters for engineers overwhelmed by inductance calculations, the author brings together an invaluable collection of formulas and tables. For virtually every .... Radical chemistry , Michael John Perkins, 1994, Science, 182 pages. This text aims to explain the methodology and basic ideas of radical chemistry at final year undergraduate level, and to show how these ideas have been developed into powerful .... http://www.powells.com/s?kw=Radio+Frequency+and+Microwave+Electronics+Illustrated Fundamentals of microwave electronics , Vladimir Nikolaevich Shevchik, 1963, Technology & Engineering, 253 pages. . The Illustrated Dictionary of Electronics , Stan Gibilisco, 2001, Technology & Engineering, 791 pages. Continuing in the tradition of its best-selling predecessors, this updated dictionary of electronics terms covers a broader range of subjects in an easier-to-use format than .... Microwave electronics measurement and materials characterization, Linfeng Chen, 2004, Technology & Engineering, 537 pages. The development of high speed, high frequency circuits and systems requires an understanding of the properties of materials functioning at the microwave level. This .... RF & Microwave Design Essentials Engineering Design and Analysis from DC to Microwaves, Matthew M. Radmanesh, 2007, Education, 711 pages. RF & Microwave Design Essentials This book is an indispensable tool for the RF/Microwave engineer as well as the scientist in the field working on the high frequency circuit .... Microwave electronics , Ronald F. Soohoo, 1971, Technology & Engineering, 276 pages. . Electronic Circuit Analysis and Design , Matthew M. Radmanesh, Dec 1, 2001, Technology & Engineering, 250 pages. . 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work_nadrqlaa5ncqrjqdg7v2ldshla	----	Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2801069 12 Criticism after Romanticism José Angel García Landa Universidad de Zaragoza 1987 1. Moral criticism 2. Art for art's sake 3. Impressionism and subjectivism 4. Scholarship and literary history 5. Sociological approaches 6. Realism and naturalism 2. Art for Art's Sake 2.1. Forerunners and influences 2.2. Edgar Allan Poe 2.3. Walter Pater 2.4. Oscar Wilde 2.1. Forerunners and Influences One possible response of artistic theory to the scientist attacks was the traditional vindication of the cultural role of poetry, be it in Arnold's, Shelley's or Marx's way. Another possible line of argument to counter those attacks is the assertion of poetry as an autotelic activity, one which does not need to be judged or justified on the basis of criteria external to itself. "It could be set up as a legitimate pursuit, apart from, and perhaps even in defiance of, the rival norms of ethics and politics" (W. K. Wimsatt and Cleanth Brooks, Literary Criticism: A Short History 476). The ground for this justification is to be found, of course, in the only evident effect of art on the audience: pleasure. Since Horace's "aut delectare," pleasure has been an important value criterion in most theories of art, although usually subject to "instruction." This view was most pronounced in some Renaissance hedonist theories and the aestheticism of the 18th century, which sees art mainly as a source of pleasure for the imagination and even of downright sensuous pleasure. The romantic divinization of art and the artist also strengthened any possible claim of the artist to a peculiar sphere of his activity. Even if the main Romantic critics Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2801069 13 do not hold that art is an autotelic activity, they stress that it is in a way unavoidable and compulsive for reasons of its own. Kant's theory had isolated the purely aesthetic kind of pleasure, and had in a way paved the way for the theories of the 19th century. It is important to see Kant's ideas of "purposiveness without a purpose" or "pure aesthetic pleasure" in their proper context, which is a transcendental philosophical investigation, and not a psychology of artistic creation or reception; Kant's views on art as a whole are very far from seeing in it an autotelic activity. But the popular versions of his theory did not make such fine distinctions; the phrase "art for art's sake" seems to occur for the first time in the lectures and writings of French romantics influenced by Kant. Kant's ideas are diffused in France, vaguely simplified, by Madame de Staël, Benjamin Constant, Cousin and Jouffroy. Constant speaks of l'art pour l'art without purpose, for all purpose peverts art. But art attains the purpose which it does not have.1 This is still a far cry from art being a "useless" activity. It is during the late 1830's and the 1840's that "l'art pour l'art" becomes a popular phrase, due to a great extent to the writings of the French poet Téophile Gautier (f.i., the preface to Mademoiselle de Maupin). "The new idea spread out pervasively and subtly; it was atmospheric " (Wimsatt and Brooks, Literary Criticism: A Short History 478). "Beauty" and "Art" are the favourite words of the criticism of this age. "'Beauty' was something very pure, very different from everything else. So was 'art'" (Wismsatt and Brooks 485). Some of the later propounders of this idea proudly claim that art is completely useless. James Whistler, for instance, attacked Ruskin's moralistic brand of criticism, and spoke of art as being "selfishly occupied with her own perfection" and having no desire to teach. But then they sometimes found themselves hard pressed when they attempted to prove it. Proving that art is useless seems to be almost as difficult as proving that it is useful. Most of these theories stress the internal coherence and autonomy of art to a greater extent than mimetic or moral theories, but in the end they always try to relate in a significant way art to human life in some way or another. Moral or didactic theories of art usually are more concerned about content, while pleasure is associated to form. Accordingly, Art for Art's Sake will disregard the content, and divinize the form. Form is the secret of art, it is everything. The content is a mere foothold, a necessary material to hold form, but valueless in itself. At their best, these views drew a sharp line between the artistic and the practical approach to a subject; at their worst, they propounded a divorce of content and form in quite a superficial way: form is identified merely with imagery and metrical patterns. Intrincacy and experiment in variety are valued, for instance, in the poetic current of the second half of the nineteenth century known as Parnassianism. 1 Benjamin Constant, Journal intime (entry for February 10, 1804), qtd. in Wimsatt and Brooks 476. 14 The selection of contents is in accordance with these principles: the trivial, the morbid, the exotic and bizarre, the ugly, the artificial will all be tempting to the poet. There is a reaction against self-revelation in poems and the flow of personal emotion which had been so fashionable only some years before: the poet is to keep aloof from his work as well as from the world, shut up in his ivory tower. He is no longer an inspired being or a prophet: rather, he is a skilled workman, a jeweler polishing his miniature jewels until they reach perfection. The poet becomes a kind of mystic of triviality. There is a tendency to stress the formal aspect of the poem, to see it as an object, with a definite texture and outline, and not as a discourse. We find titles like Émaux et Camées ("Enamels and Cameos"), Proverbs in Porcelain, etc. "Precision" is a key word. Music is another analogy, because of its intrinsic formal character. Pater says that "all arts tend towards the condition of music"2; poetry will become for many a musical game of forms and evocations (cf. Gautier's poem "Symphonie en blanc majeur"). This will continue during the 20th century in the theory of painting (above all abstract painting), after it has died out in literature. Aesthetic emotions will be said to come from "significant form," while the represented content is irrelevant. Such formalist aestheticism is the doctrine of Clive Bell, (Art, 1914) and Roger Fry (Vision and Design, 1920). It remains to prove that these "significant forms" are not tied in some obscure way to a represented content: the curved line is more "organic" or "alive" than the straight one, and the circle is linked to the image of the sun or the moon (Wimsatt and Brooks 490). In the early avant-gardes of 20th century in Russia or France, we find "trans-rational" or "pure poetry" in the sense of mere meaningless sounds. But most people may have serious doubts about the value of such poems. "What is not quite possible in lines and colors may be even less possible in words" (WB 490). Most of the poets or theorists listed in the ranks of this movement seem to adhere only to some principles of art for art's sake, or to adhere to this idea for a short time before their principles became settled. Among the poets and critics who toyed at one or another moment with this doctrine we may mention Gautier, Victor Hugo, De Quincey, Stevenson, Poe, Baudelaire, Swinburne, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Whistler, Pater, Mallarmé, Henry James, Oscar Wilde, etc. As regards criticism, these views are usually linked to a suppression of the barriers between criticism and art. Insofar as criticism is creative, it is art and it is positive; insofar as it is abstract and rational, it is useless. Criticism for criticism's sake, the logical outcome of these views, is usually impressionistic criticism. In the 20th century another attitude will emerge, though, with some links to autotelic views of art: formalist criticism, which seeks to unravel the mysteries of that purely aesthetic element, form. 2 Walter Pater, The Renaissance ; qtd. in Wimsatt and Brooks 490. 15 2.2. Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849) "One of the most theatrical presentations [of the doctrine of Art for Art's Sake] occurs in the essays and reviews of the American Gothic story-teller and poet Edgar Allan Poe" (Wimsatt and Brooks 472). Poe's best essays are "The Philosophy of Composition" and "The Poetic Principle." 3 In them he expounds his melancholy and vague concept of pure beauty. Beauty is not located in the poem, but in the very experience of itself; it is not a quality, but an effect ("Philosophy of Composition"). This effect may be produced by the poet provided that he keep to certain principles. A poem must not be unduly long or short: he does not accept the epic as a poetic form. I hold that a long poem does not exist. I maintain that the phrase , a long poem, is simply a flat contradiction in terms . . . . A poem deserves its title only inasmuch as it excites, by elevating the soul. ("Principle" 564). And, as excitement is transient, a poem must not extend beyond one phase of excitement. While he warns that undue brevity . . . degenerates into epigrammatism, Poe is satisfied that the "epic mania is . . . dying out" ("Principle" 565). Poe is against the ludicrous, and also against passion. His favourite poetic emotion is melancholy: a taint of sadness, he says, is always connected with the highest beauty. Most of all he is against "the heresy of the didactic" ("Principle" 565). A poem must not be justified in terms of truth or morals, but only in terms of beauty. It has its justification in itself: Under the sun there neither exists nor can exist any work more thoroughly dignifiedmore supremely noble than this very poemthis poem per sethis poem which is a poem and nothing morethis poem for the poem's sake. ("Principle" 566). The spirit of truth, which culminates in the scientific spirit, is the very opposite of the poetic spirit. It is not that poetry is the enemy of truth: it has nothing to do with truth. The poetical instinct, the instinct of the beautiful, has its own place in the human mind, distinct from the spheres of truth and morals. Dividing the world of mind into its three most obvious distinctions, we have the pure intellect, taste and the moral sense. I place taste in 3 Edgar Allan Poe, "The Philosophy of Composition," (1846). Rpt. in The American Tradition in Literature, ed. Sculley Bradley, Richmond Croom Beatty and E. Hudson Long (New York: Norton, 1962 ; 871-881; "The Poetic Principle" (1848); rpt. in Hazard Adams, Critical Theory since Plato 564-574. 16 the middle, because it is just this position which in the mind it occupies . . . . An immortal instict, deep within the spirit of man, is this, plainly, a sense of the beautiful. ("Principle" 566) This instinct reveals man's unquenchable thirst for perfection, infinity and immortality. Like many other Romantics, Poe tends to separate poetry from poems, and to see in it something which is diffused in all the arts. Several modes may develop the poetic sentiment: poetry, painting, music... Music is the nearest to the creation of supernal beauty. "Still the picture is hazy. Ethereal vagueness and melancholy, evaporation of langorous and pallid loveliness wreathe the figures of Poe" (Wimsatt and Brooks 479). Wimsatt and Brooks believe that with Poe Romantic theory is on the point of vanishing into thin air, out of pure vagueness. "We discover pronounced, if diffused, Kantian elements in Poe's system " (Wimsatt and Brooks 478). But they are misrepresented and psychologized. For Kant, the study of taste is a kind of bridge between the study of morals and the study of pure reason; Poe's system is not transcendental, but psychological, and as such it becomes absurd. Poe's poetry is a softened and simplified version of Coleridge, and his essays bear the same relationship to the Biographia. Poetry, for him, starts with the Romantics. He is remarkably unable to understand the design of the Iliad or of Paradise Lost, while he is fond of quoting some rather bad poems. For Henry James, Poe was "probably the most complete and exquisite example of provincialism ever prepared for the edification of men"; for T.S. Eliot, he was a "heroically courageous critic . . . a critic of the first rank." A critic who did not believe in criticism, at any rate: Poe says that the beauties of any poem, if they are not self-evident, are not worth pointing at. In a review of Hawthorne's Twice-Told Tales, Poe extends his ideal of brevity to the composition of prose. In almost all classes of composition, the unity of effect or impression is a point of the greatest importance. It is clear, moreover, that this unity cannot be thoroughly preserved in productions whose perusal cannot be completed at one sitting.4 So we see that Poe tends to place the unity of the work not so much in the structure of the work itself as in the effect on the reader: the unity of the reading experience is essential for the unity of the work. Novels he sees as a genre "demanding no unity" ("Philosophy" 873). The short story is the most artistic prose genre, because the unity of effect on the reader can be preserved and calculated. A skilful literary artist has constructed a tale. If wise, he has not fashioned his thoughts to accomodate his incidents; but having conceived, with deliberate care, a certain unique or single effect to be wrougth out, he then invents such incidentshe then combines such events as may best aid him in establishing this preconceived effect. . . . In the whole composition there should be no word written , of which the tendency, direct or indirect, is not to the one pre- established design. ("Philosophy") 4 Rpt. in Bradley et al. 866. 17 But Poe does not identify prose and poetry. Prose is more "impure" or lower than poetry; its aim is not simply beauty, but above all, truth. The tale is not the medium in which a writer should aim at pure beauty. This has, however its advantages: there can be more variety in a tale than in a poem, both of subject and of tone; the humorous, the sarcastic, etc., are forbidden in poetry but legitimate in prose. We must note that Poe is advocating a hyper-conscious theory of writing. Everything is controlled by the authorial intention. The end of the work must be complete in the writer's mind in some way before actual composition begins: there is to be no improvisation or change of plans during the writing. Poe stands at the opposite end from novelists like Dickens or Trollope, who worked without a pre-established plan and often improvised their plots as they went along. Poe's conception is plot- centered: Nothing is more clear than that every plot, worth the name, must be elaborated to its dénouement before anything be attempted with the pen. It is only with the dénouement constantly in view that we can give a plot its indispensable air of consequence, or causation, by making the incidents, and especially the tone at all points, tend to the development of the intention. ("Hawthorne" 871). In "The Philosophy of Composition," Poe applies this optimistically hyperconscious theory of writing to the composition of poetry; he analyses the way in which he himself composed his poem "The Raven." It is my design to render it manifest that no one point in its composition is referrible either to accident or intuitionthat the work proceeded, step by step, to its completion with the precision and rigid consequence of a mathematical problem. ("Philosophy" 873) So he chose a speaking bird to emphasize the lover's solitude, black in colour, the short chorus "Nevermore", etc. Poe "was concerned to demonstrate that a poem, like any other work of art, is fabricated of materials selected of consciously determined purposes; that these plastic potentials are shaped by the creative intelligence to make them most useful in communicating the intended effect or idea" (Bradley et al. 871). This view is completely opposed to the Romantic, inspirationalist one. Poe sees the writer as a craftsman, a conscientious maker of polished literary artifacts. He laughs at the inspirationalist view of poetry, and he insists that composition is a matter of defining ideas, of selecting, correcting, erasing, interpolating. Of course, just as the seer-poets may have disguised the actual process of composition to suit their inspirational ideals, so Poe raises in us a strong suspicion of having altered the facts and give us an over- conscious account of his own activity. 18 2.3. Walter Pater (1839-1894) "Often considered the father of aestheticism, Pater set forth the principles of impressionistic criticism in his Studies in the History of the Renaissance [1873]" (Adams, Critical Theory since Plato 642). Of course, he was indebted to many critics before him most noticeably Arnold. Pater is the enemy of abstract definitions of beauty. We must see the effect of art on us . The aesthetic critic regards works as powers or forces capable of producing each an unique sensation, having each its own wholly characteristic properties. "All aesthetic judgements must finally be referred to the reader's receptivity, his taste. The critic' s worth depends on the refinement of his temperament, since objective standards of aesthetic judgement are abstract and useless. For Pater, criticism itself becomes a work of art" (Adams 642). So, instead of having a scholarly equipment or a philosophy of art, the critic must have a temperament : "the power to be deeply moved by the presence of beautiful objects." 5 The object of the critic is to trace genius and discover its virtues. Pater's work is the culmination of romantic reservations against abstract thought: he rejects the exclusivity of rational knowledge alongside with his rejection of materialism. In the conclusion to his Studies , Pater holds that experience, in its fleeting transitoriety, is an end in itself, that we must not ask any further fruit of it. To treat life in the spirit of the art, is to make life a thing in which ends and means are identified: to encourage such treatment, the true moral significance of art and poetry.6 Theories are at the service of experience; they are not its justification. Pater advises his readers to feel greatly, to live their lives led by a great poetic passion and a poetic wisdom: Of this wisdom, the poetic passion, the desire of beauty, the love of art for art's sake has most; for art comes to you professing frankly to give nothing but the highest quality to your moments as they pass, and simply for those moments' sake. (Studies 645) This was interpreted at the time as an appeal to hedonism: Pater had not meant that, and he suppressed this conclusion in later editions. So, art for art's sake is a kind of quintessence of life for life's sake. This is what made T.S. Eliot say that Pater's theory of art for art's sake was is ultimately a moral theory, and not an esthetic one. Eliot sees in Pater's brand of art-for- art's sake an offspring of Arnold's ideal of Culture as a substitute for Religion: "Art for Art's Sake is the offspring of Arnold's Culture; and we can hardly venture to say that it is even a perversion of Arnold's doctrine, 5 Walter Pater, Studies in the History of the Renaissance (select. in Adams 643- 645) 644. 6 Qtd. in T. S. Eliot, "Arnold and Pater" (1930); rpt. in Eliot's Selected Essays (London: Faber and Faber, 1951) 439. 19 considering how very vague and ambiguous that doctrine is" ("Arnold and Pater" 434). 2.4. Oscar Wilde (1854-1900) Wilde's essays collected in Intentions (1891) are the most purposive English exponent of the movement of Art for Art's Sake. Beauty is the symbol of symbols. Beauty reveals everything because it expresses nothing.7 He proudly repeats Jeremy Bentham's phrase that "All art is useless" 8; more than that, "all art is immoral."9 Disinterest is an important quality in art: we must be indifferent to the subject-matter of a work: it had better not be modern, lest we feel unduly involved with it. Wilde, like Poe before him, corrupts some Kantian ideas about beauty, extending them to the whole realm of art. Art had said that in the experience of pure beauty there is an element of internal purposiveness, not that art had no purpose. In his essay "The Decay of Lying" (1889)10 Wilde deliberately associates art with lying, in order to shock his readers. Truth and lies, he says, are a matter of style in a work of art. Like all thinkers since Romanticism, he speaks against the idea of art being an imitation of nature. Nature is imperfect, and it is unworthy of art's imitation. Nature is unfinished, imperfect and irrational. Art is a higher thing than just imitation: it is creative, it brings to perfection things which Nature can't complete (Wilde humorously relates this idea to Aristotle's conceptions). Art is a kind of subjection of nature to the human mind. So, Wilde is against pat realism: the purpose of art is best attained in art which is not "true to nature", in art which lies. Lying and poetry are artsarts, as Plato saw, not unconnected with each other. (674) Wilde opposes the worship of fact which he notices in the contemporary naturalist novelists. Balzac was a great liar and a great creator, an artist: Zola is true to life and morally right, but he is an insufficient and disgusting artist. Art needs selection and exaggeration, and these are lacking in the naturalists. It is not tied to nature, but to the spiritual reality of man beyond nature: Art finds her own perfection within, not outside of, herself. She is not to be judged by any external standard of resemblance. She is a veil, rather than a mirror . . . . Hers are the "forms more real than living man," and hers the great archetypes of which things that have existence are but unfinished copies. (681) 7 Oscar Wilde, "The Critic as Artist," qtd. in Wimsatt and Brooks 485. 8 Oscar Wilde, preface to The Portrait of Dorian Gray, qtd. in Wimsatt and Brooks 485 9 Wilde, qtd. in Wimsatt and Brooks 486. 10 Rpt. in Adams, Critical Theory since Plato 673-686. 20 Art is not an imitation, neither of nature nor of social life. Rather, nature and social life imitate art. Art is the creation of the patterns which we perceive in reality. Where, if not from the Impressionists, do we get those wonderful brown fogs that come creeping down our streets, blurring the gas lamps and changing the houses into monstruous shadows? To whom, if not to them and their master, do we owe the lovely silver mists that brood over our river, and turn to faint forms of fading grace, curved bridge and swaying barge? The extraordinary change that has taken place in the climate of London during the last ten years is entirely due to this particular school of art. You smile. Consider the matter from a scientific or a metaphysical point of view, and you will find that I am right. For what is nature? She is our creation. It is in our brain that she quickens to life. Things are because we see them, and what we see, and how we see it, depends on the arts that have influenced us. To look at a thing is very different from seeing a thing. One does not see anything until one sees its beauty. Then, and then only, does it come into existence. At present, people see fogs, not because there are fogs, but because poets and painters have taught them the mysterious loveliness of such effects. There may have been fogs for centuries in London. I dare say there were. But no one saw them, and so we do not know anything about them. They did not exist till art had invented them. Now, it must be admitted, fogs are carried to excess. They have become the mere mannerism of a clique, and the exaggerated realism of their method gives dull people bronchitis. Where the cultured catch an effect, the uncultured catch cold. And so, let us be humane, and invite art to turn her wonderful eyes elsewhere. She has done so already, indeed. That white quivering sunlight that one sees now in France, with its strange blotches of mauve, and its restless violet shadows, is her latest fancy, and, on the whole, nature reproduces it quite admirably. (682-683) Art makes us see: in a way, in creates the world by creating the instrument of our vision. Likewise, Hamlet's sadness has saddened the world, has turned all of us into Hamlets. What follows from Wilde's reasoning is not that art is useless, but rather that art has a great responsibility: it must lie in the right way. So, the current decay of lying, the current drive towards realism, is a terrible turn in the history of art. The ancient Greeks always opposed realism: they felt that it inevitably makes people ugly. (681) Modern portrait painters want their pictures to look like the people they paint. That is why they are not true artists: They never paint what they see. They paint what the public sees, and the public never sees anything. (685) So we must learn to lie again, to lie for the sake of lying, and to make art for art's sake, not for the sake of truth. Those who do not love beauty more than truth never know the inmost shrine of art. 21 Besides, realism does not even reach its limited objective. Realism is never realistic: it is felt to be insufficient; nature is always more real than realistic art. Life goes faster than realism, but romanticism is always in front of life. (686). It is easy to dismiss Wilde's ideas in a facile way because of their whimsical appearance. "Art in the restricted sense of fine art may not be responsible for as much of our world as Vivian thinks, but when seen to include the popular arts, such as television, publishing, and advertising, it certainly does constantly affect the way we see things" (Adams 672). This conception of the creative capability of art can be linked to Shelley's and Coleridge's ideas in the nineteenth century. In the twentieth century, Ernst Cassirer (Philosophie der symbolischen Formen) will speak of art as a way of making our cultural world: Wilde's ideas must be seen in this light. So, nature is not the guiding principle of art. Rather, art must guide nature. This is in keeping with the ideas of Baudelaire or many classical critics. But Wilde goes further when he applies the same reasoning to the relationship between art and criticism. Just like art is not subject to nature, criticism is not subject to art. It is an autotelic activity, impressionistic to the extreme. Art exists for its own sake, and so does criticism ("The Critic as Artist"). The idea had already been advanced by F. Schlegel. Wilde was not content with holding his creed of Art for Art's sake: he acted it, believing that life itself ought to be ruled by art, and that social life in particular is a work of art. I treated art as the supreme reality and life as a mere mode of fiction.11 Something like this can be found as well in De Quincey and Stevenson. Dandyism, with its curious mixture of the skilfully conventional and the eccentric, with its cult of the witty retort, fashion and outward appearance, was a profession and an art for these writers. Life becomes a work of art, with social intercourse and conversation at the centre of the picture. The dandy cultivates artificiality, refinement and calculated shocking attitudes or opinions (cf. "Of Murder considered as a Fine Art", De Quincey's "Confessions of an English Opium Eater", Baudelaire's "Éloge du Maquillage"). 11 Oscar Wilde, De Profundis; qtd. in Wimsatt and Brooks 485. 22 6.3. Impressionism and Subjectivism The main tenet of impressionistic criticism is that the critic's individual, spontaneous and subjective reaction to the work is the most reliable guide as to its worth and the only reason for the existence of criticism. Charles Lamb and William Hazlitt are the earliest impressionistic critics in England. 'In their works "we encounter . . . a use of metaphor, an overt personal reference, and a Longinian evocation of feeling such as cannot be matched in earlier English criticism" (Wimsatt and Brooks 494). For them criticism is spontaneous response to the work "I say what I think, I think what I feel," says Hazlitt.12 This attitude will become more common towards the end of the century: then we find the figures of Saintsbury and Quiller-Couch in England, Huneker, Mencken, Nathan and Van Vechten in America. Sensibility is for some of them the only necessary equipment of the critic: they play down the need for a wide knowledge and an analytical mind. The critic is a kind of artist, an imaginative essayist, and the best critic (at least according to T. S. Eliot) will be the artist himself. Anatole France (1844-1924) is the most radical defender of impressionistic criticism. He is completely lacking in critical principles or method. Of course, this is related to his particular philosophy of the world at large: complete subjectivism, relativism, skepticism and distrust of philosophy, science or any system of knowledge. For him, all novels are autobiographies of the author's spiritual life, and all works of criticism are novels. The good critic is he who relates the adventures of his soul among masterpieces.13 That is because man is irremediably enclosed in his own subjective existence. As any other man, the critic cannot view things apart from his own circumstance, objectively, and pronounce an opinion which is not tied to himself. The best we can do, it seems to me, is gracefully to recognize this terrible situation and to admit that we speak of ourselves every time we have not the strength to be silent. To be quite frank, the critic ought to say, "Gentlemen, I am going to talk about myself on the subject of Shakespeare, or Racine, or Pascal, or Goethe, subjects that offer me a beautiful opportunity." (671) 12 Qtd. in Wimsatt and Brooks 494. 13 Anatole France, La vie littéraire ; excerpt in Adams, Critical Theory since Plato, 671. 
work_nagrnwu7ovf35g6cunxse3zx5a	----	10 Rev Assoc Med Bras 2009; 55(1): 1-11 ��� ����� F������� �����4+���� ��� ����455+%� ����������� ?� ����� %�� ��.9�� �%� �B ��F��!� �?��� ��� � %�� ���� ������ � � � ���� ���� � � ��� 1� �� � ���� �� >����� &���� �� F������������8����� �����?� � ���� �2G'#?�3��>�� ���� � �F��!� �� ��� ����������/�� ���������������8����� ���� �*9*%����� � ��������� �� ��������� �����������-����� O ������� ��A�� A��� � %� ��� F� ���� � � �U � � � ��� �� 2������O �������� �A) �� 3%� ���� ���� �� �� ����� ���� � � ����1� �� � ���%��� ��/�� ���������������8����� ��2G �����3� >��� �� ��&��� �������� ����� �� ������G �����%� �������� ��� ��%�����*+.����*++��B� � ������ ����������������� �) �� � �� �� �$��� %� � � ���� � F��!� � ������� �� � � � � -�� �%�� ��� �� ����� %� �� � ��������������� �� %���� � �� - ����� ��� � � ��� �� ��� ���� �� � �� ��� ���%� � � ��� ������ �%�� ��� ����� �&��� ������ ����� ������ ���� �� ���� ��� � ��� �� ����� ���� �� ��� �� �� G ���%� ��� �� � ��� ���� ������� �����**+� '����� � �� ����������%�� � ��� ����� ��� ��� �� ����� ���F��!� ��� � ��F � ���=��� ������ �� ������� ��� � ��� � � ��%� � ���� � ��� ���� ���� �� ��� ������� �� � � ���� ������- ���%�� ��������������������� � ��%�F��!� ����� ���� ��� ���� ������� ����%����� ������ � � ���� ����� ��'� �� �� �� �!� ������ �������� %������������ � �� �� ������ /��� � � � ����� � ����� ���"��� �� ����� ��� �� �� ���� ��� ����� � ���� � F��!� � BRUNO CARAMELLI ��� ����a����� PROFESSORPROFESSORPROFESSORPROFESSORPROFESSOR FFFFFAUZERAUZERAUZERAUZERAUZER SIMÃOSIMÃOSIMÃOSIMÃOSIMÃO ABRÃOABRÃOABRÃOABRÃOABRÃO 
work_ne4xc2geabevxe5rym6iwbyeum	----	Saliva for biopsy alone; children are bombarded every- where – whether as part of the supposedly healthy free school meals or at friends’ houses and parties. We live in a culture where we use junk food as bribery, reward and a pacifier for our young. Until the culture and the environ- ment we live in changes, then I do not see the situation improving. To get environment and behaviour change, I see no other option than government regulation, much like we have for tobacco and alcohol. We cannot expect the food companies to change themselves. As a dental profession, I understand the need to ‘educate’ the public, and these campaigns should be done. However, information alone – I find often interpreted as lecturing and condescending – rarely induces behaviour change.3 With this in mind, we should not lose momentum and loudly and publicly continue to lobby government to introduce regulation to curb processed junk food in general, especially when targeted to the most precious and impressionable in our society, the best asset we have, our children. S. Nolan, by email 1. Al-Mazyad M, Flannigan N, Burnside G, Higham S, Boy- land E. Food advertisements on UK television popular with children: a content analysis in relation to dental health. Br Dent J 2017; 222: 171–176. 2. O’Dowd A. 2015. Type 2 diabetes prevention programme is needed to tackle projected five million rise in cases. BMJ 2015; 351: h4648. doi: 10.1136/bmj.h4648. 3. Walls H L, Peeters A, Proietto J, McNeil J J. Public health campaigns and obesity – a critique. BMC Public Health 2011; 11: 136. DOI: 10.1038/sj.bdj.2017.292 Oral cancer Indian pandemic Sir, the Indian National Cancer Registry Programme report shows worrying rises in cancers of the upper aero-digestive tract (mouth, tongue, oro-pharynx, hypopharynx, larynx and oesophagus) among both sexes as important sites for undertaking risk factor research and implementing early detection programmes.1 The Global Adult Tobacco Survey India, conducted in 2009-10, revealed that 35% of adults used tobacco.2 Tobacco-related cancers are expected to constitute 30% of the total cancer burden by 2020.1 It is important to elevate smokeless tobacco, areca nut and oral cancer as an even greater problem than smoking for the Indian nation, and South Asia. The Indian subcontinent accounts for one third of the global burden of cancers of lip and oral cavity. Cancers of mouth and tongue, taken together, overshadow cancer of lung.1 Likewise, in other cities of India like Delhi, Mumbai, Aurangabad and Kollam, after lung cancer, cancer of mouth [excluding tongue] is the second most common cancer among males. The projected burden of cancers among males by the year 2020 in India shows the number of cases will be lung (102,300), mouth (99,495), prostate (61,222), tongue (60,669) and larynx (36,079). Cumulatively, this makes ‘oral cancer’ the leading cancer site for men in most of India.1 Improved public health education and promotion is vital, as are top down policy approaches such as those of the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, extended to include all forms of smokeless tobacco. Much excellent work on the control of the continuing pandemic of oral cancer in India is ongoing3 and we write to draw these issues to the attention of clinicians, public health specialists and policy makers. B. Gupta, N. W. Johnson, Queensland, Australia 1. Indian Council for Medical Research. Three-Year Report of Population Based cancer Registries 2012–2014. Bengaluru, India: National Centre for Disease Informatics and Research-National Cancer Registry Programme, 2016. Available at: http://www.ncrpindia.org. 2. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. Global Adult Tobacco Survey India 2009-2010: Country Report. New Delhi: International Institute for Population Sciences, 2010. 3. Sankaranarayanan R, Ramadas K, Amarasinghe H, Subramanian S, Johnson N. Oral cancer: prevention, early detection, and treatment. In Jamison D T, Nugent R, Gelband H, Horton S, Jha P, Laxminarayan R (eds). Disease control priorities. 3rd ed (Vol 3). Washington (DC): The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 2015. DOI: 10.1038/sj.bdj.2017.293 Saliva for biopsy Sir, salivary biomarkers have been identified in different tumours distant to the oral cavity including brain, pancreatic, breast, ovarian, lung, gastric, prostate, and oesophageal cancer.1 Saliva therefore represents a potential source of tumour markers (proteins, metabo- lites, mRNA, micro-RNA and microbial) but the development of this as an effective diagnostic modality requires further research. Because carcinogenesis is a complex process, it is necessary to know the molecular changes in primary tumour initiation, promotion and progression with a double objective: to detect early disease and to improve clinical management. For this, saliva could be a potential biofluid showing the heterogenecity of the tumour at different stages of the disease compared to tumour tissue and plasma. Research efforts should be directed to assess the diagnostic capacity of the different salivary tumour biomarkers as well as its biological function on the pathogenesis and progression of the disease. This will require the participa- tion of different researchers (medical, dental, biologists, bioinformaticians, statisticians, engineers etc) and it is a matter of urgency to train such researchers and convince institu- tions about this excellent opportunity to finance projects in this field. New perspectives must be directed towards finding specific salivary biomarkers in cancer, with the aim of improving the diagnosis, prognosis and monitoring disease. O. Rapado-González, R. López López, M. M. Suárez-Cunqueiro, Santiago de Compostela, Spain 1. Rapado-Gonzalez O, Majem B, Muinelo-Romay L, López-López R, Suarez-Cunqueiro M M. Cancer salivary biomarkers for tumours distant to the oral cavity. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17: DOI:10.3390/ijms17091531. DOI: 10.1038/sj.bdj.2017.294 Patient support High-risk behaviour Sir, the case of National Aids Trust vs NHS England1 in late 2016 stemmed a revolutionary breakthrough in the management of HIV in the UK which all medical professionals should be aware of. The court ruling deemed that the NHS can fund pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for those at risk of contracting HIV. A 2014 government report2 stated there are about 107,800 individuals living with HIV in the UK with an overall prevalence of 2.8 per 1,000 population aged 15–59 years. PrEP is a method to reduce the rate of transmission of HIV. The brand name Truvada consists of two anti-retroviral agents, emtricitabine and tenofovir. The logic is to give the medication to HIV negative patients prior to high risk behaviours to reduce the chance of later obtaining HIV. It can either be taken regularly ie one tablet per day, or only taken when needed, just prior to or following intercourse. The PROUD study3 indicated that there was a relative risk reduction of obtaining HIV of 86% in high risk sexual intercourse. Despite the positive court ruling, the NHS has not yet started rolling out the medication en masse, largely due to the cost of the medi- cation. A pack of 30 days of treatment costs £355.73.4 Instead a three-year trial starting in December 2016 consisting of 10,000 BRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL | VOLUME 222 NO. 7 | APRIL 7 2017 497 UPFRONT © 2017 British Dental Association. All rights reserved. http://www.ncrpindia.org Saliva for biopsy References 
work_nfgd4tekrzblxahtrunpw25w6q	----	ed1313ss.fm The intensity of youth is often associated with a certain brashness, often expressed in a confidence that can both in- spire and intimidate. Such was the case for a young assistant professor at the University of Illinois-Champaign/Urbana in 1980, whose name is Scott E. Denmark. I happened to be one of the first four people to be inspired by that young man, who was not that much older than myself at the time. We became a little band known as Denmark’s Disciples, led by a man who was both brilliant and enthusiastic and whose imagina- tion and diligence would come to have a significant and lasting impact on organic chemistry. Mystics often say that time is an illusion. My knees and el- bows might say otherwise. Still, it seems both that time has not passed and that it indeed has rushed past, pushing our lives along relentlessly. So here I am, 33 years later, writing a piece to honor Scott as he reaches his 60th year. It is a bit of a shock, but a happy one. Scott has from day one approached science with a steadfast vigor, engaging those he has mentored in the wonder of the principles of structure, mechanism, reactivity and synthesis that define organic chemistry as a science, apart from, but in- tertwined with, all of the wonderful applications that the sci- ence offers the world. His philosophy is rigorous and frankly not an easy road to travel, but is one that insures quality and the utmost scientific integrity. Scott’s philosophy naturally entails opinions about science and life that are strong, but Scott loves to express them and is always ready to discuss and debate issues of the day, par- ticularly those involving science in general and organic che- mistry in particular. I was reminded of this a few years ago while lecturing in Japan. At dinner, saké had loosened my lips and I felt quite free to express my opinions on science and especially funding issues in the US. Before addressing specifics, my dinner companions remarked, “You are a Denmark student for sure!” The nut does not fall far from the tree. I thought it was hilarious. Scott has had many students over the years, from undergra- duates to postdocs, including an undergraduate named Erick Carreira, whom I had the pleasure of knowing as a lad. No- body leaves the Denmark group without being profoundly influenced by Scott, especially with respect to how organic chemistry should be done when it is being done at its best. That is something really special. So, on behalf of all of those who have been touched by his love of science, I want to wish Scott a very happy birthday, with the expectation of many more to come. May your days be filled with great science, fast cars and sleek motorcycles. Happy 60th, my friend! Mike Harmata, University of Missouri June 2013 Laudation for Professor Scott E. Denmark SYNTHESIS Editorial Scott E. Denmark We thank Professor Albert Eschenmoser (ETH Zürich) for kindly providing this photograph. D o w n lo a d e d b y: C a rn e g ie M e llo n U n iv e rs ity . C o p yr ig h te d m a te ri a l. I had the pleasure and privilege of being associated with the Denmark group in the mid 1980s as an undergraduate re- searcher. It was a special time, for Professor Denmark was an assistant professor and the collection of young graduate stu- dents that constituted the group, including Mike Dappen, Mike Harmata, Todd Jones, and Eric Weber, was in its for- mative years. Under the guidance and mentoring of Professor Denmark, this first generation of co-workers was laying the groundwork for the high standards and excellence (Scott ex- pected nothing less) that would come to define and characte- rize Denmark’s science throughout his career. I was a young, impressionable undergraduate, and the imme- diate consequence of my joining the group was to discover sheer passion for and joy of chemistry and the scientific method. Around that time, a friend had given me a collection of letters by Rilke that included the memorable line of advice to a young initiate: “love the questions themselves, like locked rooms and like books …written in a very foreign tongue.” This to me represents a cornerstone of the science enterprise and captured one of the life-long lessons and undercurrents of the Denmark group. To this day, I recall advice given to me by Professor Denmark just as I was departing the group, which I now impart to my own students and co-workers: if you have an idea or question for a research project and sub- sequently see a solution appear in print, do not get disillu- sioned or distraught, you can be happy that you had a great idea that works! –this should provide encouragement to come up with an even better one. There was much to be learned from young Professor Den- mark, and his “Disciples” (the nom de guerre the group em- ployed) had much to attempt to emulate: his encyclopedic knowledge, passionate dedication to science, tireless work ethic, superb communication skills (written and spoken), as well as his engaging and inspiring teaching style. Professor Denmark has always been a dedicated, caring mentor to his students and co-workers. Moreover, his involvement with various enterprises beyond teaching and research, such as Organic Reactions and Organic Synthesis, attest to his com- mitment to the scientific community at large and underscore the value of service. Denmark’s science is characterized by the breadth of reaction space it covers and depth of mechanistic insight it proffers. He has reported innovative catalysts for a broad range of transformations including electrocyclizations, cycloadditions, C=O and C=N additions, coupling reactions, oxidations, and olefin additions involving a broad swath of elements in the periodic table. Additionally, he has discov- ered new mechanistic constructs and developed innovative reactivity paradigms that are crucial to the evolution of, and, in notable cases, revolution in the discipline. It is thus to be expected that the individuals that have emanated from his group have been successful in a wide range of disciplines as required in today’s fast-paced world. The selection of authors in this issue dedicated to Professor Denmark is a sampling of Denmark’s Disciples that have be- nefitted from his training and mentorship. Also included is the larger collection of fans, friends, and colleagues who continue to benefit from his contributions to the scientific community who warmly wish him Happy Birthday. Erick M. Carreira, ETH Zürich June 2013 D o w n lo a d e d b y: C a rn e g ie M e llo n U n iv e rs ity . C o p yr ig h te d m a te ri a l. 
work_nphul7ghavhtzcq7t4bmmqm27a	----	EDITORIAL Time, experience and change Ray J Paul Editor European Journal of Information Systems (2004) 13, 93–94. doi:10.1057/palgrave.ejis.3000495 As I announced in my editorial in the European Journal of Information Systems (2003) 12, 167, I have retired, but instead of going part-time, I am a pensioner whose therapy (basket-weaving equivalent) is to go to work and be available to give advice. So I am currently basket-weaving at Brunel University as an Professor Associate and at the London School of Economics as a Visiting Professor. So what can I offer? I have an explanation that I have used freely with my colleagues. The only benefit of getting older as far as I can tell is the gaining of experience, and one of the major if not only benefits of this experience is to pass it on to the less experienced. And to make sure I am listened to, I make the point that if they do not believe this to be true, then they are telling themselves they have no future! This explanation works well, and attentiveness is markedly improved. Since the European Journal of Information Systems (2003) 12, 167 editorial, time has passed (six months), there has been much change, and hence experience has been gained. For example, the European Journal of Information Systems has improved its editorial team this year with the acquisition and accession of Richard Baskerville whose editorial in the last issue on An Editor’s Values not only proved the astuteness of his acquisition, but also the mastery of his accession. I would like to say that Richard covered my views, but in fact he did better than that! If unread, I recommend it to you (incidentally our online statistics show that editorials are quite popular). Carolyn Bailey our Editorial Administrator is moving on and is passing the job to Neela Rungien. Carolyn took over the Administration when Bob O’Keefe and I became Editors in 2000. She has cared for and delivered 18 issues of the journal to date, which has involved her in the handling and communication associated with well over 1000 submissions to the journal. And she has managed the Editors! She leaves the European Journal of Information Systems fully electronic since taking over a paper-based system and with sound administrative procedures. Thanks Carolyn. In this issue, we have papers that also exemplify the theme of time, experience and change. Mlcakova and Whitley investigate the regulatory features of software with regard to peer-to-peer software for MP3 file sharing. While the latter might become history with the rate of technology change, the authors attempt to make sense of a new and possibly transitory topic, leads them to research methodological issues and the introduction of an appropriate approach they call ‘impressionism’. I expect ‘impressionism’ will quickly join the small but improving range of research methods acceptable in information systems. Choudrie and Lee report on a research mission to South Korea and the latter’s world leadership in Broadband development. Again this may be transitory, but there are long-term lessons from the study. The experience gained from the study, though, depends to some extent on the maxim ‘Where one stands depends on where one sits’. For example, high-density population in urban areas can be viewed as an important enabler European Journal of Information Systems (2004) 13, 93–94 & 2004 Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. All rights reserved 0960-085X/04 $30.00 www.palgrave-journals.com/ejis of Korea’s success, or as a convenience coincidental to the success of a strategy. Supporters of the ‘there- is-nothing-we-can-do’ school of hope will attach themselves to the former, and supporters of the ‘it-will-happen-if-we-make-it-happen’ school to the latter. Marble’s study of the former East Germany’s companies having to take on Western Information Systems, and the consequent common lowering of performance illustrates the problems associated with change in a world which does not permit the passage of time necessary to gather sufficient experience. Bruque-Camara et al. examine the speed of IT adoption in the pharmaceutical distribution sector, and conclude that intangible factors such as internal low-level communication in the companies, have a major effect. Not easily captured as experience to be used in the future. Mackay et al. discuss electronic commerce adoption in the non-commercial world of small voluntary organisations. Since profit is not a driver, why bother with electronic commerce? The paper suggests that perceptions play a major role in the form of perceived benefits, perceived pressure, and perceived social risk. Impressionism, perceptions, change without the ex- perience, change open to opinionated interpretation, and intangible factors driving change are brought to the reader in this issue, thus demonstrating that time, experience and change have similar consequences for individuals as well as organisations. Ending, as I started, on a personal note, my Mum recently died (she brought me up from the age of seven years) and I wrote a funeral speech for her overnight after her death. I realised what a remarkable woman she was, which I had not realised until then, when I took the time to study my experiences. In this issue, we have the fruits of finding the time to do such studies. Editorial Ray J Paul94 European Journal of Information Systems Time, experience and change 
work_nqa73jgqp5a35bsrfd4zgiwrnu	----	Michelle Foa, (Anti-)Biography and Neo-Impressionism, RIHA Journal 0042 RIHA Journal 0042 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" This article is part of the Special Issue "New Directions in Neo-Impressionism." The issue is guest- edited by Tania Woloshyn and Anne Dymond in cooperation with Regina Wenninger and Anne-Laure Brisac-Chraïbi from RIHA Journal. External peer reviewers for this Special Issue were Hollis Clayson, André Dombrowski, Chantal Georgel, Catherine Meneux, Robyn Roslak, and Michael Zimmermann. * * * (Anti-)Biography and Neo-Impressionism* Michelle Foa Abstract This article analyzes neo-impressionism in relation to the biographical model of art criticism and art history that became increasingly prevalent in France over the course of the 19th century. Examining the critical response to the neo-impressionists, as well as some of their pictures and writings, I argue for the centrality of questions of authorship, individuality, and subjectivity to the group and its reception. I identify a distinctly anti- biographical tendency in the movement, one that disquieted the critics and led them to try and re-inscribe biographical meaning back into the work of Georges Seurat. Indeed, though Seurat instituted a divide between his work and his life in a variety of ways, he also insisted throughout his career on his paternity over the neo-impressionist method. In all of these ways, the relationship between the self and art was a significant and problematic issue for the neo-impressionists and the critics around them. Contents Introduction A "Patient Spotted Tapestry". Neo-Impressionism and the Question of Subjectivity The Art and the Man: Re-Writing the Biography of Seurat Seurat, Anti-Biography and Authorship Introduction [1] Though the origins of biographical art history long precede the 19th century, it was during this period that the practice of interpreting art through the lens of the artist's life began to gain particular prominence. Increasingly over the course of the century, the significance of art was seen to lie, at least in part, in its status as the product of a particular maker. As such, the issue of the relationship between the self and art was a pressing one for some of the century's key artists and critics. It is in this context that I want to analyze neo-impressionism, looking closely at some of their writings (and a few of their pictures), as well as critical responses to their work, in order to shed light on the significance of questions of authorship and biography to the group and its reception. In this article, I will analyze the critics' discomfort with the perceived displacement of individual authorship in neo-impressionism, as well as their attempts to repair the supposed breach between art and life in the case of Georges Seurat (1859-1891). I will also address Seurat's persistent ambivalence about the relationship between individuality and artistic production, analyzing the ways that he distanced himself from his work in both his pictures and writings while at the same time remaining deeply concerned about his paternity over the neo-impressionist method of painting. Ultimately, I will posit neo- impressionism as an alternative to the biographical model of art that was so prevalent in * I am grateful to Anne Dymond, Tania Woloshyn, Regina Wenninger, and the external reviewers for their helpful feedback on my essay. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0042 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" the late 19th century, but an alternative that was subject to significant discussion and debate by the individual neo-impressionists and by many of the critics responding to their work. <top> A "Patient Spotted Tapestry". Neo-Impressionism and the Question of Subjectivity [2] "His huge painting, The Grande Jatte, in whatever part one examines it, spreads out, a monotonous and patient spotted tapestry: here, in effect, the painter's hand is useless, trickery is impossible; there is no place for bravura; – let the hand be numb, but let the eye be agile, perceptive, and knowing." So wrote the most important critic of neo- impressionism, Félix Fénéon, about Seurat's Un dimanche à la Grande Jatte – 1884 (A Sunday on the Grande Jatte – 1884), 1884-1886 (Fig. 1) in a lengthy essay published in June of 1886.1 This text constituted Fénéon's first sustained statement on neo- impressionism and it would set many of the terms in which critics and art historians would understand the group's work. 1 Georges Seurat, Un dimanche à la Grande Jatte – 1884 (A Sunday on the Grande Jatte – 1884), 1884-1886, oil on canvas, 207.5 x 308.1 cm. Helen Birch Bartlett Memorial Collection, The Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago (source: The Yorck Project/Wikimedia Commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Georges_Seurat_031.jpg) [3] While the section of the essay cited here is one of the most widely quoted passages about Seurat's iconic painting, the implications of Fénéon's characterization of the Grande Jatte as a "patient spotted tapestry" has not been fully considered. In fact, this 1 "Son immense tableau la Grande-Jatte, en quelque partie qu'on l'examine, s'étale monotone et patiente tiqueture, tapisserie: ici, en effet, la patte est inutile, le truquage impossible; nulle place pour les morceaux de bravoure; – que la main soit gourde, mais que l'oeil soit agile, perspicace et savant." Félix Fénéon, "Les Impressionnistes," in: La Vogue (13-20 June 1886), 261-275, here 272. This essay was reprinted, with minor modifications, as part of a longer pamphlet by Fénéon entitled Les Impressionnistes en 1886, Paris 1886. – Unless otherwise indicated, translations are mine. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Georges_Seurat_031.jpg RIHA Journal 0042 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" was just one of many instances in which critics compared neo-impressionist paintings to various embroidered, sewn, or woven decorative surfaces. For example, Charles Frémine, writing in Le Rappel in 1887, claimed that "the impressionists no longer paint, they decorate. Look at Signac, Angrand, Cavallo-Peduzzi (a new one), Seurat, Lucien Pissaro [sic], etc. […] What patience to end up with these inlays! And what precious models of tapestry for a boarding school of young girls!"2 Another critic wrote in 1888 that "their canvases have the appearance of tapestries au petit point produced in sewing circles in the most remote provinces by young women possessing the most elementary aesthetic."3 A third writer, Paul Bluysen, characterized neo-impressionist painting in similar terms when he claimed, in an 1890 review, that it "has the appearance of a tapestry made by a patient and ignorant housewife."4 [4] The association of neo-impressionist painting with feminine craft was no doubt intended by some critics to serve as a general disparagement of the group's work. But these comments also reflect a consistent concern on the critics' part about the depersonalization and de-authoring of artistic production in neo-impressionism. Indeed, the ostensible uniformity of the pointillist marks on the canvas, combined with the fact that the same style of painting was supposedly shared by the various members of the group, led many critics to lament an absence of individuality in their work. The critic Jules Desclozeaux, for example, after praising certain aspects of their paintings, nevertheless concluded that "all of these canvases, not very independent, [are] composed according to a rather narrow ritual in a manner that is too uniform and too impersonal in general."5 Likewise, another critic complained, "What do we say about Albert, Signac, Dubois-Pillet? All of these artists follow one another and resemble one other, helas!"6 "Pass through their entire room," wrote Alfred Paulet in an 1888 review of the Salon des Indépendants, "and you will see the uniformity of manner. Here are painters of whom not one, perhaps, has the same way of feeling as another, and nevertheless their work always has the same 2 "Les impresssionnistes [sic] ne peignent plus, ils tapissent. Voyez MM. Signac, Angrand, Cavallo- Peduzzi (un nouveau), Seurat, Lucien Pissaro [sic], etc. […] Quelle patience pour en arriver à cette marqueterie! Et quels précieux modèles de tapisserie pour un pensionnat de jeunes filles!" Charles Frémine, "Exposition des Artistes Indépendants," in: Le Rappel (27 March 1887), unpaginated. 3 "Leurs toiles [ont] l'aspect des tapisseries au petit point fabriquées dans les ouvroirs des provinces les plus reculées par des jeunes filles de l'esthétique la plus élémentaire." Charley, "Exposition des Indépendants," in: Le Télégraphe (23 March 1888), 3. 4 "[…] a l'aspect d'une tapisserie faite par une patiente et ignorante ménagère." Paul Bluysen, "Au jour le jour: L'exposition des 'Artistes indépendants,'" in: La République française (21 March 1890), 2-3, here 3. 5 "Tous ces tableaux, peu indépendants, composés selon un rite assez étroit, dans une manière trop uniforme, trop impersonnelle en général." Jules Desclozeaux, "L'Exposition des artistes indépendants," in: L'Estafette (25 August 1886), 2. 6 "Que dirons-nous de MM. Albert, Signac, Dubois, Pillet [sic]? Tous ces peintres se suivent, et se ressemblent, hélas!" Langely, "Exposition des Artistes Indépendants," in: Paris-Moderne (23 September 1886), 6. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0042 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" appearance."7 Another critic put forward a very similar understanding of pointillism when he defined it as "the eternal dish of lentils, multicolored and mathematically contrasted, for which they would sacrifice their rights of inheritance."8 According to these critics, then, the pointillist mode of painting entailed the sacrifice of the unique artistic mark, resulting in the expulsion of subjectivity from the work. Indeed, it is in precisely these terms that George Moore described his first experience seeing an exhibition of neo- impressionist paintings in his 1893 book, Modern Painting: The pictures were hung low, so I went down on my knees and examined the dotting in the pictures signed Seurat, and the dotting in those that were signed Pissarro. After a strict examination I was able to detect some differences, and I began to recognize the well-known touch even through this most wild and most wonderful transformation. Yes, owing to a long and intimate acquaintance with Pissarro and his work, I could distinguish between him and Seurat, but to the ordinary visitor their pictures were identical.9 [5] And Camille Pissarro himself explained his eventual abandonment of the neo- impressionist technique in the mid-1890s as an attempt, in part, to reinvest his work with individuality. Writing to Henry van de Velde in 1896, Pissarro stated that, "Having found out after many attempts […] that it was impossible to give an individual character to my drawing, I had to give it up."10 In sum, a disconcerting divide was seen by many to have opened up in neo-impressionism between the work and the artist, between the picture and the self that produced it. The neo-impressionists' ostensible depersonalization of artistic style, and thus the de-coupling of the final work from the hand – and the self – of an individual artist, ran directly counter to the biographical mode of art criticism that had become increasingly prevalent over the course of the 19th century.11 7 "Parcourez toute leur salle et vous verrez l'uniformité de la manière. Voilà des peintres dont pas un, peut-être, n'a la même façon de sentir que l'autre, et pourtant leur oeuvre a toujours même apparence." Alfred Paulet, "La Vie Artistique," in: Le National (27 March 1888), unpaginated. One critic summarized this view of neo-impressionism when he wrote: "There is, if I understand correctly, a reproach of the neo-impressionist school […]. By the rather mechanical side of their procedures, they tend to suppress all originality on the part of the artist, or rather originality is here something totally superfluous and cumbersome. Nothing, as they say, resembles Seurat more than Signac, or resembles Signac more than Dubois-Pillet." ("On fait, si j'entends bien, un autre reproche à l'école néo-impressionniste […]. Ce second argument consiste à dire que, par le côté en quelque sorte mécanique de ses procédés, elle conduit à supprimer toute originalité chez l'artiste, ou plutôt que l'originalité est ici quelque chose de tout à fait superflu et encombrant. Rien, dit-on, ne ressemble davantage à M. Seurat que M. Signac, à M. Signac que M. Dubois-Pillet.") "Le Néo- Impressionnisme," in: L'Art moderne (10 March 1888), 83-85, here 84. 8 "[…] le déjà sempiternel plat de lentilles multicolores et mathématiquement contrastées, pour lequel ils sacrifieraient leurs droits d'aînesse." Henry Somm, "Exposition des Artistes Indépendants," in: Le Chat noir (7 April 1888), 1098. 9 George Moore, Modern Painting London 1893, 89. 10 Quoted in John Alsberg, Modern Art and Its Enigma, London 1983, 129. 11 For more on the importance of biography in 19th-century French art criticism and art history, see Greg Thomas, "Instituting Genius: The Formation of Biographical Art History in France," in: Art History and Its Institutions: Foundations of a Discipline, ed. Elizabeth Mansfield, London and New York 2002, 260-270. See also Nicholas Green, "Art History and the Construction of Individuality," in: Oxford Art Journal 6.2 (1983), 80-82. Griselda Pollock offers an extended analysis of the intricate connection between biography/psycho-biography and art history, with Van Gogh as her License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0042 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" [6] The potency of this particular criticism of neo-impressionism is evident not only in the frequency with which it was leveled against their work, but also in the fact that supportive critics continually felt the need to rebut it in their writings. Charles Saunier, in a review in L'Art moderne, wrote in 1892: One has often reproached the partisans of the division of tone for a mechanical technique that must annihilate their personality. An unjust reproach, refuted already many times and particularly by the current exhibition. On the contrary, each artist clearly shows there his temperament, his special vision: this one is the most blond, that one the most luminous, this other one, more robust. Thus no confusion would be permitted.12 [7] Fénéon, too, in his key writings on neo-impressionism, made a point of repeatedly contesting this particular line of attack against the group. For example, in his September 1886 essay "L'Impressionnisme aux Tuileries," he wrote: Against the reforms promulgated by the three or four painters that these notes concern, arguments flow, harmless. 'The uniformity, the impersonality of the material execution will deprive their paintings of any distinctive appearance.' This is to confuse the calligraphy with the style. They are different from one another, these paintings, because the temperaments of the artists are different.13 [8] The following year, Fénéon published another essay in which he again addressed the issue: "That this uniform execution […] leaves intact the originality of the artist, even serves it, is it even necessary to mention? In fact, to confuse Camille Pissarro, Dubois- Pillet, Signac, Seurat… would be idiotic. Each of them imperiously emphasizes his uniqueness."14 As such, both the movements' detractors and its defenders confirmed the paradigmatic example, in "Artists Mythologies and Media Genius, Madness and Art History," in: Screen 21.3 (1980), 57-96. For a history of artist biographies from the classical period to the 20th century, see Ernst Kris and Otto Kurz, Legend, Myth, and Magic in the Image of the Artist: A Historical Experiment, New Haven 1979. 12 "On a maintes fois reproché aux partisans de la division du ton une technique mécanique qui devait annihiler leur personnalité. Reproche injuste, infirmé déjà tant de fois et particulièrement par l'exposition actuelle. Chaque artiste, au contraire, y accuse nettement son tempérament, sa vision spéciale: celui-ci est plus blond, celui-là plus lumineux, cet autre, robust davantage. Aucune confusion ne serait donc être permise." Charles Saunier, "Exposition des peintres néo- impressionnistes à Paris," in: L'Art moderne (25 December 1892), 412-413, here 412. 13 "Contre la réforme promulguée par les trois ou quatre peintres que concernent ces notes, les arguments affluent, inoffensifs. 'L'uniformité, l'impersonnalité de l'exécution matérielle privera leurs tableaux de toute allure distinctive.' C'est confondre la calligraphie et le style. Ils différeront, ces tableaux, parce que le tempérament de leurs auteurs différera." Félix Fénéon, "L'Impressionnisme aux Tuileries," in: L'Art moderne (19 September 1886), 300-302, here 302. 14 "Que cette exécution uniforme […] laisse intacte l'originalité de l'artiste, la serve même, -- est-il besoin de le noter? En fait, confondre Camille Pissarro, Dubois-Pillet, Signac, Seurat … [sic] serait imbécile. Chacun d'eux impérieusement accuse sa disparité." Félix Fénéon, "Le Néo- Impressionnisme," in: L'Art moderne (1 May 1887), 138-140, here 139. Another critic defended the neo-impressionists against this criticism by writing: "Those who claim that all pointillist paintings seem to come from the same "factory" have only to compare the very individual visions of the three artists cited." ("Ceux qui soutiennent que tous les tableaux au pointillé semblent sortir d'une même 'fabrique', n'ont qu'à comparer les visions si individuelles des trois artistes [Signac, Dubois-Pillet, and Finch] cités.") "Le Salon des XX – L'ancien et le nouvel impressionnisme," in: L'Art moderne (5 February 1888), 41-42, here 42. The writer and neo-impressionist supporter Paul Alexis did the same: "Under a common technique, each of the neo-impressionists maintains his own particular vision and his very distinct personality." ("Sous une commune technique, chacun des License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0042 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" importance of being able to detect individual authorship and temperament in the artists' work. <top> The Art and the Man: Re-Writing the Biography of Seurat [9] It was likely the pervasiveness and appeal of the biographical model of art criticism that led some critics to try and mend the perceived breach between life and work in the case of Seurat. In several accounts of the artist that appeared during his life or shortly after his death in 1891, Seurat's biography, appearance, and character were described in terms derived from his paintings, as critics worked back from the art to the man to establish a likeness between his pictures and the individual that produced them. In one anonymous article, Seurat was characterized as "physically: a simple man, proper, thoughtful, with measured and precise speech," terms that are almost identical to those used by many to describe his careful method of paint application.15 The same writer also made a point of mentioning Seurat's "implacably resolute gaze," drawing on the close association between neo-impressionist painting and theories of visual perception.16 The singling out of Seurat's gaze in terms that connect it to his style of painting is even more explicit in his obituary by Gustave Kahn, a leading symbolist poet and prominent supporter of the neo-impressionists. Kahn described Seurat as having had "very large eyes, which were extraordinarily calm during the idle moments of life, but when he was looking or painting, they narrowed, leaving visible only a luminous point of the pupil under blinking eyelashes," thereby explicitly tying Seurat's appearance to the artist's pointillist paint mark.17 [10] Even more interestingly, some critics tried to repair the supposedly severed connection between the character of Seurat and his work by, somewhat paradoxically, constructing an image of the artist as devoid of interiority and particularity. In other words, so impersonal was the art of Seurat perceived to be by certain critics that his biography and personality were likewise purged of specificity.18 The anonymous article of 1890, quoted above and entitled "Types of Artists," stated the following: néo-impressionnistes conserve sa vision particulière et sa personnalité bien distincte.") Trublot [pseudonym of Paul Alexis], "A Minuit – Les XX," in: Le Cri du peuple (9 February 1888), unpaginated. 15 "Au physique: l'homme simple, correct, réfléchi, à la parole mesurée et précise." "Types d'artistes," in: L'Art moderne (2 March 1890), 65-67, here 66. 16 "[…] un regard implacablement décidé." "Types d'artistes," 66. 17 "[…] l'oeil très grand, extraordinairement calme aux moments vagues de la vie, quand il regardait ou peignait, se rétrécissait, ne laissant voir que le point lumineux de la prunelle sous des cils clignants." Italics added. Gustave Kahn, "Seurat," in: L'Art moderne (5 April 1891), 107-110, here 107. 18 The construction of artists' biographies based on certain characteristics of their work is not new in the writings on Seurat. Vasari, for example, did the same in his discussions of particular artists in his Vite. See Philip Sohm, "Caravaggio's Deaths," in: The Art Bulletin 84 (2002), 449-468. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0042 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" Since the procedures [of art], formerly instinctive, have become scientific, and the methods of investigation have been made rigorous, the technique of the arts, excluding all complicity with chance, demand assiduous labor and a constant concentration of thought, a change has been produced, quite naturally, in the personality of the artists, we mean to speak above all of French artists. The precision of the plastic expression has determined, it seems, the correcting of individuality.19 [11] The example that the writer gave of this kind of artist was none other than Seurat. The desire to see Seurat's artistic method as reflective of his biography or personality, and thus the crafting of a biography that matched his seemingly impersonal method of painting, can be seen in several early texts about the artist. In Gustave Kahn's obituary on Seurat, for example, the writer claimed that "the biography of Georges Seurat is flat, and devoid of picturesque events."20 But in fact, Seurat's personal life was much more compelling than Kahn and others would have had their readers believe. Madeleine Knoblock was an artist's model with whom Seurat began a relationship by 1889, although perhaps earlier, and with whom he fathered an illegitimate child who was born in 1890. (Indeed, Knoblock was pregnant with their second child when Seurat died the following year.) [12] Seurat's friends and colleagues claimed that they were unaware of the relationship until the very last days of his life. When he suddenly fell ill in late March of 1891, Seurat retreated to his mother's home with Knoblock and their infant son, thereby revealing the existence of his secret family. But in fact, there is evidence, little discussed in the literature on Seurat, indicating that his relationship with Knoblock was more widely known at the time. In 1890, a writer under the pseudonym of Victor Joze published a short novel entitled L'Homme à femmes (The Ladies' Man). Seurat not only designed its cover (Fig. 2) but also seems to have served as the model for one of the novel's main characters, "an impressionist painter of outstanding talent" by the name of Legrand.21 The similarities between Legrand and Seurat are numerous: both are tall and bearded, both have apartments and studios on the Boulevard de Clichy, and both are from well-off families and live off stipends. In one scene we even read of Legrand working on a painting of dancers performing a quadrille at a café-concert, which seems a clear reference to Seurat's 1889-1890 painting Chahut (Fig. 3). 19 "Depuis que les procédés, d'instinctifs qu'ils étaient naguère, sont devenus scientifiques, que les méthodes d'investigation se sont faites rigoureuses, que la technique des arts, excluant toute complicité du hasard, exige un labeur assidu et une constante concentration de pensée, un changement s'est produit, tout naturellement, dans la personnalité des artistes, nous entendons parler surtout des artistes français. La précision de l'expression plastique a déterminé, semble-t-il, la correction de l'individualité." "Types d'artistes," 66. 20 "La biographie de Georges Seurat est plane et dépourvue de faits pittoresques." Kahn, "Seurat," 107. 21 Victor Joze, La Ménagerie sociale: L'Homme à femmes, Paris 1890. Richard Thomson was the first to argue that Seurat was the model for Legrand in Seurat, Oxford 1985, 212-214. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0042 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" 2 Georges Seurat, Cover for Victor Joze, L'homme à femmes, roman parisien: la ménagerie sociale, Paris 1890 (source: Bibliothèque nationale de France, département Réserve des livres rares, RES P- Y2-2918, http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1231617/f1) 3 Georges Seurat, Chahut, 1889-1890, oil on canvas, 171.5 x 140.5 cm. Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo (source: The Yorck Project/Wikimedia Commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Georges_Seurat_013.jpg) License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Georges_Seurat_013.jpg http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1231617/f1 RIHA Journal 0042 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" [13] Though the precise nature of the relationship between Seurat and Joze is difficult to ascertain, clearly there was enough of an acquaintanceship for Seurat both to have created the cover and to have likely served as a model for Legrand. There is one further detail of Legrand's life that links him with Seurat and that makes the novella relevant for the present discussion: the fictional painter's "mysterious amorous relations" with a woman with whom he had had a relationship for several years. It seems an unlikely coincidence that Legrand and Seurat both happened to have secret companions. Instead, I would propose that Legrand's personal life was modeled on Seurat's relationship with Knoblock and that, as such, Seurat's personal life was not in fact very much of a secret. This is not to argue for the relevance of Seurat's relationship with Knoblock, or his personal life more broadly, to his artistic production. My point is rather that the claims of Seurat's life being devoid of biographical incident were rooted less in reality than in a desire to align him with his work in order to conform to a particular biographical model of art criticism. [14] Another related feature of the biographical writings on Seurat was the repeated characterization of him as completely consumed by his art, to the exclusion of all else. Claiming that Seurat was wholly constituted by his work was one more way that critics vacated him of subjectivity, and thus created a likeness between him and his impersonal style of painting. The critic Jules Antoine, for example, wrote in his obituary on the artist that "his life, too short, scarcely entailed any incidents; it consisted entirely of work and experiments."22 In several instances, critics went so far as to liken Seurat to a monk or martyr figure whose artistic practice constituted a form of self-sacrifice. Alphonse Germain repeatedly described Seurat as an artist "practicing self-denial for his art with a calm faith," who was "gifted with an irresistible will, the courage of a believer, and the patience of a monk."23 "At an age where most are starved for success," Germain wrote, "he, nobly, simply, with his calm faith, practiced self-denial for his art, embarking on the work of a Benedictine monk in order to enrich it."24 Arsène Alexandre described Seurat in much the same terms when he wrote that the artist "worked with furious energy of which one has no idea, he had as it were cloistered himself in a small studio on the boulevard Clichy, living in total privation, spending his very meager subsidies exclusively for the benefit of expensive work."25 These assertions of Seurat's artistic practice as a kind of 22 "Sa vie, trop courte, ne comporte guère de péripéties. Elle a tenu tout entière dans le travail et les recherches." Jules Antoine, "Georges Seurat," in: La Revue indépendante (April 1891), 89-93, here 89. 23 "[…] s'abnégatisant pour son art avec une quiète foi." Kalophile l'Ermite [Alphonse Germain], "Chroniques: Les Arts, Exposition des Indépendants," in: L'Ermitage, 15 April 1892, 243-245, here 243; "doué d'irréfrénable volonté, d'un courage de croyant, d'une patience monacale." Alphonse Germain, "Necrologie – Georges Seurat," in: Moniteur des Arts (3 April 1891), 554. 24 "A un âge où la plupart sont affamés de succès, lui, noblement, simplement, avec sa quiète foi, s'est abnégatisé pour son art, entreprenant, afin de l'enrichir, un travail de bénédictin." Germain, "Necrologie – Georges Seurat," 554. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0042 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" asceticism had the effect of draining the artist of interiority and, thus, of linking him more closely with his ostensibly systematic, objective method of painting. [15] The analogizing of Seurat to religious figures to imbue him with a lack of subjectivity continued well after his death. Julius Meier-Graefe, for example, titled one of the sections on neo-impressionism in his History of Modern Art, 'The Apostle and the Congregation;' the apostle was, of course, a reference to Seurat. But Meier-Graefe did not characterize Seurat in this way to re-invest a supposedly impersonal artistic style with links to a particular maker. Rather, he was one of the earliest art historians to ascribe an explicitly anti-biographical stance to the neo-impressionists, and to foreground this aspect of their work as central to their place in the history of modern art. "For the first time since the primitive periods, not only in France but anyplace, there was a programme which brought the will of the individual into subjection," Meier-Graefe wrote.26 "Personality tends to disappear here more and more," he continued, "in a method distinguished from the technical convention of the old masters by deeper research into the laws which the eye obeys."27 And, making the same point even more directly, Meier-Graefe argued that Seurat's "methodical mind sought for composition a solution which should go beyond the limits of individual experience."28 Indeed, Meier-Graefe is not only one of the earliest but also one of the few critics or historians to interpret Seurat's artistic method as a deliberate rejection of the biographically-oriented model of art that was so prevalent during his time. <top> Seurat, Anti-Biography and Authorship [16] Thus far I have focused solely on the reception of Seurat and neo-impressionism in relation to the issue of biography and art. But what of Seurat's own views on these matters? Though he wrote almost nothing about his work, Seurat did leave behind one text in particular that is helpful for understanding his stance on the relationship between individuality and artistic production. In 1890, the writer and journalist Maurice Beaubourg asked Seurat for a written statement about his work. Seurat supposedly never sent a response, but he did produce several drafts of one that were found in his studio after his death.29 Though prior art historians have carefully analyzed the particular statements 25 "Travaillant avec un acharnement dont on n'a pas l'idée, il s'était comme cloîtré dans un petit atelier du boulevard de Clichy, se privant de tout, dépensant les très maigres subsides qu'il pouvait avoir, exclusivement au profit de travaux coûteux." "Chroniques d'Aujourd'Hui: Un Vaillant," in: Paris (1 April, 1891), 1-2. 26 Julius Meier-Graefe, Modern Art: Being a Contribution to a New System of Aesthetics [1904], trans. Florence Simmonds and George W. Chrystal, London 1908, vol. I, 312. 27 Meier-Graefe, Modern Art, 312. 28 Meier-Graefe, Modern Art, 313. 29 Reprinted in: Robert Herbert et al., Georges Seurat, 1859-1891, exh. cat., New York 1991, 381- 382. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0042 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" made in this text, I would add that its distinctly anti-biographical, anti-subjective tenor also merits acknowledgement. Seurat titled the section of the document that conveys his general views about art (as opposed to factual information such as dates and titles about his own work) the 'Esthétique,' and it is made up entirely of general rules and formulae. The opening sentences of this section give a good sense of its content and tone: "Art is Harmony. Harmony is the analogy of opposites and the analogy of similarities of tone, of tint, of line, taking account of a dominant under the influence of the lighting, in combinations that are gay, calm, or sad."30 Seurat then went on to explain in very brief terms what he considered to be opposites of tone, tint, and line, followed by a short explanation of what he meant by gaiety, calmness, and sadness of tone, tint, and line: "Gaiety of tone is the luminous dominant, of tint, the warm dominant, of line, lines above the horizontal."31 As such, Seurat's esthétique is made up entirely of absolute rules and theories, excluding any sense of the particular, the incidental, or the subjective from either the production or viewing of the work of art. [17] In addition to his letter to Beaubourg, there is other evidence that Seurat wanted to discourage a biographically-oriented interpretation of his work. One painting in particular, Seurat's Jeune femme se poudrant (Young Woman Powdering Herself), 1889-1890 (Fig. 4), is important to consider in this regard. The subject of the work is Madeleine Knoblock, an identification that was only discovered in the process of dividing Seurat's property after his death, when she referred to Jeune femme as "mon portrait."32 Despite Seurat's intimacy with the sitter – the fact that she was pregnant with their first child when he painted it lends a particular poignancy to her voluptuousness – he chose to give the painting the most generic of titles, thereby masking his relationship to the subject and instituting a divide between his work and his private life.33 Additionally, amongst the drawings that Seurat exhibited during his lifetime are several that depict his mother, aunt, and father. These, too, were given generic titles, such as Dîneur (Man Dining, 1883-1884, private collection), and Lecture (Reading, 1886-88, Henry Moore family collection), that focus on the figures' activities rather than their identities, and that thus give no intimation of Seurat's personal connection to them. 30 "L'art, c'est l'harmonie. L'harmonie, c'est l'analogie des contraires, l'analogie des semblables, de ton, de teinte, de ligne, considérés par la dominante et sous l'influence d'un éclairage en combinaisons gaies, calmes ou tristes." Herbert, Georges Seurat, 382. 31 "La gaîté de ton, c'est la dominante lumineuse; de teinte, la dominante chaude; de ligne, les lignes au-dessus de l'horizontale." Herbert, Georges Seurat, 382. 32 Herbert, Georges Seurat, 335. 33 The relationship between this painting and Seurat's biography has long been a vexing one. Not only does it depict his companion, but Seurat scholars have debated whether or not the artist had at one point included a self-portrait in the upper left corner of the work before eventually painting over it. See Herbert, Georges Seurat, 335-336. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0042 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" 4 Georges Seurat, Jeune femme se poudrant (Young Woman Powdering Herself), 1889-1890, oil on canvas, 95.5 x 79.5 cm. Courtauld Institute of Art, London (source: The Yorck Project/Wikimedia Commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Georges_Seurat_021.jpg) [18] Some of the most important sources for helping us understand Seurat's views on artistic authorship and individuality are private letters written by him and other neo- impressionists. These letters reveal the importance to Seurat of maintaining paternity over the neo-impressionist method of painting and thus somewhat complicate the anti- biographical stance that I have ascribed to him thus far. Indeed, from these documents, we learn that Seurat was deeply concerned about receiving credit for developing certain aspects of neo-impressionist painting. For example, after Fénéon finished his pamphlet Les Impressionnistes en 1886, he asked Camille Pissarro (1830-1903) to check the accuracy of the text. In response, Pissarro requested that Fénéon "make clear, when dealing with Seurat, that he was the first to have the good sense to put conscientiously into practice the theories of Chevreul."34 Shortly thereafter, the dealer Durand-Ruel asked Pissarro to put together a text on neo-impressionism. The painter referred him instead to Fénéon's pamphlet, and made of point of adding that, "It is M. Seurat, an artist of great value, who was the first to conceive of applying the scientific theory, after having studied it fully. Like my other colleagues, Signac, Dubois-Pillet, I only followed the example set by Seurat."35 Pissarro's repeated and explicit deference to Seurat was the result, we learn from other sources, of Seurat's insistence that he be credited as the founder of the neo- 34 "[...] préciser quand il s'agit de Seurat, qui le premier a eu le bon sens de mettre consciencieusement en pratique les théories de Chevreul." Janine Bailly-Herzberg, ed., Correspondance de Camille Pissarro, vol. 2, Paris 1986, 73. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Georges_Seurat_021.jpg RIHA Journal 0042 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" impressionist method. For example, in a letter written to Paul Signac (1863-1935), Camille Pissarro jokingly suggested that "we should give Seurat an inventor's patent, if that will flatter his vanity."36 Apparently, at one point Seurat had even considered ceasing to exhibit altogether because too many other artists were imitating him. [19] Concerns about paternity and singularity dogged Seurat not just in the early years of neo-impressionism, but throughout his short career. In 1890, Fénéon wrote an article on Signac and neo-impressionism that omitted any mention of Seurat and that thus failed to credit him as the inventor of the group's method of painting. This omission prompted Seurat to write to Fénéon to set the record straight, and his response was clearly a matter of importance to him, as he wrote at least three drafts of it. "I insist on establishing the following dates indicating my prior paternity," Seurat wrote, arguing that he was the first among the neo-impressionists to discover certain theories or read certain sources and then put them into practice in his work.37 In one of the unsent drafts, Seurat added, "I have documents, letters, and witnesses that I will be happy to produce if dispute arises."38 As one can clearly see from these documents, the critics' complaints of a lack of authorial presence in neo-impressionist painting don't align with Seurat's strong desire for authorship over the neo-impressionist method. Though Seurat developed a method of painting that was explicitly grounded in larger systems and theories instead of the individual and the idiosyncratic, he insisted that this method be associated specifically with him. In so doing, he rejected the biographical mode of interpretation while maintaining the importance of individual authorship and stylistic originality. [20] Among the papers found in Seurat's studio after his death were notes he had made about Eugène Delacroix, including passages copied from published excerpts of Delacroix's journals. One of the journal passages that Seurat transcribed reads: "Sterility is not only a misfortune for art, it's a blotch on the artist's talent. Everything made by a man who is not productive inevitably shows signs of fatigue. One only forms a school by offering large and numerous works as models."39 This last sentence, in combination with his anxieties about paternity, suggests that Seurat was caught up in the conflicting desires that haunted so many 19th-century artists, to be influential and to be original, to have 35 "C'est M. Seurat, artiste de grande valeur, qui a été le premier à avoir l'idée d'appliquer la théorie scientifique après l'avoir étudiée à fond. Je n'ai fait que suivre commes mes autres confrères Signac, Dubois-Pillet l'exemple donné par Seurat." Janine Bailly-Herzberg, ed., Correspondance de Camille Pissarro , 75. 36 "[...] il faudra donner à Seurat un brevet d'introduction, si cela flatte son orgueil." Janine Bailly- Herzberg, ed., Correspondance de Camille Pissarro, 247. 37 "Je tiens à établir les dates suivantes indiquant ma paternité antérieure." Félix Fénéon, Oeuvres plus que complètes, ed. Joan U. Halperin, Geneva and Paris 1970, 508. 38 "J'ai documents, lettres et témoins je serai heureux de les produire en cas de contestation." Herbert, Georges Seurat, 384. 39 Herbert, Georges Seurat, 395. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en RIHA Journal 0042 | 14 July 2012 | Special Issue "New Directions in New-Impressionism" followers and to be unique.40 I'll conclude with an excerpt of an 1888 letter from Seurat to Signac, in which originality is again the subject at hand, but in which Seurat's definition of originality is a slightly more inclusive and plural one. Decrying the growing number of recent adherents to the neo-impressionist movement, as distinct from the original, core group of neo-impressionists, Seurat lamented that "the more numerous we are, the less original we'll be."41 In this letter, Seurat ascribes originality to the group as a whole, rather than to just himself, writing in the first person plural rather than the first person singular. At least in this letter, Seurat found a way, if only temporarily, to reconcile his desire "to form a school," which necessarily weakens the connection between a particular artist and a specific artistic style, with his career-long desire for singularity. <top> 40 For more on the relationship between originality and imitation in 19th-century French art, see Richard Shiff, "The Original, the Imitation, the Copy, and the Spontaneous Classic: Theory and Painting in Nineteenth-Century France," in: Yale French Studies 66 (1984), 27-54. 41 "Plus nous serons, moins nous aurons d'originalité." Henri Dorra and John Rewald, Seurat: L'œuvre peint, biographie et catalogue critique, Paris 1959, LXV. License: The text of this article is provided under the terms of the Creative Commons License CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de/deed.en Introduction A "Patient Spotted Tapestry". Neo-Impressionism and the Question of Subjectivity The Art and the Man: Re-Writing the Biography of Seurat Seurat, Anti-Biography and Authorship 
work_ntdi6cptdvawnhvgco33eveqbm	----	771RESONANCE � September 2010 Editorial G Nagendrappa, AssociateEditor 1 In his foreword to Serendipity by R M Roberts, Wiley & Sons, 1989. 2An Invention to Dye for: the Colour Purple in The Independent of Monday, 17 April 2006 on the occasion of the 150th anniversary of the discovery of mauve. Email: gnagendrappa@gmail.com PaulFlory, on receiving thePriestlyMedalof theAmericanChemical Society, said, “Significant inventions are not mere accidents… Knowledge in depth and breadth are virtual pre-requisites…Unless the mind is thoroughly charged before-hand,…probably we will find nothing to ignite.” Louis Pasteur had made a similar statement, “In the field of observation, chance favours only the prepared mind.” The young mind of William Henry Perkin, the chemist featured in this issue, was thoroughly charged when he embarked upon preparing quinine. Perkin was quite confident that his plannedsynthesis would inevitably lead to the targetedproduct. However, as Sir DerekBarton puts it1, “Happily, this is not theway it always happens in the realworld.” Theproductwasan unexpected beautiful purple substance. Earlier, purple colour was for royals and high society people. Perkin’s Mauve changed all that. As Jonathan Brown and Steve Connor suggest2, “In the great consumer democracy of the 21st century, even the most humble citizens can choose it as the colour of their latest shellsuit”. This is one of the most important serendipitous discoveries ever, which opened up a whole new area of scientific research and chemical industry. Modern educationists would consider Perkin’s discontinuation of his studies as a case of a “college dropout”. But he did it with a purpose and achieved success. A top formal degree from a first rate university is not necessarily a prerequisite for making great contribution to a scientific field or to be a great human being. Perkin’s school teacher Thomas Hall is a good exampleof how an inspiring teacher can shape the minds of his pupils at their impressionable age. We need many Halls for our children studying in schools and colleges, if we want at least someof themto become Perkins, not only in chemistry but in every branch of knowledge. Does our educational system have Halls and Perkins? We need parents like Perkin’s father who are supportive of their wards’ ideas. But in our society childrenare often forced to study the subjects of the parents’ choice. 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work_ntudwzufpzdkxdmz55czo44nui	----	Libri rioevuti e recensioni L I B R I ] ~ I C E V U T I E I~ECEI~SIOI~I J . C. SLi'rF~R- Quantum Theory o/ Atomic Structure. M c G r a w - H i l l , N e w Y o r k , N.Y. ; V o l I , p p . X l i - 5 0 2 , p r e z z o 8 5 s. 6 d . ; V o l . II, p p . I X - 4 3 9 s e n z a i n d i c ~ z i o n e d i p r e z z o . La p r o l i f i e a f a m i g l i a dei l i b r i S l a t e r 8 a l l a t e r z a g e n e r a z i o n e , c o m e si a p p r e n d e d a l l a p r e f a z i o n e - p r e d i g r e e del p r i m o di q u e s t i v o l u m i . (( A n d I h o p e t h a t t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f v o l u m e s s t i l l t o come~). A l l o r a i] l e t t o r e si f e r m a , p e r p l e s s o (a p a g . v ) , e p e n s a : f o r s e e o n v i e n e l e g g e r e il p r o s - s i m o , pifi g e n e r a l e , pitt v a s t o , pifi a g g i o r - n a t o . M a l a f a t i c a ~ eosl r a g i o n e v o l m c n t e d i l u i t a , n e l l e m i l l e p a g i n e d e l l ' o p e r a , d a f a v o r i r e lu l e t t u r a i m m e d i a t a . D o p o u n a p r i m a i m p r e s s i o n e di supelaqUO n e ] l ' i m p o s t a z i o n e d c l 1 ~ v o ] u l n e , ei si a c c o r g e c h e in f o n d o esso r i m p i a z z a in b i b l i o t e c a u n b u o n n u m e r o di t e s t i o n o r a t i . I1 2 ~ v o l u m e ~ d e c i s a m e n t e pifi a t t r a e n t e , a l m e n o p e r u n fisico. C o m ' ~ f a c i l e i m m a g i n a r e , i p e z z i f m ' t i d i q u e s t i d u e l i b r i sono il m e t o d o a u t o - c o n s i s t e n t e e l a s t r u t t u r a d e i m u l t i - p l c t t i : ~ q u i c h e q u a l u n q u e l e t t o r e i m p a r a q u a l c o s a d i n u o v o c o n fl p i a c e r e di n o n c e r c a r l o t r a l e p u b b l i c a z i o n i speciali. A n c h e se l a t r a t t a ~ i o n e del- l ' a t o m o d i i d r o g e n o finisce a p a g . 187, d o p o q u M c h e s b a d i g l i o . L a b i b l i o g r a f i a ~ a s s o l u t a m e n t e s t r a o r - d i n a r i a , p a r t i e o l a r m e n t e n e l 2 ~ v o l u m e ( d a p a g . 383 a p a g . 436, i n o r d i n e a l i a - b e t i c o , o l t r e a l l a b i b l i o g r a f i a s p e c i a l e a l l a fine d e i v a r i e a p i t o l i ) . V o r r e i s o l t a n t o ] a m e n t a r e l ' a s s e n z a d e l l ' e f f e t t o S t a r k c l ' i n s u f f i e i e n z a del- l ' i n d i c e a n a l i t i c o d e l 2 ~ v o l u m e . C . B E R N A R D I N I PROPRIET~ LETTERARIA RISE]RVATA D i r e t t o r e r c s p o n s a b i l e : G. P O L V A N I T i p o g r a f i a C o m p o s i t o r i - B o l o g n a Q u e s t o f a s c i c o l o e s t a t o h c c n z i a t o d a i t o r c h i il 7 - X I - 1 9 6 1 
work_nw4n2z7p75btflon4yf6kwrcoi	----	WILL COMPUTER GAMES EVER BE A LEGITIMATE ART FORM? Ernest W. Adams Introduction This article is adapted from a lecture delivered at the 2001 Game Developers' Conference in San Jose, California, and as such is somewhat more informal than the traditional academic paper. My objective was simply to address the question posed in the title and to identify the circumstances and events that must occur before artistic legitimacy can be achieved. I begin by examining what art means as a cultural entity in the West and whether computer games have any place within that framework. For the purposes of this article, I consider the term" computer game" to include personal computer games, home console videogames, online games, and most forms of computerized play that involve a monitor and an input device. The role of computerized toys is not addressed here. What Is Art and What Does It Do? Types of Arts The entry for "Art" in the Encyclopaedia Britannica divides art into a number of types. Among them are the literary arts: writing and drama, which are characterized by the presence of narrative. Film and television also belong to the literary arts. Then there are the fine arts: sculpture and painting. music and dance. There are also the decorative arts: wallpaper, fabrics and furnishings. Architecture is regarded by some as a form of art, and industrial design, but at this point the types move more and more away from "pure" art and into areas with more utilitarian considerations. Industrial design, for example, is not really art so much as it is an aesthetic applied to utilitarian objects. The boundaries between art and non-art are not hard and fast; there is a grey area. 256 I VIDEOGAMES AND ART Another characteristic of the literary arts is that the object in hand is not the work of art itself - i.e. the paper and ink that make up the book are merely the delivery medium, not the work. Similarly with film, the strip of plastic is not the movie; rather, the images and sounds recorded on the strip of plastic are the movie - and only when they are projected on a screen. With games, the CD-ROM is not the game; it is the software and artwork recorded there which are the game - and only when they are executed by a computer. This is as opposed to, say, sculpture, in which the sculpted object itself is the artwork. I believe that many computer games belong in the category of literary arts with movies and television because they do contain elements of narrative, and their narrative elements can be subjected to the same criticism as other narrative arts. However, this is far from the whole picture: many games have no narrative aspect. The Philosophy of Art For the purposes of this investigation it is also useful to look at the history of the philosophy of art. For several hundred years it was thought that art was representational, that art existed to portray a person or scene or object. Obviously this notion applied only to visual arts such as painting and sculpture, and not to such things as music and dance. They were considered separate forms not covered by the theory. And to some extent it was thought that the more accurate the representation, the better the art. In other words, a sculpture or painting which looked exactly like its subject was better than one which did not. In the twentieth century, however, this notion was largely replaced by the idea of art as expression. People began to feel that art was not meant to depict objects accurately, but to serve as an expression of the artist's thought. This had a number of benefits. For one thing, it enabled music and dance to be included with the other forms of art, since they are highly expressive. It also allowed painters and sculptors to start creating works which were not visual reproductions of real things, but images as they saw them, and as they wished their viewers to see them. The notion of art as expression caused an explosion of new kinds of art and new ways of looking at things. There are other theories in the philosophy of art as well. The novelist Leo Tolstoy believed that the function of art is to pass on cultural values from one generation to the next, to serve a sort of moral purpose. Others believe that art is essentially hedonism, that it exists to create aesthetic pleasure. But. by far, the dominant theory of art today is art-as-expression. Art Lasts Another characteristic that we can note about art, good art at least, is that it lasts. There are Greek statues 2300 years old that we still admire today. There are Egyptian statues 5000 years old that we still admire. These things were created in stone, a highly durable medium, and so they naturally tend to last. Nevertheless, we would not put them in museums and look at them jf we did not think they were worth looking at. There are many other mundane objects that old that we do not bother to preserve. These ancient sculptures appeal to us not merely because they are old, but because we find them aesthetically interesting. There are also some very old games. In Egypt, people are still playing games in the sand that have been played exactly the same way for thousands of years. That does not make them WILL COMPUTER GAMES EVER BE A LEGITIMATE ART FORM? I 257 art, it just makes them very long-Lived games. Still, it is interesting to note that games can last as long as great works of art. Clearly, they have some appeal that survives across the centuries, despite changes in culture, language, religion, and so on. It is highly unlikely that people will be pLaying Escape from Monkey Island a thousand years from now. However, it is conceivable that people will be playing Tetris a thousand years from now. Tetris is so simple and eLegant that its appeal could last for centuries. Tetris does not belong to the literary arts, since it has no narrative, but to the visual arts. Tetris is, perhaps, a work of kinetic sculpture, and I could easily imagine it being displayed in an art museum. Can Games Be Art? Art Versus Popular Culture I assert that the vast majority of what the game industry does is not art, but popular culture. Art is purchased in art galleries by art connoisseurs, it is criticized by art critics, it is conserved in art museums. It is not sold in toy shops. But the fact that most of what the industry produces is mereLy popular cuLture does not preclude the interactive medium from being an art form. It just means that the industry faces an uphill battle to be recognized as one - just as the movies did, moving from the nickeLodeon to the screen. Film is an art form, but that does not mean that every movie is a work of art. Some are and some are not, just like games. Most movies are not art, but popular culture. And there is no question that the vast majority of games are not art either. Monopoly is not art; poker is not art; baseball is not art. Art and Interactivity So why aren't most games art? One possibility is that interactivity precludes art; that art is a form of communication from the artist to viewer, and if the viewer starts to interfere, the message is lost. It is certainly true that interactivity operates in a tension with narrative: narrative Lies in the control of the author, while interactivity is about the freedom of the player. However, I do not believe that interactivity does necessarily preclude art. Chris Crawford, in his book The Art of Computer Game Design, wrote, "Real art through computer games is achievable, but it wiLL never be achieved so long as we have no path to understanding. We need to establish our principles of aesthetics, a framework for criticism, and a model for development." I disagree with him about a model for development - I think how you create a work of art is irrelevant - but I believe that he is correct about the other things. In San Francisco there is a science museum caLLed the Exploratorium. This museum takes the notion seriously that its exhibits, while illustrating scientific principles, should also be aestheticaLLy pleasing. They consider them to be works of art, and some of the people who build them are referred to as "artists-in-residence". The exhibits are attractive as weLL as educational, and aesthetics plays a role in their design. These exhibits are necessarily interactive, and their interactivity does not detract from their status as works of art. We are used to thinki ng of art as illustrating the human condition, or addressing large issues related to ourselves, but why should it not illustrate scientific principles? Diane Ackerman 258 I VIDEOGAMES AND ART is a poet who wrote a series of poems collected into a book called The Planets: A Cosmic Pastoral. These poems were not about people and their emotions. as many of us [wrongly] expect poems to be. Rather. they accurately describe the appearance of the planets. their behaviour. their position in the solar system. The poems are no less beautiful for being scientifically accurate in fact. to a fan of both science and poetry, they are more beautiful for being scientifically accurate. The Messages of Art This raises an interesting question about the limits on what art can say. Art is not pedagogy its purpose is not to teach. But still it is capable of making quite complex statements. We know that literature, for example, has themes. The theme of a novel is a declarative sentence which sums up the message of the work. Themes can be trivial, like "Death causes grief', or they can be non-trivial, like "Death causes many emotions in addition to grief". Can games have themes? I believe that they can. Simulations certainly say things. Sim City, for example, says that a good transportation system is essential for economic prosperity, This is never stated explicitly; it is something that you discover in the course of playing the game. In fact, it is discovered through i nteractivity - if you did not interact with the game, you would never find it out. Now, of course, this is a simple economic statement. It is not very deep, and a work of art whose message was no more than "a good transportation system is essential for economic prosperity" would be considered mundane. But it illustrates the point that games are capable of saying things. There are also non-linguistic modes of expression, Sculpture, for example. does not necessarily have themes, You cannot always distill the content of sculpture into a declarative sentence. But you might be able to distill it into an emotion: a non-linguistic expression of a feeling. And I believe that games can do the same thing. Some Other Characteristics of Art Art Has Content Art must have content. This is why baseball and poker are not art: they have no content. Nothing is being expressed. Monopoly has almost no content: it has little houses and pieces that move around, but certainly not enough to be "art". When we say, "There's an art to playing poker", what we really mean is that there is a craft to playing poker - that there is a right way and a wrong way to do it and that playing poker well requires a high degree of skill. But the act of playing poker is not an aesthetic act. It has no content. It is not expressive. Art Has an Aesthetic Another thing about art is that it is aesthetic. it has rules for determining beauty and ugliness. In the twentieth century the idea that art was simply supposed to be beautiful was thrown out. But, nevertheless, art is supposed to appeal to us in some way. There are mechanisms, though much debated, for assessing the appeal, meaning, richness, depth, significance, and so on, of works of art. Some of these apply to games also and there are distinct aesthetic qualities of games, such as "replayability", that may not apply to more conventional art forms. WILL COMPUTER GAMES EVER BE A LEGITIMATE ART FORM? I 259 Art Contains Ideas Art must have the capacity to express ideas. Film is an art form because it has an aesthetic, and it also has the capacity to make statements. Most games do not make statements, but, then, neither do James Bond films. Most computer games are the interactive entertainment equivalent of James Bond novels and movies. The novel is an art form, but James Bond novels are not art. For a novel to be art it must be more than merely entertaining. For a painting to be art it must be more than merely decorative. I wiLL mention here two games that I think contained a lot of ideas. One was Planescape: Torment, from Interplay. This was a game about an immortal man who had Lost his name and his memory. The game was about his quest to find out his name and to learn the reason for his immortality, possibly so that he could die permanently. Along the way he meets a strange collection of people aLL of whom seem to know him, but whom he does not remember, and each one of them possesses part of the key to his past. Now this is not great literature; in fact it is not substantially better than the average paperback fantasy novel. But it contained far more interesting ideas that most hack-and-slash RPGs. and I enjoyed Planescape: Torment a great deal. I found it aestheticaLly intriguing. The other game was Balance of Power. by Chris Crawford. It came out around 1986. and I think it is one of the best computer games ever made. Balance of Power was a simulation of gLobaL politics. The Soviet Union and the USA are each struggLing to maximize their geopolitical prestige at each other's expense, by supporting friendLy governments and overthrowing or destabiLizing unfriendLy ones around the worLd. This game taught me all kinds of things about globaL politics that I didn't know. and. in fact. it was so good at it that the United States State Department began to use it to train dipLomats. Like Sim City, this was a simulation, so the ideas it contained were not aesthetic ideas. but nevertheless they were interesting and new, and it is clear proof that games can contain ideas. I had an odd emotional experience playing Balance of Power, because I once tried pLaying it from the Russian side. We are used to playing games from the enemy side in war games - in a World War II flight simuLator, you can fly either the German or the Allied planes. but all it really means is that the performance characteristics of the planes are different. But playing Balance of Power from the Russian side. I got an immediate and visceraL experience of the chaLLenge that the Soviets actually faced. The way the game is designed, the Americans have a Lot of money but very few men under arms. whiLe the Russians have very Little money but a great many troops. What this means is that the Russians' mechanisms for influencing world opinion are really quite Limited and crude. It is easy for them to send in troops, but they cannot afford to buy friends around the world by sending economic aid. I also noticed that all America's friends are extremeLy rich and powerful- Britain and France and Germany and so on while all Russia's friends were extremely poor. And the experience of playing this game was quite strange. They were surrounded by enemies and treaty organizations designed to hem them in, It turned my worLd-view upside down, because I had never put myseLf in their shoes before. Art Makes You Feel Things Art shouLd make you feel something. That is part of what art is about. And games unquestionably can make you feel things, but for them to be accepted as an art form, they 260 I VIDEOGAMES AND ART have to make the effort. If movies had never moved beyond the nickelodeon, they would never have been accepted as an art form. But movies, even silent movies, were clearly an outgrowth of drama, of the stage, and the stage is a very ancient and clearly recognized art form. Computer games' roots are not in movies or the stage; they are in gameplay, in board games and forms. Those are clearly not art forms, because they have so much less emphasis on the aesthetic, and because they don't usually make you feel things - certainly not subtle things, in any case. Art Is Not Formulaic Another important characteristic of good art is that it is not formulaic. The artist Salvador Dali came to be considered something of a fraud in his later years, because his work became formulaic, he ceased to innovate. The Star Wars saga eventually lost whatever claim it may once have had to be a work of art, because it became increasingly formulaic and its content driven by merchandising considerations. Utility and Saleability All these characteristics of art - expressing ideas, making you feel things, not being formulaic and so on outweigh considerations of utility. Art is not about being useful. And to some extent, they outweigh considerations of saleability as well. Art does not involve merchandising. No one creates a work of art with a presumption that it is going to be turned into T-shirts and lunch boxes. A key point about art is this: It is not about what the customer wants to buy. It is about what you have to say. A work does not have to do all the things I mentioned above, but if it does none of them, the chances are it is not a work of art. What Does It Take For Games To Be an Art Form? We now return to the question: what would be required for games to be considered an art form? The answer is as much about public expectations as it is about the nature of the medium itself. Computer games must seem like other art forms. For games to be recognized as an art form they must do some of the things that other art forms do - that people expect of art forms. More importantly, their developers themselves must begin to act as if they believe that their medium is an art form. They must treat their work as an art form and act as if they expect the public to do the same. Fun and Games The game industry concentrates for the most part on producing an experience called oofun". No one would want to playa board game that was not fun. But computer games are not just computerized board games. Books and movies are not only light entertainment, nor are they merely "fun". If games never become more than the interactive equivalent of Schwarzenegger movies and teen sex comedies, then they will never explore the full power of their medium. The commercial game industry concentrates so exclusively on fun that it has lost touch - or never even had touch - with any other forms of entertainment. Most games are the video equivalent of a theme park, a place designed to maximize fun. But adults do not spend a lot of time in theme parks. They get entertainment in other ways. WILL COMPUTER GAMES EVER BE A LEGITIMATE ART FORM? I 261 A few games produce emotions other than fun: suspense. horror. and far more often than they should - frustration. But fun is an overrated value. if computer games are to be considered an art form. looking beyond mere fun is one of the first things they must do. Computer Games Need an Aesthetic Games need an aesthetic. or a variety of them. Film is not judged by a single aesthetic. but by severaL. They are judged by the cinematography. the editing. the quality of the acting. the quality of the story. and many other things. And like the movies. there must be a way to judge the artistic merit of the elements that make up games. We must judge the story. if there is one; we must judge the acting. if there is any; we must judge the seamlessness of the experience. which is somewhat equivalent to the editing in movies. We must judge the degree to which all elements of the game work together in harmony. without any false notes. In time we might find a way of judging gameplay itself according to an aesthetic: is it smooth. easy. natural? Again. the gameplay in Tetris is aesthetically pleasing. When a player plays a really good game. she no longer even sees the menu items on the screen or thinks about the buttons. They become second nature. Developers Must Experiment Game developers must experiment with their medium. They must try new things and take risks. Consider impressionism. it is now recognized as one of the greatest of movements in painting. it was famously excluded from the French Academy. and the first show of Impressionist paintings had to be held in a private home. But Impressionism was not a technology of painting. The paint and canvas were still the same as they always had been. Nor was Impressionism primarily about looking at new things. It did bring in some new subject matter. but. primarily. Impressionism was a new way of seeing. It was about the fact that the eye is not a camera. That painting does not have to be representative. What is the computer game equivalent of Impressionism? We do not yet know. But the only way to find out is to experiment with the medium. as the Impressionists did with theirs. Games Must Challenge the Player The greatest works of art. the ones that are displayed in museums and discussed endlessly. are those that took risks and broke new ground. Art must break new ground or it is merely craft. merely decoration. Great art challenges the viewer. It demands that the viewer grow. expand his or her mind. see things that have not been seen before. think things that have not been thought before. Impressionism challenged our understanding of what painting was for. The Romantic movement in music challenged the listener; it asserted that music could be about emotion. not merely melodic "prettiness". Who knows more about posing challenges than game developers do? People play games because they want to be challenged. Of course. game challenges are usuaLLy of a different form: a challenge to achieve something. a victory condition. whereas great art challenges the viewer to see and hear things in a different way. not to achieve something but to obtain 262 I VIDEOGAMES AND ART a new kind of understanding. Yet there is no reason why games cannot challenge the players to achieve a new kind of understanding. Sim City challenges the player to understand the relationshi p between efficient transportation and economic prosperity. That is not an aesthetic understanding, but it is not specifically a victory condition, either. Games are capable of challenging players aesthetically as well as logically if developers choose to make the effort. The trick is to devise new challenges, not variants on the same old ones. New genres of interactive entertainment. Gaming Awards Must Change No one ever receives an art prize on the basis of the technical merit or the craftsmanship inherent in the artwork. If a sculptor gets an award for a sculpture, it is not for the quality of the welding. If the welding is bad. they might not get the award, but good welding alone is not enough. Craftsmanship is a necessary, but not a sufficient. condition for winning art prizes. There are Academy Awards for technical advances in film-making, but it is always a much smaller ceremony, held in a hotel ballroom, not in a big, beautiful theater. The awards are not presented on TV. The only people who attend the technical Oscars are film technicians, not glittering movie stars. The big public Oscars are about art, not craft. But game awards are primarily about craft. Best programming. Best sound. There are seldom any prizes for best story or best acting, so it should not be surprising that those elements have traditionally been the weakest parts of games. "Best Graphics" is an especially ambiguous category. Some people think that best graphics are those which are rendered at the highest speed or that most closely mimic visual reality. That is not good graphics, but good graphic technology. Game awards must honor aesthetic content, not merely technological prowess. Games Need Not Reviewers, But Critics Games also need critics to recognize artistic merit. At the moment there are no critics. What the game industry has are reviewers, and poorly educated ones at that. Real critics bring to their profession not just a knowledge of the medium they are discussing, but wide reading and an understanding of aesthetics and the human condition. An art form requires not just reviewers that can compare one work with another, but critics who can discuss the meaning of a game in a larger context. Critics must bring more than a comprehensive familiarity with games: they must bring wisdom, maturity, judgment, understanding. One objection to this argument is that there simply are no games that deserve this depth of thought - that if you took the intellect of the great art critics of the world and applied it to games, it would be wasted. But that is not a fundamental weakness in the medium. The fact that there are not any games that deserve in-depth analysis is because the industry has not made any, not because it cannot make any. The movie 2001: A Space Odyssey baffled all the movie reviewers, because none of their traditional metrics applied. It was (generally] unexciting; it had no romance, no action, no WILL COMPUTER GAMES EVER BE A LEGITIMATE ART FORM? I 263 suspense. and very little drama in the traditional sense of the word. In fact. it had very little acting and most of that was intentionaLLy wooden. The film critics, on the other hand, had a field day. 2001 was rich with ideas. crammed with them from one end to the other. There was an enormous amount to think about. 2001: A Space Odyssey is a great work of art. It meets aLL the necessary criteria. It certainly has content, over three hours of it. It says something a great many things, in fact. It makes the viewer feel something. 2001 was boring at points intentionally boring. Stanley Kubrick knew that space travel was not whizzing around the universe in starfighters; space travel is long and slow and boring, and he had the artistic courage to present that aspect of it. 2001 is not formulaic. It did break new ground in many ways, some of them technological. although those were not necessarily critical to its success as a work of art. It did chaLLenge the viewer, very greatly. It asked questions about a great many things: space travel and computers and man's place in the universe. Games need their own 2001. Art Requires an Artist Game development is a coLLaborative exercise and many people are involved. So is film­ making. But film has established a cult of personality around the director, who, justly or unjustly, gets most of the credit for the quality of a film. Games may need to do the same around the game designer. This was tried once, but abandoned for commercial reasons. Electronic Arts was founded with the notion that game developers should be promoted like, and treated like, rock musicians. They eventually abandoned that idea when the games got big enough that they were no longer being made by a group the size of a rock band, and when the fame they were getting started to cause the designers to ask for more money. But art requires an artist. One of the absolute requirements of any work of art is that it be man-made. For games to be taken seriously as an art form, the people who make them must receive adequate public recognition. Every work of interactive entertainment that wants to be taken seriously as a work of art must have its prime visionary's name on the box. Everyone in the industry knows who Sid Meier and Brian Moriarty and Peter Molyneux and Will Wright are. but it is not enough for everyone in the industry to know these names - they must become household words. Sid Meier must be as well known as Francis Ford Coppola or Gabriel Garcia Marquez. Conclusion Ultimately, whether or not interactive entertainment can be a legitimate art form is up to its practitioners, It is in part a public-relations exercise. to let the public and the press know that they believe that it is an art form. But there are a number of additional steps that game developers must take, and I reiterate them here: • Games must seek to do more than provide "fun". Fun is but one. rather simplistic. form of entertainment. There are others. and game developers must find a way to provide them through gameplay. 264 I VIDEOGAMES AND ART • There must be an aesthetic for games and gameplay. How it may arise. we do not yet know. and it will undoubtedly be subject to endLess debate. But arise it must, before computer games can be an art form. • Game developers must experiment with the medium. They must take artistic risks and break new ground. • Games must challenge their players as other art forms challenge their viewers. They must force the player to experience new ideas. to see things in new ways. • Prizes and awards must recognize aesthetic merit and not merely technological prowess or craft. • Games must be the subject of genuine criticism. not merely product reviews. They must be studied. discussed and analyzed as works of art and aspects of culture. • Game developers must treat themseLves and each other as artists and to grant credit where it is due. The answer to the question that is the title of this Lecture is undoubtedly yes - but only if the peopLe who create the games. the developers. have the courage and the vision to make it so. Gameography Crawford, Chris. Balance of Power. Mindscape, Inc., 1986. Clark, Sean, Stemmle, Michael, et at., Escape from Monkey Island, LucasArts Entertainment, 2000. Darrow, Charles B. Monopoly, privately published, 1934. Reprinted by Parker Brothers. 1935. Avellone. Chris, et at., Planescape: Torment. Interplay. 1999. Wright. Will, Jeff Braun and Robert Strobel. Sim City. Bn1!derbund Software. 1989. Pajitnov. Alexey. Tetris. Spectrum Holobyte. 1987. 
work_nxj4wpgnojgodjsqi6b4lvaome	----	https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000589 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:03, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1017/S1060150316000589&domain=pdf https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000589 https://www.cambridge.org/core 10601503_45-1.indd 210601503_45-1.indd 2 08/02/17 3:55 PM08/02/17 3:55 PM https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000589 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:03, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000589 https://www.cambridge.org/core CONTENTS VOLUME 45 , NUMBER 1 Activity and Passivity: Class and Gender in the Case of the Artificial Hand 1 Clare Stainthorp Rudyard Kipling’s Tactical Impressionism 17 Chris Ortiz Y Prentice  The “After-Life” of Illness: Reading against the Deathbed in Gaskell’s Ruth and Nineteenth-Century Convalescent Devotionals 35 Hosanna Krienke Sanitation and Telepathy: George Eliot’s The Lifted Veil 55 Derek Woods Confessions of an English Green Tea Drinker: Sheridan Le Fanu and the Medical and Metaphysical Dangers of Green Tea 77 Melissa Dickson Euthanasia and (D)Evolution in Speculative Fiction 95 Nancee Reeves Gods and Ghost-Light: Ancient Egypt, Electricity, and X-Rays 119 Eleanor Dobson Tono-Bungay and Burroughs Wellcome: Branding Imperial Popular Medicine 137 Meegan Kennedy “A Seriousness that Fails”: Reconsidering Symbolism in Oscar Wilde’s Salomé 163 Yeeyon Im  WORK IN PROGRESS Charles Kingsley’s The Water-Babies: Industrial England, the Irish Famine, and the American Civil War 179 Catherine Judd REVIEW ESSAYS Victorians Live Herbert Sussman, Editor Alice in Manhattan 207 U. C. Knoepflmacher Facing Britain’s Imperial Past? 214 Kate Nichols The Victorian Art Scene in 2016: Pre-Raphaelite Women Artists and Marie Spartali Stillman’s Overdue Retrospective in the UK 221 Margaret D. Stetz The Fallen Woman 227 Hilary Fraser Gustave Doré, “All London at a Boat-Race,” April 6, 1870, from Gustave Doré and Blanchard Jerrold, London: A Pilgrimage (London: Grant, 1872). Photograph courtesy of the prints Division, Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs, The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tidden Foundations. Volume 45, Number 1, 2017 V o lu m e 4 5 , N u m b er 1 , 2017 Cambridge CORE For further information about this journal please go to the journal website at: cambridge.org/vlc 10601503_45-1.indd 110601503_45-1.indd 1 08/02/17 3:55 PM08/02/17 3:55 PM https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000589 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:03, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1060150316000589 https://www.cambridge.org/core 
work_nydpysjqnbgi3jixxhoy4gpkya	----	Ansel Adams’s Eucalyptus Tree, Fort Ross: Nature, Photography, and the Search for California Manhattan College From the SelectedWorks of Adam Arenson 2005 Ansel Adams’s Eucalyptus Tree, Fort Ross: Nature, Photography, and the Search for California Adam Arenson, University of Texas at El Paso Available at: https://works.bepress.com/adam_arenson/8/ http://www.manhattan.edu https://works.bepress.com/adam_arenson/ https://works.bepress.com/adam_arenson/8/ Ansel Adams's Eucalyptus Tree, Fort Ross: Nature, Photography, and the Search for California By Adam Arenson As Ansel Adams prepared for the exhibition of his Singular Images at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1974, he looked back over his illustrious career and complained. "Curator after curator had chosen the same small group of landscapes," he wrote. Approaching the Met exhibition, Adams argued that "I wanted this show to have a broader perspective, to show some of my portraits and a sizable excerpt of my work with Polaroid Land materials, a project that I had followed for over twenty years." And so he presented fifty-two practically unknown images?portraits, profiles of urban architecture, extreme close-ups. Amongst these gems of the mature Adams oeuvre, one remarkable photograph stands out: Eucalyptus Tree, Fort Ross, California (1969).1 In this vertical photograph, more portrait than landscape, the stately eucalyptus dominates the frame. Adams the modernist was of course drawn to the interplay of light and shade; the tree's gnarls and wrinkles, roots and drooping branch es, give the photograph its rich texture. Breadth predominates, but a shadow of wispy branches falls into the top edges, suggesting height. In the background, two fences converse: At right, the tall boards of the stockade bespeak strength? they are hewn thick and topped with edges sharp ?while at left, the undulating pattern of a gar den fence speaks softly of pastoral dreams and boasts of its barn, behind. The eucalyptus's trunk, twisted, gives testimony to the offshore whispers of the sea breeze coming up from the cove. The image thus has all the line play and technical mastery that one expects of an Ansel Adams photograph. Formally divided into thirds, the image presents the eucalyptus as magician, turn ing the large fence into the small behind its bulk. (In actuality, the stockade reaches a corner here, and continues in a line behind the trunk.) Taken in black and white, there is a timelessness to the photograph, suggesting the scene of 1809, when the Russian fur traders, the promyshleniki, arrived to this coast, to its redwood forest. It suggests 1873, the year an American farmer and his Chilean wife moved onto the property. And it brings to mind Adams's own history, and the photo graphs offences, trees, and roots that filled his first show in the East, at "An American Place," Alfred Stieglitz's gallery in 1936. Then, Adams presented images of his native California, urban Sixty-seven years old and famous enough, Ansel Adams had stopped taking photographs regularly by 1969. Yet this Polaroid, a tourist image of a state park, holds within it the puzzle of place that is California: a visual history of Australian trees, a Russian fort, and a once-Spanish territory. Hinting at the gold rush and the redwoods, this image combines Adams's admiration of the birth of nature photography with his growing environmen tal consciousness. Ansel Adams, Eucalyptus Tree, Fort Ross, California, Polaroid print, 1969. Courtesy of Ansel Adams Publishing Rights Trust. LV California History volume 82 / number 4 / 2005 ________________________________________________________________________________________ ''ffl___ m ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^f**^*$ v S_t-Q_^__llm ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^_f_y_________________E^ __h_______________________________h____________________________________________________ "-^^_M_^___ilHi^sv ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^" _____________________lll____^^___^^/^^*- - //___________________________________________________________ -________Br v' ___^________________________________________________________________ B^Hr -*#lk - ---- _________________________________& '?^_________________________________________________________ !' _______?,?>*; :'t!' _-_,i^__i_fl______________________________________^lifl7 _______________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________V _____________________________________________________________J^m___________ and unpeopled, taken less than an hour's drive from Fort Ross.2 In 1936, Adams's wilderness work was still mostly in the future; by 1969, such a scene had other overtones. Beyond beautiful aesthetics, the meanings in landscape photographs have been hard to fathom. Art historian Martin Berger has begun to take a critical view of the "white sight" of American landscape photographers, arguing that the early American landscape portraitists?he explicitly Adams the modernist was of course drawn to the interplay of light and shade; the tree's gnarls and wrinkles, roots and drooping branches, give the photograph its rich texture. mentions Carleton Watkins, who will return in this study?used their prints to privilege a white, masculine view of wilderness. Berger argues that these photographs solidified the Eastern view of Western vistas, linking these spaces to a frontier narrative, leaving all to be interpreted in line with national priorities.3 In this light, a radical way to read this photograph?its blocked views, the fence of a military garrison?is to think about the events of 1969 and imagine in this photograph the subtle protest of an "admittedly conservative liberal," as art historian Sally Stein has described Adams. In the midst of fighting in Vietnam, the Summer of Love, and the growth of American wilderness tourism, Adams may have been reacting not only to his own develop ing legacy but the charged politics of the mo ment. A brooding resignation, which flickers through this image, may suggest a failure to express an alternative?a feeling that may add to the image's success.4 Such a political reading may be seductive, even stylish, and the setting of a Russian fort at the height of the Cold War is suggestive. Adams him self described the Met exhibition as occurring amidst "grave problems?Vietnam, racism, Nixon, drugs, and so forth," though the "gentle crusader" (another critic's moniker) found the audience incredulous when he proposed facing these chal lenges by "[being] concerned about photography as well as about the human condition."5 Adams's photographs were thus more global than specific, but there remains a politics and even more so a history to these images. This essay considers its puzzle of place.6 The photograph Eucalyptus Tree, Fort Ross, California provides a visual history of the connections be tween Australian trees, a Russian fort, and once-Spanish territory. Though Adams never spoke publicly about this photograph, I argue that Eucalyptus Tree, Fort Ross is a particularly good image to unravel Ansel Adams's environ mental consciousness as well as Adams's unique embrace of the history and imagery of his native state, California. Eucalyptus Tree, Fort Ross, California shows a trio of immigrants, the first of whom has left. The fence at right is the original stockade of Fort Ross, its redwood planks lumbered from the coastal hills in the furthest background. Ask a Californian fourth-grader about this northern Californian noteworthy, and you will hear, "While Junipero Serra and the Spanish were setting up missions in California, the Russians landed north of San Francisco, and set up Fort Ross. Ross comes from rus, or 'Russian,' and they were after 'furs.'" The "furs" were sea otter pelts, but otherwise the geo politics of the situation are right: The Porno people of this region faced Russian rather than Spanish conquest, with an outpost constructed in 1812 to warn off the friars. Like many California histories, the Porno thus met the Western narrative from the east, not overland. As anthropologist James Clifford has written, "the fact of Fort Ross helps dislodge a dominant 'American' history, making room for other stories, other discoveries and ori gins." The Russians?east of their home ports, and south of their established forts in Alaska? saw Fort Ross as west of nothing in particular.7 * -? California History volume 82 / number 4 / 2005 . * ^___^_________________B* "" /i* - ,____ __^________________________________________kL?^ '' 4E____ni___________._ ___________________________________________! r: ^^' ̂ _B_________K_R___BI^ _^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^_^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__H__^__^__^__|__^_^___HI_^__^__2^_^H ?_t_'-* '- M, .^_i_J|jl'^____? if__P*U_____________ ' .^.^.^.^.^.^.^.^.^.^.^.^.^.^.^.^.^.^.M_^_^_^_^_^______M_!______I_______________B* J|?^^ 'Z^_^ig^-KwMS-l-H-i-!^.^.B^ ' ' ̂ _____________________________________________________________________________ *^'% _^_^_^_^_^_^_^_^_^ ? * ̂ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Hh^^^^HH.^HHH.^HH^^H_S_-_____HHB ><r^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^|^^^^^^^^^^^^^H_l_B_9i_^_^__Hi^ ' ** ____________________________________________________________________________________________ * '* ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^BPf*Sr *^vf/^_______________HR ,;" f% ^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__^__ '._v"^*'V-:, a ;"j# __^EBn_WS -'^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ R:>' Vf -Tr7\?____|_H___Brfl ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^ H||f v - J_|fi%_l___fiE___P_-_Pl_I ' ?i I^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^BB-R a.-. _ j_?^i__Bl-_______B_^l-H_<_W-i Carleton Watkins' mammoth-plate prints (more than fifteen by twenty inches) attempt to grapple with the enormity of a giant redwood: a tree more than two hundred feet tall, thirty-one feet across, and more than 2,500 years old. The men Watkins placed at its base, to give a sense of scale, hardly appear. Watkins' pho tographs of Mariposa Grove advertise the presence of something altogether new in the visual landscape of the United States. What better place to test the power of the camera, to show this tall tale to be true? Carleton E. Watkins, Grizzly Giant, Mariposa Grove, 33 Feet Diameter, albumen silver print, 1861. Courtesy of Botany Library, Harvard University. l3 After a few seasons of overhunting, the Russian soldier-traders and their eighty captive Aleut otter hunters found the search for pelts off northern California to be a bust. Having notched their pro gress in the local wood, the Russians turned Fort Ross into a lumber depot and farm, supplying all of Russian America. As the effects of overhunt ing spread north, however, the Russians lost in terest in the area generally; the former Spanish rivals in the region, now independent Mexicans, were courted as purchasers for the fort. Mariano Vallejo, comandante-general of the Mexican state of Alta California, placed a bid, but it was reject ed when he could not find the necessary funds. The buildings and the stockade went instead to a Swiss immigrant, one John Sutter. Sutter's mill on the Sacramento would be world famous within the decade.8 Sutter is thus a convenient bridge from Californian to American history. With word of GOLD!, the forty-niners came into the rapidly transformed territory, entering San Francisco Bay under the watch of American soldiers stationed at the for merly Spanish presidio, or fort, on the bluff. The miners swarmed the landscape. Their goal was to get into the hills and stake a claim. New rivers, new mountain ranges, new marvels appeared in American eyes. Miners desperate for wood to fire their engines found a different sort of mother lode when, in 1852, they came upon the first of the giant trees, taller and wider than any European men had seen.9 The broad eucalyptus tree speaks of massiveness ?its bulk is exaggerated by Adams's cropping. Adams has deliberately made this large, twisted tree the center of attention. This, too, evokes his tory, for the iconic photographs of early California are full of great trees. But the low height of the first branches reveals this tree to be an im migrant. Its dominance of the frame, however, does suggest the Grizzly Giant, the treasure of the Mariposa Grove, the first, the most remark able of those tall trees, the giant redwoods, to which Carleton Watkins brought his camera a century before.10 With gold found just after the Mexican cession was completed, the newly American San Francisco flourished. Between the mining-supply stores and the demimonde of drink and women, art and culture developed. Miners soon opened an opera house, founded library associations, and held ex hibitions, where that newest of marvels, the pho tographs of the wet-plate camera, attracted atten tion and garnered some of the newfound wealth. Panoramas of the miners' adopted city could be viewed and purchased: images of ships rotting in the bay reminded them of where they had come from, and images of the gold fields kept the prom ise of a fortune on their mind. One historian boasts that, in the decade before the Civil War, San Francisco was the most photographed city in the world.11 Carleton Watkins was one of those photographers. Born in Oneonta, New York, in 1829, he had come to San Francisco in the third year of the gold rush and set to work documenting its impact on the city streets and the mountain streams of northern California. Following the news of the giant trees, Watkins accompanied survey men into the Sierras. There were roaring waterfalls and craggy heights in Yosemite Valley, and inex plicably, right alongside, there were giant trees. The men wondered aloud. It was as if something primeval had lingered here, and made things larger, more monumental. They could hardly believe their eyes?so what better place to test the power of the camera, to document the unbe lievable, to show this tall tale to be true?12 Part of the Trunk of the "Grizzly Giant" w/ Clark, Mariposa Grove, 33 Feet Diameter, and its compan ion, Grizzly Giant, are among the most famous of these early Watkins photographs. Taken in 1861, the 15-V x 20-V print attempts to grapple with the enormity of the tree: over two hundred feet tall, more than thirty-one feet across, more than 2,500 years old. Unlike Adams's immigrant eucalyptus, here the first branch appears ninety five feet above the ground, and it measures six feet in diameter. In Grizzly Giant, the full-scale portrait, Watkins stands far enough back to take in the entire tree, the thick trunk and tree-sized L^f- California History volume 82 / number 4 / 2005 _____^__k^^___________P__P__________ffi ^^^^^Hfii99^^^^^^^^^^^^^^E|H_9___i i^9__G_______-_-______________!____-____^ ''^__-_________P___Bi______?_!__^ "^Jfl_H__.__-_H !* f J ,ffSl_________S^^_K_ifi _^ v__E^____P__r^ _? ________H_BH______ Vf^B_3-B_^ /__-__B__^_______________________________^_______________________H :^'__._____i__J________B^ ___tf___9_______B__^_____________________________________^______________ However improbable the result, this photograph is an attempt to take the giant redwood on human terms. Galen Clark, guardian of Yosemite who named the Mariposa Grove, almost disappears between the folds of the tree's base. Such inversions of normal scale might have inspired Lewis Carroll, who that year told Alice of a quite similar wonderland. The photo graph's similar massing and partition of the frame suggest that Adams may have used it as a model. Carleton E. Watkins, Part of the Trunk of the "Grizzly Giant" w/ Clark, Mari posa Grove, 33 Feet Diameter, albumen silver print, 1861. Courtesy of the California Historical Society. *5 branches advertising the presence of something altogether new in the visual landscape of the United States. The men Watkins placed at its base, to give a sense of scale, hardly appear.13 Part of the Trunk is, however improbable the result, an attempt to take the giant redwood on human terms. The tree's roots fill the bottom third of the frame, and the tree's bulk takes out Carleton Watkins accompanied sur vey men into the Sierras. There were roaring waterfalls and craggy heights in Yosemite Valley, and inexplicably right alongside, there were giant trees. The men wondered aloud. It was as if some-thing primeval had lingered here, and made things larger, more monumental. the middle swath. A stand of younger redwood and pine screen the background, making this image, despite its horizontal orientation, more about implied height than depth. The sunlight is dappled, and the bark's texture stands in focus, grabbing the viewer's attention. The sub ject of the photograph could have been "Clark" himself: Galen Clark, a Yankee settler turned guardian of Yosemite who discovered and named the Mariposa Grove and guided the efforts of Watkins, John Muir, and others, to publicize and preserve the trees from his waystation among them. Yet, posed with rifle and traveling pouch, reduced to "Clark," Galen almost disappears between the folds of the tree's base. This is a giant portrait?for giant trees. The impact, to recover an overused word, was monumental. Such inversions of scale, half a world away, might have inspired Lewis Carroll, who that year had begun to tell stories to his beloved Alice, to make her tower over the landscape or disappear down into trees.14 Though other San Francisco photographers also went east into the hills to capture the giant red woods, Watkins was notable not only for his artistry, but also for his access to the East. As early as December 1862, Watkins' images were on display at Goupil's Gallery in New York, where two young artists, Albert Bierstadt and FitzHugh Ludlow, saw them. Bierstadt and Ludlow imme diately decided to extend their planned trip across America further west to reach these strange lands. Similarly, Watkins is a clear influence on Adams's work. He is like a long-lost friend, as Adams had assured the reintroduction of Watkins and his San Francisco contemporaries to art history through a 1940 Palace of Fine Arts exhibit. Though in his career Watkins went on to document the changed landscape of the West?photograph ing hillsides liquefied by hydraulic mining, and doing contract work for agricultural boosters in the California Southland?it is these early "first views" that seem to hold sway in Adams's mind.15 In these early photographs, California was the wonderland. Eucalyptus Tree, Fort Ross feeds on the monumentality of the first views: Adams also shows a "part of the trunk," with its roots empha sized on a similarly shallow foreground. The screen of trees in Watkins' photograph is mir rored by the wooden fences in Adams's, and the figure of Clark by the human structure, the barn. The places they depict lay a day's drive apart in the northern California wilderness. The redwood fort and the giant redwood mark out California's history. Yet the homegrown redwoods have been replaced by the immigrant eucalyptus. With the decimation of the local Native American populations and the boom of the gold rush, Cali fornia became a state of newcomers. Ansel Adams's grandfather came to seek his fortune?and so, in a different way, did the eucalyptus. The immi grant eucalyptus arrived with the others, from the east, to San Francisco, in the mad rush for gold in the 1850s. Like the Russian quest for furs, the tree's connection to European exploration in the Pacific began a century before. Captain James Cook had landed in the trees' native Australia in 'O California History volume 82 / number 4 / 2005 ___________________________________________________________________________H_w ,:- /-it*, ,*- ^jt*^^^^^?^^^BH^_B^HiS__i ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^M_________-________-_-_-___-______-_-__E_?____^^ ' *!S? _-'C--? 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V_fl_______________________________B__^_________B__ _____________________________________________-__-_-K^___t *: ^^^^^^^^^^K^^^^K^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^K^^^^^^m^^^^K^KM^^^^^^ ________________________________________________-_-_H In 1873, George Washington Call and family bought Fort Ross. They took pains to care for the redwood structures, turning the Rotchev House into the Fort Ross Hotel and promoting the fort as a tourist destination. One morn ing in 1886, Frank B. Rodolph led a party of tourists up from Oakland, recording some of the early photographs of the fort before the eucalypts were planted. Rodolph, a stationer and commercial photographer, traveled through California with a Bay Area group who called themselves "the Merry Tramps" (see California History, 82, 2) taking photographs of their recreation and leisure activities. With men peeking out from the cupola and women in proper Victorian dress lounging at the doorway, Fort Ross was becoming a place to visit California history. 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"**-' ^jMSHHRB AMEJtICA'S KlPOflTtON, SA* OIEGO* CAltFOiNIA ? <MMI The 1935-36 California Pacific International Exposition was a Depression-era chance to promote San Diego and the marvels of touring by automobile. Amidst fanciful Spanish colonial architecture were the newly mature eucalypts, which had come to be seen as distinctively Californian. The juxtapositions continued as Ansel Adams brought snow to the sunshine: Commissioned by the Yosemite Park g[ Curry Co., Adams had installed a photomural of Half Dome, Orchard, Winter, Yosemite National Park inside the Standard Oil Company's Tower to the Sun pavilion. Standard Oil Company's Tower to the Sun pavilion, postcard, [1935]. Courtesy of San Diego Historical Society. 1778, and by 1789 the curious specimens he sent back to Europe had received their Greek name from the French. A boutique plant, an ornament, a curiosity?at least until the acclimatizers took an interest, in the mid-nineteenth century.16 In an early sort of conservation, a generation of botanists and tree enthusiasts sought to reforest areas that had been logged, and bring the serene, Romantic bounty of forests to "barren" areas. The watchword was acclimatization, bringing species from similar climates and aggressively introduc ing them in order to change the landscape?per manently. The eucalyptus, with its more than three hundred varieties, was the paragon in this tale of biological immigration. By 1870 eucalypts could be found rimming the Mediterranean and shading the U.S. Gulf Coast. California received a double dose of the eucalyptus mania, as accli matizers saw the scrubby chaparral of southern California as the place to create an Australian wilderness, while in northern California, tall, supposedly sturdy varieties were chosen, with a keen eye to replace logged redwoods as a source of timber. George Perkins Marsh, the mentor of the movement, wrote in the revised edition of Man and Nature that "if we may credit late reports, the growth of the eucalyptus is so rapid in Cali fornia, that the child is perhaps now born who will see the tallest sequoia overlapped by the new vegetable emigrant from Australia." As it turns lO California History volume 82 / number 4 / 2005 out, that never happened. From confusion over seeds to misunderstanding about what eucalypts could and could not be to Californians, the rise and fall of acclimatizers and their successors, hawk ing the tree as panacea, is a rich tale. Yet, in this photograph, it was a success; Adams has substi tuted the blue gum for Watkins' giant redwood.17 As to this eucalyptus?the specifics of this tree, in this place?the best evidence points to it being planted at the height of the California eucalyptus craze at the very end of the nineteenth century. The tree is actually part of a series of eucalypts, planted along the road from the fort up to the ranch house. On the day the seed was planted, it may have been Australia returning a favor. Luther Burbank, the southern Californian hybridist, vis ited the fort in 1900, vacationing from his work developing a spineless cactus for the Australian outback. Burbank stayed in the hotel maintained on the property by Ohio-born entrepreneur George Washington Call and his Chilean-born wife, Mercedes Leiva, and their 14 children.18 The story of Call and his wife marks another mi gration, another change in the land of Fort Ross. Out to seek his fortune in a boat in the Pacific, Call represented the generation of miners after 1849 wr10 tracked mineral rushes across the globe and, like the urban pioneers before him, was one who traded mining for other gambles?in his case, ranching. In 1873, Call bought Fort Ross from men who had used the property for timber, and set out to ranch and raise crops. Call was the first American to care for the redwood structures of Fort Ross, even living in the Rotchev House, the Russian commanding officer's quarters, while building his own home just to the north. (It is Call's barn visible in the back of Adams's photo graph.) When the ranch house was complete, Call leased out the Rotchev as the Fort Ross Hotel, and played host to Burbank.19 Burbank's visit fit within Call's plan of making Fort Ross into a tourist destination, where the combination of a colonial history and a spectacu lar coastline would convince Victorian visitors to put his privately owned history park on the map. Perhaps it was as part of that effort, to beautify lands over-timbered and over-grazed, that Call planted those eucalyptus trees, with or without the advice of his noted guest. Either way, he suc ceeded in adding to the property's prestige: by the twenty-first century, a eucalyptus down the road from the one Adams photographed was the larg est on the West Coast. It was not just Call plant ing these trees to attract settlers to an Edenic, forested paradise. These immigrants?Australian trees and newcomers from the East Coast?fed the image of California as a vacation land, a place to visit, to stay, to retire.20 Tourist appeal links the redwoods, the world's tallest and largest trees, to this eucalyptus at Fort Ross. Seeing Watkins' photographs, tourists flocked to the groves of the giant redwoods. Call had the ambition to do the same for Fort Ross. One morning in 1886, Frank B. Rodolph led a party of tourists up from Oakland, recording some of the early photographs of the fort, before the eucalypts. When Call's family found tourist promotion too much to handle, they sold the fort to the California Historical Landmarks Committee, who did so instead. In 1906 Fort Ross became a state park?a state-promoted tourist spot. Because Call courted tourism, Fort Ross is important in the California stories we choose to tell. Were it not for tourism, it is unlikely that Ansel Adams would have photographed this eucalyptus. Promoted from among the millions of such trees, it has been similarly chosen by other visitors, even fea tured on a website travelogue. Even with Ansel Adams behind the Polaroid camera, the pho tograph is still a snapshot, a hollowed-out tourist image where one visitor records the presence of another.21 But that hardly seems fair, to the beauty of the image or the close identification of eucalypts with California. By the time of Ansel Adams's child hood in San Francisco, the eucalyptus trees pop ulated the landscape, especially marking journeys to the southern half of the state. In that arid region?where stretches of inland desert meet canyons of chaparral?stubby trees, drab grasses, *9 and waxy bushes naturally dominate, all bent on enduring the high heat, low humidity, and scarcity of rainfall. A difficult environment for trees, perhaps, but a pleasure land for humans. With constant sunny days and mild temperatures year-round, the southern California coast became the nation's dream destination at the turn of the "Nine-tenths of the men and women painting here on the West Coast . . . all see a desert, a sunset, a moun tain or the sea with exactly the same eyes and the same minds. They are simply unintentionally making illus trations rather than creative art. I call it the 'eucalyptus school' of painting." Merle Armitage, 1928 century, even before it attracted the moving-pic ture industry to its varied landscaping and per fect shooting weather. Even beyond eucalyptus, southern California was an acclimatizers' paradise. After the success of planting Australian navel oranges in the 1880s, new communities from Pasadena in the hills to Venice at the beach were planned and prospected ?and each plot was sold with Australian seed lings, eucalyptus and acacia. Farmers planted eucalypts as windbreaks and up untillable canyons, hoping to prevent erosion losses. From the Berkeley Hills and San Francisco's Presidio to the groves of Irvine and the canyons of San Diego, the eucalyptus became a defining feature of California south of the redwoods. By 1935, the tree had gained an air of permanence. One authority declared, "The eucalyptus is now one of the out standing trees over almost any California land scape where trees have been planted. Many people fail to realize that the tree is not a native."22 Eucalyptus trees were enshrined in the state's heritage that year, in the massive festivities of the I935"I93^ California Pacific International Exposi tion in San Diego's Balboa Park. The largest urban park in the country after New York's Cen tral Park, its fanciful Spanish colonial architec ture had been built as setting for the Panama California International Exposition of 1915, cele brating the opening of the Panama Canal and inviting the world to see how San Diego was an up-and-coming city with a spectacular natural harbor. By 1935, the Great Depression had dampened such enthusiasm, but San Diego fol lowed Chicago and San Francisco in trying to coax good times from the repeat performance of a successful exhibition. The Mission Revival archi tecture of the original fair had become iconic; the eucalyptus trees planted in 1915 had matured. The trees had come to be seen "as something distinctively Californian," with "cultural heritage already established," according to their chronicler, Ian Tyrrell. Their dappled bark and drooping branches combined with the stuccoed walls and red-tile roofs to create a seductively iconic? if completely constructed?southern California scene.23 Among the eucalypts in the San Diego sunshine, the thirty-three-year-old Ansel Adams had brought the Yosemite winter. In the Standard Oil Company's Tower to the Sun pavilion?walking from the Plaza del Pacifico past the Foreign Nations Hacienda, stop before the Firestone Singing Foun tain and the Palace of Varied Industries ?Ansel Adams had installed the photograph Half Dome, Orchard, Winter, Yosemite National Park in a pho tomural 3-1/3 feet tall and 5 feet wide. Adams had been commissioned by the Yosemite Park & Curry Co. to provide the gigantic enlargement, which sat among various photographs and diora mas of national parks and monuments in the Standard Oil exhibit. Fewer visitors could afford cars in the depths of the Depression, but the fair's sponsors nevertheless encouraged the touristic drives to national treasures. Just beyond the Standard Oil exhibit and the Firestone Singing Fountain stood the Ford Building (in the shape of the figure eight, for the V-8 engine), where fairgoers could test out the newest Ford automo biles on the "Roads of the Pacific," constructed -?(_/ California History volume 82 / number 4 / 2005 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^k_^_____L ' >]_____HlS-^_________________________________________I Hanson Puthuffs Brimming Cup of Summer is unlike other plein air paintings?mostly local land scapes of feathery eucalypts and long ocean horizons, which critic Merle Armitage derided as "the usual output of pleasant calendars" and "the 'eucalyptus school' of painting." Puthuffs painting has an alle gorical title, a shallow foreground, and the impact of the large, twisting trees against the shimmer of the lake. This is a quite different eucalyptus. The rough strokes and the interplay of light and dark suggest importance for the trees, much as Ansel Adams would do, forty years later, on film. Hanson Puthuff, Brimming Cup of Summer, oil on canvas, 24 x 30", c. 1928. Courtesy of Donna Fleicher 21 down into the canyon. The automobile owner could drive from the eucalyptus coast of southern California, out to Fort Ross, past the giant red woods, and up to the wonders of Yosemite Valley.24 Somewhere at the San Diego fair, amidst the eu calyptus, along with the Adams photograph, were paintings that Los Angeles art critic Merle Armitage despised. "Nine-tenths of the men and women painting here on the West Coast are grinding out the usual output of pleasant calendars," Armitage had written in 1928, with "pleasant" and "calen dars" intended as insults. "They all see a desert, a sunset, a mountain or the sea with exactly the same eyes and the same minds. They are simply unintentionally making illustrations rather than creative art." With derision, he provided a moniker: "I call it the 'eucalyptus school' of painting."25 The group of plein air painters who Armitage disparaged are better know today as the California Impressionists, who translated the fervor for quick brushstrokes in France into an American style of landscape painting, fashioned in the open air and bent on capturing the play of light over the trees, sea, and sky of American wonderlands. Easterners settled in artist colonies at Pasadena, Laguna Beach, and San Diego from the 1890s onward; their local landscapes emptied of humans, animals, or architecture emerged from a Regionalist desire to find in the native landscape the subjects and moods for American art. The irony, of course, is that this was not much of a native landscape. The eucalypts that dominate these paintings are hardly more rooted in the land than the itinerant eastern-born painters come to capture them as typical.26 By the time of the 1935 San Diego fair, the plein air painters were on the decline. "The combined forces of modernism, urban growth, and the California Impressionists' own repetitious output" eroded the status of their art, according to art historian Will South. But these painters had pro vided a dramatic reorientation of art in California. By consciously avoiding the Big Trees, Yosemite, Mt. Tamalpais, and other northern California icons in favor of their local landscapes, these artists, such as Edgar Payne and Marion Kavanagh Wachtel, asserted a new view. Some contempo raries went as far as to say this switch represented an opposition to tourism, and a call to environ mental awareness. Los Angeles Times writer Fred Hogue wrote in 1926 that "landscapists and genre painters are writing the contemporary history of the first half of the twentieth century in Southern California," for "the groves they paint will disap pear." Hogue, however, was fooled into thinking that these painters depicted "the primitive beauty" of areas long since transformed by eucalypts.27 Adams's choice of a eucalyptus along the north ern California coast suggests a melding of this southern California musing on tourism and the environment with the earlier history of photo graphing Big Trees north of San Francisco. Less like the feathery trees Armitage derided as far too common, Adams's eucalyptus takes after the large, twisting eucalypts dominating the fore ground of Hanson Puthuffs Brimming Cup of Summer, completed in the late 1920s. The trees are cropped just where the leaves begin, and the dark palette accentuates the size and mass of the eucalyptus trunk. The foreground is shallow and roughly painted, and the background, a lake scene, fades to lighter colors, with the impact of the light on the eucalyptus trunks the most strik ing feature of the painting. Whether or not there is a direct link, as Adams walked down the grav el path and into grassy meadow between Fort Ross and the ocean, waiting for the perfect light, Adams selected a vista reminiscent of the Califor nia Impressionists' masterpieces. His noble grouping serves as a portrait of place, repre sentative of the varied landscapes and histories of California.28 By 1969, sixty-seven years old and famous enough, Adams had stopped taking photographs regular ly. Yet Adams was not retired from public view. Every year he was more aggressive in advocat ing for wilderness spaces, aware of the changing times around him, if not always comfortable with them. Eucalyptus Tree, Fort Ross, California is an image all of wood, yet every inch shows the im ^^ California History volume 82 / number 4 / 2005 pact of man. So there is a politics here?less of counterculture and the Cold War than an environ mental consciousness of Ansel Adams and others who came to see the eucalyptus as a villain.29 To approach the present is to follow the eucalyp tus to its acrid, explosive end. Some had seen the tree's fall early on; in 1877, amidst the clam oring against the Chinese, one San Francisco paper took on another foe, this "craze all over the state about the eucalyptus." Aping promoters' claims, the Argonaut declared that "in moderate quantities (say a forest a day) it will restore the hair to a castiron dog and reason to a partisan." Are you a Californian on the make? "Two or three trees planted along the boundary-line of a ranch will gradually annex the ranch adjoining, poisoning its owner and driving away the widow." Hope that tree nearby will prevent malaria? "In Australia, where this tree grows wild, the coun try is so healthy that the people have to go to New Zealand to commit suicide." The Argonaut noted gleefully, "such are a choice of the many virtues this abominable tree is ignorantly asserted to pos sess." Letting us in on the secret, the Argonaut announced, "of course it is utterly useless." The editors described how "its odor is so immatchably unpleasant that nothing but man can endure it. In point of beauty it is about as desirable as the scaffolding of a factory chimney." And yet, almost in desperation, the Argonaut observed that "this absurd vegetable is now growing all over this State. One cannot get out of its sight."30 One hundred and twenty-five years later, accli matization is pseudoscience and the Argonaut is being vindicated. An article in a recent issue of Audubon Magazine listed what is now scien tific certainty about "America's Largest Weed": the eucalypts didn't cure disease; they make lousy lumber; they steal water from local species; they drive away endangered native birds; they create mountains of leaves and bark; their gummy sap causes birds to suffocate. Eucalyptus trees topple over. Botanists have labeled the unique mix of problems associated with the trees "eucalyptus desolation."31 Some evils of the eucalyptus have come to pass more recently. Firefighters nickname eucalypts "gasoline trees," as their highly flammable oils, abundant litter, and hanging bark strips quickly string the fire from tree to tree and from brush to crown. This is by design. The eucalypts?like the redwoods?have evolved to use fire to repro duce, with each fire-exploding pod sending seeds in all directions. Quaint, clever, and deadly: in From when they marveled at redwoods to when they acclimatized eucalyptus to when they cut down the Australian firebombs someone had planted behind their homes, Californians have always been anxious to find an environment they can live with. 1991, proud old eucalypts fueled the Oakland Hills fire, which killed twenty-five people, destroyed three thousand buildings, and has gone down as the most destructive "wild" fire in U.S. history. The ironies almost are too cruel, for many of the best Eucalyptus School paintings were in the Oakland Hills homes of University of California professors, and were incinerated by those trees they so harmlessly depicted.32 The area of northern California from Fort Ross in the north to Santa Cruz in the south?a ring about 125 miles wide around San Francisco?has become the epicenter of the fight to remove the eucalyptus trees. The eucalypts at Fort Ross, given their bulk, have found their way into the record book and out of controversy, but in San Francisco, the eucalypts at the fort are under attack. Not stooping to call it "an absurd veg etable," the New York Times chronicled the efforts to remove a few thousand eucalypts and Monterey cypress. Government scientists are busy remov ing the trees on federal property in and around San Francisco?not only at the Presidio but also on Angel Island, in the middle of the bay, in an effort to revive native species.33 z3 And it seems more than the Eucalyptus School aficionados are upset. Almost every effort to remove the trees has met with vocal resistance. In Marin County, advocates have been called "plant Nazis," planning a vegetal "ethnic cleans ing." At county meetings and in court, eucalyptus cough drops have been distributed and eucalyp tus branches waved. In statement after statement, individuals link the heritage of the immigrant eucalyptus to their own: "Plants and trees with out proper papers to show their pre-Mayflower lineage are called 'invasive exotics' and are wrenched from the soil to die," wrote Leland Yee, an ethnic Chinese member of the California State Assembly (who, evidently, was named for the railroad boss Leland Stanford). "How many of us," Yee asks, "are 'invasive exotics' who have taken root in the San Francisco soil, have thrived and flourished?" Universalizing the point, a sup porter in Marin testified that "humans aren't native either."34 This foray into the fate of the eucalyptus tree in California may seem far afield from the consid eration of a photograph. But Ansel Adams under stood the connection. He was long active in debates about the direction of the Sierra Club, and long lent his name to the drive to create Redwoods National Park. And trying to discour age eucalyptus plantings in Marin County in the 1970s, Adams declared that "I cannot think of a more tasteless undertaking than to plant trees in a naturally treeless area, and to impose an inter pretation of natural beauty on a great landscape that is charged with beauty and wonder, and the excellence of eternity."35 From when they marveled at redwoods to when they acclimatized eucalyptus to when they cut down the Australian firebombs someone had planted behind their homes, Californians have always been anxious to find an environment they can live with. It is no accident that two of the greatest accounts of Los Angeles describe its "ecology of fear" and its obsession with "the control of nature," or that environmental historian William Cronon's revolutionary essay on "getting back to the wrong nature" evolved as he sat at the University of California, Irvine, while the euca lyptus trees of the nearby Laguna Hills burned. Wars for the environment have centered on the Fort Ross region, amidst the remaining redwood trees on the California coast. Activists have taken up residence in trees, under noms de guerre like "Butterfly"?or, in Spanish, mariposa, the name Galen Clark gave to the Grizzly Giant's grove. The redwood groves had once been full of monarch butterflies. Some of the monarchs have become accustomed to eucalyptus trees instead, but the changes the gum trees have wrought on the land scape are blamed in threatening the bay checker spot butterfly, and making the Xerces blue but terfly extinct. The place of California is deeply entwined with the fate of its natural elements? even while those natural places have a mark of human hands.36 Cronon's point on getting back to the wrong nature is that we believe Ansel Adams at Yosemite and forget him at Fort Ross. "'Nature' is not as natural as it seems," Cronon writes, and parks? Yosemite and its redwood groves as much as Fort Ross and its eucalyptus?are not outside of history. "Far from being the one place on earth that stands apart from humanity," Cronon asserts, "[wilderness] is quite profoundly a human cre ation?indeed, the creation of very particular human cultures at very particular moments in human history." From the time of Carleton Watkins' later photographs, showing washed-out hillsides and about-to-be-destroyed valleys, the link between development and destruction has made for poignant art. These alterations have even affected national parks, as art historian Mary Sayre Haver stock has found, for the National Park Service has preserved "classic" vistas by cutting down disobedient vegetation.37 With the work of Ansel Adams, we tend to assume we are seeing the beauty of nature untouched. But just like the portraits and the buildings that Adams brought back into the Met exhibition in 1974, this photograph evokes other forgotten ^^\- California History volume 82 / number 4 / 2005 characteristics: the intentioned aesthetic consid- I erations, the extensive technical work, and the sheer physical requirements upon humans to create these images. We cannot begin to under stand Half Dome, Orchard, Winter, Yosemite National Park and the dozens of "wilderness" images like it without considering the man behind the camera?where he is standing, how he got there, what he is wearing. Eucalyptus Tree, Fort Ross, California is still beautiful even as it jars the human presence back into the frame. The images taken by Watkins, the paintings of the Eucalyptus School, and the most famous Adams photographs have shaped the visual vocabulary by which we see and do not see things in the California landscape. Lawrence Buell has argued for a canon of environmentally sensitive works in American literature; students of place should be equally sensitive to how hu man impact constructs images of nature in painting, sculpture, and photography.38 An accretion of images, of emotions, questions of people and a location, their hopes, their dreams, their fears form the puzzle of place; in California ?vast, sprawling, variegated?it is complex in deed. Yet through the environmental conscious ness of Ansel Adams, one can evoke the place of photography and the history of nature in this pho tograph, Eucalyptus Tree, Fort Ross, California. A native of San Diego, Adam Arenson is a Ph.D. can didate in history at Yale University. His work concerns the intersections of American cultural history, the his tory of communication, and the history of westward expansion. His dissertation is tentatively titled "One Night Only: Politics, Culture, and Fate in the Perfor mances of St. Louis." ONE OF THE MOST SIGNIFICANT MEN IN THE HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA AND THE WEST 4ore than a century ter his death, gland Stanford, founder or California id tlie Far West, is at long last ceivedtketiograpky i so richly deserved. Dr.Ke^ Starr The Governor: The Life & Legacy of Leland Stanford A LAVISHLY ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF MISSION SAN FERNANDO ?Msgr. Francis I. Weber ^^^^^^ililllH_!lilBII_^i^^ll6lJ>__l San Fernando, Rey de Espana: An Illustrated History 2J NOTES ANSEL ADAMS' EUCALYPTUS TREE, FORT ROSS: NATURE, PHOTOGRAPHY, AND THE SEARCH FOR CALIFORNIA, PPio-25 Thanks to Alexander Nemerov, the "Sense of Place" course, Writing History at Yale, and the anonymous reviewers. Quotes are from Ansel Adams and Mary Street Alinder, Ansel Adams, an Autobiography (Boston: Little Brown, 1985), 232. The exhi bition catalog is Ansel Adams and Edwin Herbert Land, Singular Images (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Morgan & Morgan, 1974). Eucalyptus Tree, Fort Ross, California is Plate 52. On Fort Ross, Robin Joy, Heidi Horvitz, and Park Rangers, Fort Ross State Historic Park Russian Colony ([cited March and April 2003]); available from http://www.mcn.org/ 1/ rrparks/ fortross/; Robert A. Thompson, The Russian Settlement in California Known as Fort Ross; Founded 1812, Abandoned 1841. Why the Russians Came and Why They Left (Santa Rosa: Sonoma Democrat Publishing Company, 1896), 7. On Adams's early fame, Andrea Gray Stillman, Ansel Adams: An American Place, 1936 (Tucson: Center for Creative Photography University of Arizona, 1982). For the connections in personnel, timing and in Adams's mind, see Adams and Alinder, Ansel Adams, an Autobiography, 232. A good account of the relationship between Ansel Adams and Group f/64, in style and politics, is Sally Stein, "On Location: The Placement (and Replacement) of California in 1930s Photography," in Reading California: Art, Image, and Identity, igoo-2000, ed. Stephanie Barron, Sheri Bernstein, and Ilene Susan Fort (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000). Martin Berger, "White Sight: Race in American Visual Culture," New Haven: History of Art Department, Yale University, November 13, 2003. For quote, see Stein, "On Location," 177. For California generally, see Howard N. Fox, "Tremors in Paradise 1960-1980," in Reading California: Art, Image, and Identity, igoo 2000, ed. Stephanie Barron, Sheri Bernstein, and Ilene Susan Fort (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 193-202. On such "failures" and the meaning ensconced in silences, see Maurice Merleau-Ponty, "In direct Language and the Voices of Silence," in The Merleau-Ponty Aesthetics Reader: Philosophy and Painting, ed. Galen A. Johnson (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1993), 81-84, 116-120. Merleau-Ponty wants to exclude photographs from com parison with paintings, but the language he chooses to do so?"Cezanne wanted to paint this primordial world, and his pictures therefore seem to show nature pure, while photographs of the same landscapes sug gest man's works, conveniences, and immi nent presence"?plays directly into my argu ment here. Maurice Merleau-Ponty, "Cezanne's Doubt," in The Merleau-Ponty Aesthetics Reader: Philosophy and Painting, ed. Galen A. Johnson (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1993), 64. Quotes from Adams are from Adams and Alinder, Ansel Adams, an Autobiography, 235, 234. "Gentle Crusader" is from Jim Wood, "The Gentle Crusader: Ansel Adams," Historic Preservation 33, no. 1 (January-February 1981): 32-39. In San Francisco, Russian-born leftist Anton Refregier's murals of Chinese workers, labor difficulties, Soviets signing the U.N. charter?and the Russian Fort Ross?cov ered the walls of the Rincon Annex Post Office. The murals were a target of McCarthy ists and U.S. Senators called for their removal. They remain in the building today. The best account of the Refregier controversy is in Jane de Hart Mathews, "Art and Politics in Cold War America," American Historical Review 81, no. 4 (October, 1976): 763-768. It is also discussed in Susan Landauer, The San Francisco School of Abstract Expressionism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 215, n. 268, Harriet Senie and Sally Webster, eds., Critical Issues in Public Art: Content, Context, and Controversy (New York: Icon Editions, 1992), 145. The current sta tus of these murals is discussed at http:// www. - page-turnbull.com/organization/ projects/ comm/rincon/rincon.html. A key expert on notions of place is Yi-Fu Tuan, whose Topophilia and Space and Place are touchstones for this essay. Yi-Fu Tuan, Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977), Yi-Fu Tuan, Topophilia: A Study of Environmental Perception, Attitudes, and Values (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1974). Kent Ryden has described place as "grounded history," with "experience fuse[d] to terrain, events constantly recurring and always present." Kent C. Ryden, Mapping the Invisible Landscape: Folklore, Writing, and the Sense of Place (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1993), 243, quoted in Janice Simon, "Images of Contentment: John Fre derick Kensett and the Connecticut Shore," in Images of Contentment: John Frederick Kensett and the Connecticut Shore, ed. Janice Simon and Amy Y. Smith (Waterbury, CT: The Mattatuck Museum, 2001), 33. Simon draws from both Ryden and Tuan's argue ments that the viewer as well as the artist must have the phenomenological experience to make art speak of a sense of place: "Place demands human engagement, of percep tion, though [sic] emotion, and even, imagi nation, for it to be realized." Simon, "Images of Content-ment," 33. Simon's article is one of the most successful efforts to grapple with the sense of place in art. The author was a fourth-grader in San Diego and learned about Fort Ross; the current social studies curriculum also requires stu dents to "Identify the locations of Mexican settlements in California and those of other settlements, including Fort Ross and Sutter's Fort." See the state Grade Four History Social Science Content Standards, http:// www.cde.ca.gov/standards/hist0ry/grade4. html. Accessed May, 2003. For the Porno people and the interconnect ed crossroads of Fort Ross generally, see James Clifford, "Fort Ross Meditation," in Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 299-347. Quote is from p. 303. Thanks to Aaron Sachs for pointing out this source. Clifford, 304-310, 323-324; Joy, Horvitz, and Rangers, Fort Ross State Historic Park Rus sian Colony; Thompson, The Russian Settle ment in California Known as Fort Ross; Founded 1812, Abandoned 1841. Why the Rus sians Came and Why They Left, 5-22. A good overview of this period in California history is Robert V. Hine and John Mack Faragher, The American West: A New Inter pretive History (New Haven, CT: Yale Univer sity Press, 2000), 234-251. The Sequoia genus has three varieties: the coastal redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), the giant redwood (Sequoiadendron gigantea) and the dawn redwood (Metasequoia glyp tostroboides) in China. The trees were nick 0_? California History volume 82 / number 4 / 2005 This content downloaded from 149.61.182.195 on Mon, 22 Oct 2018 21:18:12 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms named "seqouyahs" by Union soldiers who had recently been capturing Native American lands, either through violence or coercion, as in the case of Sequoyah's people, the Cherokees. This misuse was adopted unthink ingly by nineteenth century scientists. Instead of calling the largest species sequoias, as they are often known, I will generally call them giant redwoods, but will I retain ref erences to sequoias in quotations. Etymology from entry in Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, 1987. 1 Scholarship that grapples with the con nections between the art and the times of gold-rush California includes Nancy K. Anderson, "The Kiss of Enterprise': The Western Landscape as Symbol and Resource," in The West as America: Reinterpreting Images of the Frontier, 1820-10,20, ed. William H. Truettner and Nancy K. Anderson (Wash ington, DC: National Museum of American Art-Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991); William H. Goetzmann and William N. Goetzmann, The West of the Imagination (New York: Norton, 1986), especially 124 182, Martha A. Sandweiss, Print the Legend: Photography and the American West (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002), especially 121-155. The claim about San Francisco is made by Peter Bacon Hales, Silver Cities, the Photo graphy of American Urbanization, i8^g-igi^ (Philadelphia, 1984), 49-50, quoted in Goetz mann and Goetzmann, The West of the Imagination, 138. 12The best volume on Carleton Watkins is Peter E. Palmquist, Carleton E. Watkins, Photographer of the American West (Albu querque: Amon Carter Museum-University of New Mexico Press, 1983). For a discus sion of Watkins' influence see Thomas Wes ton Fels, Carleton Watkins, Photographer: Yosemite and Mariposa Views from the Collec tion of the Park Mccullough House, North Bennington, Vermont, June 11-September 5, 10,83 (Williamstown, MA: Sterling and Fran cine Clark Art Institute, 1983). For a Watkins chronology and a broader view, see Anderson, "The Kiss of Enterprise," 271-276; Thomas Weston Fels, "Visualizing California: Early Photography, 1849-1890," in Watkins to Weston: 101 Years of California Photography, 1840,-10,50, ed. Thomas Weston Fels, Therese Thau Heyman, and David Travis (Santa Barbara: Santa Barbara Museum of Art Roberts Rinehart Publishers, 1992), 17-22, 184. An overview of the painting and photography of the giant redwoods is provided by Jed Perl, "The Vertical Landscape: 'In the Redwood Forest Dense'," Art in America 64, no. 1 (January-February 1976). Perl discusses the novelty of the view one was required to take of the giant redwoods, and of various strat egies to capture the trees. Tim Flannery considers the attraction of superlative trees ("oldest," "tallest") in Tim Flannery, "The Secrets of Methuselah Grove," New York Review of Books March 13, 2003. Anderson, "The Kiss of Enterprise," 271 272; Perl, "The Vertical Landscape: Tn the Redwood Forest Dense'," 60-61. For information on Clark's remarkable contribution to Yosemite, see Shirley Sargent, Galen Clark, Yosemite Guardian (San Fran cisco: Sierra Club, 1964). Sargent states that Clark named the grove, but does not empha size that he did not coin the use of the Spanish mariposa. He simply borrowed from the name of the county in which the grove was situated and the name of the trail they were on. See Sargent, 60-61. On the timing of the Alice stories and the writing, see the introductory material to, for example, Lewis Carroll, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass (1864; rpt, Signet Classics 2000). Anderson, "The Kiss of Enterprise," 271. For more on Bierstadt and Ludlow's trip, see Ralph A. Britsch, Bierstadt and Ludlow: Painter and Writer in the West ([Provo]: Brigham Young University, 1980). On the exhibition organized by Ansel Adams, see Fels, "Visualizing California: Early Photo graphy, 1849-1890," 119. Watkins' late work is described in Claire Perry, "Cornucopia of the World," in Pacific Arcadia: Images of California, 1600-1915, ed. Claire Perry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 88-90. There is some debate over who first brought the eucalyptus to California, but it is clear it happened sometime in the 1850s. For the opinions of various scholars, see Robin W Doughty, The Eucalyptus: A Natural and Commercial History of the Gum Tree (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000) 66-67; Claire Shaver Haughton, Green Immigrants: The Plants That Transformed America (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovano vich, 1978), 118; Kenneth Thompson, "The Australian Fever Tree in California: Eucalypts and Malaria Prophylaxis," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 60, no. 2 (June 1970): 234; Ian R. Tyrrell, True Gardens of the Gods: Calif ornian-Australian Environmental Reform, 1860-ig^o (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 58. "Eucalyptus" comes from the Greek for "well covered," referring to the buds, a name given it by French botanist Charles-Louis L'Heritier de Brutelle. On the etymology and exploration in Australia, see Haughton, Green Immigrants, 114. For an excellent account, Tyrrell, True Gardens of the Gods, 56-87. The quote from Marsh comes from the posthumous 1885 edition of Man and Nature, 325; quoted in Tyrrell, True Gardens of the Gods, 25. For the plural of "eucalyptus"?which itself is a genus, and so at times can stand in for the plural?I have chosen to use the European "eucalypts," rather than the more common American "eucalypti." On Call and the tree, see Joy, Horvitz, and Rangers, Fort Ross State Historic Park Rus sian Colony. The history of these specific trees was confirmed in phone conversations and e-mail with Lyn Kalani, of the Fort Ross Interpretive Association, on March 31 and April 1, 2003. See also the discussion of the "Russian Orchard" and the mention of eucalypts at Fort Ross in Clifford, 299-304. On Burbank, see "Fort Ross State Historic Park," (California State Department of Parks and Recreation, July, 1993); Joy, Horvitz, and Rangers, Fort Ross State Historic Park Russian Colony; Tyrrell, True Gardens of the Gods 207. Joy, Horvitz, and Rangers, Fort Ross State Historic Park Russian Colony. On the notable tree, phone conversations and email with Lyn Kalani, of the Fort Ross Interpretive Association, on March 31 and April 1, 2003. The eucalypts figure promi nently in contemporary pictures of Fort Ross; see, for example, the photographs of park ranger Dan Murley at the "Fort Ross State Historic Park" website. On the eucalyptus' reach, Doughty, The Eucalyptus: A Natural and Commercial His tory 85-95. Tyrrell notes that, despite the rise and fall of the acclimatizers, the orna mental pull of the eucalyptus remained steady; Tyrrell, True Gardens of the Gods, 14, 59, 82. California was promoted widely as an Edenic paradise, from fruit cartons to the 63 This content downloaded from 149.61.182.195 on Mon, 22 Oct 2018 21:18:12 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms NOTES state's exhibits at world fairs. See Perry, "Cornucopia of the World." Joy, Horvitz, and Rangers, Fort Ross State Historic Park Russian Colony. For Rodolph's photographs, see the eleven Fort Ross pho tographs in the Frank B. Rodolph Photograph Collection, BANC PIC 1905.17151, The Ban croft Library, University of California, Berkeley. Eight of the images are available online at http://www.oac.cdlib.org/ fmdaid/ ark:/i303o/tf7S20iok4. Thanks to Kathy Talley-Jones for this reference. For an ama teur photograph, see one taken July 11, 1999 by Elena Emelyanova, a Russian school teacher, on the "Irkutsk-Fort Ross Club" website, at http://ifrc.irk.ru/ usa99/photos/ 071111.jpg Accessed March, 2003. James Clifford, in his book linking travel to the roots/routes of culture?whether pil grimage, tourism, exploration, or immigra tion?saw Fort Ross and its region, known as Metini in the local Kashaya Porno lan guage, as a uniquely qualified rupture in traditional stories. "Pried out of the contin uum of a triumphal (or tragic) American History, the moment of "Fort Ross' offers strands of historical contingency," Clifford wrote. "In its entwined stories I glimpse the rise and fall of empires, the historical shallowness of U.S. American hegemony, the perseverance and renewal of native peo ples, the unfinished relations of north and south in the continent, the ongoing Asian influence in North Pacific history." On Clif ford's wide sense of travel, p. 11; quote is from p. 343. Doughty, The Eucalyptus: A Natural and Commercial History, 68-74, &9"95' Tyrrell, True Gardens of the Gods, 56-71. Quote is from H. M. Butterfield, "Introduction of Eucalyptus into California," Madrono: A West American Journal of Botany 3 (October 1935), 152, quoted in Tyrrell, True Gardens of the Gods, 83. Richard W Amero, "San Diego Invites the World to Balboa Park a Second Time," The Journal of San Diego History 31.4 (Fall 1985), chapter 1; http://www.sandiegohistory.org/ calpac/35expo99.htm Accessed March 2003. Tyrrell, True Gardens of the Gods, 83. San Diego, with its natural harbor, hoped to show up its rival, Los Angeles, who had to con struct its own. General information about the progression of fairs in Balboa Park drawn from the author's native knowledge of San Diego, as well as Virginia Butterfield, "Born Again Balboa Park," San Diego Magazine 48.12 (December 1996), begins p. no; http:// www.sandiego-online.com/issues/december 96/balboa.shtml Accessed March, 2003. An incredible resource on the history of Balboa Park is the clippings archive of Richard Amero, housed at the San Diego Historical Society. Amero, "San Diego Invites the World to Balboa Park a Second Time," especially chapters 3 and 7. For the Tower to the Sun pavilion and the Fair map, Larry and Jane Booth, "Do You Want an Exposition? San Diego's 1935 Fair in Photographs," The Journal of San Diego History 31.4 (Fall 1985), http:// www.sandiegohistory.org/calpac/35expo12.htm Accessed March 2003. Most of the water spaces from the fair were turned into park ing lots, while most of the industry buildings are extant, if used for different purposes. The national cottages maintain their original pur pose. The Ford pavilion is now the San Diego Aeronautics and Space Museum, and the "Roads of the Pacific" were integrated into the off-ramps and on-ramps of California Highway 163, the "Cabrillo Parkway." The photomural was Ansel Adams' first, but led to a Depression-era series of such works, which recall the panoramas of Watkins and Muybridge. For more on these projects, in the 1930s and later in 1941 for the Depart ment of the Interior, see Adams and Alinder, Ansel Adams, an Autobiography, 187-189, 271. Merle Armitage, in the West Coaster, June 15, 1928, 24, quoted in Nancy Dustin Wall Moure, "Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, and the Eucalyptus School in Southern California," in Plein Air Painters of California, the Southland, ed. Ruth Lilly Westphal and Terry DeLapp (Irvine: Westphal, 1982), n-12. Moure notes the original read "creature" instead of "creative," but deems it a typo graphical error. Capital letter was silently lowered. For a consideration of California Impres sionism, plein air painters, and the "Eucalyptus School," see Susan Landauer, Donald D. Keyes, and Jean Stern, California Impressionists (Irvine: Irvine Museum, 1996); Moure, "Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, and the Eucalyptus School;" Will South and William H. Gerdts, California Impressionism (New York: Abbeville Press Publishers, 1998). For the definition of terminology, see South and Gerdts, California Impressionism, 89. For the connections to other Regionalist movements in the United States and the ties to Europe, see Deborah Epstein Solon and Will South, In and Out of California: Travels of American Impressionists (Laguna Beach: Laguna Art Museum, 2002). For the importance of capturing light in nature to California Impressionists, see Jean Stern, "Masters of Light," in Jean Stern and William H. Gerdts, Masters of Light: Plein Air Painting in California 1890-1930 (Irvine: Irvine Museum, 2002), 24. Quotes are from Fred S. Hogue, "The Art of Edward Alwyn Payne," Los Angeles Sun day Times, May 23, 1926, quoted in Susan Landauer, "Impressionism's Indian Summer: The Culture and Consumption of California Plein-Air Painting," in Landauer, Keyes, and Stern, California Impressionists, 43; and South and Gerdts, California Impressionism, 240. On the shunning of Yosemite, Tamal pais and other established California icons, see William H. Gerdts, "The Land of Sun shine," in Masters of Light: Plein-Air Painting in California 1890-1930, ed. Jean Stern and William H. Gerdts (Irvine: Irvine Museum, 2002), 35. On the decline, see Gerdts, "The Land of Sunshine," 66; South and Gerdts, California Impressionism, 240-243. On the rise of Modernism in Californian painting, see Ruth Lilly Westphal and Janet B. Dominik, American Scene Painting: California, 1930s and 1940s (Irvine: Westphal Publishers, 1991). Marion Kavanagh Wachtel is often cited in relation to Armitage's snipe; see Gerdts, "The Land of Sunshine," 37. Brimming Cup of Summer is the best of a number of similar paintings of eucalyptus skirting a body of water; see for example, William Wendt's 1914 painting Serenity, which also carries an allegorical title, in South and Gerdts, California Impressionism, 130. On Puthuff's art and legacy, see the references in Gerdts, "The Land of Sunshine," 69 n. 24. The suggestion that Ansel Adams was "burned out" is his own; see the summary in Allison N. Kemmerer, "Reinventing the West," in Adam D. Weinberg, et al, Reinvent ing the West: The Photographs of Ansel Adams and Robert Adams (Andover, Mass.: Addison Gallery of American Art Phillips Academy, 2001), 21 n. 14, which refers to Adams and Alinder, Ansel Adams, an Autobiography. Biographers point to the fallout over Sierra 0_4. California History volume 82 / number 4 / 2005 This content downloaded from 149.61.182.195 on Mon, 22 Oct 2018 21:18:12 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Club politics and the changing winds of the late 1960s?along with age?for Adams' world-weary attitude behind the camera at this time. See Jonathan Spaulding, Ansel Adams and the American Landscape: A Bi ography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 327-349. Similar changes afoot in California art, "rede fining the relationship between people and nature," as automobiles, the sinister side of marketing, and other counterculture trends highlighted a sense of "encroachment." See Fox, "Tremors in Paradise 1960-1980," espe cially 193-202. For Ansel Adams' images, see the exhibition catalog, Adams and Land, Singular Images. The Argonaut, April 22, 1877, p. 4, quoted in full in Thompson, "The Australian Fever Tree in California: Eucalypts and Malaria Prophylaxis," 243. The article is also quoted in Tyrrell, True Gardens of the Gods, 68. Ted Williams, "America's Largest Weed," Audubon January-February, 2002, 26. Even in the first generations of the eucalyptus in California, some citrus growers learned these lessons when they noticed their trees were losing water to their eucalyptus windbreaks. They ripped out the interlopers and planted native trees instead. Tyrrell, True Gardens of the Gods, 68. 32 Williams, "America's Largest Weed," 24, 30. Patricia Leigh Brown, "By the Bay, Ancient Dunes Fight Exotic Trees," New York Times, March 9, 2003. Williams describes how, in 1996, once the eucalyptus trees had been removed, the California Department of Parks and Recreation received angry phone calls, asking how a building had been construct ed on Angel Island without a formal hear ing for those with sensitive bay views. The department patiently explained that the building had been built in 1904 as an Army hospital, and had been hidden away by the eucalypts for nearly a century. Williams, "America's Largest Weed," 30-31. Williams, "America's Largest Weed," 28, 30. Leland Yee is quoted in Brown, "By the Bay, Ancient Dunes Fight Exotic Trees," Ai. A calmer voice calls for balance: comment ing on the Presidio, Robert Z. Melnick of Eugene, OR, wrote that it "represents an essen tial conflict between two legitimate sets of values: the continuity of place, on one hand, and the protection of fragile ecological sys tems, on the other. These values do not necessarily have to be in conflict." Letters, New York Times, March 12, 2003, p. 24. Quote is from Williams, "America's Larg est Weed," 26. On Adams's wilderness activism, see Adams' article from the period, "A Naturalist's Plea: The Conservation of Man," Al A Journal 45.6 (June 1966): 68-74. The pamphlets of the Save-the-Redwoods League had always melded the iconography of Watkins and Adams in order to suggest an eternal space, while warning it was almost too late; see Saving the Redwoods pamphlets and Bulletin, (Berkeley, Calif: Save-the-Red woods League, 1941-1951). These activities are chronicled in Spaulding, Ansel Adams and the American Landscape, 334. Mike Davis, Ecology of Fear: Los Angeles and the Imagination of Disaster (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1998); John A. McPhee, The Control of Nature (New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1989). William Cronon, "Intro duction: In Search of Nature," and "The Trouble with Wilderness; or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature" in Uncommon Ground: Toward Reinventing Nature, William Cronon, ed. (New York: WW Norton & Co., 1995). Quote is from p. 25. For Butterfly's account, see Julia "Butterfly" Hill, The Legacy of Luna: The Story of a Tree, a Woman, and the Struggle to Save the Redwoods ([San Francisco]: Harper San Francisco, 2000). On the butter flies, Williams, "America's Largest Weed," 28. "'Nature' is not as natural" is from Cronon, "Introduction," 25; "Far from being the one place" is from Cronon, "The Trouble with Wilderness," 69. Earlier works on this theme include Rebecca Solnit, Savage Dreams: A Journey into the Hidden Wars of the American West (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1994); Emmet Gowin, and Jock Reynolds, et al. Emmet Gowin: Changing the Earth: Aerial Photographs (New Haven, CT: Yale University Art Gallery-Corcoran Gallery of Art-Yale University Press, 2002); Mark Klett, et al. Second View: The Rephotographic Survey Project (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984). When considering such messages in art, the poetry of Thomas Bolt is also relevant. Thomas Bolt, Out of the Woods (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989). The grooming of nature in national parks is examined in Mary Sayre Haverstock, "Can Nature Imitate Art?" Art in America 54.1 (January-February, 1966): 73-81. The case is made in Lawrence Buell, The Environmental Imagination: Thoreau, Nature Writing, and the Formation of American Culture (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Har vard University Press, 1995). Janice Simon advocates this connection, comparing Buell's account of Thoreau's "responsiveness to nature as a presence" to Kensett's develop ment of an "ecocentric view" in his Content ment Island paintings, where "natural and human histories are inextricably implicated." Simon, "Images of Contentment," 34-35. MARMORATA:THE FAMED MUD TURTLE OF THE SAN FRANCISCO MARKET, PP 26-42 Acknowledgements: Special thanks are in order to Michele Wellck, California Academy of Sciences Special Collections; Leslie Over street, Smithsonian Institution Libraries; Amelia Hellam, Bancroft Library, U.C. Berke ley; Richard Wahlgren, ISHBH; Igor Danilov, Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences; Robert Hansen, Hansen Consult ing; herpetologists Frank Slavens, Dan Hol land, Jim Buskirk, and the herpetological community at large, who shared their research and private libraries with me; Dana Terry, friend, colleague, and translator; and my loving wife Sarah, for all of her support. Scientific: Dan C. Holland, "The Western Pond Turtle: Habitat and History. Final Report," U.S. Department of Energy, Bonne ville Power Administration (1994): section 2, page 13; Dan C. Holland, "Synopsis of the Ecology of the Western Pond Turtle, Clemmys marmorata," Report to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Ecology Research Center (Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1989): 13-14. Historic: Andrew Rolle, "Turbulent Waters: Navigation and California's Southern Central Valley," California History no. 2 (1996): 135; Gerald Haslam, "The Lake That Will Not Die," California History no. 3 (1993): 263, 271. Popular: Mentioned briefly in Edward Hume, Mean Justice (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999), 18. 2 Throughout California, the only other native turtle is the Sonoran mud turtle (Kinosternon sonoriense), constrained to the southeastern corner of California along the Lower Colorado River; Carl H. Ernst, Jeffrey E. Lovich, and Roger W Barbour, Turtles of the United States and Canada (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1994), 191. 6j This content downloaded from 149.61.182.195 on Mon, 22 Oct 2018 21:18:12 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Manhattan College From the SelectedWorks of Adam Arenson 2005 Ansel Adams’s Eucalyptus Tree, Fort Ross: Nature, Photography, and the Search for California 
work_o63wjeg54zbmnkg5e6jnvuzggq	----	496 NEW PUBLICATIONS. [June, A T the University of Illinois the following changes are an- nounced : Dr. E . K . M O R L E Y , of the Worcester Polytechnic Institute, has been appointed instructor in mathematics ; Mr. E . B. S T O U F F E R and Mr. S. A. K A W L I N have been appointed assistants in mathematics. Dr. THOMAS B U C K has been ap- pointed instructor in mathematics at the University of California. M R . R. E . ROOT, of the University of Chicago, has been appointed instructor in mathematics at the University of Missouri. D R . H . H . M I T C H E L L , of Yale University, has accepted an instructorship in mathematics at the University of Pennsylvania. D R . F R A N K I R W I N , of Princeton University, has been appointed instructor in mathematics in the University of Cali- fornia. A T Columbia University Professor C. B. U P T O N has been appointed secretary of Teachers College. Mr. L. L . D I N E S and Mr. G. H . G R A V E S have been appointed instructors in mathematics. PROFESSOR R. B O N O L A , of the normal school at Rome, died May 16 at the age of 36 years. N E W P U B L I C A T I O N S . I. HIGHER MATHEMATICS. ASHTON (C. H.). Die Heineschen O-Funktionen und ihre Anwendungen auf die elliptischen Funktionen. (Diss.) München, 1909. 8vo. 62 pp. BAKER (A. L.). Quaternions as the result of algebraic operations. New York, Van Nostrand, 1911. 12mo. 100 pp. $1.25 BAKER (R. P.). Problem of the angle-bisectors. Chicago, University of Chicago, 1911. 4to. 104 pp. $1.00 BALL (W. W. R.). Ricreazioni e problemi matematici dei tempi antichi e moderni. Bologna, Zanichelli, 1911. 8vo. 2+398 pp. L. 10.00 BRÜES (M.). Zur Theorie der desmischen Flâchen vierter Ordnung. (Diss.) Bonn, 1910. 8vo. 48 pp. CARLEBACH (J.). Lewi ben Gerson als Mathematiker. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Mathematik bei den Juden. Berlin, Lamm, 1910. 8vo. 239 pp. Cloth. M. 6.00 License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 1911.] NEW PUBLICATIONS. 497 B Û C H E R , neue, über Naturwissenschaften u n d M a t h e m a t i k . Die Neuig- keiten des deutschen Buchhandels n a c h Wissenschaften geordnet. Leipzig, Hinrichs, 1911. 8vo. p p . 6 5 - 8 8 . M . 0.30 C O U R A N T ( R . ) . Ueber die Anwendung des Dirichletschen Prinzipes auf die Problème der konformen Abbildung. Göttingen, 1910. 8vo. 44 p p . D I N G L E R ( H . ) . Die G r u n d l a g e n der angewandten Geometrie. E i n e U n t e r s u c h u n g über den Z u s a m m e n h a n g zwischen Theorie u n d Erfahr- u n g in den exakten Wissenschaften. Leipzig, Akademische Verlags- gesellschaft, 1911. 8vo. 8 + 160 p p . M . 6.00 D Ü K E R (W.). Ueber Beziehungen der Strahlenkomplexe zweiten Grades zu den Flâchen zweiter O r d n u n g . Rostock, 1910. 8vo. 80 p p . F O R S T E R (J.). Allgemeine elementare Lösung des Problems von F e r m â t , xn + yn — zn, n > 2, m i t t e l s t der "descente infinie." Wien, Holzhausen, 1911. 8vo. 10 p p . M . 0.50 F R O S T ( P . ) . An e l e m e n t a r y treatise on curve tracing. 2d edition. London, Macmillan, 1911. 8vo. 10 s. H E F F T E R (L.). Ueber Wesen, W e r t , u n d Reiz der M a t h e m a t i k . R e d e . Kiel, Lipsius, 1911. 8vo. 14 p p . M . 0.60 H E L L I N G E R ( E . ) . N e u e B e g r ü n d u n g der Theorie quadratischer F o r m e n von unendlichvielen Veranderlichen. M a r b u r g , 1909. 4to. 62 p p . J A N S ( C ) . Over K r o m m e n von Clairaut, Boscowich en Playfair. Gent, H o s t e , 1910. K L I N G E L H O F F E R ( R . ) . D e r F e r m a t s c h e Satz. F r a n k f u r t , 1910. M . 2.00 K O B E R ( H . ) . Konjugierte kinetische B r e n n p u n k t e . Breslau, 1910. 8vo. 77 p p . K O C H (W.). Beitrâge zur afnnen Geometrie der Flâchen zweiten Grades. (Diss.) Kiel, 1910. 8vo. 51 p p . K O M M E R E L L (V.) u n d K O M M E R E L L ( K . ) . Spezielle Flâchen u n d Theorie der S trahlensy sterne. (Sammlung Schubert, L X I I . ) Leipzig, G ö - schen, 1911. 8vo. 6 + 171 p p . Cloth. M . 4.80 L E B O N ( E . ) . Sur le calcul avec u n e équation indéterminée des carac- téristiques e n t r a n t d a n s u n e t a b l e de facteurs premiers des grands n o m b r e s . Paris, Société P h i l o m a t i q u e de Paris, 1910. 8vo. 7 p p . L E F E B V R E ( E . ) . Cours d'analyse infinitésimale de FEcole militaire. Deuxième p a r t i e . Livre I . G a n d , Meyer, 1911. 8vo. 1 4 + 4 5 6 p p . F r . 10.00 M E T H (B.). Zur E r i n n e r u n g a n E r n s t E d u a r d K u m m e r als Lehrer. Berlin, M a t h e m a t i s c h e r Verein der Universitât, 1910. M . 0.30 M O N T F O R T ( P . ) . Die Auflösung der numerischen Gleichungen nach Fourier. Leipzig, T e u b n e r , 1910. M Ü N T Z ( C ) . Z u m R a n d w e r t p r o b l e m der partiellen Differentialgleichung der Minimalflâchen. (Diss.) Berlin, 1910. 4to. 32 p p . P F E I F F E R ( F . ) . D a s die R a u m k u r v e n begleitende D r e i k a n t . (Diss.) Würzburg, 1910. 8vo. 35 p p . P R A S A D (G.). A text-book of differential calculus. New York, Longmans, 1911. 8vo. 10 + 161 p p . $1.50 License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 498 N E W PUBLICATIONS. [June, . A text-book of integral calculus. New York, Longmans, 1911. 8vo. 1 0 + 2 4 1 p p . $1.50. P U S T A U (W.). Lösung des grossen F e r m a t s c h e n Satzes. F r a n k f u r t , K n a u e r , 1911. 8vo. 12 p p . M . 2.00 R A T S C H L A G E u n d E r l â u t e r u n g e n für die Studierenden der M a t h e m a t i k u n d P h y s i k a n der U n i v e r s i t â t Göttingen. Leipzig, Teubner, 1911. 8vo. 34 p p . M . 1.00 R I C H E R T ( P . ) . D i e ganze rationale F u n k t i o n vierten Grades u n d i h r e K u r v e n . Berlin, 1910. 4 t o . 19 p p . P A S C A L (E.). Lezioni di calcolo infinitésimale. (Manuali Hoepli.) P a r t e I I . 3a edizione r i v e d u t a . Milano, Hoepli, 1911. 16mo. 8 + 3 3 0 p p . S. ( F . R . ) . Calculus m a d e easy. A very simplest introduction t o those beautiful m e t h o d s of reckoning which are generally called b y t h e t e r - rifying names of t h e differential a n d integral calculus. New York, Macmillan, 1911. 12mo. 8 + 178 p p . $0.75 S C H E F F E R S (G.). L e h r b u c h der M a t h e m a t i k für Studierende der N a t u r - wissenschaften u n d der Technik. Einführung in die Differential- u n d I n t e g r a l r e c h n u n g u n d in die analytische G e o m e t r i c Zweite Auflage. Leipzig, Veit, 1911. 8vo. 8 + 7 3 2 p p . Cloth. M . 19.50 S C H N E I D E R (J. J . ) . Die Kugelfallprobe. Berlin-Charlottenburg, 1910. 8vo. 50 p p . S C H W A N T K E ( C ) . Ueber den axiomatischen Aufbau einer Geometrie linearer Kugelsysteme. M a r b u r g , 1910. 8vo. 42 p p . S E R R E T (J. A.). Cours de calcul différentiel et intégral. 6e édition. 2 volumes. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1911. 8vo. T o m e 1er, 8 + 6 1 7 p p . ; t o m e 2, 8 + 9 0 4 p p . F r . 25.00 S T A C K E L (P.). G e l t u n g u n d Wirksamkeit der M a t h e m a t i k . K a r l s r u h e , 1910. 8vo. 18 p p . S T E I N B A C H E R ( F . ) . Abelsche K ö r p e r als Kreisteilungskörper. Berlin, 1910. 4 t o . 16 p p . $ T E É C Z (G.). D e r "Grosse S a t z " F e r m a t s , ohne Kongruenzen bewiesen. B u d a p e s t , Kilión, 1910. 8vo. 102 p p . M . 4.00 S U I N I . L a confutazione délia geometria non-euclidea e la teoria n a t u r a l e délie parallèle. Piacenza, P o r t a . 8vo. 27 p p . V I D A L ( P . C ) . Balance algébrique pour obtenir les racines réelles des équations algébriques ou transcendentes avec u n e inconnue. Barce- lone, G u i n a r t , 1911. V Ö R Ö S ( C ) . Analitika geometrio absoluta. La ebeno Bolyaia. B u d a - pest, K ó k a i , 1910. 8vo. 134 p p . M . 9.60 . E l e m e n t o j de la geometrio absoluta. B u d a p e s t , K ó k a i , 1911. 8vo. 106 p p . M . 4.80 W I T T I N G (A.). Die m a t h e m a t i s c h e n Wissenschaften. 2ter B a n d . 2te Auflage. Aus "Schaffen u n d S e h a u e n . " Leipzig, Teubner, 1911. W O L F K E ( M . ) . Ueber die Abbildung eines G i t t e r s bei künstlicher B e - grenzung. Breslau, 1910. 8vo. 51 p p . Z O R E T T I (L..). Leçons sur le prolongement a n a l y t i q u e . Professées a u Collège de F r a n c e . Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1911. 8vo. 6 + 115 p p . F r . 3.75 License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 1 9 1 1 . ] NEW PUBLICATIONS. 4 9 9 II. ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS. ALLCOCK (C. H.). Theoretical geometry for beginners. Revised and rearranged. Part I. New York, Macmillan, 1911. 12mo. 12 + 125 pp. $0.40 AMALDI (U.). See ENRIQTJES (F.). AMODEO (F.). Aritmetica ed algebra, ad uso delle scuole medie di 2° grado. Napoli, Pierro, 1910. 16mo. 16+719 pp. L. 5.50 . Aritmetica ed algebra, ad uso del 2° corso degli istituti tecnici. Napoli, Pierro, 1910. 16mo. 8+366 pp. L. 3.00 . Aritmetica generale ed algebra, ad uso della la e 2a classe liceale. Napoli, Pierro, 1910. 16mo. 7+358 pp. L. 3.00 . Aritmetica particolare e generale, ad uso delle scuole medie di 2° grado, especialmente delle scuole normali. 3a edizione, migliorata. Napoli, Pierro, 1910. 16mo. 14+359 pp. L. 3.75 . Elementi di algebra. (Elementi di matematica.) Parte I del volume II. 2a edizione, migliorata. Napoli, Pierro, 1910. 16mo. 12 + 180 pp. L. 2.00 . Elementi di matematica. Volume II, per la 2a classe normale. 5a edizione. Firenze, LeMonnier, 1911. 8vo. 185 pp. L. 1.50 . Elementi di matematica. Volume I, per la la classe. 6a impres- sione. Firenze, LeMonnier, 1911. 8vo. 4+207 pp. L. 1.50 ARZELà ( C ) . Trattato d'algebra elementare. (CoUezione scolastica.) Terza edizione, completamente rifatta, 5a impressione. Firenze, Le Monnier, 1911. 16mo. 11+503 pp. L. 3.50 Bosio ( C ) . Nozioni di aritmetica, geometria e computisteria, corredate da molti esercizî orali e scritti. Torino, Paravia, 1910. 16mo. 272 pp. L. 1.00 BOTJRLET ( C ) . Cours abrégé de géométrie avec de nombreux exercices théoriques et pratiques et des applications au dessin géométrique. 3e édition. Paris, Hachette, 1911. 16mo. 8+239 pp. Fr. 1.80 . Pequeno curso de arithmética. Primera parte. Clases prepara- tores. Version castellana de la quinta edición francesa, por D. M. Ruiz, l a edición. Paris, Hachette, 1911. 16mo. 136 pp. Fr. 1.50 CHILD (J. M.). See LOCK (J. B.). COATES (J. V. N.). A first book of geometry. (First books of science.) London, Macmillan, 1911. 8vo. 10 + 142 pp. Is. 6d. COLART (E.). Compléments d'algèbre élémentaire à l'usage de l'enseig- nement moyen et des candidats aux écoles spéciales. Quatrième édition. Bruxelles, De Boeck, 1911. 8vo. 188 pp. Fr. 3.50 . Traité d'algèbre élémentaire à l'usage de l'enseignement moyen. Cinquième édition. Bruxelles, De Boeck, 1911. 8vo. 332 pp. Fr. 4.50 COLLEGE entrance examination board. Examination questions in mathe- matics. Second series, 1906-1910. Boston, Ginn, 1910. 8vo. 64 pp. $0.35 CRANTZ (P.). Planimetrie zum Selbstunterricht. (Natur und Geistes- welt. Sammlung wissenschaftlich-gemeinverstandlicher Darstellungen. 340.) Leipzig, Teubner, 1911. 8vo. 4+134 pp. Cloth. M. 1.25 License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 500 NEW PUBLICATIONS. [June, C R O S A R A (L.). T r a t t a t o di geometria elementare. P a r t e I . Venezia, Sorteni e Vidotti, 1911. 8vo. 7 + 119 p p . L. 1.60 DtisiNG ( K . ) . Leitfaden der Kurvenlehre. F ü r höhere technische L e h r a n s t a l t e n u n d zum Selbstunterricht. H a n n o v e r , Janecke, 1911. 8vo. 9 + 144 p p . M . 2.20 E N R I Q U E S (F.) e A M A L D I (U.). E l e m e n t i di geometria. (Nostrae l i t t e r a e , I.) Seconda edizione. Bologna, Zanichelli, 1911. 16mo. 8 + 2 7 0 p p . L. 2.00 F E R V A L ( H . ) . E l é m e n t s de trigonométrie rédigés conformément aux p r o g r a m m e s de l'enseignement secondaire et de l'enseignement primaire supérieur. 5e édition, revue. Paris, H a c h e t t e , 1911. 16mo. 304 p p . F r . 2.50. G E I P E L (G.) u n d H E C H T ( C ) . M a t h e m a t i s c h e s Lehrbuch für höhere weibliche Bildungsanstalten. Bielefeld, Velhagen, 1910. 8vo. 4 + 145 p p . Cloth. M . 1.80 G U I M A R A E S ( R . ) . Geometria e trigonometria espherica. (Bibliotheca do P r o v o e das escolas, 29a serie, n u m e r o 231.) Lisboa, 1910. 50 Reis. H A A S E (A.). Die Anfangsgründe der analytischen Geometrie der E b e n e . St. P e t e r s b u r g , Eggers, 1911. 8vo. 81 p p . Cloth. M . 3.00 H A F F E N (G.). Produzioni m a t e m a t i c h e . Casale, Torelli, 1911. 8vo. 73 p p . H A L L ( H . S.). A school algebra. P a r t I I . London, Macmillan, 1911. 8vo. Is. 6d. H E C H T ( C ) . See G E I P E L (G.). H E C H T (C.) u n d K L A R N E R ( K . ) . M a t h e m a t i s c h e s Lehrbuch für K n a b e n s - mittelschulen. A r i t h m e t i k u n d Algebra. Bielefeld, Velhagen, 1911. 8vo. 6 + 168 p p . Cloth. M . 1.50 H U E (T.) et V A G N I E R ( N . ) . Compléments de géométrie. Paris, Delà- grave, 1911. 8vo. 144 p p . F r . 1.25 K L Â R N E R ( K . ) . See H E C H T ( C ) . L A M A D R I D (A. A.). Curso elemental de âlgebra. Paris, Bouret, 1911. 16mo. 207 p p . L E S S E R (O.). See S C H W A B ( K . ) . L O C K (J. B.) a n d C H I L D (J. M . ) . A new trigonometry for schools and colleges. London, Macmillan, 1911. 8vo. 1 2 + 4 8 8 p p . 6s. M A T H E M A T I C A L P a p e r s for admission into t h e R o y a l Military Academy a n d t h e R o y a l Military College for t h e years 1905-1911. E d i t e d by E . J . B r o o k s m i t h a n d R. M . Milne. London, Macmillan, 1911. 8vo. 6s. M O D O N I ( C ) . See R I M O N D I N I ( F . ) . N O O D T (G.). M a t h e m a t i s c h e Unterrichtsbücher für höhere M à d c h e n - schulen. Bielefeld, Velhagen, 1910. 8vo. 5 + 1 8 0 p p . Cloth. M . 2.20 P A S T O U R (J.). Leçons progressives de géométrie élémentaire théorique et p r a t i q u e , rédigées conformément au programme du 27 juillet 1905. 2e édition. P a r i s , 1911. 12mo. 343 p p . F r . 2.25 R I M O N D I N I (F.) e M O D O N I ( C ) . E l e m e n t i di algebra. Bologna, Beltrami, 1910. 16mo. 96 p p . License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 1 9 1 1 . J NEW PUBLICATIONS. 5 0 1 S C H L Ü S S E L zu den Dreiecksaufgaben der Trigonometrie u n d Planimetrie. Aachen, Schweitzer, 1911. 8vo. 31 p p . M . 1.00 S C H R U T K A (L.). Theorie u n d Praxis des logarithmischen Rechenschreibers. Wien, Deuticke, 1911. 8vo. 1 0 + 9 6 p p . M . 3.00 S C H W A B (K.) u n d L E S S E R (O.). M a t h e m a t i s c h e s Unterrichtswerk zum G e b r a u c h an höheren U n t e r r i e h t s a n s t alten. Leipzig, Freitag, 1911. 8vo. 211 p p . Cloth. M . 3.00 SCOTO (G.). E l e m e n t i di geometria. 3a edizione. Palermo, Sandron, 1911. 16mo. 252 p p . L. 2.30 S K I N N E R (E. B.). High school course in m a t h e m a t i c s . (High school series, no. 8.) Madison, Wis., University of Wisconsin, 1910. 8vo. 104 p p . S o c c i (A.) e T O L O M E I (G.). E l e m e n t i di geometria secondo il m e t o d o di Euclide. Volume I I I , per la 2a classe Üceale. 7a edizione. Firenze, Le Monnier, 1911. 8vo. 149 p p . L. 1.50. T A N N E R Y (J.). Leçons d ' a r i t h m é t i q u e théorique et p r a t i q u e . P a r i s . Colin. 8vo. 545 p p . F r . 7.00 T H O M A S ( D . ) . P r a c t i c a l geometry for junior forms. London, Arnold, 1911. 16mo. 112 p p . I s . 4d. T O L O M E I (G.). See S o c c i (A.). V A H L E N ( T . ) . K o n s t r u k t i o n e n u n d Approximationen in systematischer Darstellung. (Teubner's S a m m l u n g von Lehrbüchern auf dem Gebiete der m a t h e m a t i s c h e n Wissenschaften.) Leipzig, Teubner, 1911. 8vo. 1 2 + 3 4 9 p p . C l o t h . M . 12.00 V A G N I E R ( N . ) . See H U E ( T . ) . W A R G N Y ( C ) . L O S metodos de la integracion. Santiago de Chili. 8vo. 233 p p . F r . 5.00 . Trigonometria esferica. Valparaiso. 8vo. 219 p p . F r . 6.Ó0 W H I T E F O R D (J.). T h e trisection of t h e angle b y plane geometry. Verified b y t r i g o n o m e t r y , with concrete examples. London, McKelvie, 1911. 4 t o . 169 p p . I I I . A P P L I E D M A T H E M A T I C S . A N D R E W S (E. S.). T h e t h e o r y a n d design of structures. A text-book for t h e use of s t u d e n t s , d r a u g h t s m e n a n d engineers. London, V a n N o s t r a n d , 1910. 601 p p . Cloth. $3.50 A U E (J.). Zur Berechnung der S p a n n u n g e n in g e k r ü m m t e n Staben u n t e r A n w e n d u n g der optischen M e t h o d e . J e n a , 1910. 8vo. 49 p p . A U F P E N B E R G ( H . ) . U n t e r s u c h u n g e n der Schwingungen mechanisch- gekoppelter Système. Halle, 1909. 4to. 34 p p . B A R T L E T T (G. M . ) . See C H U R C H (A. E . ) . B E I L ( H . ) . Variationen des K o n t a k t p o t e n t i a l s . Rostock, 1910. 8vo. 40 p p . B E L O T (E.). L'origine dualiste des mondes. Essai de cosmogonie tourbil- lonaire. P a r i s , Gauthier-Villars, 1911. 8vo. 1 2 + 2 8 0 p p . F r . 10.00 B E R R Y (C. W . ) . T h e t e m p e r a t u r e - e n t r o p y diagram. 3d edition. New York, Wiley, 1911. 12mo. 1 8 + 3 9 3 p p . $2.50 License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 502 N E W PUBLICATIONS. [June, B O U S S I N E S Q (J.). Sur les principes de la mécanique et sur leur applica- bilité à des phénomènes qui semblent m e t t r e en défaut certains d ' e n t r e eux. 1910. 4to. 38 p p . F r . 2.00 B R E N D E L ( M . ) . Theorie der kleinen P l a n e t e n . (Abhandlungen der königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen.) Berlin, W e i d m a n n , 1911. 8vo. 5 + 124 p p . M . 12.00 B R I O T (C.) et V A C Q U A N T ( C ) . Arpentage, levé des plans et nivellement. 12e édition. Paris, H a c h e t t e , 1911. 16mo. 244 p p . F r . 3.00 C A L D A R E R A ( F . ) . Memoria sul m o t o dei pianeti. Seconda edizione, migli- o r a t a . P a l e r m o , Virzi, 1911. 4to. 44 p p . C A R I U S ( F . ) . Zur Theorie der astronomischen Stralhenbrechung. Leipzig, 1910. 8vo. 47 p p . C H U R C H (A. E.) a n d B A R T L E T T (G. M . ) . E l e m e n t s of descriptive geometry; w i t h applications t o spherical a n d isometric projections, shades and shadows, a n d perspective. New York, American Book Co., 1911. 8vo. 286 p p . $2.25 . E l e m e n t s of descriptive geometry. P a r t I : Orthographic proj ection. New York, American Book Co., 1911. 8vo. 178 p p . $1.75 C L A Y T O N (A. A.). A new system of reckoning t h e length of lines of l a t i t u d e a n d longitude. Pennsboro, W. Virginia, Clayton, 1911. 8vo. 20 p p . $1.00 C O N N A I S S A N C E des t e m p s ou des m o u v e m e n t s célestes pour le méridien de P a r i s , à l'usage des astronomes et des n a v i g a t e u r s . Paris, G a u t h i e r - Villars, 1910. 8vo. 7 + 8 1 0 p p . F r . 4.00 C R E L I E R (L.). Systèmes cinématiques. (Collection Scientia.) Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1911. 8vo. 100 p p . F r . 2.00 D O R G U E I L (S.). T a b l e n a u t i q u e . Azimut et h a u t e u r approchée d ' u n a s t r e quelconque. Paris, Challamel, 1911. 8vo. 1 6 + 3 2 p p . D U R L E Y (R. J . ) . K i n e m a t i c s of machines; a n elementary text-book. N e w York, Wiley, 1911. 8vo. 8 + 3 9 7 p p . $4.00 F R I E D E L (G.). Leçons de cristallographie. Paris, H e r m a n n . 8vo. 4 + 3 1 0 p p . F r . 10.00 G R E E N H I L L (G.). R e p o r t on t h e t h e o r y of a s t r e a m line p a s t a plane barrier, a n d of t h e discontinuity arising a t t h e edge, with an application of t h e t h e o r y t o a n aeroplane. London, W y m a n , 4to. 96 p p . G R O S S M A N N (J.) et G R O S S M A N N ( H . ) . Horlogerie théorique. Avec une préface de E . Caspari. T o m e I . 1911. 8vo. 408 p p . F r . 15.00 H I N R I C H S (W.). Beitrag zur Theorie der natürlichen Blende optischer I n s t r u m e n t e . Rostock, 1910. 8vo. 129 p p . H U L T S C H ( K . ) . E i n Beitrag zur Theorie des H o d o g r a p h e n d e r P l a n e t e n - u n d harmonischen Bewegung. Greifswald, 1910. 8vo. 48 p p . J A C O B (L.). Le calcul mécanique. Paris, Doin, 1911. 18mo. 16 + 412 p p . J O H N S O N (V. E . ) . T h e o r y a n d practice of model aeroplaning. New York, Spon, 1911. 12mo. 163 p p . $1.50 K L E I N (J. F . ) . Physical significance of e n t r o p y or of t h e second law. New York, V a n N o s t r a n d , 1910. 108 p p . Cloth. $1.50 License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 1 9 1 1 . ] NEW PUBLICATIONS. 5 0 3 K Ü S T E R (F. W . ) . Logarithmische Rechentafeln für Chemiker, P h a r - mazeuten, Mediziner, u n d Physiker. Leipzig, Veit, 1911. 8vo. 107 p p . Cloth. M . 2.40 L I L I E N T H A L (O.). Bird flight as t h e basis of aviation. A contribution t o w a r d s a system of aviation. T r a n s l a t e d from t h e 2d edition b y A. W. I s e n t h a l . New York, Longmans, 1911. 8vo. 2 4 + 1 4 2 p p . $2.50 M A R E C ( E . ) . Les enroulements industriels des machines à c o u r a n t continu et à c o u r a n t s alternatifs. Avec u n e préface de P . J a n e t . 1911. 8vo. 1 0 + 2 4 0 p p . F r . 9.00 M A T T A U C H (J.). Lehr- u n d Aufgabenbuch der darstellenden Geometrie für Oberrealschulen. Wien, Pichler, 1910. 8vo. 7 + 2 6 1 p p . C l o t h . M . 3.50 M E T T L E R ( H . ) . Graphische Berechnungsmethoden im Dienste der Naturwissenschaft u n d Technik. Zürich-Selnau, Leeman. 16mo. 71 p p . F r . 2.00 M O L I T O R ( D . A.). Kinetic theory of engineering s t r u c t u r e s . New Y o r k , M c G r a w , 1911. 8vo. 366 p p . $5.00 M O R L E Y (A.). Mechanics for engineers. 3d edition. New York, Long- m a n s , 1911. 12mo. 1 1 + 2 9 0 p p . $1.20 N X D A I (A.). U n t e r s u c h u n g e n der Festigkeitslehre mit Hilfe des t h e r m o - elektrischen Temperaturmessverfahrens. Berlin, Ebering, 1911. 8vo. 51 p p . M . 2.50 N E U E N D O R F F (R.). P r a k t i s c h e M a t h e m a t i k . (Aus N a t u r u n d Geistes- welt. S a m m l u n g wissenschaftlich-gemeinverstàndlicher D a r s t e l l u n - gen. 341.) Leipzig, Teubner, 1911. 8vo. 6 + 105 p p . Cloth. M . 1.25 N E U H A U S (O.). Geheimnisse des Schnellrechnens. Rechnen ein Ver- gnügen! E i n N u s s k n a c k e r für g u t e u n d böse Rechner. 5te Auflage. P a p i e r m ü h l e , Vogt, 1911. 8vo. 3 + 4 3 p p . M . 1.00 P A R K E R (G. W . ) . E l e m e n t s of mechanics. New York, Longmans, 1911. 8vo. 9 + 2 4 5 p p . $0.90 P E N D E R ( H . ) . Principles of electrical engineering. New York, Van N o s t r a n d , 1910. 351 p p . Cloth. $4.00 P L A N C K ( M . ) . Vorlesungen über T h e r m o d y n a m i k . D r i t t e erweiterte Auflage. Leipzig, Veit, 1911. 8vo. 8 + 2 8 8 p p . Cloth. M . 7.50 R I C H A R Z (F.) u n d N E U M A N N ( E . ) . Ueber ein Mass des Verdachtes auf systematische Fehler. M a r b u r g , 1909. 4to. 21 p p . S C H I L L I N G ( K . ) . Ueber die Elektrizitâtsleitung in festen K ö r p e r n u n d die Minimalwerte des Widerstandes. Freiburg, 1910. 8vo. 71 p p . S M I T H (A.). Stresses in simple framed s t r u c t u r e s . A text-book t o a c - company exercises in t h e c o m p u t a t i o n of t h e axial stresses in t h e members of load bearing frames. West Lafayette, Ind., S m i t h , 1911. 8vo. 190 p p . $2.50 SOMMA (R.). II cannocchiale geometrico in relazione all'ottica fisiologica. Napoli, 1910. L. 4.00 S O N N E N S C H E I N (V. ). B e s t i m m u n g von Phasenverschiebung u n d K a p a z i t â t an u m k e h r b a r e n E l e k t r o d e n m i t Hilfe des Oszillographen. Rostock, 1910. 8vo. 46 p p . License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 504 N E W PUBLICATIONS. [June, 1911.] S T ALLO (J. B.). Die Begriffe und Theorie der modernen Physik. Ueber- setzt von H. Kleinpeter. Mit einem Vorwort von E. Mach. Leipzig, Barth, 1911. M. 8.00 STRUVE (G.). Die Darstellung der Pallasbahn durch die Gauss'sche Theorie für den Zeitraum 1803 bis 1910. Berlin, 1910. 4to. 54 pp. SUBKIS (S.). Der Einfluss der Koppelung beil angsamen ungedampften Schwingungen. Braunschweig, 1910. 8vo. 31 pp. TOD (J.). Arithmetical guide for marine engineers. 4th edition. Revised and brought up to date. London, Brown, 1911. 8vo. 436 pp. 6 s. TUTTON (A. E. EL). Crystallography and practical measurements. Lon- don, Macmillan, 1911. 8vo. 960 pp. 30s VACQUANT (C.). See BRIOT (C.). WOODWARD (C. J.). A B C of five-figure logarithms and tables for chemistr including electro-chemical equivalents, analytical factors, gas reductkh tables, and other tables useful in chemical laboratories. New York, Spon, 1911. 12mo. 75 pp. $1.00 YULE (G. U.). An introduction to the theory of statistics. London, Griffin, 1911. 8vo. 390 pp. 10s. 6d. License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 
work_o7rxtasyorckxotma6ajjsjefq	----	Edmund Husserl: Phantasy, Image Consciousness, and Memory (1898–1925) Translated by John B. Brough (Edmund Husserl, Collected Works, vol. XI), Dordrecht: Springer, 2005, 723 pp, ISBN-101-4020-2641-2 (HB) Eduard Marbach Published online: 1 August 2012 � Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012 Arguably one of the most astonishing abilities of human beings is our capacity to refer to and to occupy ourselves with things, people, events and states of affairs that are not at all actually present here and now. We do so in our private thoughts, in imagining, remembering, planning, or publicly by means of images, plays, languages and other sign systems. In all such activities we normally understand without especially having to reflect that we do not simply perceive something present with our senses, but that in one way or another we have something as it were in view or in mind that is not itself present. At the same time, while knowing that we are occupied with something that we do not take to be really present, it nonetheless feels like we are standing in the actuality here and now. Even what we merely present in thought as not at all itself being really present here and now, or what we likewise experience as being represented in an image, as played, described, or otherwise signified, is given to us only in contrast to that which counts as being really present. If we were to lose this consciousness of contrast, we would be dreaming, or be subject to an illusion or hallucination, and in the process we would take the things, people, events and states of affairs to which we would be turned to be really given—instead of taking them to be merely imagined, remembered, or to be presented as merely possible, as represented in an image, in a symbolic play, or verbally, and so on. In short, we human beings do not only live in the present, perceiving it with our senses, we are also able, in manifold ways, to transcend the always present sensory actuality and to be active in one or another form of re-presentation (Vergegenwärti- gung). In his lectures of 1904/1905, the third main piece of which on ‘‘Phantasy and Image Consciousness’’ makes up Text No. 1 of Phantasy, Image Consciousness, and Memory, Husserl says: E. Marbach (&) Institut für Philosophie, Universität Bern, Länggassstrasse 49a, Bern 9, Switzerland e-mail: eduard.marbach@philo.unibe.ch 123 Husserl Stud (2012) 28:225–237 DOI 10.1007/s10743-012-9110-9 Everyone knows what it means to re-present an object to oneself, to bring it forward in an internal image, to make it hover before one. Everyone uses the expression ‘‘to imagine’’ [einbilden], and thus knows to some extent what is essential to the case. But only implicitly, I am sorry to say (Hua XXIII, p. 17/18). The point of the texts in the volume of Edmund Husserl’s Collected Works1 here reviewed is primarily to clarify, by way of reflective analyses of consciousness, diverse phenomena of re-presenting (Vergegenwärtigen) as against perceiving.2 In a wide usage of the term, Husserl often understands phantasy (memory included) quite generally as ‘‘consciousness characterized as re-presentation (Vergegenwärti- gung)’’ (Hua X, p. 45/47); he also says: Consciousness of what is not present [Nichtgegenwärtigkeits-Bewusstsein] belongs to the essence of phantasy. We live in a present; we have a perceptual field of regard. In addition, however, we have appearances that present something not present lying entirely outside this field of regard (Hua XXIII, p. 58f./63). The texts in Phantasy, Image Consciousness, and Memory pertain to a topic that had been central for Husserl from early on, namely to elaborate for given species of experiences the typically phenomenological definition of essentially different modes of consciousness, that is, of the intentional relation to something objective. More precisely, in the texts of this volume it is a matter of determining within the class of presentations (Vorstellungen)—in contrast to the classes of judgments and emotions—the specifically different characters of the intention of the intuitive (anschauliche) presentations in contrast to conceptual (begriffliche) presentations. One of the chief tasks for the analysis of the domain of intuitive mental acts consists in setting off the diverse forms of intuitive re-presentations (anschauliche Vergegenwärtigungen)—perhaps better ‘‘representifications’’—from the basic form of intuitive consciousness, namely, perception or presentification (Gegenwärti- gung), by bringing into relief the intentional characteristics of these various forms. It is generally characteristic of intuitive presentations that in them an object appears (erscheint), and this is either the presented object itself (selbst) or an image (Bild) of the latter. This stands in contrast to the consciousness of signification (Bedeutungsbewusstsein), in which an object or a state of affairs is meant or signified (gemeint), without having to appear. It can only be mentioned here that for Husserl all these investigations into the forms of intuitive and conceptual or significational presentations stand in a foundational connection. It was Husserl’s view from early on that the higher-level conceptual and categorial acts of meaning, signification and judgment, in which cognition comes to pregnant expression, are founded in the sensuous, intuitive acts of perception and their modifications. The 1 Originally published from the handwritten, mostly shorthand Nachlass in German as Hua XXIII. Throughout this review, references to this volume and its translation will be given as Hua XXIII followed first by the German pagination and then the English pagination, separated by a slash. 2 Parts of the text of this review are taken over and translated into English from my ,,Einleitung des Herausgebers‘‘ in Hua XXIII and from my ,,Einleitung‘‘ to Husserl (2006). 226 Husserl Stud (2012) 28:225–237 123 analysis of these intuitive acts and their intellective structuring is crucially involved in Husserl’s studies on the theory of meaning and judgment. 3 In his philosophical phenomenology, as is well known, Husserl argued that prior to all causal-explanatory, psychological, and (increasingly nowadays) cognitive and affective neuroscientific investigations of our experiential life and actions, the phenomena themselves as they occur in our conscious life are to be subjected to a differential analysis. This is the task of ‘‘a description not at all appreciated for its true importance and difficulty’’ (Hua XXIII, p. 13/12). Time and again Husserl stressed the difficulties and peculiarities of the reflective descriptive analysis required for doing phenomenology. Descriptively he attempted step-by-step to define the conceptual nature of conscious experiences of distinct kinds on the basis of those inner characteristics that give rise to essential generalizations and thus to concept formations. In Phantasy, Image Consciousness, and Memory, for example, when he starts examining the—at first glance plausible—‘‘notion that phantasy presentation can be interpreted as image presentation’’ in his lectures of 1904/1905 (Hua XXIII, Nr. 1, §8, note 1, p. 16/note 2, p. 18), he points out: To begin with, we compare as far as possible the two sorts of imaginings and seek to make clear to ourselves the common element in image presentation. We want to begin gradually and with the greatest possible caution. For as easy as the analysis at first appears, the difficulties that subsequently come to light and gradually require many modifications in what we earlier accepted and many new distinctions in what we earlier took to be simple are just as great (Hua XXIII, p. 17f./19). And Husserl immediately adds the following general remark: Indeed, this is universally the peculiarity of phenomenological analysis. Every step forward yields new points of view from which what we have already discovered appears in a new light, so that often enough what we were originally able to take as simple and undivided presents itself as complex and full of distinctions (Hua XXIII, p. 18/19). It is a philosophically most intriguing and absorbing experience (though no doubt at times a quite frustrating one), when dealing with the shorthand manuscripts from Husserl’s Nachlass, that we as readers are able to attend to creative thinking and writing processes in unadorned form, to clarifications gradually reached, but also to their failures and aporias. In a letter of October 1904 to his teacher Franz Brentano, Husserl wrote: I am certain in advance that a large part of what I have written is erroneous; but equally certain that there were errors that had once to be tried out, once to be ventured. We will not find definite truth in the foundations without having seriously thought through all possibilities. But only he thinks through a possibility wholly seriously who believes in it (quoted in Hua XXIII, p. lii). 3 See, e.g., Hua XL, especially Sect. B. Urteil und Vorstellung, p. 249ff. and Sect. D. Urteil und Anschauung bzw. Wahrnehmung, p. 353ff. Also Husserl (1954). Husserl Stud (2012) 28:225–237 227 123 Such a putting to the test of possibilities is typical of Husserl’s ‘‘analytic phenomenology’’ (Hua XIX/1, p. 17) and it is also very much at work in Phantasy, Image Consciousness, and Memory. Both understanding and evaluating the argumentation in these texts require a high degree of reconstructive thinking. In the course of this enactment it is not only a matter of checking the logical consequences among the statements. In order to assess their veracity it is also necessary that one perform for oneself reflective observation of the objects of phenomenological analyses, that is, of the phenomena of consciousness with which the statements are concerned and which are exemplified by means of suitable instances. John B. Brough’s admirable translation into English of all of Husserl’s texts and appendices of the German edition of Husserliana XXIII is a most generous gift to the philosophical community worldwide. The translation is also valuable to readers able to understand the German originals. Judging from this reviewer’s case, it can indeed be an illuminating experience for a native German speaker somewhat familiar with Husserl’s often highly convoluted texts to reacquaint himself or herself with Husserl’s exploratory thinking when it is made available in such a well- considered translation. Brough had already produced a highly acclaimed translation into English of Husserl’s demanding texts On the Phenomenology of the Consciousness of Internal Time (1893–1917), first published 1990 as volume IV in Edmund Husserl. Collected Works, and accompanied it with a very informative and philosophically challenging introduction. His Husserl expertise, already evident there, is borne out again in Brough’s new translation and in his impressive ‘‘Translator’s Introduction’’ to Phantasy, Image Consciousness, and Memory, in which he discusses a number of issues also addressed below. Far beyond the narrow circle of Husserl scholars, students of the philosophically closely related topics treated in Husserl’s texts should count themselves lucky to have them made available in such excellent translation. I cannot help but wonder what, for example, Colin McGinn’s fine study, Mindsight. Image, Dream, Meaning (2004), might have become if the author had already known of Brough’s translation, published one year later. Perhaps it would have prompted McGinn to draw on Husserl’s analyses and include him among the ‘‘philosophers as diverse as Sartre, Wittgenstein, and Collingwood’’ who, ‘‘in the twentieth century […] paid extensive attention to imagination’’ (McGinn 2004, p. 1)! In the ‘‘Einleitung des Herausgebers’’ to Hua XXIII I provided an account of the history of Husserl’s texts in the volume, of the historical origin of the phenomenology of intuitions (Anschauungen), and in particular of the development of problems in Husserl’s phenomenology of intuitive re-presentations (representif- ications) (Hua XXIII, pp. xxv–lxxxi). Within the limits of the present review, let me seize the opportunity of singling out two problem areas which, even after more than thirty years, strike me as being among Husserl’s philosophically most interesting contributions to consciousness studies, the analytical subtlety of which can be gathered from this collection of texts. With an eye on Husserl’s development after his lectures on phantasy and image consciousness of 1904/1905, it is indeed very intriguing to see that some of the main results with which Husserl seemed to be happy at the end of the lectures were quite 228 Husserl Stud (2012) 28:225–237 123 radically put into question by himself shortly afterwards and were gradually and substantially refined in later texts included in Phantasy, Image Consciousness, and Memory. The analytical distinction between two forms of presentation—phantasy and image consciousness—provides, I think, a lasting gain of insight into the phenomenological situation, undercutting the initially assumed parallelism of phantasy and image consciousness which took them both to be an image presentation (Bildlichkeitsvorstellung). This is not the case, however, either (1) with regard to the determination of the phantasy presentation in itself and as such, or (2) with regard to the determination of the image presentation in itself and as such. Regarding (1), the phenomenology of phantasy: Towards the end of his analysis in 1904/1905, after decisively arguing in favor of ‘‘the essential distinction between imagination (Imagination) in the proper sense (perceptual imagination), and imagination understood as phantasy (Phantasie)’’ (Hua XXIII, Chap. 8, p. 82ff/ 89ff.), Husserl concludes: ‘‘The phantasy appearance, the simple phantasy appearance unencumbered by any imaging built on it, relates to its object just as straightforwardly [einfältig] as perception does’’ (Hua XXIII, p. 85/92). And especially first with regard to ‘‘clear, perfectly adequate phantasies’’ or memories— that is, ‘‘without troubling ourselves about obscure phantasies’’—he added: Now it is true of clear phantasies that a pure re-presentational consciousness [reines Vergegenwärtigungsbewusstsein] is brought about in them on the/basis of phantasms and the apprehension objectivating the phantasms. Objectivating the phantasms does not constitute, in advance, an image object that hovers before one and even appears as present; on the contrary, what appears is immediately something that is not present4 […]. In itself […] the phantasy presentation [Phantasievorstellung] does not contain a manifold intention [keine mehrfältige Intention], re-presentation is an ultimate mode of intuitive objectivation [Vergegenwärtigung ist ein letzter Modus intuitiver Vorstel- lung], just like perceptual objectivation [Wahrnehmungsvorstellung], just like presentation [Gegenwärtigung] (Hua XXIII, p. 85f./92f.—emphasis partly mine). However, precisely this result will be reversed by Husserl just a few years later. On the basis of a deeper analysis of the phenomena, taking into account internal time- consciousness, he will elaborate a radically new description of the intentional structure of phantasy as consciousness of re-presentation, with the help of the concept of reproductive modification of experiences. The texts grouped in No. 2, ‘‘From the theory of representation [Repräsentation] in phantasy and memory to the introduction of the doctrine of reproduction or double re-presentation [doppelte Vergegenwärtigung],’’ together with the texts No. 3 through No. 13 and the corresponding appendices, all written between about 1904 up to about 1912 (Hua XXIII, pp. 170–300/207–361), permit us to see into Husserl’s search for a more differentiated analysis of pure re-presentational consciousness. The new analysis is then clearly brought to bear in research manuscripts from 1911 and 1912, published 4 Translation slightly amended from ‘‘what immediately appears is something that is not present’’ (p. 93); the German text reads: ‘‘das Erscheinende ist unmittelbar das Nichtgegenwärtige’’ (p. 86). Husserl Stud (2012) 28:225–237 229 123 in the volume as Nos. 14, 15 and 16 and corresponding appendices (Hua XXIII, pp. 301–485/363–579). To illustrate this achievement of clarification in Husserl’s analyses of the consciousness of re-presentation, consider for example the following passages: ‘‘Hence we must say: Every experience admits of a fundamental modification. It is called the reproductive modification, and in relation to it the unmodified experience itself is called impressional experience’’ (Hua XXIII, p. 330/402), explicated in a note thus: Internal consciousness is impression in relation to every experience: every experience is impressional. Every reproductive modification is the reproduc- tion of an internally ‘‘impressionally conscious’’ experience; the reproduction itself is impressionally conscious (Hua XXIII, p. 330, note 3/p. 402, note 4). 5 This new description is based on analyses of internal time-consciousness, which Husserl began to study seriously in the last part of the lectures of 1904/1905. At the outset of this part, after referring to ‘‘the most peculiar difficulties, contradictions, and confusions’’ in which one gets entangled as soon as one attempts to give an account of time-consciousness, Husserl had pointed to ‘‘the most intimate connection’’ between the intuitive acts of perception, imagination, memory, and image consciousness, which had been dealt with in the previous parts of the lectures, explaining in this deleted passage that it is obvious that an analysis of the consciousness of perception, the consciousness of phantasy, memory, expectation is not accomplished as long as temporality [Zeitlichkeit] is not also included in the analysis, and that conversely an analysis of time-consciousness presupposes to a large extent that of the said acts (Hua X, editorial supplement, p. 394). If not at once, then in the course of only a few years, when he turned to the ‘‘clarification of diverse basic kinds of the modification as well as of all kinds of ‘re-presentation’,’’ Husserl elaborated an ever more refined insight into the ‘‘most remarkable intentionality of the ‘modifications’.’’ 6 The main result clearly contradicts the finding from 1904/1905 where Husserl had stated that ‘‘in itself’’ (an sich selbst), phantasy does not contain ‘‘a manifold intention’’ (keine mehrfältige Intention). A few years later, in contrast, Husserl was able to pinpoint the description of the re-presentational modification, which he came to see as itself ‘‘an event belonging to internal consciousness’’ (Hua X, p. 368/379) or to time- consciousness as follows: […] every ‘modification’\is[characterized thus that in it itself the relation to another consciousness is contained of which it is called modification, a 5 Translation partly amended from ‘‘is the reproduction of an experience of which there is ‘impressional consciousness’ internally; there is impressional consciousness of the reproduction itself’’ (p. 402, note 4). The German text reads: ‘‘ist Reproduktion eines innerlich ‘impressiv bewussten’ Erlebnisses, die Reproduktion selbst ist impressiv bewusst’’ (p. 330, note 3). 6 Quoted in Hua XXIII, p. lxiii; see also p. lxx. Subsequently the entire manuscript from 1917/1918 was published in Hua XXXIII, Text Nr. 9. The quote is found there on p. 176. 230 Husserl Stud (2012) 28:225–237 123 consciousness, which is not really contained in it and yet is graspable for a suitably directed reflection. […] And with it are then still connected specific reflections on the corresponding act-correlates. 7 Henceforth, what Husserl will emphasize in his analyses of the main types of re-presentational acts is their ‘‘wondrously interwoven intentionality’’ (wundersam ineinandergeflochtene Intentionalität; see Hua VIII, p. 128; emphasis partly mine). A remarkably two-sided version of this subtle result is already described in a text from 1911 or 1912 with regard to the example of memory, which is included in Husserl’s wide concept of phantasy as re-presentation. On the one side: Memory is a reproductive modification of perception, but it has the remarkable peculiarity that it is also re-presentation of perception and not simply re-presentation of what was perceived. I remember lunch. ‘‘Implicit’’ in this memory, however, is also memory of the perception of lunch (irrespective of the direction of my act of meaning) (Hua XXIII, no. 14, p. 305f./367; emphasis mine). And on the other side, a little later in the same text: The external perception is perception. And if the modification of the perception is then a corresponding memory, we have the remarkable circumstance that the corresponding memory is not only memory of the perception but that the modification of the perception is also memory of what was perceived (Hua XXIII, p. 308/370; emphasis mine). Texts like these clearly show Husserl’s discovery of the duality (Doppelheit) in the re-presentational consciousness itself and in its intentional relation to something objective, respectively. This duality is involved in the essence of the reproduction as reproduction of an impression, and it requires a double-sided reflective description, directed (a) at the re-presented object (e.g., lunch) and (b) at the re-presented— namely reproductively modified or intentionally implied—perception, i.e., the experience that is ‘‘contained’’ in a re-presentational act. Moreover, Husserl recognizes that description of the ‘‘modes of reproduction’’ must also take into account the phenomena of position takings (Stellungnahmen), cognitive acts that are expressed in judgments as well as affective position takings, aesthetic evaluations, etc. Such phenomena reach beyond the domain of the intuitive re-presentations belonging to phantasy, image consciousness and memory and lead into the domain of the theory of judgment, of ‘‘suppositions’’ (Ansätze) and modifications of merely thinking-of. All these developments and descriptive refinements are based on the theory of the reproductive modification or the intentional implication of consciousness and confirm the general point that what, in phenomenological analysis, could originally be taken ‘‘as simple and undivided presents itself as complex and full of distinctions.’’ Regarding (2), the phenomenology of image consciousness: In approaching this topic—to which, as Brough also observes in his ‘‘Translator’s Introduction,’’ ‘‘some 7 See note 6. The quote is from Hua XXIII, p. lxx, or Hua XXXIII, p. 176; emphasis mine. Husserl Stud (2012) 28:225–237 231 123 of Husserl’s most fascinating and cogent analyses are devoted’’ (p. xliv)—it strikes me as particularly important to emphasize that the seemingly achieved clarity in the analysis of ordinary image consciousness in the lectures of 1904/1905 is repeatedly put into question in later texts. In the course of the lectures, ‘‘intent on distinguishing between phantasy presentation and ordinary image presentation,’’ Husserl confidently states: ‘‘Image presentation became perfectly clear to us’’ (Hua XXIII, p. 54/59, emphasis mine). For he once more insists that: One thing is indeed clear from the beginning: The ‘‘image’’ in the case of physical imaging—that is, the image object—is a figment, a perceptual object but also a semblance object. It appears in the way in which an actual physical thing appears, but in conflict with the actual present that conflict-free perception brings about. Now this figment, or rather this fiction consciousness, is permeated with representational consciousness [Bewusstsein der Repräsen- tation]. Hence imaginative consciousness arises here. And it arises in the new conflict between the figment and what is imagined (Hua XXIII, p. 54, similarly p. 79/59 and 85f.). The really moot point in Husserl’s analyses of image consciousness concerns the mode of givenness of the image object. When he, in his early investigations, says things to the effect that ‘‘the image object appears in the midst of perceptual reality and claims, as it were, to have objective reality in its midst’’ (Hua XXIII, p. 47f./51), or when he describes this way of givenness as ‘‘an image object appearing as present […] an object that deports itself as a member of the objectivity of one’s field of regard’’ (Hua XXIII, p. 83/90), or as ‘‘a figment, a perceptual object but also a semblance object’’ (Hua XXIII, p. 54/59), then at least at first glance it may look as if Husserl argued that imaging (Bildlichkeit) were at bottom constituted as consciousness of a figment in the sense of an illusion—as if, conflicting with other perceptual positings at the level of perception, the image figment (Bildfiktum) turned out to be a mere semblance, ‘‘a nothing’’ (Hua XXIII, p. 46/50), though still as a presently appearing perceptual object, analogously to a ‘‘sensuous semblance’’ (Hua XXIII, p. 32/33). Contrary to such a view that lets image consciousness appear to be a matter of sensuous perception and conflicts among perceptual positings alone, there are, however, several passages already in the lectures of 1904/1905, where Husserl clearly argues that for image consciousness to come about, a consciousness of re- presentation (Vergegenwärtigungsbewusstsein) is fundamental, thanks to which the relation to the image subject is constituted. Thus, for example, with regard to ordinary image consciousness: If the conscious relation to something depicted is not given with the image, then we certainly do not have an image. This conscious relation, however, is given through that specific consciousness belonging to the re-presentation of what does not appear in what does appear […] If two objectivating apprehensions were not interwoven with one another, it would be a miracle, or nonsense, how a consciousness of this kind is possible, since only the image and certainly not the subject falls into the appearance. The making intuitive in 232 Husserl Stud (2012) 28:225–237 123 the image, which in the image-appearing possesses the consciousness of the image subject, is not an arbitrary characteristic that adheres to the image. Rather, the intuition of the image object awakens precisely a new conscious- ness, a presentation of a new object […/…] Yet this new presentation does not lie next to the presentation of the image object either; on the contrary, it coincides with it, permeates it, and in this permeation gives it the characteristic of the image object (Hua XXIII, p. 31/32f., emphasis partly mine). Here and elsewhere in the early lectures, Husserl emphasizes that ‘‘phantasy consciousness,’’ i.e., consciousness of re-presentation, ‘‘makes up the most essential moment even in common imaging’’ (Hua XXIII, p. 87/93f.). This consciousness of re-presentation or phantasy, in contrast to ‘‘the pure and simple phantasy function’’ (p. 94, line 35—reading ‘‘phantasy function’’ instead of ‘‘phantasy object’’), ‘‘is, however, permeated with a presentational consciousness’’ (Hua XXIII, p. 86/93), and this permeation bestows in effect the ‘‘characteristic of unreality’’ (Un- wirklichkeit) (Hua XXIII, p. 47/51), i.e., the ‘‘characteristic of the image object’’ (Hua XXIII, p. 31/33) upon that which perceptually appears, however not the characteristic of an annulled and illusory semblance object. That the consciousness of semblance or of unreality in the case of an image can indeed not be understood as a figment consciousness in the sense of an illusion is made even clearer in later texts from about 1912 (Hua XXIII, Nr. 17, p. 486ff./No. 17, 581ff.). Husserl now explains that the characteristic of unreality in the case of an image rests on the circumstance that something is projected into reality from phantasy (hineinphantasiert), something that is not at all given in the immediately, perceptually appearing present. The image does not genuinely ‘‘‘appear’’’ in the unity of reality, ‘‘but in its own space, which in itself has no direct relation to real space’’ (Hua XXIII, p. 480/570). The image figment does appear ‘‘without having the characteristic of reality, without ‘laying claim’ to reality, a claim that would first have to be cancelled’’ (Hua XXIII, p. 480/571—reading ‘‘first’’ instead of ‘‘only’’). As Husserl describes it in the present context, the difference between phantasy and image consciousness consists only in the fact that the ‘‘phantasy image’’ is a reproductive image, the seen image a perceptual [perzeptives] image. Both are cases of imagination. This must never be forgotten and is absolutely certain. I was entirely correct when I sought again and again to take image apprehension as imagining [Imagination]. It is imagining. The image turns into something null only through a connection with reality. As soon as I take it in this connection (or take it as having this connection; for example, take the image subject, where the frame begins, in spatial relation to real space, and so on)—as soon as I thus suppose it—it turns into something null (Hua XXIII, p. 480/570). As already hinted, the truly puzzling and at the same time philosophically particularly challenging aspect of Husserl’s analysis of image consciousness, variably pursued over many years, concerns his wavering views of the mode of givenness (Gegebenheitsweise) of the image object. It is an elating experience to Husserl Stud (2012) 28:225–237 233 123 think through all the nuances of the relevant texts in Brough’s excellent translation. Not only in the early texts, but still, for example, in No. 18, probably from 1918, Husserl presents the situation as if the image object were a perceptual givenness which stands there ‘‘as present actuality.’’ But ‘‘this present and this actuality,’’ he then remarks, is ‘‘just actuality as if,’’ adding ‘‘the image only hovers before us perceptually’’ (Hua XXIII, No. 18, p. 506/607). And in No. 20, written in the first half of the nineteen-twenties, where Husserl discusses the concept of phantasy in relation to the universal concept of neutrality and ‘‘mere presentation,’’ with brief references to Aristotle, Hume, and Brentano, as well as to his own Logical Investigations (1901) and Ideas (1913), there is this passage: ‘‘Mere’’ phantasy signifies, then, that no ‘‘actual’’ [‘‘wirklicher’’] performing of an act takes place—‘‘mere presentation’’. But matters no doubt become more complicated in the case of the ‘‘image object’’, which, appearing as present ‘‘in person’’ [leibhaftig], can nevertheless also be designated as ‘‘fiction’’, though one must no longer speak of a re-presentation [Verge- genwärtigung] in this case. Indeed, it is presentation [Präsentation]. Here, too, the ‘‘positing’’, the believing in something [das In-Geltung-Haben], is ‘‘missing’’ (Hua XXIII, No. 20, p. 575/693; see also No. 20, p. 580/697f.). Then again, in No. 16, probably from spring 1912, Husserl notes with regard to image consciousness: Must we not say: ‘‘Exhibiting’’ [‘‘Darstellung’’] belongs to the essence of image consciousness; image consciousness is not simply perceptual con- sciousness and, in any event, not a perceptual consciousness that is combined additionally with a reproductive consciousness (namely, a phantasy con- sciousness)? That is not correct (Hua XXIII, p. 471/560). 8 Starting the analysis anew, Husserl continues: Image consciousness has implicated in it ‘‘sensation contents’’ that one can find in it, that one can grasp in it, and doubtlessly it has this in common with perceptual consciousness. However, if we focus our attention strictly on the image appearances in which these trees, these human beings, and so on, appear as image trees, image human beings, we find, as we do in the case of reproductive phantasy, that the appearances are obviously not merely perceiving appearances. On the contrary, they are imagining appearances: that is to say, the sensation content in the appearance exhibits something, and the appearance itself exhibits appearance. The apprehension is not simply apprehension, but the exhibiting of apprehension (Hua XXIII, No. 16, p. 471f./560f.). Pondering upon several other possibilities of understanding the status of the image object in image consciousness in the same text, Husserl also offers the following 8 The translator’s note is to the point when he observes that ‘‘Husserl seems to mean here that it would not be correct to say that image consciousness is simply perceptual consciousness, etc.’’ (p. 560, note 6). 234 Husserl Stud (2012) 28:225–237 123 self-criticism of his former view developed in the lectures of 1904/1905, noting that ‘‘these are important [folgenschwere] questions’’: The distinctions I have been studying here, though perhaps I have not yet given them a perfectly accurate interpretation, ought not to confuse us. We can understand by image object the actually perceived […] object as opposed to the object exhibited. If we look more closely, however, we have distinctions in connection with images. My example of Raphael’s theological painting 9 : The little grey cherubs, the small female figure—I called these little figures image objects. What is exhibited, the subject, is the form of a sublime woman, and so on. If we look more closely, however, the following view offers itself: The little figures are indeed exhibited objects (Hua XXIII, p. 473/562). 10 All of these considerations result in a number of conceptual clarifications in the text from 1912: In summary, therefore: (1) We must separate the apprehension of an image object and the consciousness of a perceptual illusion \inserted later: ‘‘(something null)’’[. The former is nonpositing, the latter positing. (2) In union with the image-object apprehension we have the exhibiting (Darstellung). […] Now exhibiting as exhibiting has certain things in common with reproduction \i.e. with re-presentation[, […] (5) […] namely, precisely the fact that we have in every component of the exhibiting (of the genuine exhibiting) a reference to ‘‘something corresponding’’ (Hua XXIII, p. 474f./563ff.). In concluding his many reflections about modes of reproduction, phantasy, image consciousness with simultaneous consideration of the phenomena of position-taking and abstaining from it in the texts no. 15 and no. 16 and the related appendices, Husserl emphasizes: We must therefore universalize the concept of phantasy (let us say, the concept of re-presentation). There are two fundamental forms of re-presentation: (1) reproductive re-presentation; (2) perceptual re-presentation, that is, re-presentation in image, in pictorial exhibiting. Since reproductive modifications correspond to every experience, the perceptual re-presentation then also enters into reproductive re-presenta- tion, there arises pictorializing re-presentation in the phantasy re-presentation (or in memory). 11 9 See Text No. 1, §21, p. 47: ‘‘For example, if I contemplate the picture of Raphael’s theological subject hanging above my desk […].’’ Husserl writes ‘‘Bild der Raffaelschen Theologie’’ (Hua XXIII, p. 44), referring to Raphael’s painting ‘‘Theologia’’. 10 ‘‘Exhibited’’ in the last sentence was somewhat later changed to ‘‘merely presented’’ (bloss vorgestellte), to be understood as re-presented (vergegenwärtigt) (ibid.). 11 Translation partly amended: ‘‘enters into’’ instead of ‘‘passes into,’’ and ‘‘there arises’’ instead of ‘‘grows into.’’ Both changes seem to me better to convey Husserl’s point, namely that perceptual re- presentation, i.e. image consciousness, can also be reproductively modified, yielding a more complex reproductive re-presentation of a perceptual re-presentation—for example, a phantasy or a memory re- presentation of a re-presentation in image, as in everyday cases of phantasying of seeing, or remembering of having seen, a picture. Husserl Stud (2012) 28:225–237 235 123 One must separate these modifications from those that convert positing into nonpositing. (Intersection of the two kinds of distinction.) Furthermore, one must not confuse nonpositing perceptions with experiences that exhibit something in an image: with re-presentation, therefore (Hua XXIII, p. 475f./ 565). To round off the review of John B. Brough’s translation, permit me to propose a more unified English terminology for some of the basic German terms in Husserl’s writings on the topics at hand. The German term ‘‘Vorstellung’’ is notoriously ambiguous, as is no doubt ‘‘representation’’ in English. Unlike what I myself have practised in Marbach (1993) and elsewhere—for example, in the Encyclopedia of Phenomenology (Embree et al. 1997, p. 603ff.), under the heading ‘‘re-presenta- tion,’’ and unlike the translator of the volume under review, I would now like to suggest, taking a clue from Nicolas de Warren’s recent paper ‘‘Tamino’s Eyes, Pamina’s Gaze’’ (2010), the following terminology as perhaps the least confusing: Vorstellung, vorstellen presentation, to present Gegenwärtigung, gegenwärtigen presentification, to presentify (NdW) Vergegenwärtigung, vergegenwärtigen representification, to representify (NdW) Darstellung, darstellen representation, to represent Phantasie phantasy or imagination As I presently see it, this would take care quite elegantly of the various semantic nuances and one could even avoid hyphens, which disappear in any case all too often when a word has to be separated. To be sure, I am fully aware of the practical difficulties of making such a proposal universally acceptable. And let us not forget that terminology is just terminology; the most important thing is conceptual lucidity, and Brough’s translation of Husserl’s terminologically often bewildering texts testify to his masterly handling of them at the conceptual, properly philosophical, level. References De Warren, N. (2010). Tamino’s eyes, Pamina’s gaze. In C. Ierna, H. Jacobs, & F. Mattens (Eds.), Philosophy, phenomenology, sciences, Phaenomenologica 200 (pp. 303–332). Dordrecht: Springer. Embree, L., et al. (Eds.). (1997). Encyclopedia of phenomenology. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Hua VIII. Husserl, E. (1959). Erste Philosophie (1923/24). Zweiter Teil: Theorie der phänomenologischen Reduktion. R. Boehm (Ed.). Den Haag: Martinus Nijhoff. Hua X. Husserl, E. (1966). Zur Phänomenologie des inneren Zeitbewusstseins (1893–1917). R. Boehm (Ed.). Den Haag: Martinus Nijhoff; On the phenomenology of the consciousness of internal time (1893–1917). J. Brough (Trans.). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1991. Hua XIX/1. Husserl, E. (1984). Logische Untersuchungen. Zweiter Band, Erster Teil. Untersuchungen zur Phänomenologie und Theorie der Erkenntnis. U. Panzer (Ed.). The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. Hua XXIII. Husserl, E. (1980). Phantasie, Bildbewusstsein, Erinnerung. Zur Phänomenologie der anschaulichen Vergegenwärtigungen. Texte aus dem Nachlass (1898–1925). E. Marbach (Ed.). The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. 236 Husserl Stud (2012) 28:225–237 123 Hua XXXIII. Husserl, E. (2001). Die Bernauer Manuskripte über das Zeitbewusstsein (1917/1918). R. Bernet and D. Lohmar (Eds.). The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. Hua XL. Husserl, E. (2009). Untersuchungen zur Urteilstheorie. Texte aus dem Nachlass (1893–1918). R. D. Rollinger (Ed.). Dordrecht: Springer. Husserl, E. (1954). Erfahrung und Urteil: Untersuchungen zur Genealogie der Logik. L. Landgrebe (Ed.). Hamburg: Felix Meiner Verlag; Experience and judgment: Investigations in a genealogy of logic. J. S. Churchill and K. Ameriks (Trans.). Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1973. Husserl, E. (2006). Phantasie und Bildbewusstsein, Studienausgabe. Text nach Husserliana Band XXIII. E. Marbach (Ed.). Philosophische Bibliothek Band 576. Hamburg: Felix Meiner Verlag. Marbach, E. (1993). Mental representation and consciousness. Towards a phenomenological theory of representation and reference. Dordrecht: Kluwer. McGinn, C. (2004). Mindsight. Image, dream, meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Husserl Stud (2012) 28:225–237 237 123 Edmund Husserl: Phantasy, Image Consciousness, and Memory (1898--1925) Translated by John B. Brough (Edmund Husserl, Collected Works, vol. XI), Dordrecht: Springer, 2005, 723 pp, ISBN-101-4020-2641-2 (HB) References 
work_obhrl5imujapbncbg2rmdsqucu	----	10.11648.j.ajad.20200501.12 American Journal of Art and Design 2020; 5(1): 12-16 http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ajad doi: 10.11648/j.ajad.20200501.12 ISSN: 2578-7799 (Print); ISSN: 2578-7802 (Online) Senate House, University of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria: An Architectural Critique Oluwadamilola Ajoke Alabi Department of Architecture, Bells University of Technology, Ota, Nigeria Email address: To cite this article: Oluwadamilola Ajoke Alabi. Senate House, University of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria: An Architectural Critique. American Journal of Art and Design. Vol. 5, No. 1, 2020, pp. 12-16. doi: 10.11648/j.ajad.20200501.12 Received: April 24, 2020; Accepted: May 18, 2020; Published: June 17, 2020 Abstract: This study is an architecture critique using graphics and verse to provide an understand of the architecture of the senate building of University of Lagos in order to logically create an awareness of the intensity and extent of the feelings created by building. It was designed by James Cubitt Architects and was completed in 1986. The study gives a description of the building’s concept, features and environments. An analysis of the conceptual elements was made and these elements are wall, platform, columns and facades. Also, studies of the effects of modifying elements of light, colour, temperature and ventilation, sound, texture, and time were made. The approach used to carry out the study is architectural criticism using the principles discussed in ‘Analysing Architecture’, a book by Simon Unwin. Findings from the study revealed that the architecture of Senate House was iconic and modern with attractive expressions of the African culture. This was generated in line with the design firm’s philosophy and the client’s brief. Also, the beauty of the building is enhanced by the varying heights and forms making it a likely inspiration to tertiary institutions seeking the use of timeless and impressionable architecture which would interpret intellectual desires and values of their citadels of learning. Keywords: Architecture, Criticism, Descriptive Criticism, Senate, University of Lagos 1. Introduction Sparse studies have been carried out to study the architecture of buildings in Nigeria. Hence, the understanding of these works of architecture is not deep. Studies on architecture in Nigeria can be carried out through architectural criticism so as to elicit deeper understanding of them. Architecture criticism can be carried out using ten different methods which can be classified into three fundamental groups [1, 2]. These groups are narrative, interpretive and descriptive evaluation. The use of descriptive criticism helps to create an understanding of work of architecture (upon experiencing it) by making use of facts [3]. Descriptive criticism can be carried out through the depictive evaluation method where static and dynamic descriptions of these buildings’ form and structure using images and words are used. Works of architecture carried out in Nigeria are growing in number. An understanding of these works is very important as these pieces are potential sources of design inspiration to architecture designers who experience them. Unfortunately, few studies exist that are directed towards assisting with the creation/establishment of an understanding of architecture in Nigeria. This study picks up an iconic symbol of the University of Lagos, Akoka and presents an in-depth descriptive criticism making use of the depictive evaluation method. It is hoped that this critique will provide a clearer picture of a symbolic work of architecture in Nigeria which defines a place. 2. Background The senate building of the University of Lagos, Akoka in Lagos State, Nigeria, was designed by the Nigerian based British practice James Cubitt Architects and construction was completed in 1986. The site was originally a busy thoroughfare and the architect had the challenge of creating the impression of not robbing the community of an important route. A second test faced by the designer was the need to create a large, imposing and unique corporate head office which would not make the vicinity look congested but livened and light. These demands were however welcomed by the architectural practice as their American Journal of Art and Design 2020; 5(1): 12-16 13 self-acclaimed strength lies in the ability to ‘translate every brief into simple, precise, yet bold forms, with a commitment to social and environmental responsibility’ [4]. To achieve the client’s brief, Messrs James Cubitt settled on adopting principles of modern architecture which was just awakening in Nigeria at the time and infusing it with touches of African elements thus creating a pleasing, aesthetically appealing and functional cocktail of architecture. Tenets of modern architecture adopted were the flat roof, raised platform, clean lines and horizontality. African elements infused were the cylindrical form and patterns created with the façade and mosaic tiles. Figure 1. The University of Lagos' 'seat of power' [5]. 3. Method The study is a case with which observation technique was employed. The building was experienced by the researcher and images of the building were taken in order to express observations. To provide an understanding, architectural criticism was logically carried out using the depictive evaluation method. Various guides exist, however, the principles expressed by [6] were used. 4. Finding 4.1. Intellectual Structure The building is located at a vantage and central focal point on the University of Lagos main campus. It is surrounded by the Social Science Faculty, newly constructed Art Gallery, Old Senate Chambers, Akintunde Ojo Memorial Library and the Main Auditorium. There is a ‘one way’ street flowing past the rear of the building (which had originally cut through the building site) while a forecourt (Senate garden) occupies the frontage of the structure. This forecourt is wide and dotted with tall trees encased with concrete seats. It serves not just as a pause for staff and students but also as a pedestrian concourse. Figure 2. Satellite image of Senate House, University of Lagos [7]. The structure’s form is a combination of simple forms consisting of intersecting cuboids piercing a cylinder, the beauty of it which was enhanced with projections of varying heights. The building can be viewed clearly from all sides especially because of the two tallest projections which act as markers. However, physical approach to the structure is mainly from the narrow ends. Figure 3. The Senate House can easily be seen within a 1 kilometre radius [8]. The fundamental purpose of the building was to provide a structure which would portray a corporate image of the university and emphasize the uniqueness of the ‘seat of power’ [8]. It has done this by using its form to pull the eye of all within approximately a kilometre radius to shun other buildings and focus first on its majestic form. 4.2. Conceptual Elements The primary architectural elements of Unilag Senate House are wall, platform, columns and façade [6]. Key functional spaces of the building start from the first floor (platform). Thus, the building uses the piloting system where the ground floor is open and occupied mainly by stairs leading to the first floor and support columns embedded in reception and security stations. The ground undulates with steps synchronizing with the changing levels. The soffit of the platform is approximately 4 meters above the ground floor datum and is textured with a waffle pattern. 14 Oluwadamilola Ajoke Alabi: Senate House, University of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria: An Architectural Critique Figure 4. Note the platform, column arrangement and effect of the facade on building texture [9]. Following the perimeter of the building are bold and undisguised cylindrical columns spaced at equal intervals forming a peristyle [6]. Hanging between the columns from the last floor and terminating at the first-floor datum and following the external walls of the multi-levelled intersecting cuboids, is a lace-like concrete façade. This façade is a weave of evenly spaced vertical and horizontal lines with a seemingly unpredictable configuration which upon a closer study reveals a definite pattern visible only when each elevation is perceived fully. The façade masks the external walls which sit on stanch projections of the floor slab, are non-load bearing and pierced with rows of alternate windows per floor. The uniformity of the building’s exterior is broken by a prominent curved wall located at the eastern corner of the first floor. This forms a cell with a double volume height primarily designed to function as the senate chamber. The wall is slashed with narrow, vertical windows and is capped with a flat and square roof which is supported at all ends and midsections with the same bold cylindrical columns viewed on the rest of the building’s perimeter. 4.3. Modifying Elements 4.3.1. Light Between the hours of 7am and 5pm, natural light is filtered through the windows behind the concrete façade creating a stimulating effect on the administrative staff while sufficiently lighting the offices for basic administrative activities. However, artificial lights become supporting elements. The cell (senate chamber) and corridors rely heavily on artificial light as this form of light is controlled in order to precisely produce the desirable guidance and adequate lighting for the University’s ‘Power Room’. At night, when the internal lights come on, the building looks like a shaded lamp because of the filter pattern created by the external façade. Figure 5. The building lights up like a shaded lamp at night [10]. A welcoming shade from the tropical sun is offered by the trees dotting the concourse at the foreground of the Senate House. This is further complimented by the inviting shade on the ground floor. This lends a feeling of relief which counteracts the intimidating feel built up while approaching the structure. 4.3.2. Colour A most striking feature apart from the imposing size and dramatic façade of Senate House is the beautiful and artistic use of earth-toned colours ranging from cream to deep brown. The colours are used to give the building a strong ethnic African undertone reminiscence of African royalty. Coloured mosaic tiles and textured paint propose to the mind American Journal of Art and Design 2020; 5(1): 12-16 15 a well patterned arrangement of beads and a veil synonymous with veiled African royalty. This is because in most African cultures, the royal class wear identification beads and subjects are forbidden to look directly into their eyes. The creative choice of colours also produces a sense of awe, captures the attention and generates curiosity. Figure 6. The earth toned colors add an ethnic feel to the building's aura [11]. Figure 7. Image of a beaded African [12]. 4.3.3. Temperature and Ventilation The orientation of the building is done such that the longest unbroken face (i.e. rear) easily and fully receives air coming from the north-east. The front face receives air flowing from the south-west. As the impact of the south- west wind is experienced more due to the tropical climatic conditions of Lagos and also because this wind can move at great speeds, a projection at the north end and the grove of trees dotting the concourse breaks and slows down the air, reducing the weathering impact of driving rain carried by this wind. Advantage of natural ventilation through a cooling updraft generated by the air sucked in from the ground floor flowing upwards through the staircases to the upper floors and the use of large windows which admit air is also achieved. The constant flow of natural air cools the building down sufficiently keeping its occupants comfortable. 4.3.4. Sound The building is bombarded with noisy sounds from its front and rear as pedestrians flow the length of the front while vehicles ply the length of its rear on Otunba Payne Drive. To absorb these distracting sounds, the structure is made mostly of concrete and the strategically positioned trees also play a significant role in the absorption of sound, the foliage of trees are excellent sound absorbers [13-15]. This is because their leaves are layered and soft therefore increasing the quality of catching and absorbing sound. Also, tree trunks do not encourage reflection of sound as their surfaces are rough. A moderately dense collection of trees is planted at the senate garden. Palm trees are planted in rows lining the drive leading to and around the senate building. Dense shrubs also line this drive-in formal manner. This vegetation absorbs quite some sound from passing vehicles and pedestrians. 4.3.5. Texture One of the outstanding characteristics of this iconic structure is its texture. Surrounded with structures exhibiting smooth rendered walls and fair-face concrete, the weave of the building’s exterior gives it a character totally different from the others. Seemingly emphatically speaking out loud, “I am different!” This noticeable difference in texture pulls the eye and make the building look more special than those surrounding it. Thus, giving the building a quality of more prestige over the others. 4.3.6. Time The effect of time on the building is synonymous to the quality of aging wine. External appearance of Senate House does not show the damaging effect of time. This is likely due to the choice of colours which hide the presence of settled dust and the mosaic tiles which are self-cleaning requiring minimum maintenance activity. Sadly, the ‘Nigerian’ maintenance culture does not favour frequent maintenance procedures [16] and this self-cleaning character gives the structure a head and shoulders distinction on building quality maintenance with minimal effort. 5. Conclusion In retrospect, the Architects, Messrs James Cubit, did 16 Oluwadamilola Ajoke Alabi: Senate House, University of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria: An Architectural Critique justice to the desires of University of Lagos, by translating their brief into a piece of functional and artistic architecture [6]. Unilag Senate House is a positive iconic image of the university and can stand the test of time in terms of acceptable quality architecture. Hence, the structure should be an inspiration to other tertiary institutions seeking the use of timeless and impressionable architecture to interpret intellectual desires and values of their citadels of learning. References [1] Attoe, W. (1978). Architecture and Criticism. New York: John Wiley & Sons. [2] Ramon, P., & Coyne, R. (2000). The production of Architectural Criticism. Architectural Theory Review. [3] Uji, Z. (1994). Philosophy of the Creative Process in Architecture. Jos: Zuruck Nigeria Limited. [4] JamesCubittArchitects. (2012). James Cubitt Architects. Retrieved January 28, 2016, from http://jamescubitt.com [5] Gadsta. (2016). Gadsta. Retrieved January 2016, from Gadsta Web site: http://www.gadsta.com [6] Unwin, S. (2007). Analysing Architecture. London: Routledge. [7] Googleearth. (2016). Googleearth. Retrieved June 10, 2016, from Googleearth Web site: http://www.Googleearth.com [8] Joephobe. (2012). Joe Phoebe. Retrieved January 28, 2016, from Joe Phoebe Web site: http://www.joephobe.com [9] Skysrapercity. (2016). skysrapercity. Retrieved January 2018, 2016, from Skysrapercity Wbe site: http://www.skysrapercity.com [10] Wordpress. (2016). fullandbright.wordpress. Retrieved January 28, 2016, from Fullandbright Wordpress Web site: http://fullandbright.wordpress.com [11] Awomodu, G. (2016). Wordpress. Retrieved January 28, 2016, from Wordpress Web site: http://gbengaawomodu.wordpress.com [12] Pintrest. (2019). Beaded African. Retrieved January 15, 2020, from Pintrest Web site: http://pintrest.com [13] Coder, K. D. (2011). Identified Benefits of Community Trees & Forestsby - Community Forest Series. Georgia: Warnell. [14] Killicoat, P., Puzio, E., & Stringer, R. (2002). The Econmic Value of Trees in Urban Areas: Estimating the Benefits of Adelaide's Street Trees. Treenet Proceedings of the 3rd National Street Tree Symposium: 5th and 6th September 2002 ISBN 0-9775084-2-0 Treenet Inc- School of Economics and Centre for International Economic Studies (pp. 1-14). Adelaide: University of Adelaide. [15] Landscapingnetwork. (2016). Landscapingnetwork. Retrieved May 15, 2019, from Landscaping Network Web site: https://www.landscapingnetwork.com/landscape-design/noise- reduction.html [16] Tijani, S. A., Adeyemi, A. O., & Omotehinshe, O. J. (2016). Lack of Maintenance Culture in Nigeria: The Bane of National Development. Civil and Environmental Research - IISTE, VIII (8), 23-30. 
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work_ofevyx7se5fj7moaoycit74x5y	----	Büyük Selçuklu Devleti'nde Atabeglik Müessesesi ve İşleyişi The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies International Journal of Social Science Volume 5 Issue 5, p. 247-268, October 2012 EMPRESYONİZM, SİNEMA VE BERGSONCU ZAMAN KAVRAMI: ZAMAN VE MEKÂN ALGILARININ DÖNÜŞÜMÜ IMPRESSIONISM, CINEMA AND BERGSONIAN TIME DEFINITION: TRANSFORMATION OF TIME AND SPACE PERCEPTIONS Yrd. Doç. Dr. Devrim ÖZKAN Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi, Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi Abstract Modernity have changed and transformed all kinds of social and cultural structure, existing up to its birth. Innovations in artistic expression styles are one of the main cultural transformations, being results of modernity. Impressionism is a start for these transformations in artistic expression. Moreover, impressionism has a deep effect on successor art movements. Impressionism has also determined formation of expression styles in visual arts, especially in cinema. In addition, impressionism reflects the effect of relativism, moved a step further with Henri Bergson, in the world of art positively. Thoughts, Bergson developed about reality and time, have a deep effect on the discussions about modern public arts and particularly modern film theories. These thoughts set ground for the belief that visual efficiency of people is not good at understanding the nature of reality as we came across the arts of Jean Epstein, Dziga Vertov and Béla Balázs. These cinema makers, called as visual skeptics, think that weakness of visual efficiency result from abstraction tendency in a way subjects and actions can be understood easily. According to them, reasons for simplification of life world are as follows: abstracting surrounding facts, associating them with previous experiences and accepting them as others experienced. In this sense, relationships between impressionism and expression styles in cinemas are touched upon along with Bergson‟s time concept and its effects on visual arts. Keywords: Impressionism, visual arts, cinema, time, revelationism. Empresyonizm, Sinema ve Bergsoncu Zaman Kavramı: Zaman ve Mekân Algılarının Dönüşümü 248 Öz Modernite kendisine kadar gelmiş olan her türlü sosyal ve kültürel yapıyı değiştirmiş ve dönüştürmüştür. Sanatsal ifade biçimlerinde gerçekleşen yenilikler, modernitenin neden olduğu başlıca kültürel dönüşümlerdendir. Empresyonizm, sanatsal ifade biçimlerinde yaşanan dönüşümlerin başlangıcıdır. Ayrıca empresyonizm kendisinden sonra gelen sanat akımlarını derinden etkilemiştir. Bunun yanı sıra, empresyonizm, sinema başta olmak üzere, görsel sanatlardaki sunum tarzlarının biçimlenişinde belirleyici olmuştur. Henri Bergson ile yeni bir aşama kaydeden rölativizmin sanat dünyasındaki etkisini en iyi biçimde empresyonizm yansıtır. Bergson‟ın gerçeklik ve zaman hakkında geliştirdiği düşünceler çağdaş film teorileri başta olmak üzere modern kitle sanatlarına dair sürdürülen tartışmaları derinden etkilemiştir. Bu düşünceler Jean Epstein, Dziga Vertov ve Béla Balázs‟ın eserlerinde karşımıza çıkan, insani görme gücünün gerçekliğin doğasını kavramakta başarısız olduğu inancına temel oluşturmuştur. Görsel kuşkucular olarak da adlandırılan bu sinemacılar insani görme gücünün zayıflıklarının, nesne ve eylemleri kolayca anlaşılabilecek bir biçimde soyutlama eğiliminde olmasından kaynaklandığını düşünür. Onlara göre insanın kendisini çevreleyen olguları soyutlaması; daha önce deneyimledikleriyle benzeştirmesi ve diğerlerinin deneyimlediklerini olduğu gibi kabul etmesi, yaşam dünyasının (lifeworld) sadeleşmesine neden olur. Bu çerçevede, makalemizde, empresyonizm ile sinemasal ifade biçimleri arasındaki bağlantılar ve Bergsoncu zaman kavramının modern görsel sanatlardaki etkileri ele alınmaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Empresyonizm, görsel sanatlar, sinema, zaman, ifşacılık. Giriş On dokuzuncu yüzyılda bilim batı dünyasında ayrıcalıklı bir yer kazandı. Dünyanın başka bölgelerinde böylesi bir konum elde etmesi düşünülemezdi. Bilimin nesnel bir biçimde bilgiyi ve gerçeği toplumun kullanımına sunmakta olduğuna inanılıyordu. Geliştirmiş olduğu metodolojik yaklaşımla o zamana kadar gelmiş olan basmakalıp düşünce tarzlarının hepsine karşı çıkıyordu. Evrenbilim, jeoloji ve biyoloji alanlarında gerçekleşen gelişmeler insan doğası ve yeryüzüne dair sosyal inançları sarsmaktaydı. Tüm bilgi biçimlerinin bilimsel metodolojiyle elde edilebileceğine duyulan inanç hızla artmaktaydı. Sanat ve kültür dünyası da bu bilimsel gelişmelerden etkilendi. Realizm, natüralizm ve empresyonizm bilimsel gelişmelerin sosyal hayattaki etkilerine sanatçıların bir cevabı olarak ortaya çıktılar. Realizm ve natüralizmin kullandıkları teknikler temel olarak bilimsel bir özelliğe sahiptir. Natüralizm; sanatın bilimsel bir biçimde ifade edilmesi gerektiği inancını dile getirerek bilimi kendisine model olarak aldı. Dünyanın, bilimin yaptığı gibi nesnel bir biçimde gözlemlenerek kendi doğallığında yansıtılmasını ilke edindi. Hem realizm hem de natüralizm bilimsel gözlemleri ve deneye dayalı verileri sanatsal yaratımlarının merkezine yerleştirdiler. Realistler, daha çok gözlemcilerin rahatlıkla fark edebilecekleri deneyimlenen gündelik yaşamı betimlemeyi amaçladılar. Böylece romantik gelenekten kendilerini ayırdılar. Realistler için gerçek olanın temsillerini sunmak sanatsal yapıtın temel bileşeniydi. On dokuzuncu yüzyıl Avrupa‟sında yaşayan insanlar gerçekleşen bilimsel gelişmeler karşısında sürekli şaşkınlık yaşamaktaydılar. Günümüzde, bilimin pek çok şeyi gerçekleştirebileceğine o kadar inanmış durumdayız ki, on dokuzuncu yüzyıl insanlarının şaşkınlıklarını yaşamıyoruz. Bilimin dünyanın gerçekliklerini yeni bir metot ile yeniden ele alması, dünya görüşlerinin ve kültürün de yeniden yapılandırılmasını gerekli kıldı. Natüralistler ve realistler bu gelişmeleri sanata, farklı bir tarzda, bire bir uygulama çabası 249 Devrim ÖZKAN içindeydiler. Buna karşı empresyonistler ise, aklın ve bilimin insani deneyim ve problemlerin analizi için yetersiz olduğunu düşünüyorlardı. Gelişen bilimsel pozitivizme karşı şüpheci bir yaklaşıma sahip olan empresyonistler dünyanın bundan sonra geleneksel sanatlarda ifade edildiği biçimiyle betimlenemeyeceğinin farkındaydılar. Yaşanan bilimsel gelişmeler dikkate alınarak sanatsal ifade ve yapıtların nasıl yeniden biçimlendirebileceğini araştırdılar. Ancak natüralistlerin ve realistlerin farklı biçimlerde yapmaya çalıştıkları gibi bire bir uygulama metodundan da uzak durdular. I. Empresyonizm: Hız ve Değişim On dokuzuncu yüzyılın son çeyreğinde Fransa‟da önce resim daha sonra bir müzik akımı olarak ortaya çıkan ve gözlemlenen dünyayı ışık ve renk etkilerinin terimlerinde tam olarak kaydetmeyi amaçlayan empresyonizm, realizm ve natüralizmden farklı bir metot kullanarak gerçekliği ele aldı. Gerçekliği ve epistemolojik süreci evrensel değil bireysel bir olgu olarak görmeleri, onları bilimsel gelişmelerden etkilenen diğer sanat akımlarından ayırır. Bu sayede empresyonizm, bilimsel gelişmelerin muhalifleriyle destekçileri arasında orta bir yol benimseyerek bilimle özel bir ilişki tarzı geliştirdi. Sanatta yansımasını bulan bilimselliğin katı biçimlerine bir tepki olarak yapıtlarını geliştirirken, temel olarak bilimsel metodolojisiyle bilincin nesnelerini kavrayan birbirinden farklı insani varoluş biçimlerini tam olarak yeniden üretmeye çalıştı. Bunu yapmaya çalışırken, aynı zamanda, bilginin her zaman insani öznelliğin aracılığından geçerek meydana geldiğinin de farkında oldu. Natüralizm ve realizm geleneksel sanatlarla ortak bir özelliği paylaşır. Geleneksel sanatlarda tanrısal mutlaklığın yeryüzündeki yansımaları olduğu düşünülen nesnelerin temsilleri yansıtılırlar. Natüralizm ve realizm ise, sanatlarına konu olarak bilimin ortaya çıkarttığı mutlak gerçeklikleri seçtiler. Empresyonistler için bu evrenselci sanat tarzı insani varoluşun bireyselliğini yadsıyordu. Nesne birey tarafından farklı biçimlerde mütalaa edilebilir, farklı zaman ve mekânlarda farklı biçimlerde algılanabilirdi. Böylece bireyin bilimsel ya da tanrısal bir mutlaklığa uyum sağlamasına yol açacak bir kültürel atmosfer yerine, öznenin yaşamı farklı tarzlarda algılayıp ifade edebilmesini sağlayan bir kültür dünyasının oluşumuna öncülük etmek suretiyle “özgürlükçü modernlik”in gelişimine katkıda bulundular. Renklerin keskin bir biçimde yan yana konulması, ışığın yaratıcı kullanımıyla anımsatıcı ve belirgin biçimde ifade edilmiş fırça darbeleri empresyonist resim sanatının ortak teknikleri olarak ortaya çıktı. Ayrıca empresyonist resim, aniden görünüp kaybolan anların ve parçaların ifade edilmesiyle de bağlantılandırılabilir. İfade edilen “an” (moment) akıp gitmekte olan bir sürenin çok sayıdaki evresinden biridir. Nesne öyle bir biçimde resmedilir ki, tüm ayrıntıları yansıtılmasa dahi insan zihni tarafından tamamlanarak algılanır. Böylece “resim, açık seçiklikten ve belirginlikten kaybettiğini duyumsal çekicilikten kazanır, enerji ile yüklü duruma gelir. Kazanılan bu özellik ise empresyonistlerin başlıca amaçlarıdır” (Hauser, 2006:334). Empresyonizmin nesnenin kendisinden ziyade bireyler tarafından algılanış tarzlarını ifade etmeye çalışması resim sanatında bir dönüm noktasıdır. Günümüzde modern gündelik yaşamın ve yaşam tarzlarındaki çoğulluğun doğal bir sonucu olarak dünyayı son derece empresyonist bir biçimde algılamaktayız. Geleneksel dünyanın katı formları yerini her zaman başka türlü de algılanabilecek formlara terk etmiştir. Geleneksel ressamlar, nesneleri önceden rengi ve biçimi belirlenmiş mutlak şekillerde ifade etmeye çalışmaktaydılar. Bu geleneksel yaşamın dünya görüşüyle paralellik arz etmekteydi. Modernlikle birlikte aynı mekânı ve zamanı paylaşan ya da paylaşmayan bireylerin zaman, mekân ve nesneleri farklı Empresyonizm, Sinema ve Bergsoncu Zaman Kavramı: Zaman ve Mekân Algılarının Dönüşümü 250 biçimlerde algılayabileceği fark edildikçe empresyonist bakış açısı ve dünya görüşü sanatta ve kültür dünyasında egemen olmaya başladı. Nesnenin olduğu gibi gözlemlenebilmesi her zaman mümkün değildir. Çoğu zaman insanın bakış açısını sınırlandıran etkenler mevcuttur. Farklı zaman ve mekânlardaki ışık insanın nesneyi algılama derecesini etkiler. İnsan daha önceki deneyimlerinden hareket ederek nesneye dair algısını tamamlar. Ancak bu deneyimler olmadan nesneyle baş başayken onu olduğu gibi algılayabilmesine olanak yoktur. Empresyonizm nesnenin insan tarafından belirli bir andaki algılanışının ifadesini tabloya yansıtmaya çalışır. Hauser‟e göre “resim tarihinin temsil ettiği diyalektik süreç içinde, durağanın yerine dinamiğin, desenin yerine rengin, soyut düzenin yerine organik yaşamın gelmesinde, empresyonizm, deneyimin dinamik ve organik öğelerine öncelik tanıyan ve ortaçağın dünya görüşünü tümüyle yıkan bir gelişimin doruk noktasıdır” (Hauser,2006:331). Gerçekten de empresyonizm, geleneksel sanatların aksine insani varoluşun dışında var olan nesnenin doğal durumunu resmetmekle ilgilenmemiştir. O daha çok bilincin nesneleriyle insani bilinç arasındaki etkileşimin nasıl sunulabileceğini araştırmıştır. 1860‟lı yılların başında Rue de l'Hôtel-de-Ville‟daki üç odalı bir apartman dairesinde yaşayan ve Rue Guyot yakınlarındaki stüdyosunda resimlerini yapan Edouard Manet (1832- 83) empresyonist resmin öncüsüdür. Tam anlamıyla bohem bir yaşam sürdürmektedir. O yıllarda böylesi bir yaşamın Paris‟in dışındaki herhangi bir yerde sürdürülmesi mümkün değildi. Sen nehrinin bir mil kuzeyindeki bu bölgede, etrafı çalışan sınıflardan oluşan komşularla ve ucuza kiralanan apartman daireleriyle çevrilidir. Polonya ve Almanya‟dan gelen göçmenler ile çingeneler, ressamlar ve yazarlar kafelerde bir araya gelmektedir. Burası modern yaşamın hareketliliğinin en iyi biçimde gözlemlenebileceği bir bölgedir. Her yıl milyonlarca yolcunun geçtiği Fransa‟nın en yoğun tren istasyonu burada bulunmaktadır. “Kentte olup bitene sanatçı gözü ile bakmak” Manet‟in başlattığı bir yaklaşımdır (Hauser,2006:336). Bu bölgede yaşıyor olmak ona bu yaklaşımı başlatma olanağını sağlamıştır. Modern yaşam biçimlerinin tam manasıyla otaya çıkma olanağına kovuştuğu bu atmosfer içinde çalışan Manet, eserlerinin Palais des Champs-Elysées‟in duvarlarında sergilenebilmeleri için var gücüyle çalıştı. Fakat geliştirmiş olduğu ifade tarzı Salon‟dan kabul görmedi. İki binden fazla ret cevabı aldı. Salon‟da sergilenmesi için sunduğu üç tablonun iyileştirilmesi gerektiği bildirildi (King, 2006:59-60). Geleneksel sanat kalıplarının dışında eserler verenlerin kabul görmeleri uzun zaman alıyordu. Yaşamın son derece hızla değiştiği modernlik koşullarında yeni ifade biçimlerinin sürekli olarak ortaya çıkmaları kaçınılmazken, muhafazakarlaşma eğiliminde olan sanat elitleri karşısında genç kuşaklar kendilerini kabul ettirebilmek için amansız mücadeleler vermek zorundaydılar. Neredeyse açlıkla yüz yüze kalacak kadar eserlerine alıcı bulmakta zorlanan Claude Monet (1840-1926) ise, son derece çabuk bir biçimde resim yapmakta ve koyu renklerin yerlerin değiştirerek keskin karşıtlıkların ortaya çıkmasını sağlamaktaydı (King, 2006:359). Daha sonra Manet Monet‟i izleyerek bu yöntemi eserlerinde birebir uygulayacaktır. Empresyonistler için duyumsanmayan şey var olamaz. Bu bakış açısından hareketle fiziksel nesneler, insani özneler, olaylar, düşünceler ile mekân ve zamandan oluşan bilinç nesnelerinin bir dizi temsilini sundular. “Bundan önceki sanatın tümü bir sentezin sonucu ortaya çıkmışken, empresyonizm, bir analizin sonucudur, özgül konusunu işlerken sadece duyu organlarının verilerine göre hareket ettiğinden, bilinçdışı olan ruhsal mekanizmaya dönüş yapar ve bize deneyi oluşturan hammaddelerin bir bölümünü verir” (Hauser, 2006:333). Bu nedenle empresyonizmin hem fenomenolojinin hem de ampirizmin terimlerinde açıklanması gerekir. “İzlenim” (impression) kavramı Hume‟un felsefesinden doğmuş olmasına rağmen fenomenolojinin de konusu olacak biçimde onun felsefesinin çok ötesine uzanmıştır. 251 Devrim ÖZKAN Fenomenoloji izlenimin empresyonizmin sahip olmadığı bir sentezine sahiptir. Yunanca phainomenon kavramından gelen fenomen (phenomenon, görünüm) kavramı genel olarak bir nesnenin nasıl göründüğünü ve ne şekilde gözlemlenebileceğine tekabül eden kavrayışsal görünümünü ifade eder. Aristoteles için belirgin cisimler hakkında genel olarak paylaşılan inançlardır. Bu anlamda fenomen hem legomenon (ne söylendiği) hem de endoxa (ortak inanç) anlamlarını barındırır. Başka bir deyişle, bir şey hakkında genel olarak kabul gören görüş veya nasıl algılandığı şeklinde de tanımlanabilir. Bilimsel teoriler ampirik fenomenleri anlamamızı sağlarken, felsefi teoriler fenomeni bir şey hakkında sahip olunan ortak inanç duyusu olarak ele almamızı temin ederler. Fenomenoloji görünümler ve ortak olarak kabul edilen aldatıcı hayallerin çeşitli formları hakkında sürdürülen çalışma olarak tanımlanabilir. Empresyonizm hakkında yapılacak bir çalışmanın fenomenolojinin kavramlarıyla sürdürülmesi nesne çalışmaları hakkında en mükemmel bir çalışmanın gerçekleştirilmesini temin eder. Gerek empresyonizm gerekse Henri Bergson (1859–1941) ve Edmund Husserl‟in (1859–1938) fenomenoloji teorileri arasında büyük benzerlikler bulunmaktadır. Empresyonistler bilinçten bağımsız olarak hakikati bilemeyeceğimize ve algılayamayacağımıza inanırlar. Ayrıca hakikatin kendisinin izlenimlere göre değişen ve bilinç tarafından düzenlenen saf duyumun bir sentezi olduğunu ve izlenimlerin değerinin şeylerin nitelikleri hakkındaki fenomenolojik deneyim olan gerçeğe dayandığını düşünürler. Empresyonizmi özne ile dünya arasında kurulan fenomenolojik bir bağlantı olarak ele almak, onun Bergson‟ın “dure”sinin Husserl‟in ise “fenomenolojik zaman”ının sanat dünyasındaki bir karşılığı olduğunu söylemektir. Empresyonist ressamların dünya görüşleri, duyumları ve betimsel yönelimleri arasındaki benzerlikler dikkat çekicidir. Sezgilerinin yönlendirmesiyle sanatlarını icra ediyor olmaları böylesi bir benzerliğin ortaya çıkmasına yol açmıştır. Daha önceleri belirli bir nesnenin ya da konunun nasıl tasvir edileceği ve hangi renklerin kullanılacağı tamamen verili geleneğe bağlı kalınarak veya nesnenin kendiliğindeki durumunun bilimsel olarak tespit edilmesiyle belirlenirken empresyonistler kendi duyumlarından hareket ederek resimlerini yapmaya başladılar. Modern insanın dünyaya bakış tarzındaki köklü dönüşüm böylesi bir sanatsal üretime zemin hazırladı. Geleneksel dünyanın yerelliği ve insanın dünyadaki sınırları belirli bir düşünce, algı, duyum ve anlayışın mutlak bir biçimde gerçekleşebilmesine zemin hazırlıyordu. Dünya sabitliğinde tam olarak algılanabilir bir durumdaydı. Kişi topluluğunun tüm üyelerini tanıyabilme olanağına sahip olduğu gibi yaşadığı coğrafyayı da tam olarak biliyordu. Hız ve değişimin yaşamın ayrılmaz bir parçası olduğu modern kent yaşantısı ise dünyanın tam bir görünümünü elde etmeyi zorlaştırdı. Kişi dünya ve sosyal hayata dair tam bir duyum elde ettiğini düşündüğü anda dünya bambaşka bir biçime dönüşerek başkalaşmaktaydı. İnsanın geliştirdiği düşünce ve algıların sürekli olarak eskimekte olduğu hissine kapılması kaçınılmazdı. Bu sanat yapıtlarında “an”ın gelip geçiciliğinde tasvir edilmesine ve geleceğe dair belirsiz öngörülerde bulunulmasına yol açtı. Zira modern insan nesneleri sürekli olarak eskiyen şeyler olarak algılar. Bu, önceki onlarca kuşağın yaşamını son derece benzer bir biçimde sürdüren geleneksel toplumlardaki insanların alışık olmadığı bir algılama biçimidir. Modern teknolojik gelişmeler insanın doğal dünyayı daha etkin bir biçimde şekillendirilebilmesine olanak sağlar. Doğayı şekillendirme imkânı artan insan sosyal hayatının işleyiş biçimlerini belirleyen kültürel ve ekonomik kaynakları sürekli yeniden yapılandırabilir. “Gündelik işlerde kullanılan eski eşyaları sürekli olarak ve giderek artan ölçüde yenileriyle değiştirmek „madde‟ye duyulan ilginin azalmasına … neden olur… Modern teknoloji böylece yaşama karşı alınan tavra görülmedik bir dinamizm getirir; empresyonizmin ifade etmek istediği de, her şeyden önce, bu yeni hız ve değişim duygusudur” (Hauser, 2006: Empresyonizm, Sinema ve Bergsoncu Zaman Kavramı: Zaman ve Mekân Algılarının Dönüşümü 252 330). Modern kentler farklı kültürlerden insanların bir araya gelerek etkileşimde bulunmalarını sağladıkça insanlar nesnelerin ve dünyanın başka şekillerde de algılanabileceğini deneyimlediler. Kamusal parkların bu dönemde ortaya çıkması bir rastlantı değildir. Kentlerin popülasyonlarındaki artış parkları modern kent yaşamının bir parçası haline getirdi. Kütüphanelerin, sanat galerilerinin ve müzelerin gelişimi de buna paralel bir süreci temsil eder (Reid, 2000: 763). İnsanların bu kamusal alanlarda bir araya gelerek kendilerine, diğerlerine ve topluma dair düşünerek yeni müzakere süreçleri geliştirmeleri sosyal hayata yeni bir dinamizm katar. Böylece çeşitliliğin artması dış dünyanın giderek empresyonist bir biçimde algılanmasına neden olur. Estetik hisler ve pratik arzulardan doğan ayrımlar üzerinden sanatsal yapıtların üretilmesi empresyonizmin bir diğer özelliğidir. Varlığın radikal özgürlüğüne ve bilincin son tahlildeki belirleyiciliğine dayandığından insani sanatsal yaratımın yeniden yapılanmasıyla sonuçlandı. Sanatçı nesneyi ya da olayı betimlerken onun belirli özelliklerine odaklanmaya başladı. Bu anlamda empresyonizm nesnel algının yerini giderek öznel algıya bırakması sürecinde yaşanan büyük bir kırılmayı temsil etmektedir. Sanat tarihinde, resim sanatındaki bu tarz değişimler teknik gelişmelerin bir sonucu olarak ele alınmaktadır. Özellikle “perspektif” (perspective) hakkında yapılan açıklamalarda Rönesans ile birlikte çizim tekniklerinde yaşanan “ilerleme”ler sıklıkla vurgulanmaktadır. Fakat teknik gelişmeler kültür ve bakış açılarında gerçekleşen değişim ve dönüşümlerin ardından gelmektedir. Çoğu zaman teknik gelişme kültür ve dünya görüşlerinde yaşanan değişimin bir zorlaması olarak ortaya çıkar. Nesnenin algılanış tarzlarında bir değişiklik olmadan başka bir teknikle ifade edilmesine gereksinim duyulmaz. Bu nedenle sonra gelenin sanatsal yaratımda ileri bir aşama olduğu iddia edilemez. Bir eser içinde bulunduğu zamanın ruhunu ifade edebilecek en mükemmel tekniğe sahip ise gerçek bir sanat yapıtıdır. Ondan önceki zamanlar farklı sanatsal tekniklerle ifade edildiği gibi sonra gelecek olanlar da keşfedilecek yeni tekniklerle ifade edileceklerdir. Bu, dünyayı farklı bir bakış açısı, kültür ve dünya görüşüyle algılamaya başlamanın yeni ifade biçimlerinin gelişmesine yol açtığının bir göstergesidir. Modern sanatlarda öznel algının belirleyici hale gelmesiyle birlikte nesne ve temalar belirli bir öncelik sıralamasına tabi tutulmaya başladı. Modern felsefede Husserlci “fenomenolojik azaltım” (phenomenological reduction) metodu bizlere bu algılama biçiminin düşünce dünyasındaki temsilini sunar. Husserl fenomenolojiyi varlığın bilimi olarak kurma girişiminde bulunur. Ona göre fenomenoloji tüm spesifik bilimlerin kuruluşuna yardımcı olur. Fakat, Husserl‟in fenomenolojisi daha önceki yüzyıllarda varlığın bilimi olarak sunulan metafiziğin içerdiği anlamlardan kesin bir biçimde farklıdır. Aristoteles‟ten itibaren metafiziğin asli hakikate dair olduğu düşünüldü. Kant, geleneksel metafiziğin iddialarını “kendinde şeylerin” (thing-in-themself, being-in-itself) insan anlığı için erişilemez olduğunu göstererek geçersiz kıldı. Buradan hareket edilerek herhangi bir varlık biliminin olanağının kabul edilemez olduğu sonucuna varılabilir. Bilgi, anlığın bağımlı olduğu nesneler tarafından sınırlandırılmıştır. Böylece rölativizmin vahim rotasına girilmiş olur. Husserl ise fenomenolojik metodun yeni bir varlık bilimini olanaklı kıldığını düşünür. Bu metot esas varlığın alanını ortaya çıkarır. Deneyimin ötesinde bir varlığa sahip olmayan bu varlık deneyimde mutlak kesinlik ile kendisini sunar. Varlık hakkında çalışmak Platonik anlamdaki başka bir gerçekliğe dönmeyi gerektirmez, olgusal gerçekliğin daha derin bir biçimde incelenmesini gerektirir. Böylece Husserl fenomenolojinin arkeolojik yöntemle bağlantılı olduğunu düşünür (Jones & Fogelin, 1997:298-299). Fenomenolojik azaltım ile deneyimin temel ve amaçsal yapısını keşfetmeye çalışır. Bir araştırmacı, kendi deneyimlerinin duyumsal içeriklerinin eğilimleri tarafından yönlendirilmektense deneyimdeki temel, merkezi ve indirgenemez olana yoğunlaşabilir. Böylece azaltım ampirik olandan aşkınsal seviyeye doğru hareket ederek, dünyaya dair bilgimizin kaynağı olan deneyimin amaçsal yapısını 253 Devrim ÖZKAN keşfetmemizi ve araştırmamızı temin eder. Dünyayla bilişsel iletişimimizde doğal tutumumuz, dış dünyanın varlığını geçici bir varoluş olarak algılamak ve kendimizi psiko-fiziksel (psycho- physical) bir bireysel varlık olarak farz etmektir. Husserl‟in fenemonolojik yaklaşımında bu doğal tutumu parantez içine alınır. Bu gerçek dünyanın varlığını inkâr etmek anlamına gelmez. Fakat dünya ve onun içindeki fiziksel varoluşumuza dair mutlak yargılarda bulunmaktan kaçınmaktır. Husserl‟e göre sadece deneyimlerimize dair yargılarda bulunabiliriz. Yapmamız gereken “aşkınsal bilinç”, “saf bilinç” ve “mutlak bilinç” olarak da adlandırılabilecek amaçlı bir faillik olarak “bilinç” (consciousness) hakkında düşünmektir. Deneyimin amaçsal yapılarına karşı gereken temel sezgiye sahip bir konumda bulunuruz. Husserl bu temel sezgiyi eidetic 1 alarak da adlandırır. Onun felsefesinde eidetic azaltım öze ve evrene dair sezgisel bir eylemde bulunmaktır. Bu anlamıyla ampiriksel sezginin veya kavrayışın karşıtıdır. 2 Hem empresyonistlerin hem de izleyicilerinin bilimsel bir eğitime ve kavrayışa sahip olmadıklarını kabul etmek zorundayız. Empresyonist sanat akımının öncülerinin ve ilgiyle takip eden izleyicilerinin son derece sınırlı bir bilimsel eğitime sahip olmalarına rağmen yukarıda kısaca belirttiğimiz bilim ve felsefe dünyasındaki gelişmelerle paralelliğinin açıklanması gerekir. Öyleyse, çağdaş bilimsel gelişmeler ile arasında nasıl bir bağlantı vardır ve bu bağlantının oluşmasını sağlayan koşullar nelerdir? Rönesans ressamlarının büyük bir bölümü aynı zamanda bilim adamıydılar. Bilim adamlığıyla sanatkârlık arasında kesin bir ayrım mevcut değildi. Âlimlik ikisini de kapsayan bir kavramdı. Özellikle anatomiyle resim ve çizim sanatları arasında yakın bir karşılıklı bağlantı mevcuttu. Botaniksel ve zoolojik çizimlerin mükemmel bir biçimde yapılması bilimsel araştırmalarda hayati bir rol oynamaktaydı. Modern sanat tarihçileri Rönesans‟ta doğa bilimleriyle sanatın bir aradalığına dair çok sayıda çalışma yapmışlar ve iki alan arasında derin bir bağlantı olduğunu gözler önüne sermişlerdir. Fakat bu ortakyaşarlık durumu, sadece Rönesans‟ta karşımıza çıkan geçici bir döneme tekabül etmektedir. Bir kural olmaktan ziyada istisnai bir durumdur. Ayrıca Rönesans sanatçılarının öznel yaratım ilkesine dayanan modern sanatçı nosyonuna sahip olmadıkları ve sanatçıdan daha çok zanaatkâr oldukları ileri sürülebilir. Bunun yanı sıra, bilimle ilgilerinin tüm dehalarına rağmen bir hobi düzeyinde olduğu ve modern bilimin kurumsallaşmış yapısıyla karşılaştırılacak olursa iptidai kaldığı da iddia edilebilir. Bu dönemdeki bilimlerin betimsel bilimler oldukları ve araştırma nesnelerinin kaydedilip sınıflandırılmasıyla ilgilendikleri genel kabul görmektedir. On dokuzuncu yüzyılın sonunda ve yirminci yüzyılda bilim ile sanat arasındaki bağlantı Rönesans‟takinden giderek farklılaşarak bambaşka bir yapıya kavuştu. Fakat doğa bilimlerinin ortaya koyduğu bulguların her zaman düşünce ve imgelerin biçimlenişi üzerinde derin etkiye sahip oldukları kabul edilmelidir. Bilim, insanın evrenin içindeki konumlanışını belirlemede etkili olmuştur. Dünyayı algılayış biçimini derinden etkilemiştir. İnsanın dünyayı kendi arzuları paralelinde biçimlendirerek doğadan ayrı bir kültür 1 “Görmek” anlamına gelen Yunanca “eideo” kelimesinden gelir. Kelimenin isim hali olan “eidos” görünen şey anlamına gelir. Platon felsefesinde form olarak ifade edilen şey “eidos”tur. 2 Husserl fenomenolojisi özne ile dünya arasında yapılan modern metafizik ayrıma dayanmaktadır. Öznenin dünyayı nasıl bir biçimde algılayacağının deneyim tarafından belirlendiğine duyulan inanç ise özne ile dünya arasında dolaysız bir biçimde kurulan bağlantıları görmemize engel teşkil edebilir. Derrida‟ya göre Husserl fenemolojisi ampirik antropolojinin bir eleştirisi olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. Ayrıca Derida da Hegel gibi Husserl‟i de metafizik ile bağını kopartamamış olmakla eleştirir (Zaner, 1972:385-386). Empresyonizm, Sinema ve Bergsoncu Zaman Kavramı: Zaman ve Mekân Algılarının Dönüşümü 254 dünyası yaratma çabası bilimin kullanılış biçimlerini etkileyerek sürekli yeniden yapılanmasına neden olmuştur. Bilim yeni bulgulara ulaştıkça, insan kendi bakış açısı ve arzularını bu gelişmeler perspektifinde yapılandırarak bilimle ve dış dünyayla ilişkisini yeniden düzenlemiştir. On dokuzuncu yüzyıllın sonunda ampirik verilere dayalı bilimsel yöntemlerden kuşku duyulmaya başlanması dünya görüşleri ve bakış açılarının yeniden yapılandırılmasına neden oldu. Hume modern görgücülüğün temellerini on sekizinci yüzyılda atmıştı. Dünya karşısında genel olarak paylaşılan kültürel bir tutuma dönüşmesi için gerekli şartların olgunlaşması ise on dokuzuncu yüzyılın sonlarını buldu. Böylece bilim ve sanat dünyasında üretilen yapıtlarda yansımasını bulmaya başlayarak empresyonist entelektüel dünyayı biçimlendiren bir faktör oldu. Bilimsel araştırmaların bulguları on dokuzuncu yüzyılın sonunda gelişimlerini hızla sürdüren modern kentlerde ortaya çıkan burjuva kamusal alanında heyecanla tartışılmaktaydı. Bu on dokuzuncu yüzyılın son çeyreğinden birinci dünya savaşına kadar geçen süre içinde oluşumunu sürürden yeni kültür ve bilim dünyasının arka planını oluşturdu. Doğal gerçekliğin, insani algılanış biçiminin gerçekliğin kendiliğindeki durumundan radikal bir biçimde farklı olduğu, kültürel çalışmalar ile birlikte insanın zaman ve mekâ na göre gerçekliği farklı biçimlerde algıladığının fark edilmesiyle anlaşılmıştır. Her ne kadar gerçekliğin en mükemmel algılanışına ulaşacağımız bir sürecin içinde olduğumuz algısına sahip olsak da, on dokuzuncu yüzyıldan önce yaşamış insanların nesneleri algılayış tarzlarının bizimkinden daha az gerçekliğe yakın olduğunu düşünmemiz mümkün değildir. Algının nesneleri büyük bir oranda, insani eşgüdümlü iletişim süreçlerinde belirlenmektedir. İnsan diğerleriyle girdiği eşgüdümlü iletişim sürecinde edindiği kaynaklar vasıtasıyla algı nesnelerini ve algılayış tarzını yapılandırmak suretiyle öznelliğini oluşturur. On dokuzuncu yüzyılın başında nesnelerin ampirik deneyim ve verilerden hareket edilerek bilinmeye çalışılması, on dokuzuncu yüzyılın sonundaysa bunun yerini giderek öznel deneyimlerin almaya başlaması, insanların iletişim süreçlerinde edinip kaynaklar olarak kullandıkları ve hep birlikte sürekli olarak yeniden yapılandırdıkları bilimsel ve kültürel verilerdeki değişim ve dönüşümlere dayanmaktadır. On dokuzuncu yüzyılın son on yılında doğa bilimleri ve beşeri bilimler birbirlerinden tamamen ayrı iki ana dala dönüştü. Günümüzde “iki kültür” olarak ifade ettiğimiz bu ayrım belirleyici bir özellik kazandı. Fakat bu iki kültürün ortaya çıkışları rölativizmin bir dünya görüşü olarak egemen olamaya başlamasından beslendi. Yaşamın gerçekliğinde saf bir duyumsamanın hiçbir zaman mevcut olmadığı anlayışı giderek kabul görmeye başladı. Saf duyumsama sadece bir soyutlamaydı ve sadece dünyaya yeni gelmiş bir bebeğin beyni tarafından algılanabilirdi. İnsanın deneyim edindikçe ve deneyimleri diğer insanlarınkilerden farklılaştıkça nesneleri ve sosyal dünyayı daha farklı bir biçimde algıladığı düşünülmeye başlandı. Özet olarak, giderek sadece bilim adamları değil fakat izleyiciler de yaygın bir biçimde gerçeğin kendisiyle onun hakkındaki kavrayışımız arasında derin bir farklılık olduğunu, gerçekliğin sanatçılar tarafından farklı biçimlerde yansıtılabileceğini fark etmeye başladılar. Zira zaman ve mekândaki insani eşgüdümlü iletişimi kaynak olarak kullanan sanatçılar gerçekliğe bambaşka biçimler verebilmekteydiler. Gerçeğin kendiliğindeki durumunun hiçbir zaman elde edilebilir olmadığı inancı gelişti. Bu görüşün yaygınlaşmasıyla naif realizm eski egemen konumunu kaybetti. Böylece gerçekliğe benzeyen şeyler sanatın temsillerini sunan ve duyumumuz tarafından kavranılan şeyler olarak resme dönüştürülür. Sanatçı onu resme dönüştürürken kendi kavrayışının süzgecinden geçirerek sunar. Gerçekliğin realist sunumları dahi bir dönüştürme etkinliğinden başka bir şey değildir (Barasch, 1998:43). 255 Devrim ÖZKAN On beşinci yüzyılda başlayan Rönesans‟tan on dokuzuncu yüzyılın başındaki Klasisizm ve Realizm‟e kadar geçen sürede sanatsal yaratımda gözlenen çeşitlilik daha önceki yüzyıllardakinden çok daha fazladır. Bu dönemde sanatçılara, kendi zaman ve dünyalarının sanatında ortaya çıkan yeni problemleri çözmelerine yardımcı olacak çok sayıda nazariye geliştirildi. Rönesans‟ta perspektif hakkında sürdürülen tartışmaların yarattığı düşünsel zenginlik ve Barok çalışmalarda yüz ve mimiklerdeki duyguların nasıl ifade edileceğine dair yapılan incelemeler bu konuda ilk akla gelen örneklerdir. Bu nazariyelerin büyük bir bölümü (esasen sanatçılara hitaben) sanatçılar tarafından geliştirilmiştir. Empresyonist sanatçılar ise, bildiğimiz anlamda bir teoriyi açık ve kesin bir biçimde ifade etmediler. Rönesans sanatçılarının aksine ne denemeler yazdılar ne de sanatları hakkında birbiriyle uyumlu beyanlarda bulundular. Kentli sanatçılardan oluşan ve on dokuzuncu yüzyılda Avrupa‟nın entelektüel merkezi olan Paris‟te yaşayan bu grup, yüksek eğitimli olmalarına rağmen sanatlarını teorik olarak kurgulama ihtiyacı duymadı. Eleştirmen ve yazarlarla yakın ilişkileri vardı ve modern hayatın karmaşık kurumsallaşmalarından da haberdardılar (Barasch, 1998:46). Sanatlarında nesnelerin tüm zaman ve mekânlarda aynı şekilde yansıyan ve algılanan temsillerini sunmayıp, insandan insana değişen algılanış tarzlarını yansıtmaya çalışmaları hıza ve değişime odaklanmalarına yol açtığından, esas olarak belirli bir konudaki hakikatin ifadesi olan herhangi bir teori ya da nazariye geliştirme arzusu duymadılar. Sanatçı ve izleyicilerin tablolardaki temalara yaklaşımlarında yaşanan çarpıcı dönüşüm modern kültürün gelişim sürecinde dikkate değer bir olgudur. On dokuzuncu yüzyıla kadar tablonun temasına büyük bir önem atfediliyordu. Fakat giderek önemini kaybederek dikkate alınmamaya başlandı. Sanata konu edilen nesneler hiyerarşik bir biçimde değerli olandan değersiz olana doğru sıralanmamaya başlandı. On dokuzuncu yüzyılın başından itibaren sanatçılar kişisel duygularını en uygun biçimde yansıtan temayı keşfetmeye yöneldiler. Daha önceleri soylu temaların resmedilmesi sanat eserinin değerini belirlemekteydi. On dokuzuncu yüzyılın ortalarına kadar bu yaklaşım etkisini kısmen devam ettirdi. 1860‟lı yıllardan itibaren eserler vermeye başlayan empresyonist sanatçılar ise bambaşka bir yaklaşıma sahiptiler. Teorik bir problem olarak sanatta tema meselesini açık bir biçimde tartışmamış olmalarına rağmen, tablolarındaki temaların geleneksel sanatlardakilerden esaslı bir biçimde farklılaşması yaşanan kültürel ve düşünsel dönüşümün ipuçlarını verir. Resimde, esas olarak hangi temanın önemli veya önemsiz olduğuna dair felsefi problemle ilgilendiler. Fakat bu probleme vermiş oldukları cevap onları geleneksel sanatlardan büyük ölçüde ayırdı. Elbette ki sanatçının izleyiciyi değersiz bir eser veya temayı gelip izlemeye çağıramayacağını düşünüyorlardı. Fakat neyin değerli olduğu konusunda yeni bir yaklaşımı dile getirdiler. Sanatçının verili olarak devraldığı verili değer hiyerarşisinden sanatına konu seçmesi eserine değer katamazdı. Onlara göre sadece tema seçimindeki “içtenlik” (sincerity) eserin değerini belirleyebilirdi. Bu nedenle sanatçı “içten sanat yapıtları”nı izleyicilerin beğenisine sunulabilirdi. Sanatçının yapıtında yaşama dair geliştirdiği kişisel algılarını yansıtmaya başlaması “içtenlik” kavramın içeriğinde büyük bir dönüşüme neden oldu. Modern sanat ve edebiyat tarihindeki çeşitli akımlar, yapıtlarının kuruluşunda “içtenlik” kavramına anahtar bir rol yüklemişlerdir. Özellikle romantizm “içtenik‟i sanatın en önemli değeri olarak kabul etti. Şiirlerin değerlendirilmesinde “içtenlik”in esas kriter olarak ele alınması da romantik eleştirmenlerle karşımıza çıkan yeni bir olgudur. Fakat Manet “içtenlik”ten sadece temanın özgür bir biçimde seçilmesini kastetmez. Duyumsanan izlenimin sanatçının nesneleri nasıl algılayacağında belirleyici olabilecek ideoloji ve eğitiminden bağımsız bir biçimde tabloda yeniden üretilmesini kasteder (Barasch, 1998:50). Empresyonizm, Sinema ve Bergsoncu Zaman Kavramı: Zaman ve Mekân Algılarının Dönüşümü 256 Empresyonistler sadece izlenimlerini yansıtmakla ilgilendiler. İçtenlik kavramının içeriğindeki değişimin ve empresyonist tutumun sanat dünyasındaki kaçınılmaz etkisi tema probleminin önemini kaybederek mümkün olduğunca asgariye indirilmesidir. Empresyonistlerin tema probleminin önceki ele alınış biçimlerinin geçerliliklerini ortadan kaldırmaları sanat yapıtlarının kimi temel şekillendiriliş tarzlarının yeniden biçimlendirilmesini gerektirdi. Bunlardan en önemlisi “kompozisyon”dur. Empresyonistler kompozisyonun sanat pratiği ve kavramının geleneksel ve vazgeçilmez bir öğesi olduğunu reddederler. Kendiliğinden ulaştıkları bir sonuç on dokuzuncu yüzyılın sanat tartışmaları içinde düzenleme, süsleme ve seçimin mutlak düşmanları olarak görülmelerine neden oldu. Resim sanatındaki kompozisyonun teorik içeriği Rönesans‟ta oluşturulmuştu. “Kompozisyon” (compositione, composition) kavramı 1435 yılında Alberti tarafından resimdeki her öğenin sistematik bir harmoni içinde belirli bir anlamı oluşturmak için düzenlenmesi olarak icat edildi (Baxandall, 1988:135). Böylece terim, sanat yapıtı formlarının organizasyonu, düzenlenmesi ve bir bütünlük içinde birleştirilmesi anlamında kullanıldı. Başka bir ifadeyle bu kavram, resmi oluşturan öğelerin bütünlüklü ve tatmin edici bir izlenim oluşturacak bir bileşime sahip olmaları biçiminde tanımlanmıştı. Fakat, on dokuzuncu yüzyıldaki akademik pratik ve nazariyelerde “kompozisyon” sanat yapıtının biçimlendirilme sürecinin ilk safhası olarak ve sanatçının zihninde meydana gelen bir şey manasında kullanılmaya başlandı. Giderek günümüzde kullandığımız “taslak” kelimesinin karşılığına yakın bir anlamı ifade edecek bir biçimde kullanıldı. Başka bir deyişle, kompozisyonu oluşturacak nesne ve figürlerden daha önce gelen sanat yapıtının planlanmış temel organizasyonunun veya taslağının sanatçının zihninde düzenlenmesi ve çizilmesini ifade etti (Barasch, 1998:52). Sanatçının zihninde oluşan her bir figür ve nesnenin izlenimsel deneyiminden hareket edilerek tasarlanan bir şey şeklinde konumlandırıldı. Doğanın sanatçı tarafından nasıl görüldüğünün bir taslağının çizilmesi ile nesneler arasında dengeli bir harmoni kurma arasında belirgin bir karşıtlık mevcuttur. Empresyonistler için gerek “kompozisyon” gerekse on dokuzuncu yüzyılın başında kullanılan “taslak” sanatsal yaratım için kabul edilemez olan iki kavramdı. Bu empresyonist sanatın kompozisyondan tamamen yoksun olduğu anlamına gelmez. Kompozisyon, gittikçe doğal bir anın kopyalanmasından oluşan bir düzenleme olmaktan çıkarak, sıklıkla ressamın resmettiği nesnelerin temsil ettikleri şeylerin durumlarında gözlenen değişimin ardına gizlenmeye başlayan bir şeye dönüştü. Zira empresyonist temayül için izlenim her şeyden önce gelmeliydi. Kompozisyon ise, daha çok sanatçının zihninde kurguladığı bir şeydi. Sanatçının nesnesine yaklaşımını, doğadan neyi seçeceğini ve resminde onu nasıl yansıtacağını belirleyerek nesneyle duyuma dayalı bir etkileşime girmesine engel olmaktaydı. Bundan dolayı onlar için kompozisyon, sadece resmin genel çerçevesini çizen; her bir nesne ve figürün hatların kabaca belirtilen dış hatlar olarak anlaşılmalıydı. Resimde keskin çizgilere değil, sadece gölge, ışık ve karanlık bölgelerin lekelerine yer verilmeliydi. Tema seçimi ve kompozisyona karşı tutumlarındaki bu farklılığın, renge dair düşüncelerini etkilememesi düşünülemez. Nesnenin kendi rengini değil zaman ve mekâna göre farklı algılanan rengini yansıtmak, empresyonizmin diğer akımlardan ayırt eden atılımıdır. Nesnenin belirli bir anda algılanan rengini yansıtmayı amaçlar. Empresyonistler rengi hareketli, değişen ve canlı bir şey olarak ele alır. Bu nesnenin renklerinin farklı şekillerde algılanabileceği anlamına geliyordu. Daha önce her nesnenin kendi rengi olduğu düşünülüyordu. Buna göre yapraklar yeşil, gökyüzü ise maviydi. Fakat empresyonistler, nesnelerin farklı zaman ve mekânlarda ışığa bağlı olarak farklı renklerde algılandıklarını gözlemlediler. Nesne yeterince ışık aldığında parladığına, almadığındaysa koyulaştığına dikkat çektiler. On dördüncü yüzyılda nesneler açıktan koyuya doğru altı ayrı derecede 257 Devrim ÖZKAN resmedilmekteydi. Fakat empresyonistler çok büyük bir dönüşüme imza attılar. Nesnelerin, biz nasıl görüyorsak öyle olduğunu iddia ettiler. Böylece ressamın, nesnenin ve figürün tamamen belirsiz, kendi renklerini nasıl algılıyorsa o şekilde renklendirmesi gerektiğini düşündüler. Nesnelerin algılanış ve ifade ediliş tarzlarında ortaya çıkan tüm bu dönüşümler modern sosyal hayatın sanat dünyasındaki yansımalarıdır. İnsanın diğerleriyle ve dünya ile ilişkisi dönüştükçe nesneleri ve olayları algılama ve ifade etme tarzları da değişir. Bir nesnenin nasıl bir biçimde ifade edileceğine dair belirli bir geleneğin oluşması çok sayıdaki etkiden beslenerek şekillenir. Sanat, on dokuzuncu yüzyılın başında bireysellik ile sosyal bütünlük arasında yeni tarz bir entegrasyonu sağlayacak ideal bir alan olarak görüldü. Bireysel deneyimde güzelliğin araştırılması olarak yeniden tanımlandı. Böylece sanat modernliğe yön vermeye başladı. Sadece zamanının değil, fakat daha çok “bu anın” sanatına dönüştü (Mattick, 2003:12). “Modernlik” kendisini Batı Avrupa kültürünün yeniden doğuşunun bir ifadesi olarak geliştirdi. Bu gelişimin nasıl sonuçlanacağı öngörülebilir değildi. Endüstriyel, ticari, hukuki ve kültürel gelişmeler sosyal hayatı farklı derecelerde etkiledi. Etkide bulunan sosyal güçler birbirlerini de değişik biçimlerde etkilediler. Bu yapılaşma sürecinden hem sanatçılar hem de ifade biçimleri derinden etkilendi. Sanatçı eserinden daha üstün görülmeye ve eserinde bireyselliğini tamamen yansıtmasına önem verildi. Bu antik ve geleneksel sanatlar ile modern sanatlar arasındaki en önemli farklılık olarak ortaya çıktı (Hauser, 1999:54). Giderek sanatçının nesneleri algıladığı tarzda ifade etmesine olanak sağlayan kültürel bir atmosfer oluştu. Etkileşimin kapsamı genişledikçe, hız ve değişim de sosyal hayatın ayrılmaz bir parçası oldu. Empresyonizm sosyal hayattaki hız ve değişimin sanat eserlerindeki ifadesi olarak biçimlendi. II. Bergsoncu Zaman Kavramı Henri Bergson 1907 yılında yayınladığı “Creative Evolution” adlı eserinin kamuoyundan olumlu tepkiler almasıyla ün kazanmıştır (Bergson, 1944). Gerçekten de eseri büyük bir heyecanla karşılandı. Buna rağmen yüzyılın ikinci on yıllık periyodundaki etkisi zamanla unutuldu. “Zaman”a dair geliştirdiği yeni bakış açısının yanı sıra, zamanının dünya görüşü ve ruh halini de en iyi biçimde yansıtan bir düşünürdür. Felsefi nazariyeler sıklıkla zamanlarının sosyal trenlerini yansıtırlar. Bergson‟ın düşünceleri de, empresyonizmin entelektüel ve hissi özeliklerinin anlaşılması açısından büyük önem arz eder. Ayrıca, Bergson‟dan on dokuzuncu yüzyıldaki girift düşünce trendinin gözlemcisi olarak bahsedilmesi de bir zarurettir. Empresyonist ressamlardan bir sonraki jenerasyona ait olmasına rağmen, empresyonist düşünce trendini diğer düşünürlerden daha isabetli bir biçimde özetler. “Matter and Memory” (Matière et Mémoire) adlı eserinde gerçek dünyadan gündelik deneyimin sunumlarında ortaya çıkan bir şey olarak bahseder. Bu sunumları imajlar olarak adlandırır. İmajdaki “nesne” veya “şey”in insan tarafından doldurulacak boş bir şey olduğunu düşünür. Bir “öznelci” olarak tanınmak istemeyen Bergson nesnelerden sadece “görünümler” (appearances) olarak bahseder. Bergson, dış dünyanın varlığını inkâr etmeden bilincimizin içerikleri olarak deneyimlerimizde kavradığımız şeylere odaklanır. Hislerden, tinsel imajlar ağıyla bizi çevreleyen şeyler olarak bahseder (Barasch, 1998:25). Tüm bunlar, empresyonizmin nesneleri algıma ve betimleme yöntemleriyle büyük benzerliklere sahiptir. 1889 yılında yayınladığı “Time And Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness” 3 adlı ilk eserinden itibaren insan özgürlüğünün geçerliliğini, zaman 3 Eserin orijinal ismi “Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience”tır. Empresyonizm, Sinema ve Bergsoncu Zaman Kavramı: Zaman ve Mekân Algılarının Dönüşümü 258 deneyimimizi analiz ederek kanıtlamaya girişti (Bergson, 1960). Zamanı evrensel ve deneyimlenen zaman olarak ikiye ayırmış olması, Bergson felsefesinin dünyanın ve insani sosyal hayatın algılanmasındaki hareket noktasıdır. Başka bir ifadeyle, ruhsal “gerçek zaman” veya durée deneyimiyle bizi çevreleyen dışarıdaki zaman (fiziksel zaman) arasındaki ikilikten hareket ederek, insanın dünya ile ilişki biçimini analiz etmeye çalışır. Psikolojik bir özelliğe sahip olan birincisi niteliksel, toplumdan topluma değişebilen ve dinamik bir karaktere sahiptir. İnsani varoluşun dışındaki herhangi bir etkenin belirleniminden bağımsızdır. Daha önceleri “zaman” kavramı geçmiş varoluşun basitçe yeniden düzenlenmesi olarak tanımlanmıştı. Bergson ise, zamanı bambaşka bir biçimde ele aldı, onu insani yaratım gücünün bir eseri olarak kavradı. “Zaman”ın bu yeniden kavranışı radikal bir değişimin ifadesidir. Zaman düşünce tarihi boyunca açıklanması zor bir kavram olarak görülmüştür. Ayrıca en çok tartışılan kavramlardan biridir. Geçmiş, şimdi ve geleceğin dönemlerinde (veya önce ve sonra olanın dönemlerinde) gerçekleşen olayların ilerleme ve sıralanışıyla ilgilidir. Zaman genel olarak bir geçiş veya akış olarak düşünülmüştür. Zamanı Augustine, hiç kimsenin sormadığında bildiği, birine açıklamak istediğindeyse hakkında hiçbir şey bilmediği bir şey olarak betimlemektedir. Eğer ki hiçbir şey geçmemiş olsaydı geçen zaman olmayacaktı ve eğer geçen bir şey olmamış olsaydı şuandaki zaman da olmayacaktı. Öyleyse geçmiş ve gelmekte olan zamanlar vardır. Fakat nasıl geçmiş ve gelmekte olan zamanlar şeklinde görünmektedirler. Şuandaki, her zaman şuan olarak görülmeli; geçmiş ise, hiçbir zaman geçmişte kalan bir şey olarak görülmemelidir. O halde zaman sonsuzluktur. Böylece şuandaki zaman varlığa ulaşan bir şey olarak tanımlanacak olursa, buna sebep olanın kim olduğunu ve ilerde var olmayabileceğini nasıl söyleyebiliriz (Augustine, 2005:207). Ayrıca tek bir boyutu ve tersine çevrilemez bir yönü olduğu da düşünülür. Fakat ona boyutunu ve yönünü sağlayanın ne olduğu ve geçmiş ile gelecek arasında bir simetrinin olup olmadığı konuları tartışmalıdır. Zenon paradoksları sonsuz süreklilik olarak ele alınan zamana ve mekâna dair hayati sorular ortaya koyar. Platon zamanın hareket halindeki sonsuzluk izlenimi olduğunu iddia eder. Bergson (1960:2) “Time And Free Will” adlı eserinin birinci bölümüne sarsıcı bir soruyla başlar. Farklı ebatlardaki iki alanın hangisinin daha büyük olduğuna kolaylıkla karar verebileceğimizi belirtir. Şüphesiz ki diğerini içeren, daha büyüktür. Fakat ona göre, neyin kuvvetli ya da daha az kuvvetli olduğuna dair kesin bir duyuma nasıl sahip olabileceğimiz sorusuna sadece ortak duyuma dayanarak cevap verebiliriz, fakat felsefi bir cevap veremeyiz. Felsefi bir cevap verme girişimi ister istemez niteliksiz olacaktır.. Neyin daha güçlü olduğunu belirleyecek nitelik türlerini tespit ederken ister istemez duyumlarımıza dayanmak zorunda kalırız. Bergson‟dan önce geliştirilen bilimsel zaman kavramıyla yapılan da tam olarak budur. Zaman bu tarzda kavrandığında değişim göz ardı edilmiş olur. Dünya, ancak değişmeyen mekanik bir yapı olarak algılandığında incelenebilir. Bergson ise nesnelerin “büyüklük”ü (greater) ve “küçüklük”ü (less) hakkında iddiada bulunurken bilincimizden yararlandığımızı belirtir. Bilincimiz deneyimlerimizden beslenir. Nesneleri nitelerken, deneyim alanımızdan edindiğimiz kaynaklardan faydalanarak oluşan bilincimize güveniriz. Şüphesiz ki bilincimizin oluşumu, yaşadığımız alana ve zamana bağımlıdır. Nitelendirmelerimizin bilimsel ya da felsefi olduğunu iddia edebilmemiz için şu an sahip olduğumuz imajın gelecekte de geçerli olacağına inanmamız gerekir. Fakat nesneleri ve niteliklerini, bugün bize göründükleri biçimleriyle gelecekte aynı biçimde algılanacağından nasıl emin olabiliriz? Bergson (1960:10) gelecek düşüncesinin sonsuz olasılıklara gebe olduğunu ve geleceğin kendisinden daha fazla verimli olduğunu belirterek bu soruya cevap verir. Bergson (1960:141) “özgür irade” (free will) probleminin doğanın iki rakip sisteminin çatışmasına neden olduğunu belirtir. Bunlar “mekanizm” (mechanism) ve “dinamizm”dir (dynamism). Dinamizm bilinçli ve gönüllü etkinlik düşüncesinden hareket eder. Mekanizm ise bunun tam karşıtı bir pozisyonu benimser. Materyallerin zorunlu yasalar tarafından 259 Devrim ÖZKAN yönlendirildiğini farz eder. Demek ki biri “yasalar”dan (laws) diğeri ise “olgular”dan (facts) hareket ederek varsayımda bulunmaktadır. Dinamizm için olgu mutlak gerçekliktir. Yasalar sadece az ya da çok bu gerçekliğin sembolik yansımasıdır. Mekanizm ise tam tersine, her bir olguda yasaların kesin bir miktarını keşfeder. Böylece olgu sadece bir buluşma noktasına dönüştürülür. Mekanizmde ifadesini bulan determinizm gerekliliği, kimi zaman fiziksel kimi zamansa psikolojik gerekçelere dayandırır. Eylemlerimizin arzu ve düşüncelerimizin zorunlu bir sonucu olduklarını savunarak psikolojik gerekçeler sıralar. Özgürlüğün maddenin temel özellikleriyle ve “enerjinin korunumu ilkesi”yle bağdaşmaz olduğunu savunduğunda fiziksel gerekçelerini de dile getirir. Fakat, bilincin eylemlerimizin çoğunu bilgilendirerek şekillendiği; sıradan ve öngörülemez olanın sosyal hayatın bir parçası olduğu kabul edilmelidir. Bergson‟a (1944:324) göre gerçeği statik bir biçimde kavradığımızda, her şeyin sonsuzlukta herkese tekbir biçimde göründüğüne inanırız. Bu daha çok dolayımla düşünmeye alışkın olmamızdandır. Bir nesneyi ele alırken bize kadar gelmiş olan geçmiş verilerden hareket ederiz. Ön kabuller nesneyi nasıl bir biçimde göreceğimizi belirler. Fakat doğru bir kavrayışa ulaşmak için kendimizi var olanı doğrudan düşünmeye alıştırmamız gerekir. Sadece görmek için görmeye çalışmamız gerekir. Böylece mutlak olanın kesin ölçüsünün “kendimiz” olduğu açığa çıkar. Bu ölçü matematiksel ya da mantıksal bir ölçü olmaktan çok psikolojiktir. 4 Determinizmin bir diğer özelliği de, yaşam dünyalarımızdaki olguları insani eylemin etki alanının dışında yer alan şeyler gibi ele almasıdır. Bergson ise, evrensel bir olgu olarak ele alınmış olan zamanın bile insan bilincinden bağımsız olmadığını savunur. Şüphesiz ki zamanda başa dönüp anların tekrar yaşanması mümkün değildir. Geçmiş kesinlikle geri dönülemez bir biçimde geçip gitmiştir. Kat edilen alandaki dizge olarak düşünülen art arda gelen anların resmedilmesiyle evrensel olduğuna dair algımız doğrulanır. Fakat geçmekte olan bir şey olarak sembolleştirilmez. Tam tersi bir biçimde geçip gitmiş bir şey olarak sembolleştirilir (Bergson, 1960:182). Zamanın gelecekte farklı algılanabilme potansiyeli, ona dair şu anki algımızın aynı tarzda yenileneceğinden kuşku duymamızı gerektirir. Bilimin akla metafiziğin ise sezgiye dayandığına inanan Bergson‟ın evrensel zaman ve deneyimlenen zaman arasında yaptığı ayrım, zamana ve insanın dış dünyayla ilişkisine dair tartışmalara yeni bir boyut kazandırdı. “Süre” (duration, durée) kavramına kazandırdığı yeni içerik bunu sağlayan başlıca faktördür. Genellikle, olayın sonu ve başlangıcı arasındaki geçici aralığı ifade eder. Bergson ise, fiziksel zaman ve alan ile süreyi birbirinden farklı olgular olarak ele alır. Fiziksel ya da evrensel zaman, bizlerin zamanı sıradan algılayış tarzımızdır. Fiziksel zaman evrenselleştirilip akılcılaştırılarak çeşitli araçlarla ölçülebilir hale getirilir. Bu sayede matematikleştirilmesi, olayların meydana gelişlerini belirli bir düzen içinde algılayabilmemizi sağlar. Fakat özünde boş ve “türdeş”tir (homogenous). Süre ise, tam tersi bir biçimde ruhsal deneyimin zamanıdır. Karşılıklı olarak birbirinin içine işleyen, önce ve sonrada bilincin evrensel olmayan kendindeki akışıdır. Derine yerleşmiş bilinç durumları tarafında kurgulanan süre sonsuzlukla değil sadece bireylerle ilişkilidir. Böylece özgür iradeyi mümkün kılar. Süreyi sadece sezgi sayesinde algılayabiliyor olmamız, onun varoluşumuzun dışında bir varlığa sahip olmadığının bir göstergesidir. Niteliksel değişim serileri olan süre “türdeş” (homogenous) değil fakat “türlü”dür (heterogeneous). Bu anlamda süre öznenin derin 4 Wittgenstein da bizler için son derece önemli olan şeylerin görünüşlerinin, basitlik ve benzerliklerinden dolayı gizlenmiş olduklarını söyler. Bu nedenle bir şey her zaman birinin gözlerinden önce var olduğundan, biri tarafından fark edilemez (Wittgenstein, 1968:129). Empresyonizm, Sinema ve Bergsoncu Zaman Kavramı: Zaman ve Mekân Algılarının Dönüşümü 260 yaşantısının doğasını yansıtan bir kavramdır. Sadece süreden hareket eden eylemler özgür iradenin bir sonucu olabilirler. Bergson‟ın süre ve fiziksel zaman arasında yaptığı ayrımı, determinist yaklaşımlarla arasına mesafe koymak ve onları eleştirmek için kullanır. Bergson (1944:274) “yaşam enerjisi” (élan vital, the impetus of life veya vital impetus) kavramını kullanarak “dirimselcilik”e (vitalism) dair yoğun tartışma sürdürür. Yaşayan organizmaların özelliklerini fiziksel olguları yönlendiren farklı yasalara tekabül eden kimi hayati prensiplere borçlu oldukları düşüncesine dayanan dirimselcilik, yaşayan şeylerin mekanist ve materyalist terimlerle yeterli bir biçimde açıklanamayacağını dile getirir. Organik ve inorganik fenomenler arasında temel bir ayrım olduğunda, ısrar etmek suretiyle yaşamın mekanist açıklamalarının karşıtı bir pozisyonu benimser. Dirimselciliğin kurucusu olan Aristoteles canlıların “ruh”tan (psyche, soul) ibaret olduğunu iddia eder. Bergson ise “Creative Evolution” adlı eserinde geliştirdiği “yaşam enerjisi” kavramıyla dirimselciliğe yeni bir boyut kazandırır. Darwin‟nin evrim teorisinden derinden etkilenen Bergson, kendi açıklamasının daha kullanışlı olduğunu düşünür; evrimin rastlantısal bir doğal seçim süreci olamaz der. Ona göre Darwin‟in evrim teorisi türlerin neden giderek daha kompleks bir yapı kazanmakta olduklarını açıklamakta başarısızdır. “Yaşam enerjisi” kavramını bu boşluğu doldurmak istediği için geliştirmiştir. Evrimin mekanik değil yaratıcı bir süreç olduğu iddiasına dayanan bu kavram, indirgemeci bir bilimsel açıklamaya konu olamaz. Zira kendisini sayısız formda sunmaktadır. Bu nedenle de “yaşam enerjisi” yaratım ihtiyacından doğmuştur. Kesinlikle mutlak bir biçimde yaratmaz. Zira sürekli maddeyle karşı karşıya gelmek ve onu alt etmek zorundadır. Bu kendisine karşı olan bir hareket olduğu anlamına da gelir. Kendisi için gerekli maddeyi elde edip kavrayarak mümkün olan en geniş özgürlük ve bağımsızlığın bir parçası olmasını sağlamak için çabalar. Bergson insanın zaman kavramıyla ilişkisinin de yaratıcı bir sürece tekabül ettiğini düşünür. Zamana dair geliştirdiği bu yaklaşım, madde ve ruh ikiliği problemine getirdiği çözüm önerisiyle de bağlantılıdır. Maddenin gerçekliği ile ruhun gerçekliği arasındaki ilişkiyi hafızayı inceleyerek belirlemeye çalıştığı, “Matter and Memory” adlı eserinde modern düalizmin bir diğer örneğini sunar. Hem realist hem de idealist filozoflar maddeyi yanlış biçimde ele almışlardır. Maddeyi sahip olduğumuz ya da bize sunulan bir kavrayışa indirgemek hatalıdır. İdealistlerin gözünde madde sadece bir temsildir. Fakat Bergson‟ın kullandığı “imaj” kavramının bundan çok daha fazlasını, realistlerin “şey” olarak adlandırdığından ise daha azını ifade eder. “Şey” ile “temsil” arsında bir yerde konumlanır. Bu anlamıyla madde ortak duyuya aittir. Öznelerarasında var olan ortak kavrayışın bir sonucu olarak şekillenir. Madde onu kavrayan bilinçten bağımsız olarak var olur. Fakat madde çoğu zaman, insanın onu kavradığından tamamen farklıdır. Renkler, bizlerin onlara yakıştırdığı açıklık, koyuluk ve parlaklık özelliklerinden bağımsızdır. Bizler bir nesnenin rengini kavrarken, diğerleriyle paylaştığımız ortak duyuya müracaat ederiz. Bu onların bizim zihnimizdeki bir duruma tekabül ettikleri anlamına gelmez. Onlar bizimkinden bağımsız bir varoluşun parçasıdırlar. Ortak duyu ve bilinç, onları bizlerin dışında ve resimsel bir imajını edindiğimiz bir varoluş olarak algılar. Kendi kendilerine de var olurlar ve bizim kavrayışımızla ortak duyu içinde anlam kazanırlar. Kavrayışımız evrensel görünümlerin resimsel ve sonsuz bir serisini sunar. Şimdiki kavrayışlarımızdan hareket ederek müteakip kavrayışlara ulaşmamız da mümkün değildir. Diğerleriyle birlikte geliştirdiğimiz ortak duyudan etkilenmeden madde hakkında bir sezgiye ulaşmamız olanaksızdır. Ortak duyu, bireylerin ve toplumun kaygı, ilgi ve çıkarları tarafından sürekli olarak yeniden yapılandırılır. Maddenin mutlak bir kavrayışını elde ettiğimizi düşündüğümüzde yeniden yapılandırılmakta olan ve bakış açımızı geliştirmekte kaynak olarak kullandığımız ortak duyu yeni ve farklı kavrayışlara zemin hazırlar. Öznelerarasındaki etkileşim ve iletişimin olanakları arttıkça, bu yeniden yapılanma hız kazanacağından, maddenin mutlak bir kavrayışına ulaşma olanaklarını gitgide yitirir. Önceki 261 Devrim ÖZKAN kuşakların sahip oldukları katılık ve mutlaklık hissi, öznelerarasındaki iletişimin kapsamının darlığından dolayı değişim hızının yavaş olmasındandır. Bilimsel realizm madde ve kavrayış arasında doğru bir bağlantı kuramaz. Bu maddeyi uzamda değişen türdeş bir olgu olarak ele almasından kaynaklanır. Kavrayış bilinçte gelişmeyen bir şey olarak ele alındığı sürece, doğru bir bağlantının kurulmasına olanak yoktur. Gerçekliğin belirli bir sürenin derinliğinde anlam kazandığı unutulmamalıdır. Hafıza, sürekli olarak görünen titreşimlerin devasa çoğulluğunu kısıtlayıp özetleyerek onları kavrayabilmemize olanak sağlamaktadır (Bergson, 1919:76). Yaygın duyumlarımız kendilerini zaman birimlerinin devasa miktarına doğru yaydığı sürece madde giderek daha çok türdeşleşir. Bizlerin özünde birbirinden farklı olan nesneleri zamanın ve mekânın şartlarına göre birbirinden farklı biçimlerde sınıflandırarak türdeş kılma eğiliminde olmamızın sebebi budur. Ortak duyumun bir sunucu olan türdeşliklerin evrensel bir geçerliliğe sahip olduğunu düşünme eğilimindeyiz. Nesneleri diğerleriyle benzer biçimlerde algılamaya yatkın olmamız içinde bulunduğumuz iletişim süreçlerinin bir sonucudur. Nesneleri nasıl ele alıp algılayacağımızı diğerleriyle iletişimde bulunarak öğreniriz. Diğerlerinin nesneleri geçmişte nasıl algıladıklarından ve şu andaki algılama tarzlarından belirli oranlarda etkileniriz. Öznel algılama biçimleri geliştirmeye çabaladığımızda şu andakileri ve daha öncekileri kaynak olarak kullanırız. Burada uzamın kavranamayan hareketler, genişleyemeyen duyumlar olarak ele alınmasına gerek yoktur. Özne ve nesne kapsamı genişleyen bir kavrayışta, hafızanın etkisiyle özetlenerek sıkıştırılan kavrayışın öznel alanında ve çoklukta eriyerek birleşen “öznenin nesnel gerçekliği”nde bir araya gelecektir. “Bu nedenle özne ve nesneye, birlikleri ve ayrımlarına dair meseleler uzamın terimlerinden daha çok zamanın terimleriyle ortaya koyulmalıdır” (Bergson, 1919:77). III. İfşacılık, Görsel Sunum ve Modern Kitle Sanatları 5 Bergson‟ın gerçeklik ve zaman hakkında geliştirdiği düşünceler çağdaş film teorileri başta olmak üzere modern kitle sanatlarına dair sürdürülen tartışmaları derinden etkilemiştir. Bu etki Jean Epstein (1897–1953), Dziga Vertov (1896–1954) ve Béla Balázs (1884–1949) eserlerinde karşımıza çıkan insani görme gücünün gerçekliğin doğasını kavramakta başarısız olduğu inancına temel oluşturdu (Turvey, 2008:49). Klasik teoriler olarak da bilinen 1960‟lı yıllardan önceki film teorileri sinemanın en az diğer sanatlar kadar değerli veya onlardan daha 5 “Kitle sanatı kitlesel tüketim için tipik olarak otomatik teknolojiyle seri halde üretilen sanattır. Kitle sanatı kategorisi hareketli resimler, televizyon, radyo dramları, fotoğraf, kayıtlanan ve yayınlanana müzik, çok satan romanlar, resimli hikâyeleri ve kurmaca magazinler gibi türleri içerir. Kitlesel sanat yapıtları muhtelif örneklerle simgeleştirilebilecek çalışmalardır. Örneğin, Harry Potter serisinin son tefrikaları basılı olarak milyonlarca kopya satmıştır… Sikke, çini ve oymalar gibi bazı antik örnekler seri olarak üretilen eserler olsalar da kitle sanatlarının ilk örnekleri gerçekten sadece endüstriyel kitle toplumlarının ortaya çıkmasıyla vuku bulmuştur. Gerçekten de, onun bir sanat olarak, ilk önce, endüstriyel merkezler ve kent popülâsyonlarıyla birlikte yoğun bir biçimde ortaya çıktığı düşünülebilir. Ucuz roman kitle sanatının ilk örneğidir. Harry Enton‟nun “Frank Reade and His Steam Man of the Plains” (1878) ve benzeri eserler ucuz kâğıda basıldıklarından tüketicisi olan kentli işçiler tarafından elde edilebildi. Tıpkı bunun gibi, aynı zamanda fotoğraflar, hareketli resimler, radyo ve plak benzeri eserler de kimilerinin eğlencelik olarak adlandırmayı tercih edebileceği, kitlesel olarak üretilen veya ekonomik (düşük maliyeyli) sanatlar listesine eklendiler… Seri halde üretimin başlamasından beri kitle sanatları kitlesel izleyiciye ihtiyaç duymaktadır. Tüketicisi olan herkes hakikatte modern ve endüstriyel toplumlardaki sınıf çizgilerinin üzerinde duruyor olsa da ilk başta çalışan sınıftan izleyicileri hedeflemiştir” (Carroll, 2009:415). Empresyonizm, Sinema ve Bergsoncu Zaman Kavramı: Zaman ve Mekân Algılarının Dönüşümü 262 üstün bir sanat olduğunu ispat etmeye çalıştılar. Fotoğrafçılığın sadece mekanik bir yeniden üretim olmasından dolayı bir sanat olamayacağı iddialarına karşı getirmiş olduğu yenilikleri vurguladılar. Sinemanın diğer sanatlarda var olmayan ve daha önce karşılaşmadığımız eşsiz niteliklerini vurgulayarak bir sanat dalı olarak kabul edilmesine çalıştılar. Daha önceki sanat dallarının sahip olmayıp da sinemanın sahip olduğu özelliklerin değer ve etkilerini gözler önüne serdiler. Sinemanın, diğer sanat dallarında olmayan, insani görme gücünün sınırları dışında kalan gerçekliğin diğer özelliklerini meydana çıkarma yeteneğine sahip olduğunu ileri sürdüler. Bu niteliği ile izleyiciler için gerçekliğin hakiki doğasını ifşa edebildiğini kanıtlamaya çalıştılar. Turvey (2008:3) sinemanın bir sanat dalı olmadığına cevaben geliştirilen bu teorileri “ifşacılık” (revelationist) kavramıyla adlandırmaktadır. Epstein‟e göre, sinemayla birlikte devingenliğin ifşa edilmeye başlanması insani görme gücünün ne kadar kusurlu olduğu ortaya çıkmıştır. Geçekliğin devingenlik olduğu sinema sayesinde tam olarak anlaşılabilmiştir. Bu daha önceki geleneksel sanatların betimlediği statik gerçekliğin dışında yer alan bir gerçeklik kavrayışıdır. Empresyonistler, modern yaşamın da etkisiyle, resim sanatında devingenliği, hızı ve hareketi kısmen betimleyebildiler. Fakat sinema devingenliği en mükemmel biçimde meydana çıkartırken insani algılama gücünün zaaflarını da göstermiştir. Sinemanın insana sağladığı deneyim, kurguladığımız evrensellik kavramından ve düzen algısından şüphe duymaya başlamamızı da sağladı (Turvey, 2008:22). Epstein‟in film teorisinde “olduğu gibi olan gerçeklik” ile “insani görme gücüne göründüğü gibi olan gerçeklik” arasında yapılan ayrım temel bir önem arz eder. Sinema, insan gözünün limitleri dışında yer alan olgu ve hareketleri insanın kavrayabilmesini sağlayarak devrimsel bir dönüşüme imza atmıştır. Sahip olduğu teknik imkânlar gözden farlı bir işlevi yerine getirebilmesine olanak sağlamıştır. Bu nedenle fotoğraf görüntülerinin ardı ardına dizilmesinden bambaşka işlevleri yerine getirmektedir. Müzik sadece bir duyma sanatı olarak tanımlanamaz. Tıpkı bunun gibi sinema da sadece görsel bir sanat değildir. Yaşamın ve hareketin kompozisyonunu sunarak görsel idealara ulaşmamızı sağlar. Bu anlamda Turvey (1998:36) Epstein için sinemanın sırf optik bir deneyim üreterek görsel algıyı arttıran bir sanat olduğunu söyler. Zira ona göre, fenomenolojik dünyanın bilgisi film kamerasıyla elde edilebilir. Bunu sağlayan en önemli etken bilişsel bir araca dönüşmüş olmasıdır. Sinema yönetmenin zamanda yayılmış olayları algısal olarak deneyimleyerek yansıtmasına olanak sağlar. Böylece sinema yönetmenin zamanı radikal bir biçimde kontrol etmesini temin eder. Zamanı deneyimleyen sıradan insani varoluş şuandaki ile sınırlı olduğundan diğer zamansal varoluşlarla karşılaşma imkânına sahip değildir. Sinema ise zamanı manipüle ederek diğer zaman ve mekânları şu ana taşıyan bir araçtır. Epstein‟in, çıplak insan gözünün gerçekliğin hakiki doğasını göremeyeceğine dair inancı modern bilimin kaynaklarından beslenir. Bilim adamları Galileo‟dan beri dünyanın insana rengârenk, gürültülü, kokulu, sıcak veya soğuk olarak görünmesine rağmen, hakikatte sadece renksizliğin, kokusuzluğun, sessizliğin veya elektro manyetik ışınımların hızlı devingenliği olduğunu tartışmaktadırlar. Görünüm ile gerçeklik arasındaki uçurum tipik olarak “tali nitelikler” (secondary qualities) nazariyesi tarafından açıklanmıştır. Buna göre renk, tat, ses ve koku gibi nitelikler, her ne kadar insana öyleymiş gibi görünseler de, nesnenin iyelikleri değillerdir. Bunlar, daha çok, duyu organlarımızdaki nesnelerin etkinliği ile üretilirler. Epstein de “tali nitelikler” nazariyesinden hareketle duyuların bizlere sunduğu şeylerin sadece gerçeğin sembolleri olduğunu düşünür. Madde olamayan bu semboller aslında var olmamaktadırlar ve sadece enerjiden ibarettirler. Epstein görsel kuşkuculuğu “tali nitelikler” nazariyesinin yanı sıra Bergson‟un felsefesinden de beslenir. Gerçekliğin insani görme gücüne göründüğünden daha farklı olduğunun dile getirilmesi, modern bilim tarihi açısından çarpıcı sonuçları beraberinde getirmiştir. “Matter and Memory” adlı eserinde Bergson maddenin sadece kavrandığı gibi var olduğunu felsefi olarak doğrulamaya çalışır. Bergson‟ın gerçeğin 263 Devrim ÖZKAN hiçbir zaman insanın onu kavradığı gibi olmadığını ileri sürmüş olması, sinemanın olgu ve hareketi yeni teknik imkân ve bakış açılarıyla insana sunarak, insani kavrayışa güç kattığına dair teorilerin gelişmesine olanak ve felsefi kaynak sağlar. Bergson kavrayıştan bir “yalıtma eylemi” (act of isolating) olarak bahseder. “Ona göre bir şeyi kavrarken bizi çevreleyen nesneler dünyasından bir şeyleri kesip kopartırız” (Turvey, 2008:24). Sinema sınırsız sayıdaki nesneler dünyasında kavrayış alanımızın dışında kaldığından, kavrayamadığımız olgu ve eylemleri belirli sürelere kısıtlayarak kavramamıza olanak tanır. “Bilinçaltı”nın (subconscious) zihinsel dayanağı, “bilinçli zihin”den (conscious intellect) daha çok gerçekliğin bilgisini kavrama yeteneğine sahiptir. Bilinçaltı nesnel dünyanın temel yapısını kavrayabilir. Bilinçli zihnin aksine, bilinçaltı duyumsal kavrayışın evrensel ve geçici sınırlılıklarını (başka bir ifadeyle harici görünümleri) aşarak nesnenin varoluşuna veya içsel özüne erişebilir. Dostoyevski‟nin romanlarındaki kahramanların kavrayış güçleri, bilinçten ziyade bilinçaltından hareket ederek eylemde bulunmalarından kaynaklanır. Sinematik imajda resmedilen ile izleyici arasındaki ilişkiyi tanımlamak için “sinematik telepati” terimini kullanan Epstein, bilinçaltının sahip olduğu bu gücün film kamerasında da mevcut olduğunu belirtir. Nesnenin mahrem özelliğini ifşa etmesi ona bu gücü sağlar (Turvey, 2008:26). Görsel kuşkuculuğun etkilediği bir diğer film teorisyeni ise Dziga Vertov‟dur. Eserlerini 1920‟li ve 1930‟lu yıllarda kaleme alan Vertov “kurgusal film”lerden (fiction film) nefret eder. Bu teori ve pratiğinin en iyi bilinen özelliğidir. Ekim Devrimi‟nin derin etkisi tıpkı jenerasyonunun diğer üyeleri gibi onu ve eserlerini derinden etkiledi. Sinemanın Bolşevik Devrim‟den sonraki yeni sosyalist toplumun inşasında öncü bir rol oynayabileceğine inandı. Diğer devrimci arkadaşları gibi o da bu rolün Marksizm ve Leninizm‟in teorileştirdiği sosyal gerçekliğin resmedilmesi olduğunu düşündü. Bu teoriler üzerine inşa edilecek olan yeni toplumda yapılanları ve yapılacak olanları betimlemek için büyük bir arzu duymaktaydılar. Fakat diğerlerinden farklı olarak, Vertov gerek kurgusal filmlerin gerekse avangart bir özellik gösteren Sergei Eisenstein‟ınkiler gibi filmlerin bu rolü oynayamayacağını ileri sürdü. Ona göre sinema tarihsel olguları işlemeliydi. Kurgusal filmler üretimlerinde yazılı senaryolar kullanılmaktaydı. Bu Vetrov‟un film teorisi ve pratiğinin başlıca iki ilkesini ihlal eder. Tıpkı diğer klasik film teorisyenleri gibi bir iletişim aracı olarak sinemanın tiyatro ve edebiyat gibi araçlardan bağımsız olması gerektiğini savunur. Yönetmen sinemayı diğer sanatlardan ayırarak biricik kılacak olan formel ve üslup sahibi teknikleri kullanmalıdır. Bunun için, öncelikle tiyatro, edebiyat ve müziğin yabancı içerik ve meseleleri sinemadan temizlenmelidir. Böylece sinema kendi ritmini yakalayabilir. Daha önceki sanatların sahip olmadıkları bu ritmi şeylerin hareketlerinde bulabilir. Edebiyat ve tiyatro eserlerinin bir kopyası olan senaryoların kullanılması şeylerin hareketlerindeki ritmin ele geçirilmesini önler. Ayrıca yazılı senaryolar Vetrov‟ın bağlı olduğu yapısalcı materyal kültürü ilkesini de ihlal eder. Bu ilkeye göre sanat yapıtının nihai formunu şekillendirecek olan hammadde büyük bir önem arz eder. Vetrov‟a göre sinemanın hammaddesi yaşamdaki fenomenlerdir. Yönetmen bu fenomenlerden hareket ederek filminin nesnelerine yönelmelidir. “Filmin yapımı sırasında film nesneleri için ham maddelerin toplanması ve yayına hazırlanışı safhasında materyallerin düzenlenmesi önceden belirlenemez. Öyleyse, filmin formu hammaddenin özel niteliklerinin bir sonucu olmak zorundadır” (Turvey, 2008:31). Vetrov, her ne kadar yönetmenin yaşam fenomenlerinden hareketle filmine son halini vermesi gerektiğini bir ilke olarak benimsemiş olsa da, tıpkı Epstein gibi, insani görme gücünün gerçeği olduğu şekliyle görme konusunda yetersiz olduğuna inanır. Fakat bu inancı fiziksel evrenden ziyade sosyal gerçekliğin gözlemlenmesi Empresyonizm, Sinema ve Bergsoncu Zaman Kavramı: Zaman ve Mekân Algılarının Dönüşümü 264 için geçerlidir. Sosyal gerçekliğin sadece gözden daha güçlü bir araçla ifşa edilebileceğine inanır. Ona göre bu araç sinemadır. Sinema belirli olgulara odaklanarak insan gözünün hiçbir zaman kavrayamayacağı gerçeklikleri ifşa edebilir. İnsan gözünden çok daha güçlü olan bu araçla ekrana sosyal gerçekliğe dair hakikatlerin ifşaları yansıtılabilir. Vertov film yapımcısının yaşamdaki olguları yani sinemasal yapılarda yeniden düzenlemesi gerektiğini düşünür. Bu yeniden düzenleme değişik şekillerde gerçekleştirilebilir ve montaj sürecinde mükemmel hale getirilmiş olmalıdır. Bu “Film-Gözü” (Film-Eye) metodunun son adımıdır. Günümüzde belgesel filmlerin yapımında sıklıkla kullanılan bu metot belgelerin estetik bir konseptte bir araya getirilmesine dayanır. Böylece tamamlanmış olan film, izleyicinin başka türlü başaramayacağı bir şekilde gerçekliği algılayabilmesi için yol gösterici olmalıdır. Vertov bu metot sayesinde sabit gözlemlemenin hiçbir zaman başaramayacağı aktif görüşe ulaşmayı umar. Kamerayı ideolojik bir silah olarak gören Vertov için proletarya, “Film-Gözü” metoduyla yeni insan görünümü yaratabilir. Bu görünüm Adem‟in görünümünden daha mükemmel olacaktır. Aynı zamanda bununla önceki toplumlardan daha mükemmel bir toplum görünümü de yaratılacağını öngörür (Petric, 1978:30-31). Vertov‟a göre bilimsel sosyalist dünya görüşü gerçekçiliğin betimlenmiş halidir. İnsani görme gücü sınırlı olduğundan bu gerçekliği olduğu gibi algılayamamaktadır. Film insani görme gücünün algılayamadığı bu gerçeklikleri zamanı ve mekânı manipüle ederek bir araya getirir ve insan için algılanılabilir kılar. Komünist dünya görüşünün anlatılabilmesi için “yaşamın olduğu gibi” (Life-As-It-Is) kaydedilmesi yeterlidir. Yaşam şu anı aşan bir olgu olduğundan geçmiş, bugün ve geleceği içeren sürenin farklı mekânları da içerecek biçimde betimlenmesi gerekir. Vertov da tıpkı Epstein gibi sinemanın zamanın kontrolünde eşi görülmemiş bir araç olduğunu düşünür. Sıradan insani algı şu anda gerçekleşen pek çok fenomeni yakalayamaz. Fenomenolojik dünyanın standart algısal deneyiminde şu anda olanların hepsinin algılanabilmesi olanaksızdır. Sinema zamanı kontrol ederek farklı zaman ve mekânları bir araya getirir. Böylece insani görme gücünden kaçan fenomenlerin hepsi birlikte elde edilebilir (Turvey, 1998:37). Bu nedenle Vetrov sinema sayesinde insanların ilk defa sosyal gerçekliği olduğu gibi görme olanağına kavuştuklarına inanır. İnsan gözü gerçeklikten kısa kareler çekip kopartmaktadır. Sinema ise gerçekliğin bir bütün olarak ele geçirilmesini sağlar. Geniş zaman aralıkları belirli sürelere kısıtlanabilir. Böylece uzun zaman sürelerinde insanın gözünden kaçan fenomenler ele geçirilebilir. İnsani görme gücü sabit (immobile) olduğundan gerçekliği kavramakta yetersizdir. Şu andaki olguların kavranmasında yeterlidir ve uzamda yavaşça hareket eder. Fakat sosyal gerçekliği oluşturan fenomen türlerinin gözlemlenebilmesi için hem geçiciliği hem de durağanlığı yakalayabilecek bir hareketlilik gerekir. Sinema uzamda ve zamanda sınırsız bir hareket imkanına sahiptir. İnsan fenomenleri gözlemlerken yaşam dünyası içinde belirli bir pozisyonda bulunmak zorundadır. Sinema ise hem mekânları hem de zamanları üst üste getirip çakıştırarak bakış açısının zamana ve mekâna bağımlılıktan kurtulmasına olanak sağlar. Epstein‟in insani görme gücüne güvensizliği modern bilim, Bergson felsefesi ve Romantizm‟den beslenirken, Vertov Bolşevik Devrim‟den sonra Sovyetler Birliği‟nde ortaya çıkan “makine kültü”nden etkilenerek görsel kuşkuculuğunu geliştirir. Özellikle 1920‟li yıllarda Sovyetler Birliği‟nde egemen olan “makine kültü” hem insani varoluşu hem de toplumu makinelerin mükemmelleştireceği inancına dayanır. Platon Kerzhentsev (1881-1940) ve Alexei Gastev (1882-1939) gibi 1920‟li yıllardaki Sovyet reformcuları makineleşmenin insanı varlığı mükemmelleştireceğine derinden inandılar (Turvey, 2008:34). Bu, modernleşmenin sadece bir teknolojik ve bilimsel ilerleme olarak görülmesinden kaynaklanır. Kültürel içeriklerinin göz ardı edilmesi pahasına geliştirilen bu indirgemecilik aracın insanın 265 Devrim ÖZKAN bir uzvuna dönüştüğünü ve araçlardaki gelişmelerin insani ilgi ve çıkarlara bağımlı olduğunu da gözden kaçırır. Bir diğer ifşacı film teorisyeni Béla Balázs‟dır. Entelektüel yaşamının ilk yıllarında felsefeyle ilgilendi. Berlin‟de Georg Simmel‟in, Paris‟te ise Henri Begson‟ın felsefeleri hakkında çalışmalar yürüttü. Ayrıca, Georg Lukács ile yakın arkadaşlık kurdu. Onunla birlikte 1904‟te Thalia Theater Society‟i kurdu. Fakat Lukács için bir felsefeciden ziyade sadece bir yazardı. Eserleri sol görüşlü burjuvaların kaygılarını yansıtmaktan öteye gitmiyordu. Film hakkında yazdıklarının otobiyografik bir mülakattan başka bir değer taşıdığına inanmıyordu. Bu nedenle Lukács‟a göre Balázs‟ın eserleri Marksist bir film teorisi için elverişli değildi (Koch & Hansen, 1987:167). Fakat özellikle yazılı kültüre yönelik eleştirileri yirminci yüzyılın son çeyreğinde yeniden ele alınmaya başlarken film teorisi de görsel sunumun insani algının biçimlenmesini nasıl etkilediğine yönelik sürdürülen tartışmalarda temel referans kaynaklarından biri olarak kullanıldı. Turvey (2008:38-39) Balázs‟ın film teorisini sessiz filmleri temel alarak geliştirdiğini vurgular. Sinemaya dair geliştirdiği teori görüntünün diyalog ve ses ile eşzamanlı işleyişini içermez. 1920‟li yılların sonunda sesli filmlerin ortaya çıkmasıyla sinemanın bir sanat olarak değerini kaybetmeye başladığına inanır. O da tıpkı Epstein ve Vertov gibi insani görme gücünün güvenilmez olduğuna inanır. Fakat görsel kuşkuculuğu diğerlerinkinden belirli farklılıklara sahiptir. Tıpkı diğerleri gibi sinemanın çıplak insan gözü için gizli olan gerçeklik hakkındaki doğruları ifşa edebileceğine inanır. Sinema dış dünyadaki herhangi bir olguyu diğerlerinden yalıtarak, ekrana yansıtmak suretiyle yeni bir görsel boyutla karşı karşıya kalmamızı sağlar. Sinema sayesinde günlük yaşamda karşılaşmadığımız ya da gözümüzden kaçan nesne ve eylemlere odaklanabiliriz. Buraya kadar Epstein ve Vertov ile aynı görüşleri paylaşan Balázs, insani görme gücünün yetersizliğini tarihsel şartlara bağlar ve bunun giderilebileceğine inanır. Epstein ve Vertov insani görme gücünün yetersizliklerini insani varoluşun kökenlerinde arar. Fakat Balázs‟a göre insanlar nasıl görmeleri gerektiğini modernlik koşullarında gelişen kimi özel etkilerden dolayı unutmuşlardır. Yazılı basının icadıyla birlikte insanlar giderek ilgi, çıkar ve bireyselliklerini yazılı materyaller vasıtasıyla yansıtmaya başladılar. Yazılı materyallerin öznelerarasındaki iletişim ve etkileşim süreçlerinde belirleyici olmalarıyla birlikte kelimelerle soyutlanmış duygu ve düşüncelerin kullanımı yaygınlık kazandı. Bu insani yüz yüze iletişim ve beden dilinin sahip olduğu potansiyelin yitirilmesine neden oldu. Sadece duygulara dayanan ve akılla biçimlendirilmeyen hislerin yüz ve bedenle yansıtılabileceğine inanan Balázs modern kültürün bunlar yerine rasyonel ve kavramsal bir kültürü ikame ettiğini düşünür. Balázs‟ın film teorisinde modernliğin yol açtığı yazılı kültür insani görme gücünü sınırlayan tarihsel bir faktör olarak yer alır. İnsani görme gücünün daha önce kendisine kapalı olmayan çok sayıdaki nesne ve eylemi algılayamamasının nedeni yazılı kültürün yol açtığı alışkanlıklardır. Çıplak insan gözü tarihsel sınırlılıkları aşarak yitirmiş olduğu yetenekleri yeniden elde etmeye muktedirdir. Dış dünyayla yazı vasıtasıyla iletişim kurmak hem gözlemleme hem de duygu ve düşüncelerini beden diliyle yansıtabilme yeteneklerini kaybetmesine neden olmuştur. Balázs‟a göre sessiz filmlerle birlikte insan görme gücünün kapasitesini arttırma olanağına kavuşmuştur. Sessiz filmler vasıtasıyla sadece görsel imajlarla baş başa kalmaya başlayan insanlar, bedensel tutumların ve yüz ifadelerinin nasıl kullanılabileceğini ve anlaşılabileceğini yeniden öğrenmeye başladı. Empresyonizm, Sinema ve Bergsoncu Zaman Kavramı: Zaman ve Mekân Algılarının Dönüşümü 266 Koch ve Hansen‟e göre (1987) Balázs‟ın yazılarının çağdaş düşünce üzerindeki etkisi kapalı ve teorik bir sistem olarak sunulmamış olmalarından kaynaklanır. Kısa denemelerden oluşan bu yazılar adeta çağdaş yaşamın bir fenomenolojisi gibidir. Tıpkı Simmel gibi Balázs da dikkatini yeni, modern ve moda olana yönelterek antropolojik bir çalışma metodu kullanır. Yeni film aracında görselliğin yeni bir boyutunu keşfettiğine inanır. Bu boyut, dilin gelişiminden önce var olmuş ve insanlar arasında en uzun süre kullanılmış mimiklerin işlevini gören bir iletişim aracıdır. Ona göre film imajları ile mantıksal yapılar arasındaki derin uçurum yönetmenin yaratıcı gücünü arttırmaktadır. Film imajlarını kullanarak yaratımda bulunmanın herhangi bir sınırı bulunmamaktadır. Bu nedenle iletişimsel ve bilgi verici işlevi yazılı dilin sahip olduğundan çok daha fazladır. Sonuç Görsel kuşkucular insani görme gücünün zayıflıklarının nesne ve eylemleri kolayca anlaşılabilecek bir biçimde soyutlama eğiliminde olmasından kaynaklandığına inanırlar. Gerçekten de insan sayısız nesne ve eylemlerle çevrelenmiş durumdadır. Üstelik bu nesne ve eylemler devingen bir yapı arz ettiklerinden her geçen gün başkalaşmaktadırlar. Bunların karmaşıklıklarından soyutlanarak anlaşılabilecek bir hale getirilmeleri algılanabilmeleri için gereklidir. İnsanın kendisini çevreleyen olguları soyutlaması; daha önce deneyimledikleriyle benzeştirmesi; diğerlerinin deneyimlediklerini olduğu gibi kabul etmesi, yaşam dünyasının sadeleşmesine neden olur. Böylece güvenle yaşayabileceği bir yaşam dünyası olanaklı hale gelir. Bergson‟ın insanın zaman olarak kavradığı şeyin deneyimlenen zaman olduğunu ve bunun evrensel zamandan son derece farklı olduğunu iddia etmesi, çağdaş film teorisyenlerini görsel imajların insani varoluş üzerindeki etkilerini yeniden değerlendirmeye sevk etti. İnsanın algıladığı şeylerin, nesne ve eylemlerden hareket ederek yarattıkları ve kurguladıkları şeyler olarak görülmesiyle, dünyaya dair yargılarımızın kökenleri ve inşa süreçleri de yeni bir bakış açısıyla ele alınmaya başlar. Bir şeyin ne olduğu hakkındaki bilgimiz, gerçekte ne olduğundan çok ortak duyuma mı dayanmaktadır? Eğer böyleyse, ortak duyudan ayrı, sadece nesneye odaklanmış bir algının gerçekleştirilmesi mümkün olabilir mi? Modernlik farklı zaman ve mekânlardaki duygu, düşünce ve kültürleri tek bir mekânda toplayarak, iletişimde ve etkileşimde bulunmalarını sağladıkça dünyaya dair algılarımızın gelip geçici olduğu konusunda ortak bir bilinç oluşmaya başladı. Bir yandan bir arada yaşamanın evrensel ilkelerini inşa etme çabasında olan insanlık farklılıklarıyla sürekli yüzleşti. Farklılıklarına rağmen nasıl bir arada yaşayabileceği hem hukuki hem de kültürel bir sorun olarak karşısına çıktı. Estetik değerlerin ve inşa süreçlerinin sürekli olarak etkileşimde olması, bir yandan benzeşimleri diğer yandan ayrımları güçlendirerek ters yönlü iki etkiyi de beraberinde getirdi. Bu süreçte görsel imajlar katılıklarını yitirdiler. Sinema ve televizyon sayesinde insanlar diğer mekân ve zamanlardaki nesne ve eylemlerle sürekli karşı karşıya kaldılar. Bu dünyayı algılayış tarzlarında yaşanan derin bir dönüşüme neden oldu. İnsan, görme gücünün birer aracı haline gelen sinema ve televizyon ile kendisi için daha önceleri gizli olan şeyleri birlikte algılayıp hakkında tartışma yürütür ve karşı karşıya kaldığı ilişki biçimlerini tekrar edip dönüştürerek yaşamının bir parçası kılar. İnsani görme gücünün kapsamı genişledikçe ve geniş bir izleyici kitlesi tarafından algılandıkça öznelerarası iletişimde bulunan özneler hep birlikte akıl yürüterek kamusal alanı dönüştürürler. Bu dönüşüm sürecini farklı zaman ve mekânlardaki diğerlerinin deneyimleri kaynak olarak kullanarak zenginleştirir ve hızlandırırlar. Yine bu süreçte güzelin ne olduğuna dair yargılarda bulunurken, tüm zaman ve mekânları kaynak olarak kullanma imkânına kavuşurlar. Sinema ve televizyon başka yer ve zamanda olanı günlük yaşamımıza taşıdıkça, güzelin ne olduğuna dair yargılarımız yerele bağımlı olmaktan kurtulur. İnsan kendisini diğerinin aynasında gördükçe, 267 Devrim ÖZKAN yaşamını başka bir tarzda da biçimlendirebileceğini fark eder. Bu ayna vazifesini sinema ve televizyon görmektedir. İletişim ve etkileşimin farklı zaman ve mekânlar arasında gerçekleştirilebilirliği bakış açılarının sabitliğini ortadan kaldırır. Değişik açılardan nesne ve eylemleri değerlendirme alışkanlığı algılanan şeylerin şuan algılandıkları gibi gelecekte algılanmayacaklarının genel bir kabul görmesine yol açar. KAYNAKÇA AUGUSTİNE. (2005). The Confessions of Saint Augustine. Edited by Philip M. Parker. San Diego: Icon Classics. BARASCH, Moshe. (1998). Modern Theories Of Art 2: From Impressionism To Kandinsky. New York and London: New York University Press. BAXANDALL, Michael. (1988). Painting And Experience In Fifteenth Century Italy: A Primer In The Social History Qf Pictorial Style. Oxford: Oxford University Press. BERGSON, Henri. (1919). Matter and Memory. Translation by Nancy Margaret Paul & W. Scott Palmer. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. BERGSON, Henri. (1944). Creative Evolution. Translation by Arthur Mitchell. New York: The Modern Library BERGSON, Henri. (1960). Time And Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness. Translation by F. L Pogson. New York: Harper & Brothers. CARROLL, Noël. (2009). “Mass Art.” Pp. 415-418 in A Companion to Aesthetics, Second Edition, edited by Stephen Davies, Kathleen Marie Higgins, Robert Hopkins, Robert Stecker, and David E. Cooper. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. HAUSER, Arnold. (1999). The Social History of Art Volume I: From Prehistoric Times to the Middle Ages. Translated in collaboration with the author by Stanley Godman. London and New York: Routledge. HAUSER, Arnold. (2006). Sanatın Toplumsal Tarihi Cilt/2, çev.Yıldız Gönüllü. Ankara: Deniz Kitapevi. JONES, T.W. & FOGELİN, J.R. (1997). A History of Western Philosophy: The Twentieth Century to Quine and Derrida. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. KİNG, Ross. (2006). The Judgment of Paris: The Revolutionary Decade That Gave The World Impressionism. New York: Walker & Company. KOCH, Gertrud & Hansen, Miriam. (Winter, 1987). “Béla Balázs: The Physiognomy of Things.” New German Critique, No. 40, Special Issue on Weimar Film Theory, pp. 167-177. MATTİCK, Paul. (2003). Art In Its Time: Theories And Practices Of Modern Aesthetics. London and New York: Routledge. Empresyonizm, Sinema ve Bergsoncu Zaman Kavramı: Zaman ve Mekân Algılarının Dönüşümü 268 PETRİC, Vlada. (Autumn, 1978). “Dziga Vertov as Theorist.” Cinema Journal, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 29-44. Texas: University of Texas Press. REİD, Douglas A. (2000). Playing And Praying. Pp. 745-810 in The Cambridge Urban History of Britain Volume III 1840-1950, edited by Martin Daunton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. TURVEY, Malcolm. (2008). Doubting Vision: Film and the Revelationist Tradition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. TURVEY, Malcolm. (Winter, 1998). “Jean Epstein's Cinema of Immanence: The Rehabilitation of the Corporeal Eye.” October, Vol. 83, pp. 25-50. WİTTGENSTEİN, Ludwig. (1968). Philosophical Investigations. Translated by G. E. M. Anscombe. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. ZANER, Richard M. (Mar., 1972). “Discussion of Jacques Derrida, „The Ends of Man‟.” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 384-389. 
work_ohxw246jh5h2vnutypsjyyotlu	----	Sans Documents, Pas d’Incohérents / Sztuki Niezborne i Praktyka Dokumentu (1882–1893) Galeria Sztuka i Dokumentacja nr 20 (2019) │ Art and Documentation no. 20 (2019) • ISSN 2080-413X • e-ISSN 2545-0050 • doi:10.32020/ARTandDOC290 doi:10.32020/ARTandDOC/20/2019/25 Galeria 291Sztuka i Dokumentacja nr 20 (2019) │ Art and Documentation no. 20 (2019) • ISSN 2080-413X • e-ISSN 2545-0050 • doi:10.32020/ARTandDOC Corinne TAUNAY INCOHERENT ARTS AND THE PRACTICE OF DOCUMENT (1882-1893) The last exhibition of Incoherent Arts took place in 1893. However, Alphonse Allais retroactively presented three of four pieces from 1883 and 1884 displayed during the Incoherents’ exhibition as late as in his 1897 April Fools’ Day Album which features mainly “monochromes.” It is true that only three titles are registered in the Incoherents’ catalogues: First Communion of Anemic Young Girls in the Snow, Tomato Harvesting by Apoplectic Cardinals on the Shore of the Red Sea, Great Pains Are Silent. It was retroactive as well when in 1904 - long before Yves Klein - in an article signed “Aesop Jr.”, printed in Le Sourire, Allais established the term “monochrome” to describe pieces created with the use of one color only. This very text from 1904, which content seems to have been overlooked, marks the beginning of the monochrome’s genealogy. Considering the analysis scheme of Alphonse Allais’s work presented here a starting point, it is easy to understand the role which documents – prints – have played in the history of Incoherent Arts and their reception up until now. In this article I am analyzing publications where certain documents were printed (daily newspapers, exhibition catalogues, entry cards, bills, posters, etc.) throughout the history of the artistic group known as Incoherents. The group which used to consist of over six hundred artists and presented more than a thousand pieces during their seven exhibitions organized in Paris between 1882-1893 exists in our collective memory nowadays, despite the great volume of its artwork, solely thanks to archives. Paradoxically the group members ignored all administrative conventions and classifications in power at that time. They held in disregard rules settled by the Academy of Fine Arts and adopted a different, seemingly simple one: “Show an exhibition of drawings made by people who cannot draw.” Incoherent artists created many innovative pieces, anticipating the most avant-garde artistic forms of the XX century; they were artists of a new kind – people of different professions. To present some examples of the few humoristic masterpieces I would like to mention Feet by Henri Gray, sculpted in a piece of gruyère cheese, or Venus de Mille Eaux (Venus of Thousand Waters which pronounced in French sounds the same as Venus de Milo) – a plaster copy of the Greek statue overlaid with bottled mineral water etiquettes. The ephemeral artistic practice was bound to result in dematerialization of Incoherent works; what remains are no more than a dozen of original pieces. Thus, these are documents of all types that allow one to analyze some of Incoherent works’ meaning, reveal the Incoherent artists’ intentions and deepen one’s knowledge concerning this still rather obscure artistic movement. For many years it was thought nothing more than a farce, a group of people making “insignificant jokes,” now however, we have discovered that Incoherents were closely connected with avant-garde movements of their day, such as naturalism or impressionism, though, they parodied those. Ridiculing everything including themselves they criticized the bourgeois social and political reality. Thanks to press releases we managed to establish that their first exhibition, with no catalogue or poster, took place on 2nd August 1882, on the day when the parliament passed a law concerning morality image. Thanks to documents, which we continue to discover, it is now known that the movement was far more complex than it may have primarily seemed. The radical contempt for classical academic drawing situates the group next to other avant-gardes of the late XIX century, its critical perspective questioned the culture of “good taste” as well as the middle-class, institutionalized notions concerning beauty. Incoherents pioneered many avant-garde artistic forms that flourished in the XX century, though particularly – that is what we claim – their attitude towards the relation between art and non-art anticipated the dada movement. doi:10.32020/ARTandDOC/20/2019/25 
work_oj2w4xhs35egbjhjaklloda6h4	----	444 EPITOME. - [April, and realities of life. The somatic constitution showed that eight were pure pyknics, and only one showed no pyknic traits at all. The course of the disease is very protracted, six of the patients being over 8o years. Only three showed clinical symptoms of cerebral arteriosclerosis. The author believes that the pathogenic factor is represented by changes in the brain, which could consist of arteriosclerosis or senile degeneration, and that the personality constitutes the pathoplastic factor. But he presumes that the cycloid temperament (personality) at the same time tends to prevent dementia and volitional inertia, in contrast with the non-cycloid seniles, who do not use their abilities, even if they are preserved to a certain extent. S. L. LAST. Mental Aspects of Brain Tumours in Psychotic Patients. (Journ. Nerv. and Ment. Dis., vol. lxxviii, pp.@ and 500, Oct—Nov., 1933.) Jameison, G. R., and Henry, G. IV. From their experience with 26 psychotic patients who developed brain tumour, the presence of which was established at autopsy, the authors draw various conclu sions. They point out that there is no psychosis characteristic of brain tumour. The clinical picture of brain tumour manifestations, superimposed upon a psychosis, is characterized by changing contrasts and incongruities in the symptoms and signs, and by evidence of organic disease of brain, which becomes increasingly obvious. More than half of the patients are depressed, and a larger percentage are distinctly apprehensive. At least one-fourth of the patients were suicidal. One fourth had some insight into the fact that a serious complication had arisen in their illness. G. W. T. H. FLEMING. General Paretics Before and After Malarial Treatment : An Experimental Psycho logical Investigation [Progressive Paraivtiker vor und nach der Malaria behandlung : Eine experi@nentellpsychologische A rbeit] . (Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Neurol. u. Psvchiat., vol. cxlvi, p. 66r, 1933.) lVeisfeld, M. The author examined 29 paretics with various tests. He sets out to show how the improvement achieved by malarial treatment can be demonstrated by different tests. Such tests were carried out twice, first before, secondly after the treatment. The following different psychical and psychomotor functions were tested in this investigation : Memory, impressionability, the mental horizon (and imaginative power), calculation, intellectual activity, the intelligence (in a more restricted sense than usual), the power to deliver moral judgments, attention, handwriting and manual speed. As the results are given in figures, the improvement can be expressed in percentages. Of all the cases, 45% only showed an improvement in the power to reach moral judgments, 56% @flattention and 6, % in their manual speed, whereas 68—78% of the patients had better results in the various other tests. The author is not satisfied with the explanation given by other authors that the intellectual improvements are due to an increase in activity only, but holds that the various functions themselves have been changed for the better by the malarial treatment. S. L. LAST. Psychic Trauma and Hvperlh3roid Conditions [El trauma psIquico y los estados hipertiroideos@.(La Semana Med., vol.xli,p.@ Feb.8, 1934.)RodrIguez, A. D'A., and Lejtman, S. Nine cases, uncomplicated by pathological antecedents or concurrent ailments, have been fully studied. The emotional shock constantly reacts upon the thyroid function, and is capable of disturbing it even in quite healthy subjects. The cases present a clinical picture which is nearly always incomplete; the diagnosis is at times difficult, but not impossible. The history of psychic trauma with the immediate commencement of the symptoms should put us on the track of the 
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work_opmzfulwivbdfkgceqnfj7zinu	----	Compassion fatigue: how much can I give? An increasing number of publications examine the disturbing effects on clini- cians of witnessing or learning of trauma experienced by their patients. This vicarious traumatisation is described in various terms, including secondary vic- timisation, secondary survival, emo- tional contagion, counter-transference, burnout and compassion fatigue. It is generally accepted that, while they have significant similarities, there are also differences between these phenomena. Central to these processes is the use of empathy by clinicians. What is the role of empathy in the doctor)patient rela- tionship? Clues … were ignored, with the doctor usually exploring the diagnostic aspects of symptoms The nature of empathy and its role in a helping relationship has been debated from a variety of theoretical viewpoints over several decades. Reynolds’ 1 review of the role of empathy illustrates the development of the construct and pre- sents a view that it is multidimensional and has emotive, moral, cognitive and behavioural components. Definitions of empathy vary. Gerald Egan, 2 reviewing the work of Carl Rogers, 3 describes empathy as ‘a way of being’, where the helper, without judgement, enters the private world of the client. Egan further describes a deeper level of empathy, where the helper gains an insight, beyond that of the client, into the client’s own story. A study by Suchman et al. 4 of doctors working in a primary care setting showed this empathic understanding of the ‘story behind the story’ to be lacking. The study found that both clues and direct expression of affect were ignored, with the doctor usually exploring the diagnostic aspects of symptoms. Rey- nolds 1 extends Rogers’ definition by including the communication of this understanding of the ‘story behind the story’ to the client as a means of valid- ating the client’s world. Other research has indicated that there is a relationship between clinicians’ empathy and compassion and the quality of the care they provide. 5 If this is the case, why is it that empathy and compassion often appear to be lacking in therapeutic relationships? Central to these processes is the use of empathy by clinicians Halpern 6 gives the following reasons why doctors might seek detachment from, rather than emotional engage- ment with, their patients: protection from burnout, improved concentration, rationing of time, maintenance of im- partiality, and that the fact that ‘emo- tions are inherently subjective influences that interfere with objectivity’. She also reports that detachment does not pro- tect doctors from burnout; rather, burn- out can be linked to time pressures and other organisational issues that prevent the development of doctor)patient re- lationships. Research on burnout has shown that it is a process that begins gradually and progressively worsens, and that a key element of it is emotional exhaustion. 7 Figley has researched the field of stress related to the use of empathy and compassion and has des- cribed a stress response that emerges suddenly and without warning and that includes characteristics such as a sense of helplessness and confusion, feelings of isolation from supporters and symp- toms that are often disconnected from their real cause. However, there appears to be a faster recovery rate from this particular stress response than there is from burnout. Figley uses the term ‘compassion fatigue’ to describe this process, which he regards as secondary traumatic stress, or the stress resulting from the learning of, or witnessing of, a traumatising event involving some other significant person. Detachment does not protect physicians from burnout While empathic engagement with patients may be independent of the development of burnout, Figley des- cribes the use of empathy as one of the particular reasons why trauma workers are especially vulnerable to compassion fatigue. While only a portion of clini- cians is exposed on a frequent basis to traumatic material, those who are may experience emotions similar to those of their patients. Elsewhere in Figley’s book, the development of compassion fatigue is described as being possibly due to an over-intensive identification with the survival strategies adopted by patients, and inappropriate or lacking personal survival strategies. ‘Compassion fatigue’, or secon- dary traumatic stress, results from the learning of, or witness- ing of, a traumatising event involving some other significant person Pearlman and Saakvitne 8 describe a process for managing and treating com- passion fatigue. Their interventions are grouped into personal, professional and organisational categories. Personal strat- egies include identifying and making sense of disrupted schemas, striking an appropriate work)life balance, under- taking personal psychotherapy, identify- ing healing activities and attending to Correspondence: Peter Huggard, Senior Lecturer, Department of General Practice and Primary Health Care, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, PO Box 92 019, Auckland, New Zealand. Tel: 00 64 9 373 7599; Fax: 00 64 9 373 7006; E-mail: p.huggard@auckland.ac.nz Arts and humanities � Blackwell Publishing Ltd M E D I C A L E D U C A T I O N 2003;37:163–164 163 spiritual needs. Professional strategies include undertaking regular professional supervision with an experienced senior colleague where patients can be dis- cussed and the clinician’s own responses to them examined without embarrass- ment and fear of censure, engaging in appropriate self-care practices, develop- ing and maintaining professional net- works, having a realistic tolerance of failure, and being aware of work and personal goals. Organisational strategies include developing a workplace envi- ronment that is as comfortable as poss- ible, and ensuring a culture of support and respect within the workplace that relates to employees as well as to patients. Compassion fatigue is described as being possibly due to inap- propriate or lacking personal survival strategies What are the requirements of a med- ical education programme that will pre- pare doctors to manage the effects of processes such as compassion fatigue? Public opinion since ancient times has required that doctors be equipped with such characteristics as integrity, sacrifice and compassion. The quality of com- passion is one of the key components in the development of the humanistic doctor. 9 Although the ‘fatigue of compassion’ can be managed as des- cribed above, to do so requires the development of skills in self-awareness that enable medical students and doc- tors to more effectively engage empa- thetically with their patients and to gain insight into their own responses to their patients’ stories. This path of personal growth will lead to greater well-being, 9 to greater use, by doctors, of themselves as therapeutic agents 10 and to an increased capacity on the part of doctors to give of themselves in their therapeutic relationships with their patients. The humanistic educator-physician can have a major influence as a role model at one of the most important and impression- able times of a young doctor’s life – namely, during their medical education. In ‘caring for the carers’, the chal- lenge for health care organisations lies in developing respect and care for their employees in the same way that they require their employees to care for patients. In doing this, health care organisations will support and assist their employees in sustaining and fur- ther developing their humanism. Health professionals will then be able to give of themselves in the therapeutic relationship in a manner that enhances the physician)patient relationship and the lives of both the care-giver and the patient. Peter Huggard Auckland, New Zealand References 1 Reynolds WJ. The Measurement and Development of Empathy in Nursing. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing 2000. 2 Egan G. The Skilled Helper. California: Brooks ⁄ Cole Publishing Co 1994. 3 Rogers CR. A way of being. Boston: Houghton Mifflin 1980. 4 Suchman AL, Markakis K, Beckman HB, Frankel R. A model of empathic communication in the medical inter- view. JAMA 1997;277:678–82. 5 Bellet PS, Maloney M. The importance of empathy as an interviewing skill in medicine. JAMA 1991;266:1831–2. 6 Halpern J. From Detached Concern to Empathy: Humanising Medical Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2001. 7 Figley CR. Compassion Fatigue. New York: Brunner ⁄ Mazel 1995. 8 Pearlman LA, Saakvitne KW. Treating therapists with vicarious traumatisation and secondary traumatic stress disor- ders. In: Figley CR, ed. Compassion Fatigue. New York: Brunner ⁄ Mazel 1995;150–77. 9 Novack DH, Epstein RM, Paulsen RH. Towards creating physician-healers. Fostering medical students’ self-aware- ness, personal growth and well-being. Acad Med 1999;74:516–20. 10 Novack DH, Kaplan G, Epstein RM, Clark W, Suchman AL, O’Brian M et al. Personal awareness and professional growth: a proposed curriculum. Med Encount 1997;13:2–8. Compassion fatigue: How much can I give? • P Huggard164 � Blackwell Publishing Ltd M E D I C A L E D U C A T I O N 2003;37:163–164 
work_oqnv2x4bivb3pnzbxrqnhaoypi	----	306767 1..16 Who art thou? Personality predictors of artistic preferences in a large UK sample: The importance of openness Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic1*, Stian Reimers2, Anne Hsu2 and Gorkan Ahmetoglu 1 1Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK 2Department of Psychology, University College London, London, UK The present study examined individual differences in artistic preferences in a sample of 91,692 participants (60% women and 40% men), aged 13–90 years. Participants completed a big five personality inventory and provided preference ratings for 24Q7 different paintings corresponding to cubism, renaissance, impressionism, and Japanese art, which loaded on to a latent factor of overall art preferences. As expected, the personality trait openness to experience was the strongest and only consistent personality correlate of artistic preferences, affecting both overall and specific preferences, as well as visits to galleries, and artistic (rather than scientific) self-perception. Overall preferences were also positively influenced by age and visits to art galleries, and to a lesser degree, by artistic self-perception and conscientiousness (negatively). As for specific styles, after overall preferences were accounted for, more agreeable, more conscientious and less open individuals reported higher preference levels for impressionist, younger and more extraverted participants showed higher levels of preference for cubism (as did males), and younger participants, as well as males, reported higher levels of preferences for renaissance. Limitations and recommen- dations for future research are discussed. Why do we like some forms of art 1 and not others? Are our individual art preferences formed just from miscellaneous aesthetic experiences? The enduring presence of art in human history suggests that its connection to humanity is deeper than merely an arbitrary medley of random aesthetic inclinations. Moreover, understanding the psychological determinants of art preferences is likely to offer a number of benefits to society. For instance, knowing what types of art resonate with different personality traits can be useful to promote art in the community, inspire individual learners, and appeal to individual consumers. Likewise, knowledge of generic art preferences (what most * Correspondence should be addressed to Dr Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic, Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London, London SE14 6NW, UK (e-mail: pss02tc@gold.ac.uk). 1 In the context of the current manuscript ‘art’ is used predominantly to refer to visual art, i.e. paintings. BJP 648—12/9/2008—RAJADURAI—306767 The British Psychological Society 1 British Journal of Psychology (2008), 00, 1–16 q 2008 The British Psychological Society www.bpsjournals.co.uk DOI:10.1348/000712608X366867 dislike or like) can be used to create common environments that appeal to all individuals rather than providing pleasure to some and causing dislike in all others. Finally, from a more theoretical standpoint, any connection between psychological dispositions (such as personality traits) and artistic preferences is likely to enrich our understanding of the psychological consequences of individual differences, that is, what makes one person different from another. In light of the above questions it is unsurprising that for the better part of the last century researchers investigated the connection between personality and visual art preferences (Carroll & Enrich, 1932; Child, 1962, 1965; Eysenck, 1940; Juhasz & Paxson, 1978; Robertoux, Carlier, & Chaguiboff, 1971; Rosenbluh, Owen, & Pohler, 1972; Tobacyck, Myers, & Bailey, 1979; Wilson, Ausman, & Matthews, 1973). Some of this work has focused on personality correlates of aesthetic preferences for basic visual features using varying-sided polygons (Looft & Baranowski, 1971; Rawlings, Twomey, Burns, & Morris, 1998a; Eysenck, 1972) or line drawings of varying complexity (Dellas & Gaier, 1970; Zuckerman, Bone, Neary, Magelsdorff, & Brustman, 1972). More recent work on this subject has focused on personality and preferences among specific painting styles (Feist & Brady, 2004; Furnham & Avison, 1997; Furnham & Bunyan, 1998; Furnham & Walker, 2001a,b; Tobacyck, Myers, & Bailey, 1981; Zuckerman, Ulrich, & McLaughlin, 1993). Indeed, art preferences have been found to be related to a variety of personality traits such as extraversion (Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2004a; b), neuroticism (Furnham and walker, 2001b), schizotopy (Rawlings, 2000), behavioural approach versus inhibition (Rawlings & Bastian, 2002), conservatism (Furnham and Walker, 2001a; Wilson, Ausman, & Matthews, 1973), conformity (Feist et al., 2004), intelligence (Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2004a; b),Q1 scientific attitude (McManus, 2006; McManus & Furnham, 2006), as well as other individual characteristics such as sex (Furnham and Walker, 2001a; Rawlings, 2003), age and education (McManus and Furnham, 2006). The five factor or ‘big five’ model of personality With the widespread adoption of the five factor or ‘big five’ personality framework, it has been easier to compare the findings from different investigations into individual difference determinants of artistic preferences. According to the big five, non-clinical individual differences can be classified on the basis of five main personality factors (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2007; Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2005; Matthews, Deary &Q1 Whiteman, 2003), namely extraversion, conscientiousness, neuroticism, agreeableness and openness to experience. Extraversion measures quantity and intensity of interpersonal interaction, activity level, external stimulation and capacity for joy. Conscientiousness measures degree of organisation, persistence, dependability and goal-directed behaviour. Neuroticism measures emotional instability and predisposition to experience psychological distress and have maladaptive coping responses. Finally, openness measures intellectual curiosity, creative interests, and preference for new experiences and toleration of the unfamiliar. It is therefore unsurprising that openness has been suggested to be the most salient big five correlate of art. Openness A wide range of studies have consistently found that more open individuals engage in more general art and visual art activities, identify more with art and have greater preference for general visual arts relative to people with lower openness several studies 2 Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic et al. BJP 648—12/9/2008—RAJADURAI—306767 reported correlations in the range of .2–.4 between openness and various measures of artistic interests and preferences (Chamorro-Premuzic and Furnham, 2004a; b; Feist & Brady, 2004; Furnham & Avison, 1997; 1998; 2001a; b; McCrae, 1987; McCrae & Costa, 1997; Rawlings, 2000; Rawlings, Twomey, Burns, & Morris, 1998b). This is consistent with McCrae and Costa’s (1997, p. 825) conceptualization of high openness as a core characteristic of artists: ‘As neurotics can be used as examplars of high scores on the dimension of neuroticism, so artists can be considered primer examples of individuals high in openness to experience’. Consequently, a recent study by McManus and Furnham (2006) found that individuals who score high on openness display more positive aesthetic attitudes such as beliefs that art can be appreciated without complete emotional understanding, appreciation of aesthetic quality and aesthetic relativism, and a value for arts in general. In terms of painting preferences, open individuals, have been shown to prefer art in general (Feist & Brady, 2004), pop art (Furnham and Walker, 2001b), and in particular abstract art (Feist & Brady, 2004; Furnham & Walker, 2001a). Open individuals have higher levels of imagination, need for cognition, and divergent thinking; they also display low authoritarianism, liberal attitudes and non-conventional preferences. These qualities are harmonious with the notions of abstract art being more modern, un-traditional, and depicting subject matter through intrinsic qualities rather than literal representational forms. Openness is also associated (typically in the region of .4; AlujaQ1 et al., 2003) with higher levels of sensation seeking, a trait that has been found to correlate positively with artistic preferences in the range of .2–.4 (Furnham & Avison, 1997; 2001a; b; Rawlings, Twomey, Burns, & Morris, 1998b, 2002; Zuckerman et al., 1972, 1993). Extraversion, conscientiousness, neuroticism and agreeableness Other big five traits have also been associated with art preferences and interests, albeit less consistently. Extraversion has been linked both positively and negatively with art judgment ability, depending on the task used (Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2004a; b). Additionally, extraversion has been associated with appreciation of aesthetic quality and aesthetic relativism (McManus, 2006). Conscientiousness on the other hand has been negatively associated with visual as well as general art activities (McManus, 2006), a preference for representational art and a dislike of pop and abstract art (Furnham & Walker, 2001a). Correlations between Conscientiousness and art judgments have been shown to be both positive and negative (Furnham & Rao, 2002). Neuroticism has been shown to positively correlate with preference for abstract and pop art (Furnham and Walker, 2001b). Agreeableness has been correlated with a lesser preference for pop art (Furnham & Walker, 2001a), a greater preference for representational art (Furnham & Avison, 1997), as well as a lesser tendency to participate in general art activities, despite the fact that agreeable people seem to value aesthetics more (McManus, 2006). While all these other four factors of personality have been associated in some form with art interests, the results were often either not replicated or inconsistent across studies. Science versus art, sex and age Another important determinant of individual differences in artistic preferences is vocational interest, particularly whether one sees himself or herself as more of a scientist or an artist. The historic divide between science and art was famously highlighted in the Personality and art 3 BJP 648—12/9/2008—RAJADURAI—306767 much referenced and often criticised lecture by Snow (1964) on the two cultures, which divided Western society on the basis of two opposite intellectual worlds, namely science and art. In line, Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) conducted an extensive meta- analysis of the correlations among personality traits and vocational interests, obtaining separated clusters or trait complexes for science/math on one hand, and intellectual/cultural on the other. More recently, McManus (2006) found that science students participated significantly less often than other students in all but one out of 17 cultural activities measured. The largest differences were for the activities of drawing and painting, going to museums and art galleries, reading about art, reading poetry, and going to the theatre, opera and ballet. This study also found that while both science and non-science students had similar scores on the personality dimension of openness, the correlation between the trait of openness and cultural arts activity is lower in scientists than in non-scientists. Finally, a few studies also found significant effects 2 of sex-differences on art preference, including males’ preferences over those of females for unpleasant paintings of all types (Rawlings, 2003) as well as pop, representational and Japanese paintings (Furnham & Walker, 2001a). In a recent much larger study, however, sex-differences in general art interests and attitudes were not observed (McManus, 2006). Our study A significant limitation of previous studies is the small and non-diverse subject samples employed. Most studies consisted of undergraduate student subjects and the few studies with adults had around 100 or fewer subjects (Furnham & Avison, 1997; Furnham & Walker, 2001a,b). Studies which use student subjects may contain several confounds. First, such studies cannot account for potential differences in course-workload and free- time between students in different programs, which may account for differences in arts activities and exposure to artistic styles. Second, students in art-related disciplines may have more opportunity to hear about available art-related cultural activities and events which would also broaden their exposure and affect preferences. Third, personality traits are likely to be correlated with particular programs of studies, such that the use of student subjects may confound the correlations observed between personality and art preferences and art activity. Fourth, adults should have had more opportunity to find the artistic experiences that interest them. Thus an advantage of using adult subjects is that their preferences are less likely to be influenced by peer group and immediate circumstance (though it is difficult to rule out such confounds entirely). To this end, the present study set out to examine the personalities and preferences of over 90,000 subjects covering wide ranging demographics. Specifically, we attempted to assess the extent to which preferences for paintings from different artistic movements, as well as overall preferences, could be explained by individual differences in personality. In line with the above reviewed literature, we expected more open individuals to report greater preferences for art in general and also predicted openness to correlate positively with art activity and self-identification as an art-oriented person. The large sample size and wide demographics of the current sample also enabled us to examine the effects of sex, age and education on art interests, and whether personality 2 Throughout this manuscript, the terms ‘effects’ and ‘affected’ are used predominantly to refer to hypothetical causal pathways; strictly speaking they denote only that one variable predicts another one. 4 Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic et al. BJP 648—12/9/2008—RAJADURAI—306767 traits still predict artistic preferences when these variables are taken into account. Most previous studies have not encompassed a wide enough demographic range to address the relationships between age or general education and art preferences, though some studies have shown a correlation between openness and education levels (McManus, 2006). A clear advantage of sampling non-students is the variability in educational attainment; when using students, education has restricted range or a ceiling effect for those still in the education system. Despite this lack of research into the relationship between artistic education and specific art preferences, the importance of art in formal education has been the subject of recent government and media interest in the UK. Most notably, the UK ministry of education recently proposed that all schools reform their curricula to allow for at least 5 h of ‘high culture’ per week, including visits to museums and other art activities (Curtis, 2008). This makes an examination of the individualQ1 differences underlying artistic interests and preferences especially relevant from an educational point of view. Method Participants In all, 91,692 people completed the survey. Their ages ranged from 13 to 90 (M ¼ 30.7, SD ¼ 13.6) years; 64.1% were aged over 17 or under 44, with 18% aged 17 or below, and 18% being 44 or above. Of the total sample, 60% were women, and 40% men. With regard to participants’ educational background (coded 1–5) 7% had completed primary school, 32.1% had completed up to secondary school, 12.8% had completed technical training, 21.2% had completed undergraduate college degrees, and 33.2% were educated at the postgraduate level (e.g. postgraduate diplomas, professional training, masters or doctoral degrees). Relative to 2001 UK census data (Office for National Statistics, n.d.), our sample was, on average, younger than the population in general (UK: approx. 23% under 18, 36% aged 18–43, 41% aged 44 þ ), and female respondents were somewhat over represented (UK: 51.4% female). The proportion of participants with university or higher qualifications was over twice that of the general population (UK proportion of 16–74-year-olds with a degree or higher: 19.6%). However, compared with much of the existing research on art preference and judgment, which typically draws participants from the undergraduate student population, our sample was relatively diverse in terms of age and educational background. Measures Personality was assessed by the international personality item pool (IPIP; Goldberg, 1999). The IPIP comprises 50 items assessing extraversion, agreeableness, conscien- tiousness, emotional stability (low neuroticism) and openness to experiences (intellect) (Goldberg, 2001). Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale (ranging fromQ1 ‘1 ¼ very inaccurate’ to ‘5 ¼ very accurate’). The a’s for the present sample (see Table 1) are in line with previously reported internal consistencies (which tend to average .84). Goldberg (2001) reported substantial correlations (corrected: from .85 to .92) between these factors and their equivalent factors as assessed by the NEO-FFIQ2 Q1 (Costa & McCrae, 1992), another widely used measure of the big five. Personality and art 5 BJP 648—12/9/2008—RAJADURAI—306767 T a b le 1 . In te r- co rr e la ti o n s am o n g ta rg e t m e as u re s M (S D ) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 G e n d e r .0 8 2 .2 0 .0 7 .1 2 2 .0 2 2 .0 7 2 .0 3 .0 0 .1 5 .0 5 2 A ge 3 0 .7 1 (1 3 .6 3 ) .0 9 2 .0 2 .1 0 .1 8 2 .0 1 .1 8 .1 2 .0 6 2 .1 0 3 A 3 9 .3 2 (5 .1 2 ) .8 0 .1 6 .0 6 .1 2 .3 0 .1 2 .0 7 2 .0 1 .0 3 4 O 3 9 .4 1 (4 .8 8 ) .7 8 2 .0 1 .0 1 .2 0 .0 1 .1 7 .1 8 .2 1 5 N 2 8 .6 9 (6 .7 2 ) .8 6 .1 4 .1 9 .0 2 .0 2 .0 1 .0 0 6 C 3 3 .1 3 (5 .7 9 ) .8 0 2 .0 0 .0 8 2 .0 0 2 .0 7 2 .0 7 7 E 3 1 .1 2 (7 .1 2 ) .8 8 .0 3 .0 2 .0 2 .0 9 8 IM P R E S S 4 .6 1 (. 8 1 ) .7 2 .4 1 .2 7 .0 7 9 JA PA N 4 .2 0 (. 9 2 ) .7 0 .4 0 .3 2 1 0 R E N A IS 3 .5 2 (1 .2 4 ) .7 2 .3 4 1 1 C U B IS M 4 .1 1 (1 .1 3 ) .7 7 N o te . N ¼ 9 1 ,6 9 2 . A ll co e ffi ci e n ts (c o lu m n s 2 – 1 1 ) ar e B iv ar ia te co rr e la ti o n s (P e ar so n ’s r) an d ar e si gn ifi ca n t at p , .0 1 if . ^ .0 0 . G e n d e r co d e d 1 ¼ fe m al e , 2 ¼ m al e , A ¼ ag re e ab le n e ss , O ¼ o p e n n e ss to e x p e ri e n ce , N ¼ n e u ro ti ci sm , C ¼ co n sc ie n ti o u sn e ss , E ¼ e x tr av e rs io n ; p re fe re n ce ra ti n gs fo r ar t st yl e s: IM P R E S S ¼ im p re ss io n is m , JA PA N ¼ Ja p an e se ar t an d R E N A IS ¼ re n ai ss an ce ar t. 6 Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic et al. BJP 648—12/9/2008—RAJADURAI—306767 Artistic preferences were assessed using a purpose-built on-line test that included 24 paintings, shown individually, consecutively, and in randomised order, together with a 7- point Likert-type rating scale ranging from ‘1 ¼ dislike very much’ to ‘7 ¼ like very much’. Paintings were chosen from six different artistic movements, namely abstract (Theo van Doesburg, Rudolf Bauer; Europe, 20th century), cubism (Pablo Picasso, Juan Gris, Jacoba van Heemskerck; Europe, 20th century), Northern renaissance (Jan Brueghel the elder, Pieter Brueghel the elder, Matthias Grunewald, Hieronymus Bosch; Europe, 16th century), Japanese ukiyo-e woodblock prints (Toyohara Chikanobu, Utagawa Kunisada, Katsushika Hokusai, Toyota Hokkei; 17th to mid 19th centuries), impressionism (Berthe Morisot, Paul Gauguin, John Singer Sargent, Albert Dubois-Pillet; Europe, 19th century), and secular islamic art (unknown artists, 13th to 17th centuries). To minimise the effect of variation in the subject depicted across movements, for each of the six movements we selected one painting depicting an animal, one depicting a person, one landscape and one still life. (Clearly it was not possible – by definition – to do this for abstract art). Principal component analysis was applied to the ratings of the 24 paintings and identified a clear 4-factor solution (total variance explained ¼ 44%) corresponding to four of the six movements described above (items for abstract and secular islamic art did not load on to clear factors and these scales were not computed due to low reliabilities). The eigenvalues were cubism ¼ 3.2 (13% of variance explained), impressionism ¼ 2.6 (11% of variance explained), Japanese ¼ 2.4 (10% of variance explained), and renaissance ¼ 2.3 (10% of variance explained). The internal consistencies for the four factors are shown in Table 1. Average item scores were computed for each of these movements. Procedure Participants completed the survey on-line, through a BBC website (http://www.bbc.co. uk/science/humanbody/mind/surveys/art/) that was advertised during a television broadcast of a programme on art (first shown in May 2005 on BBC Two). The website, which is still active but collected data for 12 months, invited participants to provide their responses to a personality inventory as well as ratings to various paintings. In the instructions, participants were told that ‘the art [you] like says something about the kind of person you are. Take part in an experiment and find out more about [yourself] and art’. First, participants completed a section on demographics including educational level. Then, they completed a section on artistic preferences, which presented them with 24 paintings in random order, with sizes of approximately 250 £ 200 pixels (for all stimuli it was possible to enlarge to approximately 500 £ 400 pixels) and asked them to rate each painting at a time. After this, they completed the personality inventory. After completing the survey, participants were thanked for taking part in this study and given feedback 3 on their personality profiles and artistic preferences. Only data from participants who completed the entire study was saved to a database hosted on the BBC’s servers, which was then transferred on to SPSS. Ethical clearance for this study was obtained by the first and second author from their departments. Analyses Missing values (,5% per variable, as suggested by Tabachnik & Fidell, 2005) were replaced with the series mean at the item level – prior to computing the 3 Feedback is available at the web-site given above or from the first author on request. Personality and art 7 BJP 648—12/9/2008—RAJADURAI—306767 factor scores – in order to use the overall sample for the analyses. Prior to analysis, variables (factor scores) were standardised across the whole sample to a mean of zero and unit variance. We used standardised variables in our analysis because personality and art preference composite scores lie on different scales, as suggested by Loehlin (2004). Results Descriptive statistics and inter-correlations for all measures are presented in Table 1. As noted, all coefficients ..00 are significant at p , .01 (due to the large sample size). Thus discussion of results will focus on correlation coefficients ..10. As shown, preference for impressionist paintings correlated positively with age and agreeableness; preference for Japanese art correlated positively with age and openness, which also correlated positively with preferences for renaissance and cubism (the highest correlation between any art preferences and individual difference factor, at r ¼ .21). Cubism was also negatively correlated with age. In addition, all preferences were positively intercorrelated except for impressionism and cubism which correlated only at r ¼ .07. Next, a structural equation model (SEM) was tested using AMOS 5.0 (Arbuckle &Q1 Wothke, 1999). The choice of ordering – determining what variables are endogenous, mediators, and exogenous – is rarely straightforward in SEM studies (Davis, 1985;Q1 Kenny, 1979; Pearl, 2000), and a model was tested primarily to provide a general picture of the relationship among the target variables. The 15 variables included in the model were divided into three subgroups, whereby personality traits, gender and age were exogenous or covariates, educational level, artistic interests and ‘artistic person’ (whether people considered themselves an artistic rather than a scientific individual) were mediators, and the latent factor of general artistic preferences, on which the four movements/styles loaded, was endogenous (this is in line with McManus & Furnham’s, 2006 SEM). The model’s goodness of fit was assessed via the x 2 statistic, the goodness of fit index (GFI) and its adjusted version (AGFI), as well as the root mean square residual (RMSEA) and the parsimony goodness-of-fit index (PGFI), and Akaike’s information criterion (AIC) (Akaike, 1973; Loehlin, 2004; Kelloway, 1998; Maruyama, 1998). In the hypothesised model, saturated paths from the covariates to the mediators, and from the mediators to the latent factor of general artistic preferences were added. Thus no direct paths from either the covariates or the mediators to either general or specific artistic preferences were added. The model, with 21 parameters between the covariates and the mediators, and 3 parameters between the mediators and the latent factor of art preferences, did not fit the data well: GFI ¼ .90, AGFI ¼ .84, PGFI ¼ .54, RMSEA ¼ .10 (.10–.10), AIC ¼ 65438.1. The model was modified accordingly, removing one parameter at a time, starting with the lowest t-value, and adding new paths in accordance to the modification indices (these included inter-correlations among the covariates and among the mediators, and correlated errors of two specific art preference factors). The modified model fitted the data well: GFI ¼ .99, AGFI ¼ .98, PGFI ¼ .49, RMSEA ¼ .03 (.03–.04), though the x 2 ¼ 6372.1 (52 df, p , .01) was significant (which, in large samples, tends to occur even in well-fitting models 4 ; Joreskog & Sorbom, 1993). Q1 4 Non-significant x2 values are indicative of good model fit. 8 Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic et al. BJP 648—12/9/2008—RAJADURAI—306767 The modified model is graphically depicted in Figure 1 (which does not show paths from the covariates to art preferences) and Figure 2 (which does not show the mediators or inter-correlations among the covariates). Note that the depiction of the model is split in two figures. for the sake of clarity (both figures represent different sections of the same model). Art total CUBISM IMPRESS JAPAN RENAIS sex E A C O age .57 .59 .67 .62 –.31 Education Galleries Artist N .16 .11 –.21 .21 .28 –.20 .10 .17 .18 –.11 –.15 –.15 –.08 .10 .19 .10 .25 .14 .07 .07 –.08 .28 Figure 1. Modified model for predictors of art preferences. Note. All paths are standardised parameter estimates significant at p , .01. Direct paths from individual differences to Art preferences (total or specific) are shown in Figure 2. Sex coded 0 ¼ female, 1 ¼ male. A ¼ Agreeableness, O ¼ Openness, C ¼ Conscientiousness, E ¼ Extraversion, IMPRESS ¼ Impressionism, RENAIS ¼ Renaissance, JAPAN ¼ Japanese. Art total CUBISM IMPRESS JAPAN RENAIS sex E A C O age .15 .07 .07 .10 –.09 .27 –.17 .23 –.22 -.07 .57 .59 .67 .62 –.31 .11 Figure 2. Modified model for predictors of art preferences (whilst controlling for education, visits to galleries, and artistic self-perception). Note. All paths are standardised parameter estimates significant at p , 01 whilst controlling for mediators (education level, visits to galleries and self-perception as an artist. Sex coded 0 ¼ female, 1 ¼ male. Dashed lines are paths added after modification indicators and represent significant effects of the exogenous variables on individual art styles whilst controlling for overall preferences. Correlations among exogenous variables and their effects on mediators are shown in Figure 1. A ¼ Agreeableness, O ¼ Openness, C ¼ Conscientiousness, E ¼ Extraversion, IMPRESS ¼ Impressionism, RENAIS ¼ Renaissance, JAPAN ¼ Japanese. Personality and art 9 BJP 648—12/9/2008—RAJADURAI—306767 As shown in Figure 1, there were positive effects of age and openness on education, and openness on visits to galleries. On the other hand, participants were more likely to define themselves as artists (as opposed to scientists) if they were female, less agreeable, and more open. Visits to galleries and defining oneself as more of an artist than a scientist positively affected general preferences, and visits to galleries also affected (negatively) preferences for impressionism after controlling for overall preferences. Finally, Figure 2 shows the effects of individual differences (personality, sex and age) on general art preferences as well as specific preferences when general preferences are controlled (dashed paths). As shown, the strongest effect on general art preferences was by openness, followed by age (both open and older individuals tended to report higher levels of overall preferences); there was also a more modest, negative effect on general art preferences by conscientiousness. In regards to specific art preferences (whilst controlling for general preferences), agreeableness and conscientiousness both positively affected preferences for impressionism, which was negatively affected by openness. Liking of renaissance paintings was affected by sex (being male rather than female) and age (being younger), whereas preferences for cubism were influenced by age (negatively), and to a lesser extent extraversion (positively) and sex (liked more by males). In combination, the relevant covariates and mediators accounted for 17% of the variance in general art preferences. A series of alternative models were then tested in order to assess the significance of direct paths from both covariates and mediators to general and specific art preferences (in line with Hampson, Goldberg, Vogt, & Dubanoski, 2007). In all, 10 different models were tested, and fit indices for each model are presented in Table 2. Chi square tests of significance were conducted to establish pairwise comparisons of fit. As shown, the best fit was found for the model 1, depicted in Figures 1 and 2 (which includes direct paths from both individual differences and mediators to both general and specific art preferences), with slightly worse fit for models that did not include paths from mediators to specific (model 2) or general (model 3) preferences, or both (model 4). Discussion The present study examined the relationship between art preferences and individual differences (the big five personality traits, sex and age), self-identification as artist or scientist, frequency of visits to art galleries, and educational level. Overall results showed that, in line with predictions, openness to experience was the strongest and only consistent personality predictor of artistic preferences, and that age (positively) and to a lesser extent conscientiousness (negatively) also affected overall artistic preferences, which were also positively influenced by age. Although the current study only examined a limited selection of artistic movements, the results clearly indicated that artistic preferences can be examined both at the specific or general level. Accordingly, we modelled general/overall preferences as a latent variable on which preferences for the four different styles loaded, and examined how it was affected by individual differences and the mediators. More specifically, SEM revealed that even after controlling for the effects of broad interests (i.e. considering oneself an artist rather than a scientist and visiting art galleries), personality traits – notably openness – and age affected general artistic preferences. Moreover, several individual difference variables (including age and gender) affected preferences for specific artistic paintings after taking into account general or overall preferences: more agreeable, more conscientious, and less open individuals (matched on general preferences) showed higher levels of 10 Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic et al. BJP 648—12/9/2008—RAJADURAI—306767 T a b le 2 . A co m p ar is o n o f fi t in d ic e s fo r al te rn at iv e m o d e ls fo r th e p re d ic ti o n o f ar t p re fe re n ce s x 2 G F I A G F I R M S E A P G F I A IC 1 D ir e ct p at h s fr o m ID an d m e d ia to rs to b o th ge n e ra l an d sp e ci fi c A rt p re fe re n ce s d f ¼ 5 2 , 6 3 7 2 .7 9 , p , .0 1 2 – 1 0 .9 9 .9 8 .0 3 6 , lo w ¼ .0 3 5 , h ig h ¼ .0 3 7 .5 0 6 4 7 8 .7 2 N o d ir e ct p at h s fr o m m e d ia to rs to sp e ci fi c A rt p re fe re n ce s d f ¼ 5 3 , 6 9 8 7 .2 3 , p , .0 1 3 – 1 0 .9 9 .9 8 .0 3 8 , lo w ¼ .0 3 7 , h ig h ¼ .0 3 8 .5 0 7 0 9 1 .2 3 N o d ir e ct p at h s fr o m m e d ia to rs to ge n e ra l A rt p re fe re n ce s d f ¼ 5 4 , 8 2 3 0 .7 7 4 – 1 0 , p , .0 1 .9 9 .9 8 .0 4 1 , lo w ¼ .0 4 0 , h ig h ¼ .0 4 1 .5 1 8 3 3 2 .7 4 N o d ir e ct p at h s fr o m m e d ia to rs to e it h e r ge n e ra l o r sp e ci fi c A rt p re fe re n ce s d f ¼ 5 5 , 8 3 5 1 .9 5 5 – 1 0 , p , .0 1 .9 9 .9 8 .0 4 1 , lo w ¼ .0 4 0 , h ig h ¼ .0 4 1 .5 2 8 4 5 1 .9 5 N o d ir e ct p at h s fr o m ID to sp e ci fi c A rt p re fe re n ce s d f ¼ 6 0 , 1 8 6 7 5 .1 1 , p , .0 1 7 ,8 ,1 0 .9 7 .9 5 .0 5 8 , lo w ¼ .0 5 8 , h ig h ¼ .0 5 9 .5 5 1 8 7 6 5 .8 6 N o d ir e ct p at h s fr o m ID to ge n e ra l A rt p re fe re n ce s d f ¼ 5 5 , 1 3 5 6 0 .7 4 , p , .0 1 5 ,7 – 1 0 .9 8 .9 6 .0 5 2 , lo w ¼ .0 5 1 , h ig h ¼ .0 5 2 .5 1 1 3 6 6 0 .3 7 N o d ir e ct p at h s fr o m ID to e it h e r ge n e ra l o r sp e ci fi c A rt p re fe re n ce s d f ¼ 6 3 , 2 3 0 4 0 .1 7 , p , .0 1 1 0 .9 6 .9 4 .0 6 3 , lo w ¼ .0 6 1 , h ig h ¼ .0 6 4 .5 8 2 3 1 2 4 .4 8 N o d ir e ct p at h s fr o m e it h e r ID o r m e d ia to rs to sp e ci fi c A rt p re fe re n ce s d f ¼ 6 1 , 1 9 3 4 1 .4 4 , p , .0 1 6 ,7 ,1 0 .9 7 .9 5 .0 5 9 , lo w ¼ .0 5 8 , h ig h ¼ .0 5 9 .5 6 1 9 4 2 9 .3 9 N o d ir e ct p at h s fr o m e it h e r ID o r m e d ia to rs to ge n e ra l A rt p re fe re n ce s d f ¼ 5 7 , 1 6 7 8 3 .1 2 , p , .0 1 5 ,7 ,8 ,1 0 .9 7 .9 5 .0 5 7 , lo w ¼ .0 5 7 , h ig h ¼ .0 5 8 .5 3 1 6 8 7 9 .4 1 0 N o d ir e ct p at h s fr o m e it h e r ID o r m e d ia to rs to e it h e r sp e ci fi c o r ge n e ra l A rt p re fe re n ce s d f ¼ 6 6 , 2 6 0 9 9 .1 7 , p , .0 1 .9 6 .9 4 .0 6 6 , lo w ¼ .6 5 , h ig h ¼ .6 6 .6 0 2 6 1 7 7 .8 N o te . B o ld e d fi gu re s sh o w b e st fi tt in g m o d e l ac co rd in g to th at cr it e ri o n . S u p e rs cr ip ts n e x t to p va lu e s in d ic at e w h at m o d e ls h ad si gn ifi ca n tl y w o rs e fi t (t e st o f C h i- sq u ar e d if fe re n ce s) . M o d e l 1 is gr ap h ic al ly d e p ic te d b e tw e e n F ig u re s 1 an d 2 . M o d e l fi tn e ss w as as se ss e d b y: th e C h i- sq u ar e (B o lle n , 1 9 8 9 ; te st s th e h yp o th e si s th at an u n co n st ra in e d m o d e l fi ts th e co va ri an ce /c o rr e la ti o n m at ri x as w e ll as th e gi ve n m o d e l; id e al ly va lu e s sh o u ld n o t b e si gn ifi ca n t) ; th e G F I (T an ak a & H u b a, 1 9 8 5 ; go o d n e ss -o f- fi t in d ic at o r) is a m e as u re o f fi tn e ss an d va lu e s cl o se to 1 ar e ac ce p ta b le ; th e P G F I (M u la ik et a l., 1 9 8 9 ; p ar si m o n y go o d n e ss -o f- fi t in d ic at o r) is a m e as u re o f p o w e r an d is o p ti m al ar o u n d .5 0 ); th e R M S E A (B ro w n e & C u d e ck , 1 9 9 3 ; ro o t- m e an -s q u ar e e rr o r o f ap p ro x im at io n ), va lu e s o f .0 8 o r b e lo w in d ic at e re as o n ab le fi t fo r th e m o d e l; th e A IC (A k ai k e , 1 9 7 3 ; A k ai k e ’s in fo rm at io n cr it e ri o n ) gi ve s th e e x te n si o n to w h ic h th e p ar am e te r e st im at e s fr o m th e o ri gi n al sa m p le w ill cr o ss -v al id at e in fu tu re sa m p le s. Personality and art 11 BJP 648—12/9/2008—RAJADURAI—306767 preference for impressionist paintings, whilst younger, male and extraverted individuals (again, matched on general preferences) tended to prefer cubism. Finally when matched on general preferences male and younger participants tended to prefer renaissance paintings. Interestingly, when individuals were matched in general preferences those who liked impressionism tended to dislike cubism and vice-versa, and frequency of visits to galleries was negatively linked to preferences for Impressionist paintings. These results highlight some intuitive associations between individual differences and art preferences. First and foremost, openness is both conceptually and empirically related to artistic preferences, and having an ‘artistic profile’ in general. This is consistent with a number of previous, smaller-scale, studies, that reported modest to moderate significant correlations between openness and different measures of artistic interests (Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2004a; b; Feist & Brady, 2004; Furnham & Avison, 1997, 1998, 2001a; b; McCrae, 1987; McCrae & Costa, 1997; Rawlings, 2000; Rawlings, Twomey, Burns, & Morris, 1998b), and a more recent, larger-scale, study showing that more open individuals display more positive aesthetic attitudes and values for arts in general (McManus and Furnham, 2006). In regards to other personality traits, results are less consistent though some associations did replicate correlations found in past, smaller-scale studies. The negative link between conscientiousness and general preferences is in line with McManus and Furnham (2006) finding that conscientious people are less interested in visual as well as general art activities, and Furnham & Walker (2001a) finding of a negative link between conscientiousness and preference for pop and abstract art (Furnham & Walker, 2001a). Moreover, the present study’s results showing higher male preferences for renaissance paintings (after controlling for overall preferences) could be related to previous suggestions that males tend to prefer ‘unpleasant’ paintings more than women (Rawlings, 2003). Although the current study did not assess the degree of ‘pleasure’ evoked any of the paintings, renaissance paintings clearly received the lowest average rating (see again Table 1 for means). Interestingly, when matched on general preferences, more open subjects also showed a significant negative preference for impressionist paintings. A previous investigation had shown open subject’s preferences were negatively correlated with neutral and natural paintings (Rawlings, Twomey, Burns, & Morris, 1998b), suggesting that the Impressionist paintings may have been preferred less for similar reasons. Indeed, the traits that were positively associated with preference for impressionism after controlling for overall preferences were agreeableness and conscientiousness, which, combined, are reflective of dispositional conformity – just as openness reflects non- conformity (DeYoung, Peterson, & Higgins, 2002). Naturally, there are limitations to the present study which limit the generalisability of our findings and beg for caution when interpreting the current results. First, our study was correlational and the single-wave nature of our design means that any causational interpretation is purely speculative. However, the relative representativeness of our sample (especially compared to previous studies) lends weight to the current results. Second, our data were exclusively self-report, increasing the risk of spurious correlations caused by shared method variance. Yet it is noteworthy that artistic preferences refer to variability in attitudinal domains (aesthetic liking), personality traits assess dispositions, and the background variables (art exhibitions and educational level) refer to behavioural or biographical data, albeit self-report. Third, our study only assessed preferences for four different styles (as sated, two more styles were initially planned but there was no statistical justification for including them in the analyses); 12 Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic et al. BJP 648—12/9/2008—RAJADURAI—306767 clearly, more styles, schools and even artistic products other than paintings ought to be examined to provide a ‘clear picture’ of the relevance of personality traits as predictors of aesthetic preferences. It would be particularly interesting to examine the extent to which preferences for different artistic products (e.g. films, plays, books, songs, etc) can also be explained in terms of a latent, overall art preference factor, which would probably correlate with openness. In addition, personality sub-facets, notably of openness, should also be investigated in connection to art preferences. Last, but not least, the current study also examined the big five personality traits but the incremental validity of other traits, such as schizotopy (Rawlings, 2000), behavioural approach versus inhibition (Rawlings & Bastian, 2002), conservatism (Furnham & Walker, 2001a; Wilson, Ausman, & Matthews, 1973), conformity (Feist & Brady, 2004), intelligence (Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2004a; b), and, in particular, sensation-seeking (Furnham and Avison, 1997; 2001a; b; Rawlings, Twomey, Burns, & Morris, 1998b, 2002; Zuckerman et al., 1972, 1993) should also be examined. Given that the current study explained only 17% of the variance in general artistic preferences more predictors are needed to explained a more substantial amount of variance in artistic preferences. Based on the previous literature, as well as the magnitude of the current associations, there are three salient findings in the present study, namely (a) the fact that preferences for paintings corresponding to quite different periods and styles are clearly intercorrelated, such that differences between people (in overall preferences) are stronger than differences between painting styles; (b) the fact that openness is a consistent correlate of aesthetic attitudes, interests, and preferences and (c) the effect of age on artistic preferences (positivefor general preferences, but negative forcertain styles after overall preferences are controlled for). These findings indicate that art preferences are only partly style-specific, that personality factors other than openness are weak predictors of artistic preferences, and that age differences in artistic preferences are almost as salient as differences in openness (even after controlling for aesthetic interests, attitudes, and other traits). Taken in combination, these findings suggest that aesthetic inclinations can partly be attributed to psychological dispositions and age, such that knowledge of individuals’ age and personality – notablyopenness – can be used to predict the extent to which they will be interested in and like different examples of visual art. Likewise, knowledge of generic art preferences can be used to infer people’s personality, in particular their level of openness, and to a lesser extent conscientiousness. Whilst the precise underlying psychological mechanisms or processes by which dispositions come to affect artistic preferences remain to be understood, it is clear that such processes are primarily related to openness. Thus applied researchers and practitioners wishing to predict individual differences in vocational interests, career choices, and aesthetic preferences, would do well to assess this trait. References Ackerman, P. L., & Heggestad, E. D. (1997). Intelligence, personality, and interests: Evidence for overlapping traits. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 219–245. Akaike, H. (1973). Information theory and an extension of the maximum likelihood principle. In B. N. Petrov & F. Csaki (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd international symposium on information theory (pp. 267–281). Budapest: Akademiai Kiado. Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York, NY: Wiley. Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Personality and art 13 BJP 648—12/9/2008—RAJADURAI—306767 Carroll, H., & Enrich, A. (1932). Abstract intelligence and art appreciation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 23, 214–220. Chamorro-Premuzic, T., & Furnham, A. (2004a). Art judgment: A measure related to both personality and intelligence? Cognition and Personality, 24, 3–24. Chamorro-Premuzic, T., & Furnham, A. (2004b). Personality, intelligence, and art. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 705–715. Child, I. (1962). Personal preferences as an expression of aesthetic sensitivity. Journal of Personality, 30, 496–512. Child, I. (1965). Personality correlates of esthetic judgment in college students. Journal of Personality, 33, 476–511. DeYoung, C. G., Peterson, J. B., & Higgins, D. M. (2002). Higher order factors of the big five predict conformity: Are there neuroses of health? Personality and Individual Differences, 33, 533–552. Dellas, M., & Gaier, E. L. (1970). Identification of creativity: The individual. Psychological Bulletin, 75, 55–73. Eysenck, H. J. (1940). The general factor in aesthetic judgements. British Journal of Psychology, 31, 94–102. Eysenck, H. J. (1972). Preference judgments for polygons, designs and drawings. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 34, 396–398. Feist, G. (1998). A meta-analysis of personality in scientific and artistic creativity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2, 290–309.Q3 Feist, G., & Brady, T. (2004). Openness to experience, non-conformity, and the preference for abstract art. Empirical Studies of the Arts, 22, 77–89. Furnham, A., & Avison, M. (1997). Personality and preference for surreal paintings. Personality and Individual Differences, 23, 923–935. Furnham, A., & Bunyan, M. (1998). Personality and art preferences. European Journal of Personality, 2, 67–74. Furnham, A., & Rao, S. (2002). Personality and aesthetics of composition: A study of Mondrian and Hirst. North American Journal of Psychology, 4, 233–242. Furnham, A., & Walker, J. (2001a). The influence of personality traits, previous experience of art, and demographic variables on artistic preference. Personality and Individual Differences, 31, 997–1017. Furnham, A., & Walker, J. (2001b). Personality and judgement of abstract, pop art, and representational paintings. European Journal of Personality, 15, 57–72. Hampson, S. E., Goldberg, L. R., Vogt, T. M., & Dubanoski, J. P. (2007). Mechanisms by which childhood personality traits influence adult health status: Educational attainment and healthy behaviors. Health Psychology, 26, 121–125. Juhasz, J., & Paxson, L. (1978). Personality and preference for painting style. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 46, 347–349. Kelloway, E. K. (1998). Using LISREL for structural equation modeling: A researcher’s guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Loehlin, J. C. (2004). Latent variable models (4th ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Looft, W. R., & Baranowski, M. D. (1971). An analysis of five measures of sensation seeking and preference for complexity. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 395–410. Maruyama, G. (1998). Basics of structural equation modelling. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. McCrae, R. (1987). Creativity, divergent thinking and openness to experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 100–107. McCrae, R., & Costa, P. T., Jr. (1997). Conceptions and correlates of openness to experience. In R. Hogan, & J. Johnson (Eds.), (pp. 825–847). Tulsa, USA.Q4 McManus, I. (2006). Measuring the culture of C. P. Snow’s two cultures. Empirical Studies of the Arts, 24, 219–227. 14 Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic et al. BJP 648—12/9/2008—RAJADURAI—306767 McManus, I., & Furnham, A. (2006). Aesthetic activities and aesthetic attitudes: Influences of education, background and personality on interest and involvement in the arts. British Journal of Psychology, 97, 555–587. Mulaik, S. A., James, L. R., Van Alstine, J., Bennett, N., Lind, S., & Stilwell, C. D. (1989). Evaluation of goodness-of-fit indices for structural equation models. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 430–445. Office for National Statistics (n.d.). Census 2001 – Profiles – United Kingdom. Retrieved July 2, 2008 from http://www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/profiles/UK-A.aspQ5 Rawlings, D. (2000). The interaction of openness to experience and schizotypy in predicting preference for abstract and violent paintings. Empirical Studies of the Arts, 18, 91. Rawlings, D. (2003). Personality correlates of liking for ‘unpleasant’ paintings and photographs. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 395–410. Rawlings, D., & Bastian, B. (2002). Painting preference and personality, with particular reference to Gray’s behavioral inhibition and behavioral approach systems. Empirical Studies of the Arts, 20, 159–175.Q6 Rawlings, D., Twomey, F., Burns, E., & Morris, S. (1998a). Personality, creativity,and aesthetic preference: Comparing psychoticism, sensation seeking, schizotypy, and openness to experience. Empirical Studies of the Arts, 16, 153–178. Rawlings, D., Twomey, F., Burns, E., & Morris, S. (1998b). Personality and aesthetic preference in Spain and England. European Journal of Personality, 14, 533–576. Robertoux, P., Carlier, M., & Chaguiboff, J. (1971). Preference for non-objective art: Personal and psychological determiners. British Journal of Psychology, 62, 105–110. Rosenbluh, E., Owen, G., & Pohler, M. (1972). Art preference and personality. British Journal of Psychology, 63, 441–443. Snow, C. P. (1964). The two cultures: A second look. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tabachnik, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2005). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Tanaka, J. S., & Huba, G. J. (1985). A fit index for covariance structure models under arbitrary GLS estimation. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 38, 197–201. Tobacyck, J., Myers, H., & Bailey, L. (1979). Preference for paintings and personality traits. Psychological Reports, 46, 787–793. Tobacyck, J., Myers, H., & Bailey, L. (1981). Field-dependence, sensation seeking and preference for paintings. Journal of Personality Assessment, 45, 270–277. Wilson, G. D., Ausman, J., & Matthews, T. R. (1973). Conservatism and art preferences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 25, 286–288. Zuckerman, M. (1994). Behavioral expressions and biosocial bases of sensation seeking. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Q3 Zuckerman, M., Bone, R., Neary, R., Magelsdorff, D., & Brustman, B. (1972). What is the sensation seeker? Personality trait and experience correlates of the sensation seeking scales. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 39, 308–321. Zuckerman, M., Ulrich, R., & McLaughlin, J. (1993). Sensation seeking and reactions to nature paintings. Personality and Individual Differences, 15, 563–576. Received 19 February 2008; revised version received 19 August 2008 Personality and art 15 BJP 648—12/9/2008—RAJADURAI—306767 Author Queries JOB NUMBER: 648 JOURNAL: BJP Q1 References Aluja et al. (2003), Arbuckle and Wokthe (1999), Chamorro- Premuzic and Furnham (2005), Chamorro-Premuzic et al. (2004a,b), Costa and McCrae (1992), Curtis (2008), Davis (1985), Goldberg (1999, 2001), Joreskog and Sorbom (1993), Matthews et al. (2003), Kenny (1979) and Pearl (2000) have been cited in text but not provided in the list. Please supply reference details or delete the reference citations from the text. Q2 Please provide expansions of the acronyms ‘NEO-FFI’ and ‘SPSS’. Q3 References Feist (1998) and Zuckerman (1994) are provided in the list but not cited in the text. Please supply citation details or delete the reference from the reference list. Q4 Please provide complete details for reference McCrae and Costa (1997). Q5 Please update the year of publication in reference Office for National Statistics (n.d.). Q6 We have inserted a journal title for reference Rawlings and Bastian (2002). Please check and approve. Q7 As per the style, we have deleted the ref citation in abstract. please check and confirm. 16 Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic et al. BJP 648—12/9/2008—RAJADURAI—306767 
work_oum6d4irtrbxzobrd35uqjkyfq	----	Slavic Review 76, no. 4 (Winter 2017) © 2018 Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies doi: 10.1017/slr.2017.343 IN MEMORIAM _____________________________________________________________ Igor Golomstock (1929–2017) The art historian Igor Golomstock is best known for his Totalitarian Art (1990), the first serious study of the similarities between the official art of Stalinist Russia and that of Nazi Germany. The inspiration for this came in the early 1960s, when Igor was working in Moscow, in the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts. Behind the library shelves a colleague had found a copy of an official German art journal from the years of the Nazi-Soviet Pact. Igor showed the illustrations to a discussion group he ran for senior schoolchildren, asking the children to name the artists. As he expected, they rattled off the names of the main artists of the Stalin years. He told them to look more closely at a reproduction of a working-class family listening to a wireless—and they were bewildered. Hanging on the wall, above the heads of the family, was a portrait not of Stalin, but of Hitler. Igor, needless to say, soon had to leave the museum. Some twenty-five years later, however, he was able to expand his initial insight into a substantial work, including sections on Fascist Italy and Maoist China. At the time, Igor’s detailed demonstration of the near-identity of the various totalitarian ar- tistic systems seemed controversial, but one needs only to glance at the illustrations to realize how easily one could have made the same mistake as Igor’s schoolchildren. Igor’s thesis does, in fact, remain controversial to this day, though not everyone recognizes this. When I was writing an obituary of Igor for The Guardian, the editor told me that they did not want to reproduce any paintings of Hitler on their website. Paintings of Stalin and Mao were OK, but paintings of Hitler were not—even though neo-Stalinism is a far greater threat today than neo-Nazism. Igor—who died on July 12, 2017 in a London hospital—was born in 1929, in Tver ,́ then known as Kalinin. In 1934, his father Naum Kojak, a Karaite Jew, was sentenced to five years in the Gulag. Igor’s mother, Mary Golomstock, registered Igor for school under her own surname, which he used for the rest of his life. In 1939 Mary Golomstock volunteered to work as a doctor in Kolyma. Igor believes that, before going there, she had little idea of what Kolyma was like. She wanted a job and, since her former husband was “an enemy of the people,” her choices were lim- ited. She went to Kolyma with Igor and her second husband, Iosif Taubkin, and they remained there until 1943. Igor witnessed much that would have scarred anyone, let alone an impressionable child. When Igor was around fifteen, after the family’s return to Moscow, a remark- able change occurred in him. He describes himself as having been a foul-mouthed, barely-educated child without the least interest in literature. Influenced by a friend, he began reading Dostoevskii with passionate excitement. Often he had a book open under his desk during lessons. His love of Dostoevskii stayed with him throughout his life, balanced by a hatred of Tolstoi, whom he saw as the father of Socialist Realism. Igor qualified first as an accountant, and then as an art historian. For several years he worked for the Ministry of Culture; one of his jobs was accompanying travel- ling art exhibitions the length of the Soviet Union. In 1960, together with the writer and scholar Andrei Siniavskii—a close friend throughout his life—he published the first Soviet book on Picasso. In 1965 Siniavskii and Yulii Daniel΄ were sentenced to terms in the Gulag for publishing abroad. Igor was also sentenced, for “refusal to give evidence,” though in the end he received only a fine. In 1972 he immigrated to Great Britain. This was during a brief period when Jews could emigrate only on payment of a vast sum, supposedly to repay the state for their http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1017/slr.2017.343&domain=pdf 1173In Memoriam education. Friends and sympathizers rallied; Boris Pasternak’s son Evgenii volun- teered “to ransom a hundred grams of Golomstock.” After several years of university teaching, Igor spent the rest of his professional life making radio programs for the BBC Russian Service. He also co-curated the ex- hibition Unofficial Art from the Soviet Union at the Institute of Contemporary Arts (London, 1977). This included both artists who were already well known, like Ernst Neizvestnyi, and younger artists like Ilya Kabakov. The most remarkable figure of all, perhaps, was Boris Sveshnikov; in 2000, Igor published a large-format album of the delicate, surreal pencil drawings Sveshnikov composed in the Gulag in the 1940s and early 1950s. I am personally indebted to Igor in many ways, but perhaps most of all for send- ing me transcripts of his four programs about Vasili Grossman’s Life and Fate, soon after the Russian text was first published in 1980. With Igor’s help, I published an article about the novel, and a sample chapter, in the journal Index on Censorship. Col- lins Harvill then commissioned a translation. A few years later they also published my translation of Totalitarian Art. Igor was an important cultural mediator. My impression was that every impor- tant Russian writer or artist passing through London would visit him. The conductor Yevgeny Mravinsky, for example, would slip away from his hotel in the small hours and spend half the night reading dissident literature in Igor’s apartment. Joshua Rubenstein has written to me about meeting Igor to discuss Siniavskii and Daniel΄ for his book about Soviet dissidents (1980). Among Igor’s many publications are books about Hieronymus Bosch and Paul Cezanne, (Moscow, under pseudonyms, 1974 & 1975); Unofficial Art from the Soviet Union (London, 1977); and English Art from Hans Holbein to Damien Hirst (Moscow, 2008), which deserves to be translated into English. Igor’s taste in English literature remained typically Soviet (he worshipped Charles Dickens but knew next to nothing of George Eliot or D.H. Lawrence), but his understanding of English art was original and profound. Igor’s last publication, in Russian, was Memoirs of an Old Pessimist (2011).1 Two chapters that stand out are his account of his years in Kolyma and an analysis of the conflict between Siniavskii and Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn—an important contribution to a long-running debate. Is it best to fight a dictatorship, as Solzhenitsyn did, with its own weapons of iron will and discipline or, like Siniavskii, by attempting to under- mine it with irony and mockery? Igor was an Anglophile. He spoke of two moments in his life when he felt over- whelmed, unable to believe he was truly in England. One was in the Senior Common Room at New College, Oxford; the other was in an ordinary London pub. Neverthe- less, his inner world, like that of many Russian émigrés, remained deeply Russian, and most of his friends were either Russians or English Russianists. 1. An extract from Memoirs of an Old Pessimist, available online at http://www. stosvet.net/12/golomstock/index.html (last accessed October 23, 2017). I.B. Tauris will publish the memoir in 2018. Their provisional title is A Ransomed Dissident: Memoirs of a Soviet Art Historian. Robert Chandler London, UK http://www.­stosvet.net/12/golomstock/index.html http://www.­stosvet.net/12/golomstock/index.html 
work_p35zumhcfves3is2xgze3olfyy	----	Grey clustering in online social networks Vietnam J Comput Sci DOI 10.1007/s40595-016-0087-8 REGULAR PAPER Grey clustering in online social networks Camelia Delcea1 · Ioana-Alexandra Bradea1 Received: 30 April 2016 / Accepted: 30 September 2016 © The Author(s) 2016. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com Abstract Today’s leading businesses have understood the role of “social” in their everyday activity. Online social net- works (OSN) and social media have melt and become an essentialpartofeveryfirm’sconcern.Brandadvocatesarethe new leading triggers for company’s success in online social networks and are responsible for the long-term engagement between a firm and its customers. But what can it be said about this impressive crowd of customers that are gravitating around a certain brand advocacy or a certain community? Are they as responsive to a certain message as one might think? Are they really impressed by the advertising campaigns? Are they equally reacting to a certain comment or news? How they process the everyday grey knowledge that is circulating in OSN? In fact, how impressionable they are and which are the best ways a company can get to them? To give an answer to these questions, the present paper uses grey systems the- ory for spreading the customer’s crowd into groups based on how impressionable they are by commercials, ads, videos and comments in OSN. Keywords OSN · Grey knowledge · Grey clustering analysis · Strategies in OSN 1 Introduction A short and easy-to-understand definition of online social networks (OSN) is that they “form online communities B Camelia Delcea camelia.delcea@csie.ase.ro Ioana-Alexandra Bradea alexbradea1304@yahoo.com 1 Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania amongpeoplewithcommoninterest,activities,backgrounds, and/or friendships. Most OSN are web based and allow users to upload profiles (text, images, and videos) and interact with others in numerous ways” [1]. As structure, the OSN are usu- ally perceived as a set of nodes—represented by its users, and a set of directed (e.g., “following” activity on Facebook) or undirected (e.g., friendship relationships) edges connecting the various pairs of nodes [2]. Apart from the research and development role played by the OSN mostly through the usage of the customers’ feed- back to improve and solve problems or even to create and diversify different categories of products/services, the word- of-mouth marketing and targeted advertising are also some of the benefits brought by these networks. In a recent paper about social intelligence and customer experience, Synthe- sio [3] votes for learning who your customers really are to address them a proper campaign. In addition, by identifying the “army” of product advocates among different communi- ties and getting them closer to a specific brand will give that firm a tremendous opportunity to gain more customers and to extend a real relationship on an individual basis [3]. But before this, it still remains unsolved the question of identifying those particular advocates among the “big crowd” of customers on the OSN. For this, in the following, we are going to use some elements extracted form grey systems the- ory for spreading the customer’s crowd into groups based on how impressionable they are by commercials, ads, videos and comments in OSN. 2 An overview of online social networks The online social networks (OSN) began to capture the atten- tion of more and more scientists with the rise of Web 2.0. After that moment, the virtual world had developed and 123 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s40595-016-0087-8&domain=pdf http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3589-1969 Vietnam J Comput Sci Fig. 1 Paper published per year people all over the world began to connect with others, exchanging information. The social networks represent com- plex networks that contain a lot of people with a specific type of connection or interdependencies between them (friend- ship, business relations, community, etc.). The study of OSN requires a variety of techniques and methods which can be used to understand and predict the behavior of the compo- nents. The studies in this field treated many research areas such as social issues, e-learning, marketing, communication and reporting, economics and health issues [4–7]. The main social issues that were addressed by the scientific world were aspects regarding confidentiality and privacy [8,9], age gap [10], sentiment analysis [11,12], social activity [13,14], addiction [15] and social assets [16]. The impact of word-of- mouth communication was studied by Brown [17] and the viral marketing by Subramani and Rajagopalan [18]. Eco- nomic aspects in OSN were concerning the performance and risks within companies [19], consumers’ decisions [20], e-commerce and online public goods [21]. The interest in health issues generated analysis regarding medical profes- sionalism [22,23], patients’ communication and patient– doctor relationship in OSN [24]. In 2015, there were recorded 64,672 scientific papers that analyzed the social network area, from which 2687 focused mainly on the study of OSN. The figure below illustrates the evolution of the number of scientific papers published by year. It can be seen that lately, the number of papers have increased, most of them being published in 2013 (Fig. 1). Most of the papers published in the field of OSN were included in the following areas of interest: computer science, engineering, psychology, business economics, sociology, telecommunications, public environment, education research and information science (see Fig. 2). Regarding the document type, most of the papers (7050) were articles, followed by proceedings papers (3721), book reviews (728), meeting abstracts (689), editorial materials (370), reviews (217), letters (66), news items (54), correc- tions (49) and notes (41)—see Fig. 3. Fig. 2 Research areas for the papers published in OSN field Most of the papers were from USA (5083), followed by China (1184), England (980), Canada (606), Germany (472), Spain (458), Australia (457), Italy (338), Netherlands (320) and South Korea (304). This geographical distribution is pre- sented in Fig. 4. Correlated with the geographic distribution of articles published in the field of OSN, most of them were written in English, followed by Spanish, German and French—Fig. 5. These numerous scientific papers published in this area of interest illustrated the fact that the OSN domain is a continuously growing area, with many aspects that can be analyzed. 3 Grey knowledge Grey systems theory is one of the newest theories in the field of artificial intelligence and starts from a definition stipulated in the control theory in which an object was considered black when nobody knows anything about its inner structure and 123 Vietnam J Comput Sci Fig. 3 Document types of OSN papers Fig. 4 Record count of papers—a global view white when this structure was completely known. Therefore, a grey object is that particular entity whose structure is just partially known [25]. By developing its own methods and techniques, the grey systems theory succeeds to extract and bring some new knowledge about a specific object, process or phenomenon. Along with the grey relational analysis, one of the most known and used methods from the grey systems theory, the grey clustering, is also one of the techniques that is bringing some new knowledge regarding a specific community. In OSN more than in other type of communities and net- works, grey systems theory finds its applicability due to the nature of the relationships between its main actors. Forrest Fig. 5 The language of the papers published on OSN [26] identifies two main types of relationships in a system: the generative and the non-generative ones. While the gener- ative relationships are due to the interactions among different elements of a system, the non-generative are represented by the inner characteristics of these elements [27,28]. Even though most researches focus mainly on one or another type of these relationships, some advances have been made recently to include both of these aspects, as they are giving more substance about what is really happening at each network’s level [26]. Due to these different approaches related to a system, the amount of knowledge extracted is limited and can be easily regarded as grey [29]. Even more, by adding the human com- ponent, through the consumers’ demands and needs, strictly related to preferences, self-awareness, self-conscience, free- will, etc., the study of the knowledge that can be extracted through OSN is becoming more complicated. For this, a new type of knowledge can be identified, the grey knowledge, which is lying between the two well-known types of knowledge: the tacit and the explicit one and is con- tinually circulating and transforming within the network. It can be encountered in the internalized and externalized feed- back loops that are formed between different network users and it accompanies the external (chatting, e-mails sending, etc.) and internal (listening, watching a commercial, reading a comment, evaluation, observing, etc.) processes. Consid- ering the everyday activities, is can easily be seen that the grey knowledge is the most predominant type of knowledge that can be encountered and, therefore, the study of it can reveal new information that can be used in understanding the OSN’s complexity. 4 Grey clustering analysis Assume that there are n objects to be clustered according to m cluster criteria into s different grey classes [26,30,31] A function noted f kj (·) is called the “whitenization” weight 123 Vietnam J Comput Sci function of the kth subclass of the j criterion, with: i = 1, 2, . . . , n; j = 1, 2, . . . , m; 1 ≤ k ≤ s [26]. Consider a typical whitenization function as described by [25,30,31] with four turning points noted as: xkj (1), x k j (2), x k j (3) and xkj (4): f kj (x) = ⎧ ⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎨ ⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎩ 0, x /∈ [xkj (1) , xkj (4)] x−xkj (1) xkj (2)−xkj (1) , x ∈ [xkj (1) , xkj (2)] 1, x ∈ [xkj (2) , xkj (3)] xkj (4)−x xkj (4)−xkj (3) , x ∈ [xkj (3) , xkj (4)] (1) or the whitenization weight function of lower measure (a particular case of the typical whitenization function pre- sented above, where the first and the second turning points xkj (1), x k j (2) are missing): f kj (x) = ⎧ ⎪⎪⎪⎨ ⎪⎪⎪⎩ 0, x /∈ [0, xkj (4)] 1, x ∈ [0, xkj (3)] xkj (4)−x xkj (4)−xkj (3) , x ∈ [xkj (3) , xkj (4)] (2) or the whitenization function of moderate measure (also a particular form of the whitenization function, where the sec- ond and the third turning points xkj (2), x k j (3) coincide): f kj (x) = ⎧ ⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎨ ⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎩ 0, x /∈ [xkj (1) , xkj (4)] x−xkj (1) xkj (2)−xkj (1) , x ∈ [xkj (1) , xkj (2)] 1, x = xkj (2) xkj (4)−x xkj (4)−xkj (2) , x ∈ [xkj (2) , xkj (4)] (3) or the whitenization weight function of upper measure (another particular form of the whitenization function where the final third and fourth points xkj (3), x k j (4) are missing): f kj (x) = ⎧ ⎪⎪⎪⎨ ⎪⎪⎪⎩ 0, x < xkj (1) x−xkj (1) xkj (2)−xkj (1) , x ∈ [xkj (1) , xkj (2)] 1, x ≥ xkj (2) (4) The grey clustering analysis can be performed by follow- ing the below steps: [25,32–34] Step 1: Determining the form of the whitenization func- tion f kj (·), for j = 1, 2, . . . , m; 1 ≤ k ≤ s. Step 2: Attributing a cluster weight η j to each criterion based on external information such as prior experience or qualitative analysis, with j = 1, 2, . . . , m. Step 3: Calculating all fixed weight cluster coefficients from the whitenization function f kj (·) determined at step 1, cluster weights η j at step 2 and observational values xi j of the object i for the j criterion, with = 1, 2, . . . , n; j = 1, 2, . . . , m; 1 ≤ k ≤ s : σ k i = m∑ j=1 f kj (xi j )∗η j (5) Step 4: If σ ∗ki = max1≤k≤s{σ ki }, then the object i is belonging to the k∗th grey class. Let us perform the grey clustering analysis in the case study on the OSN users to determine which of them are being impressed by the marketing campaigns, comments, articles, videos, etc., in the online environment and what conclusions can be drawn from studying their personal and cluster char- acteristics. 5 Case study on OSN users For conducting the cluster analysis, a questionnaire was applied to the online social networks’ users, 211 persons answeringtoall theaddressedquestions. Havingtheanswers, a confirmatory factor analysis was accomplished to validate the construct, validity and reliability of the questionnaire. After proceeding this, the selected factors were passed through the grey clustering method, obtaining three relevant used categories as it will be shown in the following sections. 5.1 Questionnaire and data The 211 questionnaire’s respondents can be divided into five age categories: 104 between 18–25 years old, 76 between 26–35 years old, 20 between 36–45 years old, 7 between 46– 55 years old and 4 between 56–65 years old; 61.61 % of them being female and 38.39 % male. Along with the questions regarding the personal characteristics, the respondents were asked to answer the following questions, evaluated through a Likert scale taking values between 1 and 5: • When I want to buy a product: (DM_1) – I buy it immediately without hesitation; – I am thinking a while on this opportunity and in a couple of days I decide whether to buy it or not; – I am asking for my close friends’ advice; – I am asking for my friends and family’s advice; – I am asking for advice from friends and family, I am searching other buyers’ comments on internet and on social websites. 123 Vietnam J Comput Sci • In general: (DM_2) – I make my own decision and I stick to it no matter what happens; – I make a set of possible decisions, I analyze them a couple of days and after that I take my decision; – I have a set of possible decisions and for validation, sometimes, I ask someone else’s opinion; – I discuss the possible decisions set with close friends/ co-workers/ family; – I always discuss the decisions with other people, read news and comments. • When I cannot identify the product I am looking for: (PL_1) – I buy another product from the same producer, but from a different assortment; – I am looking for another store where I can buy my product; – I buy another product from a similar producer; – I am looking for new information that can help me in finding what I need; – I cannot evaluate this situation; • When choosing a particular product/service, I am taking into consideration the following aspects: (please select among: strongly disagree; disagree; undecided; agree; strongly agree) – The product and availability term: (P_1); – Product’s inner characteristics: (P_2); – Package characteristics: (P_3); – Brand awareness: (P_4); – Information received recently about that product: (P_5). • Whichof thefollowingactions haveyoumadeonfriends’ recommendation: (please select the appropriate answer among: never, sometimes, often, usually, always): – I have watched a commercial: (INT_1); – I have looked for a product promotion campaign: (INT_2); – I have informed about an event of a certain company: (INT_3); – I have participated on a contest organized by a firm: (INT_4); – I have followed that company’s activity on social media: (INT_5). These questions have been divided into three categories, as it can also be observed from the labels attached to them: Decision making and product placement (DM), Product (P) and Interaction with friends on social networks (INT). 5.2 Model fit through a confirmatory factor analysis Having the answers to the questionnaire above, a confir- matory factor analysis was conducted to validate its main constructions. The starting construction contained 13 latent factors (Fig. 6a), but due to the poor values obtained for main confir- matory factor analysis’s indices such as CMIN/DF of 4.612, GFI of 0.836, AGFI of 0.760, CFI of 0.778, NFI of 0.737, RFI of 0.670, IFI of 0.782, RMSEA of 0.131, etc., the con- struction has been structured as in Fig. 6, holding in analysis just 10 latent factors. For the new latent construct (Fig. 6b), the received results for the mentioned parameters were better than in first case, but still low: CMIN/DF dropped to 1.713, GFI of 0.953, AGFI of 0.917, CFI of 0.964, NFI of 0.920, RFI of 0.884, IFI of 0.965, RMSEA of 0.058. Therefore, a new cut in the considered variables was needed. The P_2 variable has been eliminated due to the low loadings values (see Fig. 7c). As a result, the values of the indicators have received better values: CMIN/DF of 1.678, GFI of 0.960, AGFI of 0.926, CFI of 0.970, NFI of 0.930, RFI of 0.895, IFI of 0.970, RMSEA of 0.057. As improvements still can be made here, the P_3 variable was eliminated (Fig. 8d) conducting to the indicators’ values presented and analyzed in the tables (see Tables 1, 2, 3, 4). Goodness of fit (GOF) The goodness of fit indicates how well the specified model reproduces the covariance matrix among the indicator vari- ables, establishing whether there is similarity between the observed and estimated covariance matrices. One of the first measures of GOF is Chi-square statis- tic through which the null hypothesis is tested so that no difference is between the two covariance matrices, with an acceptance value for the null hypothesis of >0.050. As Table1indicates,thisvalueisexceeded.Theimprovedmodel has a CMIN/DF of 1.483 less than the threshold value 2.000 (Table 2). Moreover, the values of GFI and AGFI are above the limit of 0.900, recording a 0.972, respectively, a 0.940 value, while CFI is exceeding 0.900 (being 0.983—see Table 3) the imposed value for a model of such complexity and sample size. As for the other three incremental fit indices, namely NFI, RFI and IFI, the obtained values are above the threshold value 0.900 for NFI and closely to 1.000 for RFI and IFI. As Table 4 shows, the root mean squared error approxima- tion (RMSEA) has a value below 0.100 for the default model, showing that there is a little degree to which the lack of fit is due to misspecification of the model tested versus being due to sampling error. The 90 % confidence interval for the RMSEA is between LO90 of 0.000 and HI90 of 0.085, the upper bound being close to 0.080, indicating a good model fit. 123 Vietnam J Comput Sci Fig. 6 Latent construct and the measured variables (a, b) Fig. 7 Latent construct and the measured variables (a, b) Validity and reliability For testing the construct’s validity and reliability, first of all, the standardized loadings should be analyzed and should be higher than 0.500, ideally 0.700 or higher. In this case, these values are between 0.634 and 0.953, confirming the validity. The convergent validity is given by two additional mea- sures: the average variance extracted (AVE) and construct reliability (CR). As these two measures are not computed by AMOS 22, they have been determined using the equations presented in the literature [35]. 123 Vietnam J Comput Sci Fig. 8 Latent construct and the measured variables (a, b) Table 1 Result table (AMOS 22 Output) Minimum was achieved Chi square = 25.212 Degrees of freedom = 17 Probability level = 0.090 Table 2 CMIN (AMOS 22 Output) Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF Default model 19 25.212 17 0.090 1.483 Saturated model 36 0.000 0 Independence model 8 514.628 28 0.000 18.380 Table 3 Baseline comparisons (AMOS 22 Output) Model NFI RFI IFI TLI CFI Delta1 rho1 Delta2 rho2 Default model 0.951 0.919 0.983 0.972 0.983 Saturated model 1.000 1.000 1.000 Independence model 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Table 4 RMSEA (AMOS 22 Output) Model RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 PCLOSE Default model 0.048 0.000 0.085 0.494 Independence model 0.288 0.266 0.310 0.000 The following values have been obtained for P, DM and INT—AVE: 0.431, 0.527 and 0.600, and CR: 0.714, 0.793 and 0.909. An AVE of 0.500 indicates an adequate conver- gent validity, while a CR of 0.700 or above suggests a good reliability. Having the obtained values, it can be concluded that the overall construct validity and reliability is good and that the considered measures are consistently representing the reality. 5.3 Grey clustering Using the GSTM 6.0 software, the grey cluster analysis was performed and the results are shown in the following: 123 Vietnam J Comput Sci Based on the answers received, it can be concluded that the second grey cluster is formed mostly by impres- sionable persons who are positively reacting to promotion campaigns in an online environment and which are tak- ing into account other’s opinions when making a deci- sion. Considering the members of the second grey cluster, it has been established that they have an average age of 24.1 years, their majority being formed by women, with an average num- ber of friends on OSN of 516, who are accessing the OSN more than once a day. In addition, persons in this category are spending more than four hours per day in online social networks and actively participating in forms and discussions in the online environment. Having this information about the most impressionable members in OSN, the companies can adapt their strate- gies to deliver the new pieces of information directly to these users [36]. From here, specific analysis can be done for each new user to determine which group he belongs to. In addition, another further research direction can be the identification of the most important nodes among the ones that can easily be impressed using a grey approach sim- ilar to the one proposed by Wu et al. [37]. In this way, by knowing both the nodes that are easily to be impressed and the ones that have great influence in each network, the companies’ strategies can be adapted to better target the OSN audience. Additionally, a storage service [38] can be used to ease the access to such a great amount of stored data. 6 Conclusions OSN are becoming more and more a reality nowadays. In this context, companies have adapted their strategies to meet the target audience. This paper presents a method for selecting the most impressionable members of a network. For this, a questionnaire has been deployed, applied and validated for better extracting the most impressionable members. Grey clustering was used as the information flowing within the feedback loops in OSN is a grey one. As further research, a grey relational analysis will be used foridentifyingthemostimportantandinfluentialnodeamong the most impressionable nodes within an OSN. Having this information, each company can adapt or create a specific strategy that will target this person to increase and strengthen competitive position on the market. 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Sci. 2(1), 13–23 (2014) 123 http://synthesio.com/corporate/en/2014/uncategorized/drive-customer-experience-social-intelligence-ebook/ http://synthesio.com/corporate/en/2014/uncategorized/drive-customer-experience-social-intelligence-ebook/ Grey clustering in online social networks Abstract 1 Introduction 2 An overview of online social networks 3 Grey knowledge 4 Grey clustering analysis 5 Case study on OSN users 5.1 Questionnaire and data 5.2 Model fit through a confirmatory factor analysis 5.3 Grey clustering 6 Conclusions References 
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work_p56ihlfhjzhkzday6l4kjgt2ca	----	Art in Science: The Artist and The Disease: The Exemplary Cases of Renoir and Toulouse-Lautrec Art in Science: The Artist and The Disease: The Exemplary Cases of Renoir and Toulouse-Lautrec Berardo Di Matteo MD, Vittorio Tarabella MA, Giuseppe Filardo MD, PhD, Piergiuseppe Tanzi MD, Elizaveta Kon MD, Francesco Iacono MD, Maurilio Marcacci MD From the Column Editors, O ur colleagues in Bologna and Milan, Italy have skillfully illustrated how physical ill- ness shaped the artistry of two French 19 th century icons, Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Henri de Toulouse-Lau- trec. In the case of Renoir, he accommodated for his debilitating deformity and pain from arthritis through the use of technical con- trivances that allowed him to manage canvases, access palettes, and grip brushes. These contraptions helped Renoir continue his prolific and cre- ative career well beyond usual endurance. Renoir persisted in defin- ing through color and brush stroke the inner light of Impressionism. For Toulose-Lautrec, his physical defor- mities drove him to seek asylum and anonymity at the margins of a Bohe- mian lifestyle found in Parisian night clubs. There, he found and painted the vulnerable characters this environ- ment attracted and the theater they represented. For these insights, and for two of many examples of illness influencing art, we are indebted to Dr. Di Matteo and his colleagues. — Gary E. Friedlaender MD, Linda K. Friedlaender BA, MS French painters Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec both lived with debilitating muscu- loskeletal diseases. The physical and psychological effects of their ailments shaped both artists’ perceptions of their environments. As Renoir’s health deteriorated due to rheumatoid arthritis, he pivoted away from the expansive freedom of impressionism in favor of studio por- traits capturing the imperial beauty of the human body. Toulose-Lautrec was similarly fascinated with humans, but more their place in the world than A note from the Editor-in-Chief: I am pleased to present the next installment of our ‘‘Art in Science.’’ In this month’s column, Berardo Di Matteo MD and his colleagues from the Humanitas Clinical Institute (Milan, Italy) and the Rizzoli Orthopaedic Institute (Bologna, Italy) profile two French painters who lived with debilitating musculoskeletal diseases: Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec. The authors certify that neither they, nor any members of their immediate families, have any commercial associations (such as consultancies, stock ownership, equity interest, patent/licensing arrangements, etc.) that might pose a conflict of interest in connection with the submitted article. All ICMJE Conflict of Interest Forms for authors and Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research 1 editors and board members are on file with the publication and can be viewed on request. The opinions expressed are those of the writers, and do not reflect the opinion or policy of CORR 1 or The Association of Bone and Joint Surgeons 1 . The institution of one or more of the authors (BDM, VT, GF, AV, PT, MM) has received, during the study period, funding from Italian State through ‘‘5 per mille (year 2011)’’ project. B. Di Matteo MD (&), E. Kon MD, F. Iacono MD, M. Marcacci MD Center for Functional and Biological Reconstruction of the Knee, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy e-mail: berardo.dimatteo@gmail.com V. Tarabella MA, P. Tanzi MD Rizzoli Orthopaedic Institute, Bologna, Italy G. Filardo MD, PhD Nano-Biotechnology Lab, Rizzoli Orthopaedic Institute, Bologna, Italy E. Kon MD, M. Marcacci MD Humanitas University, Rozzano, Milan, Italy Art in Science Published online: 7 August 2017 � The Association of Bone and Joint Surgeons1 2017 123 Clin Orthop Relat Res (2017) 475:2376–2381 / DOI 10.1007/s11999-017-5458-7 Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research® A Publication of The Association of Bone and Joint Surgeons® http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s11999-017-5458-7&amp;domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s11999-017-5458-7&amp;domain=pdf their physical features. Although from an aristocratic family, Toulose-Lau- trec’s physically obvious congenital illness (its exact nature remains obscure, but certainly included short stature) would cast most men of his era to the margins of society, and that is where he felt most comfortable. Toulose-Lautrec found himself regu- larly frequenting boozy nightclubs and brothels, where he often painted sce- nes from middle-class Parisian nightlife [7]. But another common theme emer- ges linking both Renoir and Toulouse- Lautrec beyond their physical disor- ders: An undeniable will to produce art. Perhaps painting was a coping mechanism for both artists or maybe the freedom of expression can simply exceed the limits imposed by disease. Renoir and Rheumatoid Arthritis In 1892, at the age of 50, French impressionist Pierre-Auguste Renoir developed rheumatoid arthritis, which limited his mobility and affected his ability to paint [4]. But paint he did. Despite battling his condition for nearly three decades, Renoir produced an estimated 4000 paintings [3] in his career—many coming after the age of 50. Only his extreme perseverance made it possible for him to produce so prolifically. Renoir started his formal training as a painter at the age of 21 under Charles Glyere, a Swiss-born painter and art teacher. There, he befriended French painters Claude Monet, Alfred Sisley, and Frédéric Bazille. Brought together by their dismissal and rejection of exhibition and studio art, this group of modern artists, along with Édouard Manet and Edgar Degas, spearheaded the Impressionist period [9]. In the 1870s, these painters left the confines of their studios to paint en plein air (outdoors). Their landscapes and sce- nes of middle-class Parisian life were at first satirized by critics using a then- derogatory adjective—impressionis- tic—that eventually came to define the movement, since their work was characterized by brushstrokes that captured the artists’ perceptions of light and motion, rather than previous artistic styles that valued precision [8]. The Luncheon of the Boating Party Renoir’s The Luncheon of the Boating Party (Fig. 1), is a vibrant example of Impressionism. The work depicts the gathering of some of the artist’s closest friends (including his future wife) as they share food, wine, and conversa- tion on the balcony of a restaurant overlooking the Seine River. One of his most famous ‘‘early’’ paintings, Renoir captures a moment where the attitudes of the crowd are both lively and relaxed. The Luncheon of the Boating Party won the favor of the critics at the 7th Impressionism Exhi- bition in 1882 and cemented Renoir’s status as an emerging star in the Impressionism period. But unlike his impressionist col- leagues, Renoir never fully withdrew from studio art, and through the years he would find himself moving back toward the traditional portraits from the 18th century French artists he grew up admiring [9]. Slow sales of his impressionist work with a wife and three children, as well as deteriorating health may have influenced his deci- sion to pursue studio art. Painting Through Pain Renoir’s rheumatoid arthritis deeply influenced his daily activities and lim- ited his artistic choices. He became more focused on depicting the human body, rather than landscapes. Nude bodies and domestic scenes became the main subjects of his late period, often represented in statuary and plastic poses like in The Judgment of Paris (Fig. 2). Using soft and fluid colors, this change of subject was interpreted by critics as a personal attempt to celebrate and remember his past health. His short and rapid brushstrokes, particularly emphasized in his last works, were 123 Volume 475, Number 10, October 2017 Art in Science 2377 Art in Science likely the result of the deforming arthritis in his fingers and hands. ‘‘His hands were terribly deformed,’’ his son Jean wrote. ‘‘His rheumatism had made the joints stiff and caused the thumbs to turn inward towards the palms, and his fingers to bend towards the wrists. Visitors who were unprepared for this could not take their eyes off his deformity’’ [6]. In 1903, the disease became even more aggressive, triggering ankylosis of the wrists, phalangeal joints, right shoulder, and both knees. With no effective cure or ability to manage his symptoms at the time, Renoir also man- ifested facial palsy, nodules in the back, pleural effusion, and weight loss [4]. In 1908, Renoir moved to the Mediterranean coast in the hope that a warmer climate could provide him symptomatic relief and better working conditions. He never abandoned his art, as it represented the best strategy to cope with the disease—a sort of modern occupational therapy. Renoir’s youngest son, Claude, became his personal assistant, preparing his palette and even placing the brush in the artist’s deformed hands [1, 3, 10]. Renoir used a special easel allowing him to reach a large canvas despite the lim- ited motion of his right shoulder. Although the pain was nearly unbear- able, Renoir never stopped painting. Henri Matisse, a renowned French artist and an admirer of Renoir’s work, once asked Renoir why he carried on painting while in such agony. He Fig. 1 In The Luncheon of the Boating Party, Renoir captures a moment where the attitudes of the crowd are both lively and relaxed. Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Luncheon of the Boating Party, 1880–81. Oil on canvas, 51 1/4 9 69 1/8 in. The Phillips Collection, Washington, DC, Acquired 1923. Any reproduction of this digitized image shall not be made without the written consent of The Phillips Collection, Washington, DC. 123 2378 Di Matteo et al. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research 1 Art in Science replied: ‘‘The pain passes, but the beauty remains’’ [6]. Overcoming Limitations Through Art Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec was born in France in 1864 to an upper-class family in which his parents were first cousins; Toulouse-Lautrec’s growth was delayed, and it was evident that he had short stature compared to his peers. During his childhood, he experienced fractures in both legs from minor trauma. Persistent leg pain made it impossible for Toulouse-Lautrec to walk without the aid of canes. He also experienced recurrent sinusitis, headaches, and impaired vision and hearing. Modern physicians attribute this constellation of symptoms to a genetic disorder, likely pycnodysostosis [2] (sometimes known as Toulouse-Lautrec Syndrome); alternative explanations might include achondroplasia or osteogenesis imper- fecta, all of which can explain some of his difficulties, though not all of them. Toulouse-Lautrec’s physical appear- ance and limitations deeply influenced his artwork. Unable to take part in ‘‘traditional’’ aristocratic occupations, used art as a way to fully express his repressed energy. His sinuous lines and dynamic dance scenes represented a physical athleticism that always eluded Fig. 2 The Judgment of Paris is an example of Renoir focusing on the human body, perhaps as an attempt to celebrate and remember his past health. Pierre-Auguste Renoir, The Judgement of Paris, ca. 1908. Black, red and white chalk on off-white, medium-weight, medium-texture paper, 19 1/4 9 24 1/2 in.; 48.895 9 62.23 cm. The Phillips Collection, Washington, DC, Acquired 1940. Any reproduction of this digitized image shall not be made without the written consent of The Phillips Collection, Washington, DC. 123 Volume 475, Number 10, October 2017 Art in Science 2379 Art in Science him. With its bright colors and short and fast brushstrokes, Toulouse-Lau- trec was intrigued by Impressionism early in his artistic career, but he later developed a post-impressionist style similar to Paul Cézanne and Vincent Van Gogh. Visibly deformed, physically hand- icapped, and ostracized from the luxurious upper-class existence, the artist hid among the outsiders of Paris to observe the gritty nightlife of the city. He regularly visited bistros where he met and painted society’s down- and-outs, and depicted the ‘‘Bo- hemian’’ lifestyle. At the Moulin Rouge, The Dance One of Toulouse-Lautrec’s most famous paintings, ‘‘At the Moulin Rouge, The Dance’’ (Fig. 3) captures the energy inside the famous dance hall in Montmartre, Paris. The work’s colors are striking; in the foreground, our eyes immediately land on the woman in the pink dress possibly gazing at the well-dressed man and woman in red socks dancing in the center of the nightclub. An inscription on the back of the painting by Tou- louse-Lautrec later revealed that the well-dressed man is instructing the woman on the ‘‘can-can’’, a popular French cabaret dance featuring high Fig. 3 At the Moulin Rouge, the Dance (1890) captures the energy inside the famous dance hall. The Henry P. McIlhenny Collection in memory of Frances P. McIlhenny, 1986. 123 2380 Di Matteo et al. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research 1 Art in Science kicks, splits, or even cartwheels [5]. Toulouse-Lautrec’s use of contrasting colors shifts our eyes beyond the dan- cers and further into the crowd to the man in the red jacket in the upper left of the painting. Known for observing and depicting brief moments inside the working class Parisian nightclubs he often frequented, Toulouse-Lautrec uses bright color to offer multiple perspectives from the scene [7], taking us from the pretty onlooker in the pink dress, to the easy-going dancers in the center of the crowd, to the man in the red jacket surrounded by patrons at the bar. In addition to depicting moments inside the Moulin Rouge, Toulouse- Lautrec designed poster-sized adver- tisements for the nightclub as well. Although considered low-brow artistry not on par with studio painting or sculptures, Toulouse-Lautrec’s posters transcended all artistic boundaries and contributed to a period of high art and cultural development in Paris known as Belle Epoque [5, 11]. Toulouse- Lautrec had a keen sense of celebrity, and his posters would often turn local Parisian dancers like Jane Avril into full-fledged stars. Considered the father of ‘‘pop art’’, he laid the groundwork for modern commercial artists like Andy Warhol [7]. But for all of his artistic triumphs, Toulouse-Lautrec could never escape his physical deformities, nor the bars and brothels that accepted him when most of society treated him as an out- cast. Although his art was a way to cope with the sense of exclusion, Toulouse-Lautrec ultimately died in 1901, at the age of 36, from compli- cations related to alcoholism and syphilis. Renoir and Toulouse-Lautrec could not be healed in life, but they both left remarkable legacies of beauty and creativity despite the cruelties of fate. References 1. Boonen A, van de Rest J, Dequeker J, van der Linden S. How Renoir coped with rheumatoid arthritis. BMJ. 1997;7123:1704–8. 2. Hodder A, Huntley C, Aronson JK, Ramachandran M. Pycnodysostosis and the making of an artist. Gene. 2015;555:59–62. 3. Kowalski E, Chung KC. Impairment and disability: Renoir’s adaptive coping strategies against rheumatoid arthritis. Hand. 2012;7:357–63. 4. Mota LMH, Neubarth F, Diniz LR, Freire de Carvalho J, Santos Neto LL. Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841- 1919) and Rheumatoid Arthritis. J Med Biogr. 2012;20:91–92. 5. Renoir J. Renoir, My Father. Boston, MA: Little Brown; 1962. 6. Rishel JJ. Philadelphia Museum of Art: Handbook of the Collections. Philadelphia, PA: Philadelphia Museum of Art; 1995:206. 7. The Art Story. Henri de Toulouse- Lautrec. Available at: http://www. theartstory.org/artist-toulouse-lautrec- henri.htm. Accessed June 26, 2017. 8. The Art Story. Impressionism. Available at: http://www.theartstory. org/movement-impressionism.htm. Accessed June 26, 2017. 9. The Art Story. Pierre-August Renoir. Available at: http://www.theartstory. org/artist-renoir-pierre-auguste.htm# important_art_header. Accessed June 26, 2017. 10. Tonelli F. Painting and sculpturing with ‘‘broken’’ hands: The victory of Renoir. Clinical Cases in Min- eral and Bone Metabolism. 2012;9: 59. 11. Trachtman P. Toulouse-Lautrec. The fin de siä̀cle artist who captured Paris’ cabarets and dance halls is drawing crowds to a new exhibition at Wash- ington, D.C.’s National Gallery of Art. Available at: http://www.smith- sonianmag.com/arts-culture/toulouse- lautrec-78257137/#ySisHjiVvkmz- ibBz.99. Accessed July 6, 2017. 123 Volume 475, Number 10, October 2017 Art in Science 2381 Art in Science http://www.theartstory.org/artist-toulouse-lautrec-henri.htm http://www.theartstory.org/artist-toulouse-lautrec-henri.htm http://www.theartstory.org/artist-toulouse-lautrec-henri.htm http://www.theartstory.org/movement-impressionism.htm http://www.theartstory.org/movement-impressionism.htm http://www.theartstory.org/artist-renoir-pierre-auguste.htm%23important_art_header http://www.theartstory.org/artist-renoir-pierre-auguste.htm%23important_art_header http://www.theartstory.org/artist-renoir-pierre-auguste.htm%23important_art_header http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/toulouse-lautrec-78257137/%23ySisHjiVvkmzibBz.99 http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/toulouse-lautrec-78257137/%23ySisHjiVvkmzibBz.99 http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/toulouse-lautrec-78257137/%23ySisHjiVvkmzibBz.99 http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/toulouse-lautrec-78257137/%23ySisHjiVvkmzibBz.99 Art in Science: The Artist and The Disease: The Exemplary Cases of Renoir and Toulouse-Lautrec Renoir and Rheumatoid Arthritis The Luncheon of the Boating Party Painting Through Pain Overcoming Limitations Through Art At the Moulin Rouge, The Dance References 
work_pf6dxzd3qnb6lgnrt427qrnlzy	----	From the Museum.indd Th e Ar t o f T hi nk in g Eur Respir J 2014; 44: 592–593 | DOI: 10.1183/09031936.00440314592 DOI: 10.1183/09031936.00440314 | Copyright ©ERS 2014 From the M useum Les Demoiselles d’Avignon was an explosion of intuitive creativity that took a quantum leap forward in reshaping our perspective of art and the modern world. Picasso’s Demoiselles proclaimed the future as they echoed the monumental nudes and mythical forms of the past. It was a painting that was “destroyed” before it was “created”; analysed as deconstruction before synthesised into something completely new (rivalling the Renaissance in its novel approach to perspective); and as individual and precocious in its execution as multi-dimensional in the forces that shaped it. Five heroic, sharply stylised nudes whose planar shapes exude the primitive dissonant power of forms are crowned by magnetic heads that stare straight at us through angular eyes and medusa-like faces. Th eir bodies dramatically confront us even though they are rigidly suspended in their surroundings – a fused hardness that contrasts with the transitoriness of impressionism. Th ere is no stillness: no fi xed focal point or single source of light; and no fl oor, horizon or uniform sense of depth. Th e integrity of mass as distinct from space has now been fragmented as dissected anatomies give us multiple perspectives simultaneously. Muted colour further emphasises form whilst use of the full colour spectrum (pink hued contours of the nudes set off by icy blue panes) allows for an alternative interpretation of depth perspective. Negative space is now positively painted freeing up the exploration of mass and void, line and plane, colour and value. Picasso’s Demoiselles was initially a Barcelona brothel scene that began as an allegory of vice (sailor-client seated amid fruit and women) and virtue (medical student entering on the left with a skull). But Picasso’s large canvas yearned for a grander, timeless statement, and he had the genius, drive and confi dence to experiment, rework and shape his painting towards the “discovery” that it became. In several master strokes of intuitive analysis and synthesis, the novel geometries of Picasso’s Demoiselles have combined the primitivism of African tribal art with western archaic sculptural forms and the newest ideas in science and mathematics of space, time and dimension (Poincare, Einstein). Th e multi-faceted nature of Cubist art shattered the autonomy of the individual object but in so doing enabled objects to both integrate with and transcend their environment. Cubism highlighted metamorphosis and change rather than permanence and made instability, indeterminacy and multiple points of view staples of modern art. Th e quantum world has now been embraced and Picasso is true to his pronouncement that “Je est un autre”. In reimagining three-dimensional pictorial space on a two-dimensional surface, Picasso had been shown the way by Cézanne and spurred on by Braque. Cézanne’s series of Mont Sainte-Victoire nature paintings exemplify his patient exploration of the relativity of seeing as he moved around both object and visual space and painted with “both eyes”. However the ambiguity that came with Cézanne’s optics being “not in the eye but in the brain” was initially seen as impotence. Later generations saw this very same duality as greatness and intellectualised it. Braque in particular freed himself from all illusionistic perspective (unnecessary distance between object and viewer) and “painted space” that could be more “fully experienced”. Whereas Picasso hungered for new beginnings and so constant and abrupt change was inevitable (mistresses and art styles), Braque’s quest was for ultimate resolution leading to an oeuvre that evolved gradually. Initially, Picasso and Braque were kindred spirits as they created a new cubist vocabulary, but it is the Atelier series of Braque that carried this experiment towards its natural conclusion. Atelier VIII is a complex summation of everything Braque had learned about art during his long life (incorporating both “analytical” and “synthetic” stages of cubism). For Braque, harmony is attained when “objects do not exist except in so far as a rapport exists between them, and between them and the viewer”. Above the lived-in microcosm of the painter’s studio in Atelier VIII fl ies a huge white bird, the embodiment of the creative force. All of a sudden, space-time has collapsed into a dimension of art where the solitary experimentalist (Cézanne), the exuberant genius (Picasso) and the methodical intellectual (Braque) are all juxtaposed, somewhat separated from everything that has gone before but intimately connected to all that will follow. Tom Kotsimbos Dept of Medicine, Central Clinical School, Monash University; Dept of Allergy, Immunology and Respiratory Medicine, Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, 3004, Australia. E-mail: tom.kotsimbos@monash.edu Pablo Picasso: Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, 1907; Museum of Modern Art, New York Paul Cézanne: Mont Sainte-Victoire with Large Pine,1887; Courtauld Institute of Art, London Georges Braque: Atelier VIII, 1954; Colección Masaveu, Oviedo, Spain C ub is m 593 Picasso CézanneBraque Charles Darwin Picasso CézanneBraque CCCharlessssssss DDDDDDDDDDDaaaaaaaaaaarrrrrrrwinCCCharlllllllllleeeeeeeeessssssssss DDDDDDDDDarwin Analysis Perspective Synthesis “All religions, arts and sciences are branches of the same tree” Einstein C ubism << /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false /AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /None /Binding /Left /CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 10%) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CalCMYKProfile (Europe ISO Coated FOGRA27) /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Error /CompatibilityLevel 1.7 /CompressObjects /Off /CompressPages true /ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true /CreateJobTicket false 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work_phfmqqia7nekzhr2emh7asa6na	----	1934.] PSYCHIATRY. 443 Epilepsy. XIII : Aura in Epilepsy. (Arch. of Neur. and Psychiat., vol. xxx, p.@ Aug. , 1933.) Lennox, 11―.G., and Cobb, S. The authors analysed the reports on 1,359 non-institutional epileptics. Aur@e were present in 562%, which agrees with Gowers' 57% on 2,013 cases. They were less frequent in patients having only petit nial or its equivalent than in others. A history of aura was not less common in the mentally deteriorated. In those who had had attacks for five years or longer the incidence of a history of aura was 27% greater than in those who had had less than five years of seizures. The mentally deteriorated more frequently had visceral aura@ ; the mentally normal, aurie of pain, pariesthesia@ or numbness. Aura@ of potential localizing value occurred in 70% of the patients with a history of injury of the brain antedating the seizures, and in 41% of those without such a history. G. W. H. T. FLEMING. A mbulatory A utomatism in Epilepsy [L ‘¿�automatisme ambulatoise épileptique]. (Ann. Med. Psych., vol. xiv (ii), p. 609, Dec., 1933.) Marchand, C. Of a series of 1,052 epileptics observed at the out-patients' department of the Henri-Rousselle Hospital, 69 (64°@) had a history of ambulatory automatism. This paper includes full reports and details on 43 cases (@@‘attacks). In 36 cases the automatism occurred in persons previously subject to classical epilepsy ; in 5 cases convulsions only appeared at a later date, while in 2 cases there were typical epileptic automatism without fits. @Etiology differed in no way from that of other epileptics (infantile convulsions, 8 ; cranial trauma, 6 ; neuro-syphilis, i ; hereditary syphilis, 2). It is noted that practically all subjects were adults at the time of the first fugue. The onset is sudden, rarely preceded by an aura (2 cases), and very seldom directly by a convul sion. Duration is variable—a few minutes to 24 hours. Return to consciousness is usually sudden ; there is marked fatigue, the subject often sleeping for several hours. In practically all the attacks there is complete amnesia for the incidents of the automatism ; in a very few cases vague memory traces are observed. During the automatism, in 37 cases the subject walked only ; in the others he bicycled, trained, “¿�trammed ‘¿�‘¿�or motored. Characteristic of the epileptic fugue is the absence of motive or end. The individual is clearly in a somnambulistic state ; the higher faculties have ceased to function and walking is rarely normal. The writer recognizes three degrees. In the first, medullary and motor centres concerning walking alone persist. In the second, associated habitual reflexes permitting the avoidance of obstacles and dangers are also uninhibited. In the third degree the individual accomplishes in a mechanical fashion complicated acts sufficiently correctly for his condition not to be commented upon. A section is devoted to the differential diagnosis, which is considered to be straightforward in the majority of cases. There is a further section on medico legal problems. In the writer's experience, contrary to popular belief, the epileptic in a fugue state is nearly always calm, showing no evidence of agitation, violence or brutality. Of the patients observed, one attempted to strangle his wife, one violated a grave, another stole, one left a restaurant without paying his bill and three urinated in public. S. ‘¿�vI.COLEMAN. Presbvophrenia [Uber Presbyophreniei. (Arch. f. Psychiat., vol. xcix, p.@ 1933.) Bostroem, A. The author thinks that presbyophrenia, although a definite clinical entity, cannot be distinguished anatomically from other senile psychoses. He defines it as a senile disorder in which there are no particular defects except disturbance of memory and impressionability (Merkfahigkeit). He purports to discover why. in some cases, the senile changes in the brain give rise to a clinical picture of presbyophrenia. Twelve cases are described (i i females and i male) . All patients not only showed a slightly hypomanic temperament, but were also very active personalities, who had previously succeeded in coping with the stresses LXXX. 30 
work_phvigntbhvgkhcvpxd4yivkvi4	----	NATURE.COM To comment online, click on Editorials at: go.nature.com/xhunqv Poetry in motion A quantitative approach to the humanities enriches research. The Oscar-winning 1989 film Dead Poets Society is an unabashedly exuberant story that appeals to the Lord Byron in each of us. Robin Williams plays a charismatic English teacher at a conserva- tive US prep school in the 1950s and, in one scene, gets his impres- sionable students to read a lesson from a poetry textbook aloud. The worth of a poem, they read, should be measured on two axes: its artistic perfection and its importance. As the schoolboys start to map out graphs in their notebooks, Williams cuts them off. “Excrement,” he announces — that’s what he thinks of the mathematical approach. A poem must be felt, not figured. He orders the boys to tear the page out of the textbook. “We’re not laying pipe,” he says. “We’re talking about poetry.” It is hard to disagree with the spirit of that moment. We should all be passionate about our academic interests, and daring enough to rip up hidebound rules that govern them. But the scene’s explicit disdain for quantitative analysis of text is as out of date as it is wrong. These days, it is the humanities scholars who equip themselves with quantitative skills who are most able to sound their ‘barbaric yawps’ over the roofs of the world, as Williams urged his students to do. As the News Feature on page 436 shows, the field of digital humani- ties is flourishing, led by scientists such as those behind the innovative Google n-grams viewer, which can be used to track the frequencies of words and phrases as they appear in 4% of the books ever published. Whether mapping the transmission of Voltaire’s letters across Europe, finding structural patterns in music across cultures or tracking the evolution of irregular verbs through time, these digital humanists have plenty to say. And they have the data to back it up. That is not to say that traditional approaches in the humanities will be disappearing any time soon, or that careful, interpretive readings by experienced scholars are as arbitrary as the learning-by-feeling espoused by Dead Poets Society. But digitization is marching on, and in all subjects, researchers who have their ears to the ground, rather than their heads in the sand, can hear the approaching drums. Every day, more and more of the media that make up both historical and contemporary culture are being converted to electronica. It seems just a matter of time before the humanities, like the social sciences before them, wholeheartedly embrace scientific methodology. And that should be reason to rejoice, not remonstrate. As Williams implored his young charges: carpe diem. Seize the day. ■ Damned if they do An industry approach to greener hydropower is far from perfect, but it does offer a way forwards. The mighty Iguaçu Falls in Brazil are an excellent illustration of the power of water, so what better place for the hydropower industry to promote what it says is a fresh approach to its sus- tainability? There is ample room for scepticism about the effort — known as the Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol (see page 430). It is an industry-led endeavour that requires next to nothing from the industry. It grades hydropower projects, but makes no judgement on what should happen to projects that rank poorly. And it is geared towards assessment of individual dams, independent of broader questions about energy-resource development. So far, so bad. Yet, if deployed properly, it could also be an invaluable tool to inject much- needed science and reason into a planning process that has operated with little of either for much too long. Developers and governments have historically assessed dam projects mainly on the basis of cost and power. Engineers simply survey the landscape to identify the easiest places to block channels, set up turbines and run power lines. Sediments, endemic species and the consequences of severing communication between headwaters and estuaries are very much secondary issues. Even people get short shrift, leading indigenous groups to mount the kind of intense pro- tests that last week saw the Peruvian government shelve plans for a massive dam in the Amazon. This standard approach has caused numerous environmental problems — such as siltation and blockages to migrating fish — in industrialized countries, which exploited their best hydropower resources long ago and are now trying to repair the damage. In some cases, the costs of improvement outweigh the benefits, and old dams are being decommissioned. But, in the developing world, hydropower projects continue to stack up. Countries in Southeast Asia and Latin America, in particular, are pursing hydropower with gusto, hoping to alleviate energy poverty and feed burgeoning economies. By one optimistic industry estimate, cumulative hydropower capacity could nearly double by 2030. Without a more coordinated approach, these countries are doomed to make the same mistakes. The new hydropower protocol comes courtesy of the International Hydropower Association, which consulted with environmental and human-rights groups, as well as representatives from finance and government, in an effort to set out some basic principles of sustain- able hydropower. After three years of work, the result is a way to assess dam projects on a range of criteria — from planning, governance and pub- lic engagement to ecology and hydrology. It is voluntary, however, and there are no minimum standards. The protocol asks all the right questions but fails to provide any answers. This has driven a wedge into the community of environmental and social activists that work in this arena. Critics argue that the protocol represents little more than a public-relations exercise that will allow bad developers to appear green while pursuing business as normal — often on projects that pre-date current environmental thinking. This may be true, but, unfortunately, in the politi- cal and corporate world such ‘greenwash’ is common. The new effort would at least cre- ate a common language with which to raise concerns, evaluate the best available science and negotiate improvements. The biggest shortcoming lies in the assessment of individual dams that have already been proposed for specific locations. Much better would be an approach to analyse entire river basins in an effort to identify the most suitable locations, as well as areas where special precautions should be taken. Indeed, it might well be that some rivers should be left to flow freely to preserve ecological integrity. The protocol does touch on these issues, raising questions about a dam’s role in the broader energy mix and about wider impacts from hydroelectric development. And it could yet offer a foundation to set minimum standards in these and other areas, so that companies would need to build and operate better dams, as well as integrate them into a more comprehensive energy strategy. For all of its faults, the protocol opens another bridge to a better future. Now it’s up to governments, banks and companies to make the journey across. ■ “The hydropower assessment protocol asks all the right questions but fails to provide any answers.” 4 2 0 | N A T U R E | V O L 4 7 4 | 2 3 J U N E 2 0 1 1 EDITORIALSTHIS WEEK © 2011 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved Poetry in motion 
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work_pjegasgjjfcjfels3wkcsecvty	----	POSTER PRESENTATION Open Access The attitude of non-psychiatry doctors to psychiatry and its correlates in Mysore, South India S Faizan1*, BN Raveesh1, V Anjali2, R Lakshmanagowda Sujatha1, K Sharath1 From International Conference for Healthcare and Medical Students 2011 Dublin, Ireland. 4-5 November 2011 Introduction The attitude of Non Psychiatry Doctors (NPD’s) and Non psychiatry Post Graduate Residents (NPPG’s) towards Psychiatry is crucially important because of its influence on impressionable medical students and the large num- ber of psychiatric patients who present to Non Psychiatry Doctors like General Practitioners. Since the data on the attitude of NPD’s and NPPG’s to psychiatry in India is sparse we carried out this survey in a Tertiary Govern- ment teaching Hospital in Mysore, South India. Methods A cross sectional survey of a sample consisting of 50 consenting Non Psychiatry Doctors (NPD’s) and 85 Non Psychiatry Post Graduate Residents (NPPG’s) obtained after proportional stratified random sampling based on specialty was carried out using a Pre Piloted modified version of the Attitude Toward Psychiatry (ATP-30) scale. Additional data related to their experience of Psy- chiatry as a discipline were recorded. The data collected were analyzed using the Chi square test and t test. Results The response rate of NPD’s was 72% (n = 36 from N = 50) and that for NPPG’s was 76.4% (n = 65 from N = 85). The mean score of the Modified ATP scale used was 64.19 for NPD’s and 61.76 for NPPG’s (neutral attitude score 50). NPD’s and NPPG’s who believed in the importance of psy- chiatry in the curriculum referred more patients for psy- chiatric consultations (P<0.05) ,more NPD’s than NPPG’s felt that Psychiatry helps in the development of meaning- ful relationships with patients (P<0.05). More NPD’s than NPPG’s (P<0.05), among NPD’s more recent graduates (P<0.005) and those who were younger (P<0.05) and with fewer years of practice were much more likely to believe that psychiatry has advanced considerably in recent years (P<0.05). Asked what would help them most in better detecting Psychiatric patients among patients presenting to them most NPD’s reported more time in consultations (86.11%) while most NPPG’s reported more appropriate interview techniques (76.92%). Conclusions Non Psychiatry Doctors (NPD’s) and Non Psychiatry Post- graduates (NPPG’s) at a tertiary hospital in Mysore have a moderately positive attitude to Psychiatry. NPD’s have a slightly more positive total attitude to Psychiatry as com- pared with NPPG’s. NPPG’s, while having a positive gen- eral attitude to psychiatry are more skeptical of recent advances in psychiatry and its importance as a discipline than their older mentors. This highlights the urgent need for better psychiatric education and more effective com- munication of the latest psychiatric knowledge to the younger generation of doctors. Author details 1Department of Psychiatry, Mysore Medical College and Research Institute (MMC&RI), India. 2Mysore Medical College and Research Institute (MMC&RI), India. Published: 9 July 2012 doi:10.1186/1753-6561-6-S4-P14 Cite this article as: Faizan et al.: The attitude of non-psychiatry doctors to psychiatry and its correlates in Mysore, South India. BMC Proceedings 2012 6(Suppl 4):P14. 1Department of Psychiatry, Mysore Medical College and Research Institute (MMC&RI), India Full list of author information is available at the end of the article Faizan et al. BMC Proceedings 2012, 6(Suppl 4):P14 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1753-6561/6/S4/P14 © 2012 Faizan et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0 Introduction Methods Results Conclusions Author details 
work_pjx32jj2njga5gjiq25spkx32m	----	The capacity for song memorization varies in populations of the same species | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.1006/ANBE.1996.0182 Corpus ID: 53147471The capacity for song memorization varies in populations of the same species @article{Nelson1996TheCF, title={The capacity for song memorization varies in populations of the same species}, author={D. A. Nelson and C. Whaling and P. Marler}, journal={Animal Behaviour}, year={1996}, volume={52}, pages={379-387} } D. A. Nelson, C. Whaling, P. Marler Published 1996 Psychology Animal Behaviour Abstract To compare the song learning capacity of migratory and sedentary birds, we contrasted the responses of males from two different populations of the white-crowned sparrow, Zonotrichia leucophrys , to rich and lean regimes of early tutor experience. The two regimes were designed to simulate extremes in the variety of songs that young males might experience. Males from the migratory population, Z. l. oriantha , learned significantly more tutor material, from more tutor song types, and… Expand View on Elsevier doi.org Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper 46 CitationsHighly Influential Citations 1 Background Citations 14 Methods Citations 1 Results Citations 2 View All 46 Citations Citation Type Citation Type All Types Cites Results Cites Methods Cites Background Has PDF Publication Type Author More Filters More Filters Filters Sort by Relevance Sort by Most Influenced Papers Sort by Citation Count Sort by Recency Late song learning in song sparrows J. C. Nordby, S. E. Campbell, M. Beecher History Animal Behaviour 2001 55 Highly Influenced PDF View 4 excerpts, cites results and background Save Alert Research Feed Photoperiod and tutor access affect the process of vocal learning C. S. Whaling, J. Soha, D. A. Nelson, B. Lasley, P. Marler Psychology, Medicine Animal Behaviour 1998 27 Save Alert Research Feed Social influences during song development in the song sparrow: a laboratory experiment simulating field conditions J. Nordby, S. E. Campbell, J. M. Burt, M. D. Beecher Psychology, Medicine Animal Behaviour 2000 73 PDF View 1 excerpt, cites background Save Alert Research Feed Bird song learning as an adaptive strategy. M. Beecher, S. E. Campbell, J. C. Nordby Psychology, Medicine Ciba Foundation symposium 1997 Save Alert Research Feed Re-expression of songs deleted during vocal development in white-crowned sparrows, Zonotrichia leucophrys Gerald E. Hough, D. A. Nelson, Susan F. Volman Biology, Medicine Animal Behaviour 2000 38 View 1 excerpt, cites background Save Alert Research Feed Song ontogeny in Nuttall’s white-crowned sparrows tutored with individual phrases J. Soha Psychology, Medicine Behavioural Processes 2019 Save Alert Research Feed Ecological effects on song learning: delayed development is widespread in wild populations of brown-headed cowbirds A. O'Loghlen, S. I. Rothstein Biology Animal Behaviour 2002 46 Save Alert Research Feed Chapter 4 Function and Mechanisms of Song Learning in Song Sparrows M. Beecher Psychology 2008 28 Save Alert Research Feed Birdsong learning as a social process M. Beecher Psychology Animal Behaviour 2017 30 Save Alert Research Feed Author ' s personal copy Function and Mechanisms of Song Learning in Song Sparrows * M. Beecher 2008 1 PDF Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 3 4 5 ... Related Papers Abstract 46 Citations Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. Learn More → Resources DatasetsSupp.aiAPIOpen Corpus Organization About UsResearchPublishing PartnersData Partners   FAQContact Proudly built by AI2 with the help of our Collaborators Terms of Service•Privacy Policy The Allen Institute for AI By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our Privacy Policy, Terms of Service, and Dataset License ACCEPT & CONTINUE 
work_pmsa46jm25hyhfhuumjh3annve	----	350 Slavic Review extent and illustrates a number of his points by reference to Chekhov's stories. The articles by Thomas Winner and Savely Senderovich try to give more rigor- ous definition to the analogy. Winner points to the highly syncretic nature of Chekhov's art, which provokes analogies not only with painting but with music and incorporates elements from myth and folk art. Winner links this syncretic tendency in choice of form and material to the characteristic structure of Chekhov's works with their seeming lack of action and reliance upon repetitions to achieve significant form. Savely Senderovich takes a hard look at the analogy to Impressionist painting and tries to put it on a sounder methodological footing. His observation that many of the qualities that define Impressionism in painting are peculiar to the act of paint- ing as such serves to clear the air. He proposes a "morphological" approach to the analogy, by which aspects of Chekhov's writings can be compared to Impressionist painting on the grounds of similarity in deep function, rather than because of super- ficial resemblances such as use of color. Many of his comparisons are illuminating. I fear, however, that when he analogizes Chekhov's "overthrow of spiritual per- spective" to the Impressionists' overthrow of geometrical perspective on the canvas, he stretches the method to its breaking point. PATRICIA CARDEN Cornell University E V G E N I J Z A M J A T I N : H A R E T I K E R IM N A M E N D E S M E N S C H E N . By Gabriele Leech-Anspach. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1976. x, 119 pp. DM 58, paper. This short survey (119 pages) covers a vast amount of ground. Divided into three tightly organized and concise sections, the text opens with a twenty-four-page bio- graphical introduction, which emphasizes the politics of Zamiatin's literary career. Continuing with a section on theoretical writings (14 pages), the author summarizes Zamiatin's philosophical, stylistic, and aesthetic views. The work culminates in the major section, "Stories, Novels, and Plays" (70 pages), in which virtually all of Zamiatin's fiction and drama are analyzed, or at least characterized. That Gabriele Leech-Anspach treats eighty-four different works in only eighty-five pages suggests the intensity of this tour de force. Eleven pages of bibliography and indexes conclude the survey. A reference handbook on Zamiatin's life and work could hardly be more compact or complete. A solid, reliable work which follows established scholarship and criticism, this survey serves the general German reader who may be familiar with We, but not with Zamiatin's other works. (Only a small portion of his writings has been translated into German, much of it by Ms. Leech-Anspach herself.) Although written for the generalist, the work yields few generalized insights. A survey can collect and sum- marize material, but without a controlling idea it cannot discriminate among accumu- lated data or distinguish crucial events and works from less important ones. The subtitle suggests such a generalization. Unfortunately, neither the image of Zamiatin as a heretic nor the suggestion that his heresy was humanitarian emerges clearly. The biographical section pays more attention to the context and effects of Zamia- tin's actions than to their origins or intent. The brief description of Zamiatin's theo- retical writings relates them to ideas of Belyi, Blok, Remizov, Ivanov-Razumnik, Fedin, Gorky, Sholokhov, Leskov, L. Tolstoy, as well as to H. G. Wells, Anatole France, Nietzsche, Bergson, Sartre, Bernard Shaw, and Upton Sinclair. But again, context overwhelms content. Zamiatin certainly viewed the true artist as a heretic, but the reader is not shown how this concept applied to Zamiatin himself. The analysis and summary of Zamiatin's prose and dramatic works proceed thematically and structurally, rather than chronologically, under the headings "Dark Reviews 351 Russia," "Rebels, Dreamers, ' S a i n t s , ' " "Kustodiev's Russia," "Grotesque Ivans," " 'Entropy' and Revolution," "Men between Yesterday and Tomorrow," "Simplicity and Perfection," and "The Turn to the Past." Although the author notes many influences, similarities, and differences between Zamiatin's work and that of his con- temporaries—both Russian and Western—the author's principal emphasis is, quite properly, on the works themselves. The wealth of structural diversity and stylistic richness in the works is clearly demonstrated. From this pattern, however, no over- riding image or idea develops, and the reader is left to conclude for himself, for example, how Zamiatin's style and method might be "heretical." The technical execution of the survey seems virtually flawless—copious and clear footnotes, few proofreading errors, and a list of German translations which should prove helpful. Unfortunately, the absence of an index of Zamiatin's works greatly reduces the survey's potential as a reference work. Zamiatin's work is well served by this survey, the only drawback of which is Leech-Anspach's invisibility. Had she expressed more of her own views, the analyses would have seemed less impersonal, Zamiatin would have emerged more clearly from his works, and the survey's grasp would have extended to its reach. ROBERT T. W H I T T A K E R Lehman College, CUNY P R O B L E M S IN T H E L I T E R A R Y B I O G R A P H Y O F M I K H A I L S H O L O - K H O V . By Roy A. Medvedev. Translated by A. D. P. Briggs. New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1977 [1975]. viii, 227 pp. $14.95. Rumors that someone other than Sholokhov wrote The Quiet Don began to circulate almost as soon as the first chapters appeared in 1928. In an effort to scotch the rumors, R A P P created a special investigating committee, which announced in Pravda (March 29, 1929) that the reports were false. The rumors, however, refused to be silenced and were reinforced in 1974 by the publication of a book called Stremia Tikhogo Dona: Zagadki romana, written by a Soviet scholar known only as "D", who died before completing the manuscript. In his preface to that book, Solzhenitsyn, already known as an ardent fan of Sholokhov's "Sud'ba cheloveka," expressed his own view that Sholokhov could hardly have written The Quiet Don. Subsequently, in 1975, a French translation of Medvedev's book appeared, and it, is now available in English. Medvedev's superb and fascinating work includes a detailed analysis of the book written by " D " . He agrees with " D " that The Quiet Don is the work of two writers—Sholokhov and someone else, probably Fedor Kriukov— but he challenges much of the analysis and information reported by " D " . Both of these books have been brilliantly reviewed by Professor Ermolaev (Slavic and East European Journal 18, no. 3 [Fall 1974]: 299-310, and 20, no. 3 [Fall 1976]: 2 9 3 - 307). Medvedev has responded to Ermolaev's two review articles (SEEJ, 21, no. 1 [Spring 1977]: 104-16), continuing an exchange of views that is truly enlightening. Another noteworthy response to the two books is Geir Kjetsaa's article, "Storms on the Quiet Don: A Pilot Study" (Scando-Slavica, 22 [1976]), which describes a tenta- tive computer analysis that seems to support Sholokhov's position. Amid the reaction to Medvedev's book, however, two of his fundamental assump- tions have received little or no comment: (1) that the underlying ideology of The Quiet Don, especially in its first two volumes, is anti-Bolshevik; and (2) that the general philosophy of the author is a "humanism which embraces all mankind," through an "underlying emotional tone that delivers a decisive protest against murder and violence from any quarter and whatever the ideological justification." Even in the first two volumes, the author of The Quiet Don portrays Melikhov as right when he accepts bolshevism and wrong when he rejects it. Garanzha reveals "truths hitherto unknown to Gregor" and "Gregor's mind awoke." Gregor then returns home, "and 
work_ploe6c3ovne7rp2zaqzpnaz6he	----	– 838 – DOI: 10.17516/1997-1370-0610 УДК 75.03 Architectural Space in the Paintings by Vincent van Gogh Yuliya N. Avdeeva, Kseniya A. Degtyarenko, Maria A. Kolesnik, Natalia P. Koptseva*, Daria S. Pchelkina and Anna A. Shpak Siberian Federal University Krasnoyarsk, Russian Federation Received 02.05.2020, received in revised form 05.06.2020, accepted 12.06.2020 Abstract. The article presents an overview of the basic conceptual post-impressionism principles to identify the artistic and sociocultural context of the works by Vincent van Gogh, and the published researches of paintings by Van Gogh, manifesting a diversity of approaches to the artistic heritage of the painter. The authors of the article analyse three pieces by Vincent van Gogh created in 1888: Bedroom in Arles, Interior of a Restaurant in Arles, and The Night Café. Belonging to the same period, these paintings were selected to study the way van Gogh translated psychological states and represented a subjective picture of the world through building an illusive architectural space. The article presents the results of the philosophic and art analysis of the given works depicting personal and public spaces, and a conclusion on the significance and role of the interior genre in the art of Vincent van Gogh is made. Keywords: van Gogh, painting, post-impressionism, art work, tragedy, epistolary heritage, symbolic capital of the painting, interior, internal architectural space, composition. Research area: theory and history of art, theory and history of culture. Citation: Avdeeva, Yu.N., Degtyarenko, K.A., Kolesnik, M.A., Koptseva, N.P., Pchelkina, D.S., Shpak, A.A. (2020). Architectural space in the paintings by Vincent van Gogh. J. Sib. Fed. Univ. Humanit. Soc. Sci., 13(6), 838–859. DOI: 10.17516/1997-1370-0610. Journal of Siberian Federal University. Humanities & Social Sciences 2020 13(6): 838–859 © Siberian Federal University. All rights reserved * Corresponding author E-mail address: decanka@mail.ru ORCID: 0000–0001–8194–7869 (Kolesnik); 0000–0003–3910–7991 (Koptseva); 0000–0002–2948–8762 (Shpak) – 839 – Yuliya N. Avdeeva, Kseniya A. Degtyarenko… Architectural Space in the Paintings by Vincent van Gogh Conceptual principles of post-impressionism and its role in modern art Many art researchers including American art historian John Rewald considered post-im- pressionism to begin from the last impres- sionist exhibition in 1886 known as the first manifestation of neo-impressionists, and the publication of Jean Moréas’s Symbolist Man- ifesto in the French Le Figaro newspaper in the same year (Chudov, 2018; Stoian, 2015). This stage came to an end at the turn of the centuries, resulting in the emergence of cub- ism, which was the starting point for modern art development. Speaking about the reasons that caused the emergence of symbolism, the leader of the symbolists, French poet Stéphane Mallarmé (1842-1898) emphasized the lack of stability in the society to give a start to stable art, the blurred social borders that disturbed the minds and entailed individualization in art (Illouz, 2005). Much later, French researcher Jean-Nicolas Illouz (1964-) also noticed that the complex socio-political situation in France in the late 19th century, the dramatic process of republic development, made an impact on the development of French literature (Illouz, 2005). Post-impressionism is the stage that fol- lowed impressionism, embracing artists work- ing in different styles and under different con- cepts, who had their own way in art but were exposed to the direct impact of the impression- ists, including the palette, technique, compo- sition solutions etc. Unlike the impressionists who focused on observation of nature and depiction of a miraculous moment happening here and now, the late 19th century’s painters believed that the initial creative impulse was an idea embodied in the surrounding nature, and the main role in it had to be played by imagi- nation, expression of their own contemplations and worldview (Koptseva et al., 2018; Avdee- va et al., 2019; Amosova et al., 2019; Koptseva et al., 2017). In their creative endeavours, the post-impressionists transformed the impres- sionist heritage, but still held on to its revolu- tionary ideas of art going beyond the academic notions, expanding the borders of visual per- ception. The interest to the viewers’ perception and optical effects continued developing in the works of post-impressionists (Georges Seurat, Paul Signac, Henri Edmond Cross, Lucien Pissarro etc.), but found some scien- tific grounds, such as the psychophysiological features of colour perception, colour theory of Michel Chevreul, Ogden Rood, Hermann von Helmholtz and others, and optic discov- eries (Veimarn, 1965). Working in the genres of landscapes and still-life paintings, Paul Cézanne attempted to reinterpret the diversity of life forms in the framework of stereomet- rics, the contrast confrontation of shape and colour. Paul Gauguin turned to the symbolist program developed in French literature of that time, and withdrew from working on the view- ers’ impression of the piece, giving the main role to the conceptual content enveloped in the mystery of the past. The specificity of poster art takes origins from the works of Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, who focused on psycholog- ic expression, dynamic moments in the lives of his characters presented through expressive and grotesque forms. The art of Vincent van Gogh with its unique emotional and expressive language of the author, presented the problem of spirituality and moral in the contemporary person, the state of the surrounding world and the artist’s own emotional world outlook. Translating the spirit of its time, the es- tablishment of new society, reinterpretation of values, and search for new meanings, post-im- pressionism promoted the development of the artistic culture of the turn of the 19th-20th centu- ries and served as a precursor for such modern art trends as fauvism, expressionism, cubism, symbolism, modern painting, poster art etc. John Rewald also draw a parallel between post-impressionism and various art trends of the late 20th century, such as post avant-garde and post-modernism. The main artists of the late 19th century being the main trendsetters in the art of the coming century and modern art as a whole, are: Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, George-Pierre Seurat, Paul Cézanne, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri Rousseau. Classical and modern studies of the art of Vincent van Gogh The interest of researchers towards the works of Vincent van Gogh, as well as recogni- – 840 – Yuliya N. Avdeeva, Kseniya A. Degtyarenko… Architectural Space in the Paintings by Vincent van Gogh tion of his art, gained momentum long after his death. The majority of the studies were written in the early 21st century. Despite the common idea of the artist as an unhinged and a men- tally ill person, modern researchers recognize his unique, consistent, committed character. Van Gogh amazes by his persistence in labour; he believed that this is not personal happiness that is the aim of one’s existence, but continu- ous creative work and desire to leave a great heritage. He was convinced that it is not tal- ent, but hard labour that makes a great artist. He continued working regardless of blows of circumstances and disapproval of his art by the contemporaries. Van Gogh had been insist- ing on his point of view and his opinion of art throughout his life. For him, painting was more than a purpose and mission of his life, it was life itself, the life he did not just portray, but lived every moment of it in his own way. Studying the life and works of the great painter, the researchers elaborate on various aspects the studies: the controversial moments of biography and periods in work, the tragic motives of his life and painting, the specific painting techniques and symbolism, the con- tribution in further art development, cultural response to the works by his contemporaries (the dialogue of cultures), the Japanese influ- ence on the works by Van Gogh, specificity of each painting period and analysis of different pieces of art. The first article about the artist titled “The Isolated Ones: Vincent van Gogh” was written by young writer Albert Aurier back when the artist was alive. In the article, Aurier revealed the dualistic nature of Van Gogh’s personality; being a great artist committed to painting, he was a passionate believer and a dreamer living in his beautiful ideas, utopias, and dreams. An adherer of symbolism, Aurier eagerly listed this artist among symbolists and wrote: “No doubt, like all the painters of his race, he is very conscious of material reality, of its importance and its beauty, but even more often, he consid- ers this enchantress only as a sort of marvel- lous language destined to translate the Idea”. However, in his response to this article, Vin- cent himself objected. He wrote that the author of the article had glamorized his image to make it fit his ideals and presented him as a roman- tic lonely genius. In a letter to his brother, Van Gogh wrote: “But the truth is so dear to me, trying to create something true also, anyway I think, I think I still prefer to be a shoemak- er than to be a musician, with colours” (Van Gogh, 2018). He did not see himself as an iso- lated person in what he did; he thought he was in line with many others, though did not play a leading part in either society or art. Interestingly, earlier studies written in the last decades of the 20th century are of psycho- analytic nature and mostly belong to foreign re- searchers. Among the most commonly studied, and, importantly, doubtful and controversial questions there are the issues of psychopathol- ogies the artist suffered from and the influ- ence they made on his painting (Rahe,1990; Morrant, 1993; Lemke, Lemke, 1994; Blumer, 2002); xanthopsia and domination of yellow tones (Arnold, Loftus, 1991); addictions (Lee, 1981; Berggren, 1997) and suicidal inclinations of the painter (Mehlum, 1996; Montejo Gon- salez, 1993); the conflict with Gauguin and its consequences (Runyan, 1981); the anguish he suffered, branded with the “mark of shame” by the society (Benezech, Addad, 1997). General- ly, this period is also distinctive with a number of works focused on the life and painting of the artist (Stoun, 1988; Uolleis, 1998). For the early 21st century, it is typical to speak of Van Gogh as a great painter who had left a unique, priceless heritage both in art and beyond. In the community of researchers and artists, we find less and less one-sided judge- ments of him as an unrecognized self-pro- fessed, or a rejected martyr suffering from a mental illness. There are more researchers in- troducing the life and work of Van Gogh from a different perspective: N.A. Dmitrieva (Dmi- trieva, 1984), H. Perruchot (Perruchot, 1987), E. Weissman (Weissman, 2008), M. Gordeeva (Gordeeva, 2009), A.V. Golenkov (Golenkov, 2011), M.M. Drobysheva (Drobysheva, 2014), N. Heinich (Heinich, 2014), N.V. Kuzova (Ku- zova, 2015), A. Savichev (Savichev, 2016), E. Gordeeva (Gordeeva, 2017), O.Iu. Zharina (Zharina, 2019). A study by Ia. Beloshapkina (Beloshapki- na, 2013) analysing the main features of Van – 841 – Yuliya N. Avdeeva, Kseniya A. Degtyarenko… Architectural Space in the Paintings by Vincent van Gogh Gogh’s painting and the milestones of his life is of special interest. The author remarks that the principal expression and atmosphere-creating tool for Van Gogh was the colour. Van Gogh believed that a colour could reveal the soul of a character; every colour bore a deep symbolic meaning for him. Moreover, the painter con- templated over the psychological properties of colours and made up a system of his own, adopting the experience of the best colourists of the past. Beloshapkina also studied the mo- tives and drivers of Van Gogh’s creativity, and among the most powerful ones she mentioned commiseration and sympathy. Every piece car- ries a piece of the painter’s soul: “…the closer to perfection the painting was, the more emo- tionally drained was the artist. Life was slowly slipping away from Vincent, flowing into his paintings”. The personality of Van Gogh was the object of research carried out by A.S. Filip- pova (Filippova, 2014), who made an attempt to draw a psychological portrait of the artist. She pointed out that Van Gogh should not be biased; his life was controversial and paradox- ical. Though not naturally gifted, he became a great painter; not a talented speaker, he wrote astonishing letters to his brother, and today they are acknowledged as literary heritage. It is emphasized that Van Gogh was reaching out to people, willing to be heard and understood, but in the majority of cases he was rejected and avoided. The reason was his unwilling- ness to play the imposed social roles or to live up to someone’s expectations, to blindly fulfil the instructions of his customers or to follow any trends of fashion due to the humanism ideas he preached. Filippova also noticed that several years after Van Gogh’s death one ven- turous German man promoted the publishing of pseudoscientific monographs of the life and work of the artist, intentionally distorting the facts. The painter was presented as a mentally disturbed, careless sentimentalist, an outcast, a deeply miserable person who found himself in the circumstances he could not change. Filippova criticized this position, proving that Van Gogh was a pragmatic, industrious and resolute man, thoroughly planning every step he made. E. Murina approached the analysis of works by van Gogh in an extremely diligent manner in her large theoretical work (Mu- rina, 1978). She pointed out that it is not the historical and artistic, but the personal aspect that should be emphasized studying the works of the painter: it should be the “social tragedy of an innovator destined for misunderstanding and death”. Later, the moral authority of this “painter person” promoted both the popular- ization of Van Gogh’s artistic discoveries and the victory of new painting as a whole. More- over, it highlighted the so-called psychological phenomenon, the painter’s continuous medita- tion on his own life, himself and his activity. It shed new light over the unique personality of the painter and the originality of paintings by Van Gogh who, as a deeply spiritual person, created himself and built his own life, aware of not fitting in the surrounding world. Modern researchers also focus on the unique techniques of painting and graph- ics, symbolism, and ontological status of Van Gogh’s art. For instance, E.R. Kotliar and F.S. Emiruseinova (Kotliar, Emiruseinova, 2017) analyse the artist’s brandmark oil paint- ing technique, the individual stroke manner his paintings are recognized from. Moreover, the authors draw a parallel between the content of the paintings and the ideas of humanism manifested in the shapes and colour solutions. A.A. Ievleva and S.A. Khrapugina (Ievleva, Khrapugina, 2019) provided a detailed descrip- tion of the painting technique, peculiarities of the colour solutions, attempted to explain the genre preferences of the painter and elaborated upon his epistolary heritage. A.Iu. Puchkova (Puchkova, 2016) pointed out that the unique painting technique of Van Gogh was based upon his principal avoidance of the commonly accepted traditions, of the conventional and proportional imaging. Guid- ed with his feelings and emotions, Van Gogh did not attempt to copy what he saw, but con- tributed his soul into every image he created. He depicted people in close communion with nature, avoiding smooth and graceful lines. He preferred abrupt and sharp lines, making people in his paintings resemble rocks. How- ever, working on elements of nature, he tried to – 842 – Yuliya N. Avdeeva, Kseniya A. Degtyarenko… Architectural Space in the Paintings by Vincent van Gogh breathe life into them and to make them resem- ble human figures. This was the way he tried to translate the truth of the real life, which he internalized and expressed through art, without idealizing or brightening it up, inspiring people to do the new art he created. N.S. Rodionov (Rodionov, 2017) studied the specificity of Van Gogh’s painting in dif- ferent periods of his life to monitor the chang- es and the factors that influenced the manner of the painter at every stage. D.N. Lugantsev (Lugantsev, 2017) turned to the specificity of Van Gogh’s graphics and analysed a number of graphic works of the author to conclude that they were just as impressive as the oil paintings. The technique and artistic manner of the paint- er have been also considered by E. Dichenko (Dichenko, 2015), A. Kas’ianov (Kas’ianov, 2019). S.A. Shul’ts (Shul’ts, 2018) took inter- est in the ontological status of art based on works by several painters. Speaking of Van Gogh, he turned to the research experience of M. Heidegger and H. Perruchot. According to them, a thing is initially constituted by art, not vice versa. This idea is clearly explained by Heidegger in his comments to Van Gogh’s Shoes: “In Van Gogh’s painting, truth hap- pens. This does not mean that here something at-hand-before-us would be correctly depict- ed, but rather that in the becoming-manifest of the being-tool of the shoe-tool, being in its totality, world and earth in their counter- play, attain to unconcealedness”. Therefore, art is the meaning-manifesting domain of the world’s historical life, and its legislator is the artist himself. In the same context and in a similar manner, Perruchot elaborated on the idea of replacing people with things in works by Van Gogh: “In his Paris paintings, people are rare. If they are there, they are nothing but coloured shadows. The true life is somewhere else… Vincent paints a pair of his Borinage shoes, spotted with mud and worn by long walks; so precious to him, these shoes are presented like living beings, looking from the painting with human eyes” (Perruchot, 1987). Later, José Ortega y Gasset referred to this idea as dehumanization of art and called it a feature of modern art. E. Sannikova (Sannikova, 2019) raised an interesting topic of art market, a meeting point of economics and culture. She promoted the ideas of David Throsby (Throsby, 2013) who developed the creative economy concept and supposed that there simultaneously existed a physical market of the works of art and a mar- ket of ideas. The physical market sets the eco- nomic value of art, while the market of ideas sets the cultural value. Sannikova applied the artistic production model to the works by Van Gogh to derive a new category of a “symbolic capital” that underlaid the economic price of an art work. I.N. Sachkov and M.A. Chistiakov (Sach- kov, Chistiakov, 2019) discovered three criteria to classify a process in art as a synergetic pro- cess. The subject matter of the study is the mod- ern tendency of forming the evolutionary-syn- ergetic paradigms to observe the emergence of self-organizing structures, the avalanche-like development process and the predictability of this process. The authors engaged themselves in searching for such synergy in the works by Van Gogh. They discovered and proved the synergetic nature of both his works and the paradigm of his acknowledgement and com- mercial success. T.Iu. Plastova (Plastova, 2012) dedicat- ed one of her works to studying the works by A.A. Plastov in the European culture context and concluded that his world outlook and the painting system were established under the influence of the paintings and epistolary her- itage of Vincent van Gogh. The author found a number of parallels in the conceptual aspect of the paintings and stated that Van Gogh be- came a real inspiration for Plastov, making him feel free, powerful and confident in what he preached. O.V. Stroeva (Stroeva, 2014) turned to the question of replicating images in modern cul- ture, the topic that is gaining momentum in today’s technical replicability era. She spoke about changing the perception of art as a phe- nomenon, about the destruction of uniqueness of cultural objects. Based on the exhibition titled “Van Gogh. The Canvas Come Alive” organized in Moscow, she illustrated the new status of art in the modern society. The de- – 843 – Yuliya N. Avdeeva, Kseniya A. Degtyarenko… Architectural Space in the Paintings by Vincent van Gogh veloping technologies change the art’s way of being; now, the works of art can be a copy or a simulation, an everyday item or an entertain- ment facility. The author said that the category of beauty was losing its main property which is non-usability, and was turning into a mostly economic category. Some studies are attractive with their unusual angle: if the past century’s studies of culture and art were dominated by the idea of translation of new meanings from the Europe- an culture into the Russian one, some scholars today act by a reversal. For instance, the objec- tive of study by Kharybina (Kharybina, 2019a) is the identification of the dialogic specificity of communication between the art cultures of Western Europe and Russia at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, generating new concepts. Based on the essential and concept-building structures of Van Gogh and Leo Tolstoy, she discovered similar art concepts without a direct impact of Russian culture on the work by the European artist. The epistolary heritage of Van Gogh was concluded to be the most relevant source of influence. Among the common ideas, the author listed the inclination to perfect sim- plicity, Christian culture, image of nature as a source of harmony. In another study, Kharybi- na went through the dialogue of cultures, draw- ing parallels between the works by Van Gogh and Fyodor Dostoyevsky (Kharybina, 2019b). There are some other examples of contempo- rary studies of the culture parallelism involving the personality of the great artist, written by E.V. Rovenko (Rovenko, 2016), E.M. Kokurina (Kokurina, 2006), T.B. Trofimova (Trofimova, 2009). And, indeed, today there is great num- ber of works featuring the analysis of differ- ent works by Van Gogh: P. Harold, M.D. Blum (Harold, Blum, 1956), J. Margolis (Margo- lis, 2002), M.V. Balan (Balan, 2007; Balan, 2008), E.A. Dvoretskaia (Dvoretskaia, 2016), G.L. Groom (Groom, 2016), D.A Karimov, V.M. Serdiuchenko, P.S. Volkova (Karimov, Serdiuchenko, Volkova, 2018), E.A. Poliako- va, T.V. Motova (Poliakova, Motova, 2019), E.A. Elina (Elina, 2019) and many others. Therefore, starting from the second half of the 20th century, there is an obviously growing interest to the life and creative heritage of Van Gogh expressed by both Russian and foreign researchers from various domains: art critics, psychologists and psychotherapists, culture re- searchers, philosophers, sociologists, medics and even musicians. We can see the nature of these studies change from the analysis of psy- chic disorders of the painter to the discovery of his unique artistic, literary and life heritage. Van Gogh became inspiration both for succes- sor artists and simple viewers of his works. With his exceptional originality, will, per- sistence, and principal rejection of everything claimed to be correct, everything imposed and fashionable, he managed to demonstrate that every person is capable of leaving something great behind, even if he has not been gifted from the start. Philosophic and artistic analysis of paintings by Vincent van Gogh Bedroom in Arles (1888) The idea of the painting titled Bedroom in Arles (Fig. 1) came to Vincent van Gogh in 1888, as proven by letters addressed to his brother Theo van Gogh and painter Paul Gauguin. The letters also contain the first two drafts of the future work of art. There are two more known copies made by the painter himself in 1889. All these drafts and paintings, quotes from letters describing the concept of the painting and the ways of bringing it to life should be doubtlessly used for the analysis of this piece. The philosophic and art analysis of the painting appears relevant because traditional- ly it is considered from the position of attri- butes and the correctness of their arrangement (Brettell, 1986), the way they illustrate the ideas and methods of the artist’s work (Van Tilborgh, 2012; Hendriks, 2011), acting as a ground for discussion of the illusory space created in the art works by Van Gogh (Ward, 1976; Heelan, 1983) and the colour palette he used (Saggio, 2011). These pieces were also interesting to the researchers as an example of a constant motive of interior in the paintings of the artist, bearing special emotional and psychological signifi- cance for him; moreover, it is also considered with respect to the biography of the author (Groom, 2016; Scillia, 2004). However, the – 844 – Yuliya N. Avdeeva, Kseniya A. Degtyarenko… Architectural Space in the Paintings by Vincent van Gogh purpose of this analysis is to identify the speci- ficity of the architectural space in the works of the artist. In one of the letters, Van Gogh wrote: “So I have gone over the canvas of my bed- room. That study is certainly one of the best…” (January 23, 1889 (Van Gogh, 2001: 610) which is a reason to suppose that Bedroom in Arles occupied a special place among other works of Van Gogh. What is in the painting regularly men- tioned in the letters of the painter? At first, it looks simple. The painting presents a small room with two doors, one on the left and one on the right, one window in the opposite wall, a low sloping ceiling, some furniture and some objects hanging on the walls. The room is plain and ascetic, with min- imum of things including a massive basic bed with two pillows and a blanket on it, two heavy wooden chairs, a toilet table with some toilet- ries on it, a mirror, a towel, a hanger with some clothes and a hat on it. Among the paintings on the walls, there is one landscape, two por- traits, and two pencil drafts. In the centre of the canvas, there is nothing; some free and empty space is left in the middle. The colours are also simple, based on the opposition of pure local colour spots with an obvious domination of warm yellow, brown, red, and olive tones in the lower part and colder blue and green tones in the upper part of the canvas, e.g. on the walls, doors and window frames. The colour composition is based on the theory of complementary colour pairs, particu- larly red and green, blue and orange, yellow and blue, as described in the letter from Van Gogh to Paul Gauguin: “I did, for my decoration once again, a no. 30 canvas of my bedroom with the whitewood furniture that you know. Ah, well, it amused me enormously doing this bare inte- rior. With a simplicity à la Seurat. In flat tints, but coarsely brushed in full impasto, the walls pale lilac, the floor in a broken and faded red, the chairs and the bed chrome yellow, the pil- lows and the sheet very pale lemon green, the blanket blood-red, the dressing-table orange, the washbasin blue, the window green. I had wished to express utter repose with all these very different tones, you see, among which the only white is the little note given by the mirror with a black frame (to cram in the fourth pair of complementaries as well)” (1888), (Van Gogh, 2001: 798). Importantly, these colour pairs do Fig. 1. Bedroom in Arles, Vincent van Gogh (1888) Canvas, oil, 72*90 cm – 845 – Yuliya N. Avdeeva, Kseniya A. Degtyarenko… Architectural Space in the Paintings by Vincent van Gogh not inflict a conflict but, on the opposite, high- light the essence of every colour, create a har- monic unity of the entire composition. Now we may elaborate on the description of the objects filling the room: the bed stands out with its size and location. The footboard of the bed is very prominent, overlooking the viewer, appearing inaccessible as a high barri- er. The bed itself is wooden (as the artist wrote, “whitewood”), massive and heavy, taking up almost a half of the room space. It stands in such a way that a part of it is protruding for- ward, to the entrance door. It creates an asso- ciation with the idea of protection, security, a fortress, a guard. The bed keeps something soft, light, and warm; this is the way the linen looks with its red colour, warm and expressive. The pillows and the blanket embody the world of dreams, thoughts, fantasy, and imagination. Therefore, the essence of this item is securing the dream world from any foreign intruders. The two chairs are similar to the bed in their character: both of them are also massive and heavy, made of simple, untreated mate- rials. Both chairs are facing the bed; they are very similar, even the turn is the same. Just like the bed, these objects perform the function of protection, as the chair on the left is closing the entrance door. They look like two guards keeping something precious. The barrier they make is not insurmountable, but it is stated and it exists. The toilet table is also simple and rudely made, with one drawer. On its top, we see sub- tle contours of the following things: two jugs, a bowl, a glass, a brush and two vials (in the next two versions, all the objects are more promi- nent and certain). All these items identify the space of cleanness and purification, associated with water. Before the table, there is a towel marking the entrance into the space of purifi- cation. The mirror is what the examination of the walls begins with. We see a smooth transparent mirror that does not reflect anything, but has a potential of reflecting whatever appears be- fore it. The mirror here is a clear, unadulterated surface. The window with a green frame and green- ish glass is slightly open, but it opens inside the room. The tall window makes a vertical line that stretches outside the painting. In the let- ter to his brother, having listed all the items of the room, the painter writes: “And that’s all — nothing in this bedroom, with its shutters closed” (Van Gogh, 2001: 580). The window is also interpreted as a barrier protecting the room from the outer world. The painting mod- els an isolated space. On the other hand, how- ever, there is something that is ready to intrude; the window wings look about to open under the pressure of alien force. The hanger is located right behind the headboard; there are three jackets and a hat in the corner. All the items have one and the same purpose: to cover and to protect. Judging from the colour, the hat should be a straw hat, which is also proven by a series of self-portraits of Van Gogh wearing such a hat. It looks burnt by the sun, saturated with its energy. The pictures hanging around the walls in- dicate that this is not just a bedroom as a place of rest, but a bedroom as a workshop, a place where the artist’s ideas are brought to life. It is interesting to know, which paintings found their place in this space. In all three versions of the painting and in the draft attached to the letter to Gauguin, over the head of the bed there is a landscape paint- ing; in the first and the second versions, there is a clear silhouette of a tree in the middle. In all the three versions, this is a picture of natural environment. The only exception is the draft addressed to brother Teo, where the artist for- mulates the idea of the future painting for the first time; there, over the head of the bed, is a portrait identified by researchers as Portrait of the Artist’s Mother painted in October 1888. A portrait of the mother in this context could be interpreted as life-giving, creative power per- sonified in a woman. The replacement of the portrait with a landscape painting means that the same powers find a more general interpre- tation, used to highlight rather the universal aspect than the individual aspect of the artist’s personality. On the right, in the lower row of the pic- tures, there are two pencil drafts, so vague that they are impossible to recognize. However, in the upper row there are two portraits, and in the – 846 – Yuliya N. Avdeeva, Kseniya A. Degtyarenko… Architectural Space in the Paintings by Vincent van Gogh first variant of the painting, the specialists iden- tified them. These are portraits of the people Van Gogh was quite close friends with: the por- trait of Eugène Boch (The Poet) and Paul-Eu- gene Milliet (The Lover). Eugène Boch was famous for supporting poor and unrecognized artists including Van Gogh himself. Paul-Eu- gene Milliet was known for handing him over a batch of Ukiyo-e woodcuts and paintings se- lected by Theo van Gogh. He also took paint- ing classes with Van Gogh in exchange for tak- ing some of his paintings to Paris to his brother. Therefore, these are the portraits of the people who were spiritually close to the painter, who helped and supported him. Interestingly, in the next versions of the painting, there is a self-portrait of the author. The analysis of the depicted items sepa- rately and in small groups demonstrated that the majority of them act as symbols of pro- tection, shelter, patronage; another part of the depicted objects is associated with the idea of purification as a compulsory stage preceding the entrance into this space. The mirror and the window together are a sign or revelation of the unrevealed (glass is a surface capable of reflecting and transform- ing things). The window glass in the painting is colourful, green behind the closed shutters. But generally, the space in the canvas may be described as illuminated, though the window, the only possible source of light, is closed with shutters from outside and would not let any light in. However, the logic of the physical world is broken here, and the gleams of olive colour, similar to those of the window glass, are found almost on all pieces of furniture. A coloured glass in a tall vertical window evoke the asso- ciation with stained glass in a gothic church, contributing the air of sacredness to the entire picture, and highlighting the reminiscence to ablution similar to that done in religious cults, in an actual or symbolic form. Another important part of the general composition is the focus of the viewer’s atten- tion on the head of the bed achieved by several means; first of all, this is the vanishing point of many lines, and the line of the clearly drawn corner stretches to the bed leg edge, bringing out the composition axis, and dividing the illu- sive space of the painting into two parts almost through the centre of the canvas. It can be said that the entire space is built around this axis (Fig. 2). The focus of attention on the head of the bed is especially important, because this is the thinking centre (over the head of the bed, Fig. 2. Bedroom in Arles, Vincent van Gogh (1888) – 847 – Yuliya N. Avdeeva, Kseniya A. Degtyarenko… Architectural Space in the Paintings by Vincent van Gogh touching on the composition axis, there is the image of the hat, which also contributes to the idea of the domination in the room space). Therefore, the bed is not just a piece of furni- ture; this is a symbol of a place serving as the source of all creative ideas and dreams that are literally brought into life in the works hung over the bed and around the room. As we have mentioned above, the chairs in the picture have a lot in common. Both of them find themselves in an interaction with the other pictured items, as though structuring and ar- ranging a space for conversation. However, for the chair standing by the bed, this interaction is more obvious, for it makes a dialogue with the items reflecting the personality of the man living in the room, the one who sees a special meaning in bringing his dreams into a tangible form. It is different for the second chair stand- ing by the entrance into the illusive space of the room. The vanishing point of the perspec- tive lines drawn through this object lies in the narrow opening between the window wings (Fig. 3). This reveals another important centre of the composition. Keeping in mind that the window indicates a sacred place, this makes a dialogue with supernatural powers. The illusive architectural space built by Van Gogh is intended to model the world of the artist, which accepts only a person with a pure heart, capable of treating all the compo- nents of this world with attention and care. It is also important that the world of creation, ideas, and fantasies of the artist, seeming to be robust and simple, is extremely fragile. This is more than a room, but a place of sacrament, where all the common routine items can transform into something different, something sacred. Night Café, Vincent van Gogh (September 1888) The work of art titled The Night Café is commonly analysed in the historical context, as one of the works painted during Van Gogh’s stay in Arles (Najfi, 2016), or studied from the perspective of the colours, as this was the as- pect frequently mentioned by the artist himself in letters to his brother, Theodor Van Gogh (Van Gogh, 2010). The Night Café is often defined as a con- tinue of The Sower: “The idea of the sower still continues to haunt me. Exaggerated studies like the sower, like the night café now, usually seem to me atrociously ugly and bad, but when I’m moved by something, as here by this lit- Fig. 3. Bedroom in Arles, Vincent van Gogh (1888) – 848 – Yuliya N. Avdeeva, Kseniya A. Degtyarenko… Architectural Space in the Paintings by Vincent van Gogh tle article on Dostoevsky, then they’re the only ones that seem to me to have a more import- ant meaning”, he wrote in a letter to Theodor Van Gogh (Gasheva, 2006). In this painting, he highlights the tragic element in his perception of the reality. Since this article is intended to research the interior images in the works by Van Gogh, the next representative painting for the internal architecture study is The Night Café. The Night Café is a painting created by Vincent van Gogh during his stay in Arles in September 1888. With the perimeter of 70x89 cm, it is a chamber work. The chamber nature of the painting implies the intimacy of a dia- logue with it. The composition of the painting presents the perspective space structure with one vanishing point lying in the first lamp on the left (Fig. 5). At the same time, some pieces of furniture have two vanishing points, which complies with the law of perspective. One of such two-point perspective items is the billiard table. One of the points lies in the exit from the café in the wall opposite to the viewer, with the perspective line crossing the wall and reaching the lamp figure; the second point, in its turn, lies in the empty space in the wall, and the perspective line is drawn over the café owner and the alcoholic drink bottle; then, it stretches somewhere beyond the borders of the painting. The billiard table is the central figure of the composition, placed diagonally, from the bottom right to the upper left corner. This per- spective makes an illusion of proximity of the billiard table and the chairs, which also have two vanishing points each lying on the same horizontal axis as the billiard table. The piece is full of clear vertical lines, such as corners of the room, door and window openings and clearly traced floor boards, chair backs and table legs. In their turn, the horizontal lines are highlight- ed by the decorative division of the walls into the yellow and red parts, the cubic structure of the room, supported by the horizontal lines on the ceiling, the rhythmic arrangement of lamps and the rectangular shape of the counter. Just like the viewer, the painter is also looking at the room from a point opposite to the café entrance door. Generally, the lines are curved and not always carefully vetted, which indicates the emotional charge of the piece. The vague and dynamic lines together with the shadows cre- ate the effect of a transforming space. For ex- ample, on the wall with the exit door and the counter on the left side, and in the bottom left Fig. 4. Night Café, Vincent van Gogh (September 1888) – 849 – Yuliya N. Avdeeva, Kseniya A. Degtyarenko… Architectural Space in the Paintings by Vincent van Gogh corner there are more shadows than in the op- posite right corner. This arrangement of shad- ows creates the effect of distorted space. The perspective structure of the painting with such a vanishing point creates the optical impression of presence inside the scene, which is also ensured by the incomplete figure of the chair facing the viewer. The painting is oil on canvas, which is the technique that allows using some local and bright colours. Speaking of the colour, it is worth quoting the words of the author him- self: “I’ve tried to express the terrible human passions with the red and the green. The room is blood-red and dull yellow, a green billiard ta- ble in the centre, four lemon yellow lamps with an orange and green glow. Everywhere it’s a battle and an antithesis of the most different greens and reds; in the characters of the sleep- ing ruffians, small in the empty, high room, some purple and blue. The blood-red and the yellow-green of the billiard table, for example, contrast with the little bit of delicate Louis XV green of the counter, where there’s a pink bou- quet. The white clothes of the owner, watch- ing over things from a corner in this furnace, become lemon yellow, pale luminous green”, “It’s a colour, then, that isn’t locally true from the realist point of view of trompe l’oeil, but a colour suggesting some emotion, an ardent temperament” (Van Gogh, 2010). In this case, the contrast is based on the combination of green, red colours and their tones; they are op- posite, i.e. creating and active complementa- ries’ opposition according to the colour theory of Johannes Itten” (Itten, 2001). This principle creates active, emotional and saturated combi- nations. For Vincent van Gogh, such a combi- nation is associated with aggression. The light colour spots’ arrangement prin- ciple is found in the repeating elements of the ceiling lamps, creating a triad of light spots. The entire piece is based on the contrast of light and dark spots, which originates from the selection of the contrast, opposite colours. Yellows and greens, however, are close to each other in the colour spectrum. This way, we see a domination of a strong diagonal line in the composition and the ab- sence of the main horizontal and vertical axes. All of them are equally important to each oth- er. The space is based on the linear perspective laws. The dynamic nature of the lines indi- cates the emotional charge of the painter. The Fig. 5. The Night Café. Vincent van Gogh (September 1888) (perspective model) – 850 – Yuliya N. Avdeeva, Kseniya A. Degtyarenko… Architectural Space in the Paintings by Vincent van Gogh rhythmic arrangement of the light colour spots is only typical for the upper part of the work. There is a colour contrast, and, according to the painter, the contrast of green and red evokes the emotion of a destructive way of life, insanity and passion. Speaking about the anthropomorphic characters of the painting, there are the figures of the owner of the café, a man and a woman sitting by the table, a man lying over his table a couple of men bent over the table. Extrapo- lating the description provided by the author himself, this painting shows some “ruffians”, a woman of easy virtue with her companion and the owner of the café. The selected co- lours present the emotions of human passions; the people in the painting also represent the passions, such as the lifestyle of a tramp, a person who has nowhere to go. Then, the per- son finds a shelter in a night café, where for a short while he remains in the same place. The passion of adultery is presented by the woman and the man sitting by the table. The woman is sitting by the man, with her profile turned to the viewer, while the man is looking at the viewer directly. Faced by the characters, the viewer is invited to get involved in their sto- ry. The man lying over the table is half-facing the viewer, but his posture is closed, revealing his tiredness. As for the pair of men by the table, they are facing each other; one of them is half-facing the viewer, and the other is sit- ting with his back to us. The owner of the café is maximally open, standing upright. We may conclude that the characters are open, intend- ing to get the viewer involved in the dimen- sion of the painting, actively communicating with him. Their clothes deserve a special mentioning; they are mostly blue, which is a cold colour. The non-anthropomorphic figures of the painting are also important for the analysis. It is worth studying the central billiard table with the billiard balls on it. The table is green and monumental, aligned with the overall perspec- tive structure; on the table surface, there is a cue ball used to strike the other balls. There are no players involved in the game at the moment, and three balls are arranged in the way that in- dicates the end of the game. The cue stick is pointing away from the viewer. Combined with the diagonal dynamics of the composition, the game represents the move of a person about to make a choice. In this case, one can leave the Night Café through the virtual space of the game offered to the viewer. In the theory of art, the dynamic diagonal flow from the upper left corner to the bottom right means a descend. The diagonal is bidirected, finishing in the bottom right corner on one side and pointing at the exit door on the other, as though invit- ing the viewer to walk this way. Near the bil- liard table, there stands the owner of the café, making an inviting gesture. The combination of the billiard table, the owner figure and the green bottle near the owner is a temptation for the viewer. The figure of the clock is hanging over the figure of the counter, clearly showing the time, quarter past midnight, which is the mid- dle of the night, the turn of the day. The clock is placed in the same space as the exit, signifying the state of transition. Such elements as paintings on the walls, the vase with flowers, the counter, and utensils bear a secondary meaning to the interpretation of the piece and the primary meaning for the contrast of colours. The painting presents a tragic state of man the viewer is invited into with a number of artistic techniques, especially with the linear perspective solution and the vanishing point shifted to the left, creating the illusion that the viewer has just entered the room. A big mon- umental object in the foreground, which is, in this case, the billiard table, combined with the other characters of the painting, invite the viewer to commit a tragic deed destructive to the soul. The Night Café exit space is diagonal, keeping the opportunity to leave this tragedy, this passion, this aggressive atmosphere and the way of life that kills both the physical and spiritual components of man. The primary el- ement of the painting is the colour, and, par- ticularly, the conflict of the opposite, contrast colours and the dynamic lines for a more vivid expression of the emotional passion and trage- dy of this piece. We may conclude that The Night Café by Vincent van Gogh lures the viewer into the – 851 – Yuliya N. Avdeeva, Kseniya A. Degtyarenko… Architectural Space in the Paintings by Vincent van Gogh tragic world of passions and emotions, offering him an emotional experience and a way out of it. It is an offer to walk the way of desperation and find a spiritual relief from the horrible hu- man passions. This arrangement of the internal architec- tural space promotes the effect of presence in the action depicted in the piece of art. Interior of a Restaurant in Arles, Vincent van Gogh (August 1888) Unlike Bedroom in Arles representing personal space, Interior of a Restaurant in Ar- les and The Night Café are dedicated to public spaces. This work of art still remains under- studied, and, therefore, needs to be considered. It is not a well-known painting, not an object of attention of the art critics. It is usually men- tioned among other pieces of the interior genre. Dated with August 1888, Interior of a Restaurant in Arles belongs to the series of paintings created by Van Gogh in Arles. It is not big in size, which implies the intimacy of interaction. The format of the painting is al- most square (with the width slightly bigger than the length), suggesting a static and fixed presentation of the scene rather than a narration of subsequent actions. The impersonal space interior represents the specificity of social relations, the social structure of the society etc. What is the interior of a restaurant in Arles like and what aspects of the social system does it represent? The interior of the restaurant is simple, just like the plot of this piece of art. It is almost ascetic with five long and narrow tables with light surfaces arranged in diagonal rows. The first three tables are not occupied: the chairs are pushed in, there is hardly any tableware except for several water and wine bottles and a glass. At the farther tables, there are many people absorbed in their meal, there are flow- ers on the tables and the walls are decorated with paintings. A woman is walking towards the centre of the table. The composition (Fig. 7) of the painting relies upon the diagonal lines drawn from the bottom right corner visualized through the narrow and long tables of the restaurant; the vanishing point of these lines lies beyond the borders of the painting, visually taking the on- looker outside. The vertical lines of the glass- ware, vases and figures of the visitors keep the composition static. The diagonal lines of another direction (Fig. 8) are formed by two groups of charac- Fig. 6. Interior of a Restaurant in Arles, Vincent van Gogh (August 1888) Oil, canvas; 54*64 cm – 852 – Yuliya N. Avdeeva, Kseniya A. Degtyarenko… Architectural Space in the Paintings by Vincent van Gogh Fig. 7. Interior of a Restaurant in Arles, Vincent van Gogh (August 1888) Fig. 8. Interior of a Restaurant in Arles, Vincent van Gogh (August 1888) ters: 1) the vases standing on the remote tables, with the vase being the vanishing point; 2) the wine and water bottles and the walking wom- an. These triangles of the perspective lines guide the viewer’s look and get him optically involved in the composition. These compo- sition lines create a borderline position of the viewer: though involved in the painting, at the same time he is guided to leave its borders by the composition lines. The scale of colours is based on the con- trast principle: the light-ochre and dark brown – 853 – Yuliya N. Avdeeva, Kseniya A. Degtyarenko… Architectural Space in the Paintings by Vincent van Gogh spots are placed side by side, maximizing the perception of both colour tones: the blue and reddish shades, the rare green splashes coming up one after another, highlighting each other, i.e. creating complementary pairs in accor- dance with the colour theory (Itten, 2001). The ochre and dark-brown colours are mostly hori- zontally arranged with the blue, red, and green creating the vertical colour highlights. Howev- er, the background of the painting appears to be richer in terms of colour. The foreground is represented by a part of an empty table with no tableware or dishes; the viewer is offered a point of view of another visitor of the restaurant. Farther away, we see two unoccupied light-coloured long and nar- row tables, with only empty bottles standing on them; there are no vases with flowers and the chairs are pushed in. At the second table, there are some signs of a recent visitor: a bottle of wine and a glass by its side. The third one looks the least welcoming for visitors: with only one water bottle for the entire table, less chairs and no flowers it looks deserted. The fourth and the fifth tables almost merge into one. The gap between them is hard- ly visible, and the visitors are sitting close to each other, making the impression of a dense crowd from one border of the painting to the other. These two tables are decorated with vas- es of flowers, and there are paintings on the wall behind them. The anthropomorphic characters are out- lined in a very general way, with wide strokes of local colours, united into a group of charac- ters. The only individualized character is the walking woman; standing out with her manner of motion, she draws attention with the verti- cality of her figure, the dynamics and direction of her walk, and clearer traced clothes remind- ing the uniform of a nurse. The contrast light-coloured surface of the tables stands out in the background, perceived as a separator of the space. The first three rows are a lifeless territory with no people or any associated signs, like water bottles, tableware, or flowers. If there was a visitor at the second table, he would have been alone, and the pres- ence of another person would not bring more life to this part of the space. This is a zone of alienation. At the same time, the fourth and the fifth tables are the epicentre of the restaurant life. The background is bustling with activity: the visitors absorbed in their meal, the walking woman, the flower pots, and paintings on the wall. Importantly, the flowers found around the restaurant are planted in pots, which is more typical for a homely interior. Due to her resem- blance to a nurse, the woman may act as a sym- bol of life, salvation, and humanity. In this piece of art, the interior is a reflec- tion of the social and psychological conditions. Visually united by the table they are sitting at, the people are shown as a dense mass; the pot plants contribute to the image of community, unity, and life. At the same time, the first tables draw the picture of loneliness, alienation, and emptiness. The light-ochre tables standing out in the overall colour scheme remind of cross- roads, offering the viewer to choose between joining the others and being alone. Conclusion The artistic studies of Vincent van Gogh belong to the post-impressionism trend, which declares the principal significance of the au- thor’s personal manner and representation of his individual world outlook. Just like other representatives of the trend, Van Gogh relied upon the achievements of impressionism and foreign art traditions, such as Japanese graph- ics, transformed by his subjective visual per- ception. The painting technique of Van Gogh is easy to recognize with the short dynamic strokes; colour prevailing over shape, distort- ing some elements of space. Together with co- lours, lines are used to shape up the saturated emotional charge of the paintings, expressing the psychological state of the author. The emo- tionally expressive language of the painter was used to manifest a number of spiritual and mor- al problems. The review of the published studies showed how thoroughly the works of Van Gogh have been considered by representatives of different branches of knowledge and with a number of interdisciplinary approaches. The academic interest to the art of this painter is intensive- ly developing and does not seem to fade: the researchers look upon the interdependence of – 854 – Yuliya N. Avdeeva, Kseniya A. Degtyarenko… Architectural Space in the Paintings by Vincent van Gogh the biography of the painter and the features of his individual techniques, the innovation of his painting manner, the technical aspects of paint- ing, the symbolism and the influence Van Gogh made on his successors etc. We may notice a gradual increase in the number of studies in- tended to present the complete image of the art- ist to replace the picture of an artistically gifted man with a hard destiny and mental illnesses. The comprehensive studies of the painter’s life and works attract many researchers of the early 21st century. Since the earliest periods, interior paint- ings have played a significant role in the art of Van Gogh. The architectural space and interi- or decorations were more than a formal picture of the material world, but acted as symbols for the psychological states and emotional dispo- sitions. In his paintings, Vincent van Gogh turns to both personal and public interiors. However, due to their almost square format and chamber size, the works depicting public spaces are more likely to be perceived as per- sonal, imposing a more intimate way of inter- action. The philosophic and artistic analysis of the selected works showed that the interiors in the works by Van Gogh present the space of transformation. An ordinary bedroom is given a status of a sacral place where the mystery of creation takes place. A café acts as a place where one can contemplate over the finiteness of existence full with complex emotions, but, at the same time, this is a place where one can transform by releasing the passions burdening him. A piece of art may also throw the view- er into a hard psychological dilemma between the loneliness one is inclined to and the desire to join the society, as offered by Interior of a Restaurant in Arles. The arrangement of the composition and the colour system tunes the viewer to a certain emotional state; the pieces painted within three months of 1888 manifest the absolutely opposite states: one creates the feeling of joy and the experience of happiness; the other evokes the feeling of tragedy and hopelessness, and the third one represents the feeling of loneliness and alienation. However, in the complementary colours, types of lines and optic distortions of the linear perspective, the viewer can always find the way to escape these situations and leave. The interior spaces in the paintings by Van Gogh do not domi- nate over the viewer; they offer him to make a choice of his own. References Amosova, A.A., Koptseva, N.P., Sitnikova, A.A., Seredkina, N.N., Zamaraeva, Iu.S., Kistova, A.V., Reznikova, K.V., Kolesnik, M.A., Pimenova, N.N. (2019). Ethnocultural Identity in the Works of Kras- noyarsk Artists. In J. Sib. Fed. Univ. Humanit. soc. sci., 12(8), 1524–1551. DOI: 10.17516/1997–1370–0463 Andronova, I.O. (2014). Inter’er kak prostranstvo, napolnennoe magiey i nastroeniem na primere zhivopisi SShA i Rossii XX veka [Interior as a Space Filled with Magic and Mood, Based on Painting of the USA and Russia]. In Dostizheniia vuzovskoi nauki [Achievements of College Science], 8, 28-33. Arnold, W.N., Loftus, L.S. (1991). Xanthopsia and van Gogh’s yellow palette, 5, (5), 503-510. Avdeeva, Iu.N., Degtiarenko, K.A., Metliaeva, S.V., Pchelkina, D.S., Fil’ko, A.I., Koptseva, N.P., Shpak, A.A. (2019). Dynamics of Krasnoyarsk Urban Space in the Early 21st century. In J. Sib. Fed. Univ. Humanit. soc. sci., 12(6), 953–974. DOI: 10.17516/1997–1370– 0434. Balan, M.V. (2007). Panoramnyi peizazh v tvorchestve Van Goga [Panoramic Landscape in the works of Van Gogh]. In Trudy Sankt-Peterburgskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta kul’tury i iskusstv [Proceed- ings of the St. Petersburg State University of Culture and Arts], 176, 49-69. Balan, M.V. (2008). Evoliutsiia obraza v portretakh Van Goga [Evolution of Image in the Portraits by Van Gogh]. In Trudy Sankt-Peterburgskogogo sudarstvennogo universiteta kul’tury i iskusstv [Proceedings of the St. Petersburg State University of Culture and Arts], 178, 15-22. Beloshapkina, Ia. (2013). Ot nadezhdy k otchaianiiu [From Hope to Despair]. In Iskusstvo [Art], 3, 22-39. Benezech, M., Addad, M. (1997). Van Gogh, the Stigmatized Man of the Society. In Ann. Med. Psy- chol., 142, (9), 1161-1171. – 855 – Yuliya N. Avdeeva, Kseniya A. Degtyarenko… Architectural Space in the Paintings by Vincent van Gogh Berggren, L. (1997). Drugs and Poisons in the Life of Vincent van Gogh. In Sven. Med. Tidskr., 1, (1), 125-134. Blumer, D. (2002). The Illness of Vincent van Gogh. In Am. J. Psychiatry, 159 (4), 519-526. Brettell, R.R. (1986). Van Gogh’s Bedrooms at Arles: the problem of priority. In Museum Studies, 12 (2), 137-151. Chudov, I (2018). Postimpressionisty [Post-impressionists]. Moscow, AST, 160 p. Dichenko, E. (2015). Khudozhnik v 100 kartinakh. Vinsent Van Gog [Artist in 100 Paintings. Vincent van Gogh], Moscow, 96 p. Dmitrieva, N.A. (1984). Van Gog: Chelovek i khudozhnik [Van Gogh: Man and Artist], Moscow, 400 p. Drobysheva, M.M. (2014). Obraz genial’noi lichnosti Vinsenta Van Goga v predstavleniiakh rossiian: sravnitel’nyi analiz v raznykh sotsial’nykh gruppakh [The Image of the Genius Personality of Vincent van Gogh Through the Eyes of Russians: Comparative Analysis Between Different Social Groups]. 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Degtyarenko… Architectural Space in the Paintings by Vincent van Gogh Архитектурное пространство в произведениях Винсента Ван Гога Ю. Н. Авдеева, К. А. Дегтяренко, М.А. Колесник, Н. П. Копцева, Д. С. Пчелкина, А. А. Шпак Сибирский федеральный университет Российская Федерация, Красноярск Аннотация. В статье представлен обзор основных концептуальных положений постимпрессионизма с целью определения художественного и социокультурного контекста творчества Ван Гога и анализ исследовательской литературы о его творчестве, демонстрирующий многообразие подходов к изучению наследия художника. Статья содержит анализ трех произведений Винсента Ван Гога, созданных в 1888 году: «Спальня в Арле», «Интерьер ресторана в Арле» и «Ночное кафе». Эти произведения, относящиеся к одному периоду творчества художника, выбраны для исследования того, как Ван Гог через построение иллюзорного внутреннего архитектурного пространства передает разного рода психологические состояния и репрезентирует субъективную картину мира. Статья содержит результаты философско-искусствоведческого анализа указанных произведений художника, визуализирующих личное и общественное пространство, выводы о значении и роли интерьерного жанра в творчестве Винсента Ван Гога. Ключевые слова: Ван Гог, живопись, постимпрессионизм, произведение искусства, трагизм, эпистолярное наследие, символический капитал произведения, интерьер, внутреннее архитектурное пространство, композиция. Научная специальность: 17.00.09 – теория и история искусства; 24.00.01 – теория и история культуры. 
work_ppxb3jqya5fdnfvhcto7fh5qte	----	Book Review Book Review Accounting, Capitalism and the Revealed Religions – A Study of Christianity, Judaism and Islam Vassili Joannidès de Lautour Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing, 2017, 174 pp., $129 (paperback), ISBN 978-3-319-32332-9 (paperback) I was delighted when the Book Reviews Editor of the EEA asked me to read this recently pub- lished book about accounting and religion. This area of research is related to the topics covered by an article I recently published in the Journal of Management, Spirituality and Religion for which I had read extensively in the area. Therefore, I was motivated to discover whether this book would present a different perspective to me. The book under review represents the conclusion of a comprehensive research project that involved a triple master’s degree in Social Sciences, Accounting & Finance and Education, and a Ph.D. on accountability in a church setting. It addresses a very interesting and relevant topic. The author underlines the established connections between capitalism and accounting, but highlights that the core interest of the book lies in exploring connections between accounting and religion. It assumes that each of the four relevant monotheistic religions (Roman Catholi- cism, Judaism, Protestantism and Islam) has contributed to the spirit of capitalism and to the development of accounting. The need for understanding the notions of accounting, accountability and religion and the intersection between these concepts is very important, not only from an historical view point, but also in a contemporary perspective. In the introduction, the book’s key constructs are defined (accounting and accountability, and religion). While accountability is perceived as the giving and demanding of reasons for conduct, using any form of accounts, accounting is understood in its simplest form, as a process driven by a worldview. This results in categorizing any situation in two ways, always equaling each other (double-entry bookkeeping and balancing of debits and credits). As Lautour states, accounting is assumed broadly as the logic of categorizing conduct as liabilities (credit) and actions (debit). However, it cannot be understood regardless of the goal which it pursues: accountability to a Higher-Principal. The book expresses the view that, in order to approach accounting’s very essence and ontology, it is necessary to depart from mere economic transactions and rather, focus on the meaning of giving an account. The definitions of religion presented in the book lie at the crossroads of sociology, anthropol- ogy and philosophy. First, religion appears as an individual encounter with the holy: embracing of religion consists of an intimate, personal and subjective experience of the divine. In a second perspective, religion is viewed as a social community, representing the moral community con- structed by all believers of the same faith, lay people, parishioners or churchgoers. As a social community, religion represents its degree of institutionalization and its spatial scope. The book offers a third perspective: religion as doctrines. Under this perspective, an institutional religion Accounting in Europe, 2017 Vol. 14, No. 3, 430 – 433 relies on a religious elite who, throughout a religious system, offers a collective codification of beliefs to the community (it codifies what is appropriate and what is not, as well good and evil, holy and blasphemy, etc.). While Lautour offers the reader a threefold concept of religion, he does not distinguish between religion and religiosity as theoretical constructs. In my view, he should have done this in the introduction of the book. As reported by Laermans (2006), Georg Simmel, a German sociologist (1858 – 1918), in his ‘sociological impressionism’, established a separation between religion and religiosity. In Simmel’s view, while religiosity involves a specific but com- parable way of being, of relating to the world (to reality), in general, and to the social world (to others), in particular, the notion of religion refers to the outcome of a process of separation and institutionalization that goes hand in hand with the purification of an always already existing religiosity (Laermans, 2006). As Dobbelaere (2014) and Weaver and Agle (2002) argue, religi- osity of the people corresponds to their practices, beliefs and ethical views. Overall, it provides specific ethical guidelines, emphasizes the general importance of ethical behavior and estab- lishes ‘common knowledge’ for understanding whether experiences are ethical. The book succeeds with the second chapter, which explores the roots of capitalism and focuses on how Judaism, Roman Catholicism, Protestantism and Islam fostered a form of capit- alism. This link is necessary to help the reader, in the third chapter, easily understand how accounting is grounded in religion. While accounting is presented as a way of keeping records of capitalist operations, it is argued that books of accounts serve as a moral practice within capitalism. In this sense, as a moral device, accounting is argued to be influenced by reli- gious thought underpinned by faith. Chapter three introduces the reader to an understanding of how each of the four main religions defines and constructs an accounting spirituality, encoura- ging believers to keep metaphoric accounts of their faithful conduct. It shows how the four reli- gion’s authorities developed a specific accounting theology and spirituality. Building on the philosophy of religions, the fourth chapter provides knowledge on what the four main religions can teach us about the nature of accounting. Interestingly, Lautour concludes that, while the four main religions highlight a different dimension of accounting, they also have key points in common. In Roman Catholicism the institutionalization of sacramental accounting serves to guide believers’ conduct. Judaism and Roman Catholicism reveal the notion of bio- graphic accounts based on balanced double-entry records. Islam emphasizes two major issues in double-entry bookkeeping: first, everything has a counterpart, which the accountant must identify; and, second, a counterpart is contingent upon the context in which it is found. Judaism and Islam highlight that accounting for how duties ordered by the Lord are performed influences believers’ day-to day conduct. In Roman Catholicism and Islam, books of accounts are kept by external bodies, and, in Judaism, Roman Catholicism and Islam, keeping of accounts implies reconciliation, verification and certification. Finally, Protestantism reveals the contents of contemporary debates about accounting objectivity/subjectivity and the role of criticism. It emphasizes the impossibility of objective and true measurements and evaluation models, which highlights the assumptions made by accountants, where criticism appears as a positive quality for the accounting profession. Chapter four was, for me, the most interesting part of the book, because it presents a different perspective from the literature on accounting and religion that I have read in the past. The books and articles that I have read focus on religion and its relation with accounting in a broader sense – considering religion (and religiosity) as a social mechanism for influencing beliefs and beha- viors. From the third, but especially from the fourth chapter of Lautour’s book, I took a different perspective. I became able to understand what each of the four relevant monotheistic religions contributes to the nature of accounting. As Lautour highlights, within the four main religions, a form of accounting exists which differs from one belief system to another. What is central to the Accounting in Europe 431 four religions, and crucial to accounting, is how world dualism is solved in different contexts and why solutions may differ from one context to another. Notwithstanding differences, the four reli- gions demonstrate the construction of a logical whole, and how accounting starts to be systema- tic. They all sought to develop double-entry bookkeeping as a moralizing practice. In the fifth chapter, Lautour presents a literature review on accounting and religion. From this chapter, the reader obtains a perspective on the evolution of the research questions in the area, and how researchers’ personal views of religion can affect their research relating to accounting and religion. Lautour argues that two types of research are representative for contemporary accounting research discussion: (1) accounting practices in a certain congregation, and (2) theo- logical perspectives on accounting. While I agree that these two types of research are very inter- esting topics, I disagree with Lautour’s argumentation that these are the most representative of contemporary accounting research. There is a growing stream of relevant contemporary accounting research not considered by Lautour’s book. I refer to a body of archival accounting research, mainly from US and China, that has explored the association between local religion (and religiosity) and corporate decisions (Boone, Khurana, & Raman, 2013; Callen, Morel, & Richardson, 2011; Chen, Hu, Liang, & Xin, 2013; Du, 2013, 2014; Du, Jian, Du, Feng, & Zeng, 2014; Du, Jian, Lai, Du, & Pei, 2015; Du, Jian, Zeng, & Du, 2014; Dyreng, Mayew, & Williams, 2012; El Ghoul, Guedhami, Ni, Pittman, & Saadi, 2012; Hilary & Hui, 2009; McGuire, Omer, & Sharp, 2012). Generally, this line of research reveals significant evidence that the behavior of individuals and, by extension, corpor- ate behavior, is shaped by the religiosity levels of the community in which an individual/firm is located. The approach used by this line of research considers a religion-based social identity and sense of belonging and its effects on individuals and organizations behavior. The last chapter of the book presents a study that addresses the construction of accounting spirituality and the practice of faith-based double-entry bookkeeping – the Salvation Army case. Lautour concludes that, in the Salvation Army, accountability leads to managerial account- ing spirituality. This is an interesting book that explores a very important topic for contemporary accounting research. It demonstrates that accounting and capitalism have religious roots, and highlights how the four main monotheistic religions viewed and incorporated accounting historically. This book can be used in the Ph.D. curriculum, but I think that it is too challenging to be included in the master-level curriculum. The book is also highly recommended for faculty members and other researchers interested in exploring accounting and religion issues. It provides a timely and highly relevant contribution to reflection and debate about religion and its organiz- ational accountabilities. ORCID Tânia Menezes Montenegro http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1071-4368 References Boone, J. P., Khurana, I. K., & Raman, K. K. (2013). Religiosity and tax avoidance. Journal of the American Taxation Association, 35(1), 53 – 84. Callen, J. L., Morel, M., & Richardson, G. (2011). Do culture and religion mitigate earnings management? Evidence from a cross-country analysis. International Journal of Disclosure and Governance, 8(2), 103 – 121. Chen, D., Hu, X., Liang, S., & Xin, F. (2013). Religion tradition and corporate governance. Economic Research Journal (in Chinese), 59(10), 71 – 84. Dobbelaere, K. (2014). The Karel Dobbelaere lecture: From the study of religions to the study of meaning systems. Social Compass, 61(2), 219 – 233. 432 Book Review http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1071-4368 Du, X. (2013). Does religion matter to owner-manager agency costs? Evidence from China. Journal of Business Ethics, 118(2), 319 – 347. Du, X. (2014). Does religion mitigate tunneling? Evidence from China. Journal of Business Ethics, 125(2), 299 – 327. Du, X., Jian, W., Du, Y., Feng, W., & Zeng, Q. (2014). Religion, the nature of ultimate owner, and corporate philanthro- pic giving: Evidence from China. Journal of Business Ethics, 123(2), 235 – 256. Du, X., Jian, W., Lai, S., Du, W., & Pei, H. (2015). Does religion mitigate earnings management? Evidence from China. Journal of Business Ethics, 131(3), 699 – 749. Du, X., Jian, W., Zeng, Q., & Du, Y. (2014). Corporate environmental responsibility in polluting industries: Does religion matter? Journal of Business Ethics, 124(3), 485 – 507. Dyreng, S. D., Mayew, W. J., & Williams, C. D. (2012). Religious social norms and corporate financial reporting. Journal of Business Finance and Accounting, 39(7/8), 845 – 875. El Ghoul, S., Guedhami, O., Ni, Y., Pittman, J., & Saadi, S. (2012). Does religion matter to equity pricing? Journal of Business Ethics, 111(4), 491 – 518. Hilary, G., & Hui, K. W. (2009). Does religion matter in corporate decision making in America? Journal of Financial Economics, 93(3), 455 – 473. Laermans, R. (2006). The ambivalence of religiosity and religion: A reading of Georg Simmel. Social Compass, 53(4), 479 – 489. McGuire, S. T., Omer, T. C., & Sharp, N. Y. (2012). The impact of religion on financial reporting irregularities. The Accounting Review, 87(2), 645 – 673. Weaver, G. R., & Agle, B. R. (2002). Religiosity and ethical behavior in organizations: A symbolic interactionist per- spective. Academy of Management Review, 27(1), 77 – 97. Tânia Menezes Montenegro University of Minho-School of Economics and Management, Braga, Portugal E-mail: taniab@eeg.uminho.pt # 2017, Tânia Menezes Montenegro https://doi.org/10.1080/17449480.2017.1292039 Accounting in Europe 433 mailto:taniab@eeg.uminho.pt http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1080/17449480.2017.1292039&domain=pdf ORCID References 
work_pqvyj4e6jbfpziu2sykm3znfqy	----	Meridiano 47 vol_13 n_129 jan_fev 2012.indd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47M E RI DIAN O 35 Resenha Human Security in a Borderless World* Fabíola Faro Eloy Dunda** Human Security in a Borderless World escrito por Dereck S. Reveron e Katheleen A. Mahoney-Norrys, pu- blicado em 2011 pela Westview Press (ainda sem tradução para o português) aborda a questão da segurança sob a ótica da Segurança Humana. O livro discute em seus oito capítulos temas relacionados à (IN) segurança Hu- mana, na visão dos autores, que organizando os títulos em Human Security in a Borderless World, Civic Security, Economic Security, Environmental Security e Health Security, exploram temáticas recorrentes da visão abrangente de segurança humana, incorporando ainda Maritime Security e Cyber Security ao escopo do assunto, finalizando com Protecting and Promoting Human Segurity. No corpo dos capítulos, discussões adicionais em pequenos textos contra-argumentam a idéia central, acrescentam as visões políticas para a temática no contexto do capítulo, e uti- lizam situações concretas como exemplos do que está sendo debatido nas sessões, “Think Again”, “Contemporary Challenge” e “Policy Spotlight”. Para finalizar os capítulos outras referências de textos são dadas, aprofundando a discussão. O primeiro capítulo, Human Security in a Borderless World, avalia as mudanças no mundo após a Guerra Fria, ressaltando que a alteração do significado das ameaças, segundo os autores, está relacionada à globalização. Para os mesmos, a abordagem tradicional da segurança não seria a mais adequada atualmente para avaliar, entender e explicar as transformações do mundo em movimento. Neste contexto a segurança humana em seu escopo analítico, apresenta-se como melhor opção. O capítulo dois aborda questões relacionadas à segurança física e civil do indivíduo, enfatizando o respeito cultural e identitário das sociedades. Na opinião dos autores, governos democráticos fortalecidos por instituições democráticas têm mais capacidades e recursos para proteger seus cidadãos, particularizando nessa análise o respei- to às diferenças culturais e identidade dos povos, como meios de entender porque a globalização tanto pode facili- tar o surgimento de conflitos, atos terroristas, redes de tráfico de drogas e pessoas, quanto pode através dos direitos humanos, representar resposta da sociedade civil como tentativa de promover um mundo mais justo e equilibrado. O combate à pobreza e a boa governança pela via da democracia é o melhor meio de alcançar a segurança eco- nômica, segundo os autores. A criação de políticas de longo-prazo no intuito de tornar os países auto-sustentáveis, bem como o combate ao extremismo cultural, narcotráfico, tráfico de pessoas e ao terrorismo, fortalecendo os direitos humanos, apresentam-se na temática do capítulo três, Economic Security, como caminhos em que socieda- des vulneráveis podem conseguir no futuro, alcançar segurança humana economicamente sustentável para as suas populações. * REVERON, Derek S.; MAHONEY-NORRIS, Kathleen A. Human Security in a Borderless World. Westview Press, 2011. (ISBN: 978-0-8133-4485-0) ** Mestranda em Relações Internacionais pela Universidade Estadual da Paraíba – UEPB (fabioladunda@gmail.com). 47. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .M E RI DIAN O 36 O capítulo quatro discute o papel das mudanças climáticas no contexto da segurança humana. A escassez de recursos em decorrência da mudança climática como determinante direto de conflitos entre as sociedades não é um consenso na literatura, embora se concorde que essas mudanças podem piorar situações já instaladas. Para os autores, o ideal de desenvolvimento econômico sustentável só pode ser alcançado através das ações políticas envolvidas neste contexto. O capítulo cinco faz uma breve explanação sobre a importância do mar como fonte de subsistência alimentar e comercial ressaltando situações que em desequilíbrio, podem gerar insegurança A pesca ilegal e exploratória, o recrudescimento de práticas como a pirataria em áreas estratégicas do mundo, o uso do mar como corredor ma- rítimo para o tráfico de drogas e de pessoas, bem como uma possível disputa por exploração comercial do ártico em virtude do degelo das calotas polares, inferem os autores, podem ser conseqüência desse desequilíbrio. Neste sentido, a cooperação entre os Estados seria o caminho para resolução dos desequilíbrios, bem como a forma de preveni-los. A pandemia de influenza em 2009 fortaleceu a idéia da inexistência de fronteiras físicas em tais situações. O fortalecimento da saúde pública mundial e a cooperação internacional no campo da saúde podem e devem ser capazes de combater situações crônicas e endêmicas como a malária e a AIDS, ou situações agudas como as pande- mias virais, assumindo essa via, papel relevante e decisório para a segurança humana. A Ciber Security destaca o ciber espaço como um “locus” onde meio físico e virtual se misturam e comparti- lham informações. Longe ainda de um controle efetivo do mau uso das informações e tecnologia utilizadas no ciber espaço, a cooperação entre países, instituições governamentais e não governamentais, e o apoio da sociedade civil, parece ser ainda hoje, a maneira mais efetiva de promover algum grau de segurança humana. O capítulo 8, Protecting and Promoting Human Segurity encerra o livro com a idéia de que a comunidade internacional tem da “Responsabilidade de proteger”, quando o Estado não consegue promover a segurança da sua população ou torna-se o perpetrador da violência dentro das suas fronteiras. Governo, sociedade civil, grupos transnacionais e internacionais atuando através de boa governança, fortalecendo a democracia e promovendo o desenvolvimento sustentável são caminhos que permitem o fortalecimento de instituições, podendo os Estados promoverem segurança humana e tornarem-se mais autônomos. O livro escrito por Derek Reveron e Katheleen A. Mahoney-Norris faz uma abordagem dentro da visão abran- gente da segurança humana, incorporando assuntos como a segurança marítima e a segurança do ciber espaço. É um livro que dever ser lido com certo criticismo, para que o dinamismo e a leitura atraente não deixem que o leitor se impressione de forma positiva ou negativa na sua totalidade, pelo viés fortemente americano sobre o significado da segurança humana para o mundo e principalmente para a segurança dos Estados Unidos. Recebido em: 10/01/2012 Aceito em: 12/01/2012 
work_psuzbbh5ufctrd6vurkhxxuk2i	----	Music about Music: the First String Quartet, Opus 37, in C, by Karol Szymanowski All Rights Reserved © Canadian University Music Society / Société de musique des universités canadiennes, 1986 Ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. L’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ Cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’Université de Montréal, l’Université Laval et l’Université du Québec à Montréal. Il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ Document généré le 5 avr. 2021 21:36 Canadian University Music Review Revue de musique des universités canadiennes Music about Music: the First String Quartet, Opus 37, in C, by Karol Szymanowski Paul Cadrin Numéro 7, 1986 URI : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/1014092ar DOI : https://doi.org/10.7202/1014092ar Aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) Canadian University Music Society / Société de musique des universités canadiennes ISSN 0710-0353 (imprimé) 2291-2436 (numérique) Découvrir la revue Citer cet article Cadrin, P. (1986). Music about Music: the First String Quartet, Opus 37, in C, by Karol Szymanowski. Canadian University Music Review / Revue de musique des universités canadiennes,(7), 171–187. https://doi.org/10.7202/1014092ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/1014092ar https://doi.org/10.7202/1014092ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/1986-n7-cumr0438/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ MUSIC ABOUT MUSIC: THE FIRST STRING QUARTET, OPUS 37, IN C, BY KAROL SZYMANOWSKI Paul Cadrin In their recent book about Stravinsky, the Dutch composer Louis Andriessen and critic Elmer Schonberger propose the following allegory for music: We have to imagine an art of painting that has its roots in one single painting... That one painting portrays the last tree and the last land- scape. After the completion of that painting, the tree was cut down and the landscape devastated. Since then, there were no more trees or landscapes to be seen. But that painting inspired other painters to paint trees and landscapes. The resulting paintings, in their turn, inspired a new generation of painters. In that way, it is possible that the present practitioners of this school paint trees and landscapes which, it must be said, in no way resemble the last tree and the last landscape. This school of painting is similar to what happens in music. Just as tree- and-landscape paintings portray other tree-and-landscape paintings, music portrays other music. [Andriessen and Schonberger 1983: 30] If this view of music is exact, in what way, one may ask, is Szymanowski's First String Quartet different from any other piece of music? In what particular way can it be said to be "music about music"? Careful analysis suggests that, within the Quartet, the evolu- tion of the composer's style, from his upbringing in the hotbed of German late romanticism to his discovery of the French-Russian avant-garde in 1913, is retraced. 171 The First String Quartet, Opus 37, in C was composed in 1917, at the peak of the composer's most creative period. Before the work was completed, however, the Szymanowski family estate, in Ukraine, was razed to the ground in the October Revolution. The two compositions on which Szymanowski was working at the time, the Quartet and the cantata Agave, were never to be completed as planned. Of the proj- ected four movements of the Quartet, three were later revised for publication. The original plan was to include a sonata-allegro, a scherzo, a theme and variations for the slow movement, and a fugue for the finale. According to Michafowski [1967: 137], the scherzo was reworked to become the last movement, presumably by integrating ele- ments of fugal writing within the structure and character of a scherzo. On the other hand, the first movement is preceded with a rather elabo- rate slow introduction, a most unusual feature in the quartet literature of the time, possibly as a means of compensating for the missing fourth movement. Certain aspects of the Quartet stand out as strangely anachronistic with respect to other works of the same creative period, for example, the Third Symphony, Opus 27 (1914-16), the First Violin Concerto, Opus 35 (1916), or the Third Piano Sonata, Opus 36 (1917). No indication of tonality had appeared in the title of a composition since the Second Piano Sonata, in A major (1911). The Quartet was to be the last work to carry such an indication. This suggests the composer's awareness that this work belongs to a different stylistic lineage. As noted by Alistair Wightman: The progressive disruption of tonality, a process well under way in the earlier war-time works, seems to have been arrested in the first of the Quartets. [Wightman 1972: 94] To a certain extent, this anachronism could be credited to the com- poser's discomfort with the resources of the string quartet. At the age of 34, this was his first venture into the medium. The only comparable work written previously, the Piano Trio, opus 16, had been withdrawn 172 after its first performance, in 1909. In a letter to Szymanowski dated 24 July 1917, the violinist Pawel Kochanski had this to say in reaction to the composer's announcement that he was writing a quartet (the composer's letter is lost): It is strange how one changes. Do you remember, you used to dislike the quartet, to say it could not give you full satisfaction, not enough sound? [ChyMska 1982: 506]* In addition to his discomfort with the quartet as an ensemble, Szymanowski apparently had to cope with a disinclination to write works of "pure" music, that is, music which is not based on a text or inspired by a programme. Even the Second Symphony and the First Violin Concerto are known to have programmatic backgrounds,2 not to mention the fact that more than half of his total output consists of songs, a substantial corpus little known outside Poland. As far as we know, however, the Quartet is "pure" music. Lacking an extra-musical programme to guide his inspiration, Szymanowski reckons with his own evolution as a composer, from his youthful fervour for the German romanticism of Wagner, Strauss, and Reger, through his discovery of French impressionism, particularly of the music of Ravel, to his recent infatuation with the aesthetics of the French-Russian avant-garde. The manifestation of each of these influ- ences will now be traced in the Quartet. 1 "...dziwne to, ze sic tak zmienia, pamiçtasz jak nie lubiteé kwartety, mowifes, ze to nie zadawalnia Ciebie, ze za mafo brzmienia?" The author is grateful to Mr. Leszek M. Karpinski, of the University of British Columbia, for his help with the translation of this excerpt from the correspondence. 2 On the Second Symphony, see Rubinstein (1973: 376); on the First Concerto, see Samson (1980:114-120). 173 The dominant influence on Szymanowski's musical education, from his early training at home and in Elisavetgrad under Gustav Neuhaus to his studies with Zawirski and Noskowski in Warsaw, was that of German late romanticism. His Second Symphony, opus 19, in Bb ma- jor (1910) and his Second Piano Sonata, opus 21, in A major (1911) mark the culmination of this influence. The structure, harmonic vocabulary, and contrapuntal processes of these two works invite a comparison with Reger, while the orchestration of the Symphony is clearly derived from Wagner and Strauss. The influence of Wagner on the Quartet is very diffuse. In one in- stance, however, it comes close to the surface. In the exposition of the first movement, the link between the transition and the beginning of the second subject group (mm. 42-44) is based on the Tristan chord and its resolution (see example 1). The complex contrapuntal ornamentation does not entirely obscure the underlying progression. The relationship with the Prelude is further confirmed by the fact that the dominant harmony on E of m. 45 moves up a semitone to an F-Major triad at m. 47, followed at m. 49 by motion to a D-major chord in first inver- sion, as in mm. 16-18 of the Prelude. With the exception of local events of the kind just described, the influ- ence of Wagner on the Quartet is not readily discernible. It is distilled through that of later German composers, particularly Reger. The five string quartets published by this composer (Opus 54, no 1 and 2; opus 74; opus 109; opus 121) are among his most durable achievements. Szymanowski is likely to have known these works, and their influence is felt in many aspects of his own quartet. The plan initially chosen by Szymanowski is a case in point. The theme and variations for the slow movement is a staple of the music of Reger. It is found in four of the five quartets. In the first and fourth, it is coupled with a fugue in the last movement, as in Szymanowski's plan. Furthermore, the theme of the third movement of the Fourth Quartet, opus 109, is titled "Canzona", while Szymanowski's theme is marked 174 "in modo d'una canzone". In all cases, the final fugues are spirited virtuoso movements based on unequivocally tonal subjects, in strong contrast with the intricate chromatic lacework of the foregoing vari- ations. Curiously, in modifying his plan to accommodate a three movement scheme, Szymanowski may again have been following a precedent set by Reger. The latter's Second Quartet, opus 54, number 2, is in three movements, the second and third of which are respectively a theme and variations and a fugue. This was also the plan chosen by Szymanowski for the two major works of his German period, the Second Symphony and the Second Piano Sonata. These similarities of structure are corroborated by similarities of tonal- harmonic language. These include a harmonic vocabulary dominated by four-note chords of the dominant-seventh, diminished seventh, half-diminished seventh, German and French sixth types. Furthermore, these four-note chords occur in a tonal syntax which is subject to en- harmonic reinterpretation as well as to so-called irregular resolutions, creating a constant tonal flux in which each progression is locally justifiable (see example 2). In contrast with the prevailing tonal- harmonic system just described, there are short segments in which the juxtaposition of consonant triads belonging to different diatonic col- lections produces an effect which I would call "consonant chromaticism" (see example 3). Instances of this tonal-harmonic idiom are found in Wagner, for example, in KurwenaPs satirical song, in Act I Scene 2 of Tristan (see example 4). In spite of the frequency of harmonies belonging to the dominant family, perfect authentic cadences are rare and reserved for major punctuations. In the Szymanowski Quartet, the only perfect authentic cadence found in the course of a movement closes the theme, the Canzona, of the second movement (m. 10). Finally, the use of tonally 175 unequivocal, almost Handelian, fugue subjects for the last movement is a feature of the tonal-harmonic language which has already been noted (see example 5). With the exception of the last, all the traits mentioned in the preceding paragraphs are found in the first two movements of the Szymanowski Quartet. In fact, they are not found beyond the second variation of the middle movement. The presence of the fugue subject in this list may be credited to the reorganization of materials subsequent to the adoption of the three-movement scheme. It is therefore plausible that Szymanowski drew his inspiration for the overall scheme of the Quartet, as well as for the tonal-harmonic language of the first half, from Reger. A set of variations lends itself particularly well to the unfolding of stylistic transformations. The second movement of the First Quartet is a good case in point. If the theme and first variation are reminiscent of the music of Reger, the second and third variations are more inti- mately related to the style which Szymanowski evolved after 1913, particularly in his works for violin and piano, the Notturno e Tarentella, opus 28, and the three Mythes, opus 30. These works display stylistic features which are more easily related to the works of the French impressionists than to those of the German school. In contrast with the relentless tonal flux which characterizes the music of Reger, this music juxtaposes static planes of tonally enigmatic materials. For example, tonal fluctuation around a pedal combined with vacillations of the metric framework are found in the beginning of the second variation of the Quartet as well as at the beginning of the third movement of the Ravel Quartet (see example 6).3 The unusual texture of the third variation, with its tremolando accompaniment in 3 In order to understand the metric fluctuation at the beginning of the second variation, one must note that the change of metre from 3/4 to 6/8, at m. 28, becomes perceptible only with the upbeat to m. 31. 176 the lower register supporting static melodic motives, is also reminiscent of Ravel, particularly of his works for piano like Jeux d'eau (see example 7). The prevailing harmonic sonorities of the third variation belong to the whole-tone family. The third movement, on the other hand, promi- nently features chords of the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth. This marks a significant departure from the harmonic vocabulary of the first movement described above, a mutation which may be credited in good part to Szymanowski's discovery of French impressionism. Beyond a fugal exposition at the beginning of two of its principal sections (mm. 8-19 and 78-97), the third movement is not a fugue. The prevalent texture is homophonic, rather than polyphonic, and the emphasis is on the repetition of motives over tense harmonic conglom- erates, rather than on imitative writing. Again, we are reminded that this movement was meant to amalgamate fugal procedures with the structure and character of a scherzo. Superficially, the most striking feature of this movement is the presence of four different, concurrent key signatures. In that respect, it is unique in the works of Szymanowski and, to this writer's knowledge, the only example of its kind in the string quartet repertoire. While this movement is most explicit and systematic in its use of superimposed tonalities, other works of the period 1914-1917 had already made passing use of this technique, for example, "Tantis le bouffon", the second of the three Masques, opus 34, for piano (see example 8). Although one may find glimmers of bitonality in the music of Richard Strauss, particularly in Salome, it came to be identified, after 1911, with the French-Russian avant-garde.4 Even before Darius Milhaud made himself the champion of polytonality, Ravel, Koechlin, Casella, de Falla, Roussel, and, of course, Stravinsky were associated with this * See Koechlin (1925: 696-738). 177 trend in the years immediately preceding World War I.5 In his deliberate attempt at breaking the shackles of German romanticism, Szymanowski was likely to be attracted by a musical current which was most explicit in its reaction against the influence of Wagner. The idiom of that avant-garde was polytonality. Szymanowski's admiration for Stravinsky, first expressed in a letter to Stefan Spiess dated 14 October 1913, was later to materialize in an article published in 1924.6 Nevertheless, one would have a hard time finding specific aspects of his new style which would be creditable to the influence of Stravinsky in particular. In the words of Alistair Wightman: Stravinsky's influence was not so much direct as catalytic. Szymanowski's own form of impressionism, for want of a better word, has none of the primitivism of either Petrouchka or Le Sacre du printemps. [Wightman 1982: xvii] In adopting a strictly polytonal scheme for his third movement, there- fore, Szymanowski was experimenting with a technique whose bases he was likely to have discovered during his trip to Paris before the War, but which he stringently carried to extremes for which he had no prototype of comparable extent or complexity. A further indication of the catalytic influence of Stravinsky may be found in the contrasting section, corresponding to the trio in a regular scherzo. This short section (mm. 138-188) is based on a rousing melody propelled by a lilting accompaniment evocative of folk dance music (see example 9). While this author has been unable to find in Polish folk 5 While these composers are of various ethnic origins, they were all active in Paris at the time. 6 "Igor Stravinsky," Warszawianka, 1924, no 7 (Maciejewski 1967: 130). 178 music a plausible source for this theme, there is no doubt that a stylized dance tune of this kind marks a turning point in the evolution of the composer. It is a foretaste of the use of explicitely Polish folk material found in the works written after 1920. It would be most unfortunate if the emphasis laid on influences in this paper would leave the reader with the impression that Szymanowski was a composer of meagre creative aptitudes. While many creators of great music have thought it was important to learn from other composers, Szymanowski felt this was a particularly urgent responsibility for Polish composers. This is expressed in a remarkable way in an article pub- lished in 1920,7 which may be read as his aesthetic credo: Let our music be national in its Polish characteristics but not falter in striving to attain universality, let it be national but not provincial...Let all the new ideas and thoughts which are bora into the world today come to us and enrich our minds, for this is a luxury that we have dispensed of for so many decades. [Maciejewski and Aprahamian 1970: 91] Fifty years after his death on 29 March 1937, the significance of Szymanowski, both in his own time and today, is just coming to light. Here is a composer who could let his music portray other musics insofar as this would not imperil the unique qualities of his style. The First String Quartet, opus 37, sometimes considered to be of marginal significance, appears to hold a key to an understanding of this style. 7 Quoted from "Thoughts on Polish criticism in music today," in The Warsaw New Literary Review July 1920, translated and edited by B.M. Maciejewski. 179 REFERENCES ANDRIESSEN, L. & E. SCHÔNBERGER 1983: "Ars imitatio artis", Key Notes 18/2: 30-31; English translation of an excerpt from Het apollinisch uurwek (Amsterdam: Bezige Bij, 1983). CHYLltiSKA, T., éd. 1982: Karol Szymanowski: Korrespondencja, volume 1 (1903-1919). Krakow: PWM Edition. KOECHLIN, C. 1925: "Evolution de Pharmonie: Période contemporaine depuis Bizet et César Franck jusqu'à nos jours," in Encyclopédie de la musique et dictionnaire du Conservatoire, 2 deuxième partie, volume 1, pp. 591-760. Edited by Albert Lavignac and Lionel de la Laurencie. Paris: Delagrave. MACIEJEWSKI, B.M. 1967: Karol Szymanowski: His Life and Music. Foreward by Felix Aprahamian. London: Poets' and Painters' Press. MACIEJEWSKI, B.M. and F. APRAHAMIAN 1970: Karol Szymanowski and Jan Smeterlin: Correspondence and Essays. Translated, edited, and annotated by B.M. Maciejewski and F. Aprahamian. London: Allegro Press. MICHALOWSKI, K. 1967: Karol Szymanowski 1882-1937: Katalog tematyczny dziel i bibiiografia [Thematic Catalogue of Works and Bibiliography]. Krakow: PWM Edi- tion. RUBINSTEIN, A. 1973: My Young Years. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. SAMSON, J. 1980: The Music of Szymanowski. London: Kahn & Averill. WIGHTMAN, A. 1972: "The Music of Karol Szymanowski." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. University of York. 1982: Preface to vol. 8 (Piano Works) of Karol Szymanowski: Complete Edition. Teresa Chylinska general editor. Krakow: PWM. 180 Example 1 Comparison of a) mm. 42-49 of the first movement of the Quartet with b) mm. 2-3 and 16-18 of the delude to Tristan und Isolde by Wagner. i c) Copyrignt 1925 by Unlversaî Edition A.G., Wien Copyright renewed All rights reserved Used by permission of European American Music Distributors Corporation, sole Canadian agent for Universal Edition example 2 Comparison of a) mm. 49-53 of the first movement of the Quartet with b) mm. 12-14 of the first movement of the First Quartet, opus 54, no.l, by Reger. 182 ÛT) Copyright 1925 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien Copyright renewed All rignts reserved Used by permission of European American Music Distributors Corporation, sole Canadian agent for Universal Edition Comparison of a) mm. 12-13 of the first movement of the Quartet with b) mm. 96-101 of the first movement of the Fourth Quartet, opus 109, in Eb major, by Reger. Tristan und Isolde, Act I, sc. 2. 183 Sxanrole 5 Comparison of a) mm. 8-10 of the third movement of the Quartet with b) mm. 1-6 of the fourth movement of the Fourth Quartet, opus 109, in Eb major, by Reger. Comparison of a) mm. 23-30 of the second movement of the Quartet with b) mm. 1-13 of the third movement of the Quartet in F major by Ravel. 185 Comparison of a) mm. 47-52 of the second movement of the Quartet with b) mm. 51-52 of Jeux d'eau by Ravel. 186 Mm. 172-177 of the third movement of the Quartet. 
work_prahdpzj5neyvi4p4whspk745y	----	Economics Working Paper Series 2019/015 Technological change, campaign spending and Polarization Pau Balart, Agustin Casas and Orestis Troumpounis The Department of Economics Lancaster University Management School Lancaster LA1 4YX UK © Authors All rights reserved. Short sections of text, not to exceed two paragraphs, may be quoted without explicit permission, provided that full acknowledgement is given. LUMS home page: http://www.lancaster.ac.uk/lums/ Technological change, campaign spending and polarization∗ Pau Balart† Agustin Casas‡ Orestis Troumpounis§ December 12, 2018 Abstract We focus on changes in technology and campaign management to study the documented simultaneous increase in campaign spending and polarization. In our model, some voters are ideological while others are impressionable. If the distribu- tion of voters between types is endogenous and depends on parties’ platform choices, our results show that a) an increase in the effectiveness of electoral advertising or a decrease in the electorate’s political awareness, surely increases polarization and may also increase campaign spending, while b) a decrease in the cost of advertising does not affect neither polarization nor spending. Keywords: electoral competition, campaign spending, impressionable voters, semiorder lexicographic preferences JEL codes: D72. ∗We appreciate valuable feedback from participants in the following events: 2017 Contests: Theory and Evidence Conference, 2018 European Winter Meeting of the Econometric Society, Petralia Sottana 2018: Applied Economics Workshop, 2018 Political Economy Workshop Rotterdam, 2018 Madrid Po- litical Economy Workshop, 3d Grode Workshop: Game Theory. Financial support from the Agencia Estatal de Investigacion (AEI) and the European Regional Development Funds (ERDF) through grants ECO2017-86305-C4-1-R (Balart) and ECO2017-85763-R (Casas) is acknowledged. Balart also acknowl- edges financial support by the Fundación Ramón Areces. †Department of Business Economics, Universitat de les Illes Balears, Carretera de Valldemossa, km 7.5 (Edifici Jovellanos), 07022 Palma de Mallorca, Spain. pau.balart@uib.cat ‡CUNEF, C/Leonardo Prieto Castro, 2. Madrid, 28040, Spain. acasas@u.northwestern.edu §Department of Economics, Lancaster University, Bailrigg, Lancaster, LA1 4YX, United Kingdom and Department of Economics, University of Padova, via del Santo 33, 35123 Padova, Italy. troumpou- nis@gmail.com 1 1 Introduction A well documented fact in US politics is the simultaneous increase of campaign spending and polarization. Updated measures indicate that polarization in 2015 was at the highest level since the era of Reconstruction, with this trend being well documented since earlier work by Poole and Rosenthal (1984).1 Also campaign spending, with the exception of the 2016 presidential election, has been steadily increasing since 1960 with a noteworthy increase in the 2008 and 2012 presidential elections.2 In this paper, we provide a new the- oretical explanation for the occurrence of these phenomena by linking campaign spending and polarization with recent technological advances and changes in the management of electoral campaigns. Focusing on technology is relevant because while it is still gaining importance (e.g., Obama’s campaigns, the use of big data, and social media (Nickerson and Rogers, 2014)), research so far has not drawn conclusive evidence on its effects on electoral competition (Herrera, Levine, and Martinelli, 2008). Dating back to the introduction of nationwide TV in the 1960s party centered non-professional campaigns were gradually abandoned. Instead parties had to rely on professional campaign management due to the emergence of multiple channels and 24/7 news coverage and the internet revolution in the mid-1990s (Norris, 2000; Sabato, 1981). During recent years, the importance of technology is at its peak and it is widely acknowledged that campaigns involve highly sophisticated tools. The main question we aim to address is: What is the effect of such changes on electoral competition? In line with changes in technology and campaign management, we present a theory where technology affects a) the effectiveness of electoral advertising –e.g., due to the professionalization of campaign management and advanced targeting technologies, b) the costs of electoral advertising –e.g., due to the possibility of reaching larger masses at a low marginal cost, and c) the electorate’s political awareness –e.g., due to the presence of various sources of information. To sum up our main results, an increase in the effectiveness of electoral advertising or a decrease in the electorate’s awareness increase polarization and may also increase campaign spending. On the contrary, changes in the marginal cost of advertising cannot explain changes neither in polarization nor campaign spending. We analyze the effects of technological changes on campaign spending and polarization by combining the two seminal models of Downs (1957) and Tullock (1980). In particular, we assume that two office motivated parties first choose their electoral platforms and then decide upon the optimal level of costly electoral advertising. Voters can be either 1See http://pooleandrosenthal.com/political_polarization_2015.htm. 2See https://www.fec.gov/data/elections/president/2016/. 2 http://pooleandrosenthal.com/political_polarization_2015.htm https://www.fec.gov/data/elections/president/2016/ impressionable or ideological as in the seminal papers by Baron (1994); Grossman and Helpman (1996). As common in this literature, ideological voters support the party that proposes the platform closest to their bliss point. Hence, parties compete for a share of ideological voters as if they were competing in a Downsian model of electoral competi- tion. On the contrary, impressionable voters are swayed towards one party or the other through costly electoral advertising. Given each party’s electoral advertising, the effec- tiveness of the latter determines the fraction of impressionable voters that supports each of them. Differing from previous literature, we endogenize the division of voters across impressionable and ideological. Such division depends on the differentiation between the proposed platforms, with the fraction of ideological voters increasing in polarization. This assumption captures the idea that the more diverse platforms are, more voters vote based on their ideological preferences since platforms become “salient”. On the contrary, when parties’ platforms are similar, voters may have a “hard” time or little interest in distinguishing them, and turn to electoral advertising that determines (probabilistically) their voting behavior. Alas intuitive, one way to formalize this behavior is that voters’ preferences are described by a lexicographic semiorder (see Luce 1956; Tversky 1969; Rubinstein 1988; Leland 1994; Manzini and Mariotti 2012), consistent with the notion of the “just noticeable difference”.3 With such preferences, each individual chooses which party to support on the basis of platforms, but only if those are different “enough” (i.e., above a certain threshold). If the platforms are not sufficiently different, then the voter is influenced exclusively by parties’ electoral advertising. The above sketched model encompasses the effect of technological changes on elec- toral competition through three distinct and non-mutually exclusive channels. The first two reflect the way campaigns for impressionable -Tullock- voters are conducted and how technology and changes in campaign management affect a) the effectiveness, and b) the cost of electoral advertising. One could reasonably argue that recent technological ad- vances have increased the effectiveness of electoral advertising since campaigns can be well targeted, and have decreased the marginal cost of advertising given the possibility of reaching large masses. The third channel captures how technology affects electoral competition through the electorate’s political awareness and the endogenous division of voters to impressionable and ideological. More precisely we focus on the conversion rate at which impressionable voters become ideological as polarization increases. Although not straightforward how this the conversion rate has evolved, we show how it affects electoral competition. Our setup proves relatively tractable. In contrast to previous contributions with en- 3In experimental psychology, the Weber-Fechner law remarks that the “just noticeable difference” is not necessarily influenced by the physiological but rather by psychological factors. The law states that the just-noticeable difference is increasing in the absolute level of the subtracts (Falmagne, 2002). 3 dogenous platforms and electoral advertising – that we later discuss, our model: i) has a unique Nash equilibrium in pure strategies when parties are symmetric, and ii) can be solved allowing heterogeneity in parties’ marginal cost of campaigning. But most importantly, in equilibrium, several comparative statics arise regarding the effect of tech- nological advances on electoral competition. Consider first an increase in the effectiveness of electoral advertising. Since every dol- lar spent on campaigns leads to higher returns, parties have incentives to symmetrically increase their campaign spending (spending effect). To mitigate such increase in electoral advertising, parties have incentives to polarize their platforms and reduce the number of impressionable voters and hence their spending (polarization effect). If the spending effect dominates, campaign spending and polarization increase simultaneously and can explain the observed trends in US politics. If the polarization effect dominates, an increase in the electoral effectiveness is overcompensated by an increase in polarization and campaign spending decreases. Actually, the effectiveness of electoral advertising proves crucial if one wants to explain the simultaneous increase in campaign spending and polarization in terms of campaign management. A decrease in the marginal costs of running a campaign does not affect neither polarization nor total spending. While a decrease in the marginal cost of advertising leads to more advertising, the lower marginal cost of the latter leaves campaign spending and polarization unaffected. Finally, the conversion rate at which impressionable voters become ideological when polarization increases affects both cam- paign spending and polarization in a similar manner as a change in the effectiveness. If one wants to explain the simultaneous increase in polarization and spending exclusively through this channel, then the conversion rate has been decreasing, meaning that voters do not respond much to changes in platforms for example due “media malaise”, possibly associated with mistrust of politicians and disenchantment with politics (Norris, 2000; Newton, 1999). 1.1 Related Literature In terms of results, our work complements existing models of platform choice with en- dogenous advertising. The closest paper in terms of research question and methodology is by Herrera et al. (2008) who explicitly model changes in the targeting effectiveness and its effect on polarization and spending. Contrary to us, they show that an improved campaign technology reduces polarization. This is becasue while in our model polar- ization softens competition in the electoral advertising stage (as the endogenous valence literature), in their model it has the exact opposite effect. Prummer (2018) focuses on changes in targeting technology and fragmentation of media networks as determinants of polarization. Moving away from a targeting story, Rivas (2017) provides an alternative 4 justification for the simultaneous increase in polarization and campaign spending in a model where the latter is financed through lobbies. The structure of our model, where parties first choose platforms and then spend- ing, resembles existing models of endogenous valence (e.g., Ashworth and Bueno de Mesquita (2009); Zakharov (2009); Carrillo and Castanheira (2008); Iaryczower and Mat- tozzi (2013) among others). In that literature, voters typically have additive separable preferences over platforms and valence (i.e., electoral advertising). In the closest work to ours (Ashworth and Bueno de Mesquita, 2009; Zakharov, 2009), platform diversification softens the competition in the valence accumulation stage.4 These dynamics are exactly the ones presented in our model through the endogenous division of voters to ideological and impressionable. Our model, however, proves more tractable and permits the analysis of the effects of technological changes on electoral competition. In contrast to Ashworth and Bueno de Mesquita (2009), our model under symmetry admits a pure strategy equi- librium in the campaign stage setting and does not require that voters’ ideologies are uniformly distributed. A non-uniform distribution is also permitted in Zakharov (2009) but only when focusing on local Nash equilibria. In contrast, we are able to characterize Nash equilibria in pure strategies for a general distribution of voters’ ideology (symmetric and log-concave in this paper) and perform relevant comparative statics. Also in con- trast to the previous models, we are also able to solve the model and obtain results when parties have heterogeneous campaign costs, for example due to an incumbency advantage (Meirowitz, 2008; Pastine and Pastine, 2012). Summing up, one could think of our model as one of endogenous valence where rather than additive separable preferences over platforms and campaigns, individuals have semiorder lexicographic preferences (see Luce 1956; Tversky 1969; Manzini and Mariotti 2012; Rubinstein 1988; Leland 1994) and is in line with salience models where decision makers overweight attributes that exhibit greater differences in the available choice set (Bordalo, Gennaioli, and Shleifer 2012, 2013a,b, 2015; Bushong, Rabin, and Schwartzstein 2017; Kőszegi and Szeidl 2012; Spiegler 2014). Semiorder lexicographic preferences can be seen as a particular case of salience in which: a) only the difference in one attribute (policy platforms) is relevant to assign the weight of each dimension, and b) individual weights on each attribute are discrete and take value 0 or 1. In aggregate terms, our as- sumption on the endogenous division of voters across types has a similar effect to the one of salience at the individual level: the smaller the distance between platforms, the smaller is their weight on the final outcome of the electoral competition. Callander and Wilson (2006) and Nunnari and Zápal (2017) introduce related context-dependent preferences in 4The opposite effect may occur when parties have ideological motives (Epstein and Nitzan, 2004; Cardona, De Freitas, and Rub́ı-Barceló, 2018) or there is uncertainty regarding the valence investment (Carrillo and Castanheira, 2008). 5 political economy models. In the former, the utility of voting depends not only on the direct benefits of turnout but also on the context, i.e., the candidates’ polarization. In the latter, the authors provide a model of “focusing”, where voters attention is captured more on the issues that candidates’ proposals differ more. Similarly, Amorós and Puy (2013); Aragonés, Castanheira, and Giani (2015); Denter (2017) focus on electoral com- petition models when parties have the ability to affect the relative salience of different issues via their strategic actions (e.g., allocation of time or effort). In our model, parties’ strategic actions affect the salience of platforms versus advertising, and hence voters in the society split among those casting votes either in an informed or uninformed manner. Therefore, although very different in nature, our model links with recent literature where some voters may be partially informed regarding parties’ policy proposals (Aragonès and Xefteris, 2017; Eguia and Nicolò, 2018). Finally, our model contributes to the contest theory literature (see Corchón (2007); Konrad (2009); Serena and Corchón (2018) for surveys) since parties compete for a share of impressionable voters as if they were competing in a Tullock contest (with the “noise” of the latter capturing the effectiveness of electoral advertising). Notice that the value of the “prize” (of the contest) allocated based on electoral advertising is endogenous and depends on platform selection. Consequently, by fixing closer platforms parties not only attract more voters from their competitor as in any Downsian model, but also increase the share of Tullock voters for which rent-dissipation arises (Tullock, 1980; Nitzan, 1994). In terms of results, the value of the prize depending on platforms provides a result in contrast to most of the contest literature where the relationship of electoral advertising and the noise of the contest success is monotonic. 2 Model Let two political parties i ∈ {L,R} first propose (and commit to) platforms xi in the policy space X = [0, 1] and then choose the level of campaign advertising ei ≥ 0. Without loss of generality, we assume xL ≤ xR. Let Si(xL,xR,eL,eR) be the vote share for party i and ci(ei) = µiei the cost of advertising, with µi > 0 denoting the constant marginal cost of advertising. Without loss of generality, we assume µL ≤ µR. Parties’ are office motivated with payoffs Πi = Si(xL,xR,eL,eR) − ci(ei).5 Voters have a preferred policy x drawn from distribution G(x) with corresponding density g(x) symmetric and log-concave (i.e., (ln g(x))′′ ≤ 0), with full support in X.6 5Here each party’s objective is to maximize its vote share net of the campaign costs. Alternatively, Si(xL,xR,eL,eR) can also be interpreted as the probability of winning by assuming parties’ uncertainty on voters’ ideology as in Aragonès and Xefteris (2017). 6Under symmetric campaign costs, our results can be extended to asymmetric distributions of ideol- 6 Independent of their ideal policy some voters are ideological and some are impressionable. The ideological citizens vote sincerely for the party whose proposed platform is closer to them and split their vote if the proposed platforms coincide (à la Downs ). The utility of a voter with ideology x that votes for party i is ux(i) = −|x−xi|.7 The impressionable citizens’ vote depends only on electoral advertising. In partic- ular, we assume that given parties’ advertising, the probability that an impressionable citizen votes for party i is determined à la Tullock and hence equal to e η i /(e η L + e η R), where parameter η > 0 captures the effectiveness of electoral advertising.8 If η → 0, impressionable voters split equally across the two parties. However, as η increases, the allocation of impressionable voters across parties becomes more responsive to electoral advertising. Impressionable voters voting on the basis of persuasive electoral advertising is a standard assumption in this literature (see for example the seminal papers by Baron (1994); Grossman and Helpman (1996) and a large literature thereafter). The specific proposed function is the seminal contest success function (CSF) introduced by Tullock (1980). This function is extensively used in the literature and apart from tractability also satisfies relevant axiomatic properties (Skaperdas, 1996) and can be micro-founded in a reasonable manner (also in our setting, see Section 5.4 of the Appendix).9 The endogenous division of voters across ideological and impressionable depends on the level of polarization. Let y = xR − xL ∈ X be the platforms’ polarization and F(y) a continuous cumulative distribution function, log-concave (i.e., (ln F(y))′′ ≤ 0), with corresponding density f(y) with full support in X. The share of ideological voters is F(y), and therefore the share of impressionable voters is 1 −F(y). It is informative to briefly stress how the above presentation of our model in aggregate terms reflects voters’ individual behavior. Consider voters with semiorder lexicographic preferences. Let the first attribute reflect policies and the second attribute electoral ad- vertising. Each voter draws a preferred policy x from G(x) and a level of “sensitivity” φ from Fφ(y) = Pr(φ ≤ y), denoted F(y) for simplicity. The value of φ determines if the voter is voting based on policies or advertising. If polarization is greater than φ, the voter is ideological. If polarization is less than φ the voter is impressionable. That is, as platforms diverge, an individual voter is ideological with ex-ante probability F(y), ogy (available upon request). 7The assumption of a particular distance function is made without loss of generality. 8We assume η > 0 to focus on cases in which our model differs from a Downsian model. If η = 0, equilibrium spending is always zero and platform choice coincides with that of the standard Downsian model. 9The campaign stage for impressionable voters is resolved via Tullock’s ratio-form CSF that facilitates the comparative statics of our model. In the symmetric case, our results would have the same qualitative features if we considered the difference-form CSF proposed by Alcalde and Dahm (2007), the tractable noise CSF proposed by Amegashie (2006) or the relative-difference CSF by Beviá and Corchón (2015) under the parameter restrictions proposed by Balart, Chowdhury, and Troumpounis (2017). 7 and impressionable with ex-ante probability 1−F(y). Hence, despite the stark partition of voters into ideological and impressionable presented in the main text, an individual voter’s expected behavior a priori depends both on platforms and advertising. To avoid additional notation we focus on the aggregate version of the model throughout the pa- per. The microfoundations of individuals’ behavior (in terms of semiorder lexicographic preferences as above and in terms of a salience model) and the effect of advertising on individual voting behavior (and the rise of the Tullock CSF) are detailed in Section 5.4 of the Appendix. The timing of the game is as follows: At t = 1, the political parties simultaneously choose the political platforms that maximizes their payoff. At t = 2, having observed the platforms choices and the share of impressionable voters determined by the polarization, parties choose the advertising levels. Finally, at t = 3, voters vote. Given the nature of our game, we focus on subgame perfect Nash equilibria in pure strategies. 3 Results Given the described game, let x̄ = xL+xR 2 be the indifferent ideological voter for xL 6= xR. Ideological voters with x ≤ x̄ vote for L, while the remaining ones vote for R. Thus, party L obtains a share SLIdl = G(x̄) of the ideological voters and party R, S R Idl = 1 − G(x̄). If xL = xR, then S R Idl = S L Idl = 1 2 . Given that the individual probability that an impressionable citizen votes for party i is e η i e η L +e η R , the expected share of impressionable votes to party i is SiImp = e η i e η L +e η R for party i. Hence, the expected vote share obtained by the parties can be then written as a weighted average of the previous two: Si(xL,xR,eL,eR) =F(y)S i Idl(xL,xR) + (1 −F(y))S i Imp(eL,eR). (1) This expression highlights the effect of platform choices in our game. First, platform choice affects how ideological voters split between the parties (via SiIdl(xL,xR)). Second, platform choice affects the ideological-impressionable composition of the electorate (via F(y)). As common in Downsian type models, converging towards the opponent is ben- eficial due to the relocation of the indifferent voter. However, in our model platform convergence results into an increase in the share of impressionable voters, and hence a tougher competition in the (costly) advertising stage. The above trade off makes plat- forms’ choice a non-trivial task. 8 3.1 Symmetric parties For illustrative purposes, and to highlight our main results in the simplest framework, we first pay attention to parties having identical marginal costs, i.e., µA = µB = µ. Recall that voters’ behavior is essentially parametric and hence the last stage in our backward induction reasoning is the choice of advertising. Equilibrium advertising can be solved as effort in a Tullock contest with symmetric players, in which the prize of winning equals the share of impressionable voters. The equilibrium in this stage is described in the lemma below Lemma 1. For all η ≤ 2 there exists a unique Nash equilibrium in the campaign stage and advertising is given by e∗i (xL,xR) = (1 −F(xR −xL)) η 4µ , for all i. All proofs appear in the Appendix. Our first Lemma draws from previous results in the contest theory literature. It characterizes the equilibrium advertising levels while stating a condition on the cam- paigns’ effectiveness η such that an equilibrium in pure strategies exists. If the campaigns are not effective “enough” (i.e., η ≤ 2), an equilibrium in pure strategies exists and is unique with advertising being: a) increasing in the campaign effectiveness η, b) decreas- ing in the marginal cost µ, and c) decreasing in the platforms’ polarization y (recall that y = xR − xL).10 Note that the symmetric spending in equilibrium implies that in equilibrium impressionable voters split between the two parties (i.e., SLImp = S R Imp = 0.5). Anticipating the advertising levels in the second stage, the political parties’ maxi- mization problem in the first stage is to choose the platform that maximizes their payoff. For instance, for party L, the payoff at t = 1 is ΠL (xL,xR,e ∗ L(xL,xR),e ∗ R(xL,xR)), which can be written as: SL(xL,xR)−cL(e∗L(xL,xR)) = F(xR−xL)S L Idl(xL,xR)+(1−F(xR−xL))S L Imp−µe ∗ L(xL,xR) where SLImp = 1 2 and SLIdl = G(x̄) if xL 6= xR or S L Idl = 1 2 if xL = xR. The trade-off parties face is now evident. Consider that for a given set of platforms (xL,xR), the leftist party chooses to propose a less extreme platform. On the one hand, the indifferent voter is more to the right, which has a positive effect on SLIdl as in a standard Downsian model. On the other hand, it converts some ideological voters to impressionable ones, which by Lemma 1 increases the spending on advertising in the second stage of game. 10If campaigns are effective “enough” (i.e., η > 2), there is no equilibrium in pure strategies in that stage and all mixed-strategy equilibria are payoff equivalent (Alcalde and Dahm, 2010) with parties’ expected payoffs in that stage zero and E(e∗i (xL,xR)) = (1 −F(xR −xL)) 1 2µ ). For recent advances on the properties of such mixed equilibria and relevant literature refer to Ewerhart (2015). 9 Similar to Tirole (1988) and Ashworth and Bueno de Mesquita (2009) divergence is a tool of softening competition in the vertical dimension (the advertising stage in our model). The importance of each of the two forces present in the trade-off is determined by the rate at which impressionable voters become ideological as polarization increases (i.e., f(y) F(y) ) and the mass of voters around the indifferent voter g(x̄). The relative importance of these two forces is moderated by the campaign effectiveness η. We characterize the equilibrium of the platform stage in the following proposition. Proposition 1. Let η ≤ 2 and ȳ implicitly defined by f(ȳ) F(ȳ) = 2 η g( 1 2 ). For any µ > 0 there exists a unique subgame perfect Nash equilibrium. For F(0) > 0, the following equilibrium types arise: • (Convergent equilibrium) x∗L = x ∗ R = 1 2 , if f(0) F(0) ≤ 2 η g( 1 2 ), • (Interior equilibrium) x∗L = 1 2 − ȳ 2 , and x∗R = 1 2 + ȳ 2 , if f(1) F(1) < 2 η g( 1 2 ) < f(0) F(0) • (Extremism equilibrium) x∗L = 0 and x ∗ R = 1, if 2 η g( 1 2 ) ≤ f(1) F(1) . If F(0) = 0, the extremism equilibrium arises if and only if 2 η g( 1 2 ) ≤ f(1) F(1) and the interior equilibrium arises otherwise. Electoral advertising for each of the above SPNE is uniquely characterized in Lemma 1. First, notice that in contrast to previous literature with similar dynamics –where equilibrium platforms require mixed strategies –Proposition (1) shows that there exists a unique pure strategy SPNE.11 In this unique equilibrium, the level of polarization (y∗) can be zero (convergent equilibrium), one (extremism equilibrium) or ȳ (interior equilibrium). The emerging type of equilibrium depends on: a) the concentration of voters around the median g( 1 2 ), b) the rate at which impressionable voters become ideological when polarization increases f(y) F(y) , and c) the effectiveness of electoral campaigns η. Starting with the effectiveness of the electoral campaigns, a large value of η makes the competition for impressionable votes tougher, which exacerbates advertising costs in the second stage (Lemma 1). Therefore, a high value of η provides incentives to polarize platforms in the first stage in order to reduce the number of impressionable voters. If F(0) > 0 (i.e., there exists a share of ideological voters under convergence), as η increases, indeed we may move across types of equilibria with convergence occurring for a larger set 11Note here that we have restricted attention to η ≤ 2 due to the mixed strategies in the campaign stage for η > 2. However, the unique pure strategy equilibrium characterized in the platform substage –which is the main difference to Ashworth and Bueno de Mesquita 2009– is also an equilibrium for η > 2 with equilibrium platforms the same as the ones characterized for η = 2. This is due to the payoff equivalence result described in the previous footnote. 10 of parameters. But also platforms become less polarized in the interior equilibrium (i.e., ȳ is decreasing in η). Similarly, when many voters are concentrated around the median (i.e., a high value of g( 1 2 )), there are strong incentives to propose moderate platforms. Thus, a strong presence of moderate voters leads to equilibria of “low” polarization (again, either across equilibria types or within the interior equilibrium). If F(0) = 0 (i.e., no ideological voters when parties fully converge), nothing changes except that a convergent equilibrium never arises. The conversion rate at which impressionable voters become ideological when polar- ization increases (i.e, the reverse hazard rate f(y) F(y) ) also helps understanding our result. This rate captures the incentives of increasing polarization as a way of reducing electoral advertising. By log-concavity of F(y), the rate is monotonically decreasing and hence takes its maximum value at y = 0 and its minimum value at y = 1. If the maximum value of the conversion rate is small “enough” (i.e., f(0) F(0) ≤ 2 η g( 1 2 )) the original Downsian result of platform convergence emerges. Despite full convergence, the conversion rate is so low that increasing polarization does not increase the share of ideological voters enough to diminish electoral advertising in a profitable fashion. Analogously, if its minimum value is large “enough” (i.e., 2 η g( 1 2 ) ≤ f(1) F(1) ), polarization is very effective in restraining electoral advertising and extremism emerges. A distributional change in the function determining the distribution of voters across types gives interesting comparative statics. Notation 1. Let ρ parametrize the sensitivity of the conversion rate due to inputs other than polarization (e.g., awareness or interest in politics). The conversion rate f(y; ρ)/F(y; ρ) satisfies the monotone likelihood ratio property (MLRP) in y if for any ρ1 > ρ0 it holds that f(y; ρ1) F(y; ρ1) > f(y; ρ0) F(y; ρ0) where F(y; ρ) and f(y; ρ) are differentiable in ρ. Any increase in ρ makes the conversion rate of impressionable voters to ideological more responsive to changes in polarization. This may move platforms across types of equilibria (favoring more polarization), while also at any interior equilibrium, polariza- tion is increasing in ρ (it follows from applying implicit differentiation to the interior equilibrium condition f(ȳ) F(ȳ) = 2 η g( 1 2 )). Finally, note that platforms’ characterization does not depend on the costs of cam- paigning µ in any manner. Given that this cost is symmetric for the two parties, increasing or decreasing it would only rescale the equilibrium levels of advertising ei (from Lemma 1) but will not modify the actual level of campaign spending µei and hence polarization. 11 Effects on Campaign Spending A technological change that increases the campaign effectiveness has an ambiguous effect on campaign spending. This is apparent when we look at the relevant expression: ∂µe∗i (x ∗ L,x ∗ R) ∂η = Spending effect (+)︷ ︸︸ ︷ 1 −F(y∗) 4 Polarization effect (-)︷ ︸︸ ︷ −f(y∗) ∂y∗ ∂η η 4 (2) On the one hand, ceteris paribus an increase in η increases advertising (Lemma 1). On the other hand, it also increases in equilibrium level of polarization y∗ (Proposition 1), which in turn, decreases the share of impressionable voters and so the levels of advertising (Lemma 1). We call the former the spending effect, while we label the latter as the polarization effect. At the fully divergent and fully convergent equilibria there is no polarization effect, ∂y∗ ∂η = 0, and spending either increases monotonically with η due to the spending effect or is unaffected. At the interior equilibrium however, the polarization effect takes place and mitigates the spending effect. If polarization increases disproportionally with η, the polarization effect may even overturn the spending effect, and hence observe η and campaign spending move in opposite directions. In Lemma (2) below, we provide the conditions for a simultaneous increase in campaign spending and polarization, and we use an example to illustrate it. Lemma 2. In any interior equilibrium, a technological change that increases the cam- paign effectiveness η – and hence polarization – also increases campaign spending due to the spending effect dominating the polarization effect if and only if effectiveness is low “enough”. Formally, in any interior equilibrium ∂µe∗i (x ∗ L ,x∗ R ) ∂η ≥ 0 if and only if η ≤ 2g( 1 2 ) 1−F(ȳ) f(ȳ) [ F(ȳ) f(ȳ) ]′ . Example 1: F(y) is uniformly distributed over (0, 1] with a mass at zero F(0) = 1 10 . The “conversion rate” now – from impressionable to ideological voters – is proportional to polarization: f(y) F(y) = 9 10 1 10 + 9 10 y . From Proposition (1), we are at a conver- gent equilibrium for η ≤ 2 9 g( 1 2 ), at an interior equilibrium for 2 9 g( 1 2 ) < η < 20 9 g( 1 2 ) and at an extremism equilibrium for η ≥ 20 9 g( 1 2 ). These conditions highlight how the concentra- tion of voters around the median gives rise to different equilibrium types. If for example g( 1 2 ) is large then extremism can be excluded as an outcome for any level of campaign effectiveness. In the interior equilibrium polarization given by y∗ = ȳ = η 2g( 1 2 ) − 1 9 and it is straightforward to see that polarization is increasing in η. Using the condition in Lemma (2) we can also get the non-monotone comparative statics on campaign spending 12 Figure 1: Comparative statics on η for campaign spending and polarization. Uniform distribution of F(y) with F(0) = 1 10 and g(1/2) = 1/2. in the interior equilibrium and show that campaign spending is increasing in the campaign effectiveness for η low enough (i.e., η ≤ 10 9 g( 1 2 )) and decreasing otherwise. In Figure 1 we graphically represent the comparative statics of changes of η on polar- ization and campaign spending also assuming that g( 1 2 ) = 1 2 . Consider first the equilib- rium levels of polarization (solid line). For η lower than 1 9 or greater than 10 9 the convergent and extremist equilibria respectively arise. For 1 9 < η < 10 9 the interior equilibrium arises and polarization is strictly increasing in η. Let’s now turn to campaign spending (dashed line). For η ≤ 1 9 , polarization is constant and equal to zero and campaign spending is monotonically increasing in η (as in any standard Tullock contest). If η ≥ 10 9 the ex- tremism equilibrium arises and due to all voters being ideological campaign spending is zero.12 In the interior equilibrium interval (i.e., η ∈ ( 1 9 , 10 9 )), the non-monotonicity arises. Campaign spending increases until reaching η = 5 9 due to the spending effect being larger than the polarization one. On the contrary, spending decreases for values of η larger than 5 9 due to the polarization effect overcoming the spending effect and till extremism arises. Polarization and campaign spending are also affected by the rate at which impression- able voters become ideological as polarization increases parametrized by ρ. A technolog- 12 Zero spending under extremism arises because of the simplification of no mass of impressionable voters under maximal platform separation. One could trivially extend our model by including a mass of impressionable voters 0 < δ < 1 even under extreme polarization. In that case, in the extreme equilibrium campaign spending is positive and strictly increasing in η. Our characterization in Proposition 1 would remain unaffected and advertising levels in Lemma 1 will be simply rescaled but not qualitatively affected. 13 ical change that increases ρ has an ambiguous effect on campaign spending. As above, the condition comes from looking at the derivative of campaign spending with respect to ρ. ∂µe∗i (x ∗ L,x ∗ R) ∂ρ = Spending effect (+)︷ ︸︸ ︷ − ∂F (y∗) ∂ρ η 4 Polarization effect (-)︷ ︸︸ ︷ − ∂F (y∗) ∂y∗ ∂y∗ ∂ρ η 4 On the one hand, an increase in ρ increases the “stock” of impressionable voters 1−F(y) (this follows directly from MLRP which implies first order stochastic dominance). The spending effect then suggests that, for a given level of polarization y, an increase in ρ increases advertising (Lemma 1). On the other hand, an increase in ρ makes voters more responsive to polarization, by affecting the “conversion” rate f(y) F(y) , and therefore provides incentives to increase polarization (Proposition 1). But this increased polarization in turn, decreases the share of impressionable voters and so decreases the levels of advertising (Lemma 1). As before, we label this latter effect as the polarization effect. At the convergent equilibria there is no polarization effect since ∂y ∗ ∂ρ = 0 and spending increases monotonically with ρ. That is, an increase in ρ keeping polarization constant would increase the number of impressionable voters and their weight in the parties’ maxi- mization problem and parties would have higher incentives to increase advertising. In the interior equilibrium the polarization effect kicks in and the net effect on spending depends on the magnitude of these two effects. Recall that changes in ρ enter in the spending effect due to changes in “stock”, while they enter in the polarization effect due to changes in the “conversion”. Finally, polarization is constant in ρ once the extremism equilibrium is reached and spending is constant and equal to zero since there are no impressionable voters. The following lemma summarizes the above for the interior equilibrium. Lemma 3. In any interior equilibrium, a technological change that increases ρ – and hence polarization – also increases campaign spending due to the spending effect domi- nating the polarization effect if and only if the effect of ρ on the “stock” of impressionable voters is “large” enough. Formally, in any interior equilibrium ∂µe∗i (x ∗ L ,x∗ R ) ∂ρ ≥ 0 if and only if −∂F(ȳ) ∂ρ ≥ f(ȳ)∂ȳ ∂ρ . Finally, notice that in the symmetric case, the marginal cost of advertising plays no role in equilibrium: neither the platforms nor the campaign spending depend on µ. When we introduce a cost-asymmetry between the parties, the equilibrium changes, favoring the party with the lower marginal cost. 14 3.2 Asymmetric parties In contrast to previous models with endogenous valence, we can incorporate cost asym- metries and obtain results of similar intuition. In this section we assume, without loss of generality, that µL < µR. We first characterize campaign spending in the second stage and then show how equilibrium platforms are affected by the asymmetry. Following Baik (1994) and Nti (1999) the following Lemma arises. Lemma 4. Let η̄ implicitly defined by µ η̄ L + µ η̄ R = η̄µ η̄ R. For all η ≤ η̄ there exists a unique Nash equilibrium in the campaign stage and advertising is given by e∗i (xL,xR) = (1 −F(y)) η µi µ η L µ η R (µ η L +µ η R )2 for all i. Lemma (4) shows that, in equilibrium, parties choose different levels of advertising (e∗i (xL,xR)) although spend equal amounts (µie ∗ i (xL,xR)). 13 The share of impressionable voters is not any longer equally split across parties, giving an advantage to the party with the lower marginal cost. This generates an asymmetry in parties’ incentives to use polarization as a device to reduce campaign spending and eliminates the interior equilibria where x∗L + x ∗ R = 1. In any interior equilibrium parties propose asymmetric platforms. The convergent and extremism equilibria described previously also arise. We present the conditions for the rise of each type of equilibrium in the following propositions. Proposition 2. (Convergent equilibrium) For any η ≤ η̄, µL < µR and F(0) > 0, there exists a unique SPNE with x∗L = x ∗ R = 1 2 if and only if f(0) F(0) ≤ g( 1 2 ) /( µ η L µ η R (µ η L +µ η R )2 2η+ µ η R −µη L µ η L +µ η R ) . Campaign spending for the convergent equilibrium is uniquely characterized in Lemma 4. As in the symmetric case, the convergent equilibrium arises when a lot of voters are concentrated around the median (i.e., high g( 1 2 )) and/or the conversion rate at y = 0 (i.e., at its maximal level f(0) F(0) ) is low. In the asymmetric case, the size of the asymmetry is also a determinant of platform convergence. If the asymmetry converges to zero, then the inequality characterizing a convergent equilibrium converges to the one of Proposition 1. As the asymmetry however increases, platform convergence becomes less likely (the denominator at the right hand side of the inequality is increasing in the asymmetry). This is because, as the asymmetry increases, the (symmetric) convergent equilibrium becomes less attractive for the disadvantaged party that loses the competition for im- pressionable voters and hence has incentives to diversify and propose distinct platforms. This potentially leads to an interior equilibrium. 13The condition on η that guarantees equilibrium in pure strategies is more restrictive than in the symmetric case, since η̄ is lower or equal than 2. For η ∈ (η̄, 2) the equilibrium is characterized by Wang (2010) and Ewerhart (2017), while payoff equivalence by Alcalde and Dahm (2010) can be used to solve the platform stage for η > 2. 15 An equilibrium is interior if at least one of the parties chooses an interior platform. That is, a platform between the median and the corner (either 0 or 1, depending on the party). Taking this definition into account, Proposition 3 describes the necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence and uniqueness of an interior equilibrium, which depend on the extent of the parties’ cost asymmetries. Then, within the scope of the proposition, the corollary below characterizes the interior equilibria. Proposition 3. (Interior Equilibrium) For any η ≤ η̄ and µL < µR, let x̄∗ = G−1( µ η R µ η L +µ η R ) and ȳ be implicitly defined by f(ȳ) F(ȳ) = g(x̄∗) 2η (µ η L +µ η R )2 µ η L µ η R , there exists a unique interior SPNE if and only if one of the following conditions is satisfied F(2x̄∗ − 1) f(2x̄∗ − 1) g(x̄∗) < 2η µ η Lµ η R (µ η L + µ η R) 2 < F(1) f(1) g(0.5) + µ η R −µ η L µ η R + µ η L if µ η R µ η L + µ η R < G( 3 4 ) (3) F( 1 2 ) f( 1 2 ) g( 1 2 ) − 2G( 3 4 ) + 2µ η R µ η R + µ η L < 2η µ η Lµ η R (µ η L + µ η R) 2 if µ η R µ η L + µ η R ≥ G( 3 4 ) (4) Corollary 1. (Characterization of Interior Equilibria) There are two types of Interior equilibria. Proposition 3 describes the necessary and sufficient conditions for existence and uniqueness. Their characterization is as follows: • (Interior/Interior) x∗L = x̄ ∗ − ȳ 2 and x∗R = x̄ ∗ + ȳ 2 if and only if Condition 3 and 2η µ η L µ η R (µ η L +µ η R )2 < F(2−2x̄∗) f(2−2x̄∗) g(x̄ ∗) are satisfied. • (Interior/Corner) x∗L < 0.5 and x ∗ R = 1, otherwise. Campaign spending for each of the above SPNE is uniquely characterized in Lemma 4 All interior equilibria are asymmetric. It can be that both parties propose interior platforms (Interior/Interior) or that the cost advantaged party proposes an interior plat- form while the disadvantaged party proposes an extreme platform (Interior/Corner). The cost asymmetry plays an important role in determining the type but also polariza- tion level at the interior equilibrium. The cost disadvantaged party R has more incentives than the advantaged party to reduce the share of (costly) impressionable voters. Con- sequently, R has more incentives to separate its platform from L. Thus, in any interior equilibrium platforms are shifted towards the cost-disadvantaged party R. That is, in the (Interior/Interior) equilibrium the point around which parties propose equidistant platforms is to the right (i.e., x̄∗ > 0.5), while in the (Interior/Corner) it is the disadvan- taged party that proposes an extreme platform. Note that in general, if the asymmetry is low “enough” (i.e., (3) is satisfied) the disadvantaged party may also propose an interior platform. If this asymmetry however is high “enough” (i.e., (4) is satisfied) only the (In- terior/Corner) equilibrium arises, the disadvantaged party would like to separate more but cannot due to having reached the corner. The disadvantaged party best responds 16 to that by proposing an interior platform. In that sense, “large” asymmetries never give rise to extremism equilibria either as the following proposition summarizes. Proposition 4. (Extremism Equilibrium) For any η ≤ η̄ and µL < µR, there exists a unique SPNE with x∗L = 0 and x ∗ R = 1 if and only if g(0.5) /( 2η µ η L µ η R (µ η L +µ η R )2 − µ η R −µη L µ η L +µ η R ) ≤ f(1) F(1) and campaign spending as characterized in Lemma 4. If the asymmetry converges to zero, the relevant inequality converges to the one of Proposition 1. As the asymmetry however increases, extremism becomes less likely (the denominator on the left hand side of the inequality is decreasing in the asymmetry). This is because, the advantaged party has no incentives to polarize as it would reduce the share of impressionable voters for whom it enjoys a great advantage. Also, as in the symmetric case, extremism is more likely when the rate at which impressionable voters become ideological is great enough under maximal platform separation (i.e., f(1) F(1) is high). As with the symmetric case, the inequalities in all equilibrium conditions also depend on the effectiveness of campaigns, the mass of ideological voters at the median and con- version rates at different points. While we have covered the most relevant ones, especially what concerns the cost asymmetries, in general, the incentives to polarize (or not) and move across equilibria types remain similar to the symmetric case. Proceeding with ex- amples, similar intuition to the results of the symmetric case arise. The simultaneous increase in polarization and campaign spending observed can be reconciled also in the presence of an asymmetry. Example 2: F(y) and G(y) uniformly distributed in X. In Figure 2 Panel (a) we plot the case of “low” asymmetry (µR/µL = 1.2) while in Panel (b) we plot the case of “high” asymmetry (µR/µL = 2). For both levels of asymmetry, we are at a convergent equilibrium only when η = 0. That is, when impressionable voters are split equally across the two parties regardless of electoral advertising parties do not have incentives to differentiate their platforms since the asymmetry vanishes. As long as η > 0 we illustrate the divergent and asymmetric (Interior/Interior) equilibrium platforms as characterized in Corollary 1. Note that in both panels, and as described in our results, the disadvantaged party R is proposing a relatively more extreme platform compared to the advantaged party L. In the example of “low” asymmetry, platforms diverge monotonically as η increases (as in the symmetric case) and hence polarization is also increasing. In the example of “high” asymmetry, and despite polarization being again increasing in the effectiveness of electoral advertising, the advantaged party does not respond to increases in η in a monotonic manner. Finally, when it comes to campaign spending, as the upper right panel shows, we may again encounter a situation of a non-monotonic relationship 17 between campaign spending and η (as in Figure 1 and the symmetric case). But perhaps more importantly, our results can again sustain the simultaneous increase in polarization and campaign spending due to technological changes even in the presence of asymmetries for a wide range of parameters. Panel (a): “low” asymmetry: µR/µL = 1.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 xR xL η P la tf o r m s 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 η P o la r iz a ti o n 0 5 · 10−2 0.1 0.15 0.2 S p e n d in g Panel (b): “high” asymmetry: µR/µL = 2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 xR xL η P la tf o r m s 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 η P o la r iz a ti o n 0 5 · 10−2 0.1 0.15 0.2 S p e n d in g Figure 2: Solid lines depict equilibrium platforms (x∗ L ,x∗ R ) in the left panels and polarization (x∗ R −x∗ L ) in the right panels. Dotted lines depict campaign spending. Graphs are plotted on the interval of η that guarantees an equilibrium in pure strategies in the advertising stage. 4 Conclusion Citing Herrera et al. (2008), “commentators have suggested that the reason for both the increased polarization and campaign spending is that skilled political operatives using so- phisticated statistical tools and purchasing advertising in local markets are better able to 18 target particular voters” (see for example, NBC 2017). However, existing results so far were linking such technological advances with a reduction in polarization, and therefore favored alternative channels that may drive polarization such as more volatile preferences. Our results in contrast, are the first to justify the simultaneous increase in polarization and campaign spending due to recent technological changes and better targeting of the electoral campaigns. Given that one would naturally expect further advances in campaign technology two natural questions arise: a) should we expect a further increase in polarization?, and b) what about campaign spending? Our theory would say yes, further advances in targeting will lead to further polarization. Ways to go against this trend would require policies that improve the awareness of the electorate and a shift of voters’ attention from persuasive campaigns to political platforms. With regards to campaign spending, recall that our theory does not provide a monotone comparative static. As the targeting technology im- proves, parties have incentives to increase their campaign spending, but at the same time to polarize (which reduces campaign spending). Hence, our results are not incompati- ble with the observations of the 2016 presidential US election where campaign spending dropped. Furthermore, following this presidential campaign, the diffusion of plausible but false information received the name of “fake news”. This notion, widely used during and after the campaigns, has direct implications on the electorate’s awareness: for any given “real” platforms, the stock of ideological voters decreases with the amount of fake news. In terms of our model, fake news would increase the reversed hazard rate, causing an increase in polarization as well. While one of our contributing messages could be the importance of the electorate’s awareness as a way to affect campaign spending and polarization, political pundits have paid special attention to caps on campaign spending. In the context of symmetric costs, our model provides very clear and intuitive implications regarding the effects of this policy. If a cap is below the equilibrium campaign spending, it will completely shut down the polarization effect in our model. That is, when a cap is binding, the parties will not induce an increase in campaign spending by moving their platform towards their competitor. This eliminates one of the elements of the parties’ trade-off in the choice of platform location. As a consequence, platform convergence is the only possible outcome. In other words, any cap on campaign spending smaller or equal to the equilibrium spending, will also induce convergence at the median voter. Thus our model predicts an important impact of campaign caps on party polarization. The same intuition can be sustained under asymmetric costs if the inverse hazard rate is great enough under full convergence. 19 5 Appendix - Proofs This section is organized as follows. In Subsection 5.1 we show the pure strategy equi- librium in advertising for asymmetric costs. Additionally, we discuss the extension for η > η̄ in the symmetric case. In Subsection 5.2 we write and solve the platform selec- tion problem for the general case with asymmetric costs. Thus, taking into account the Kuhn-Tucker conditions, we solve this maximization problem and we show the first and second order conditions. Lemmi A.1, A.2 and Remark 1 in that subsection provide the conditions for existence and uniqueness of platforms that maximize the Lagrangian for the general case. Next, we show uniqueness and existence of a unique (pure) Subgame Perfect Nash Equilibrium, and we characterize the equilibrium platforms for the sym- metric case (Proposition 1). Later on, we do the same for asymmetric costs. In this case, we show separately the convergent equilibrium (Proposition 2), the interior equilibrium (Proposition 3 and Corollary 1) and the extremism one (Proposition 4). 5.1 Advertising We begin proving the more general Lemma 4, i.e., µL 6= µR, and after the proof we discuss the implications of symmetry, i.e., Lemma 1. Proof. For any given pair (xL,xR), parties simultaneously choose ei that maximizes (1− F(y)) e η i e η L +e η R −µiei(xL,xR). Hence, from the FOC, we obtain the first necessary condition for an interior PSNE: ei = 1−F(y) µi η µ η L µ η R (µ η L +µ η R )2 . The equilibrium payoffs can be written as (1 −F(y))[ µ η i µ η L + µ η R −η µ η Lµ η R (µ η L + µ η R) 2 ], which are positive if and only if (µ η L +µ η R)µ η i −ηµ η Lµ η R ≥ 0. Therefore, the second necessary condition for PSNE is that η ≤ η̄ : µη̄R +µ η̄ L = η̄µ η̄ R. Moreover, for all η lower or equal than η̄, the SOC holds with strict inequality, assuring not only existence but also uniqueness of the equilibrium. The symmetric case. Notice that η̄ ≤ 2 holds with strict equality if and only if µL = µR. In the symmetric case, for all η ≤ 2, the conditions on the existence and uniqueness of PSNE are satisfied, and therefore ei = 1−F(y) 4µi η. For η > 2, Alcalde and Dahm (2010) show that “the contest possesses an all-pay auction equilibrium” (Theorem 3.2 in their paper). In a symmetric contest, this theorem implies full dissipation, which means that the expected payoff would be 0 for parties L and R, and the corresponding expected bids would be 1 2 1−F(y) µi η. 20 5.2 Polarization and Spending The objective function, existence and uniqueness Throughout this section let y = xR − xL, x̄ = xR+xL2 , and S L Idl(xL,xR) = G(x̄) = 1 − SRIdl(xL,xR) for xL 6= xR and S L Idl(xL,xR) = S R Idl(xL,xR) = 1 2 otherwise. By backward induction and using the equilibrium expressions of the of advertising subgame, we can write the first-stage payoff for the political parties as follows Πi(xL,xR) = F(y)S i Idl(xL,xR) + (1 −F(y)) µ η −i µ η R + µ η L − (1 −F(y))η µ η Rµ η L (µ η R + µ η L) 2 . Lemma A.1. In any equilibrium xL ≤ 1/2 and xR ≥ 1/2. Proof. Remind that we have assumed without loss of generality that xL ≤ xR. First consider a divergent equilibrium, i.e., xL 6= xR. We proceed by contradiction. Assume an equilibrium such that 1/2 < x̃L < x̃R. Then party R is strictly better of by deviating to xR = 2x̃L − x̃R, which maintains unchanged the proportion of each type of voter and the share of impressionable votes and strictly increases the share of ideological votes of party R. Analogously we can show that party L always has a profitable deviation to xL = 2x̃R − x̃L when x̃L < x̃R < 1/2 Now consider a convergent equilibrium xL = xR. Given the assumption of xL ≤ xR two necessary conditions for a convergent equilibrium at xL = xR = x are: limxL→x− ΠL(xL,x) ≤ ΠL(x,x) limxR→x+ ΠR(x,xR) ≤ ΠR(x,x) For x > 1 2 , limxL→x−G(xL,x) > 1 2 = G(x,x), which implies that limxL→x−ΠL(xL,x) > ΠL(x,x) and violates the equilibrium condition for party L. A similar argument applies for party R if x < 1 2 . Remind that when xL = xR 6= 1/2, a discontinuity can arise in the objective function, due to the discontinuity of SiIdl(x). However, the previous lemma restricts convergence to the case xL = xR = 0.5, in which S i Idl(x), and consequently Πi(xL,xR), are continuous. Thus, by including the equilibrium constraints (xL ≤ 1/2 and xR ≥ 1/2) in the maxi- mization problem, the Lagrangians below are continuous, and provided that the second order conditions are met, will be solved by the equilibrium platforms (due to the pres- ence of equilibrium constraints solving the Lagrangian is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for equilibrium, as we show in Remark 1 below). For i ∈{L,R}, let λi ≥ 0 be the multipliers associated with the feasibility constraints 21 and νi ≥ 0 with the equilibrium constraints. The Lagrangians are: LL = ΠL(xL,xR) −λL(−xL − 0) −νL(xL − 1 2 ) (5) LR = ΠR(xL,xR) −λR(xR − 1 ) −νR( 1 2 −xR). (6) The first order conditions (FOC from now on) are: ∂LL ∂xL = ∂ΠL(xL,xR) ∂xL + λL −νL = 0, (7) ∂LR ∂xR = ∂ΠR(xL,xR) ∂xR −λR + νR = 0. (8) Where, Π′L ≡ ∂ΠL(xL,xR) ∂xL = F(y) g(x̄) 2 −f(y)G(x̄) + f(y) µ η R µ η R + µ η L −f(y)η µ η Rµ η L (µ η R + µ η L) 2 , (9) Π′R ≡ ∂ΠR(xL,xR) ∂xR = −F(y) g(x̄) 2 + f(y)[1 −G(x̄)] −f(y) µ η L µ η R + µ η L + f(y)η µ η Rµ η L (µ η R + µ η L) 2 (10) Lemma A.2. Let F(x) be log-concave and g(x) be symmetric and log-concave. The objective functions are strictly quasiconcave in the policy space when xL ≤ 12 ≤ xR, hence the second order conditions (SOC) are satisfied. The constrained optimization problem includes two linear constraints for each party, thus focusing on the quasiconcavity of the payoff functions suffices. Proof. Without loss of generality, consider party L. Under the conditions of Lemma (A.1), continuity of ΠL is assured. Then, let us modify Equation (9) by dividing it over the densities f(y) and g(x̄): Π̃′L ≡ Π′L f(y)g(x̄) = F(ȳ) 2f(ȳ) − 1 g(x̄) [ G(x̄) − µ η R µ η R + µ η L + η µ η Rµ η L (µ η R + µ η L) 2 ] (11) Let Π̃L be the primitive of Π̃ ′ L. Π̃L is strictly quasiconcave if and only if Π̃ ′ L(x)(x ′−x) > 0 whenever Π̃L(x ′) > Π̃L(x). Since strict quasiconcavity is determined by the sign of Π̃ ′ L(x), which is the same of the sign of Π′L(x) (because f(y)g(x̄) is strictly positive), the strict quasiconcavity of Π̃L(x) guarantees the strict quasiconcavity of ΠL(x). Therefore, by showing the strict concavity of Π̃L (i.e., Π̃ ′′ L = ∂ Π′ L f(y)g(x̄) ∂xL < 0), we will be proving that ΠL(xL,xR) is strictly quasiconcave too. Hence Π̃ ′′ L is ∂ Π′ L f(y)g(x̄) ∂xL = − 1 2 [ F(ȳ) f(ȳ) ]′ − 1 2g(x̄)2 { g(x̄)2 −g′(x̄) [ G(x̄) − µ η R µ η R + µ η L + η µ η Rµ η L (µ η R + µ η L) 2 ]} 22 By log-concavity of F(y), the term −[ F(ȳ) 2f(ȳ) ]′ is negative, so we can focus on the nega- tivity of H = − { g(x̄)2 −g′(x̄) [ G(x̄) − µ η R µ η R +µ η L + η µ η R µ η L (µ η R +µ η L )2 ]} in the expression above to guarantee strict concavity of Π̃L(x) (and hence strict quasi-concavity of ΠL(x)). Let us consider two cases. • If g′(x̄) ≥ 0, then −g′(x̄)[ µ η R µ η R +µ η L −η µ η R µ η L (µ η R +µ η L )2 ]) is negative (strictly negative for g′(x̄) > 0) because the term in brackets is always positive given η < η̄ (see proofs of Lemmi 1 and 4). Log-concavity of g(x) implies log-concavity of G(x), thus −[g(x̄)2 − g′(x̄)G(x̄)] is negative (strictly negative for g′(x̄) = 0). Hence H is strictly negative and ΠL(x) strictly quasi-concave. • If g′(x̄) < 0, suppose there exists x̂L : G( x̂L+xR2 ) = µ η R µ η R +µ η L −η µ η R µ η L (µ η R +µ η L )2 . Since G(x) is increasing in x, for xL > x̂L, H would be strictly negative and ΠL(x) strictly quasi-concave. For xL ≤ x̂L, G(x̄) ≤ µ η R µ η R +µ η L − η µ η R µ η L (µ η R +µ η L )2 implies that ∂ΠL(xL,xR) ∂xL is strictly positive which directly implies that ΠL(xL,xR) is strictly quasiconcave for xL ∈ [0, x̂L]. We can proceed similarly to show that ΠR(xL,xR) is also strictly quasiconcave (in that case we use that g(x) implies that 1 −G(x) is log-concave). Remark 1. Let (xL,xR) be a solution to the Lagrangians. Then, in the platforms stage, there is a divergent equilibrium (xL 6= xR) only when νL = νR = 0 and there is a convergent one (xL = xR) only when νL ≥ 0 and νR ≥ 0. Proof. For the divergent equilibria, let xL 6= xR be an equilibrium with νR = 0. Suppose νL > 0. Then xL = 1 2 < xR and Π ′ L( 1 2 ,xR) > 0. Thus, party L has incentives to deviate to a platform strictly larger than 1 2 which violates Lemma (A.1). Then xL 6= xR with νR = 0 < νL cannot be an equilibrium. Hence, νL must be 0 for this type of equilibrium to exist. The same holds true for νL = 0 < νR. For the convergent equilibrium, Lemma (A.1) implies xL = xR = 1 2 is the only can- didate to equilibrium. Hence, at the solution to the Lagrangian, νL ≥ 0 and νR ≥ 0 is true. Notice that even if Π′L( 1 2 , 1 2 ) ≥ 0 and Π′R( 1 2 , 1 2 ) ≤ 0, like in a standard Dawnsian game, they do not have incentives to deviate. Suppose L deviates to a platform strictly larger than 1 2 , then it would become the Right party, which implies that if would have incentives to converge to 1 2 . Proof of Proposition 1 Proof. Lemma A.1 shows that we can constraint the analysis to the case with xL ≤ 12 ≤ xR without loss of generality. Lemma A.2 shows strict quasiconcavity of the maximization 23 problem. Hence, the first order conditions are necessary and sufficient to characterize the equilibrium. With µL = µR equations 9 and 10 become: Π′L ≡ ∂ΠL(xL,xR) ∂xL = F(y) g(x̄) 2 −f(y)G(x̄) + f(y) 1 2 −f(y)η 1 4 , (12) Π′R ≡ ∂ΠR(xL,xR) ∂xR = −F(y) g(x̄) 2 + f(y)[1 −G(x̄)] −f(y) 1 2 + f(y)η 1 4 (13) Remark 1 shows that convergence in the symmetric case implies Π′L ≥ 0 and Π ′ R ≤ 0. If these conditions are met, xL = 1 2 = xR implies y = 0. Notice that if F(0) = 0, then there is no convergent equilibrium. When F(0) > 0, both conditions can be re-written as f(0) F(0) ≤ 2 η g( 1 2 ). Similarly, from Remark 1 we have full polarization when Π′L ≤ 0 and Π′R ≥ 0, evaluated at xL = 0, xR = 1. Using that xL = 0 and xR = 1 imply y = 1, both conditions above can be re-written as f(1) F(1) ≥ 2 η g( 1 2 ). And when there is a divergent equilibrium (without full polarization), we obtain what we call the interior/interior equi- librium when Π′L = Π ′ R = 0. This equality implies that polarization is implicitly defined by f(ȳ) F(ȳ) = 2 η g( 1 2 ), when there is no convergent or extremism equilibrium, i.e., when the two inequalities above do not hold: f(1) F(1) < 2 η g( 1 2 ) < f(0) F(0) . Proof of Proposition 2 Proof. Because of Lemma (A.2) and Remark (1), solving the Lagrangian in the case λL = λR = 0 and νL ≥ 0 νR ≥ 0 suffices for a convergent equilibrium. By Lemma A.1, a convergent equilibrium can only take place at xL = xR = 1 2 , which implies λi = 0 for i = L,R. Given that νL and νR are positive, the Kuhn-Tucker conditions for a convergent equilibrium imply ∂ΠL(x,x) ∂xL ≥ 0 and ∂ΠR(x,x) ∂xR ≤ 0 and using that G(0.5) = 1 2 they can be written for i = L,R and −i 6= i as: F(0) f(0) g(0.5) ≥ 2η µ η Lµ η R (µ η L + µ η R) 2 + µ η i −µ η −i µ η L + µ η R . Given that µR ≥ µL, if the equation for R is satisfied, it will also be so for L. Finally, note that by substituting µL = µR we obtain the convergent condition for the proof of Proposition (1). For F(0) = 0, there is not convergent equilibrium. 24 Proof of Proposition 3 and Corollary 1 Below we provide the conditions for the existence (Proposition 3) and the characterization (Corollary 1) of the divergent equilibrium in which both parties play interior platforms. Following the classification of Corollary 1 we prove the interior/interior equilibrium in Lemma A.3 and the interior/corner equilibrium in Lemma A.4. Lemma A.3. Let x̄∗ = G−1( µ η R µ η L +µ η R ) and y∗ = ȳ be implicitly defined by f(ȳ) F(ȳ) = g(x̄∗) 2η (µ η L +µ η R )2 µ η L µ η R . Hence, there is a unique divergent interior equilibrium x∗L = x̄ ∗ − ȳ 2 , x∗R = x̄ ∗ + ȳ 2 if and only if F(2x̄∗ − 1) f(2x̄∗ − 1) g(x̄∗) < 2η µ η Lµ η R (µ η L + µ η R) 2 < F(2 − 2x̄∗) f(2 − 2x̄∗) g(x̄∗) which only holds for µ η R µ η R +µ η L < G( 3 4 ). Proof. Because of Lemma (A.2) and Remark (1), solving the Lagrangian in the case λi = νi = 0 for all i suffices for a divergent interior equilibrium. Using x̄ = (xL + xR)/2 and y = xR −xL, the pair (x∗L,x ∗ R) is uniquely defined by the pair (x̄ ∗,y∗) with y∗ = ȳ. We begin by proving that there is a unique (x̄∗, ȳ) that solves the FOCs when λi = 0 = νi for all i. From ∂LL ∂xL + ∂LR ∂xR = 0 and G(x) strictly increasing in x, we obtain the unique x̄∗ that solves the FOCs: G(x̄∗) = µ η R µ η L + µ η R ⇐⇒ x̄∗ = G−1( µ η R µ η L + µ η R ). Plugging x̄∗ in 7 or 8, we obtain f(ȳ) F(ȳ) = g(x̄∗) 2η (µ η L +µ η R )2 µ η L µ η R . Since the conversion rate is increasing and g(x̄∗) can be treated as a constant, there is a unique polarization level ȳ that solves the FOCs. Hence, we obtain the unique x∗L = x̄ ∗ − ȳ 2 and x∗R = x̄ ∗ + ȳ 2 that solve the FOCs. Note that for µL = µR we immediately obtain that G(x̄ ∗) = 1 2 and by symmetry o G(x) that x̄∗ = 1 2 Finally, we have to check that the above solutions, x∗L and x ∗ R lie within the corre- sponding policy sub-space x∗L ∈ (0, 1 2 ) and x∗R ∈ ( 1 2 , 1). First, G(x) is increasing, so its inverse is as well. Hence, from x∗L ∈ (0, 1 2 ), we obtain that ȳ > 2G−1( µ η R µ η R +µ η L ) − 1, and 25 from x∗R ∈ ( 1 2 , 1), we obtain that ȳ < 2 − 2G−1( µ η R µ η R +µ η L ). Hence, it must be the case that ȳ ∈ ( 2G−1( µ η R µ η R + µ η L ) − 1, 2 − 2G−1( µ η R µ η R + µ η L ) ) ⇐⇒ ȳ ∈ (2x̄∗ − 1, 2 − 2x̄∗) , (14) which only holds if µ η R µ η R +µ η L < G( 3 4 ). Also, in Equation 14, we can use the definition of ȳ and that the rate F(x) f(x) is increasing and invertible to obtain the conditions of the equilibrium in terms of the conversion rate: F ( 2G−1( µ η R µ η R +µ η L ) − 1 ) f ( 2G−1( µ η R µ η R +µ η L ) − 1 ) < F(ȳ) f(ȳ) 1 g ( G−1( µ η R µ η R +µ η L ) ) < F ( 2 − 2G−1( µ η R µ η R +µ η L ) ) f ( 2 − 2G−1( µ η R µ η R +µ η L ) ) ⇐⇒ F(2x̄∗ − 1) f(2x̄∗ − 1) < F(ȳ) f(ȳ) 1 g(x̄∗) < F(2 − 2x̄∗) f(2 − 2x̄∗) Note that for the symmetric cost case, µL = µR, the above simplifies to F(0) f(0) g( 1 2 ) < η 2 < F(1) f(1) g( 1 2 ) Lemma A.4. (0 < x∗L ≤ 1 2 ,x∗R = 1) Let x̄ ∗ = G−1( µ η R µ η L +µ η R ) and ȳ be implicitly defined by f(ȳ) F(ȳ) = g(x̄∗) 2η (µ η L +µ η R )2 µ η L µ η R . Let x∗L be implicitly defined by 2G( 1+x∗ L 2 ) = F(1−x∗ L ) f(1−x∗ L ) g( 1+x∗ L 2 ) + 2 µ η R µ η R +µ η L − 2η µ η R µ η L (µ η R +µ η L )2 . For µ η R µ η R +µ η L < G( 3 4 ), there is a unique equilibrium (x∗L, 1) if and only if F(2 − 2x̄∗) f(2 − 2x̄∗) g(x̄∗) < 2η µ η Lµ η R (µ η L + µ η R) 2 < F(1) f(1) g(0.5) + µ η R −µ η L µ η R + µ η L For µ η R µ η R +µ η L ≥ G( 3 4 ), there is a unique equilibrium (x∗L, 1) if and only if F( 1 2 ) f( 1 2 ) g( 3 4 ) − 2G( 3 4 ) + 2µ η R µ η R + µ η L < 2η µ η Lµ η R (µ η L + µ η R) 2 Proof. Because of Lemma (A.2) and Remark (1), solving the Lagrangian in the case where νL = νR = λL = 0 and λR ≥ 0 is sufficient to find an equilibrium where x∗L ≤ 1 2 and x∗R = 1. Let x̄ = 1+xL 2 and y = 1 − xL, then taking into account the conditions on 26 the Lagrange-multipliers: ∂ΠL(xL,xR = 1) ∂xL + ∂ΠR(xL,xR = 1) ∂xR = λR ≥0 µ η R µ η R + µ η L ≥G( xL + 1 2 ) 2G−1( µ η R µ η R + µ η L ) ≥xL + 1 (15) Lemma A.1 and Equation (15) imply that xL ≤ min{2G−1( µ η R µ η R +µ η L ) − 1, 1 2 }. Taking into account that 2G−1( µ η R µ η R +µ η L ) − 1 < 1 2 ⇐⇒ µ η R µ η R +µ η L < G( 3 4 ), we solve the following: • If µ η R µ η R +µ η L < G( 3 4 ), then ∂ΠL(xL,1) ∂xL |xL=2x̄∗−1 ≤ 0 must hold in equilibrium. Plugging in xL = 2x̄ ∗ − 1 and xR = 1 and using G(x̄∗) = µ η R µ η R +µ η L in Equation (7) we obtain F(2 − 2x̄∗) f(2 − 2x̄∗) g(x̄∗) ≤ 2η µ η Lµ η R (µ η L + µ η R) 2 (16) • If µ η R µ η R +µ η L ≥ G( 3 4 ), then ∂ΠL(xL,1) ∂xL |xL=0.5 ≤ 0 must hold in equilibrium. Using xL = 0.5 in Equation (7) we obtain F(0.5) f(0.5) − 2 g( 3 4 ) G( 3 4 ) + 2 g( 3 4 ) µ η R µ η R + µ η L − 2 g( 3 4 ) η µ η Rµ η L (µ η R + µ η L) 2 ≤ 0 ⇐⇒ F(0.5) f(0.5) g( 3 4 ) − 2G( 3 4 ) + 2µ η R µ η R + µ η L ≤ 2η µ η Lµ η R (µ η L + µ η R) 2 (17) Finally, the fully divergent equilibrium is excluded when we assure xL > 0, i.e., when 2η µ η L µ η R (µ η L +µ η R )2 < F(1) f(1) g(0.5) + µ η R −µη L µ η R +µ η L (see Proposition 4 below). Notice that when µ η R µ η R +µ η L ≥ G( 3 4 ), the latter inequality always holds.14 Proof of Proposition 4 Proof. Because of Lemma (A.2) and Remark (1), solving the Lagrangian in the case where νi = 0 and λi ≥ 0 for all i is sufficient to find an equilibrium with xL = 0 and 14Recall that η ≤ η̄ implies that 2η µ η L µ η R (µ η L +µ η R )2 < 2 µ η L +µ η R µ η R µ η L µ η R (µ η L +µ η R )2 = 2 µ η L µ η L +µ η R . Also 2 µ η L µ η L +µ η R ≤ µ η R −µη L µ η R +µ η L ⇐⇒ µηR ≥ 3µ η L. Then, single-peakness and symmetry of g(x) imply G( 3 4 ) > 3 4 . Finally µ η R ≥ 3µ η L follows directly from µ η R µ η R +µ η L ≥ G( 3 4 ) 27 xR = 1. Hence, from Equation 7 and 8, λL ≥ 0 iff F(1) f(1) g(0.5) + µ η −i −µ η i µ η L + µ η R ≤ 2η µ η Lµ η R (µ η L + µ η R) 2 . As µR ≥ µL, the condition for party L is the sufficient one. Last, F(1) f(1) g(0.5) > 0, so a necessary condition for a fully divergent equilibrium is 2ηµ η Lµ η R ≥ µ 2η R −µ 2η L = (µ η R −µ η L)(µ η R + µ η L) ≥ (µ η R −µ η L)ηµ η R, where the last inequality follows from η ≤ η̄. And the expression above simplifies to 3µ η L ≥ µ η R. 5.3 Comparative statics Proof of Lemma (2). Proof. By Proposition (1), the interior equilibrium arises if η ∈ [2g( 1 2 ) F(0) f(0) , 2g( 1 2 ) F(1) f(1) ]. Using the implicit function theorem we can write: ∂ȳ ∂η = 1 2g(0.5)[F(ȳ)f(ȳ) ] ′ . Then, ∂µe∗i (x ∗ L,x ∗ R) ∂η = −f(ȳ) ∂ȳ ∂η η 4 + 1 −F(ȳ) 4 = − f(ȳ) 2g(0.5) [ F(ȳ) f(ȳ) ]′ η4 + 1 −F(ȳ)4 . Hence, ∂µe∗i (x ∗ L,x ∗ R) ∂η ≥ 0 ⇐⇒ 1 −F(ȳ) ≥ f(ȳ) 2g(0.5) [ F(ȳ) f(ȳ) ]′η ⇐⇒ η ≤ 1 −F(ȳ)f(ȳ) 2g(0.5) [ F(ȳ) f(ȳ) ]′ where [ F(ȳ) f(ȳ) ]′ is a positive number by log-concavity of F(y). Proof of Lemma (3) Proof. By Proposition (1), the interior equilibrium arises if η ∈ [2g( 1 2 ) F(0) f(0) , 2g( 1 2 ) F(1) f(1) ]. Then, ∂µe∗i (x ∗ L,x ∗ R) ∂ρ = − ∂F (y∗) ∂ρ η 4 − ∂F (y∗) ∂y∗ ∂y∗ ∂ρ η 4 and hence ∂µe∗i (x ∗ L ,x∗ R ) ∂ρ ≥ 0 if and only if −∂F(ȳ) ∂ρ ≥ f(ȳ)∂ȳ ∂ρ . 28 5.4 Voters’ behavior In this section we formalize and derive two main assumptions of the model. Namely, a) the endogenous division of voters across ideological and impressionable (via semiorder lex- icographic preferences or a model of salience), and b) the impressionable voters’ behavior that results in a Tullock contest during the campaign stage. In their “strict” formulation, lexicographic preferences require a tie in the first at- tribute to compare alternatives over a second attribute. In their “weak” formulation (or semiorder, (Tversky, 1969)), small differences between alternatives in the first attribute also lead to indifference in that attribute. In other words, small differences on the first attribute are disregarded (Fishburn, 1974). This is the exact intuition we presented in our model where as polarization decreases and platforms look more alike, individuals turn their attention to campaigns instead of platforms. In particular, semiorder pref- erences with binary choices (i.e., two platforms in our setup) are unrestrictive in the sense of Manzini and Mariotti (2012), and the use of semiorder lexicographic preferences microfounds the aggregate behavior presented in the main text. Assume a population of measure one, in which voters have semiorder lexicographic preferences and are heterogeneous in two dimensions. First, they draw an ideal policy x ∈ [0, 1] from G(x). Second, voters also draw a level of sensitivity, φ, towards differences in the ideology space, from Fφ(y) = Pr(φ < y). Hence, φ is the minimal distance between the two platforms that a voter considers to be “relevant” or “distinguishable”.15 When the distance between two platforms is less than φ the voter treats them as identical and moves to the second attribute, electoral advertising, ei. Although x is ex-post irrelevant for impressionable voters, all individuals are identified by the pair (x,φ). The above features can be represented in an analytical manner by adapting the semiorder lexicographic structure proposed by Luce (1978). Considering voter (x,φ), we can write the voter’s evaluation of party i as: ϑx,φ(i) = − | x−xi | Υ(φ ≤ xR −xL) + ti(eR,eL,θi)[1 − Υ(φ ≤ xR −xL)] (18) where Υ(φ ≤ xR−xL) is an indicator function taking value 1 when a voter is ideological, i.e., φ ≤ xR −xL = y, and 0 when a voter is impressionable, i.e., φ > xR −xL = y, as in the main text. Without loss of generality − | x−xi | is the utility derived from voting for party i ∈{L,R} according to ideology; and ti(eR,eL,θi) is the impressionable voter’s utility from voting for party i ∈{L,R} according to advertisements. Let θi in ti(eR,eL,θ i) be a random variable (from the candidates’ points of view) that 15In terms of the experimental literature in human perception (or psychophysics), φ can be interpreted as the just-noticeable difference. 29 captures how much of a party’s advertisement “leaks” to voters in the following way ti(eR,eL,θ i) = log(e η i ) + θ i. Similarly to multinomial applications in industrial organiza- tion (Nevo, 2000) and political economy (Casas, Fawaz, and Trindade, 2016), assume θi to be drawn i.i.d. from an type I extreme-value distribution. As in McFadden (1974), the probability Pr(tL > tR) – which in our case is the probability that an impressionable voter votes for L – becomes the contest success function Pr(tL > tR) = e η L e η L +e η R . With a continuum of voters, we interpret this probability as the share of impressionable vot- ers that vote for L. On the same lines, (Jia, 2008; Jia, Skaperdas, and Vaidya, 2013) show that for ti(eR,eL,θ i) = eiθ i, if θL and θR follow independent inverse exponential distributions with parameter η > 0, the probability also becomes Pr(tL > tR) = e η L e η L +e η R .16 For simplicity, let Fφ(y) be written as F(y), which can be used to denote the propor- tion of ideological voters given a level of polarization y. Platform preferences and ideol- ogy sensitivity are assumed to be independent. Consequently, for a given pair of policy platforms xL and xR, the votes of ideological and impressionable voters can be indepen- dently aggregated (integrating over φ). By integrating over θL and θR under the above distributional assumptions, the impressionable vote share of party i is SiImp = e η i e η L +e η R . For ideologogical voters, by integraing over x one immediately obtains that for party L, SLIdl = G(x̄) if xL 6= xR and S L Idl = 1 2 if xL = xR. By taking into account the above, parties’ vote shares can be immediately written as in Equation (1). Salience and attention Our model can also be interpreted as an extreme case of (Bordalo et al. 2012, 2013a,b, 2015), in which “salient thinkers” give more weight to attributes that exhibit greater heterogeneity in the available choice set. In the papers on salience and attention, the salient attribute is the one in which the differences are more pronounced. The less salient attribute receives less weight. For instance, in Bordalo et al. (2015) they look at price and quality: if quality is the salient attribute, the utility from consuming good k is qk −ωpk with ω exogenously determined and in [0, 1]. Instead of comparing attributes, we compare the platforms differentiation with a baseline level of polarization, φ, which is exogenously drawn from Fφ(y). Thus, for φ smaller than the equilibrium polarization, voters take platforms as the salient attribute. In particular, for φ ≤ y, ω = 0. And for φ ≥ y, 1 −ω = 0. Thus, one can consider the rank-based weighting salience function proposed by Bordalo et al. 2012, 2013b, 2015, where: ϑx,φ(i) = −(| x−xi |)ω + ti(eL,eR,θi)(1 −ω) The heterogeneity of “salient thinkers” is given by Fφ(y), and everything else is exactly 16The assumption that party shocks are identical to all individuals is made without loss of generality, as long as they are independent of ideology. 30 as in the previous section. 31 References Alcalde, J. and M. Dahm (2007): “Tullock and Hirshleifer: a meeting of the minds,” Review of Economic Design, 11, 101–124. ——— (2010): “Rent seeking and rent dissipation: a neutrality result,” Journal of Public Economics, 94, 1–7. Amegashie, J. A. (2006): “A contest success function with a tractable noise parameter,” Public Choice, 126, 135–144. Amorós, P. and M. S. Puy (2013): “Issue convergence or issue divergence in a political campaign?” Public Choice, 155, 355–371. Aragonés, E., M. Castanheira, and M. Giani (2015): “Electoral Competition through Issue Selection,” American Journal of Political Science, 59, 71–90. Aragonès, E. and D. Xefteris (2017): “Imperfectly informed voters and strategic extremism,” International Economic Review, 58, 439–471. Ashworth, S. and E. Bueno de Mesquita (2009): “Elections with platform and valence competition,” Games and Economic Behavior, 67, 191–216. Baik, K. H. (1994): “Effort levels in contests with two asymmetric players,” Southern Economic Journal, 367–378. Balart, P., S. M. Chowdhury, and O. Troumpounis (2017): “Linking individual and collective contests through noise level and sharing rules,” Economics Letters, 155, 126–130. Baron, D. P. (1994): “Electoral competition with informed and uninformed voters.” American Political Science Review, 88, 33–47. Beviá, C. and L. C. Corchón (2015): “Relative difference contest success function,” Theory and Decision, 78, 377–398. Bordalo, P., N. Gennaioli, and A. Shleifer (2012): “Salience theory of choice under risk,” The Quarterly journal of economics, 127, 1243–1285. ——— (2013a): “Salience and asset prices,” The American Economic Review, 103, 623– 628. ——— (2013b): “Salience and consumer choice,” Journal of Political Economy, 121, 803–843. 32 ——— (2015): “Competition for attention,” The Review of Economic Studies, 83, 481– 513. Bushong, B., M. Rabin, and J. Schwartzstein (2017): “A model of relative think- ing,” HBS Working Paper. Callander, S. and C. H. Wilson (2006): “Context-dependent Voting,” Quarterly Journal of Political Science, 1, 227–254. Cardona, D., J. De Freitas, and A. Rub́ı-Barceló (2018): “Polarization or Moderation? Intra-group heterogeneity in endogenous-policy contests,” Tech. rep., Universitat de les Illes Balears, Departament d’Economı́a Aplicada. Carrillo, J. D. and M. Castanheira (2008): “Information and strategic political polarisation,” The Economic Journal, 118, 845–874. Casas, A., Y. Fawaz, and A. Trindade (2016): “Surprise me if you can: The influence of newspaper endorsements in u.s. presidential elections,” Economic Inquiry. Corchón, L. C. (2007): “The theory of contests: a survey,” Review of Economic Design, 11, 69–100. Denter, P. (2017): “Campaign contests,” REPEC working paper. Downs, A. (1957): An Economic Theory of Democracy, Harper, New York. Eguia, J. X. and A. Nicolò (2018): “Information and targeted spending,” Theoretical Economics, forthcoming. Epstein, G. S. and S. Nitzan (2004): “Strategic restraint in contests,” European Economic Review, 48, 201–210. Ewerhart, C. (2015): “Mixed equilibria in Tullock contests,” Economic Theory, 60, 59–71. ——— (2017): “Revenue ranking of optimally biased contests: The case of two players,” Economics Letters, 157, 167–170. Falmagne, J.-C. (2002): Elements of psychophysical theory, 6, Oxford University Press on Demand. Fishburn, P. C. (1974): “Exceptional paper-lexicographic orders, utilities and decision rules: A survey,” Management Science, 20, 1442–1471. 33 Grossman, G. M. and E. Helpman (1996): “Electoral competition and special inter- est politics,” The Review of Economic Studies, 63, 265–286. Herrera, H., D. K. Levine, and C. Martinelli (2008): “Policy platforms, cam- paign spending and voter participation,” Journal of Public Economics, 92, 501–513. Iaryczower, M. and A. Mattozzi (2013): “On the nature of competition in alter- native electoral systems,” The Journal of Politics, 75, 743–756. Jia, H. (2008): “A stochastic derivation of the ratio form of contest success functions,” Public Choice, 135, 125–130. Jia, H., S. Skaperdas, and S. Vaidya (2013): “Contest functions: Theoretical foun- dations and issues in estimation,” International Journal of Industrial Organization, 31, 211–222. Konrad, K. A. (2009): Strategy and Dynamics in Contests, Oxford UK: Oxford Uni- versity Press. Kőszegi, B. and A. Szeidl (2012): “A model of focusing in economic choice,” The Quarterly journal of economics, 128, 53–104. Leland, J. W. (1994): “Generalized similarity judgments: An alternative explanation for choice anomalies,” Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 9, 151–172. Luce, R. D. (1956): “Semiorders and a theory of utility discrimination,” Econometrica, Journal of the Econometric Society, 178–191. Manzini, P. and M. Mariotti (2012): “Choice by lexicographic semiorders,” Theo- retical Economics, 7, 1–23. McFadden, D. (1974): “The measurement of urban travel demand,” Journal of Public Economics, 3, 303 – 328. Meirowitz, A. (2008): “Electoral contests, incumbency advantages, and campaign finance,” The Journal of Politics, 70, 681–699. NBC (2017): “How Big Data Broke American Politics,” NBC news by Chuck Todd and Carrie Dann (story adapted from a presentation NBC News’ Chuck Todd delivered at SXSW in Austin, Texas), published on March 14th 2017. Nevo, A. (2000): “A Practitioner’s Guide to Estimation of Random-Coefficients Logit Models of Demand,” Journal of Economics & Management Strategy, 9, 513–548. 34 Newton, K. (1999): “Mass media effects: mobilization or media malaise?” British Journal of Political Science, 29, 577–599. Nickerson, D. W. and T. Rogers (2014): “Political campaigns and big data,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, 28, 51–74. Nitzan, S. (1994): “Modelling rent-seeking contests,” European Journal of Political Economy, 10, 41–60. Norris, P. (2000): A virtuous circle: Political communications in postindustrial soci- eties, Cambridge University Press. Nti, K. O. (1999): “Rent-seeking with asymmetric valuations,” Public Choice, 98, 415– 430. Nunnari, S. and J. Zápal (2017): “A Model of Focusing in Political Choice,” CEPR Discussion Paper No. 12407. Pastine, I. and T. Pastine (2012): “Incumbency advantage and political campaign spending limits,” Journal of Public Economics, 96, 20–32. Poole, K. T. and H. Rosenthal (1984): “The polarization of American politics,” The Journal of Politics, 46, 1061–1079. Prummer, A. (2018): “Spatial Advertisement in Political Campaigns,” mimeo. Rivas, J. (2017): “Lobbying, Campaign Contributions and Political Competition,” Bath Economics Research Working Paper. Rubinstein, A. (1988): “Similarity and decision-making under risk (Is there a utility theory resolution to the Allais paradox?),” Journal of economic theory, 46, 145–153. Sabato, L. (1981): The rise of political consultants: New ways of winning elections, vol. 5114, Basic Books (AZ). Serena, M. and L. Corchón (2018): “Contests theory: a survey,” in Handbook of game theory and industrial organization, ed. by L. Corchón and M. A. Marini, Edward Elgar, forthcoming. Skaperdas, S. (1996): “Contest success functions,” Economic theory, 7, 283–290. Spiegler, R. (2014): “Competitive framing,” American Economic Journal: Microeco- nomics, 6, 35–58. 35 Tirole, J. (1988): The Theory of Industrial Organization, MIT Press. Tullock, G. (1980): “Efficient Rent Seeking,” in Toward a Theory of the Rent-Seeking Society, ed. by J. M. Buchanan, R. D. Tollison, and G. Tullock, College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 97–112. Tversky, A. (1969): “Intransitivity of Preferences,” Psychological Review, 76, 31–48. Wang, Z. (2010): “The optimal accuracy level in asymmetric contests,” The BE Journal of Theoretical Economics, 10. Zakharov, A. V. (2009): “A model of candidate location with endogenous valence,” Public Choice, 138, 347–366. 36 BTC.pdf Introduction Related Literature Model Results Symmetric parties Asymmetric parties Conclusion Appendix - Proofs Advertising Polarization and Spending Comparative statics Voters' behavior 
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work_pz6g2emoyzh3xikxvci4mdy2fi	----	10.11648.j.ijla.s.2014020501.20 International Journal of Literature and Arts 2014; 2(5-1): 61-64 Published online October 07, 2014 (http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ijla) doi: 10.11648/j.ijla.s.2014020501.20 ISSN: 2331-0553 (Print); ISSN: 2331-057X (Online) Principles of form construction and their dialectical relation in the musical styles Penka Pencheva Mincheva Faculty of Music Pedagogy, Academy of Music, Dance and Fine Arts – Plovdiv, Bulgaria, Europe Email address: pmincheva1935@abv.bg To cite this article: Penka Pencheva Mincheva. Principles of Form Construction and their Dialectical Relation in the Musical Styles. International Journal of Literature and Arts. Special Issue: Musical Theory, Psychology and Pedagogy. Vol. 2, No. 5-1, 2014, pp. 61-64. doi: 10.11648/j.ijla.s.2014020501.20 Abstract: Objects of the study are the two basic principles of the multi-voice thinking - the polyphonic - linear and the homophonic - vertical. Their effect is discussed in the various styles. The different meaning of the two main qualities of the chord is also clarified - phonism and functionality and their manifestation in the types of multi-voice musical thinking. Keywords: Linear Multi-Voice Thinking – Polyphony, Vertical Multi-Voice Thinking – Homophony, Phonism, Functionality, Musical Theory 1. Introduction As in nature, so in social life, and therefore also in art, the birth of a new element is formed on the basis of the old, it gradually takes shape, gathers energy, establishes itself; while ascensions and declines can be seen in its later being, or, on the contrary, stabilization and consolidation. This means that the story of each medium, element, property has a contradictory, spiral development. 2. The Relation Polyphonic-Homophonic Type of Multi-Voice Thinking In musical history, as early as the wake of the creation of instrumental music, the initial forms of multi-voice thinking were outlined. Its original form is a drone voice – ison (one tone, identical to the first tone of the moving voice, its octave double, or found at an octave plus a fifth), over which the melody is developed. This is the most basic polyphonic nostrum. The next, more complicated technique is the canonic appearance of a melody in each of the voices. Similar to this form of multi-voice thinking is also the imitation. This method began to serve as an important form construction principle for the created in this way polyphonic type of multi-voice texture. On the basis of this nostrum – imitation – the highest musical form, related to the polyphonic multi-voice texture – the fugue – was established and developed. According to the principles of construction of this musical form, the main theme has to be exposed, i.e. to be reproduced sequentially in each of the voices; and after the initial (usually monophonic) sounding of the theme, each of its subsequent recurrences is followed by a new melodic formations in the other simultaneously sounding voices. The exposition is followed by the development (repercussion) and the conclusive part of the fugue. The main driving force, guiding the development of the form of the fugue, however, was the imitation, and its prototype, the canon. The imitation was derived from the canon. The basic principle - consecutive reproduction of the initial motive of the theme in each voice but from different modal pitches is retained. When replacing some of the melodic intervals, the graph of the melodic line and the metrorhythmic structure is preserved. Figure 1. J. S. Bach – Fuga cis moll from “Well tempered clavier”, volume I, bars 1 - 6 The organization of the musical material is realized on the basis of the linear musical thinking. Characteristic for this, polyphonic, way of expressing a musical thought is namely 62 Penka Pencheva Mincheva: Principles of Form Construction and their Dialectical Relation in the Musical Styles the simultaneous sounding of two or more relatively independent melodic voices. The sound complexes – chords, in the polyphonic type of multi-voice texture are a result of the concurrence in time of the tones from the separate melodies. This means that the sounding chord has a random character, i.e. it is not a predefined construct. Gradually, in the development of this type of multi-voice texture, more focus was placed on the essence of the sounding chord formations in terms of interval construction, but also as a bearer of a greater or lesser tension – instability, or balance – stability. In the cadencing moments of the polyphonic works of the great composers – Bach and Handel (figure 5) – the new driving force of the musical development, the new form construction principle was born – functionality of the chord progressions. Functionality is expressed through its main varieties: � stability (tonic – Т); � instability with its two opposite characteristics – non-intense instability (subdominant – S) and intense instability (dominant – D), expressing special activeness, creating tangible pressure. Figure 2. L. W. Beethoven – Symphony № 5, Part I, Theme I The pulsing dramatism, the immense tension in the development of the theme is achieved through various means of expression, but the main, the distinctive is the juxtaposition of D and T with their strictly expressed functional relation. And so, within the frame of the polyphonic type of multi-voice texture, a new type of musical thinking – the homophonic, i.e. the vertical, slowly appeared and was established. The reasoning behind it being defined as such is based in the fact that the melody – the main bearer of musical content – is clarified functionally (the changes in its stability-instability are clarified) and it is accompanied, varied, enriched through the chords. The chord in the homophonic type of multi-voice texture is a ready construct – there are 4 types of triads, seven types of tetrads; they all have methods for application, defined by clear rules. Figure 3. Polyphony, linear thinking Figure 4. Homophony, vertical thinking Figure 5. G. F. Handel – Fugue G dur, b. 1 – 4 and 17 – 19 Figure 6. J. Haydn – Sonata С-dur, Part I, bars 1 – 8 But as the main features of the new multi-voice style – the presence of a chord accompaniment for the melody with a strictly expressed functional dependency – are defined within the frames of the polyphonic type of multi-voice texture, so in the works of the Viennese classic composers – founders of the homophonic type of multi-voice texture, individual polyphonic methods can be found with the purpose of enriching the expression: Figure 7. L. W. Beethoven – Sonata № 19, Part І, b. 1 – 6 The addition of new, supplemental, hidden voices gradually could also be seen more and more prominently in the works of the composers-romanticists. International Journal of Literature and Arts 2014; 2(5-11): 61-64 63 Figure 8а. F. Chopin – Waltz № 9, bars 1 - 10 Figure 8b. – F. Chopin – Waltz № 9, bars 1 – 10, supplemental melody – middle voice Figure 8c. – F. Chopin – Waltz № 9, bars 1 – 10, supplemental melody – bass The rich, multicolor harmony of the composers-romanticists prepared gradually the replacement of the functionallity of the assonances for the benefit of their vividness, i.e. in the next composer style – the Romanticism, the chords were more and more often used with their phonic quality. The colouristic purposes, which the composers set out – the portrayal of different sides of the multicolorful reality – imposed the appearance of polychromic chord structures. 3. The Relation Functionality - Phonism of the Triads The phonism of the chords is defined by their interval structure. Precisely on the basis of their interval structure – phonism – the four types of triads and the seven types of tetrads have been derived. Phonism allows for the chords to be defined also as consonants (and their variants – perfect and imperfect consonances) and dissonants (whose variants are softly and sharply dissonating assonances). These characteristics depend on the way, in which one’s musical hearing has been trained to perceive and understand them (the training on its part consists of the building of a sense on the basis of the knowledge about the correlations in the number of vibrations between the sounding tones, comprising the assonance). The functionality of the assonances is defined by the participation of the modal degrees, which form the sound construct. This means that: a) The phonism of the assonance could be viewed in the specific mode, but also outside of it; b) The functionality of the assonance could be defined only on the basis of its presence in the sound composition of a given tonality; c) Phonism is independent of functionality, but functionality is in a subordinate position to phonism (for example, one augmented triad – dissonating assonance – cannot perform the function of a tonic. During the years, there have been complex, changing interrelations between the phonism and the functionality of the assonances. Phonism – preceding the appearance of functionality, had a leading role during the Baroque era and more specifically in the Baroque type of multi-voice texture. The nascency of functionality can be found even in the thick multi-voice cadencing moments in the works of Bach and Handel (figure 5). Functionality was given a leading role in the era of the Viennese Classical School. During this period, phonism received a subjugated role. Used as a primary construction element in the accompaniment were major and minor triads, more rarely diminished chords and completely episodically – the augmented. Frequently used are also major-minor and minor-minor, the half-diminished and the diminished tetrads. The functionality of the chords had the role of a primary driving force also in the development of the musical form. It clarified, allowed for more importance to be placed on the relations of stability-instability between the tones of the melody. The layout of the chords, their logical sequence created an impression of movement, progression, increase of tension and sharp or gradual reaching of repose. During the era of the Romanticism, the two characteristics of the chords were in a period of equality – the chords progressions were defined by their functionality, but more varied, multi-sound, polychrome sound complexes were sought. From the beginning of the 20th century, functionality fell apart and was replaced by phonism. This phenomenon can be observed in some of the works of the Impressionism, it is strongly manifested in the Expressionism, in the dodecaphony of the artists of the Second Viennese School. The Impressionism, which originated in France and whose stylistics was established in the works of Claude Debussy, has as a leading principle in the building of a musical work the bright, short combinations of sounds in the horizontal plain and variedly sounding complexes in the vertical plain. The short tonal sequences as a melodic motif or a harmonic core are related to the portrayal of natural scenes, of natural phenomena and represent the impressions of the surrounding world as an esthetic experience. For the progression of chord structures, the main moment or the primary driving force is the colorfulness of the separate chord and the feeling of alteration of “color” nuances. This meant that functionality had also lost completely its significance as a form constructon principle. Such significance was given only to phonism – the colorfulness of the assonances. 64 Penka Pencheva Mincheva: Principles of Form Construction and their Dialectical Relation in the Musical Styles Figure 9. Cl. Debussy – “Moonlight”, adaptation for a choir, b. 8 - 15 In the Expressionism style, we can see again the leading role of the phonism in the horizontal and in the vertical plain. In the works of the Expressionist authors, sharp interval combinations have been purposefuly sought (here the interval is viewed in the light of a building element of the melody, as well as of the harmony). Portrayed through these sharp interval combinations were mainly strong, painful feelings of fear, terror, despair. Planted at the core of the Expressionism was a disillusionment of the surrounding world. In the works of the Expressionist composers, the tonality, whose fundament was exactly the functionality of the assonances, crumbled down completely. It was not a coincidence that one of the prominent representatives of the Expressionism – Schoenberg – came to the idea of the twelve tone system – dodecaphony, in which the functional interrelations between the tones are completely renounced. For the composers of the Second Viennese School (Alban Berg, Arnold Schoenberg and Anton Webern), the twelve tone scale consisted of equal tones, standing at a distance of the same interval – a half-tone. This sound sequence served for the construction of a melody – “series”. In this melodic sequence, it was not acceptable to repeat a given tone – in the melody, nor in the harmony – before all of the twelve half-tones had been used – that would break the principle of equality of tones, highlighting, emphasizing one of them. In practice, this meant a complete renounce of functionality through the complete absence of a stability of any of the tones in the “series”. 4. Conclusions Phonism and functionality as properties of the sound complex are found in a synergy or a struggle for dominance in the different styles: phonism dominated over functionality during the Baroque era, had an aligned position during the Romantism and was established as the main form construction principle during the Impressionism, Expressionism, Dodecaphony; functionality was the main driving force for musical development in the Classism, was in an equal position with phonism during the Romanitc era, lost its position in the Impressionist era and was completely deconstructed in the dodecaphony. Figure 10. Iv. Spasov – “Forest charm” for a choir References [1] Kholopov, Y. Harmony – Theoretical Course, Moscow.1988г. (Холопов, Ю. Гармония-теоретический курс, М.1988) [2] Protopopov, V. History of Polyphonies, Moscow.1965г. (Протопопов, В. История полифонии, М.1965) [3] Skrebkov, S. Artistic Principles of the Musical Styles, Moscow.1973 г. (Скребков, С. Художественные принципи музикальных стилей, М.1973) [4] Stoyanov, P. Introduction in the Theory of Music, “Kiril i Metodii” Publishing House, Veliko Tarnovo, 2001г. (Стоянов, П. Въведение в теорията на музиката, изд.”Кирил и Методий”, Велико Търново, 2001) 
work_q4ln6qn4jfebto2jmemk3xwnce	----	1 Endogenous Economic Institutions, Wage Inequality, and Economic Growth* Christos Pargianas † University of Scranton October 2011 Abstract This paper suggests that the increase in the proportion of college graduates in the United States labor force in the 1970s may have been a causal factor in both the decline in the college premium during the 1970s and the large increase during the 1980s and the 1990s. I argue that the proportion of skilled workers in the labor force determines their relative importance in the political process. Thus, the increase in the proportion of skilled workers during the 1970s reduced skill premium in the short run, but induced a change in policies that increased the skill premium in the subsequent decades above its initial value. Key Words: Endogenous Growth, Political Economy, Endogenous Institutions, Education, Innovation, Wage Inequality, Minimum Wage, Labor Unions, Special Interest Groups, Strategic Voting, Campaign Contributions, Skill Premium. I. INTRODUCTION In the period after 1970 economic fortunes diverged, especially in the United States. Middle and high income Americans have continued to benefit from the massive economic growth. But material well-being for the lower income classes has stagnated. Households with an annual * I wish to thank Oded Galor and Peter Howitt for their support and guidance. Also, I wish to thank Daron Acemoglu, Brian Knight, Ross Levine, David Weil and seminar participants at Brown University for comments and suggestions. † Email: pargianasc2@scranton.edu 2 income of over $100,000 (year $2000 dollars) increased from under 3% in 1967 to over 12% in 2000. In year 2000 dollars, median income increased from $31,400 in 1967 to $42,200 in 2000. Although overall inequality increased steadily after 1970, this was not the case for skill premium. In 1970 college graduates earned 55% more than high school graduates. This premium fell to 41% in 1980, but then increased to 62% in 1995.1 One explanation for the rapid increase in the college premium in the 1980s is skill biased technological change. 2 This paper provides another explanation that works through economic institutions and policies. According to this explanation, an increase in the supply of skills has two effects on skill premium. First, it decreases skill premium through the conventional substitution effect which makes the economy move along a downward sloping relative demand curve. Second, it increases skill premium through the directed technology effect which shifts the relative demand for skills because the increase in the supply of skills induces faster upgrading of skill-complementary technologies. Galor and Moav (2000) argue that an increase in the rate of technological progress raises the returns to ability and simultaneously generates an increase in wage inequality between and within groups of skilled and unskilled workers and an increase in education. Finally, there is the international trade explanation. According to this theory, an increase in the volume of trade will increase the demand for skill intensive goods in countries that export these goods. This will increase both the supply of skills and the skill premium. 3 1 See Autor, Katz, and Krueger (1998). Economic institutions determine the incentives of economic actors, and shape economic outcomes. As such they are social decisions chosen for their consequences. Different groups and individuals benefit from different economic institutions and policies. Thus, there is generally a conflict over these social choices, ultimately resolved in favor of groups with greater political power. An increase in the number of skilled individuals will increase their political power and their ability to affect economic policies. 2 See Acemoglu (1998). 3 Hacker and Pierson (2011) argue that this is the only possible explanation because technical change and increased international trade should affect the same every advanced country. Evidence shows (see Freeman and Katz [2005], Katz et al. [1995], and Nickell and Bell [1996]) that skill premium increased sharply in the U.S., there was less of an increase in the U.K. and almost no change in most continental European economies. 3 Economists agree that economic institutions and policies are endogenously determined. McCarthy, Poole and Rosenthal (2006) argue about the changes in economic policy that took place during the 1980s: ‘Reagan conservatism was a product sitting on a shelf in the political supermarket. In 1980, customers switched brands’. As the number of those who benefit from conservative economic policies increased dramatically during the 1970s, both parties, and not only Republicans, adopted relatively more conservative economic policies. McCarthy, Poole, and Rosenthal (2006) argue that both Democrats and Republicans became more conservative in economic issues after 1975. Gerring (1998) argues that after the 1970s Democrats have moved their platforms away from general welfare issues to issues based on ascriptive characteristics (race and gender) of individuals. The basic argument is the following: low-educated voters are not able to fully understand the impact the various policies have on their income. As a result, they rely on advertisement in order to decide which policies will benefit them more. This gives an incentive to political parties to choose bad policies that benefit some groups, in exchange for campaign contributions that ‘buy’ unskilled workers’ votes. Bad policies (low property right protection, high tax on profits, high cost to start a new firm and high minimum wage) imply smaller support from educated voters and bigger support from uneducated voters. An increase in the proportion of skilled workers in the labor force implies an increase in the relative importance of skilled workers in the political process. As a result, an increase in the proportion of skilled workers reduces skill premium in the short run, but then it induces a change in economic policies that increases the skill premium, possibly even above its initial value. Empirical evidence supports the conjecture that economic institutions and policies can account for much of the rise in dispersion of the wage distribution. DiNardo, Fortin, and Lemieux (1996) find that from 1979 to 1988 the decrease in the minimum wage explains 24% (for men) and 32% (for women) of the change in the variance in log wages. Card and Krueger (1995) conclude that 20 to 30 percent of the rise in wage dispersion during the 1980s could be attributed to the decline in the real value of the minimum wage. Mishel, Bernstein, and Schmitt (1996) examine the 90/10 wage differential and report even larger effects. Lee (1999) finds that during the 1980s, the estimates for men, women as well as the combined sample, imply that almost all of the growth in the wage gap between the tenth and fiftieth percentiles is attributable to the erosion of the real 4 value of the minimum wage during the decade. He also argues that the minimum wage may account for as much as 80% of the growth in so called ‘within-group’ wage inequality and about 15% of the change in the return to schooling during the 1980s. This last piece of evidence shows also that skilled workers benefit from a low minimum wage. This paper argues that political parties will choose such bad (for skilled workers) policies not in order to gain support from unskilled workers through redistribution, but in order to benefit some special interest groups in exchange for campaign contributions. 4 Indeed, Neumark, Schweitzer, and Wascher (2004) argue that low-wage workers are adversely affected by minimum wage increases. Although wages of low-wage workers increase, their hours and employment decline, and the combined effect of these changes is a decline in earned income. They also find that relatively low-wage union members gain at the expense of the low-wage nonunion workers when minimum wages increase. This explains the vigorous support of labor unions for minimum wage increases and their significant contributions to the political campaigns.5 The assumption that unskilled individuals are impressionable voters is at the heart of the model. Impressionable are those voters who are not willing or are not able to make the calculations necessary for strategic voting. These voters pay attention to campaign advertisement. The more a party spends (holding constant the spending of its rival), the greater is its share of the impressionable votes. Strategic voters understand the political environment and the implications of their votes. By voting for the party whose platform he prefers, a strategic voter slightly increases his expected welfare. There is empirical evidence that education increases civic participation. Labor market regulations, high taxes, corruption, and restrictions that increase the cost of starting a firm are some other policies that affect negatively skilled workers (entrepreneurs) more than unskilled. Labor unions, corrupt bureaucrats, and firms that target government subsidies and, thus, they prefer high tax rates and large government, are those that support these policies. 6 4 Alesina, Glaeser, and Sacerdote (2001) show empirically that higher inequality is not associated with more redistribution. This implies that the traditional model of the median voter who chooses the level of redistribution is not a good representation of reality. Educated individuals participate more actively in politics, read more often newspapers, send letters to politicians and try to persuade others. Also, education allows those 5 According to Hrebenar, Burbank, and Benedict (1999), both in the 1995-1996 and in the 1997-1998 campaign cycles, five out of the top ten political action committee (PAC) contributors to federal candidates are labor unions. 6 See Dee (2003), Glaeser, Ponzetto, and Shleifer (2007), and, Milligan, Moretti, and Oreopoulos (2004). 5 who are interested in politics to understand and evaluate the different policies and the impact that these policies have on their welfare. In other words, education allows individuals to become strategic voters.7 The impact of an increase in the supply of skills on the skill premium is determined by two competing forces: the first is the conventional substitution effect which makes the economy move along a downward sloping relative demand curve. The second is the political economy effect, which shifts the relative demand curve for skills as shown in figure I, because the increase in the supply of skills induces policy changes that benefit skilled workers. A large increase in the supply of college graduates as in the late 1960s and 1970s first moves the economy along a short-run (constant policy) relative demand curve, reducing the college premium. The relative supply change also increases the fraction of strategic voters and decreases the fraction of impressionable voters. Thus, policies change and skill premium increases. The relative demand curve in Figure I shifts to the right. If the political economy effect is not big enough then the skill premium first falls and then increases, but not above its initial level. In contrast, if the political economy effect is big enough, the model predicts that in the long run the college premium should increase. This case (shown in Figure I) explains the change in the U.S. college premium over the past 25 years. Figure I 7 A similar assumption has been made by Bourguignon and Verdier (2000). They argue that only those with high enough education vote. I argue that only those with high enough education are strategic voters. Long Run Relative Demand for Skills Shift in Short Run Relative Demand for Skills due to Institutional Improvement Shift in Relative Supply of Skills 1 𝑠 𝜔 Long Run Skill Premium Initial Skill Premium Short Run Response 6 II. THE MODEL A. Production There is a sequence of discrete time periods 𝑡 = 1,2, … There is a mass 𝐿 of workers in the economy. Workers can be skilled (entrepreneurs) or unskilled. I assume that the number of skilled and unskilled workers is exogenous. Later I will relax this assumption. There are 𝑠 skilled and 𝑢 unskilled individuals that supply labor inelastically. Individuals live forever and for simplicity I assume that they cannot save or borrow. In the end of each period they consume all their income, and thus they seek to maximize it. People consume only one good, called the final good, which is produced by perfectly competitive firms using as inputs unskilled labor and a continuum of intermediate goods according to the technology: 8 𝑌𝑡 = 𝑢1−𝛼 ∫ 𝛢𝑖𝑡 1−𝛼1 0 𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝛼𝑑𝑖, (1) where each 𝑥𝑖𝑡 denotes the quantity of intermediate input 𝑖 used in final good production at time 𝑡, and 𝐴𝑖𝑡 is a productivity parameter that reflects the current quality of the intermediate good 𝑖. The coefficient 𝛼 lies between zero and one. In any period the productivity parameters will vary across intermediate products because of the randomness of the innovation process. Each intermediate good is produced by a monopolist each period, using the final good as all input, one for one. That is, for each unit of intermediate good, the monopolist must use one unit of final good as input. Final good that is not used for intermediate production is available for consumption. Each monopolist at 𝑡 maximizes his profit measured in units of the final good: 𝛱𝑖𝑡 = 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑥𝑖𝑡 − 𝑥𝑖𝑡 (2) where 𝑝𝑖𝑡 is the price of the intermediate good 𝑖 relative to the final good. 8 This model is based on Aghion and Howitt (2009). 7 The inverse demand curve facing each monopolist charging the price 𝑝𝑖𝑡 is the marginal product: 𝑝𝑖𝑡 = 𝛼(𝐴𝑖𝑡𝑢)1−𝛼𝑥𝑖𝑡𝛼−1 (3) Therefore, the monopolist in sector 𝑖 chooses the quantity 𝑥𝑖𝑡 to maximize profits, 𝛱𝑖𝑡 = (𝛼(𝐴𝑖𝑡𝑢)1−𝛼𝑥𝑖𝑡𝛼−1 − 1)𝑥𝑖𝑡 (4) which implies an equilibrium quantity: 𝑥𝑖𝑡 = 𝛼 2 1−𝛼𝛢𝑖𝑡𝑢 (5) The equilibrium profit of the monopolist is: 𝛱𝑖𝑡 = (1 − 𝛼)𝛼 1+𝛼 1−𝛼𝐴𝑖𝑡𝑢 (6) In each period, entrepreneurs (skilled individuals) will attempt an innovation, each one in a different sector. If an entrepreneur succeeds, the innovation will create a new version of the intermediate good, which is more productive than previous versions. Specifically, the productivity of the intermediate good will go from last period’s value 𝐴𝑖,𝑡−1 up to 𝐴𝑖𝑡 = 𝛾𝛢𝑖,𝑡−1, where 𝛾 > 1. If he fails, then there will be no innovation and the intermediate good will be the same one that was used in 𝑡 − 1, so 𝐴𝑖𝑡 = 𝐴𝑖,𝑡−1. In order to innovate, the entrepreneur must conduct research, a costly activity that uses entrepreneur’s labor as its only input. The probability that an innovation occurs in any period 𝑡 is: 𝜇𝑡 = 𝜆 𝜑𝐴𝑡 𝐴𝑖𝑡 ∗ (7) where 𝐴𝑖𝑡 ∗ = 𝛾𝐴𝑖,𝑡−1 is the productivity parameter if he succeeds. The reason why the probability of innovation depends on 𝐴𝑖𝑡 ∗ is that as technology advances it becomes more complex and thus harder to improve upon. 𝜆 is a parameter that reflects the productivity of the research sector. Entrepreneurial skills are produced by two inputs: time and local knowledge. I take as given the 8 amount of time spend in education by each entrepreneur.9 Local knowledge is a public input which we assume to be proportional to aggregate productivity 𝐴𝑡 = ∫ 𝐴𝑖𝑡𝑑𝑖 1 0 . 𝜑𝛢𝑡 is the skill level of each entrepreneur. 10 Each entrepreneur’s wage is his expected reward from innovation: 11 𝑤𝑠 = 𝜆 𝜑𝐴𝑡 𝐴𝑖𝑡 ∗ 𝛱𝑖𝑡 = 𝜆 𝜑𝐴𝑡 𝐴𝑖𝑡 ∗ (1 − 𝛼)𝛼 1+𝛼 1−𝛼𝐴𝑖𝑡𝑢 = 𝜆𝜑𝐴𝑡(1 − 𝛼)𝛼 1+𝛼 1−𝛼𝑢 (8) because 𝐴𝑖𝑡 ∗ = 𝐴𝑖𝑡 when innovation takes place. Equation (8) implies that the expected reward is the same in all sectors. Each unskilled worker will receive his marginal product. Simple algebra gives: 𝑤𝑢 = (1 − 𝛼)𝛼 2𝛼 1−𝛼𝛢𝑡 (9) Skill premium, 𝜔, is defined as follows: 𝜔 = 𝑤𝑠 𝑤𝑢 = 𝜆𝜑𝛼𝑢 = 𝜆𝜑𝛼(𝐿 − 𝑠) (10) I assume for simplicity that 𝐿 = 1 and thus, 𝑠 is the share and the number of skilled workers. Skill premium becomes: 𝜔 = 𝜆𝜑𝛼(1 − 𝑠) (11) B. Political economy model There are two political parties, 𝐴 and 𝐵. Each party announces before the election the set of policies that will implement if elected. To simplify the analysis I restrict the available policies to 9 It is straightforward to endogenize the time spend on education. Suppose that 𝜑 = (1 −𝑛)𝑛𝑚 represents the effective supply of skills, where 𝑛 is the time spent in education and 𝑚 lies between zero and one. Each entrepreneur chooses the same 𝑛 in order to maximize 𝜑. 10 The same assumption is made by Howitt and Mayer-Foulkes (2005). They assume that the skill level depends on the average level of technology. 11 This is not the actual wage. It is the expected wage. The actual wage is either zero or 𝛱𝑖𝑡. To simplify the analysis I assume that entrepreneurs can buy insurance. Thus, they receive with certainty their expected reward from innovation. 9 those that affect directly only the profit of a successful innovator. 12 Such policies are for example the tax rate on profits, efforts to reduce corruption and protect property rights, the cost to start a new firm, labor market regulations like the minimum wage, etc. 13 The outcome of each set of policies is a tax rate, 𝑡, such that 𝑡 is the total fraction of the profits that the owner of each firm loses because of taxation, corruption, labor market regulations, etc.14 This tax rate affects directly the wage of skilled workers (and their relative wage, or skill premium). The wage becomes: 𝑤𝑠 = 𝜆 𝜑𝐴𝑡 𝐴𝑖𝑡 ∗ (1 − 𝑡)𝛱𝑖𝑡 = (1 − 𝑡)𝜆𝜑𝐴𝑡(1 − 𝛼)𝛼 1+𝛼 1−𝛼𝑢 (12) And the skill premium: 𝜔 = (1 − 𝑡)𝜆𝜑𝛼(1 − 𝑠) (13) Τhere are, also, two special interest groups, 𝑆𝐼𝐺𝐴 and 𝑆𝐼𝐺𝐵. Members of each group are all the economic agents that benefit from the policies of party 𝐴 and 𝐵 respectively. When an economic agent benefits from the policies of both parties then this agent is member of both interest groups. Members can be the firms that receive part of the total tax revenue as a subsidy, the bureaucrats who benefit from corruption, and the labor unions that receive contributions from their members who benefit from the higher minimum wage and other labor market regulations. I assume that both special interest groups are small enough such that there is no coordination cost and no free riding. The timing of events is the following: first, the two parties announce their set of policies. Then, each 𝑆𝐼𝐺 announces its contribution to its party, and finally election takes place.15 12 These policies affect directly the wage of strategic voters. All other policies that this paper does not consider affect only unskilled workers. The assumption that policies that affect unskilled workers are exogenous is based on the basic assumption of the model that impressionable voters do not take into account the proposed policies when they vote. Also, I 13 Benabou (2005) uses a similar way, through a unique tax rate, to represent the set of public policies like taxes and transfers, minimum wage laws, firing costs, etc. 14 Note that this set of policies determines the wage before taxes which is also the marginal product of labor. 15 This timing implies that SIG will not contribute money in order to influence policies. In order for this to happen, SIG should contribute before the party announces its policy. In this paper, SIG give their contributions after the parties announce their policies. Thus, SIG have only electoral motive. See Grossman and Helpman (2001) for a detailed discussion about influence and electoral motive. 10 assume that after a party announces its policy, it cannot change it and it is committed to implement it, if elected. Voters maximize the following utility: 𝑈𝑗 = 𝑐𝑏𝑓𝑗 𝛼 (14) Where 𝑐 is consumption (each individual consumes all her income), and 𝑓𝑗 depends on the political ideology of the specific individual, 𝑗, and on the political ideology of each party. There are two types of voters: strategic and impressionable. 16 According to Grossman and Helpman (2001), ‘strategic voters understand the political environment and the implications of their votes’. On the other hand, ‘impressionable voters rely on campaign ads’. Grossman and Helpman (2001) assume that the share of strategic and impressionable voters is exogenous. I assume that the level of education affects the ability of people to make the calculations necessary for strategic voting.17 Strategic voter’s 𝑗 utility is: The assumption here is that policies are complicated and their effect on people’s income is difficult to calculate. Individuals with high enough education are able to make these calculations and, thus, they know exactly how a specific policy will affect them. Political advertisement has no effect on them. In other words, the assumption is that political advertisement will not make them change their mind once they know the policy that each party is willing to adopt. Individuals with relatively low education cannot make the necessary calculations and, thus, they don’t know how a specific policy will affect them. Political advertisement affects their decision. If the amount of advertisement is bigger for one of the parties, this party will attract more impressionable voters. For simplicity, I assume that skilled individuals have high enough education and they are strategic voters, while unskilled individuals are impressionable voters. 𝑈𝑖𝑗 𝑠 = (𝑓𝑖𝑗)𝑎(𝑤𝑠(𝑡𝑖))𝑏, (15) where 𝑖 = 𝐴, 𝐵 denotes party 𝐴 and 𝛣. 16 The analysis and the model presented here are based on Grossman and Helpman (1996, 2001) 17 Also, education affects civic participation. See Dee (2003), Glaeser, Ponzetto, and Shleifer (2007), and, Milligan, Moretti, and Oreopoulos (2004). 11 Strategic voter 𝑗 chooses party 𝐴 if: 𝑓𝐴𝑗 𝑎 𝑐𝐴 𝑏 ≥ 𝑓𝐵𝑗 𝑎 𝑐𝐵 𝑏 → 𝑓𝐵𝑗 𝑓𝐴𝑗 ≤ ( 𝑤𝑠(𝑡𝐴) 𝑤𝑠(𝑡𝐵) ) 𝑏 𝑎. Where 𝑓𝑗 = 𝑓𝐵𝑗 𝑓𝐴𝑗 is the relative popularity of party 𝐵 for voter 𝑗. I assume that 𝑓𝑗 is uniformly distributed with mean 𝑧. 18 The share of votes for party 𝐴 among strategic voters is: Also: 𝑐𝑖 = 𝑤𝑠(𝑡𝑖), shows that consumption is equal to the wage, and that the wage depends on the set of policies, 𝑡𝑖. 𝑉𝐴 𝑠 = 1 2 − 𝑧 + � 𝑤𝑠(𝑡𝐴) 𝑤𝑠(𝑡𝐵) � 𝑏 𝑎, (16) where 𝑧 shows the relative popularity of party 𝐵’s fixed position. If 𝑧 = 1, then the two parties are equally popular and, thus, if they choose the same policies, each will get 50% of the votes. Impressionable voters’ utility is: 𝑈𝑖 𝑢 = (𝑓𝑖)𝑎(𝐸𝑤𝑢(𝑡𝑖))𝑏, (17) where 𝑖 = 𝐴, 𝐵 denotes party 𝐴 and 𝐵. Impressionable voters cannot estimate the effect of the policy on their income. They form expectations with respect to this effect: 𝐸𝑤𝑢(𝑡𝑖) = (𝐷𝑖)𝛽, (18) 𝑖 = 𝐴, 𝐵. 𝐷𝑖 is the contribution of 𝑆𝐼𝐺𝑖 to party 𝑖. This is also the amount that this party will spend on advertising. 𝛽 is a parameter measuring the effectiveness of the campaign spending. Impressionable voter 𝑗 chooses party 𝐴 if: 𝑓𝐴𝑗 𝑎 (𝐷𝐴 𝛽)𝑏 ≥ 𝑓𝐵𝑗 𝑎 (𝐷𝐵 𝛽)𝑏 → 𝑓𝐵𝑗 𝑓𝐴𝑗 ≤ ( 𝐷𝐴 𝐷𝐵 ) 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 , where 𝑓𝑗 = 𝑓𝐵𝑗 𝑓𝐴𝑗 is the relative popularity of party 𝐵 for voter 𝑗. Again, 𝑓𝑗 is uniformly distributed with mean 𝑧. This means that the popularity of the two parties is the same among strategic and impressionable voters. The share of votes of party 𝐴 among impressionable voters is: 18 Grossman and Helpman (1996, 2001) assume uniform distribution, too. 12 𝑉𝐴 𝑢 = 1 2 − 𝑧 + � 𝐷𝐴 𝐷𝐵 � 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 (19) And the total share of votes for party 𝐴 is: 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐴 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑉𝐴 𝑢(1 − 𝑠) = 1 2 − 𝑧 + � 𝑤𝑠(𝑡𝐴) 𝑤𝑠(𝑡𝐵) � 𝑏 𝑎 𝑠 + � 𝐷𝐴 𝐷𝐵 � 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 (1 − 𝑠) (20) And so: 𝑉𝐴 = 1 2 − 𝑧 + � (1−𝑡𝐴)𝜆𝜑𝐴𝑡(1−𝛼)𝛼 1+𝛼 1−𝛼𝑢 (1−𝑡𝐵)𝜆𝜑𝐴𝑡(1−𝛼)𝛼 1+𝛼 1−𝛼𝑢 � 𝑏 𝑎 𝑠 + � 𝐷𝐴 𝐷𝐵 � 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 (1 − 𝑠), and (21) 𝑉𝐴 = 1 2 − 𝑧 + � 1−𝑡𝐴 1−𝑡𝐵 � 𝑏 𝑎 𝑠 + � 𝐷𝐴 𝐷𝐵 � 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 (1 − 𝑠), (22) where 𝑠 is the fraction of skilled individuals and, thus, the fraction of strategic voters, and (1 − 𝑠) is the fraction of unskilled individuals and, thus, the fraction of impressionable voters. Also, again, individuals consume all their income, 𝑐 = 𝑤𝑠 = (1 − 𝑡)𝜆𝜑𝐴𝑡(1 − 𝛼)𝛼 1+𝛼 1−𝛼𝑢. The probability that 𝑉𝐴 ≥ 1 2 , that is, the probability that party 𝐴 wins the election is equal to the probability that 𝑧 ≤ � 1−𝑡𝐴 1−𝑡𝐵 � 𝑏 𝑎 𝑠 + � 𝐷𝐴 𝐷𝐵 � 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 (1 − 𝑠). 𝑧 is a random variable and 𝐹() is its distribution function. The probability that party 𝐴 wins the election, 𝑃𝐴, is equal to: 𝑃𝐴 = 𝐹(� 1−𝑡𝐴 1−𝑡𝐵 � 𝑏 𝑎 𝑠 + � 𝐷𝐴 𝐷𝐵 � 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 (1 − 𝑠)) (23) Given 𝐷𝐵, 𝑡𝐴 and 𝑡𝐵 (remember that first parties announce their policies and then 𝑆𝐼𝐺 choose their contributions), 𝑆𝐼𝐺𝐴 will choose 𝐷𝐴 in order to maximize its expected net benefit: 𝐵𝐴 = 𝑃𝐴(𝐷𝐴)𝜁𝑡𝐴𝜋 − 𝐷𝐴 (24) 13 Where 𝑃𝐴(𝐷𝐴) is the probability that party 𝐴 wins the election when contribution is 𝐷𝐴, and 𝜁𝑡𝐴𝜋 is the total net benefit from the set of policies, 𝑡𝐴, for 𝑆𝐼𝐺𝐴. 𝜋 is the total profit of all the monopolists, and 𝜁 lies between zero and one and captures the deadweight loss. 19 The FOC is the best response function for 𝑆𝐼𝐺𝐴: 𝐹′(� 1−𝑡𝐴 1−𝑡𝐵 � 𝑏 𝑎 𝑠 + � 𝐷𝐴 𝐷𝐵 � 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 (1 − 𝑠)) 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 𝐷𝐴 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 −1 𝐷𝐵 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 (1 − 𝑠)𝜁𝑡𝐴𝜋 = 1 (25) Similarly for 𝑆𝐼𝐺𝐵: 𝐵𝛣 = 𝑃𝛣(𝐷𝛣)𝜁𝑡𝐵𝜋 − 𝐷𝛣, (26) where 𝑃𝐵 = 1 − 𝑃𝐴. The FOC is: 𝐹′(� 1−𝑡𝐴 1−𝑡𝐵 � 𝑏 𝑎 𝑠 + � 𝐷𝐴 𝐷𝐵 � 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 (1 − 𝑠)) 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 𝐷𝐴 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 𝐷𝐵 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 +1 (1 − 𝑠)𝜁𝑡𝐵𝜋 = 1 (27) The two FOCs imply: 𝐷𝐴 ∗ 𝐷𝐵 ∗ = 𝑡𝐴 𝑡𝐵 (28) Party 𝐴 will choose 𝑡𝐴 to maximize its share of votes: 𝑉𝐴 = 1 2 − 𝑧 + � 1−𝑡𝐴 1−𝑡𝐵 � 𝑏 𝑎 𝑠 + � 𝑡𝐴 𝑡𝐵 � 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 (1 − 𝑠) (29) The FOC which is also the best response function for party 𝐴 is: 𝑏(1−𝑡𝐴) 𝑏 𝑎−1 𝑎(1−𝑡𝐵) 𝑏 𝑎 𝑠 = 𝛽𝑏(𝑡𝐴) 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 −1 𝑎(𝑡𝐵) 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 (1 − 𝑠) (30) 19 I assume here that the members of each special interest group receive an amount that is proportional to the entire amount the firms lose because of the policy. The more realistic model with deadweight loss that is proportional to the square of the ‘tax’ is presented in the appendix. The two approaches give different tax rates in equilibrium, but they predict a very similar effect of the supply of skills on skill premium. 14 Party 𝛣 maximizes: 𝑉𝐵 = 1 − 𝑉𝐴 = 1 2 + 𝑧 − � 1−𝑡𝐴 1−𝑡𝐵 � 𝑏 𝑎 𝑠 − � 𝑡𝐴 𝑡𝐵 � 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 (1 − 𝑠) (31) The FOC is: 𝑏(1−𝑡𝐴) 𝑏 𝑎 𝑎(1−𝑡𝐵) 𝑏 𝑎+1 𝑠 = 𝛽𝑏(𝑡𝐴) 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 𝑎(𝑡𝐵) 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 +1 (1 − 𝑠) (32) The two first order conditions imply: 𝑡𝐴 ∗(𝑠) = 𝑡𝐵 ∗ (𝑠) = 𝑡∗(𝑠) = 𝛽(1−𝑠) 𝑠+(1−𝑠)𝛽 (33) PROPOSITION 1. In equilibrium: • Both political parties choose the same policy (tax rate), 𝑡∗(𝑠) = 𝛽(1−𝑠) 𝑠+(1−𝑠)𝛽 , which is a decreasing function of the supply of skills and an increasing function of the effectiveness of the political campaign, 𝛽. Proof. Follows from the differentiation of 𝑡∗(𝑠) with respect to 𝑠 and 𝛽. Thus, the level of economic institutions can be expressed as a function of the percentage of skilled workers. C. The effect of the supply of skills on skill premium Remember that skill premium, 𝜔, and also the relative demand for skilled labor is: 𝜔 = (1 − 𝑡)𝜆𝜑𝛼(1 − 𝑠) (34) 15 It can be derived easily that, if the level of economic institutions, 𝑡, is exogenous (in which case we have the short run demand for skilled labor, i.e. the demand for skilled labor before institutions adjust, after an exogenous change in the relative supply of skills) then an increase in the share of skilled workers will decrease skill premium: 𝜕𝜔 𝜕𝑠 = −(1 − 𝑡)𝜆𝜑𝛼 < 0 This implies that the short run demand is always downward sloping. Given the demand for skilled labor, an increase in the supply of skilled labor will result to a lower skill premium. Things are very different when the amount of skilled labor affects the level of economic institutions (long run). In this case, skill premium becomes: 𝜔 = (1 − 𝑡∗(𝑠))𝜆𝜑𝛼(1 − 𝑠) (35) where: 𝑡∗(𝑠) = 𝛽(1−𝑠) 𝑠+(1−𝑠)𝛽 The total effect of an exogenous change of the proportion of skilled workers is the following: 𝜕𝜔 𝜕𝑠 = − 𝜕𝑡∗(𝑠) 𝜕𝑠 (𝜆𝜑𝛼(1 − 𝑠)) + (1 − 𝑡∗(𝑠)) 𝜕(𝜆𝜑𝛼(1−𝑠)) 𝜕𝑠 (36) where 𝜕𝑡∗(𝑠) 𝜕𝑠 = − 𝛽 (𝛽(1−𝑠)+𝑠)2 < 0 Thus, the total effect is decomposed into two effects: the first is the one described above and is negative. The second effect is positive, and it is coming from the fact that the amount of skilled labor affects the level of economic institutions and policies, and through them, the returns to skilled labor. In other words, the supply of skilled labor affects the demand for skilled labor. More specifically, the second term of the right hand side of equation (36), is always negative and shows the decrease in skill premium right after an increase in the relative supply of skills. This captures the short run response (see Figure II) and it is simply the movement along the short run demand curve (in the short run, 𝜕𝑡∗(𝑠) 𝜕𝑠 = 0). On the other hand, the first term is always positive and shows the increase in skill premium in the long run caused by the institutional improvement 16 that the increase in the relative supply of skills induces. In Figure II this is shown by the shift to the right of the short run demand curve. Figure II If the second term is higher than the first, then the total effect is negative: 𝜕𝜔 𝜕𝑠 = − 𝜕𝑡∗(𝑠) 𝜕𝑠 (𝜆𝜑𝛼(1 − 𝑠)) + (1 − 𝑡∗(𝑠)) 𝜕�𝜆𝜑𝛼(1−𝑠)� 𝜕𝑠 < 0 (38) In this case, the positive effect from institutional improvement is lower than the negative market effect. If the first term is higher than the second, then the total effect is positive. 𝜕𝜔 𝜕𝑠 = − 𝜕𝑡∗(𝑠) 𝜕𝑠 (𝜆𝜑𝛼(1 − 𝑠)) + (1 − 𝑡∗(𝑠)) 𝜕�𝜆𝜑𝛼(1−𝑠)� 𝜕𝑠 > 0 (39) This case, shown in Figure II, is consistent with what was observed in the U.S. during the 70s and the 80s. The above analysis is summarized in the following proposition: Long Run Relative Demand for Skills Shift in Short Run Relative Demand for Skills due to Institutional Improvement Shift in Relative Supply of Skills 1 𝑠 𝜔 Long Run Skill Premium Initial Skill Premium Short Run Response 17 PROPOSITION 2. Short run and long run relative demand for skills: a. The short run relative demand for skills, 𝜔𝑆𝑅(𝑠) = 𝑤𝑠 𝑤𝑢 = (1 − 𝑡)𝜆𝜑𝛼(1 − 𝑠) is always downward sloping. The skill premium always decreases right after an exogenous increase in the relative supply of skills. b. The long run relative demand for skills: 𝜔𝐿𝑅(𝑠) = 𝑤𝑠 𝑤𝑢 = (1 − 𝑡∗(𝑠))𝜆𝜑𝛼(1 − 𝑠) = 𝑠𝜆𝜑𝛼(1 − 𝑠) 𝑠 + (1 − 𝑠)𝛽 is upward sloping when: 0 ≤ 𝑠 < �𝛽 1 + �𝛽 < 1 and it is downward sloping when: 0 < �𝛽 1 + �𝛽 < 𝑠 ≤ 1 For sufficiently low values of 𝑠, skill premium increases in the long run after an exogenous increase in the relative supply of skills. Proof. See appendix Figure II presents the case where an increase in the relative supply of skills decreases skill premium in the short run, but increases it in the long run above its initial value. In order to examine whether the magnitudes of the changes in the relative wage of skilled labor that this model predicts are similar to the ones that were observed in the United States after 1970, it would be useful to assign numbers to the parameters and see what is this model’s predicted short run and long run effect of the observed change in the supply of skills. According to Barro and Lee (2001), the fraction of college graduates in the United States in 1970 was 21%. I assume that 𝑠 = 0.21, 𝛼𝜆𝜑 = 3.5 and that 𝛽 = 0.2, and I take 𝑡1 = 0.43, and 𝜔 = 1.56, which means that college graduates earn 56% more than those without a college degree. This is exactly the number in the beginning of 1970s. Again according to Barro and Lee (2001), the fraction of 18 college graduates in the United States in 1980 was 30%. In this case, and under the assumption that policies are constant, 𝑡1 = 0.43, I find 𝜔𝑆𝑅 = 1.4 which is the short run response that the model predicts and it is very close to the actual value which is 1.41. Finally, in order to find the long run skill premium I find first the new equilibrium level of 𝑡 when 𝑠 = 0.3. This is: 𝑡2 = 0.32. This value of 𝑡 implies that the long run value of skill premium is 𝜔𝐿𝑅 = 1.67, which is very close to the actual value that is 1.62 in 1995. III. ENDOGENOUS SUPPLY OF SKILLS In the previous section the supply of skilled and unskilled labor was exogenous. In this section, I assume that education choices are forward looking and respond to returns. Of course, there can still be exogenous changes in the supply of skills caused for example by a change in the quality of education. I assume that in the beginning of every period workers must become reeducated in order to qualify as skilled workers with the new generation of technology. 20 An individual 𝑖 will become skilled if: 𝑤𝑠 − 𝜎𝜈𝑖𝑤𝑠 ≥ 𝑤𝑢, which implies that all individuals with 𝜈𝑖 ≤ 𝜔−1 𝜎𝜔 will choose to become skilled. The fraction of skilled workers is 𝑠 = 𝐺( 𝜔−1 𝜎𝜔 ), where 𝐺 is the distribution function of 𝜈𝑖, and 𝜔 is the skill premium. This function represents the supply If an individual decides to become educated, he or she will receive the wage of the skilled worker, 𝑤𝑠. The cost of education is proportional to the skilled wage, 𝜎𝜈𝑖𝑤𝑠, where 𝜎 is a subsidy on education or simply the quality of education. When the quality of education is higher, 𝜎 is low, then the cost of education is lower. We could think of this cost as a time cost. If the quality of education is higher, then a worker will spend less time in order to become skilled. 𝜈𝑖 ≥ 0 is a random variable that captures the heterogeneity among individuals caused by different ability or credit constraints. Lower values of 𝜈𝑖 imply higher ability. If an individual chooses to remain uneducated, he or she will receive 𝑤𝑢. 20 An alternative assumption could be that the economy is populated by dynastic families and that each family has one member that lives only one period, so that every period a new member replaces the old. 19 of skills. Under the assumption that 𝜈𝑖 is uniformly distributed in [0,1], the supply function becomes: 𝑠 = 𝜔−1 𝜎𝜔 . The relative supply curve is shown in Figure III. As expected, it is upward sloping. A decrease in the cost of education, or an increase in the quality of education shifts the relative supply curve to the right. All the results presented above, in the model with exogenous supply of skills, hold here as well. Figure III shows that when the quality of education is high enough there are three equilibria: the first at 𝑠 = 0 is stable, the second, 𝑠1, is unstable and the third, 𝑠2, is stable. The economy will end up in the third equilibrium only if initially the relative supply of skills is sufficiently high, 𝑠 > 𝑠1. If initially the relative supply of skills is lower than this critical point, then the economy will remain in a poverty trap. Low education levels will make beneficial for the political parties to allow high levels of corruption and impose high taxes on profits, and these policies will offer poor incentives for investment and innovation. This explains why poor democracies with low levels of education cannot escape stagnation. Special interests capture the government and extract rents through policies that keep the country poor because there is no sufficient number of voters that is willing to support growth promoting policies. Figure III Long Run Relative Demand for Skills 𝑠1 𝑠2 1 𝑠 𝜔 1 Relative Supply of Skills 20 IV. CONCLUDING REMARKS This paper argues that there are three distinct groups in every democracy: the uneducated, the educated, and the (political) elite. I argue that voters have the power to choose their leaders, but not all voters are able to act as strategic voters. Strategic voting implies that voters are able to make the calculations that are necessary in order to evaluate the effect that policies have on their welfare. To a large extent, economic institutions and policies, for example the level of corruption, can be determined endogenously through the political process. If all voters were strategic then we wouldn’t observe democracies with bad policies and economic institutions (there are several examples in Latin America and Africa). I argue that only educated individuals act as strategic voters, and that the political conflict is mainly between the educated individuals and the political elite (and those who have access to it). This doesn’t mean that uneducated voters do not participate in politics. The relative political power of the elite depends on the proportion of uneducated voters. The elite can use its influence and money in order to ‘buy’ the support of these voters. The level of education determines the allocation of the political power, and the allocation of the political power determines the quality of economic institutions. This model provides an explanation for the observed pattern of the supply of skills and skill premium in the United States after 1970. It argues that an increase in the supply of skills decreases skill premium in the short run, but then it induces institutional improvement through the political process. As a result, skill premium increases, possibly above its initial value. V. APPENDIX A. Deadweight loss from taxation that is proportional to the square of the tax rate. This appendix examines the case in which the deadweight loss from the policies is proportional to the square of the ‘tax’ rate. In this case special interest groups receive �𝑡 − 1 2 𝑡2�𝜋 instead of 𝜁𝑡𝜋. 21 𝑆𝐼𝐺𝐴 maximizes: 𝐵𝐴 = 𝑃𝐴(𝐷𝐴)(𝑡𝐴 − 1 2 𝑡𝐴 2)𝜋 − 𝐷𝐴, and 𝑆𝐼𝐺𝐵 maximizes: 𝐵𝐵 = (1 − 𝑃𝐴(𝐷𝐵))(𝑡𝐵 − 1 2 𝑡𝐵 2)𝜋 − 𝐷𝐵. The two first order conditions imply: 𝐷𝐴 ∗ 𝐷𝐵 ∗ = 𝑡𝐴 − 1 2 𝑡𝐴 2 𝑡𝐵 − 1 2 𝑡𝐵 2 Party 𝐴 will choose 𝑡𝐴 to maximize its share of votes: 𝑉𝐴 = 1 2 − 𝑧 + � 1 − 𝑡𝐴 1 − 𝑡𝐵 � 𝑏 𝑎 𝑠 + � 𝑡𝐴 − 1 2 𝑡𝐴 2 𝑡𝐵 − 1 2 𝑡𝐵 2 � 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 (1 − 𝑠) The FOC which is also the best response function for party 𝐴 is: 𝑏(1 − 𝑡𝐴) 𝑏 𝑎−1 𝑎(1 − 𝑡𝐵) 𝑏 𝑎 𝑠 = 𝛽𝑏(1 − 𝑡𝐴)(𝑡𝐴 − 1 2 𝑡𝐴 2) 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 −1 𝑎(𝑡𝐵 − 1 2 𝑡𝐵 2) 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 (1 − 𝑠) Party 𝛣 maximizes: 𝑉𝐵 = 1 − 𝑉𝐴 = 1 2 + 𝑧 − � 1 − 𝑡𝐴 1 − 𝑡𝐵 � 𝑏 𝑎 𝑠 − � 𝑡𝐴 − 1 2 𝑡𝐴 2 𝑡𝐵 − 1 2 𝑡𝐵 2 � 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 (1 − 𝑠) The FOC is: 𝑏(1 − 𝑡𝐴) 𝑏 𝑎 𝑎(1 − 𝑡𝐵) 𝑏 𝑎+1 𝑠 = 𝛽𝑏(1 − 𝑡𝐵)(𝑡𝐴 − 1 2 𝑡𝐴 2) 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 𝑎(𝑡𝐵 − 1 2 𝑡𝐵 2) 𝛽𝑏 𝑎 +1 (1 − 𝑠) The two first order conditions give only one solution for 𝑡 that lies between zero and one. This is the same for both political parties: 22 𝑡∗(𝑠) = 2𝛽(1 − 𝑠) + 𝑠 − �𝑠(2𝛽 + 𝑠 − 2𝛽𝑠) 2𝛽(1 − 𝑠) + 𝑠 The long run relative demand for skill becomes: 𝜔𝐿𝑅 ∗ (𝑠) = �1 − 2𝛽(1 − 𝑠) + 𝑠 − �𝑠(2𝛽 + 𝑠 − 2𝛽𝑠) 2𝛽(1 − 𝑠) + 𝑠 �𝛼𝜆𝜑(1 − 𝑠) The equation 𝜕𝜔𝐿𝑅 ∗ (𝑠) 𝜕𝑠 = 0 has only one solution that lies between zero and one, ∀𝛽 ∈ �0, 1 2 � ∪ (1 2 , ∞): 𝑠∗ = 3𝛽 − �𝛽(4 + 𝛽) 4𝛽 − 2 Also, L’Hospital’s rule implies: lim 𝛽→12 − 3𝛽 − �𝛽(4 + 𝛽) 4𝛽 − 2 = lim 𝛽→12 + 3𝛽 − �𝛽(4 + 𝛽) 4𝛽 − 2 = 1 3 Again, when 𝑠 < 𝑠∗, the long run relative demand for skills is upward sloping, while when 𝑠 > 𝑠∗, the long run relative demand for skills is downward sloping. B. Proof of Proposition 2. a. Follows from the differentiation of 𝜔𝑆𝑅(𝑠) with respect to 𝑠. b. The derivative of 𝜔𝐿𝑅(𝑠) with respect to 𝑠 is: 𝜕𝜔𝐿𝑅(𝑠) 𝜕𝑠 = 𝛼𝜑𝜆(𝛽(𝑠−1) 2−𝑠2) (𝛽+𝑠−𝛽𝑠)2 . Set it equal to zero and solve for 𝑠: 𝑠1 ∗ = − � 𝛽 1−�𝛽 and 𝑠2 ∗ = � 𝛽 1+�𝛽 . For 𝛽 > 0, 𝑠1 ∗ ∈ (−∞, 0) ∪ (1, +∞), and 𝑠2 ∗ ∈ (0,1). 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Neumark, David, Mark Schweitzer, and William Wascher, 2004, ‘The Effects of Minimum Wages Throughout the Wage Distribution’, Journal of Human Resources, 39, 424-50. Nickell, Stephen and Brian Bell, 1996, ‘The Collapse in Demand for the Unskilled and Unemployed across the OECD’, Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 11, 40-62. North, Douglass C., 1990, ‘Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance’, New York, NY, Cambridge University Press. Wegenast, Tim, 2010, ‘Uninformed Voters for Sale: Electoral Competition, Information and Interest Groups in the US’. KYKLOS, 63, 271-300. 
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work_q7rz2dn7hjcavpguku7mhztfpa	----	Value versus Growth Investing: Why Do Different Investors Have Different Styles?∗ Henrik Cronqvist, Stephan Siegel, and Frank Yu† This draft: December 14, 2013 Abstract We find that several factors explain an investor’s style, in the sense of the value versus growth orientation of the investor’s stock portfolio. First, an investor’s style has a biological basis – a preference for value versus growth stocks is partially ingrained in an investor already from birth. Second, investors who a priori are expected to take more financial risk (e.g., men and wealthier individuals) have a preference for growth, not value, which may be surprising if the value premium reflects risk. Finally, an investor’s style is explained by life course theory in that experiences, both earlier and later in life, are related to investment style. Investors with ad- verse macroeconomic experiences (e.g., growing up during the Great Depression or entering the job market during an economic downturn) and those who grew up in a lower status socioeco- nomic rearing environment have a stronger value orientation several decades later in their lives. Our research contributes a new perspective to the long-standing value/growth debate in finance. ∗We are thankful for comments from seminar participants at Cheung Kong Graduate School of Business, China Europe International Business School, Shanghai Advanced Institute of Finance, Tsinghua University (School of Economics and Management), and for discussions with Colin Camerer, Henry Cao, David Hirshleifer, Samuli Knüpfer, Augustin Landier, Feng Li, Juhani Linnainmaa, Jun Liu, Pedro Matos, Stefan Nagel, Jun Qian, Neil Pearson, Meir Statman, Mathijs van Dijk, Tan Wang, and Lu Zhang. We thank S&P Capital IQ’s China and Hong Kong teams (in particular Rick Chang) for help with various data issues. We also thank Wenqian Hu, Lucas Perin, and Nancy Yao for capable research assistance. This project has been supported by generous research funding from China Europe International Business School (CEIBS). Statistics Sweden and the Swedish Twin Registry (STR) provided the data for this study. STR is supported by grants from the Swedish Research Council, the Ministry of Higher Education, AstraZeneca, and the National Institute of Health (grants AG08724, DK066134, and CA085739). This project was pursued in part when Cronqvist was Olof Stenhammar Visiting Professor at the Swedish Institute for Financial Research (SIFR), which he thanks for its support. Any errors or omissions are our own. †Cronqvist and Yu: China Europe International Business School (hcronqvist@ceibs.edu and fyu@ceibs.edu); Siegel: University of Washington, Michael G. Foster School of Business (ss1110@uw.edu). I think Warren [Buffett] captured the idea himself in his 1964 article “The Superinvestors of Graham and Doddsville” and in it he talks about – value investing is like an inoculation – you either get it right away, or you never get it. And I think it’s just true. I actually think there’s just a gene for this stuff, whether it’s a value investing gene or a contrarian gene. — Seth Klarman, in an interview with Charlie Rose, 2011. I Introduction The concepts of “value” and “growth” investing have a long history in financial economics. Today, there exist some 2,050 value funds and 3,200 growth funds catering to investors with preferences for these investment styles.1 For more than two decades, Morningstar has provided a Value-Growth Score to help investors choose a fund with their preferred style. Fidelity, the world’s largest provider of employer-sponsored retirement plans such as 401(k) plans, prominently features a description of value and growth funds on their Learning Center website.2 There are best-selling books about both value and growth strategies, and countless business magazine articles boast recommendations about the “Best Value Funds” and/or the “Best Growth Funds.” Wall Street professionals are educated about value and growth investing already in business school, with many MBA programs today offering, e.g., Value Investing courses. Most importantly from the perspective of academic research, one of the most debated issues in the past several decades is the differential returns of investments in value versus growth stock portfolios – the value premium debate (e.g., De Bondt and Thaler (1985), Fama and French (1992, 1993, 1996), Lakonishok, Shleifer, and Vishny (1994), and Daniel and Titman (1997)).3 Despite all this attention to value and growth investing, very little research has attempted to explain the determinants of an individual’s investment style. That is, why are some investors value oriented, while others are growth oriented? In this paper, we argue that differences in investment styles across individuals, in principle, may stem from either of two non-mutually exclusive sources. 1Morningstar.com. 2https://www.fidelity.com/learning-center/mutual-funds/growth-vs-value-investing. 3The value premium debate has not been limited to only the U.S. stock market, but extends to several international stock markets (e.g., Chan et al. (1991), Fama and French (1998), and Daniel et al. (2001)), and also to other asset classes (e.g., Asness et al. (2013)). We refer to Fama and French (2012) for recent empirical evidence on the prevalence of a value premium in international stock markets. 1 First, these differences may be biological, in the sense that a genetic predisposition results in a preference for a specific investment style. In recent years, individual characteristics of first-order importance for portfolio choice, e.g., the propensity to take financial risk, have indeed been shown to be partly explained by an individual’s genetic composition (e.g., Cesarini et al. (2009), Barnea, Cronqvist, and Siegel (2010) and Cesarini et al. (2010)). As a result, we hypothesize that an individual’s investment style has a biological basis, i.e., a preference for value versus growth stocks is partially ingrained in an investor from birth. Second, based on life course theory, an approach to research in social psychology,4 which has recently made its way into finance research (e.g., Oyer (2006, 2008), Kaustia and Knüpfer (2008), Malmendier and Nagel (2011, 2013), and Schoar and Zuo (2013)), we hypothesize that an individual’s specific life experiences affect behaviors, including the individual’s investment style, later in life. We consider several potentially relevant, and likely exogenous, life experiences of individuals. More specifically, we analyze whether experiencing an adverse and significant macroeconomic event, e.g., growing up during the Great Depression, affects an individual’s value versus growth orientation. We also examine the impressionable years during an individual’s life course, e.g., the economic conditions when an individual entered the job market for the first time. Finally, we also examine the socioeconomic status of the rearing environment in which the individual grew up. Benjamin Graham and T. Rowe Price, Jr., constitute a colorful illustration of some of our hypotheses. Graham is commonly dubbed the “Father of Value Investing” because he preferred stocks with comparatively low valuation ratios and other characteristics that subsequently came to define value investing. Price, the founder of the large money management company with his name, is often referred to as the “Father of Growth Investing” because of his preference for companies characterized by strong earnings growth, R&D intensity, and innovative technology. Their different investment styles may very well have a biological basis, but this is not possible to examine without data on their genetic differences. Interestingly, Graham grew up very poor, his father passing away unexpectedly when he was young, and his mother losing the family’s savings in the stock market crash known as the “Panic of 1907.” Among his brothers, Graham was often tasked with “bargain 4For further details and references, see, e.g., Giele and Elder (1998) and Elder et al. (2003). 2 hunting” at different grocery stores (e.g., Carlen (2012)). In comparison, Price had a privileged upbringing, his father being an medical doctor who served as a surgeon his entire professional career for a rapidly expanding railroad company, a growth company at that time. We hypothesize that such differences in life experiences may contribute to differences in investment styles. Our research contributes a new perspective to the long-standing value/growth debate in finance. First, an investor’s style has a biological basis – a preference for value versus growth stocks is partially ingrained in an investor already from birth. We estimate that genetic differences across individuals explain 18% of the cross-sectional variation in value versus growth orientation, if using P/E ratios as an investment style measure, and 25% if using Morningstar’s Value-Growth Score. Second, investors who a priori are expected to take more financial risk have a preference for growth, not value, investing. This result is consistently found in data for exogenous proxies for risk taking propensity (e.g., gender and age) and also other individual characteristics (e.g., net worth). If value is riskier than growth, it may be surprising that those who are expected to take more (less) financial risk prefer growth (value) stock portfolios. Finally, an investor’s style is explained by life course theory in that experiences, both earlier and later in life, are related to investment style. In particular, investors with adverse macroeconomic experiences have stronger preferences for value investing later in life. For example, those who grew up during the Great Depression have portfolios with average P/E ratios that are 2.2 (or about 10% at the median) lower, controlling for individual characteristics, several decades later in life. Consistent with an impressionable years hypothesis, those who enter the job market for the first time during an economic downturn are also more value oriented later on. We also find that those who grew up in a lower status socioeconomic rearing environment have a stronger value orientation later in life. The paper is organized as follows. Section II reviews related research. Section III introduces our data and empirical methodology. Section IV reports our results. Section V discusses potential implications of our results, and Section VI concludes. 3 II Related Research A Biological Predispositions and Investment Style A.1 Risk Preferences A well-established empirical result is that a value/growth risk factor, referred to as HML (“high minus low”) following the seminal work by Fama and French (1993), is a significant determinant of cross-sectional returns of stock portfolios. Different stocks and portfolios have different exposures to this HML factor, and as a result, different expected returns. If value-oriented portfolios have outperformed growth-oriented portfolios historically because of differences in risk, we may expect investors with a propensity to take more (less) financial risk to prefer value (growth) stocks and mutual funds.5 Several recent studies have shown that a significant portion, or about 30%, of the cross-sectional variation in financial risk preferences is explained by biological predispositions. In those studies risk taking is not defined from the perspective of exposure to a value/growth risk factor, but risk preferences are either elicited from experiments (e.g., Cesarini et al. (2009)) or involve measures such as the share in equities (e.g., Barnea, Cronqvist, and Siegel (2010) and Cesarini et al. (2010)). Some research in the intersection of finance and neuroscience has even identified specific candidate genes involved in explaining differences in financial risk taking across individuals (e.g., Kuhnen and Chiao (2009), Dreber et al. (2009), and Zhong et al. (2009)).6 The aforementioned studies all suggest a relation between, on the one hand, biological predispo- sitions, and on the other hand, risk preferences. As a result, if we find that genetic differences across investors explain their value versus growth orientation, differential genetic propensities to financial risk taking is a potential explanation which would be consistent with a risk-based explanation for the value premium. 5For a theoretical model of a possible relation between risk and the value premium, see, e.g., Zhang (2005), and for related empirical evidence, see, e.g., Petkova and Zhang (2005) and Chen, Petkova, and Zhang (2008). 6The even deeper question is why risk preferences are genetic in the first place. Some of the theoretical work by Robson (2001b) addresses very fundamental questions in economics such as why nature has endowed individuals with utility functions. For further details and references, we refer to Robson (2001a). 4 A.2 Behavioral Biases While there is consensus among most financial economists that value stocks historically have produced higher returns than growth stocks, there is less agreement about why this is the case.7 Daniel and Titman (1997) show that the return premium on value stocks does not arise because of the comovement of these stocks with a risk factor. Rather, it is the stocks’ characteristics that explain the cross-sectional variation in stock returns. For example, Lakonishok, Shleifer, and Vishny (1994) argue that the return of growth, or “glamour,” stocks is the result of investor sentiment and provide evidence that value strategies produce higher returns because they exploit some of the behavioral biases of investors, not because of risk. In other behavioral finance models, the value premium may reflect positive feedback trading (e.g., De Long, Shleifer, Summers, and Waldmann (1990), Hong and Stein (1999), and Barberis and Shleifer (2003)), conservatism and representativeness (e.g., Barberis, Shleifer, and Vishny (1998)), or overconfidence (e.g., Daniel, Hirshleifer, and Subrahmanyam (1998) and Daniel, Titman, and Wei (2001)). Recent research suggests a relation between, on the one hand, biological predispositions, and on the other hand, behavioral biases (e.g., Cesarini et al. (2012) and Cronqvist and Siegel (2013)). As a result, if we find that genetic differences across investors explain their value versus growth orientation, differential genetic behavioral biases is a potential explanation which would be consistent with behavioral finance models.8 B Life Course Theory and Investment Style In addition to biological predispositions we also hypothesize that differences in life experiences may contribute to differences in investment styles across individuals. 7For a review of empirical evidence related to value and growth investing, see, e.g., Chan and Lakonishok (2004). 8Some of the theoretical work by Rayo and Becker (2007) and Brennan and Lo (2011) addresses why behaviors, even if not rational as defined in standard economic models, may survive human evolution. For further details and references, see, e.g., Cosmides and Tooby (1994), Chen et al. (2006), and Santos and Chen (2009). 5 B.1 Macroeconomic Experiences Experiencing an adverse and significant macroeconomic event may have pervasive effects on an individual’s behaviors later in life.9 In their “Depression Babies” study, Malmendier and Nagel (2011) show that individuals who have experienced relatively low stock market returns in their lives subsequently do not participate in the stock market and they take significantly less financial risk if they do participate. Other economists have also found that macro events have long-term effects on individual preferences. For example, Alesina and Fuchs-Schüendeln (2005) that post-reunification East Germans (particularly older cohorts) have stronger preferences for, e.g., redistribution than West Germans. Malmendier and Nagel (2013) show that differences in life experiences of high or low inflation predict differences in subjective inflation expectations. If an adverse macroeconomic experience results in less risk taking later in life, and if value is riskier than growth investing, we would expect investors who grew up during the Great Depression to prefer growth investing. An alternative hypothesis, not based on a risk explanation, is that those who have more salient experiences of difficult economic conditions develop a value-oriented investment style, with a preference for stocks that seem relatively “cheaper.” B.2 Impressionable Years A growing number of studies in social psychology suggest that experiences in early adulthood are particularly important for preferences later in life (e.g., Krosnick and Alwin (1989)). An individual’s core attitudes, beliefs, and preferences crystallize during a period of great neurological plasticity in early adulthood – the so-called “impressionable years” – and remain largely unchanged afterwards. For example, Giuliano and Spilimbergo (2013) show that experiencing an economic downturn during the impressionable years (18-25 years old) affects redistribution and political preferences later in life. In this study, we focus on whether an individual started his or her first employment in an economic downturn. This measure comes with the caveat that it is less exogenous compared to a 9The Great Depression is the macro event that has so far been studied most in-depth in the social sciences, and a variety of outcomes later in life have been examined. We refer to Elder (1974) for one of the first and most comprehensive studies of the long-term effects of the Great Depression. Many researchers have argued that the Great Depression created a “depression generation,” whose behavior affected the macroeconomy for decades after the depression ended. For example, Friedman and Schwartz (1963) suggested that the Great Depression “shattered” beliefs in capitalism. 6 birth cohort measure such as the Great Depression because individuals may to some extent choose when they enter the job market by increasing their investment in education endogenously. We still find it informative to examine the time of an individual’s first employment because it has been shown to be important in several studies for other economic outcomes (e.g., Oyer (2006, 2008), Kahn (2010), Malmendier et al. (2011), Oreopoulos et al. (2012), and Schoar and Zuo (2013)). This is also a period in their lives when many individuals start to invest in stocks and mutual funds for the very first time. B.3 Rearing Environment The hypothesis that the rearing environment, and other early-life experiences, may have significant long-term effects on an individual’s behaviors later in life has recently made its way into economic research. Most existing studies examine outcomes such as education and earnings. For example, economists have shown that birth order and family size (e.g., Black et al. (2005)) affect educational attainment and earnings later in life.Relatively few studies examine outcomes of primary interest to financial economists. An exception is Chetty et al. (2011) who report that the pre-school (kindergarten) environment explains, e.g., retirement savings behavior later in life.10 In this study, we focus on the rearing environment within the family during an individual’s upbringing. More specifically, we hypothesize that the socioeconomic status (SES) of the rearing environment in which an individual grows up explains cross-sectional differences in investment style later in life. We also consider whether parents’ life experiences transfer to their children and affect the investment style of their children. For example, if parents grew up during the Great Depression, it may affect not only their own investment style late in life, but potentially also their children’s value versus growth orientation through parenting; see, e.g., Bisin and Verdier (2000, 2001) for work related to the social transmission of preferences and behavior from parents to their children. 10Even the pre-birth, i.e., “in utero,” environment has been shown to predict subsequent economic outcomes and behaviors; see, e.g., Black et al. (2007), Almond and Currie (2011), and Cronqvist, Previtero, Siegel, and White (2013). 7 III Data A Individual Characteristics To empirically decompose variation in investment styles across a large sample of individual investors, we employ data on identical and fraternal twins.11 We construct our data set by matching a large number of twins from the Swedish Twin Registry (STR), the world’s largest twin registry, with data from individual tax filings and other databases. In Sweden, twins are registered at birth, and the STR collects additional data through in-depth interviews.12 STR’s data provide us with the zygosity of each twin pair: Identical or “monozygotic” (MZ) twins are genetically identical, while fraternal or “dizygotic” (DZ) twins are genetically different, and share on average 50% of their genes.13 Table 1 reports summary statistics for the twins in our data set and their individual characteristics. Panel A shows that we have data on a total of 10,490 identical twins, and 24,486 fraternal twins, who participate in the stock market. Opposite-sex twins are the most common (38%); identical male twins are the least common (13%). Panel B reports summary statistics for individual characteristics, including age, education, net worth, and disposable income, which we include as controls when we estimate models in Section IV. The average size of the portfolios in our data set, about USD 33,500, is comparable to those in other data sets of a broad set of individual investors, e.g., EUR 24,600 in Grinblatt and Keloharju (2009).14 11Research in economics has a long history of using data on twins; see, e.g., Behrman and Taubman (1976, 1989), Taubman (1976), Ashenfelter and Krueger (1994), and Black et al. (2007). 12STR’s databases are organized by birth cohort. The Screening Across Lifespan Twin, or “SALT,” database contains data on twins born 1886–1958. The Swedish Twin Studies of Adults: Genes and Environment database, or “STAGE,” contains data on twins born 1959–1985. In addition to twin pairs, twin identifiers, and zygosity status, the databases contain variables based on STR’s telephone interviews (for SALT), completed 1998–2002, and combined telephone interviews and Internet surveys (for STAGE), completed 2005–2006. For further details about STR, we refer to Lichtenstein et al. (2006). 13Zygosity is based on questions about intrapair similarities in childhood. One of the questions was: Were you and your twin partner during childhood “as alike as two peas in a pod” or were you “no more alike than siblings in general” with regard to appearance? STR has validated this method with DNA analysis as having 98 percent accuracy on a subsample of twins. For twin pairs for which DNA has been collected, zygosity status is based on DNA analysis. 14We use the average end-of-year exchange rate 1999-2007 of 8.0179 Swedish Krona per U.S. dollar to convert summary statistics in the table. When we estimate models in Section IV, all values are in Swedish Krona, i.e., not converted to U.S. dollars. 8 B Measures of Investment Style Prior to the abolishment of the wealth tax in Sweden in 2007, all Swedish banks, brokerage firms, and other financial institutions were required by law to report to the Swedish Tax Authority information about individuals’ portfolios (i.e., stocks, bonds, mutual funds, and other securities) owned on December 31. We have matched the individuals in our data set with portfolio data between 1999 and 2007, the entire period for which data are available. For each individual, our data set contains all securities owned at the end of the year (identified by each security’s International Security Identification Number (ISIN)), the number of each security owned, and the end of the year value. Security level data have been provided by S&P CapitalIQ and Morningstar. In our data set, there is a total of about 2,000 different stocks and about 1,000 different mutual funds. We do not expect a dichotomous classification of value versus growth investors to be empirically relevant, so we categorize each investor’s value versus growth “orientation” on a continuum. For stocks, we construct two measures of value versus growth orientation using different scaled price ratios: Price/Earnings (P/E) and Price/Book (P/B).15 For each individual, we first compute the value-weighted average ratio for each year. We then average these ratios over those years an individual is in the data set in order to reduce measurement error. Table 2 reports detailed definitions for each of our investment style measures. For mutual funds, we also construct two measures: i) Morningstar’s Value-Growth Score, which varies from -100 (value) to +400 (growth); ii) Name-based value/growth measure, which is -1 if a fund’s name contains “value,” +1 if a fund’s name contains “growth” or “technology,” and zero otherwise. We use the same method as for stocks to construct an average measure for each individual. Table 3 Panel A reveals that while identical and fraternal twins are relatively similar with respect to these investment style measures, there is significant variation across different investors with respect to their value versus growth orientation. It is this cross-sectional variation that we decompose and explain in Section IV. Finally, Panel B of Table 3 shows that all measures of the value versus growth orientation of investors’ portfolios are significantly positively correlated, suggesting that investors indeed have a 15Following CapitalIQ’s practices, the scaled price ratios are censored at 0 and 300. Winsorizing at the 1%-level does not change any of the reported results. 9 consistent preference for certain investment styles. IV Results We first examine to which extent an individual’s investment style is determined by biological vs. environmental factors. We then investigate whether specific proxies for (financial) risk taking predict an investor’s value vs. growth orientation. Our final set of results analyses specific environmental experiences that according to the life course theory may influences an investor’s investment style. A Biological Predispositions and Investment Style In this section, we first report separate correlations for identical versus fraternal twins for each of our measures of investment style. We then provide formal estimation results from decomposing the cross-sectional variation in investment style into genetic and environmental components. To do so, we use empirical methods from quantitative behavioral genetics research that have recently been employed also in research in economics (e.g., Cesarini et al. (2009) and Barnea et al. (2010)). The approach involves maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) of a random effects model, but relies on an intuitive and simple insight: Identical twins share 100% of their genes, while the average proportion of shared genes is only 50% for fraternal twins, so if identical twins are more similar with respect to their investment styles than are fraternal twins, then there is evidence that value versus growth orientation is partly explained by genetic predispositions. For further details, we refer to the Appendix of the paper. A.1 Evidence from Correlations Figure 1 reports correlations by genetic similarity, i.e., for identical twins and fraternal twins (separately for same- and opposite-sex twins), for measures of value versus growth orientation. Panel A contains results for stocks and Panel B for mutual funds. Several conclusions emerge from this evidence. First, we find that identical twins’ investment styles are significantly more correlated compared to fraternal twins. For example, the Pearson correlation coefficient among identical twins is 0.32 for the average P/E ratio of the stock portfolio, 10 compared to only 0.19 among fraternal twins (0.20 among same-sex fraternal twins). The correlation among identical twins is generally about double the correlation among fraternal twins. A similar conclusion emerges for mutual funds. For example, the Pearson correlation coefficient among identical twins is 0.30 for the average Value-Growth Score by Morningstar for the mutual fund portfolio, compared to only 0.14 among fraternal twins (0.16 among same-sex fraternal twins). That is, genetically more similar investors have more similar investment styles. This evidence strongly suggests that genetic differences affect value versus growth orientation among individual investors. Second, we find that the correlations among identical twins are significantly below one. That is, even genetically identical investors show significant differences with respect to their investment styles. This evidence shows the importance of the environment (e.g., individual-specific experiences and events) in explaining an investor’s value versus growth orientation, and emphasizes the importance of analyzing the effect on investment style of experiences and events during an individual’s life course. A.2 Evidence from Variance Decomposition Tables 4 and 5 report estimation results from decomposing investment styles into genetic and environmental variation.16 We report the relative proportions of the cross-sectional variation in investment styles across individuals that are explained by genetic (A), common environmental (C), and individual-specific environmental (E) factors (for details, see equation (5) in the Appendix). More specifically, we first regress each investment style measure on a set of individual characteristics and then we decompose the residual variation. We include the following individual characteristics: Gender, age, education, marriage status, disposable income, and net worth. The evidence from the variance decomposition in Table 4 confirms the correlation evidence and shows that variation across investors with respect to value versus growth orientation of their stock portfolio is partially genetic.17 The estimates of the A component vary from 18% to 24%, and 16See the Appendix for details on the maximum likelihood estimation of the random effects model specified in equation (1) of the Appendix. 17As a robustness check, we have also examined Price/Sales (P/S) and Price/Cash flow (P/C) ratios. The A components for these measures are similar to those reported for standard measures such as P/E and P/B ratios. 11 are statistically significant for each investment style measure.18 The C component is significantly smaller, and varies from 8% to 10%. The remaining portion of the cross-sectional variation in investment style is explained by individual-specific experiences and events.19 While the evidence reported so far involves individual stocks, we also decompose the cross- sectional variation in investment style using data on mutual funds. We use two measures, the Value-Growth Score by Morningstar and a name-based value/growth measure. These measures provide a salient way for an individual investor to choose exposure based on his or her value versus growth preference. Our conclusions from Table 5 are similar compared to individual stocks. The estimates of the A component vary from 16% to 25%, and are statistically significant for each investment style measure, and the estimate of the C component is smaller, ranging from 0% to 4%. On the one hand, Tables 4 and 5 show that it is difficult to estimate the A component for value versus growth orientation precisely. On the other hand, it is encouraging that each of the investment style measures paint a very consistent picture in the sense of a statistically significant A component, for both stocks and mutual funds. It should also be emphasized that recent studies related to individual investor behavior have had difficulties explaining even 10% of the cross-sectional variation when including a large set of individual characteristics (e.g., Brunnermier and Nagel (2008)). Overall, based on the reported evidence, we conclude that an individual’s investment style has a biological basis, i.e., a preference for value versus growth stocks is partially ingrained in an investor from birth. An assumption of the model we estimate is the so-called Equal Environments Assumption (EEA). If an individual’s parents or others in the environment treat identical twins more similarly than fraternal twins (along dimensions relevant for investment style), then the estimated genetic component (A) may be upward biased. This problem has been long recognized in twin research, and substantial effort has been devoted to addressing it. From research in behavioral genetics, where the EEA has been tested most rigorously, the evidence suggests that any bias from violations of the EEA is not of first order importance (e.g., Bouchard (1998)). Researchers have studied twins reared 18One concern is that including opposite-sex twins in our analysis results in an upward bias of the relative importance of genetic factors, as captured by A, because identical twins always have the same sex. As a robustness check, we have re-estimated the models for same-sex twins only, and we find that our results are qualitatively and quantitatively very similar. 19The E component is also absorbing idiosyncratic measurement error. Because our data set comes from the Swedish Tax Agency, which obtains the data directly from financial institutions, reporting errors should be relatively rare. 12 apart for which there is no common parental environment, and these studies generally produce estimates similar to those using twins who were reared together (e.g., Bouchard et al. (1990)). Recent progress in genotyping has enabled researchers to construct DNA-based measures of pairwise genetic relatedness and to compare genetic similarity to similarity with respect to, foe example, height and IQ (Jian et al. (2010) and Davies et al. (2011)). These studies use unrelated subjects, not twins, and show that at least 50% of the variation in the studied outcomes is due to genetic variation, supporting existing evidence from twin studies. B Risk Preferences and Investment Style If value-oriented portfolios have outperformed growth-oriented portfolios historically because of differences in risk, we may expect investors with a preference for more (less) financial risk to prefer value (growth) stocks and mutual funds. In this section, we therefore examine whether several proxies which a priori are expected to correlate with risk preferences also explain individuals’ investment styles. The results are reported in Table 6. We start by examining whether gender is related to value versus growth orientation. Several previous studies in economics have found that men generally take more risk compared to women (see, e.g., Croson and Gneezy (2009) and Bertrand (2011) for extensive literature reviews). As a result, if value is riskier than growth investing, we would expect that men, on average, are more value orientated than women. Table 6 shows that we find the opposite result in data: Men have a stronger preference for growth investing compared to women. We find that men’s stock portfolios have a P/E ratio that is on average 0.4 higher than women’s, about 2% higher compared to the median P/E. Another way to quantify the size of this effect is to report that the median P/E ratio for a value fund based on the fund’s name is 15.7, compared to 21.0 for growth funds, which means that an effect of 0.4 corresponds to about 8% of the difference between value and growth funds, which is an economically significant effect. We also examine age because older investors are generally found to take less financial risk compared to younger investors (e.g., Barsky, Juster, Kimball, and Shapiro (1997) and Paulsen et al. (2012)). A risk preference explanation would predict that older investors are more growth oriented. 13 Again, Table 6 shows that we find the opposite result in data: Older investors have a significantly stronger preference for value investing. The average P/E ratio of the stock portfolio of a 65 year old investor is 4.4 (or about 19% compared to the median) lower compared to a 25 year old.20 We also examine a larger set of proxies potentially related to an individual’s risk taking propensity, including education, marriage status, disposable income, net worth, and share in equities. Table 6 first includes these variables one by one, and then all at the same time. We find that those with a college education have more growth oriented portfolios compared to lower-education investors, with an average P/E ratio that is 2.3 (or about 11% compared to the median) higher. Investors who have higher disposable incomes and net worth have a stronger preference for growth. A one standard deviation increase in the log of disposable income corresponds to an average P/E that is about 1.4 higher. Finally, those with a higher equity share, a measure of financial risk taking propensity, prefer growth oriented portfolios. A 10 percentage points increase in the share in equities corresponds to an average P/E that is about 0.3 higher. The overall conclusion from the above analysis is that investors who a priori are expected to take more financial risk have a preference for growth investing, not value investing. This result is consistently found in data for both more exogenous variables (e.g., gender and age) and also other individual characteristics (e.g., net worth) we examine. C Life Course Theory and Investment Style In this section, we examine to what extent differential life experiences and events of individuals explain cross-sectional differences in investment styles later in life. Based on pre-existing research in social psychology we consider several types of potentially relevant, and exogenous, life experiences of individuals: 1) Macroeconomic experiences, 2) Impressionable years, and 3) Rearing environment. 20Because some studies have found that the very oldest individuals in their samples do take more financial risk (e.g., Barsky et al. (1997)), we have checked that our conclusion is robust to excluding those over 70 years. Our results are indeed somewhat stronger when we drop the very oldest investors in our data. 14 C.1 Macroeconomic Experiences First, we analyze whether there is a persistent effect on an individual’s investment style of growing up during the Great Depression. More specifically, we examine the effect on value versus growth orientation of being born between 1920 and 1929, using the same “Depression Baby” definition as Schoar and Zuo (2013).21 If an adverse macroeconomic experience results in less risk taking later in life, and if value is riskier than growth investing, we may expect investors who grew up during the Great Depression to prefer growth investing. An alternative hypothesis, not based on a risk explanation, is that those who have more salient experiences of difficult economic conditions develop a value-oriented investment style, with a preference for stocks that seem relatively “cheaper.” The results in Table 7 are consistent with the latter hypothesis: Individuals who grew up during the Great Depression show significantly more value-orientation in their stock portfolios several decades later in life. More specifically, we find that those who grew up during the Great Depression have portfolios with average P/E ratios that are 2.2 (or about 10% at the median) lower compared to those of other investors. It is important to emphasize that we control for disposable income and net worth, which may also be affected by a Great Depression experience, so our results are not simply reflecting long-term wealth differences. As a robustness check, we also analyze only old investors, defined as those born before 1940, i.e., we include Depression Babies with only somewhat older and somewhat younger individuals. Table 7 shows that the results do not change significantly (the estimated coefficient drops from -2.2 to -1.8 but is still statistically significant). Second, as an alternative measure of macroeconomic experiences, we also analyze an individual’s GDP growth experiences during his or her life so far. More specifically, we measure the average GDP growth from an individual’s birth year until year 2000, i.e., the start of our data set. Experiencing poor GDP growth may reduce an individual’s propensity to take risk later in life. A risk explanation for investment style may then suggest that individuals with more negative GDP growth experiences become growth investors. In contrast, we find that experiencing stronger GDP growth results in a growth oriented investment style. We find that for a 100 basis points per year higher average GDP growth experience during the life, the average P/E ratio of the stock portfolio of the investor is 1.2 21Sweden was affected by the Wall Street Crash of 1929, and was also the origin of the Kreuger Crash of 1932, with adverse international macroeconomic consequences deepening the Depression in several countries, including the U.S. 15 (or about 6% at the median) higher compared to those of other investors, controlling for individual characteristics. While economically significant, we recognize that the effect is statistically weaker (t-statistic = 1.81) compared to the Great Depression, the most severe macro event someone in our sample experienced. Finally, we examine whether “Individual HML Experience,” based on the returns of HML factor portfolios, explains subsequent investment styles (e.g., Malmendier and Nagel (2011)). That is, do those who have experienced higher HML returns develop into more value oriented investors? We construct our measures in a similar way to our “Individual GDP Growth Experience” measure, for the U.S. stock market (see Fama and French (1993)) as well as for the Swedish stock market (using data provided by Kenneth French).22 We do not find a robust and statistically significant relation between “Individual HML Experience” and value versus growth orientation. Our results are supportive of life course theory partially explaining an investor’s value or growth orientation. An individual’s GDP growth experiences, particularly adverse and significant macroeconomic experiences (e.g., the Great Depression) affect an individual’s investment style later in life. The evidence is consistent with those who have more salient experiences of difficult economic conditions developing a value-oriented investment style, with a preference for stocks that seem relatively “cheaper.” C.2 Impressionable Years We also analyze impressionable years during an individual’s life. More specifically, we consider whether an individual started his or her first employment in an economic downturn. There exists no similar classification of recessions to the NBER’s business cycle database for Sweden, so we have analyzed a broad set of alternative measures of economic downturns. First, we define a recession as a period with a year with negative GDP growth +/– 1 years.23 Table 8 shows that individuals who entered the job market during a recession have portfolios with an average P/E ratio that are 0.3 22We compute HML returns from the year an individual entered the job market for the first time. This increases the sample size for the HML factor portfolio for Sweden for which we only have data starting in 1975. Our results are also robust to using data for the HML factor portfolio for Europe (see Fama and French (2012)) for which we only have data starting in 1990. 23Our results are stronger if we only include the years of negative GDP growth. A concern, though, is that such a measure is more susceptible to criticism of exogeneity compared to a measure that also includes +/– 1 years. 16 lower, but the effect is not statistically significant. Second, we also report results for the most severe economic downturns someone in our sample experienced, corresponding to World War I, the Great Depression, and World War II. We find that those who entered the job market in a significant economic downturn have portfolios with average P/E ratios that are 2.2 (or about 10% at the median) lower compared to those of other investors, controlling for individual characteristics. Our result that the preference for value investing among those with their first employment in an economic downturn is robust to controlling for disposable income and net worth implies that there is a direct effect of economic downturns on investment style later in life, in addition to any indirect effect from lower income of those who entered the job market in economic downturns (e.g., Oreopoulos et al. (2012)). We find an even stronger effect (P/E ratios that are 3.8 lower) if we examine whether an individual experienced a severe economic downturn when 18-25 years old, rather than examining the macroeconomic conditions during the years of an individual’s first employment (e.g., Giuliano and Spilimbergo (2013)). While all specifications continue to control for income as well as net-worth, we also show the impressionable year effects remain significant when we include cohort (by decade of birth) fixed effects. Our results are therefore supportive of the impressionable years hypothesis. The economic conditions at the time of an individual’s first job market entry and when an individual is 18-25 years old partially explain an individual’s investment style later in life; the more severe the economic downturn, the more value oriented the individual is later on in life. C.3 Rearing Environment We also examine whether the rearing environment has significant long-term effects on an individual’s investment style later in life. First, we examine the socioeconomic status (SES) of an individual’s parents. We are not able to measure parents’ SES exactly when an individual grew up, so we use parents’ net worth at the start of our data set as a proxy. The results are reported in Table 9. We find that individuals who grew up in a lower SES environment, i.e., relatively poor, show significantly more value-orientation in their stock portfolios later in their lives. Investors at the bottom of the parental wealth distribution (10th percentile) have portfolios with average P/E ratios 17 that are 1.0 (or about 5% at the median) lower compared to investors at the top of the distribution (90th percentile). We show that this effect is robust within each generation by controlling for birth cohort (decade) fixed effects, so this result is not specific to, e.g., the Great Depression cohort. Second, we examine if parents’ life experiences transfer to their children and affect the investment style also of the next generation. We find evidence consistent with an inter-generational transfer of life experiences. Investors whose parents were born between 1920 and 1929, i.e., grew up during the Great Depression, show significantly more value orientation. Comparing the Great Depression effect on an individual’s own investment style (-2.2 in Table 7) to the one of the next generation (-1.2 in Table 9) we conclude that about 50% of the effect is transmitted to the next generation. The overall conclusion from the above analysis is that individuals’ investment styles are affected also by the rearing environment in which they grew up, in particular their parents’ socioeconomic status and their parents’ life experiences. V Discussion In this section, we discuss some of the potential implications of our results. Asset prices and the value premium. First, we find that investors who a priori are expected to take more financial risk have a preference for growth, not value, investing. If the value premium is the result of risk (e.g., Fama and French (1993) and Petkova and Zhang (2005)), it is surprising that risk-taking investors prefer growth stocks and mutual funds.24 Some of our results seem more consist with a behavioral biases explanation than a risk explanation. For example, some have argued that the value premium is a result of investor overconfidence (e.g., Daniel, Hirshleifer, and Subrahmanyam (1998) and Daniel, Titman, and Wei (2001)), and some of the investors who have a preference for growth stocks, e.g., men and younger investors have been found to be more overconfident (e.g., Barber and Odean (2001)). Second, our results imply that the overall composition of a market may affect the demand for value versus growth stocks, and in the end potentially equilibrium asset 24Some may argue that individual investors use growth investing as a “hedging” approach. We believe that hedging arguments are problematic. First, growth investing seems to be a costly and imprecise approach to offset human capital risk. Second, we are not aware of any empirical evidence suggesting that individuals estimate their human capital risk exposure and then hedge such risks in the stock market. In practice, individuals often do the opposite of hedging (e.g., Benartzi (2001)). 18 prices. For example, our result that gender and age are significantly related to value versus growth orientation implies that the gender and age distributions in a market may partially explain the value premium. Similarly, the life experiences of the participants in a particular market may affect the demand for value versus growth stocks, resulting in “legacy effects” of macro events that occurred a long time ago also for the value premium, similar to the implications of Friedman and Schwartz (1963) and Cogley and Sargent (2008) for the equity premium. Suboptimal investor portfolios. One possible explanation of our findings is that individual in- vestors do not perceive value as riskier than growth portfolios. Many mutual fund companies indeed instill this view into investors. To provide only one example, Fidelity explains the difference between value and growth funds to investors as follows on their website: “While growth funds are expected to offer the potential for higher returns, they also generally represent a greater risk when compared to value funds (emphasis added).”25 If value is riskier than growth, though, for example because asset prices are set by institutions as the marginal investors who affect prices, individuals’ mis-calibration imply that value (growth) investors may end up with significantly more (less) risk than they would have done if they were appropriately calibrated (because they believe value if less risky). As a result, many individual investors may end up with suboptimal portfolios. Mechanisms. While we find that an individual’s investment style is explained by both biological predispositions as well as experiences and events during the course of life, the paper does not uncover the specific mechanisms that explain these effects. The use of gene-candidate studies or genome-wide association studies (GWAS) to identify the specific set of gene(s) that explain value versus growth orientation may be a productive next step for researchers. Several specific genes related to financial risk-taking and long-short risk have recently been identified (e.g., Kuhnen and Chiao (2009) and Zhong et al. (2009)). Examining whether the very same risk-taking genes also explain value versus growth orientation among investors may provide additional evidence on whether the value premium is related to risk or not. Also, as the number of studies related to finance that support life course theory continues to increase (e.g., Oyer (2008), Malmendier and Nagel (2011), and Schoar and Zuo (2013)), another next step for researchers is to uncover the specific mechanisms than explain 25https://www.fidelity.com/learning-center/mutual-funds/growth-vs-value-investing. 19 why macroeconomic and other events are related to financial behavior decades later in life. Recent research on neurological development shows that, in the developing brain, the volume of gray matter in the cortex gradually increases until about the age of adolescence, but then sharply decreases as the brain prunes away neuronal connections that are deemed superfluous to the adult needs of the individual (e.g., Spear (2000)). Such evidence may provide a mechanism for early life experiences explaining an individual’s investment behavior later in life, but more research is certainly required. VI Conclusion We report that several factors explain an investor’s style, i.e., the value versus growth orientation of the investor’s stock portfolio. First, an investor’s style has a biological basis – a preference for value versus growth stocks is partially ingrained in an investor already from birth. We estimate that genetic differences across individuals explain 18% of the cross-sectional variation in value versus growth orientation, if using P/E ratios as an investment style measure, and 25% if using Morningstar’s Value-Growth Score. This evidence contributes to a growing number of studies which show that individual characteristics of importance for portfolio choice are partly explained by an individual’s biological predispositions and genetic composition (e.g., Cesarini et al. (2009), Kuhnen and Chiao (2009), and Barnea, Cronqvist, and Siegel (2010)). Second, investors who a priori are expected to take more financial risk have a preference for growth, not value, investing. This result is consistently found in data for exogenous proxies for risk taking propensity (e.g., gender and age) and also other individual characteristics (e.g., wealth). If value is riskier than growth, it may be surprising that those who are expected to take more (less) financial risk prefer growth (value) stock portfolios. This evidence suggests that either value is not riskier than growth, or that the average individual investor in mis-calibrated about the risk of value versus growth investing. In this sense, our research contributes a new perspective to the long-standing value/growth debate in finance (e.g., Fama and French (1992, 1993) Lakonishok, Shleifer, and Vishny (1994)). More specifically, we provide a new perspective on the source of the value premium by showing that individual investors’ portfolio choices do not seem to be consistent with a risk explanation. 20 Finally, an investor’s style is explained by life course theory in that experiences, both earlier and later in life, are related to investment style. In particular, investors with adverse macroeconomic experiences have stronger preferences for value investing later in life. For example, those who grew up during the Great Depression have portfolios with average P/E ratios that are 2.2 (or about 10% at the median) lower, controlling for individual characteristics, several decades later in life. Consistent with an impressionable years hypothesis, those who enter the job market for the first time during an economic downturn are also more value oriented later on. We also find that those who grew up in a lower status socioeconomic rearing environment have a stronger value orientation later in life. 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Specifically, we model the value/growth orientation, vgij, for twin pair i and twin j (1 or 2) as a function of observable socioeconomic individual characteristics Xij and three unobservable random effects, an additive genetic effect, aij, an effect of the environment common to both twins (e.g., upbringing), ci, and an individual-specific effect, eij, which also absorbs idiosyncratic measurement error: vgij = β0 + β1Xij + aij + ci + eij. (1) In quantitative behavioral genetics research, this model is referred to as an “ACE model,” where “A” stands for additive genetic effects, “C” for common environment, and “E” for individual-specific environment.26 The additive genetic component aij in Equation (1) represents the sum of the genotypic values of all “genes” that influence an individual’s behavior. Each individual has two, potentially different, versions (alleles) of each gene (one is from each parent), and each version is assumed to have a specific, additive effect on the individual’s behavior. The genotypic value of a gene is the sum of the effects of both alleles present in a given individual. Consider, for example, two different alleles A1 and A2 for a given given gene and assume that the effect of the A1 allele on investment style is of magnitude α1, while the effect of the A2 allele is α2. An individual with genotype A1A1 would experience the genetic effect 2α1, while genotype A1A2 would have a genetic effect of α1 + α2. 27 We also assume that aij, ci, and eij are uncorrelated with one another and across twin pairs and normally distributed with zero means and variances σ2a, σ 2 c , and σ 2 e , so that the total residual variance σ2 is the sum of the three variance components (σ2 = σ2a + σ 2 c + σ 2 e ). Identification of variation due to aij, ci, and eij is possible due to constraints on the covariance matrices for these effects. These constraints are the result of the genetic similarity of twins and assumptions about upbringing and other aspects of the common environment. Consider two twin pairs i = 1, 2 with twins j = 1, 2 in each pair, where the first is a pair of identical twins and the second is a pair of fraternal twins. The additive genetic effects are: a = (a11,a12,a21,a22) ′. Identical and fraternal twin pairs differ in their genetic similarity, i.e., the off-diagonal elements related to identical twins in the matrix in (2) are 1 as the proportion of shared additive genetic variation is 100% between identical twins. In contrast, for fraternal twins the proportion of the shared additive genetic variation is on average only 50%, i.e., the off-diagonal elements related to fraternal twins in the matrix in (2) are 1/2.28 As a result, for these two twin pairs, the covariance matrix with respect 26See, e.g., Falconer and Mackay (1996) for a more detailed discussion of quantitative behavioral genetics research. 27The extent to which the effect of two different alleles deviates from the sum of their individual effects is called “dominance deviation.” 28For an intuitive explanation of the proportion of the shared additive genetic variation for fraternal twins as well as non-twin siblings, consider a single gene, of which one parent has allele A1 and A2, while the other parent has allele A3 and A4. Any of their off-spring will have one of the following combinations as they get one allele from each parent: A1A3, A1A4, A2A3, or A2A4. Suppose one fraternal twin is of A1A3 type. The overlap with the fraternal twin sibling will be: 1 if the sibling is of A1A3 type, 1/2 if type A1A4, 1/2 if type A2A3, and 0 if the type is A2A4. This implies an average overlap of 1/2. For a formal derivation, see, e.g., Falconer and Mackay (1996). 27 to aij is: Cov(a) = σ2a   1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1/2 0 0 1/2 1   . (2) The common environmental effects are: c = (c11,c12,c21,c22) ′. The model assumes that identical and fraternal twins experience the same degree of similarity in their common environments (the “Equal Environments Assumption”). That is, the off-diagonal elements related to either identical or fraternal twins in the matrix in (3) are 1. Assuming that identical and fraternal twins experience the same degree of similarity in their common environment, any excess similarity between identical twins is due to the greater proportion of genes shared by identical twins than by fraternal twins. As a result, for the two twin pairs, the covariance matrix with respect to ci is: Cov(c) = σ2c   1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1   . (3) The individual-specific environmental effects are: e = (e11,e12,e21,e22) ′. These error terms represent for example life experiences, but also idiosyncratic measurement error. That is, the off-diagonal elements related to either identical or fraternal twins in the matrix in (4) are 0. As a result, for the two twin pairs, the covariance matrix with respect to eij is: Cov(e) = σ2e   1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1   . (4) We use maximum likelihood to estimate the model in equation (1). Finally, we calculate the variance components A, C, and E. A is the proportion of the total residual variance that is related to an additive genetic factor: A = σ2a σ2 = σ2a σ2a + σ 2 c + σ 2 e (5) The proportions attributable to the common environment (C) and individual-specific environmental effects (E) are computed analogously. Standard errors reported in the tables are bootstrapped with 1,000 repetitions. 28 Table 1 Summary Statistics: Individual Characteristics Panel A: Number of Twins by Zygosity and Gender All Twins Male Female Total Male Female Sex Total Number of twins (N ) 34,976 4,496 5,994 10,490 5,064 6,300 13,122 24,486 Percentage 100% 13% 17% 30% 14% 18% 38% 70% Panel B: Individual Characteristics All Twins N Mean Median Std. Dev. Mean Median Std. Dev. 34,976 47.08 48.00 17.64 53.06 55.00 15.51 34,976 22% 0% 41% 26% 0% 44% 34,976 58% 100% 49% 47% 0% 50% 34,976 6% 0% 23% 6% 0% 24% 34,976 46% 0% 50% 54% 100% 50% 34,976 87,554 39,661 210,778 103,892 51,634 480,174 34,976 31,305 25,443 24,944 34,797 27,563 33,425 College or More High School Age Identical Twins Fraternal Twins Identical Twins Fraternal Twins Married Net Worth (USD) Disposable Income (USD) No Education Data Available Table 1 reports summary statistics for the individuals (Panel A) in our data set and their characteristics (Panel B). The variables are defined in detail in Table 2. Table 2 Variable Definitions Category / Variable Description Individual Characteristics Male An indicator variable that equals 1 if an individual is male, and 0 otherwise. Data from Statistics Sweden. Age Average age across the years an individual is in the data set. Data from Statistics Sweden. College or More An indicator variable that equals 1 if an individual has attended university, and 0 otherwise. Data from Statistics Sweden. High School An indicator variable that equals 1 if an individual has completed high school ("gymnasium"), and 0 otherwise. Data from Statistics Sweden. No Education Data Available An indicator variable that equals 1 if no educational data are available for an individual, and 0 otherwise. Data from Statistics Sweden. Married Average of an annual indicator variable that equals 1 if an individual is married, and 0 otherwise. Averaged across those years an individual is in the data set. Data from Statistics Sweden. Disposable Income Average individual disposable income, i.e., the sum of income from labor, business, and investment, plus received transfers, less taxes, and alimony payments. Averaged across those years an individual is in the data set. Expressed in nominal Swedish Krona (SEK). Data from Statistics Sweden. Net Worth Average difference between the end-of-year market value of an individual's assets and liabilities. Averaged across those years an individual is in the data set. Expressed in nominal Swedish Krona (SEK), unless stated otherwise. Data from Statistics Sweden. Share in Equities The market value of direct and indirect equity investments divided by the market value of all financial assets. Data from Statistics Sweden. Investment Style P/E The value-weighted price to earnings ratio for each year, averaged across those years an individual is in the data set. Data from CapitalIQ. P/B The value-weighted market value to book value of equity ratio for each year, averaged across those years an individual is in the data set. Data from CapitalIQ. Morningstar's Value-Growth Score Morningstar's score of value/growth from -100 (value) to +400 (growth). The variable is value-weighted for each year and averaged across those years an individual is in the data set. Name-based Value/Growth Measure A variable that equals -1 if a fund's name contains "value," equals +1 if a fund's name contains "growth" or "high tech," and zero otherwise. The variable is value-weighted for each year and averaged across those years an individual is in the data set. Experience and Events Depression Baby An indicator variable that equals 1 if a individual was born 1920-1929, and otherwise 0. Individual GDP Growth Experience The average of GDP growth in Sweden from an individual's birth to year 2000. Individual US (Sweden) HML Experience The average of Fama-French's US (Sweden) HML return from the year an individual entered the job market for the first time (if after 1927 (1975)) to year 2000. First Job in Recession A "Recession Year" is a year with negative GDP growth. The variable is an indicator variable that equals 1 if an individual entered the job market for the first time during a recession year +/- 1 year, and 0 otherwise. First Job in Severe Recession The variable is an indicator variable that equals 1 if an individual entered the job market for the first time during World War I, the Great Depression, or World War II, and 0 otherwise. Parents' Net Worth An individual's parents' net worth. Depression Baby Parents An indicator variable that equals 1 if both parents of an individual were born 1920-1929, and 0 otherwise. Table 3 Summary Statistics: Investment Style Measures Panel A: Summary Statistics N Mean Median Std. Dev. Mean Median Std. Dev. Stocks P/E 17,952 24.2 22.8 14.6 23.0 21.3 13.1 P/B 18,337 3.3 2.8 2.4 3.2 2.5 2.3 Mutual Funds Morningstar's Value-Growth Score 25,729 156.4 149.2 21.4 155.2 148.6 21.0 Name-Based Value/Growth Measure 27,397 0.09 0.00 0.21 0.08 0.00 0.20 Panel B: Correlations (N = 13,075) P/E P/B Morning- star P/B 0.45*** Morningstar's Value-Growth Score 0.07*** 0.07*** Name-Based Value/Growth Measure 0.04*** 0.30*** 0.53*** Identical Twins Fraternal Twins Table 3 reports summary statistics for the measures of investment style. Panel A shows the summary statistics and Panel B shows the correlations. The variables are defined in detail in Table 2. Table 4 Evidence from Variance Decomposition of Investment Style: Stocks P/E P/B A Share 0.181** 0.241** 0.076 0.118 C Share 0.101* 0.080 0.056 0.096 E Share 0.718*** 0.679*** 0.030 0.046 N 10,618 10,640 Table 4 reports results from maximum likelihood estimation. The different investment style measures are modeled as linear functions of observable individual characteristics (gender, age, education, marriage status, disposable income, and net worth) and unobservable random effects representing additive genetic effects (A), shared environmental effects (C), as well as an individual-specific error (E). For each estimated model, we report the variance fraction of the residual explained by each unobserved effect (A Share – for the additive genetic effect, C Share – for common environmental effect, E Share – for the individual-specific environmental effect) as well as the bootstrapped standard errors (1,000 resamples). The variables are defined in detail in Table 2. Table 5 Evidence from Variance Decomposition of Investment Style: Mutual Funds Morningstar's Value-Growth Score Name-Based Value/Growth Measure A Share 0.249*** 0.159** 0.026 0.065 C Share 0.000 0.036 0.009 0.040 E Share 0.751*** 0.805*** 0.022 0.031 N 17,534 17,650 Table 5 reports results from maximum likelihood estimation. The different investment style measures are modeled as linear functions of observable individual characteristics (gender, age, education, marriage status, disposable income, and net worth) and unobservable random effects representing additive genetic effects (A), shared environmental effects (C), as well as an individual-specific error (E). For each estimated model, we report the variance fraction of the residual explained by each unobserved effect (A Share – for the additive genetic effect, C Share – for common environmental effect, E Share – for the individual-specific environmental effect) as well as the bootstrapped standard errors (1,000 resamples). The variables are defined in detail in Table 2. Table 6 Cross-Sectional Evidence: Investment Style and Proxies for Risk Preferences (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Male 0.88*** 0.41* 0.21 0.22 Age -0.07*** -0.11*** 0.01 0.01 College or More 3.56*** 2.25*** 0.28 0.31 High School 1.11*** 0.67** 0.31 0.32 No Education Data Available 0.6 1.73*** 0.43 0.48 Married 0.16 0.66*** 0.22 0.23 Log (Disposable Income) 0.78*** 2.03*** 0.16 0.20 Log (Net Worth) 0.04 0.14*** 0.03 0.04 Share in Equities 3.28*** 2.96*** 0.3 0.29 Constant 22.85*** 26.97*** 21.26*** 23.24*** 23.28*** 13.71*** 21.44*** -1.08 0.15 0.45 0.23 0.17 0.12 2.06 0.19 2.24 N 17,952 17,952 17,952 17,951 17,952 17,943 17,009 17,001 R-squared 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.03 Table 6 reports results from linear regressions of P/E ratio onto individual characteristics. For each estimated model, we report the coefficient estimates as well as the corresponding standard errors. Robust standard errors are adjusted based on correlation between twins in a twin pair. The variables are defined in detail in Table 2. Table 7 Life Course Theory and Investment Style: Macroeconomic Experiences (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Depression Baby -2.17*** -1.79*** 0.53 0.57 Individual GDP Growth Experience 1.23* 0.68 Individual US HML Experience 0.00 0.04 Individual Sweden HML Experience 0.04 0.03 Constant 2.12 16.35** -0.48 3.48 11.92 2.17 6.75 2.61 2.31 5.13 Sample All Born before 1940 All First Job after 1927 First Job after 1975 N 17,943 4,774 17,943 16,462 5,335 R-squared 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.01 Table 7 reports results from linear regressions of P/E ratio onto macroeconomic experience variables as well as observable individual characteristics (gender, age, education, marriage status, disposable income, and net worth). For each estimated model, we report selected coefficient estimates as well as the corresponding standard errors. Robust standard errors are adjusted based on correlation between twins in a twin pair. The variables are defined in detail in Table 2. Table 8 Life Course Theory and Investment Style: Impressionable Years (N = 16,462) (1) (2) (3) First Job in Recession -0.30 0.33 First Job in Severe Recession -2.18*** 0.57 18-25 Years Old in Severe Recession -3.83*** 0.71 Constant 3.58 3.87* 3.86* 2.32 2.32 2.31 N 16,462 16,462 16,462 R-squared 0.02 0.02 0.02 Table 8 reports results from linear regressions of P/E ratio onto impressionable years variables as well as observable individual characteristics (gender, age, education, marriage status, disposable income, and net worth). For each estimated model, we report selected coefficient estimates as well as the corresponding standard errors. Robust standard errors are adjusted based on correlation between twins in a twin pair. The variables are defined in detail in Table 2. Table 9 Life Course Theory and Investment Style: Rearing Environment (N = 8,101) (1) (2) (3) (4) Log (Parents' Net Worth) 0.26** 0.27** 0.30*** 0.30*** 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 Depression Baby Parents -1.33*** -1.20** 0.47 0.50 Constant 5.12 4.94 4.74 4.69 3.59 4.73 3.59 4.73 Birth Cohort (Decade) Fixed Effects No Yes No Yes R-squared 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 Table 9 reports results from linear regressions of P/E ratio onto rearing environment variables observable individual characteristics (gender, age, education, marriage status, disposable income, and net worth). For each estimated model, we report selected coefficient estimates as well as the corresponding standard errors. Robust standard errors are adjusted based on correlation between twins in a twin pair. The variables are defined in detail in Table 2. 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 P/E P/B Figure 1 Panel A Correlations by Genetic Similarity (Stocks) Identical Twins Fraternal Twins Fraternal Twins‐ Same Sex Fraternal Twins ‐ Opposite Sex Figure 1 Panel A reports Pearson correlation coefficients for investment style for different types of twin pairs. The investment style measures are calculated using direct stock holdings only. All variables are defined in Appendix Table A1. 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 Morningstar's Value‐Growth Score Name‐Based Value/Growth Measure Figure 1 Panel B Correlations by Genetic Similarity (Mutual Funds) Identical Twins Fraternal Twin Fraternal Twins‐Same Sex Fraternal Twins‐Opposite Sex Figure 1 Panel B reports Pearson correlation coefficients for investment style for different types of twin pairs. The investment style measures are calculated using mutual fund holdings only. All variables are defined in Table 2. all tables V4_20131214.pdf 1.pdf 2.pdf 3.pdf 4.pdf 5.pdf 6.pdf 7.pdf 8.pdf 9.pdf 10.pdf 
work_q7sahkk3ufhkpfaojceq3frhyi	----	I 93 I .] PSYCHOLOGY AND PSYCHO-PATHOLOGY. 235 A Case of Arlenio-venous Aneurysm within the Brain. (Brain, April, 1930.) Yates, A. G., and Paine, C. G. This case, which falls within a group of intracranial vascular abnormalities to which Dandy has called attention recently, is fully reported by the authors, and is discussed with particular reference to the embryological considerations involved. WM. MCWILLIAM. 2. Psychology and Psycho-Pathology. Arbeiten aus den Deut@chen Forschungsanstalt für Psychiatnie in München, vol. xv, November, 1928. This number contains the following articles: On the Effect of Several Pauses on Mental Work [ Ueber die Wirkung inehrfacher Arbeitspausen bei geistiger Anbeit]. Graf, Otto. Two pauses are allowed in two-hour periods of mental work (additions). The author finds the maximum efficiency when the first pause occurs after 40 minutes and lasts 2 minutes, the second after 8o minutes, lasting 4 minutes. The length of the optimum pauses are directly proportional to the duration of the preceding periodofwork. investigations into the Learning of Typewriting under Normal and Pathological Conditions [Untersuchungen über die Vorgange beim Erlernen des Maschinenschreibens unter normalen und krankhaften Bedingungen]. Langelüddeke, Albrecht. An investigation into the psychic processes associated with the learning of typewriting, the work curves obtained, effect of practice and sources of error, under normal conditions and in psychoses (manic-depressive insanity, schizophrenia and general paralysis) and alcoholicintoxication. On Readiness for Work [Ueber Arbeitsbeneitschaft}. Zimmer mann, W. An interruption of unknown duration (within limits of 10 minutes) in a given period of work causes a marked diminution in readiness as compared with that occurring after intervals of known duration. The influence of practice is increased after pauses of known duration, but lessened when the latter is unknown to the subject. On Handwriting in Manic-Depressive insanity [Ueben das Schreiben manisch depressiver Krankerj. Hirt, E. An exhaustive treatise, covering some 110 pages, on the pecu liarities of handwriting in manic-depressive insanity. The pressure curves are, on the whole, rigid and inflexible. Volitional tension varies more often and to a greater degree than in the normal. 236 EPITOME. [Jan., Psychomotor excitement has a marked effect, whilst the influence of inhibition is more rarely noticeable. Often peculiarities which usually signify a manic condition occur in depressed patients and, conversely, in manic patients features are frequently detected which one would rather expect in inhibition states. Psychological investigations in Post-encephalitic Parkinsonianism [Psychologische Untersuchungen an Kranken mit Par kinsonismus nach Encephalitis epidemicaJ. Schalten brand, G. Theauthorfinds a noticeable lack of susceptibility to the influence of practice and increased fatiguability during 10-minute periods of mental work (additions). The output of work was greatest in the first minute. Reaction times were prolonged and showed increased dependence on rhythm. After administration of hyoscine the results approximated to the average for normal persons. investigations on the Psychology of Work [Arbeitspsychologische Untersuchungen]. Graf, Otto. An inquiry into the relationship between fatigue, pauses, in citement and interest in the production of an ideal work-curve capable of practical application in manual work. On Time Estimations [ Ueber fortlaufende Zeitschatzungenj. Schulz, B. An investigation of the faculty of time estimation with a view to elucidating variations in conation and incitement occurring in the work-curve. The influence of Different Concentrations of Alcohol in Mental Work [Die Beeinflussung den geistigen Anbeit dunch ver schiedene Konzentrationen von Alkohol]. Gylys, A. The author concludes that the intellectual faculties (e.g., arith metical additions, comprehension, learning and quality of asso ciations) suffer more after administration of strong solutions, while the more markedly motor phenomena (reaction times, association times, etc.) are especially affected after weak solutions. The reason is to be sought in the pronounced motor excitement caused by strong solutions, which to some extent compensates for the intellectual defect. On the influence of Small Quantities of Food on intellectual Efficiency [Ueber den Einfluss kleiner Nahrungsmengen auf die geistige Leistungsfahigkeitj. Zech, 5@. The effect on the output of work of small amounts of carbohydrates and proteins taken during a pause in a work period was studied. The author found protein to have a very favourable influence which became noticeable twenty minutes after ingestion. Carbohydrate (sugar) had only a slight effect and took longer to act. I 93 I .] PSYCHOLOGY AND PSYCHO-PATHOLOGY. 237 On incitement during Mental Work [ Ueber Willensantniebe bei geistiger Arbeit]. Aunin, H. An investigation into the factors which determine the variations in incitement during mental work. On the influence of Pauses in Work under Varying Degrees of Volitional Strain [ Ueber Pausenwirkung bei Arbeit mit verschiedenen Willensspannung]. Graf, Otto. A study of the effect on efficiency of pauses during periods of mental work under high, medium and low degrees of volitional tension. The Effect of Cocaine and Psicaine on Elementary Psychic Processes [Ueber die Beeinflussung einfacher psychischer Vorgange durch Cocain und Psicainl. Gnaf, 0. The author studied the effect of these two drugs on mental work (arithmetical additions), type-writing, judgment and reaction time. In general the results showed decreased efficiency and prolonged reaction times, as compared with the normal average. No essential difference existed between the action of the two drugs. On the Effects of a Single and of Divided Doses of Akohol on Elementary Psychic Processes [ Ueber die Winkungen einmaliger und geteilter Alkoholgaben auf einfache psy chische Leistungenj. Enkling, 3'. On the Action of Alcohol in School-Children [ Ueben Alkohol wirkung bei SchulkindernJ. Erlacher, K. Even very small amounts (10 grm.) have a conspicuous effect on the general behaviour and reduce efficiency of work about 30%. The effect is more pronounced in the younger children. On impressionabilityand Alcohol[Ueber Merkfahigkeitund Alkoholj. Hahn, G. An inquiry into the effect of alcohol on impressionability in memory experiments. Kraepelin as Psychological Research Worker [Knaepelins psy chologische Forschertatigkeitj. Weygandt, Prof. W. Prof. Weygandt here gives an admirable survey and appreciation of Kraepelin's research activities in the field of experimental psy chology. During thirty-three years Kraepelin published over one hundred scientific papers, almost exclusively of an experimental nature. RecentExperimentson the ComparativeMeasurement of the Action of Alcohol [Neue Vensuche zur vergleichenden Mes sung der Alkoholwirkungj. Haas, @,and Lange, 7. This paper deals with the medico-legal aspects of alcohol. The author carried out investigations in chronic alcoholism, cerebral 2 3 8 EPITOME. [Jan., trauma, psychopathic types and experimental intoxication. The method of Goring was adopted. Pending further investigations no conclusions could be reached. The Alteration in Action of Alcohol during Simultaneous in gestion of Fats or Proteins [Die Veranderung den Alkohol wirkung bei gleichzeitigen Aufnahme von Fett- oder Eiweiss nahrung]. Schottky, 7. The administration of food lessens the action of alcohol. Proteins have a more pronounced effect than fats. On the Effect on the Mind of Dicodid and Dilaudid [Ueber die Beeinflussung des Seelenlebens durch Dicodid und Dilaudid]. Römmelt, W. These drugs are derivatives of codeine and morphine respectively. Under their influence, the power of imagination is heightened, but the intellectual faculties suffer thereby. Self-control is diminished and the lower motor centres are rendered more excitable. The tendency to habit-formation is slight. Psychological Experiments on 20-year-old Subjects [Psychologische Untersuchungen an Zwanzigjdhrigen]. Graf, 0. An exhaustive inquiry into the practical value of experimental methods in determining the general intelligence of young persons. The Rest Pause in Theory and Practice [Die Arbeitspause in Theorie und Praxis]. Graf, 0. A detailed consideration of the theory of the rest pause, its psychological significance and applicability to practical life. A lengthy review on the literature of the subject is appended. R. STROM-OLSEN. The Principal Sinistral Types. (Arch. of Neur. and Psyc hi at., 7uly, 1930.) Quinan, C. The author in the first instance studied 1,000 university students and found 26% to be sinistrals, i.e., individuals using either the left hand or the left eye, or both. In a group of 315 Chinese school-children the author found approximately the same percen tage. There appeared to be a marked tendency for sinistrals to concentrate on certain of the a@sthetic vocations. From the examination of 815 students it was found that sinistrals are definitely more musical than dextrals. 693 patients with nervous and mental disorders were examined, and it was found that in dementia pr@cox and most other forms of mental disorder the percentage of sinistrals was 30. In a mixed group with constitu tional psychopathic states the average percentage was 54. The author thinks that sinistrals, especially those who are left-eyed, tend to show signs of constitutional instability. G. W. T. H. FLEMING. 
work_qlvfll7lyzfgfeb5u3h66yfoxu	----	Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/10 Summer 2015, p. 429-448 DOI Number: http://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.8329 ISSN: 1308-2140, ANKARA-TURKEY TÜRK RESSAM FEYHAMAN DURAN İMZALI FATİH SULTAN MEHMET PORTESİNİN PİGMENT VE BAĞLAYICI ANALİZİ (RESSAM GENTİLE BELLİNİ’NİN FATİH SULTAN MEHMET PORTESİNİN KOPYA YAĞLIBOYA TABLOSU) Gülder EMRE** Hazal Özlem (Ersan) ERUŞ *** ÖZET Bu çalışmada; İstanbul Üniversitesi Feyhan Duran Kültür ve Sanat Evinde bulunan ahşap üzerine yağlıboya, 21/2000 envanter numaralı, Feyhaman Duran imzalı, Fatih Sultan Mehmet isimli portre çalışması incelenmiştir. Bu tablo Ünlü İtalyan ressam Gentile Bellini ye ait günümüzde İngiltere National Gallery’de bulunan” çalışmasının, ressam Feyhaman Duran tarafından yapılan bir kopyasıdır. Tablonun pigment ve bağlayıcı analizleri için SEM-EDX ve HPLC yöntemlerinden yararlanılmıştır. Böylece sanatçıya ait bir bilgi tabanı oluşturma konusunda çalışmalar yapılabilmesi hedeflenmiştir. SEM çok küçük örneklerin yüzeyden incelenmesi açısından çok avantajlıdır. Örneğin element analizini yapmak için SEM, EDS veya EDX ile de birleştirilebilir. SEM-EDX, pigment incelemelerinde son yıllarda sıklıkla kullanılan güncel bir yöntemdir. Yüksek Basınçlı Sıvı Kromatografisi (HPLC) ile de genellikle Yağlı boya tablolarda kullanılan bağlayıcıların analizi yapılabilmektedir. Bu incelemelerde, beyaz renk olarak; titanyum beyazı, çinko beyazı, litopon, sarı renk olarak; kadmiyum ve çinko sarısı, kırmışı renk olarakta; demiroksit ve vermilyon kırmızısı mavi renk olarak ultra marin mavisi, siyah renk olarak ta fildişi siyahı yeşil renk olarak tere verte tespit edilmiştir. Bağlayıcı olarak ise, arap zamkı, kitre, linoleik asit, bezir yağ ve boncuk tutkalı tespit edilmiştir. Ayrıca bu analizlerle tablonun onarımında rötuş aşamasında kullanılacak renklerin belirlenmesine yardımcı olmaktadır. Pigment ve bağlayıcı analizlerinin bir diğer önemi de sahtecilik konusundadır. Ressamın imzaladığı resimde kullanılan boyalar analiz edildiğinde, elde edilen sonuçlar boya kronolojisi ile karşılaştırıldığında, imza tarihinden sonra imal edilmiş bir boya kullanılmış ise tablo sahte olabilir. Burada tablonun daha sonraları onarım geçirip geçirmemesi de çok önemlidir.  Bu makale Crosscheck sistemi tarafından taranmış ve bu sistem sonuçlarına göre orijinal bir makale olduğu tespit edilmiştir. ** Yrd. Doç. Dr. İstanbul Üniverisitesi, Edebiyat Fakültesi, Taşınabilir Kültür Varlıklarını Koruma ve Onarım Bölümü, El-mek: gulder.emre@gmail.com *** Yüksek Kimyager, İstanbul Büyük Şehir Belediyesi Koruma, Uygulama ve Denetim Müdürlüğü(KUDEB) http://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.8329 mailto:gulder.emre@gmail.com 430 Gülder EMRE – Hazal Özlem (ERSAN) ERUŞ Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/10 Summer 2015 Anahtar Kelimeler: SEM, sanat tarihi, koruma, resim restorasyonu, yağlıboya PIGMENT AND BINDER ANALYSIS OF TURKISH PAINTER FEYHAMAN DURAN’S PORTRAIT OF MEHMED II PORTRAIT (REPLICATED OIL PAINTING OF MEHMED II ORIGINALLY PAINTED BY THE ARTIST GENTILE BELLINI) ABSTRACT In this study, the portrait painting titled “Mehmed II (Mehmed the Conqueror)” with the inventory number 21/2000 at Istanbul University Feyhaman Duran Culture and Art House, painted by the artist Feyhaman Duran was examined. This painting is a reproduction by the artist Feyhaman Duran, of the painting at British National Gallery, which was originally painted by the famous Italian artist Gentile Bellini. SEM-EDX and HPLC methods were used for the pigment and binder analyses of the painting. The aim was to carry out studies in order to form a database related to Feyhaman Duran. SEM has many advantages in terms of examining very small samples. For instance, SEM could be combined with EDS or EDX in order to have element analysis. SEM-EDX is a very common contemporary method used in pigment analysis. The bindings used in oil paintings can be examined by using High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). In these examinations it was detected that titanium white, zinc white, and litopone were used as white color; cadminium and zinc yellow were used as yellow; ferrous oxide and vermillion red were used as red; ultra marine was used as blue; ivory black was used as black; and finally, terra verde (earth green) was used as green. Gum arabic, gum tracanth, linoleic acid, linseed oil, and glue bead were detected as binding materials. These analyses also help determine the colours to be used in the retouching stage during the restoration of the painting. Pigment and binder analyses are also vital in detecting forgery. When the paints used by the painter are analysed and compared with painting chronology, the painting may turn out to be fake, if a paint produced after the date of signature was used, for instance. Here, it is also important whether or not the painting underwent restoration later on. STRUCTURED ABSTRACT In this study, the portrait painting entitled “Mehmed II (Mehmed the Conqueror)” with the inventory number 21/2000 at Istanbul University Feyhaman Duran Culture and Art House, painted by the artist Feyhaman Duran is examined. This painting is a reproduction by the artist Feyhaman Duran, of the painting at the British National Gallery, which was originally painted by the famous Italian artist Gentile Bellini. Türk Ressam Feyhaman Duran İmzalı Fatih Sultan Mehmet Portesinin Pigment… 431 Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/10 Summer 2015 Feyhaman Duran lived in Istanbul between 1886-1975. Duran studied art at the then famous schools Academia Julian and Ecole Des Beaux Arts, and continued his studies in the Cormon workshops of Jean Paul Laurens, who was among the famous artists of that period. As World War I began, Duran returned to Istanbul. Following his return, he started working as a teacher at Sanayi Nefisiye School. He was among the artists who characterized the 1914 Generation. Feyhaman Duran is one of the first names which come to mind when the subject of contemporary Turkish art is raised. As an artist of many styles, Duran was influenced by impressionism. He is especially well known as one of the pioneering artists of Turkish portrait art. In portrait painting, which does not always comply with the rules of impressionism, the artist might be said to have somewhat benefited from impressionism using light and shadow forming and free brush strokes. While the dominance of warm colours can be felt in his paintings, the colours and light are in harmony. SEM-EDX and HPLC methods were used for the pigment and binder analyses of the painting. The aim was to carry out studies in order to form a database related to Feyhaman Duran. SEM has many advantages in terms of examining very small samples. For instance, SEM could be combined with EDS or EDX in order for to element analysis to take place. SEM-EDX is a very common contemporary method used in pigment analysis. The bindings used in oil paintings can be examined by using High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). In these examinations, it was detected that titanium white, zinc white, and litopone were used the white color; cadminium and zinc yellow were used for yellow; ferrous oxide and vermillion red were used for red; ultra marine was used for blue; ivory black was used for black; and finally, terra verde (earth green) was used for green. Gum arabic, gum tracanth, linoleic acid, linseed oil, and glue bead were detected as binding materials. These analyses also help to determine the colours to be used in the retouching stage during the restoration of the painting. Pigment and binder analyses are also vital in detecting forgery. When the paints used by the painter are analysed and compared with painting chronology, the painting may be proved to fake, if a paint produced after the date of signature was used, for instance. Here, it is also important in determining whether or not the painting underwent restoration at a later date. In light of these findings, we can conclude that the artist was very attentive in replicating the original and prepared intensively prior to painting the work. Moreover, as had always been the case with his other paintings, he again used high-quality paints. While he always paid attention to obtaining a vivid and bright look in his other paintings, he tried instead to obtain a pale, matte, indeed dull look in this one. This may be due to the fact that the artist knew Mehmed II was ill during the time of the original production and in order to reflect this, he preferred to use these colours deliberately. 432 Gülder EMRE – Hazal Özlem (ERSAN) ERUŞ Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/10 Summer 2015 Giriş Feyhaman Duran, 1886-1975 yılları arasında İstanbul’da yaşamıştır. Mekteb-i Sultani’de günümüz ismiyle Galatasaray Lisesinden 1908 yılında mezun olmuştur. Resme olan ilgisini o yıllarda arkadaşlarının karakalemle yaptığı portrelerden ve çizdiği karikatürlerden anlaşılmaktadır (Eyüpoğlu,vd.,1982; 23). Resim kadar “Hüsnü hat”; güzel yazı yazmada da başarılı olan sanatçı, mezun olduğu Galatasaray Lisesi’nde güzel yazı öğretmenliğine getirilmiştir (Germaner, 2009;34). 1908 yılında kurulan Osmanlı ressamlar cemiyetinin kurucu üyelerinden olmuştur. Bu cemiyetin ardından 1912 de ” Türk ressamlar birliği” ve 1926’da “Güzel Sanatlar Birliği”’nin yeniden örgütlenmesi ve düzenlenmesi çalışmalarına yardımcı olmuştur (Başkan, 1997;105). 1910’da bir tesadüf sonucunda tanışıp resmini yaptığı Prens Abbas Halim Paşa sanatçının eğitim giderlerini karşılayarak Paris’e gitmesini sağlar (Boyar, 1948;212). Paris de dönemin ünlü okullarından Academia Julian ve Ecole Des Beaux Art’ta resim öğrenimi almış, ayrıca yine dönemin ünlü ressamlarından Jean Paul Laurens ile Cormon atölyelerinde de resim çalışmalarına devam etmiştir (Çötelioğlu: 2009: 130). I. Dünya Savaşı’nın başlamasıyla İstanbul’a dönmüştür (İrepoğlu, 1986; 55). Yurda döndüğünde Sanayi Nefisiye mektebinde öğretmen olarak çalışmaya başlamıştır (Turani, 1994;xxvııı). 1914 Kuşağı'nın kişiliğini ön plana çıkaran temsilcilerindendir. Çağdaş Türk Resmi denilince akla gelen ilk isimlerden biridir. Çok yönlü bir sanatçı olan Feyhaman Duran empresyonizm etkisinde kalmıştır. Özellikle Türk portre sanatının öncü ressamlarından birisidir (Elmas, 2000;52). Empresyonizmle pek bağdaşmayan bir resim türü olan portrede sanatçının ışık-gölge ile biçimlendirmede ve fırçasının serbestliği az da olsa bu akımı uyguladığı söylenebilir. Resimlerinde sıcak renklerin egemenliği hemen hissedilirken, renk ve ışık uyum içindedir (Başkan, 1997;105). Sanatçı ve eşi ölümünden kısa bir süre önce yaşadıkları evi ve atölyesini tüm eşyaları ve koleksiyonlarını İstanbul Üniversitesine bağışlamıştır (Çötelioğlu, 2009: 130). 1. Analizler 1 1.1. Laboratuar İncelemeleri Tablo sırasıyla; SEM-EDX VE HPLC ile incelenip pigment ve bağlayıcı analizi yapılmıştır. Tabloya zarar vermemek için sadece tablonun hasar görmüş altı kısımlarından çok küçük boyutta, yaklaşık boyut ölçüleri 1mm X 1mm olacak şekilde örnekler alınmıştır. 1.1.1 SEM Taramalı Elektron Mikroskobu (SEM); Carl Zeiss marka olup, EVO LS 10 modeldir. SEM cihazının yanında ayrı bir cihaz işlevi gören Enerji Dağılımlı X- Işını Spektrofotometresi (EDX) ise Bruker marka ve Quantax 200 modeldir. Helyum gazı eşliğinde kullanılmıştır. SEM ile yapılan mikroskobik analizin yanında EDX ile kimyasal analiz yapılmakta ve sistem birleştirilmiş bir enstrümantal analiz yöntemi olarak çalışmaktadır. Örnek ve standartlar toz tekniği ile ölçülmüştür. Örneğin element analizini yapmak için SEM, EDX ile birleştirilebilir (Darchuk, vd., 2010;1399). Böylece yağlı boya tablolarda inorganik pigmentlerin tanımlamak için kullanılabilir. Ayrıca SEM numunedeki yüzey dokusu (Zeng, vd. :2010;331), ince çatlaklar, (Townsend, v.d., 2006;57), yüzeyde meydana gelen bozulmalar (Burnstock,1997: 48) vernikler ile yüzeyde bulunan 1 Feyhaman Duran’a ait “Fatih Sultan Mehmet” Portresi’nin SEM-EDX ve HPLC analizleri için yardımlarını esirgemeyen İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi, Koruma Uygulama ve Denetim Daire Başkanlığı Koruma Uygulama ve Denetim Müdürlüğü’ne (KUDEB) teşekkür ederiz. Türk Ressam Feyhaman Duran İmzalı Fatih Sultan Mehmet Portesinin Pigment… 433 Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/10 Summer 2015 gözenekler hakkında bilgi vermektedir (White, v.d., 1998;170). Ayrıca SEM- EDX çok küçük örneklerin incelenmesi yapılabilmektedir. 1.1.2 HPLC Yüksek Performans - Basınç Sıvı Kromatografisi (HPLC); THERMO marka, FINNIGAN surveyor model olup, DDA Plus dedektör kullanılmıştır. Malzemelerin (özellikle boya, astar, bağlayıcı, sıva, harç, sağlamlaştırıcı vb.) içeriğinde bulunan organik bileşiklerin hem kalitatif (nitelik), hem de kantitatif (miktar) analizi yapılabilmektedir. Böylece malzemenin içerisindeki basit ve kompleks organik bileşiklerin cins ve miktarlarının analizlerini hassas bir şekilde gerçekleştirerek veriler elde edilir. Bu kromatografi 2 yönteminde sabit faza enjekte edilen, sıvı yada çözelti halindeki malzeme içerisindeki maddeler basınçla gönderilen çözücü tarafından sürüklenerek birbirinden ayrılırlar (Rouessac, 2007; 63). Sabit gaz kolonun çıkışında bulunan maddeler, genellikle UV-VIS spektrofotometre tarafından nitelik ve nicelik olarak tespit edilir. HPLC ile genellikle yağlı boya tablolarda kullanılan vernikler, bağlayıcılar özelliklede kuruyabilir yağlar ve yaşlanmaya bağlı eskimeler tanımlanabilir. 2. Analiz Sonuçları Feyhaman Duran’nın kopyasını yaptığı tablonun orijinali, Rönesans döneminde Venedik’te yaşamış Ressam Gentile Bellini(1429-1507)’ aittir. Gentile Bellini 1478'de Venedik Cumhuriyeti tarafından Fatih Sultan Mehmet'in portresini yapmak üzere İstanbul'a gönderilmiştir. İtalyan yarım adasında o dönemde tek bir devlet yerine birçok kent krallıkları bulunuyordu. Bunlardan en güçlülerinden biri de yarımadanın kuzeydoğu bölgesinde yer alan Venedik Cumhuriyetiydi (http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentile_Bellini). Venedik ilk önceleri Bizans İmparatorluğunun bir parçasıyken bağımsızlığını kazanmış, başta Girit ve Kıbrıs olmak üzere birçok Ege ve Akdeniz adalarını eline geçirmiştir (Berk, 151; 9). Venedik, 1204'te Konstantinopolis'i talan eden dördüncü Haçlı Seferi’nde önemli bir rol oynamıştı ve Fatih Sultan Mehmet İstanbul'u fethettiğinde kentte büyük bir Venedikli toplumu yaşamaktaydı. İstanbul'un Osmanlıların eline geçmesi Venedik'e büyük bir zarar verdi. O yüzden 1453-1479 yılları arasında Venedik ile Osmanlılar arasında birçok çatışmalar yaşandı. Sonunda Venedik Senatosu'nun Osmanlıların yaptığı barış önerisini kabul etmesiyle bu çatışmalar sona erdi.(Refik, 2006; 27). Barış anlaşmasının bir koşulu ise, Fatih Sultan Mehmet portresini yapmak üzere Venedik'in en yetenekli ressamlarından birinin İstanbul'a gönderilmesidir (Sevengil, 1970;78). Bellini bu koşullar altında 1479 Eylül (Çağman vd., 1984;3) ayında İstanbul'a gelmiş ve kaldığı 18 ay boyunca sarayda Fatih Sultan Mehmet'in portresinin yanı sıra birçok tablolar ve çizimler yapmıştır(Renda,1999;12). Fatih Sultan Mehmet tablosunu yapmasına izin vermeden önce Bellini'nin yeteneğinden emin olmak istemiş, bu nedenle Bellini İstanbul'daki ilk aylarını sarayda çeşitli insanların tablolarını yaparak geçirmiştir. (Resim-1). 2 Kromatografi; moleküler veya iyonlar halindeki karışımların hareketli (mobil) bir faz yardımıyla, sabit (stationary) bir faz üzerinde değişik hızlarla hareket etmeleri veya sürüklenmeleri esasına dayanır. Burada molekül ve iyon halindeki karışımları birbirinden ayırarak, bunların niteliklerinin ve miktarlarının çeşitli metotlarla belirlenmesini sağlar (Rouessac, 2007;3). Yağlı boya tabloda en çok kullanılan genel kromatografi analizleri kâğıt, ince tabaka, gaz, yüksek basınçlı sıvı, moleküler ve iyon kromatografileridir. 434 Gülder EMRE – Hazal Özlem (ERSAN) ERUŞ Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/10 Summer 2015 Resim- 1: Fatih Sultan Mehmet Portresi, Gentile Bellini Refik. A.,( 2006) Fatih ve Bellini,s:62 Fatih Sultan Mehmet ressamın yeteneğinden emin olduktan sonra kendi portresini yapmasına izin vermiştir. İtalyan ressam Gentile Bellini tarafından yapılan “Fatih Sultan Mehmet” portresi, 69,9X52,1 cm tuval üzerine yağlıboyadır (ed. Eminoğlu, 1999;69). Portre siyah bir fon üzerinde, sağında ve solunda iki roma dönemi sütunu ve bu sütunların zafer takı ile birleştirilmesiyle oluşan alanda dörtte üç büst şeklinde betimlenmiştir. Sultan, bu sütunların arasında başında her zaman kullandığı kırmızı serpuşa sarılı kat kat beyaz ulema sarığı ile kürk yakalı kırmızı kaftanı içindedir. Portrenin yüzü solgundur. Ressam modellinin ruh halini de resmetmeye çalışmıştır (Öz, 1953;29). Sakalı kürk yakanın renginde, belki biraz daha kızıl, bakıra çalmaktadır (Gürsel, 1999; 18). Portrenin yer aldığı kaideden üzeri işlemeli bir kumaş sarkıtılmıştır. Kumaşın dokuması kabartma görünümünde, inci ve değerli taşlarla işlenmiştir. Gerek zafer takı üzerindeki bezeme motifleri gerekse bu sarkan kumaş İtalyan Rönesans portrelerinde sık rastlanan öğelerdir (ed. Eminoğlu:1999; 15). Dokumanın tam ortasında ise bir taç görülmektedir. Aynı taçtan tablonun sol ve sağ üst köşelerinde üçer tane bulunmaktadır. Bu taçlar bir görüşe göre Fatih Sultan Mehmet'in son verdiği üç büyük devlet olan Yunanistan, Trabzon ve Asya hükümdarlığını, bir başka görüşe göre de Fatih’ten önceki 6 padişahı simgelemektedir. Fatih’i simgeleyen yedinci taç ise işlemeli örtünün üzerindedir (Çötelioğlu, 2009; 106) Kaidedeki yazılar çok iyi okunamamakla birlikte sol köşedeki yazının üzerinde ROR ORBİS,VICTOR, sözcükleri ve Bellini imzası bellidir. Burada Fatihin dünya imparatoru olduğu ve büyük zafer kazandığı belirtilmektedir (Renda, 1999; 15). Bazı kaynaklar da sol alt köşede “Magni Sultani Mohamet-II- Imperatoris” yazılı olduğunu söylemektedirler. Sağ alt köşe de ise Latin harfleriyle 25 Kasım 1480 tarihi atılmıştır. Fatih Sultan Mehmet bu portesi yapıldıktan yaklaşık 6 ay sonra 3 Mayıs 1481’de vefat etmiştir (Refik, 2006;47). Portenin yüzünün solgun olmasının nedeni belki de Sultanın o dönemde hasta olmasıdır. Bugün Fatih Sultan Mehmet'in Bellini tarafından yapılmış bu tablosu İngiltere Londra’da bulunan National Gallery koleksiyonudur. Döneminin ünlü saray ressamlarından Fausto Zonaro (1854-1929) aynı tabloyu 1907 yılında Sultan II Abdülhamit siparişi Türk Ressam Feyhaman Duran İmzalı Fatih Sultan Mehmet Portesinin Pigment… 435 Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/10 Summer 2015 üzerine büyüterek bir kopyasını yapmıştır (Çötelioğlu: 2009: 106). Günümüzde Topkapı sarayı müzesi koleksiyonudur. (a) (b) Resim: 2 a) Feyhaman Duran’a ait Fatih Sultan Mehmet Portresi b) Gentile Bellini’ye ait Fatih Sultan Mehmet Portresi Feyhaman Duran, Bellini’nin bu portesinin birebir kopyasını yapmıştır. Aradaki tek fark zafer takının sağ alt kaide kısmındaki Feyhaman imzasıdır. Sanatçı bu çalışmasını yaparken önce hazırlık çalışmaları yapmıştır. Resim- ve görülen çalışmalar da Feyhaman Duran’nın kendi el yazısı ile hazırladığı ön taslaklardan biridir. İlk önce kurşun kalemle çizilen çizimlerin bazı kısımlarında kurşun kalem izlerinin üzerinden yazıları belirginleştirmek amacıyla siyah mürekkepli kalem ile geçmiş olduğunu görmekteyiz. 436 Gülder EMRE – Hazal Özlem (ERSAN) ERUŞ Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/10 Summer 2015 Resim 3: Feyhaman Duran’nın tablo için hazırlamış olduğu ön taslak çizimleri Resim 4: Feyhaman Duran’a ait ” Fatih Sultan Mehmet” portresinin sağ ve sol köşelerinde bulunan yazılar. SEM-EDX Analizi Resim 5: Feyhaman Duran imzalı “Fatih Sultan Mehmet” portresinde SEM-EDX analizi için örneklerin alındığı yerler. 1 4 2 3 Türk Ressam Feyhaman Duran İmzalı Fatih Sultan Mehmet Portesinin Pigment… 437 Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/10 Summer 2015 SEM-EDX analizleri sonuçlarına göre; (1F) Nolu Örnek (Beyaz-Gri) Tablo-1’de görüldüğü gibi bu noktadan alınan boya örneğinde, yüksek miktarda Titanyum oksit (TiO2, % 35.72), daha az miktarda ise baryum oksit (BaO, % 17.81), çinko oksit (ZnO, % 16.16), kükürt oksit (SO3, % 13.21), Kalsiyum oksit (CaO, % 3.68), alüminyum oksit (Al2O3, % 3.40), silisyum oksit (SiO 2 ,%3.07), demir oksit (Fe2O3, % 3.02), sodyum oksit (Na2 O,% 2.27), magnezyum oksit (MgO, %1.06), potasyum oksit ( K2 O, % 0.12) fosfor oksit (P2O5 , %0.48) saptanmıştır. Titanyum oksit ve çinko miktarının fazla olması nedeniyle, pigment örneğinde titanyum ve çinko beyazının kullanıldığını göstermektedir. Ayrıca, Çinko oksit, baryum oksit ve sülfür oksittin varlığı ise titanyum beyazının yanında litoponun da kullanıldığını göstermektedir. Alüminyum oksit, sodyum oksit, silisyum oksit, sülfür oksidin olmasın Ultra marin mavisinin varlığına işaret etmektedir. Alüminyum oksit, Magnezyum oksit ve potasyum oksittin saptanması tere verte yeşilini (toprak yeşili), örnekte kalsiyum oksittin bulunması astar tabakasında tebeşir kullanıldığını göstermektedir. Grafik 1: (1F) Nolu Örneğin EDX spektrumu 438 Gülder EMRE – Hazal Özlem (ERSAN) ERUŞ Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/10 Summer 2015 Resim 6: Örneğin SEM görüntüsü (2F) Nolu Örnek ( Bordo-Koyu kırmızı) Tablo-1’de görüldüğü gibi bu noktadan alınan boya örneğinde, Silisyum Oksit (SiO2, %23.13), demir oksit (FeO, %19.45), Kalsiyum oksit (CaO, % 12.83), aliminyum oksit (Al2O3, %11,81) titanyum oksit (TiO2, %10.38), kükürt oksit (SO3,%9.89), sodyum oksit (Na2O,%3.99), çinko oksit (ZnO, %2.15), potasyum oksit (K2O, %1.42), krom oksit (Cr2O3, %1.16), civa oksit (HgO, %1,09) ve kurşun oksit (PbO, %1.04) tespit edilmiştir. Bu sonuçlar neticesinde kırmızı boya olarak vermiliyon kırmızısı, demir oksit kırmızısı (okr kırmızısı) ve krom kırmızısı karıştırılarak kullanılmıştır. Sarı boya olarak, çinko sarısı beyaz boya olarakta, titanyum beyazı kullanılmıştır. Spektrumda tespit edilen kurşun beyazı ve tebeşirin astar tabakasından geldiği düşünülmektedir. Bu noktada, kırmız sarı ve kahverengi, beyaz boya ile karıştırılarak açık renk kahverengi elde edilmiştir. Türk Ressam Feyhaman Duran İmzalı Fatih Sultan Mehmet Portesinin Pigment… 439 Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/10 Summer 2015 Grafik 2: (2F) Nolu Örneğin EDX spektrumu Resim 7: Örneğin SEM görüntüsü (3F) Nolu Örnek (Siyah) Tablo-1’de görüldüğü gibi bu noktadan alınan boya örneğinde, yüksek miktarda çinko oksit (ZnO, %24,57), kalsiyum oksit (CaO, %16,95), daha az miktarda ise silisyum oksit (SiO 2,%9.79), aliminyum oksit (Al2O3, % 9.52), kükürt oksit (SO3,% 9.27), titanyum oksit (TiO2, %8.73), sodyum oksit (Na2O, %5.90), demir oksit (FeO,%5.20), fosfor oksit (P2O5, %4.56), 440 Gülder EMRE – Hazal Özlem (ERSAN) ERUŞ Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/10 Summer 2015 magnezyum oksit (Mg0, %2.38), Krom oksit (Cr2O3, %1.78, potasyum oksit (K2O, %0.67) saptanmıştır. Elde edilen sonuçlarda Çinko oksit bulunması çinko beyazı, titanyum oksittin tespiti titanyum beyazı, sodyum oksit, Alüminyum oksit, sodyum oksit Silisyum oksit, Sülfür oksidin olması Ultra marin mavisinin varlığına işaret etmektedir. Ayrıca Demir oksitin bulunması kırmızı demir oksittin (okr kırmızısı), fosfor oksitin bulunması ile siyah renk olarak fildişi siyahı kullanılmıştır. Alüminyum oksit, Magnezyum oksit ve potasyum oksittin saptanması tere verte yeşili saptanmıştır. Grafik 3: (3F) Nolu Örneğin EDX spektrumu Türk Ressam Feyhaman Duran İmzalı Fatih Sultan Mehmet Portesinin Pigment… 441 Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/10 Summer 2015 Resim 8: Örneğin SEM görüntüsü (4F) Nolu Örnek (Bordo) Tablo-1’de görüldüğü gibi bu noktadan alınan boya örneğinde, kükürt oksit (SO3, %28.25), silisyum oksit (SiO2, %14.10), titanyum oksit (TiO2, % 11.54), aliminyum oksit (Al2O3, % 10,85), kalsiyum oksit (CaO, %9.99), demir oksit (FeO,%9.82), sodyum oksit (Na2O, %6.47), fosfor oksit (P2O5, %3.84), kadmiyum oksit (CdO,% 2.74), potasyum oksit (K2O, %1.53),magnezyum oksit (Mg0, %0.88) saptanmıştır. Bu saptamalar neticesinde, Alüminyum oksit, sodyum oksit, Silisyum oksit, Sülfür oksidin olması bu noktada Ultra marin mavisi kullanıldığını, sülfür oksitin ve kadminyumun olması kadminyum sarısın, bol miktarda Titanyum oksittin bulunması boyayı açmak için titanyum beyazı kullanıldığına, demir oksittin olması ise demir oksit kırmızısının (okr kırmızısı) varlığına işaret etmektedir. Siyah renk olarak fosfor oksittin saptanması ile fildişi siyahı kullanılmıştır. Alüminyum oksit, Magnezyum oksit ve potasyum oksittin saptanması tere verte (toprak yeşili) yeşilinin varlığına işaret etmektedir. Kalsiyum oksittin bulunması ise astar tabakasında tebeşir kullanıldığını göstermektedir. 442 Gülder EMRE – Hazal Özlem (ERSAN) ERUŞ Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/10 Summer 2015 Grafik 4: (5F) Nolu Örneğin EDX spektrumu Resim 9: Örneğin SEM görüntüsü Türk Ressam Feyhaman Duran İmzalı Fatih Sultan Mehmet Portesinin Pigment… 443 Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/10 Summer 2015 HPLC analizi 1F, 2F, 3F, 4F1 VE 4F2 boya örneklerin bağlayıcısının arap zamkı, kitre, eser miktarda linoleik asit ve bezir yağı ve boncuk tutkalı olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Grafik 6: (1), (2), (3), (4), (5) Nolu örneklerin HPLC spektrumları 3. Sonuçlar Alınan örneklerin SEM-EDX ile incelenmesinde; 1 nolu örnekte sanatçı beyaz boya olarak titanyum beyazı, çinko beyazı ve litopon’u kullanmıştır. Litoponu parlak bir renk olması, titanyum beyazını ise çok fazla örtme gücü olması sebebiyle kullandığını söyleyebiliriz. Burada sanatçı, beyaz boyayı mavi bir renk olan ultra marin mavisi ve yeşil bir renk olan tere verte ile karıştırmış ve yeşil-gri bir renk elde etmiştir. Parlak bir pigment olan ultra marin mavisi, yağın ve ışığın etkisiyle rengi yeşille hatta daha da eskirse hatta griye doğru gitmektedir. Tabloyu incelediğimizde rengin çok fazla grileşmesinin bu sebeple olduğunu düşünülmektedir. Sem’deki görüntülerde yaşlanmaya bağlı çatlaklarının olması da bunu doğrulamaktadır. 2 nolu örnekte Portrenin önünde duran halının kırmızı çiçek desenlerinin bazı kısımları koyu bordo –kahverengi gölge verilerek betimlemiştir. Bu renk için belli oranlarda vermiliyon kırmızısı, krom kırmızısı, demir oksit kırmızısı (okr kırmızısı), ultra marin mavisi ve demir oksit kırmızı, çinko sarısı ve titanyum beyazı kullanılmıştır. Burada tespit edilen bir diğer sonuç ise sanatçının halı üzerindeki çiçek desenlerini, dayanıklı, örtme gücü yüksek, parlak bir renk olan vermiliyon kırmızısını ve krom kırmızısını, yine parlak, yüksek örtme gücüne sahip çinko sarısı ve çok yüksek örtme gücü olan titanyum beyazı ile karıştırıp boyadığı, ardından da koyu gölgeleri vermek için ultra marin mavisi ve demir oksit kırmızı kullandığıdır. Demir oksit kırmızısı ise mat ve yoğun bir renk olması nedeniyle sanatçının kullandığı düşünülmektedir. Sem görüntüsünde örnek yüzeyinin pürüzlü dokusu net bir şekilde görülmektedir. 3 nolu örnekte siyah rengi verebilmek için parlak mavi-siyah bir renk olan fildişi siyahını kullanmıştır. Bu örnekte titanyum beyazı çinko beyazı, ultra marin mavisi, demir oksitin bulunması 444 Gülder EMRE – Hazal Özlem (ERSAN) ERUŞ Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/10 Summer 2015 kırmızı demir oksittin (okr kırmızısı) ve tere verte kullanıldığı saptanmıştır. Bu renklerin tespiti ile sanatçının portrenin önündeki kilimin daha önce yapıldığı ardından siyah boya ile sınırların çizildiğini göstermektedir. 2 nolu örnekte tespit edilen demir oksit, çinko beyazı, titanyum beyazı ve ultra marin mavisi bunu doğrulamaktadır. Yine burada da sanatçı mat ve opak renkler tercih etmiştir. Sem görüntüsünde çok fazla yaşlanmaya bağlı ağ çatlağı görülmektedir. 4 nolu örnekte ise halının zeminini oluşturan sarı rengi verebilmek için ultra marin mavisi, kadminyum sarısı, titanyum beyazı ve demir oksit kırmızısı (okr kırmızısı) saptanmıştır. Hazırlanan bu karışıma soluk-mat bir renk olması için fildişi siyahı ve tere verte yeşili katıldığı düşünülmektedir. Kalsiyum oksit ise astar tabakasından gelmektedir. Bu tabaka da tebeşir kullanılmıştır. Sem’deki görüntülerde yaşlanmaya bağlı çatlaklarının olması da bunu doğrulamaktadır. Analizi yapılan örneklerden yapılan bir diğer tespit ise 1, 2 ve 4 nolu örnekte tespit edilen tebeşir ve yine 2 nolu örnekte tespit edilen kurşun beyazının astar tabakasından gelmiş olmasıdır. Kurşun beyazı ya da diğer adıyla üstübeç astar yapımında sıklıkla kullanılmıştır. Opak bir renk olup, kapatıcı özelliği (örtme gücü) fazladır. Tebeşir ise Hollanda ve Flemenk resimlerinde özellikle astar yapımında kullanılan kapatıcı özelliği az transparan bir pigmenttir. Diğer tespit ise sanatçı beyaz kullanırken çinko beyazı ve titanyum beyazını birlikte kullanmıştır. Çinko beyazının kapatıcılığı azdır. Tek başına kalın olarak sürülürse çatlamaya meyillidir. İçeriğinde yağ fazla bulunursa sararma yapar. Genellikle bu beyaz boya kapatıcı özelliği fazla olan titanyum beyazı ile karıştırılmaktadır. Sanatçının bu özelliği bilip, bu resimde bilinçli bir şekilde kullandığı düşünülmektedir. HPLC analizleri sonuçlarında boncuk tutkalının astar tabakası yapımında kullanıldığı düşünülmektedir. Yağla astarlama tekniğinde boncuk veya tavşan tutkalı bir fırça ile tuvalin ya da ahşabın üzerine 2 kat sürülür ve kurumaya bırakılır. Zımpara ile hafifçe zımparalanarak yüzeydeki pürüzler alınır. Böylece yüzey daha da düzgün hale gelir. Sonra boncuk veya tavşan tutkalı, beziryağı, üstübeç karıştırılır ve tuvalin/ahşabın gözenekleri kapanana kadar ince tabakalar halinde sürülerek, devam ettirilir. (Çağlarca, 2004: 16). Linoleik asit yağlı boya yapımında kullanılan yağlarda bulunan bir yağ asididir. Bezir yağının da ana yapısını oluşturmaktadır. Ayrı bir şekilde bulunması ise oksitlenme olasılığından olmuş olabileceği düşünülmektedir. Bezir yağının bulunması aynı zamanda boya bağlayıcısı olarak kullanıldığını da göstermektedir. Arap zamkı ve kitre bağlayıcı olarak kullanıldığı düşünülmektedir. Ayrıca İstanbul Üniversitesi Feyhaman Duran Kültür ve Sanat Evinde yapılan incelemelerde; Fatih Sultan Mehmet portresinin hazırlık eskizlerine rastlanılmıştır. Burada sanatçının taçları yaparken değişik oranlarda denemelerde bulunduğu, daha sonra tablonun boyutlarına uygun oranı bulup, bu çizimi ayrı bir kâğıda tekrar çizdiği görülmektedir. Türk Ressam Feyhaman Duran İmzalı Fatih Sultan Mehmet Portesinin Pigment… 445 Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/10 Summer 2015 Resim 10: Feyhaman Duran’nın tablo için hazırlamış olduğu ön taslak çizimleri. Sanatçı, daha karışık deseni olan zafer takının sütun gövdelerindeki deseni resmederken, önce kâğıda küçük oranlı/ölçekli ve kareleme yöntemi ile çizimini yapmıştır. Simetrik olan bu desenin sadece bir tarafının çizimini tablonun boyutlarına uygun bir şekilde eskiz kâğıdına çizmiştir. Ardından silkeleme yöntemiyle desenin diğer tarafını tamamlamıştır. Tamamlanan deseni yine silkeleme yöntemi ile tuvale geçirmiştir. Resim 11: Feyhaman Duran’nın tablo için hazırlamış olduğu ön taslak çizimleri. Sanatçı, tabloda görülen halının desenlerini çizmek için ise kareleme yöntemi ile önce ölçekli küçük bir çizimini yapmış. Kesinleştirdiği oranları daha sonra tuvale büyüterek aktardığı düşünülmektedir. Bu yönteme şablon yöntemi de denilmektedir. Buradan şu anlaşılmaktadır ki sanatçı bu tabloya çok özen göstermiş ve bir hata yapmamak için birçok tekniği bir arada uygulamıştır. 446 Gülder EMRE – Hazal Özlem (ERSAN) ERUŞ Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/10 Summer 2015 Resim 12: Feyhaman Duran’nın tablo için hazırlamış olduğu ön taslak çizimleri. Resim 12: Feyhaman Duran’nın Fatih Sultan Mehmet portesinden kilim detayı. Silkeleme yöntemi; 14. yy’ın ortasına doğru ortaya çıkan, genellikle duvar resimlerinde görülen bir tekniktir. Önceden tekrarlanan dekoratif süslemelerin yüzeye aktarılmasın da kullanılan silkeleme ve şablon yöntemleri 15. yy’ın ortasına doğru figüratif kompozisyonların çiziminde de kullanılmıştır. Günümüzde de bu teknik sıklıkla kullanılmaktadır. Bu yöntemde; ayrı bir kâğıda veya aydıngere günümüzde ise, şeffaf asetata çizilen desen iğne ile delindikten sonra resim yapılacak yüzeye yerleştirilir. Kömür, grafit tozu veya toz pigment gözenekli bir kumaşa konup, kumaşın ucu yuvarlak/top olacak şekilde bağlanıp, iğnelenmiş kâğıdın üzerinde gezdirilir. Böylece desen çıkacak yüzeye, iğne ile delinen kısımlardan bu tozlar girerek, çizimi alt tabakada görmemizi sağlamaktadır. SEM-EDX pigmentlerin tanımlanmasında sıklıkla kullanılan ve diğer analiz yöntemlerinden avantajlıdır. Hem pigment analizi yapabildiği gibi örneklerin 3 boyutlu görüntülerini alarak bozulmaları da inceleyebilmekteyiz. HPLC, yağlıboya tablolarda boya bağlayıcısının tespitinde sıklıkla kullanılan bir analiz yöntemidir. Elde edilen sonuçlar ışığında Sanatçı bu kopya çalışmasında, orijinal resimle birebir aynı olması için çok fazla özen göstermiş, öncesinde bir hazırlık çalışması yapmıştır. Ayrıca her zaman olduğu gibi bu resminde de kaliteli boyalar kullanmıştır. Resimlerinde hep canlı, parlak bir görünüme özellikle önem verirken bu tabloda diğer resimlerinden farklı olarak, solgun, mat adeta donuk bir görünüm vermeye çalışmıştır. Bunun sebebinin sanatçının orijinal resmin yapıldığı yıllarda Fatih Sultan Mehmet’in hasta olduğunu bildiği için bu şekilde renkleri kullanmayı tercih ettiği düşünülmektedir. 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Batı Anlayışına Dönük Türk Resim Sanatı, Ankara: Doğuş Matbaası, Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları1. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1386142510000508 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1386142510000508 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1386142510000508 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1386142510000508 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1386142510000508 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1386142510000508 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1386142510000508 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1386142510000508 http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentile_Bellini 448 Gülder EMRE – Hazal Özlem (ERSAN) ERUŞ Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/10 Summer 2015 WHITE, R., A. ROY, (1998). GC-MS and SEM Studies on the Effects of Solvent Cleaning on old Master Paintings from the National Gallery, London: Studies in Conservation 43, pp.159- 176. ZENG.Q.G., G.X.ZHANG, C.W. LEUNG, J.ZUO. (2010). Studies of Wall Painting Fragments from Kaiping Diaolou By SEM/EDX, Micro Raman and FTIR Spectroscopy, U.S.A.: Elsevier B.V., Microchemical Journal 96,pp:330-306. Citation Information/Kaynakça Bilgisi EMRE, G., (ERSAN) ERUŞ, H. Ö. (2015). “Türk Ressam Feyhaman Duran İmzalı Fatih Sultan Mehmet Portesinin Pigment Ve Bağlayıcı Analizi (Ressam Gentile Bellini’nin Fatih Sultan Mehmet Portesinin Kopya Yağlıboya Tablosu)/ Pigment And Binder Analysis Of Turkish Painter Feyhaman Duran’s Portrait Of Mehmed II Portrait (Replicated Oil Painting Of Mehmed II Originally Painted By The Artist Gentile Bellini)”, TURKISH STUDIES - International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic-, ISSN: 1308-2140, (Prof. Dr. Şefik Yaşar Armağanı), Volume 10/10 Summer 2015, ANKARA/TURKEY, www.turkishstudies.net, DOI Number: http://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.8329, p. 429-448. 
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work_qqgqorlntnghpo6e3hxhpsndwe	----	Opening remarks GYORGY BODN/f,R O P E N I N G R E M A R K S to the Comparative Criticism Colloquium, Veszpr6m June 15-17, 1989 I ' m pleased to welcome the participants o f the fifth confer- ence o f comparative literature. I don't think I need to over- emphasize the importance o f the programme in terms of the spiritual and intellectual opening it represents. Given the historical circumstances under which Hungarians have been compelled to live in the past few decades the implementation and organization o f such a conference is a true achievement. I've always believed in it, and I fully believe in its future, too: let me prove it with something that seems like an administrative affair. I recommended P&er Dfividhfizi, who is twenty years my junior, to represent Hungary in the joint committee o f social sciences in the future. Naturally, the continuity o f Our co-operation hasn't solely depended on our intentions. It's hardly possible to maintain a scientific programme unless it undertakes the task o f clarify- ing real research problems. I think, ours has attempted to do so with precision. American literary scholars, whose thinking is, of course, open, probably find it almost impossible to imagine how difficult it was to create the conditions for choosing topics for our conferences which not only meet the American sugges- tions but at the same time have Hungarian antecedents, similar trends and results. It was quite natural that at the first conference in 1981, we discussed our general principles on comparative literature. We managed to convince our American colleagues that we had had some initiative in comparative theory and research in Central and Eastern Europe. After this first step, the second followed naturally: the examination o f interdisci- Neohelieon XVII]I Akaddmiai Kiad6, Budapest John Benjamins B. V., Amsterdam 10 GYORGY BODNAR plinary questions in literary scholarship. Our periodical, named Hefikon, devoted a special issue to this topic as early as the sixties. The 1985 analysis o f the change in genres was able to rely on phenomena appearing in Hungarian literature in transi- tion. When, last time, we discussed nineteenth century realism, we were faced with a topic in literary theory which had pro- voked extreme views for a long time. While organizing that conference, we expressed many times that what interested us most from a m o n g suggestions for topics was comparative criticism. Our institute decided already at the end o f the sixties to write the history o f Hungarian criticism after finishing the huge, comprehensive project o f a six-volume literary history. Although in this research we had to start almost from scratch, we have produced quite a few achievements. We have published volumes introducing the Middle Ages, the beginning o f the nineteenth century, and the age o f positivism. Forthcoming is the analysis o f the concept o f literature in the age o f Reason, soon the monograph on the second half o f the nineteenth century (which can be termed as the age o f national classicism) will be ready. We have started working on the twentieth century, as well. I would like to say a few words a b o u t this last topic since during our conferences the research into Hungarian litera- ture confronted us with the idea o f universality. We were aware o f the fact that the history o f criticism implies the examination o f the relationship between the history o f ideas and that o f literature; and once we realized that the history o f criticism in fact coincides with the history o f the concepts o f literariness, then poetic conceptions would have to be re-evaluated as well. In the age o f positivism, for example, this was taken for granted. But in other periods when Hungarian criticism was n o t under the influence o f a universal movement, only a deeper and more complex analysis was able to emphasize universal points o f view. In the first part o f the twentieth century there was only one critical movement in Hungary which could be regarded as uni- versal. This was Geistesgeschichte in the 20s. Before that, O P E N I N G R E M A R K S 11 however, when at the turn o f the century the ideal o f modern- ism started to dominate, no ideas or methodological principles could be found which could be linked to any o f the internation- ally recognized movements. I, personally, like to call the begin- nings o f Hungarian modernism the age o f impressionism, al- though I know that the use o f this term is much debated not only in the history o f criticism, but in the history o f literature as well. I admit that the Hungarian critics o f the period were less able to express their views on the period and the world than contemporary writers. The reason is that impression- ism sacrificed itself when it denied the justification for thinking in terms of systems, so it failed to clarify and systematize even its own principles. Still, when modern Hungarian critics, inspired by Oscar Wilde and Alfred Kerr, for example, saw the record- ing o f the self o f the critic as the only possible way o f describing a work o f art without any preconceptions, then they launched a historically motivated attack on inherited a n d obsolete poetic dogmas, thereby introducing new poetic values in modern literature. But soon it became obvious that their struggle had to be carried on even if it would eventually turn against the impressionists. In the early stages o f Hungarian modernism several critics came to realize that the essence o f Hungarian literary modernism was the creation o f literary au- tonomy in the ontological sense and the expression o f the metaphysical self after the pronouncement o f the freedom o f the individual. Young Luk~ics and the art historian, Lajos Ftilep (regarded by Charles de Tolnay as his master), were in- volved in this exterior and interior debate at the beginning o f the century. At the time this conception could only offer a theoretical alternative, but it was reaffirmed by the achieve- ments o f writers such as Endre Ady, who summed up his vision o f existence in the social and historical context o f World War I. Mihgly Babits, who started with a major essay on Bergson and ended up expressing neoclassical ideals is also an important figure in this intellectual debate. This theoretical alternative and these literary achievements paved the way for the 12 GYORGY BODN.~R second period o f modernism, which can be characterized b y - i n s t e a d o f neoromantic s u b j e c t i v i t y - the application o f objective ideals and methods. Even though the requirement o f exactness and prestructuralism was not voiced system- atically at that time in Hungarian literary thinking, still there were certain tendencies parallel to them, and there also appeared the ideal o f impersonality exemplified b y T. S. Eliot between the two world wars. After the exciting interlude o f Geistesgeschichte in the twenties, the Hungarian poetic revolu- tion started only the sixties. Slow as it was, it created the chance o f reintegration into universal literary thinking. I am fully convinced that this conference was born out o f this revolution, too. I think dialogue is the confrontation o f different histori- cal situations. I hope my opening remarks have convinced y o u that this conference is not only an exchange o f abstract ideas, but the confrontation o f the principles and methods for a long- term project which includes the requirement o f universality. 
work_qqmr62bwmbfqvbw6khjch6e4pm	----	Going the Distance: Dissident Subjectivity in Modernist American Literature (review) Going the Distance: Dissident Subjectivity in Modernist American Literature (review) Michael L. Cobb University of Toronto Quarterly, Volume 74, Number 1, Winter 2004/2005, pp. 536-537 (Review) Published by University of Toronto Press DOI: For additional information about this article [ Access provided at 6 Apr 2021 02:36 GMT from Carnegie Mellon University ] https://doi.org/10.1353/utq.2005.0047 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/180509 https://doi.org/10.1353/utq.2005.0047 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/180509 536 letters in canada 2003 university of toronto quarterly, volume 74, number 1, winter 2004/5 similar backlash with the Liebermann commission, which was part of a series of portraits of famous Hamburg citizens by modern German painters established by Lichtwark to raise the status of Hamburg and to educate its citizens in contemporary art. As Kay demonstrates, Liebermann�s work received a hostile critical reception, because its impressionist and Frans Hals�like style did not meet public expectations. In a letter to Lichtwark, Petersen himself stated: �this is not the portrait of a Burgomaster, but of a drunken and depraved coffinbearer.� Kay rightly concludes that this antagonistic critical reaction had to do with �how critics of modernism associated impressionism with the working class and radical politics.� Her argument could have been strengthened had she discussed Hals�s renewed reputation in the nineteenth century. Leftist critics like Théophile Thoré (also known as William Bürger) regarded Hals no longer as a depraved drunkard (as his earlier biographers saw him and as the quotation from Petersen suggests) but as a radical naturalist painter. It could be argued that Liebermann was not merely �influenced� by Hals, as Kay puts it, but was rather making reference to Hals in order to claim the importance of naturalism and the need to do away with outworn formulas of the past. Kay has persuasively demonstrated not only Lichtwark�s passionate promotion of modernist painting in the cause of German cultural progress, but also its resistance and acceptance among members of Hamburg�s middle class. Her work adds to the growing evidence of the heterogenous and complex character of the German bourgeoisie of this period. Moreover, she complicates the simplistic view that regards all supporters of avant- garde art as liberals and all its detractors as nationalist conservatives. As Kay rightly states: �It is false to assume that cultural modernism must be linked inexorably with the Left, and traditional art with conservatism and nationalism � as though these cultural and political categories are resolutely fixed.� Kay, through the clarity of her writing and her thorough archival research, has made an important contribution to late nineteenth- century German studies. (MITCHELL FRANK) David R. Jarraway. Going the Distance: Dissident Subjectivity in Modernist American Literature Louisiana State University Press. 280. US $25.95 There is something distant about David Jarraway�s rich and complicated reading of �dissident subjectivities� in modernist American literature. By combing the literary work of Gertrude Stein, William Carlos Williams, Langston Hughes, Frank O�Hara, and Elizabeth Bishop with a mélange of theoretical and philosophical ideas, Jarraway develops a reading protocol reliant on �distance� � a term that is at once spatial, temporal, and very aesthetic, providing a conceptual framework that opens �up a new space xxxxxxxx chf humanities 537 university of toronto quarterly, volume 74, number 1, winter 2004/5 for subjectivity, beyond its Cartesian lineaments.� In other words, distance exposes familiar identities, objects, and ideologies to greater scrutiny; it �holds out the promise of politicizing thinking in the very act of defamiliarizing it.� With such a large, distant concept, Jarraway dwells in confusing and perhaps slippery intellectual territory, to be sure. But his close readings flesh out his deliberately nebulous concept of �distanciated formlessness� more precisely. In many ways, he, much like the writers he studies, relies not only on a new space for subjectivity, but also on a new space for thinking and writing about subjectivity. His readings of Frank O�Hara, for instance, are compelling, especially as they try to negotiate debates about the uses (and in some instances, abuses) of queer theory. Just listen: �If, after having ventured several further clarifications of the original effort, the final �form� of my chapter-essay has sacrificed some of its initial pleasure of freedom ... I feel the sacrifice would have been worth it if an actual argument for methodological interpretation has come to take the place of its mere exemplification. Nonetheless, the queer perversities of O�Hara have conditioned me sufficiently, I hope, to retain some of my original naïveté about the pleasure of his poetry, and the �more� that that object might still continue to give �of itself.�� I can anticipate that some readers might not enjoy the �top heavy� effect of making methodology such a primary part of his close reading efforts. But, as we all should know by now, there�s intellectual and political value in giving us some �distance� from the immediacy of our own reading pleasures. Jarraway believes, probably rightly, that the �resistant and ultimately uncontainable sense of self in America today� has literary antecedents that arrive much earlier on the scene than the political 1960s that helped create, develop, and popularize so much work on the dissident subject. One of the primary strengths and pleasures of this book is that he places the high theory and political insights of the past thirty years in a longer literary historical context. And the almost effortless manner in which Jarraway slides between theory, philosophy, and his modernist literary archive convinces one that dissident subjectivity � dare we say �poststructuralist� subjectivity? � is a crucial part of his writers� aesthetic products. What his book does best, I feel, is to demonstrate that while we are in the midst of a deep theory backlash, there�s still so much we can learn from philosophical and theoretical thinking. And we can and should bring that thought to our studies of modernist American authors. For Jarraway wants us to �understand how rich the possibilities are when the gates of Modernism are at last heard to turn upon the self, thereby suggesting the multiplicity we are permitted to make of that self, if we could only find the courage and stamina to go on listening.� He�s got my ear. (MICHAEL L. COBB) 
work_qsfxcpluorcazmqtyo4togg6wa	----	I 521 http://dx.doi.org/10.7230/KOSCAS.2015.40.521 인상주의 회화에서 색채 표현의 기호적 담론 연구 -인상주의 작품 분석을 중심으로 - I. 서론 1. 연구 배경 및 목적 2. 연구 범위 및 방법 II. 인상주의 색채 인식소 1. 슈브뢸의 광학이론 2. 들라크루아의 색채 3. 영국의 근대회화 Ⅲ. 인상주의 회화에서 색채 기호의 실재 1. 기호학과 예술의 상관관계 2. 인상주의 작품 색채 기호 유형 분석 Ⅳ. 결론 참고문헌 ABSTRACT 류주현 초 록 우리는 눈으로 보는 행위를 통해 모든 사물을 인지한다. 그러나 눈에 들어온 모 든 사물들이 그 사물의 본질일지는 확언할 수 없다. 이에 필자는 여기서 인간이 대 상을 보는 것, 그리고 그것을 인지하는 것은 과연 무엇일까라는 의문을 던져본다. 우리가 보는 대상은 ‘이미지’로서의 대상이며, 따라서 필자는 우리가 대상을 인지 한다는 것은 우리의 시감각과 두뇌를 거친 기호작용이라고 보고 있다. 대상들의 본 질보다는 우리가 인지하는 데에 ‘기호’로서 그 대상의 관념이 정의되고 있기 때문 이다. 포스트모더니즘 시대에 이르러 예술은 더욱 일종의 정신적 가치를 창출하는 자율적 창조 활동으로서 그것을 지각하는 독자의 삶의 가치를 향유하는데 중대한 역할을 맡고 있다. 인간의 인지에 미적 가치를 부여하는 예술 분야에서 초점을 둔 본 논문은 예술 작품을 시지각적으로 규명하는데 기호작용과 연관지어 분석되었 다. 예술이라는 인간의 창작 행위는 상징적이며 기호체계와 밀접하게 연결되어있 으며, 나아가 파생된 시각 기호는 그것을 바라보는 주체의 시지각성과 궤도를 나란 히 한다고 볼 수 있기 때문이다. 더불어 예술작품을 기호로 인식하여 해석한다면, 색(色)이나 형(形)을 통한 폭넓은 사고로 작품을 음미할 수 있으며, 따라서 필자는 예술 작품과 기호와의 관계성을 분석하는데 색채를 중점으로 둔 색채 지각 논의로 담론화 해보고자 한다. 본 논문은 특히 미술사에서 풍부한 색채를 구사하여 그려오 던 인상주의 미술에서의 색채 인식 배경과 색채의 위상 및 표현방법을 바탕으로 색채가 감각 언어로서 독자에게 전달되는 그 상관성을 고찰한다. 작가와 독자 간의 소통으로 이루어지는 예술 작품을 해명하는 데 있어서 색채의 역할은, 예술가의 경 험과 투과된 자신의 정서와 생각, 감정 등이 동반되어 작품 안에서 비로소 시각 기 호로 사유된다. 이는 색채가 예술작품 안에서 인지 가능한 공간으로 형성될 때 기 호의 의미작용을 통해 시각 언어로 해석될 수 있다. 따라서 시각예술을 연구하는데 있어서 본 색채기호 분석이 보다 새로운 텍스트로 거듭나고 향후 효과적인 커뮤니 케이션으로 확대되기를 기대해본다. 주제어 : 시각기호, 인상주의, 인지, 시지각성, 예술 작품, 색채 지각 522 Ⅰ. 서론 1. 연구 배경 및 목적 본 연구는 예술이라는 범주에서 색채이미지가 가지는 역할의 기능과 그 기능이 부여하는 기호에 대한 고찰을 목적으로 한다. 다시 말해 본 논문을 통해 예술 작품에서 색채를 통한 이미지가 시지각적으로 어떻게 이루어지는가에 대한 상징성 및 시각 기호 (Visual Sign)를 알아보고자 한다. 명암과 색채는 시지각의 2차원 영역에 속한다고 볼 수 있는데, 애니메이션에서도 움직임과 형태가 갖고 있는 정보적인 요소를 뒷받침하는 이미지로서의 역할을 한다. 특히 명암과 색채는 캐릭 터의 심리적인 상태를 반영해 줄 수 있는 강력한 표현력을 가진 도구로서 네러티브에서 전개되는 상황을 극적으로 표현하는 데 유효한 수단이 된다.1) 이처럼 색채를 통해 드러나는 이미지는 시 각적, 생리적, 관념적, 상징적 등 다양한 인식 효과를 동반하고 있으며, 인간의 환경적 구조 안에서 사회와 소통을 가능하게 하 는 매개체로서 언어적 기능을 발휘한다. 색채는 깊은 감각을 자 극하는 강력한 언어이며 동시에 문자표기의 한계점 너머 그 영역 을 점차 확대 시켜나가고 있다. 따라서 색채 이미지가 예술작품 안에서 인지 가능한 공간을 이룰 때 그것이 시각 주체의 언어이 자 기호 체계의 일환으로 해석될 수 있다. 언어에 대한 경험과 훈련이 부족한 유아의 경우에도 그림 안에 조성된 조형언어가 주 는 기호체계에 반응하여, 언어적 인식의 폭이 넓어지는 경우를 발견할 수 있다.2) 특히 색채 이미지는 감정표현을 시각화하는 예 술 영역에 있어서 창작자의 자기표출뿐만 아니라 관람자로 하여 금 감정을 유발하는데 원동력이 되는 필수요소이기도 하다. 그리 1) 김광환, 「<라이온 킹>에 나타난 정서표현의 시각 이미지 분석: 그레이브스 명암이론과의 관계를 중심으로」, 만화애니메이션연구 통권 제15호, 2009, pp.73-74 2) 조명식, 「회화적 일러스트레이션을 적용한 그림책 사례 연구-바라미디어 발 간‘작은 철학자’전집을 중심으로」, 한국일러스트학회, 조형미디어학 10권2 호, 2007, p.87 523 하여 예술 영역에서 모든 시각 대상(객체)에 색채의 역할과 그 속에 내포되어있는 색채 이미지의 의의를 기호적으로 해석 하고 분석해보는데 본 연구의 목적으로 둔다. 2. 연구 범위 및 방법 본 논문에서 다룰 연구 범위 및 방법은 다음과 같다. 우선 본 문 Ⅱ장에서는 서양미술사 사조에서의 인상주의 미술에 중대한 영향을 주었던 영국 풍경화와 들라크루아의 색채를 인식하여 그 이론적 토대를 살펴볼 것이다. 그 다음 Ⅲ장은 인상주의 작품을 분석하기에 앞서 기호학으로 접근한 이전의 예술작품 사례와 접 근방법을 정리하여 기호학과 예술과의 상관성을 알아보고자 하 며, 이를 바탕으로 색이 지닌 이미지 표현을 기호적 실재로 도출 하여 색채와 기호의 연관성을 모색해보고자 한다. 이를 통해 본 격적으로 인상주의 대표화가들의 색채표현기법에서 드러난 가시 성을 작가별 분석틀로 마련하여, 그 색채표현으로 인한 이미지 속 색채 기호를 추출하여 근거로 삼고자한다. 따라서 인상주의 그림 안에서 색채와 피사체와의 관계를 도출해보며, 후기 인상주 의까지 시대적 흐름에 따른 색채 이미지의 변천을 통해 기호적으 로 시각 이미지를 읽어내는 연구 방법이다. 본 논문은 예술 작품 안에서 주(主)된 요소이자 그 효과성과 더불어 하나의 기호로 형 성되는 색채에 대한 탐구이며, 이로써 회화에 나타난 색채를 이 해하는데 보다 다각적이고 새롭게 조명할 시각을 제시하리라 본 다. Ⅱ. 인상주의 색채 인식소 서양 미술사에서 이전의 회화가 대상을 그대로 옮기거나 시대 적 배경에 대한 고발을 위한 재현이었다면, 19세기에 들어서 빛 을 지각해서 화폭에 담아낸 것은 인상주의가 그 시초라고 할 수 있다. 따라서 인상주의3) 회화에서 가장 두드러지는 요소는 단순 한 수단으로서의 색채가 아닌 빛을 모사하기 위한 색감이었다. 524 ‘인상(Impression)’이라는 단어와 같이 빛에 투영된 자연의 인 상을 그대로 화폭에 옮겨놓은 점이 인상파 화가들의 작품 경향인 데, 이러한 특징은 다음 그림과 같이 당시 인상파로 활동하였던 대표화가 모네와 르누아르의 작품을 두드러진 예로 볼 수 있다. 그림 1. 모네, 파라솔을 든 여인, 캔버스에 유채, 100x81cm, 18754) 그림 2. 모네, 라 그르누예르의 수영객들 캔버스에 유채, 73x92cm, 18695) 3) ‘인상주의(Impressionism)’라는 단어는 루이 르르와(Louis Leroy)라는 한 이름없는 신문기자가 처음으로 만들어낸 것으로 알려져 있다. 그는 1874년 4 월25일 『르 샤리바리』지에 동년 4월15일부터 5월15일까지 카퓌신 거리의 35 번지 사진사 나다르(Nadar)의 사진관에서 열린 화가, 조각가, 판화가 등등의 협회의 작품 발표회에 관해 「인상주의자 전시회」라는 제목으로 글을 기고했 다. 왜 그렇게 불렀을까. 그는 거기에 전시된 클로드 모네의 작품 제목 <인 상, 해뜨는 광경>(마르모땅 미술관, 파리)에서 착상을 얻었던 것이다. 그 그 림은 아침 안개 속에 잠겨 있는 르 아브르 항구를 그린 것이다. 루이 르르와 가 이 ‘인상주의’라는 단어를 사용했던 것은 다만 시각적 ‘인상’을 보다 잘 번역하기 위해서 전통적 회화 표현 수단을 저버린 이 예술가들에 대한 그 의 경멸감을 보다 잘 드러내기 위해서였다. 모리스 세륄라즈, 최민 옮김, 『인상주의』, 열화당, 2000, p.15 4) Google, www.google.co.kr, 검색어: 모네, 2015.07.01 5) 앞의 주소, 검색어: 모네, 2015.07.01 525 그림 3. 르누아르, 보트 파티에서의 오찬, 캔버스에 유채, 129.5x172.7cm, 18816) 위의 그림에서 볼 수 있듯이 빛을 중심으로, 그 빛을 받은 소 재나 풍경을 잘 드러내기 위해 밝은 색채로 묘사되어있어 인상파 의 특징이 그들의 화폭 안에서 잘 두드러진다. 이는 이전의 미술 사에서 내려오던 전통적인 색채기법과 차별화된 신선하고 독창적 인 기법이라고 여겨진다. 그림에서도 두드러지듯이 당시 인상주 의는 주로 근대적 삶을 주제로 삼았으며 파리의 공원들, 카페, 길거리 등 여가활동을 위한 공공장소가 많이 등장한다. 따라서 예술적 창작의 배경은 지나간 과거나 역사의 모습이 아닌 직접적 으로 경험할 수 있는 현실에서 화폭이 묻어난다. 이와 같은 인상 주의 화풍은 삶의 순간순간들이 포착되어 그려졌으며, 대중들이 보다 쉽게 인식할 수 있는 풍경화, 다시 말해서 스케치풍 (sketchiness)의 그림이라고 할 수 있다. 더 이상 실내가 아닌 ‘빛을 그리는 것’즉, 야외의 밝은 빛을 모티프로 그리게 되는 인상주의 화풍에서 자율적인 색채의 출발점을 모색할 수 있었다. 인상파 화가들에게 햇빛을 고려한 색채 효과에 대한 연구는 중요 시 여겨졌으며, 따라서 당시 광학적 인식은 그들에게 중대한 연 구대상일 수밖에 없었다. 6) 앞의 주소, 검색어: 르누아르, 2015.07.01 526 1) 슈브뢸(Michel Eugène Chevreul)의 광학이론 인상주의 화가들이 발전해온 독창적인 색채 기법은 외광 회화 를 통한 기법으로, 당시 광학에서의 학문적 지식과 밀접한 관계 를 이룬다. 프랑스의 화학자 외젠 슈브뢸(1986-1889)은 학술논문 <색채의 동시대조법>(1839)과 <색채의 조화와 대조 원칙과 미술 에서의 적용>(1864)에서 처음으로 인접해 있는 색채들은 서로 영 향을 주면서 서로의 색채를 강하게 한다는 명제를 제기했다.7) 그 래서 이러한 슈브뢸의 색채 이론은 당시 활동했던 화가들에게 많 은 영향을 주었는데 특히 인상주의 이전의 낭만주의 대표화가 들 라크루아의 화면에서 보색대비와 같은 색채 기법과 쇠라의 점묘 법 등이 슈브뢸의 이론으로부터 파생된 것이었다. 그림 4. 외젠 슈브뢸 색상환8) 인상주의 화가들에게 대상의 형태는 이제 선에 의해서가 아닌 다양한 색채를 나란히 배열하는 채색에 의해 규정되었다. 따라서 인상파 화폭에서 대상의 형태는 적당한 간격을 두고 관찰하는 관 람자의 눈에 이르러서야 비로소 제 모습을 드러낸다. 인상주의 화가들은 레몬의 노란색처럼 한 대상의‘실제적’색채를 나타내 는 고유색이 그 사물에 대한 지식에 토대를 둔 관습에 불과하다 7) 안드레아 디펠, 이수영 옮김, 『인상주의』, 예경, 2005, p.14 요약 8) 앞의 책, p.15 그림참조 527 는 인식을 전개시켰다. 이들이 생각하는 대상의 색채는 대상 자 체의 고유색과 대상을 둘러 싼 주변의 색채, 그리고 대기효과로 구성된다. 시시각각 변화하는 과정을 물 흐르듯이 유연하게 포착 하는 이들의 회화방식은 가변적이고 일시적인 자연의 모습을 보 여준다. 이는 과도한 색채와 단계별로 나누어진 색조로 표현되는 이전의 인습적인 회화에서는 도달할 수 없는 것이었다.9) 그림 5. 들라크루아, 민중을 이끄는 자유의 여신, 캔버스에 유채,259x325cm, 183110) 그림 6. 쇠라, 그랑드 자트 섬의 일요일 오후,캔버스에 유채, 207.5x308cm, 1884 11) 슈브뢸은 1839년에 <색채와 동시대비법칙에 대하여>라는 논문 을 발표하였으며, 1864년 <산업미술에서 색채와 그 적용>을 발간 하여 자신의 색채이론을 구축한다. 슈브뢸의 이론은 보색을 배합 하여 나타내는 색채 연구법이며, 화면 안에서 어떠한 보색들로 배치하는 가에 따라 다양하게 색채를 인식하고 표현할 수 있다고 분석하였다. 그래서 일상 및 풍경을 소재로 채색하는 인상주의 화가들은 슈브뢸의 색채 연구법에 따라 빛을 통해 드러나는 대상 물에 대한 많은 관심을 가졌으며, 그들의 화면은 어떠한 형태나 특정 기법보다 색채가 우위를 띠고 있는 것을 볼 수 있다. 따라 9) 앞의 책, pp.14-15 10) Google, www.google.co.kr, 검색어: 외젠 들라크루아, 2015.07.07 11) 앞의 주소, 검색어: 쇠라, 2015.07.07. 528 서 인상주의 화가들은 특히 햇빛에 의한 색채작용을 사람들의 시 각에 적응시키기 위해 슈브뢸의 보색 대조법을 사용한다. 그 중 낭만주의 화가인 외젠 들라크루아의 색채는 슈브뢸의 색채이론을 통한 보색 대조법의 사용으로 화폭에 옮겨내어, 인상파 화가들에 게 지속적인 본보기가 되었으며, 생생한 장면을 구사하는 그의 붓놀림과 광학적 색 효과는 인상주의 화가들에게 의식적인 밑바 탕이 되었다. 2)‘들라크루아’12)의 색채 ‘색으로서의 색(couleur couleur)과 빛으로서의 색을 조화시켜야 만 한다’ -『일기』제1권, (1850,10.29,p.418)13) 들라크루아의 화면은 슈브뢸의 색채 이론인 보색 대조를 토대 로, 그의 작품은 대부분 자연을 구사하여 현실을 초월한 상상계 속의 인간의 내면을 다루어온다. 현실에서 탈피한 인간의 정신세 계를 미술작품으로서 승화시킴으로서 강렬한 색채의 대비와 명암 대비를 표현하여 영웅적인 모습마저 다음 그림과 같이 더욱 극적 으로 나타낸다. 따라서 들라크루아는 인상주의 화가들에게 선두구자이자 본보 기가 되었으며, 팡탱 라투르는 들라크루아가 죽은 지 일년 후 1864년 <그림 8>과 같이 들라크루아 찬사를 그려 경의를 표했다. 그밖에도 시인 보들레르는 들라크루아를 독창적인 색채화가 이자 동시에 낭만주의 대표자로 찬사하는데, 여기서 낭만주의는 내면 성, 정신성, 색채, 무한에로의 열망으로 재해석하면서 그를‘회 12) 드라크로아(Delacroix, 1798~1863)는 런던 체재 중에 터너와 콘스타불의 작 품을 보았다. 그는 이 두 화가의 색채에 깊은 감명을 받았으며, 귀국한 후 자신의 기성 작품 중 몇 점을 그들과 같은 수 법으로 고쳐 그렸다. 그 결 과 1820년 파리의 싸롱(Salon de Paris)에서 일대 센세이션을 불러 일 으 키게 된 것이다. 드라크로아는 그의 생애를 통하여 색채 문제와 원리를 적극 적으로 다루었다. 요하네스 이텐, 김수석 옮김, 『색채의 예술』, 지구문 화사, 2008, p.14 13) 모리스 세릴라즈, 최민 옮김, 『인상주의』, 열화당, 2000, p.34 재인용 529 화의 시인’이라고 명명한다. 1846년 보들레르가 들라크루아의 색채에서 발견한 것은 바로 색채로 드러난 감정,‘우울감’이었 다. 그림 7. 들라크루아, 카오섬의 학살,캔버스에 유채, 419x354cm, 182414) 그림 8. 팡탱 라투르, 들라크루아에게 보내는 경의, 186415) 캔버스에 유채,419x354cm, 182416) 다시 정리하자면 들라크루아에 관한 보들레르의 미술비평은 색 채와 언어의 미묘한 관계성, 색채가 불러일으키는 감정 표현, 그 리고 무엇보다 색채의 자율성이었다. 필자는 들라크루아가 더 이 상 회화의 수단으로서의 색채가 아닌 자율성을 부여한 색채 화가 이자 잠재적인 표현능력을 색채로서 기호적인 힘을 부여했던 시 인으로 여기며 인상주의 화가들의 인식 배경으로 연구할만하다고 본다. 14) Google, www.google.co.kr, 검색어: 외젠 들라크루아, 2015.07.08 15) 앞의 주소, 검색어; 외젠 들라크루아에게 보내는 경의, 2015.07.08 16) Google, www.google.co.kr, 검색어: 외젠 들라크루아, 2015.07.08 530 그림 9. 들라크루아, 방안에 있는 알제리 여인들,캔버스에 유채, 180x229cm, 183417) 그림 10. 들라크루아, 콘스탄티노플에 입성한 십자군, 캔버스에 유채, 410x498cm, 184018) 3) 영국의 근대회화19) (John Constable, William Turner, Richard Parkes Bonington) ‘내가 그림에서 목표를 삼은 것은 빛, 이슬, 바람, 피어나는 꽃 등등이다.’20) 18세기말부터 영국의 풍경화는 영국 회화의 중대한 위치에서 자리하게 되면서, 앞에서 살펴본 인상주의 그림 경향은 영국의 풍경화로부터 많은 영향을 받았기에 인상주의 색채 인식배경으로 주목할 만하다. 인상파와 같이 영국의 화가들은 1820년대부터 야 외 풍경을 그려왔으며, 윌리엄 터너, 존 컨스터블, 보닝턴 등의 17) 앞의 주소, 검색어: 외젠 들라크루아, 2015.07.08 18) 앞의 주소, 검색어: 외젠 들라크루아, 2015.07.08 19) 회화에 있어서의 낭만주의 운동은 영국의 터너와 콘스타불에서 비롯된다고 믿어지고 있다. 이 화 가들은 풍경에 특정한 분위기를 주기 위하여 심리적 표현의 한 매개물로서 색채를 사용하였다. 콘 스타불은 화면 속에서 동계 의 초록색을 사용하지 않고 명암, 한난, 채도의 정교한 농담의 계조로 처 리하였으며, 터너는 몇 개의 무대상(無對象) 색채구성을 창작하였는데 그 작 례들이 그로 하여금 서구 화가 중에서 최초의 ‘추상 화가’라고 불리게 된 이유가 되는 것이다. 요하네스 이텐 저, 김수석 역, 『색채의 예술』, 지구문화사, 2008, p.14 요약 20) 모리스 세릴라즈, 최민 옮김, 『인상주의』, 열화당, 2000, p.26 인용 531 풍경 화가들의 그림들은 색조대비를 통한 대기의 변화나 밝은 색 채를 이용한 분위기를 다루어왔다. 그림 11. 컨스터블, 건조마차, 캔버스에 유채, 130.5x185.5cm, 182121) 위의 존 컨스터블(Constable, 1776-1837)의 인용문과 같이 <그 림 11><건조마차>가 1821년 런던의 왕립 아카데미 첫 전시를 선 보였을 시 프랑스에서는 큰 본보기가 되었다. 특히 그의 풍경에 서 밝은 광선을 받은 나무들의 잎사귀 하나하나 선명하게 표현한 초록색은 들라크루아를 비롯하여 프랑스에서의 화가들에게 상당 한 영향을 끼친 것을 유추해볼 수 있다. 리처드 파크스 보닝턴(Bonington, 1802-1826) 역시 들라크루아 에게 영향을 끼쳤으며, 그의 화폭에서는 주로 명쾌한 구도와 역 동적인 붓 터치의 표현과 신선한 색채표현을 통한 대기의 변화를 쉽게 찾아볼 수 있다. 21) Google, www.google.co.kr, 검색어: 존 컨스터블, 2015.07.14 532 그림 12. 보닝턴, 노르망디 해변, 캔버스에 유채, 1823-182422) 그림 13. 보닝턴, 노르망디 풍경,캔버스에 유채, 44x33cm, 182323) <그림 12><노르망디 해변>에서 비롯되어 실제 노르망디 해변은 프랑스 풍경 화가들의 야외 스케치 장소로 소재가 되곤 하였다. 윌리엄 터너(Turner,1775-1851) 또한 바다 풍경을 그려오면서 그 중 특히 바다의 모습이나 격렬한 파도 등 역동적인 분위기를 재현해내면서, 1872년에 등장한 모네 그림 <인상, 해돋이>는 터 너의 작품을 연상시킨다. 그림 14. 모네, 인상, 해돋이, 캔버스에 유채, 48x63cm, 180724) 그림 15. 터너, 안개 속에서 떠오르는 태양,캔버스에 유채, 91x122cm, 184125) 22) Google, www.google.co.kr, 검색어: bonington richard parkes, 2015.07.15 23) 앞의 주소, 검색어: bonington richard parkes, 2015.07.15 24) 앞의 주소, 검색어: Monet, 2015.07.16 533 Ⅲ. 인상주의 회화에서 색채 기호의 실재 1. 기호학과 예술의 상관관계 예술 작품은 단순한 사물 자체와는 별개인 것이고, 사물 속에 다른 것을 함께 가져오는 것이기 때문에 비유(Allegorie)나 상징 (Symbol)이라 일컬어진다.26) 그래서 미술사학자들은 작품의 의미 를 규명하기 위해 연구하며, 기호학자들은 이렇게 도출되는 작품 에 다시 기호학적 관점으로 접근하여 그 의미를 재해석한다. 본 연구에서 예술과 기호학의 접목은 예술 작품을 낯설고 새롭게 통 찰하는 관점을 가질 수 있을 것이다. 나아가 이러한 접목을 바탕 으로 기호와 색채와의 상관관계를 연구함으로서 색채가 하나의 기호로 작용할 수 있는 가능성에 대해 연구해 볼 수 있다. 먼저 기호학은 소쉬르나 퍼스, 후대에 미커 발에 이르기까지 많은 학 자들의 연구 끝에 예술 작품을 해석하는 방법론으로 자리 잡게 되었으며, 이를 통해 텍스트뿐만 아니라 이미지까지 기호학적 언 어로 발화되는 특성을 갖추게 되었다. 그러면 기호학은 여러 방 법론들과 어떤 차별성을 가지고 있는가? 본 논의에서 적용되는 기호학적 관점이란, 기존의 기호학 이론을 바탕으로 미술사 전반 에 걸친 시각 기호들이 가진 상징성의 해석을 의미한다. 그리하 여 주어진 그대로의 작품 해석보다는 작품에 부여되어 있는 의 미, 즉‘기호(Signs)’의 체계로서 작품이 드러난다는 기호론적 방법론이 본 논의의 접근 방식으로 이용된다. 그러나 기호학이 작품의 제작 과정보다는 완성된 작품의 이미 지를 읽어내는 데 집중할지라도, 이것이 특정 관람자의 개인적 반응을 고려한 것은 아니라는 점을 분명히 해야 한다.27) 다시 말 25) 앞의 주소, 검색어: Turner, 2015.07.16 26) Martin Heidegger, 「예술작품의 근원(Der Ursprung des Kunstwerkes)」, (1935), 『숲길 Holzwege』,(1950), Frankfurt a. M. Klostermann, 1963, p.9, 조요한, 『예술과 철학』, 미술문화, 2003, p.97 재인용 27) 마이클 해트·샬럿 클롱크, 전영백과 현대미술연구회 옮김,『미술사방법 론』, 세미콜론, 2012, p.324 요약 534 해 기호학에서 작품의 의미는 우리의 말이나 표현을 지배하는 코 드와 법칙에 의존하고 있기 때문에 관람자는 단지 의미의 흐름을 전달하는 역할만 할 뿐이다.28) 기호학과 예술의 상관관계를 알아보기 위해서 스위스 언어학자 인 동시에 대표 기호학자 소쉬르(Saussure)의 연구가 주목해보고 자 한다. 소쉬르에 의하면 언어는 기호의 체계, 그 자체다. 소쉬 르는 언어의 구조적인 체계를 연구하기 위해 랑그(Langue)와 파 롤(Parole)로 기호를 구분하였으며, 그는 모든 언어 기호를 기표 (signifier)와 기의(signified), 이 두 가지로 나누었다. 그가 말하는 기표와 기의는 표시하는 것과 표시되는 것이며, 기표는 오감을 통해 지각 가능한 형태로 되는 기호의 겉모습이며, 기의 는 기호의 정신적 개념이다. 이렇듯 소쉬르의 이론에 의하면 기 표와 기의는 불가분의 관계이고, 따라서 기호라는 것은 그 자체 내에 모든 것이 포함되어 있는 자율적인 체계이다. 결국 언어기 호는 사실 그것이 지칭하는 대상(실제 대상)과는 아무런 관계가 없으며 양자는 서로 무관하다. 더 나아가 기호란 자의적인 (arbitrary)관계이며 동시에 그 의미를 결정하는 것은 개별적인 기호 간의 차이로써, 즉 모든 기호는 변별적 관계인 것이다. 그림 16. 피카소, Still Life with Violin and Fruit, 1913년29) 28) 앞의 책, p.324 29) Google, www.google.co.kr 검색어: 바이올린과 과일, 와인, 2015.07.08 535 기호학을 예술작품에 다소 수용하기에는 어려움이 따르나, 사 례연구를 통해 소쉬르의 기호적 관점이 어떻게 작용되는지 알아 보자. 소쉬르의 이론으로부터 많은 영향을 받은 로잘린드 크라우 스는 피카소의 콜라주 작품을 주로 관심 있게 다루어왔는데 특히 작품에서 등장하는 형태들의 다의성(polysemic)이 소쉬르가 말하 는 개별성에 맥락을 함께 한다. 예를 들어 1912년에 제작된 피카 소의 작품 중 <그림 16><Still Life with Violin and Fruit>에서 보이는 f홀은 바이올린이라는 대상물의 외관상이나 언어구조와 전혀 관계가 없으며 이는 사전적 의미의 바이올린이 아니라 작품 안에서 화면을 구성하는 재현 기호로 여겨진다. 크라우스에 의하 면 예술작품에서 드러나는 표상은 무엇인가 지시하는 기호도 아 니며 대체하는 어떤 의미도 아닌 회화적 자기반영의 기호라고 해 석 할 수 있다. 미커 발의 기호학적 연구는 그의 저서 <램브란트 읽기 Reading Rembrant>(1991)를 통해 소쉬르나 퍼스 등 이전의 기호학 이론보 다 독창적으로 사용되고 있음을 알 수 있다. 미커 발의 기호체계 는 특정한 사건이며 하나의 방법론이 아닌 미술 작품에 대한 새 로운 추론과 다양한 해석의 가능성을 제시한다. 이를 토대로 그 에게 기호란, 앞서 크라우스가 분석한 지시대상(바이올린)과 f홀 (기표)의 무관한 관계성처럼 어떠한 물질적 형태가 아닌 총체적 인 사건인 것이다. 그림 17. 램브란트, The Toliet of Bathsheba, 캔버스에 유채, 142x142cm, 165430) 536 위의 작품 <그림 17><밧세바의 욕실 The Toliet of Bathsheba>(1654)에서 보이는 소재들은 전체적인 작품 분위기나 장면을 묘사하기 위해 등장한다. 그리고 작품 제목에서의 텍스트 는 독자에게 작품을 보지 않고도 그 장면을 어느 정도 연상하는 작용을 돕는다. 우리는 흔히 이렇게 텍스트나 작품 속에 드러나 는 대상들이 기호로 시각화되어 작품을 해석하게 되는데, 발은 여기서 나오는 해석의 다양성은 관람자들로 인해 생산되며 예술 작품 속에서 표상되는 기호들은 자의적이며 오직 보는 이의 관점 에서만 작품의 시각 기호가 작용된다고 보았다. 이처럼 예술 작 품에서의 시각 기호학(Visual Semiotics)은 앞서 크라우스의 관 점에서 언급된 회화적 자신의 반영이 내포되어 있으므로, 관습적 혹은 역사적 맥락이 아닌 주어진 사건 그 자체로서 자기 반영적 인 기호로 해석되고 다루어지고 있다. 미술사학자들이 예술작품 의 시각적 재현의 본질을 읽어내는 데에 연구와 더불어 이미지와 담론의 위상을 만들어가는 기호학의 접목은 보다 창의적인 물음 을 던지고 미술사를 폭넓게 해석할 수 있는 또 다른 가능성에 기 인한다. 화가의 자기 반영적인 기호는 시각적 커뮤니케이션의 일 환으로, 필자는 이를 특히 회화작품의 색채표현으로서 기호의 실 재를 파악해본다. 앞서 미커 발의 기호론적 관점과 같이 색채 기 호 또한 예술 작품에서 해석의 자의성을 갖는다. 그림은 화가의 기의가 의식적이든 무의식적이든 투입된 공간이 다. 물론 관람객에게 우선 다가오는 것은 기표들이다. 그러나 그 림은 관람객에게 넌지시 기의를 청하는 공간이다.31) 필자는 색채 를 물리적인 현상에서 나아가 드러나는 상징과 그 의미를 수반하 는 기호로 보고 있다. 다시 말해 색채표현을 기표로 본다면, 그 색으로부터 도출되는 기호는 의미기반의 기의라고 보는 것이다. 특히 색채를 중점적으로 가미하여 그려왔던 인상주의 화폭에서 색채 이미지는 각 화가들의 여러 의미로 파생되어 전달되고 있음 을 증명해 볼 수 있겠다. 따라서 필자는 다음 장에서 인상주의 30) Google, www.google.co.kr, 검색어: 램브란트 밧세바, 2015.7.15 31) 김경용, 『기호학의 즐거움』, 민음사, 2005, p.110 537 그림을 해석하는데 있어서 그것을 표현하고 해석하는 방법 사이 에서 색채 기호로 읽음으로서, 보다 총제적인 접근으로 다가가고 자 한다. 2. 인상주의 작품 색채 기호 유형 분석 E.H 곰브리치에 의하면, 기호의 의미는 그것의 전체적인 외관 에 의해서가 아니라 ‘고유한 특징(distinctive features)’에 의해 전달된다는 것이다. 이미지와 기호의 차이는 도상성이나 관 습성의 정도에 있는 것이 아니며, 이미지는 그것이 인식되는 순 간 기호로 작용할 수 있다는 것이다.32) 프랑스의 기호학자 퐁타니유는 그저 시각적 에너지에 불과한 빛을 기존의 빛의 속성인 ‘명도, 색상, 채도’를 기반으로 하여 기호학적으로 재해석한다. 그는 다양한 시각 메세지를 빛의 속성 과 환경과의 상호작용, 빛의 의미 효과 이론으로‘빛의 기호학 (sémiotique de la lumière)을 규명한다. 그러면 빛의 기호학은 예술작품을 분석하는데 어떠한 연관성을 갖는가? 퐁타니유의 시 각 기호학을 따르자면 빛을 흡수한 면은‘색채’를 이루는데, 그 렇기 때문에 색채는 부위(sites)를 가지게 된다. 색채 부위들 속 에서 빛은 서로 다른 강도와 범위를 가지게 되고, 이로 인해 서 로 이질적인 차이를 가지는 국지화(Iocalisation)의 성격을 가지 면서 이러한 색채 부위들의 분리작용을 통하여 어떠한 해석과 가 치가 형성되기도 한다.33) 특히 미술사에서 빛은 그림의 창작배경 이자 시각의 세계였다. 인상주의 화가들에게 빛은 색의 모태였으 며, 빛으로부터 지각되는 그들의 색채표현은 독자의 눈에 이미지 로 변모되면서 제작자의 내적 진리를 내포하고 있었다. 그리고 그것은 그들의 색채언어로 기여될 수 있다. 인상주의 화가들은 2 차원의 공간에 빛을 통한 색과 표현을 융합하여 자신의 내적 진 리를 대신하는 색 체계를 만든다. 따라서 본 장은 그려진 색채가 32) 고명석, 『예술과 테크놀로지』, 도서출판 새빛, 2014, p.356 33) Jacques Fontanille, 「Sémiotique du visible-des Mondes de lumière」, Paris: P.U.F., 1995. pp.32-34, 허나영,「시각기호학에 있어서 지각의 문 제」,미학예술연구 제44집, 2015, p.151 재인용 및 요약 538 화가들의 사상과 경험, 감정을 수반하는 작용을 하고 있기 때문 에 하나의 시각 기호로 분석하고자 한다. 필자는 화가들의 색채 표현특징과 전달하는 그 시각적 메시지를 알아보기 위해 색채를 우위로 다루었던 인상주의 미술 작품과 작가를 선정하여 다음 <표 1>과 같이 개별적으로 해체하여 탐구하였다. 표 1. 인상주의 화가별 색채표현 특징 및 기호 유형 분석 따라서 <표 1> 과 같이 색채표현과 이를 통한 상징성을 나누어 분석해보면, 들라크루아의 색채로부터 인상주의 화가들의 회화까 지 대상의 색채는 단순한 표현이나 관습이 아닌 그들이 지향하는 언어이자 기호로 의미 작용된 것으로 볼 수 있다. 이러한 분석은 색채가 기호로서 의미를 전달하고 보다 예술 작품의 폭넓은 해석 을 가능하게 하는 창조적인 효과성을 기대해볼 수 있다. 인상주 의 화가들에게 색은 기호화된 가치이자 자기언어로 발화될 수 있 기에 화폭에 표현하는 색채는 상징적인 의미 그 자체로서 전달하 는 강력한 수단이며 하나의 기호로 볼 수 있다. 따라서 대상 및 사물은 색을 보여주기 위한 수단이었으며, 본 논문은 빛이라는 539 전통적인 개념에서 벗어나 더 넓고 다양한 해석으로서의 색채 연 구이자 동시에 텍스트로부터 색의 기호작용을 볼 수 있다. 나아 가 후기 인상주의 세대의 화가들 또한 인상주의 색채 요소를 의 식하고 강조하여 감정을 표현하는 자기반영적인 기호로 부여하는 데 그 흐름을 이어갔다. 그리하여 마네와 같은 후기 인상주의 대 표 화가들의 작품을 보면서 그들의 색채표현을 언어 및 담론으로 기호화하여 색채표현의 변천과정을 분석할 필요가 있다. 그림 18. 마네, 풀밭 위의 점심 식사,캔버스에 유채, 208x264.5cm, 186334) 그림 19. 마네, 올랭피아, 캔버스에 유채, 130.5x190cm, 186335) 후기 인상주의36) 회화에서 색채와 함께 수용된 한 가지는 특징 은 화면의 평평함이다. 위의 에두아르 마네의 작품 <그림 18>을 보자. 야외에서 피크닉을 하는 것처럼 보이는 벌거벗은 여성의 가장 밝은 부분부터 어두운 사람의 표현까지 색채 대비를 제외하 고는 붓질이나 물성이 돋보이지 않는다. 이는 대상이 재현된 화 면의 평평함을 강조하고자 한 것이며, 후에 모더니즘의 순수한 회화성으로 독자적인 측면을 일으킨다. 34) Google, www.google.co.kr, 검색어 : 마네, 2015.7.17 35) 앞의 주소, 검색어: Manet, 2015.7.16 36) 로저 프라이에 의하면 후기인상주의자들은 매체 속에 들어 있는 형태적 요소 들을 강조하고 개발하려고 의식적으로 노력하는 미술가 세대다. 회화의 경우 에 그것은 색채, 선, 구성의 장식적인 요소들로서, 그들은 이러한 수단으로 감정을 표현하거나 전달하고자 했던 것이다. 빌린다 톰슨, 신방흔 옮김, 『후 기 인상주의』, 2003, p.7 인용 및 요약 540 밝은 그림을 주로 다루 왔던 마네는 이처럼 빛을 받은 밝은 부 분을 더욱 강조하여 그림을 완성하였으며, 다음 그의 작품, <그 림 20><피리 부는 소년>에서는 인물의 명암이 다소 제거되며 평 면적으로 완성이 된다. 이러한 평면성이 이전의 인상주의에서는 볼 수 없었던 마네의 작품 특징으로 돋보인다. 마네는 명암법을 기반한 데생과 같은 훈련된 음영법을 탈피하고자 하였으며, 이로 인해 마네의 평면성은 색채로 둔갑한 대상을 더욱 돋보이게 함으 로서 보색대비나 명암대비 등 색채를 하나의 기호로서 승화시켰 다는 점을 그의 작품 세계에서 볼 수 있다. 그림 20. 마네, 피리부는 소년, 캔버스에 유채, 161x97cm, 186637) 37) Google, www.google.co.kr, 검색어: 마네, 2015.7.18 541 그림 21. 쇠라, 그랑드 자트 섬의 일요일 오후, 캔버스에 유채, 207.5x308cm, 188438) 그림 22. 쇠라, 아스니에르에서의 물놀이, 캔버스에 유채, 200x250cm, 188839) 다음 작품<그림 21>은 후기 인상주의 선두구자이자 색채의 적 용에 과학적인 접근법을 발전시킨 조르주 쇠라의 대표작 <그랑드 자트 섬의 일요일 오후>(1884)이다. 쇠라에게 모든 자연은 색채 그 자체였다. 쇠라는 색채학과 슈브뢸의 광학이론을 심화시켜 그 것을 창작하는데 빛의 효과성을 위한 점묘법(Pointillism)을 도 입하여 신인상주의를 확립한 화가다. 기호학자 미커 발의 비평을 빌리자면, 다만 그 점들이 이루는 색채에 대해 독자로 하여금 따 듯한 색, 차가운 색 등 다양한 기호적 해석을 불러일으킬 뿐이 다. 따라서 관객의 눈 위주의 균일된 밀도로 그려진 입자들은 특 정한 의미가 부여되기보다는 색채, 즉 색채의 차이와 그 단계성 만이 화면에 맴돈다. 그의 작품 <그림 22>에서도 밝고 순수한 색 들로 점묘법이 사용되어 색채의 차이들로 안정적인 풍경으로 보 여 진다. 이와 같은 점묘법은 20세기 초 기하학적 추상 미술의 토대가 되었으며, 순수 색들의 분할과 세밀하게 나눈 색채 대비 로 입자들로 인한 색채의 차이성이 그 특징을 이룬다. 쇠라의 신인상주의로부터 영향을 많이 받았던 반 고흐의 색채 는 어두웠던 색채에서 눈부신 색채로 바뀌면서, 기존의 인상주의 38) 앞의 주소, 검색어: 쇠라, 2015.7.17 39) 앞의 주소, 검색어: 쇠라, 2015.7.15 542 와 달리 인상이 아닌 심리적 내용을 상징적으로 나타낸다. 주관 적인 감정 표출이었던 그의 색채 표현은 현대에 들어서도 미술사 에서 여러 부문으로 넘나들며 각광받고 있다. 그림 23. 고흐, 귀가 잘린 자화상, 60x49cm, 188940) 그림 24. 고흐, 자화상, 54.5x65cm, 188941) 그림 25. 고흐, 이젤 앞에선 자화상, 66x50cm, 188842) 그는 모든 빛의 효과들을 기반으로 색채이론을 연구하였으며, 그의 화풍은 마네와 다소 상이하게 투박한 붓질과 색채 의미부여 등 실험적인 시도로 볼 수 있다. 고흐는 사물에서 받은 마음의 감동을 격동적으로, 때론 과장해서 표현하고자 했다. 그래서 고 흐는 빨갛다고 느끼면 될 수 있는 대로 빨갛게, 태양이 빙빙 도 는 것 같이 정열적으로 거침없이 그려 나갔다.43) 이는 광학적인 색채이론에서 나아가 실험성을 위해 자신의 감정을 투과하고자 한 노력 또한 내포되어있다. 그에게 있어 독자적인 색채표현이란 자기 표출이자 내면의 무의식이 드러나는 언어였던 것이다. 그의 비극적 생애를 재고해보았을 때 그의 화면에서 색은 그의 목소리 이며, 그를 대표하는 자기 반영적인 기호로 작용된다. 따라서 화 면 속 사물은 그저 지시되는 대상이자 형태일 뿐 어떠한 기호도 40) 앞의 주소, 검색어: 반 고흐, 2015.7.16 41) 앞의 주소, 검색어: 반 고흐, 2015.7.16 42) 앞의 주소, 검색어 :반 고흐, 2015.07.16 43) 박우찬, 『서양미술사 속에는 서양미술이 있다』, 도서출판 재원, 1998, p.175 543 갖추고 있지 않는다. 다음은 큐비즘과 추상미술에 지대한 영향을 미쳤던 강렬한 색 채화가, 세잔느의 대표작 <그림 26><생트 빅투아르 산> 의 색채 구성을 살펴볼 것이다. <그림 26>에서는 보라색, 황록색, 주황색 과 파랑색 이렇게 4가지의 보색 대비가 화면을 구성한다. 배경의 하늘과 산은 푸른색에 의해 강조되어있으며, 이 밝은 푸른색은 밝은 초록색과 밝은 보라색에도 변화하고 있다. 밝은 보라색의 산 덩어리는 따듯한 등갈색에 반영되고 있다. 넓은 하늘에는 채 도가 높은 푸른색 면이 둔한 초록색 및 청록색과 교착하고 있 다.44) 이러한 보색대비는 화면 안에서 형(形)을 형성해주며 전체 적인 통일성을 제공하는 색채구성을 가지고 있다. 세잔에게 있어 서 색채는 그 대상이 지닌 고유의 색 뿐만 아니라 화면의 통일성 이 중시된다. 그림 26. 세잔, Mont Sainte-Victoire, 캔버스에 유채, 1902-190445) <그림 26><생트빅투아르 산> 연작은 큰 배경 안에서 이해해야 한다. 산은 멀리서 어렴풋이 떠올라, 도전적이면서도 보호하는 듯한 태도로 세잔의 폐쇄된 세계를 규정한다. 건물들조차 지형도 에 가까운 활기찬 색채 속에 흡수되어 거리를 표현하고 물질적 형태의 밀도를 형상화한다.46) 세잔의 이러한 화폭 구도는 전통적 44) 요하네스 이텐, 김수석 옮김, 『색채의 예술』, 지구문화사, 2008, p.102 45) Google, www.google.co.kr, 검색어: 세잔. 2015.07.17 544 인 원근법적 시점을 파괴하고, 현상의 외연적 형태가 아닌 더욱 원초적인 형태에 주력했던 것이다 표 2. 후기 인상주의 화가별 색채 특징 및 기호 유형 분석 Ⅳ. 결론 현대미술에서 색채표현은 현실에 대한 재현을 넘어서 다양하게 표현되고 있다. 특히 미술사에서 색채는 더 이상 고정적인 것이 아닌 지속적인 변화를 시도하는 실험적인 정신의 추구였으며, 이 를 화폭에 구현하기 위해 인상주의 화가들은 색채를 그들의 담론 이자 표현 언어로서의 가치로 재정립한다. 이렇듯 인상주의 시대 는 색조의 시대라고 해도 과언이 아니다. 빛을 발하는 색채는 그 자체로 조화를 이루는 습성이 있기 때문에 화가들은 눈에 포착되 는 그대로의 색 속성을 따르고자 하였으며, 화가들은 당시 슈브 46) 제임스 H 루빈 지음, 김석희 옮김, 『인상주의』, 한길아트, 2001, pp.397-398 요약 545 뢸의 색채이론을 본보기로 개별적이고도 체계적으로 구축해나간 다. 이는 인상주의를 전후하여 등장한 야수주의(Fauvism)에서 중 시한 색채의 자율성으로 번지게 되면서 큐비즘으로 그 위상에 이 르렀다. 따라서 회화사에서 이전의 색채가 객관적이고 고정적인 요소였다면, 인상주의 전후의 색채는 아카데미즘으로부터 벗어 나, 끊임없이 유동적으로 변화하는 삶 속에서 내면의 공간을 구 성하는 역할로 전이된다. 특히 Ⅲ장의 <표 2>와 같이 분석해보면 서, 미묘하고 다양한 색을 지각하고자 했던 후기 인상주의 화가 들의 시시각각 노력은 색채로 인한 형(形)을 배제하고, 그림의 배치나 구도 등의 표현보다는 색채 그 자체로 개인의 감정이나 심리를 드러내는 기호성을 그리고자 하였음을 도출할 수 있었다. 이러한 분석연구는 인상주의 및 후기인상주의 화가들의 색채표현 을 통하여 발화되는 기호를 알아보고자 시도되었으나 이러한 색 채 기호론적인 관점이 감성을 시각화하는 예술작품의 의미를 규 명하는데 있어서 과연 언표화가 가능한가에 대한 명확성과 객관 성이 결여되는 부분의 한계점 또한 보이기 때문에 색채로 둔갑한 조형 언어를 조금 더 구체적이고 실증적인 연구 방법의 필요성도 뒤따른다. 그러나 이 연구는 그림을 단순히 응시하는 담화가 아 니기에 필자가 주력하는 색채 기호적인 관점은 현대에 들어서도 작품을 규명하는데 다분히 연구해야할 중요한 담론의 가능성으로 여겨질 수 있다. 본 논문에서는 인상주의 화가들의 색채에 대한 무한한 실험정 신과 근대 회화를 통해 나타나는 색채의 기법 및 특징으로 유추 되는 시각 기호와 관련지어 알아보았다. 그래서 제 Ⅱ장 인상주 의 색채 인식소에서는 슈브뢸의 광학이론에 지각하여 색채 대비 및 보색 조절 등으로 인한 색채의 현상성에 관한 이해가 기초되 었으며, Ⅲ장에서의 <표 1>과 <표 2>와 같이 그에 따른 인상주의 와 후기 인상주의 색채 표현에 대한 기호적 유형별 분석이 필요 하였다. 분석 결과, 인상주의에 있어서 색채표현은 그림 속 사물 (지시대상)이나 주체 대상은 제거되고 더 이상 소재는 배경의 역 할일 뿐 총체적인 덩어리로 존재하고 있었다. 자연주의 미술과 546 전통적인 기법에서 벗어나고자했던 인상주의 화가들의 실험 정신 은, 색채를 통한 개개인의 표현의 상징성을 내포하고 있는‘기 호’로 작용되었던 것이다. 더불어 필자는 본 논문에서 후기 인 상주의 작품 분석을 통해 작가들이 색채를 자기 반영적, 충족적 인 목소리로 회화사에 기여했음을 도출하였다. 감각적인 색채를 통해 작품을 음미하는 기호론은 서양미술에서의 색 영역에 더욱 창조적인 시각을 제시할 수 있다는 점과 더불어 역동적이고도 유 연한 태도로 작품을 규명하는데 시사하는 바가 크다고 필자는 생 각한다. 본 논문을 통해 향후 독자들이 시각예술을 비언어적 언 어, 즉 색채기호 담론으로서 감각적으로 작품을 이해하는데 도움 이 되길 바란다. 참고문헌 고명석, 『예술과 테크놀로지』, 도서출판 새빛, 2014. 김경용, 『기호학의 즐거움』, 민음사, 2005 마이클 해트·샬릿 클롱크, 전영백과 현대미술연구회 옮김, 『미술사 방 법론』, 세미콜론, 2012. 모리스 세륄라즈, 최민 옮김,『인상주의』, 열화당, 2000. 박우천,『서양미술사 속에는 서양미술이 있다』,도서출판 재원. 1998. 빌린다 톰슨, 신방흔 옮김, 『후기 인상주의』, 열화당, 2003. 안드레아 디펠, 이수영 옮김,『인상주의』, 예경, 2005. 요하네스 이텐, 김수석 옮김, 『색채의 예술』, 지구문화사, 2008. 제임스 H 루빈, 김석희 옮김, 『인상주의』, 한길아트, 2001 조요한, 『예술철학』,미술문화. 2003. 김광환, 「<라이온 킹>에 나타난 정서표현의 시각이미지 분석: 그레이브 스 명암이론과의 관계를 중심으로」, 만화애니메이션연구 통권 제 15호, 73-88 (16 pages), 2009.5 김철기, 「주조색과 밝기 정보를 이용한 인상주의 작품 분석」, 한국디 자인트렌드학회, 한국디자인포럼, 2010. 박일우, 「‘보이는 것의 기호학’연구 서설」, 한국기호학회, 기호학연 구 제28집 (2010), pp.107-134 547 배성미, 「形態言語로서 Symbol과 色彩言語」의 相關性 硏究」, 한국조 형교육학회 학술논문, (1992). 이춘우, 「17세기 네덜란드 장르화와 19세기 프랑스 인상주의 회화의 현 대성」, 프랑스문화예술학회 학술논문, 프랑스문화예술연구 제45집 (2013. 가을), pp.237-271. 전인아, 「'매트릭스'의 상징성과 신화적 여성성에 대한 연구 : 팰림프 세스트와 틈새공간을 활용한 본인의 회화중심으로」, 국민대학교 대학원 학위논문(박사), 2014.8. 조명식, 「회화적 일러스트레이션을 적용한 그림책 사례 연구 -바라미디 어 발간 "작은 철학자" 전집을 중심으로-」, 한국일러스트학회, 조 형미디어학 10권2호 (2007), pp.85-96. 조명식·사윤택, 「이미지의 지속가능한 현상을 반영하는 현대회화의 시 간성 연구 본인의 회화작품을 중심으로」, 한국기초조형학회, 기초 조형학연구 14권2호 (2013), pp.185-194. 한명란, 「보들레르 미술비평에 나타난 들라크루아의 현대성」, 충남대 학교 학위논문, 2006. 허나영, 「시각기호학에 있어서 지각의 문제」, 한국미학예술학회, 미학 예술학연구 제44집 (2015), pp.135-162 Jacques Fontanille, Sémiotique du visible- des Mondes de lumièr, Paris: P.U.F (1995) Google, www.google.com, 검색어 : 모네, 르누아르, 쇠라, 들라크루아, 마네, 고흐 2015.07.01. 548 ABSTRACT A Study on the Semiotic Discourse of Color Expression in Impressionism Paintings -Focus on Works of Impressionism - Ryu, Joo-Hyun We recognize all objects by seeing. However, we are not sure that the things we see through our eyes are their essence. Here comes my question: What does it mean that humans see and recognize things? The things we see are images and so I consider recognizing an object as semiosis via our visual sensation and brain. That is because objects are defined not by their essence but as symbols we recognize. In the era of post-modernism art is a voluntary creative activity that creates a kind of spiritual value and plays an important role for appreciators who realize the fact to enjoy the life value. This paper focused on the art putting aesthetic value on humans' recognition and explored works of art in a visually perceptible way through semiosis. That is because art, an act of creating things, is symbolic and closely linked to semiotic system. Furthermore, derivative visual signs can be considered to be in line with the viewers' visual perception. If we interpreted by recognizing the works of art along with symbol, we can enjoy the works in depth through recognizing their color or shape. Therefore, I intended to discourse on color perception focusing on colors in order to analyze the relationship between art and symbol in the process of recognizing works of art. This paper looked into background of color recognition, status of colors and ways of expression for impressionist who painted with various colors and examined colors as a sensory language. In the process of interpreting art works by communication between the artist and viewers , the role of color is considered as visual symbol through the artist’s experience, consciousness, emotions, and their senses. It can be interpreted the visual language through signification of the symbols when the colors are formed in works of art as a recognizable space. Therefore we expect to study in the Visual arts to be the colors symbolic analysis is extended to more effective communication tool. 549 Key Word : Visual sign, Impressionism, Recognition, Sight Perception, a work of Art, Color Perception 류주현 국민대학교 일반대학원 회화전공 박사과정 (135-280) 서울특별시 강남구 대치동 영동대로 210 Tel : 02-566-4101 cathyjj314@hanmail.net 논문투고일 : 2015.07.31. 심사종료일 : 2015.08.20. 게재확정일 : 2015.08.28. 
work_qss4zxkcanh33nz4l3raqj5tfy	----	S0266078415000140jxx 2..2 C O M M E N T Editorial A rather curious article appeared in print recently. The headline ‘Students shouldn’t pay to study gobbledegook’ (The Times, 5 March 2015) is likely to have everyone interested in education nodding in agreement at once: ‘gobbledegook’ is a wonderful word that describes language that is meaningless or unintelligible, especially when it is too technical or pompous, and surely no sensible person would want to subject students to this. The sub-heading of the article, ‘Academics should be forced to write accessibly and stop trying to hide behind obscurity’, would seem supportable too, as long as it is accepted that academics do actually try to be obscure, and that when they do they can be ‘forced’ to stop. Certainly, the aim of all of us involved in scholarly writing and publishing must be to make sure that our ideas are expressed in the clearest possible way. But the author of the article does insist that aca- demic writing is widely made deliberately hard to understand, and, still worse, that students are actively encouraged by their teachers to write unclearly too, and we might begin to ask whether its author really knows much about education when they claim this. Readers of English Today will certainly know of people who write badly without meaning to. And there are undoubtedly some others who are misguided enough to think they will impress their readers when they over- complicate their writing. But do you know many who do this deliberately? Or do you know any ‘tea- chers’ at all who actively train their students to be unclear in what they write, telling them that they will seem especially clever if they do so? The author of the Times piece cites an unnamed ‘social science professor’ as complaining that now- adays ‘[a]ccessible writing is sneered at as unsophis- ticated’, linking deliberately inaccessible writing with a need to gain success in professional promo- tion and in the obtaining of research funding. Experience in fact shows that generally in academic circles neither of these apply: serious scholarship is well regarded if it can be understood; serious scho- lars advance if they can explain themselves clearly, and funding authorities tend to support research that is sensibly argued for and that is likely to be widely studied on its completion. Pompous, over- complicated language might work on those who are easily impressed, but this does not include people who really value knowledge, who want to add to what they know and who want to share what they have found out with others. We would be wise to avoid ‘gobbledegook’ ourselves, and to warn impressionable young writers against it too. Four of the articles in this issue concern the varying fortunes of expressions which are currently the subject of some special concern. Fehringer and Corrigan’s interest is in social variation of posses- sive got in the Tyneside region of northern England. Seaton’s focus is literary, on the historical career of What is it like?. Cirillo offers a new ana- lysis of used to, while Kostadinova, from Leiden’s Bridging the Unbridgeable prescriptivism project, tackles literally. In a similar vein to these, Poole engages with different types of discourse asso- ciated with a celebrated news item. The remaining three articles here, those by Sartor and Bogdanove, Ochieng, and Menking, range over English lan- guage issues concerning students from as far apart as Siberia, Tanzania, Thailand, and Japan. The reviews with which this issue concludes relate to three books, two on English variation and one on the teaching of English. Bacchini’s evaluation is of Bayley, Cameron and Lucas’s Oxford Handbook of Sociolinguistics, while Braber reviews Clark and Asprey’s new description of non-standard dialect in the English West Midlands. Lyons reviews Ushioda on second-language motivation. We wish most sincerely to thank the following for their recent peer-reviewing duties: Kingsley Bolton, Philip Durkin, Gibson Ferguson, Azira Hashim, Ray Hickey, Fumio Inoue, Bernd Kortmann, William Kretzschmar, Merja Kytö, Heinrich Ramisch, Li Wei, and Nuria Yañéz-Bouza. The editors The editorial policy of English Today is to provide a focus or forum for all sorts of news and opinion from around the world. The points of view of individual writers are as a consequence their own, and do not reflect the opinion of the editorial board. In add- ition, wherever feasible, ET generally leaves unchanged the orthography (normally British or American) and the usage of indi- vidual contributors, although the editorial style of the journal itself is that of Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/S0266078415000140 2 English Today 122, Vol. 31, No. 2 (June 2015). Printed in the United Kingdom © 2015 Cambridge University Press https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266078415000140 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:05, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1017/S0266078415000140&domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1017/S0266078415000140&domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1017/S0266078415000140&domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1017/S0266078415000140&domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1017/S0266078415000140&domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1017/S0266078415000140&domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1017/S0266078415000140&domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1017/S0266078415000140&domain=pdf https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266078415000140 https://www.cambridge.org/core Editorial 
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work_qvjrno5kmvd2dh2cftorbsa2yu	----	The freezing and unfreezing of lay-inferences: Effects on impressional primacy, ethnic stereotyping, and numerical anchoring ☆ | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.1016/0022-1031(83)90022-7 Corpus ID: 17468294The freezing and unfreezing of lay-inferences: Effects on impressional primacy, ethnic stereotyping, and numerical anchoring ☆ @article{Kruglanski1983TheFA, title={The freezing and unfreezing of lay-inferences: Effects on impressional primacy, ethnic stereotyping, and numerical anchoring ☆}, author={A. Kruglanski and T. Freund}, journal={Journal of Experimental Social Psychology}, year={1983}, volume={19}, pages={448-468} } A. Kruglanski, T. Freund Published 1983 Psychology Journal of Experimental Social Psychology Abstract Three experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that primacy effects, ethnic stereotyping, and numerical anchoring all represent “epistemic freezing” in which the lay-knower becomes less aware of plausible alternative hypotheses and/or inconsistent bits of evidence competing with a given judgment. It was hypothesized that epistemic freezing would increase with an increase in time pressure on the lay-knower to make a judgment and decrease with the layknower's fear that his/her… Expand View via Publisher Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper 971 CitationsHighly Influential Citations 36 Background Citations 320 Methods Citations 29 Results Citations 23 View All Tables from this paper table 3 table 4 table 5 table 6 971 Citations Citation Type Citation Type All Types Cites Results Cites Methods Cites Background Has PDF Publication Type Author More Filters More Filters Filters Sort by Relevance Sort by Most Influenced Papers Sort by Citation Count Sort by Recency The Freezing and Unfreezing of Impressional Primacy T. Freund, A. Kruglanski, Avivit Shpitzajzen Psychology 1985 195 Save Alert Research Feed Automatic and Controlled Processes in Stereotype Priming I. V. Blair, M. Banaji Psychology 1996 592 PDF View 3 excerpts, cites background and methods Save Alert Research Feed Guess who might be coming to dinner?: Personal involvement and racial stereotyping A. M. Omoto, E. Borgida Psychology 1988 24 Save Alert Research Feed Motivational sources of confirmation bias in criminal investigations: the need for cognitive closure Karl Ask, P. A. Granhag Psychology 2005 146 Save Alert Research Feed Ideological Differences in Epistemic Motivation: Implications for Attitude Structure, Depth of Information Processing, Susceptibility to Persuasion, and Stereotyping J. Jost, M. Krochik Psychology 2014 45 PDF View 2 excerpts, cites background Save Alert Research Feed Consequences of Stereotype Suppression: Stereotypes on AND Not on the Rebound☆☆☆★ M. J. Monteith, C. V. Spicer, G. Tooman Psychology 1998 118 PDF View 2 excerpts, cites background Save Alert Research Feed The Role of Discrepancy-Associated Affect in Prejudice Reduction P. Devine, M. J. Monteith Psychology 1993 203 Save Alert Research Feed Affective influences on stereotype judgements J. Forgas, S. Moylan Psychology 1991 68 Save Alert Research Feed Constraints on Excuse Making: The Deterring Effects of Shyness and Anticipated Retest J. Shepperd, R. Arkin, J. Slaughter Psychology 1995 8 PDF Save Alert Research Feed How Not to Enhance the Confidence—Accuracy Relation: The Detrimental Effects of Attention to the Identification Process M. Robinson, J. Johnson Psychology 1998 24 Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 3 4 5 ... References SHOWING 1-10 OF 29 REFERENCES SORT BYRelevance Most Influenced Papers Recency Biased Assimilation and Attitude Polarization: The Effects of Prior Theories on Subsequently Considered Evidence C. Lord, L. Ross, M. Lepper Psychology 1979 3,335 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Perseverance in self-perception and social perception: biased attributional processes in the debriefing paradigm. L. Ross, M. Lepper, M. Hubbard Medicine Journal of personality and social psychology 1975 635 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Perseverance in self-perception and social perception: biased attributional processes in the debriefing paradigm. L. Ross, M. Lepper, M. L. Hubbard Psychology 1975 381 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Bias and error in human judgment A. Kruglanski, I. Ajzen Psychology 1983 282 Save Alert Research Feed The Epistemic Approach in Cognitive Therapy A. Kruglanski Psychology 1981 8 View 12 excerpts, references background and methods Save Alert Research Feed Attribution of success and failure revisited, or: The motivational bias is alive and well in attribution theory M. Zuckerman Psychology 1979 1,078 Save Alert Research Feed Salience, Attention, and Attribution: Top of the Head Phenomena S. Taylor, S. Fiske Psychology 1978 1,186 Save Alert Research Feed Information Processing and the Perseverance of Discredited Self-Perceptions J. Fleming, A. J. Arrowood Psychology 1979 99 Save Alert Research Feed Stereotypic Perceptions of Teachers J. Guttmann, D. Bar-tal Psychology 1982 38 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases. A. Tversky, D. Kahneman Psychology, Medicine Science 1974 29,735 PDF View 2 excerpts, references background Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 3 ... Related Papers Abstract Tables 971 Citations 29 References Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. 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work_qyk46fpcmrbjjanqtlhc5ojnvm	----	Reviews 349 the masses as the subject of revolution, whereas to the latter they are merely an object to be manipulated by the educated revolutionary leadership (p. 251). Similarly, Stadtke gives a political meaning to the "canonization" of Pushkin, on the one hand, and the reckless attacks on the poet made by some revolutionary democrats, on the other (p. 227). Belinskii is naturally the focus of Stadtke's book. Predictably, Stadtke sides with Soviet scholars—and Plekhanov, to some extent—in seeing Belinskii's later period as his "mature" one and recognizing the movement toward his positions in the mid-1840s as "progress." Nevertheless, the author sees the inconsistencies in Belinskii's theoretical positions, and his critical attitude is not limited to the early Belinskii. He points out that Belinskii's aesthetic system did not allow for conflicts which were not based in objective reality (pp. 199-201) ; consequently, Belinskii could not appreciate Dostoevsky's The Double and the works of some other major authors (Balzac, George Sand) which showed "romantic" tendencies. Stadtke's description of Belinskii's criticism as "aesthetics in motion" (eine sich bewegende Asthetik), in which aesthetic categories are subordinated to historical and literary change, is remarkably apt (p. 201). Altogether, Stadtke's book combines the better qualities of East European scholarship with the strengths of Western scholarship. Among other things, Stadtke shows great competence in the comparative aspect of his subject by demonstrating full control not only of the German sources of Russian aesthetics, but of French sources as well. VICTOR TERRAS Brown University C H E K H O V ' S A R T O F W R I T I N G : A C O L L E C T I O N O F C R I T I C A L E S S A Y S . Edited by Paul Debrecseny and Thomas Eekman. Foreword by Ronald Hingley. Columbus, Ohio: Slavica Publishers, 1977. iv, 199 pp. $8.95, paper. This anthology of articles on Chekhov is the result of a Chekhov symposium or- ganized at the University of North Carolina in the spring of 1975. Although the collection contains articles by Thomas Winner and Karl Kramer, both of whom have published books on Chekhov, the emphasis is on work by a generation of scholars who are just now beginning to say their word on Chekhov, so far in the form of journal articles. The anthology thus serves as a useful introduction to a new genera- tion's thinking about Chekhov. The volume will not in any way greatly revise the understanding of Chekhov currently held in academic criticism. It does show a methodological bias, as the editors note, for the methods of Formalism and Structuralism. Most of the authors show themselves to be well-trained readers of text, and one can glean a number of interesting insights about specific stories. Ordinarily, the most useful gesture a reviewer can make in reviewing an an- thology is to list the contributors and indicate the nature of their efforts, so that the reader can select from the menu what pleases his taste. In this case, the editors of the volume have written an excellent review of its contents in their introduction. I would simply suggest that anyone interested in Chekhov should pick up a copy of the volume and read these three pages to find what he wants. Several of the most interesting essays are those considering the question of Chekhov's relationship to Impressionism in painting. The notion that Chekhov is an "Impressionist" has been much bandied about, most notably, perhaps, in an article by Dmitri Cizevsky, "Chekhov in the Development of Russian Literature" (re- published in Chekhov: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Robert L. Jackson). "Aspects of Impressionism in Chekhov's Prose" follows Cizevsky's outline to some 350 Slavic Review extent and illustrates a number of his points by reference to Chekhov's stories. The articles by Thomas Winner and Savely Senderovich try to give more rigor- ous definition to the analogy. Winner points to the highly syncretic nature of Chekhov's art, which provokes analogies not only with painting but with music and incorporates elements from myth and folk art. Winner links this syncretic tendency in choice of form and material to the characteristic structure of Chekhov's works with their seeming lack of action and reliance upon repetitions to achieve significant form. Savely Senderovich takes a hard look at the analogy to Impressionist painting and tries to put it on a sounder methodological footing. His observation that many of the qualities that define Impressionism in painting are peculiar to the act of paint- ing as such serves to clear the air. He proposes a "morphological" approach to the analogy, by which aspects of Chekhov's writings can be compared to Impressionist painting on the grounds of similarity in deep function, rather than because of super- ficial resemblances such as use of color. Many of his comparisons are illuminating. I fear, however, that when he analogizes Chekhov's "overthrow of spiritual per- spective" to the Impressionists' overthrow of geometrical perspective on the canvas, he stretches the method to its breaking point. PATRICIA CARDEN Cornell University E V G E N I J Z A M J A T I N : H A R E T I K E R IM N A M E N D E S M E N S C H E N . By Gabriele Leech-Anspach. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1976. x, 119 pp. DM 58, paper. This short survey (119 pages) covers a vast amount of ground. Divided into three tightly organized and concise sections, the text opens with a twenty-four-page bio- graphical introduction, which emphasizes the politics of Zamiatin's literary career. Continuing with a section on theoretical writings (14 pages), the author summarizes Zamiatin's philosophical, stylistic, and aesthetic views. The work culminates in the major section, "Stories, Novels, and Plays" (70 pages), in which virtually all of Zamiatin's fiction and drama are analyzed, or at least characterized. That Gabriele Leech-Anspach treats eighty-four different works in only eighty-five pages suggests the intensity of this tour de force. Eleven pages of bibliography and indexes conclude the survey. A reference handbook on Zamiatin's life and work could hardly be more compact or complete. A solid, reliable work which follows established scholarship and criticism, this survey serves the general German reader who may be familiar with We, but not with Zamiatin's other works. (Only a small portion of his writings has been translated into German, much of it by Ms. Leech-Anspach herself.) Although written for the generalist, the work yields few generalized insights. A survey can collect and sum- marize material, but without a controlling idea it cannot discriminate among accumu- lated data or distinguish crucial events and works from less important ones. The subtitle suggests such a generalization. Unfortunately, neither the image of Zamiatin as a heretic nor the suggestion that his heresy was humanitarian emerges clearly. The biographical section pays more attention to the context and effects of Zamia- tin's actions than to their origins or intent. The brief description of Zamiatin's theo- retical writings relates them to ideas of Belyi, Blok, Remizov, Ivanov-Razumnik, Fedin, Gorky, Sholokhov, Leskov, L. Tolstoy, as well as to H. G. Wells, Anatole France, Nietzsche, Bergson, Sartre, Bernard Shaw, and Upton Sinclair. But again, context overwhelms content. Zamiatin certainly viewed the true artist as a heretic, but the reader is not shown how this concept applied to Zamiatin himself. The analysis and summary of Zamiatin's prose and dramatic works proceed thematically and structurally, rather than chronologically, under the headings "Dark 
work_qz45wu5vfrbsra5k45b5shpxy4	----	Pedro Fonseca Jorge ARGUMENT AND CRIME Designing theory or theorizing design. More than ever, there’s the subconscious idea, among the architects and aspiring architects’ community, that the practice of architectural design is a separate entity from its theorization, with the depreciation of the latter. The reasons behind the implementation of this idea are several and derive from different origins. The most common one is the very aspiration of the architecture student who “wants to fit into a studio, not analyzing other possibilities” (Cruz, p. 56). In this field, there are multiple statements I may quote, from my experience as an architecture student (1995-2001), in which a given theory teacher was despised “for only having designed a gate in his life” or an architectural design one was despised for “being a theoretician”. More than being a merely empirical (but critical) verification of a generalized idea, certain thinkers reinforce it, mentioning that the researcher architect is regarded derogatorily as if he didn’t have the skill to design, while the ideal architectural design teacher is the one who has professional success as an architect (Gänshirt, 2007, p. 7) 1 . Ethics and cosmetics The dialectic felt within the academic field, or even among those who aspire belonging to it, is not limited to that sphere, being legitimate to argue that it’s strongly nourished by external sources which privilege design and, more specifically, its image or look, at the expense of the theoretical content that justifies and integrates the work into a certain space and time. The entry of architecture into a social context where objects are valued by their prestige, beyond their intrinsic qualities, has certainly led to the glorification of their image by the observer, whether he/she is an expert on the subject or an occasional bystander. To legitimize a project through its image is, indirectly, to diminish the theoretical content on which the proposal was based and, therefore, to deepen the abovementioned gap between theory and practice. The media and the way these are conceived are the main responsible, but these aren’t limited to “gossip magazines”, since within specialist publications we witness an increasing adoption of these principles. Without the need of referring titles, all of us have already felt, in our usual architectural searches, that an increasing importance is being given to architecture photography at the expense of other ways of reading it: plans, sections, elevations, which are reduced, in their scale, to the incomprehension level. These photographs, glamorous because they’re stripped of day-to-day life and decorated with iconic furniture (is it always the same?), work as a way to communicate the work to a broader audience but fail miserably in terms of architectural communication 2 . Thus, we enter the field of "Fresh Conservatism" (van Toorn, 1997), in which, under a layer of hypermodernity, hides a weak or nonexistent spatial research or respect for long-established dogmas. “Fresh” because it makes use of the current lack of direction in architecture (according to van Toorn) to impose an innovative, shocking and attractive image (to the media), which is highly personalized (for that very reason…), while it integrates itself into “mainstream” culture through the submission to long-standing and accepted (interior, exterior) spatial values. In other words, it’s architecture wearing "the emperor's new clothes" (van Toorn, 1997, p. 9). Another inherent risk of this posture had already been pointed out by Reyner Banham (1996, p. 293) when he signaled the danger of, on the contrary, the research of image by image leading architecture to a self-referenced world (understandable only by its own practisers), something which, anthropologically speaking, would lead to the extinction of its “tribe” (and of the subject). Sterility and assisted reproduction Yet, it’s easy to blame the media, assuming ourselves as innocent bystanders of an irreversible process. Architects are the ones who produce architecture and they’re the ones who dictate its canons. It may, however, happen (and, perhaps, it has happened) that “our creation” has gotten out of our control. Recent architecture has been witnessing a depurative process which has led to its own sterilization. Minimalism easily comes to our minds – a source of pure monochromatic volumes, formally (though not theoretically) easy to replicate – but the fact is that the aforementioned sterility doesn’t (just) refer itself to simplification: it refers itself to the decontextualization of the object from its surroundings that was carried out through an abolition of the signs by which we identified the shape with the place 3 and, thus, by which we “read” its paternity. Here I refer myself to what I’ll call the “defining elements of art” that, mainly throughout the 20 th century, have progressively disappeared from the expressions of our ingenuity. I refer myself to the Sign, the Signified and the Signifier, which have been gradually abandoned (Jorge, 2012, p. 197) in favor of a more abstract and exclusive way to communicate the work. The Sign (Llorens, 1973, p. 405) was the first to disappear, as the shapes became abstract, unfamiliar to our immediate recognition but, nevertheless, fulfilled their purpose. The Signified (Name) remained, for the human figure was still there in Picasso’s paintings and Adolf Loos depurated the decorative elements of what was still a house (Loos, 1908). We’re finally confronted with the mere persistence of the Signifier (or Concept), who/that which hides in a blank canvas and, sometimes, obscures the real purpose of the architectural work, eager to express itself and make itself seen. We may, therefore, argue that the last stronghold which legitimizes art (architecture included) is ethics (Jorge, 2009, p. 14), seeing that it’s the word, spoken or written, that backs up, justifies and makes us realize what the eyes don’t see or understand 4 . The chicken and the egg and the chicken and the egg and the chicken The subjection to the power of image in the sphere of architecture teaching is not new and it may be assimilated with processes in which there’s a radical cut between preceding and ulterior ways: Walter Gropius, through the Bauhaus, intended to create a new mentality and a new creative process, but much of its impact on students and professionals was due to the new style and its clichés (Neto, p. 32) 5 . The architecture student, throughout his/her path, is necessarily naïve and impressionable, as it’s during his/her university education that his/her first contact with practical and theoretical architecture takes place 6 . The separation between these two contexts is, therefore, impossible, as it would give rise to two different “architectures”; so, teaching both in parallel is mandatory. The context into which this statement fits makes perfect sense for the architecture teacher/student, because the circumstances in which they move themselves are, sometimes, the ones they accept as being “normal”. Yet, studies by researchers outside architecture identify particularities in its teaching and consider its institutions as being outside the academic prototype (Medway, 2002, p. 126): the studio or architectural design classes are a specialty of architecture and the main subject for one to learn how to design (Mouat, 2010, p. 298). Another particularity of architecture, identified by many, is the fact that it’s made by an alienated population, either due to excessive work 7 , or by the efforts of the students themselves to stand out through their clothing, as if belonging to their own tribe (Till, 2009, p. 7). Medway, a researcher in the linguistic field, bases his assessment on a research carried out in a Canadian school (about architecture students’ notebooks), which he finds similar to other schools, in North America, and even presents noticeable similarities with teaching in Portugal 8 . Therefore, this “community in particular” (Mouat, 2010, p. 297) mentions, based on the aforementioned study, that the teaching of architecture is grounded on two opposing pedagogical practices: on one hand, the students produce a highly individualized work, through a very close relationship with the teachers; on the other hand, their assessment is also made by external evaluators (for instance, the subject’s director), to whom the spoken discourse has a great weight. It’s within this context that we reintroduce the theme of the correlation between research and practice in the teaching of architectural design, as the practice of the latter presupposes a discourse that allows to critically frame its work (although there’s the pedagogical posture in which it’s expected for the project to “speak for itself”). We also reintroduce the issue of the architectural design teachers’ quality being based only on their professional studio experience. Such belief would immediately lead to the conclusion that the work’s critical support is unnecessary. Admittedly, their value derives not only from their practice but also from their ability to reflect upon their own work and to transform their implicit knowledge into “communicable, verifiable and arguable” knowledge (Gänshirt, 2007, p. 12); yet, according to the same author (p.16), research and design are related, as both produce knowledge but from different kinds, being that design cannot be replaced by research (and vice- versa). Still, isn’t design also research? It can lead to acts of innovation that may be considered as worthy research, but those will be more valuable as research aides (Neveu, 2007, p. 9). In this context, we may argue that the research needed for the student to critically back up his/her work may be obtained by means of the theoretical classes that take place in parallel with architectural design classes 9 . In this sense we relieve the architectural design teacher from the need of additional knowledge. But we cannot forget that theoretical knowledge acquired in this way is generic and never referenced to the local, historic, topographic or social constraints of the design problem which is presented to the student. Therefore, it’s vital for the architectural design teacher to have an ideological core, obtained through research, to guide the student’s practical research in order to provide an answer for the practical and social questions being raised to him/her. And, consequently, to verbally defend the shape he/she is proposing. The navel Thus, we conclude that the culture which is obtained through design practice alone is not enough for an architect’s practical education. And, according to the abovementioned ethics and cosmetics issues - in the sense that the formal and theoretical context of a given work is a process which is built during the project’s design - not to foster this procedure is to nourish the image of architecture as its only purpose, depriving it of its other values, given that the ideological core is absent and added to it as a formal residue meant to impress the impressionable ones. An architectural design teacher deprived of cultures “others” than his/her “own”, will make a biased use of the limited knowledge and tools with which he/she works in his/her design activity. In this manner, he/she will induce the student to a sort of practice that resembles his/her own, while other roads do exist. The type of relationship being established, in order to work, will have to be the master/apprentice one, in which there’s a blind trust of the latter in the former’s teachings: a model that easily works out as a kind of “brainwash” (Neto, p. 38). To multiply this process is to reach the traditional teaching model, where design themes return one after the other over the years and, with them, the teachers. Assuming the architectural design teacher(s) as being autonomous from research, continuous brainwashes will manifest themselves 10 . If, on the other hand, the student adopts a skeptical (although healthy) posture in view of what’s conveyed to him/her, he/she will finish his/her education with a diminished learning (by lack of additional sources). This leads us to conclude that if a teaching institution - whether it’s grounded on a classical, modern or post-modern language - imposes a specific way of designing, it remains as tyrannical as the old academic Beaux-Arts education. And this leads us to question the fallacious idea that if the architecture’s image is something completely different, then the process that gave rise to it is also different (Till, 2009, p. 11). It’s within this context that what makes architecture stand out is not "what is done", but "how it's done" (Banham, 1996, p. 294). Von Humboldt & Socrates Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835) determined the principles of a new education system, in opposition to the Master/Apprentice relationship that prevailed until then within the Academies (Nicolaides, 2012, p. 914). Talking about a “Humboldtian” university is making a reference to the connection between teaching and research, where teachers and students meet to promote science and culture. However, the freedom he gave to the academic staff gave each individual the ability to choose the subject he taught, as well as the methodology he used to teach it. Based on this assumption, the student would also have the freedom to choose his/her tutor. At this point, von Humboldt is able to drift apart from the Academism in the sense that an Institution, as a unified whole, no longer defines specific guidelines for its type of education and for the results it provides. However, total freedom in the choice of subject and methodology implies a lack of control within the institution, meaning a lack of coordination between subjects, in the architecture field or in other issues. If the coordination between subjects is a clear necessity (so that there are no overlaps or absences of curricula and subjects), the need of a unique methodology to be used by all teachers is not so clear. Still, a learning model close to the ideal would be the one in which there’s a dialogue between teacher and student, in which questions and justifications come one after the other. Questions are raised; answers are obtained and then refuted, within a process that is commonly known as the “Socratic Method”. In this method, the approach to the problem (project) is reflexive, since the basis for the discussion is refutation, grounded on what was stated by the interlocutor and not on preconceived definitions; finally, the “obtained knowledge is practical” (Neveu, 2007, p. 1). This type of practice, which is also reflexive, is constantly referred and praised within the teaching context but, when applied to the teaching of architecture, namely of architectural design, it presents additional advantages that not only omit the pedagogical deficiencies felt in traditional education, but also try to get round architecture’s own "status quo" as a practice. As an art, architecture cannot aim at a type of scientific research whose results are unequivocal: Socrates refutes the interlocutor’s initial statement, seeking to prove it wrong only according to certain premises. The way in which the discussion takes place is horizontal, with teacher and student placed in an equality plane: the hierarchy has to do with the fact that the student is the one who makes the first statement in order to be refuted. The dialogue that takes place regarding the architectural proposal on top of the table is demanding at the theoretical and research levels for both parties, as it requires the knowledge of different architectural postures, past or present, in order for the conversation to be fluid. In this way, the idea that the architectural design teacher is disconnected from research is annulled, for this is another side of architecture. The only refutation of this fact has to do with the posture of a teacher who, as a master, may have the desire to influence or persuade, which, in practice, is the definition of that individual’s lack of success as a university teacher (Adorno, 1970, quoted by Gänshirt, 2007, p. 12). From the student’s side, his/her argumentative skills are also explored, when he/she defends him or herself, refutes and even questions his/her teacher (placed in the same plane). At this level, the students are required to have a researcher’s talents, at risk of becoming bystanders or puppets in the hands of the one who wants to influence or persuade them. The presentation of his/her knowledge is spoken, at least at this learning stage, but it prepares a context in which the presentation of his/her defense may be written. According to Mouat (2010, p. 4), the student doesn’t have enough time to develop his/her writing skills, seeing that the short texts that go with the graphic representations are only meant to guide the student’s speech and show the project’s essential features. This, however, might be a relative problem, given the weight of the student’s proposal’s external assessment, backed up by his/her teacher, and also because, given the abovementioned arguments, the speech that results from the project’s development process validates the discourse. Finally, and concerning the "star system" in which we live, the student learns, since the beginning of his/her learning process, how to build a fluid, coherent and true discourse that backs up his/her formal proposal within the specific contexts and issues it is associated with. The Socratic dialogue’s intention is also that of leading the interlocutor to develop his/her own moral rationality, resulting in the prevalence of ethics over image appreciation (cosmetics). Conclusion Architecture, when mistaken for a mere design practice, misleads both the aspirant and the experienced architect. Those who know how to do it, do it, let the work speak for itself and teach how to do it. Those who don’t know how to do it, teach how to speak. Given that we live in a historical and social moment when we don’t know how to speak or read, when we only let ourselves be thrilled by what we see, a theoretical void emerges (and also a formal one, which we’ll only notice in the future) that needs to be urgently bridged beginning with education. Placing design on the same level of research is also assuming the opposite, so a correlation must exist between both of them. Promoting rotation within the teaching system may also be an idea, but it presents the risk of fostering superficial research processes, given the resulting thematic variety. Teaching architectural design according to the process described above is also an act of ethics and humility, so it might become the perfect ground for a most truthful architecture. Pedro Fonseca Jorge, Benedita, 1977. He is currently an Assistant Teacher at Escola Superior Gallaecia, Departamento de Arquitetura e Urbanismo (Portugal) and a Researcher at Centro de Estudos Sociais (Portugal). He holds an MA degree in Intervention in Architectural Heritage and a PhD degree in Controlled Cost Housing, both from the Universidade do Porto/Faculdade de Architetura. He was a Researcher at the HABITAR Research Group from the Escuela Tecnica Superior de Arquitectura del Vallès, Barcelona (2011). He has his own studio at Benedita since 2003. Email: egrojordep@gmail.com Reyner Banham (1988), The black Box – The secret profession of Architecture, in Critic Essays – Essays by Reyner Banham, selected by Banham, Mary; Barker, Paul; Sutherland, Lyall, Price, Cedric, University of California Press, 1996 http://www.mom.arq.ufmg.br/mom/arq_interface/2a_aula/black_box.pdf Cruz, A. (2010), Ensino de Arquitectura, in Arquitectura21 n.13 [2010] http://ulusofona.academia.edu/Andr%C3%A9Cruz/Papers/403325/Pratica_e_Formacao_em_Ar quitectura [08-2012] Gänshirt, C. (2007), Tool for Ideas, an introduction to architecture design, 2007, Basel – Boston – Berlin: Birkhäuser [2007] ISBN – 13 978 3 7643 7577 5 Medway, P. (2002) Fuzzy Genres and Community Identities: The case of Architecture Students' Sketchbooks, Hampton Press, Inc, Cresskill, New Jersey (2002) http://osuarchitecture.wikispaces.com/file/view/The+Rhetoric+%26+Ideology+of+Genre+Ch6+p p123-153.pdf [08.2012] Mendonça, P. (2007), Seminário 5º ano: O ensino da Arquitetura no contexto de Bolonha, Académicos, Universidade do Minho, Revista Arq./a, n.42 – Fevereiro 2007 http://repositorium.sdum.uminho.pt/bitstream/1822/8245/1/Mendonca_Arq_a.pdf [08-2012] Montaner, J. M. (2001), Depois do Movimento Moderno: Arquitectura da segunda metade do séc. XX,Barcelona: Editorial Gustavo Gili, 2001 ISBN 84-252-1828-4 Mouat, C, (2010), The design process and its genre system as a way to recognize, evaluate, and promote the innovation EAAE Transactions on Architectural Education 50, Constantin Spiridonidis and Maria Voyatzaki (Ed) 2010 http://ncsu.academia.edu/ceciliamouat/Papers/1160776/THE_DESIGN_PROCESS_AND_ITS_ GENRE_SYSTEM_AS_A_WAY_TO_RECOGNIZE_EVALUATE_AND_PROMOTE_THE_INNO VATION [08.2012] Neto, M. J. P., O ensino da Arquitectura e a formação do arquitecto, http://recil.grupolusofona.pt/bitstream/handle/10437/380/arq_ ensino_maria_neto.pdf?sequence=1 [07.2012] Neveu, M. J. (2010), Educating the Ethical Practitioner, at the Reconciling Poetics and Ethics Conference, Canadian Center for Architecture, Montréal, PQ, Canada, Sept. 13-15 [2007] http://www.arch.calpoly.edu/research/documents/research-0708/Neveu_01_0708.pdf [07.2012] Nicolaides, Angelo (2012), The Humboldtian Conception of research and learning – towards compettiveness in South African Higher Education, Vaal University of Technology Educational Research (ISSN: 2141-5161) Vol. 3(12) pp. 912-920, December 2012 Available online@ http://www.interesjournals.org/ER Copyright © 2012 International Research Journals http://interesjournals.org/ER/pdf/2012/December/Nicolaides.pdf [01.2013] Roberts, A. (2007), The link between research and teaching in Architecture, Journal for education in the built environment, Vol. 2, Issue 2, October 2007 ISSN: 1747-4205 (online) http://cebe.cf.ac.uk/jebe/pdf/AndrewRoberts2(2).pdf [07.2012] Till, Jeremy, (2009) Architecture Depends, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England ISBN: 978-0-262-01253-9 Toorn, Roemer van (2006), Aesthetics as Form of Politics, in "Open 2006/ No.10/ (In)Tolerance/ Aesthetics as Form of Politics, page 53" http://www.skor.nl/_files/Files/OPEN!%20Key%20Texts_Van%20Toorn.pdf [01-2013] Toorn, Roemer van (1997), Fresh Conservatism – Landscapes of Normality http://www.roemervantoorn.nl/Resources/Fresh%20Conservatism.pdf [01-2013] 1 Even a study carried out in 2003, in the United Kingdom (mentioned by Roberts, 2007, p. 4), points to the fact that the practices of theory and architectural design are independent and that there should be different institutions to teach those different fields of the same knowledge. For the prospective student this is a clearly unfair situation, as his/her previous unawareness of each subject’s constituents prevents him/her from making a conscious choice regarding his/her education. 2 By way of a joke, among friends, someone mentioned that the contemporary architect’s best friend is the photographer as, besides knowing how to “hide” the building’s “faults”, he even brings his own furniture to decorate the house during the photographic session. Logically, it would later be collected to be used in a new photographic session for another building. 3 And, by the way, with its dwellers, by means of their own furniture and personal belongings… 4 About this topic it would be interesting to read Will Self’s article in which he strongly criticizes top architects who, according to him, ignore ethics in favor of their careers: http://www.bdonline.co.uk/navigation/news/top-architects-lack-principles-says-will-self/5039573.article# [08.2012] 5 Montaner (2001, p. 13) mentions that the International Style existed only due to an invention that was emphasized by MoMA’s 1932 exhibition: a careful choice of the displayed buildings in order to correspond to the canons advocated by the Modern Movement, the presentation of pictures only in black and white, the omission of examples from the Futurism or the Amsterdam School, all of it to create a fake homogeneity in European architecture. 6 Neveu (2007, p. 8), on the contrary, thinks that architecture students enter the faculty with a real knowledge about a building’s design, as they all live in buildings. In this context, we wonder if the future student has a true perception of what architecture is. 7 Jeremy Till, regarding this issue, ironizes about an e-mail that circulated in the faculty where he taught whose title was “You know you are an architecture student when…”, followed, in the text body, by: “the alarm clock tells you when you should go to sleep”; “you know the taste of UHU”; “you are no longer seen in public”; “you refer yourself to great architects by their first name (Frank, Corb, Mies) as if you knew them”. Forwarding this e-mail to his students, he said he felt sorrier for those who merrily saw themselves in the text, than for the ones who regretted identifying themselves with “the tribe”. 8 “(…) [the studio] is as open-plan area, interrupted only by bare concrete columns; within it students construct individual den-like work stations (…). In the studio course (assigned three half-days a week but occupying many more hours of the student’s unscheduled time), the teachers typically set design projects that are worked on individually by the students for a period of weeks. On occasions they call the group together for advice and instruction and for a communal inspection of work in progress; mostly they circulate, spending time with each student and discussing his or her project, often at considerable length.” 9 "The principal vehicles for the integration of research and teaching within the architectural curriculum are likely to be through design studio teaching, or through more traditional pedagogical methods such as lectures and seminars." (Roberts, 2007, p. 9) 10 In the study carried out by Andrew Roberts (2007, p. 18), the author states that at Newcastle University the students had the perception that the purpose of the classes was to learn about the teacher’s research. The Welsh School of Architecture was the only one that offered their students the freedom to choose the subject of their research and even the research methodologies they adopted were not necessarily related to the ones used by the school’s researchers. 
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Dundes examines a broad panorama of cur- rent folk metaphors in order to dis- cover the underlying worldview they express. cloth $25.00 paper $9.95 Available at bookstores or send $1.50 postage and handling for first book. 25c for each additional book, to order from publisher. Indiana University Press Tenth and Morton Streets Bloomington, Indiana 47405 Literary Studies and Poetry From the Sunken Garden The Fiction of Ellen Glasgow, 1916-1945 Julius Rowan Raper “There were hints in Without Shelter that Julius Raper might become the definitive critic of the Glasgow canon, and his present work establishes him as just that." — Edgar E. 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Vande Kieft $20.00 Chaucer's Knight The Portrait of a Medieval Mercenary Terry Jones Best known as a member of the Monty Python comedy team, Terry Jones in his secret career as a medievalist has long thought that historians and literary critics have misjudged Chaucer's Knight as a conventional and rather dull pillar of Christian chivalry; instead, the Knight is actually a crude mercenary, a view that calls for a reassessment of the Knight's Tale. $20.00 Louisiana State University Press Baton Rouge 70803 New in Paperback The American Novel and Its Tradition Richard Chase In this classic study of the American novel, Richard Chase traces the romantic tradition in literature through two centuries of American writers. Starting with Charles Brockden Brown and finishing with William Faulkner, Chase studies at length works by James Fennimore Cooper, Nathaniel Hawthorne. Herman Melville, Mark Twain. Henry James. F. Scott Fitzgerald, and others. Through romance. Chase shows, these writers mirror the extremes of American culture —from the Puritan melodrama of good and evil to the pastoral idyll inspired by the American wilderness. 84.95 paperback Comedy “An Essay on Comedy" by George Meredith “Laughter" by Henri Bergson edited, with an introduction and appendix, by Wylie Sypher Laughter makes us human, runs the theme of these two renowned works. Comedy, according to George Meredith, serves an important social and moral function by redeeming us from our pride, posturings, and other sins. Focusing on laughter. Henri Bergson develops a psychological and philosophical theory of comedy that ranks it as one of life's driving forces. Complementing both essays is Wylie Sypher’s appendix, which traces comedy back to its origins in early Greek civilization. 84.95 paperback The Revels Plays Two Tudor Interludes Anonymous edited by Ian Lancashire Bearing some resemblance to Everyman, these are two allegories representing man’s fall into sin and his later redemption. The plays date from the early years of the reign of Henry VIII, a time when publication of plays was uncommon, and this is the first scholarly edition to offer a sound text, textual apparatus, intro- duction, and commentary. 820.00 Magnificence John Skelton edited by Paula Neuss This is the first critical edition of Magnificence for more than seventy years. It is Skelton's only surviving play and the earliest morality play to have a political, rather than religious, emphasis. 816.00 The Johns Hopkins University Press Baltimore, Maryland 21218 A Guide to Computer Applications in the Humanities Susan Hockey This introductory guide was specifically written to help the person with little or no knowledge about computers understand how to use computer technology in prepar- ing indexes, catalogs, word counts, concordances, and other research projects in the humanities. Susan Hockey describes the many all-purpose computer programs that already exist and are designed to perform the purely mechanical functions that, if done by hand, can take months and years of tedious work. Si6.95 Glyph 7 Textual Studies This unique semiannual series devoted to reassessing contemporary critical trends. Glyph provides an international forum for both young and established scholars, whose writings reflect (and reflect on) the main currents of American and European traditions. Contributors to Glyph 7 include Manfred Frank, writing on “The Endless Text," Irving Wohlfarth on Walter Benjamin, Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe on “The Question of Genre," Richard Macksey on the Keatsian ode. and Eugenio Donato on “Keats and the Problem of Belatedness." $5.95 paperback, $16.50 hardcover Literature and Society Selected Papers from the English Institute. 1978. New Series, no. 3 edited, with a preface, by Edward W. Said This collection of papers from the famed English Institute focuses on the situation of writing in history and in human society. Contributions include "The Wages of Satire" by Harry Levin: "'To Entrap the. Wisest': A Reading of The Merchant of Venice" by Rene Girard: and "Ad/d Feminam: Women. Liberation, and Society" by Catherine Stimpson. $7.50 New in paperback The Act of Reading A Theory of Aesthetic Response Wolfgang Iser "This book has a special appeal to all interested in literary theory since it carefully analyzes the relation between reader and text. All future studies of the reading proc- ess will have to take account of The Act of Reading."—Ralph Cohen. University of Virginia The Act of Reading intends to change the way we view literature. Instead of looking at what a text means. Wolfgang Iser asks what happens to us while we are engaged in reading and how the meaning of a text is assembled in the mind of the reader. From there, he evolves a more general theory of how aesthetic response is initiated, develops, and functions. $5.95 paperback. $15.00 hardcover The Johns Hopkins University Press Baltimore, Maryland 21218 The Letters of Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley Volume 1. "A part of the Elect" edited by Betty T. Bennett This is the first edition of Mary Shelley's letters to appear in more than thirty years. The letters in volume one. which date from 1814 to 1827. reflect all aspects of her dramatic personal and professional life, including her relation- ship with her husband, poet Percy Bysshe Shelley: their literary aspirations: and the extraordinary Shelley-Byron circle. Betty Bennett has provided an excellent introduction on Mary Shelley's life and career and on the many themes that run through her letters. $30.00 Wallace Stevens The Making of the Poem Frank Doggett From Wallace Stevens's poems, journals, and letters. Frank Doggett develops a portrait of the poet witnessed in the act of writing his poetry. In discussing the genesis of Stevens's poems. Doggett also touches upon given and possible meanings, recurring thematic images, and the structure and discourse of Stevens’s poetry. "Doggett's study has as its primary virtue the sensitivity of a reader who has spent a long time meditating on Stevens's poems.. ..And he does this with clarity and grace, as he has always done, in a style that honors his subject."—Joseph Riddel. UCLA $12.00 Prodigal Sons A Study of Authorship and Authority David Wyatt This study of the lives and works of Henry James. W. B. Yeats, Ernest Hemingway, William Faulkner. James Agee. Robert Penn Warren, and Robertson Davies builds on the tale of the prodigal son. Each writer, in life and in literature, acts out the conflict and eventual resolution between father and son. between authorship and authority. Wyatt's analysis focuses on the decisive moment when each author makes his accommodation to authority and ceases wrestling with his role as a son. For some. Wyatt shows, the moment ensures future strength: for others, a waning of energy. $12.95 The Novel-Machine The Theory and Fiction of Anthony Trollope Walter M. Kendrick Using Anthony Trollope's Autobiography as the basis for his analysis, Walter Kendrick demonstrates how Trollope's self-conceived life story actually outlines a theory for the making of fiction—from conception and writing to marketing and effect. Kendrick goes on to show how Trollope's theory of realism is mani- fested in his other works and concludes that “as much as they write about life, Trollope’s novels write about themselves, teaching their readers how to live but also how to read.” $10.95 The Johns Hopkins University Press Baltimore. Maryland 21218 GATES OF EDEN American Culture in the Sixties Morris Dickstein “The best book on that...decade.”—The Boston Globe “The autobiographical narrative would alone commend Gates of Eden to anyone who wants to know what really happened in a period around which clouds of myth and obfuscation are already beginning to gather.”—Christopher Lasch, The New York Times Book Review “A vivacious, highly original work...which stands a very good chance of remaining the permanent book of reference on the period.” —Newsweek Now in paperback $4.95 ON MORAL FICTION John Gardner “Criticism with both eyes open, fearless, illuminating, proving that the concern of the critic is with art, that true art is moral and not trivial.”—Robert Kirsch, The Los Angeles Times Paper, $3.95 A LION FOR LOVE A Critical Biography of Stendhal Robert Alter “Excellent...There is a wide choice of bi- ographies of Stendhal by now, but I know of none more coherent or civilized than this one.” —New York Times Book Review National Book Critics Circle Award nominee for Criticism for 1979. Illustrated, $13.95 MUSIC AFTER MODERNISM Samuel Lipman “His intelligent and compelling voice... is strong and sure, and its appraisals of music are often singularly apt...At its best it is the finest that can be heard today.”—The New York Times Book Review $11.95 GODEL, ESCHER, BACH: an Eternal Golden Braid Douglas R. Hofstadter “Exhilarating, challenging, valuable...a large, eclectic, beautifully designed and lu- cidly written book that attempts to link Godel’s theorem to the art of M.C. Escher and to the music of J.S. Bach.”— New York Review of Books Illustrated, $20.00 EMILE or On Education Jean-Jacques Rousseau Translated and with an Introduction by Allan Bloom “Allan Bloom’s excellent new translation of Emile reads as if Rousseau had written in English, and so allows readers...to ap- preciate his irresistible prose.” — The New Yorker $18.50 NEW SIGNIFICANT BASIC BOOKS INC. 10 EAST 53RD ST, NEW TORE 10022 Books from University Presses Faith and Folly in Shakespeare’s Romantic Comedies By R. Chris Hassell, Jr. Georgia, March 1980, $20.00 American Literature and Literary Criticism American Indian Literature An Anthology By Alan R. Velie Oklahoma, 1979, $15.95 cl., $6.95 p. H.G. Wells Discoverer of the Future By R.D. Haynes New York, February 1980, $28.50 The Diary of Isaac Backus By Isaac Backus Brown, January 1980, $120.00/3 vol. set Enter Mysterious Stranger American Cloistral Fiction By Roy R. Male Oklahoma, 1979, $9.95 Tennessee Williams Perspective in Shakespeare's English Histories By Larry S. Champion Georgia, April 1980, $16.00 Turgenev and England By Patrick Waddington New York, June 1980, $40.00 Thirteen Essays Edited by Jac Tharpe Mississippi, May 1980, $10.00 Theodore Roethke An American Romantic By Jay Parini Massachusetts, 1979, $12.50 Asian Literature and Literary Criticism The Poetic Memoirs of Lady Daibu Translated, with an Introduction by Phillip Tudor Harries Stanford, August 1980, tentatively $15.00 Thoreau in the Human Community By Mary Elkins Moller Massachusetts, June 1980, $12.50 Toward a New American Literary History Essays in Honor of Arlin Turner Edited by Louis J. Budd, Edwin H. Cady, and Carl L. Anderson Duke, January 1980, $14.75 A Tale of Flowering Fortunes Annals of Japanese Aristocratic Life in the Heian Period Translated, with an Introduction and Notes, by William H. and Helen Craig McCullough Stanford, May 1980, $62.50/2 vols. Tales of Yamato A Tenth-Century Poem-Tale Translated by Mildred Tahara Hawaii, May 1980, $15.00 English Language Literature and Literary Criticism Alchemy and Finnegans Wake By Barbara D. DiBernard SUNY, April 1980, $24.00 cl., $7.95 p. The Art of Joyce’s Syntax in Ulysses By Roy K. Gottfried Georgia, May 1980, $15.00 Romance Languages Literature and Literary Criticism Autour de Borduas By Jean Ethier-Blais Montreal, 1979, $12.95 (Continued next page) Books from University Presses Eca de Queiros and European Realism By Alexander Coleman New York, January 1980, $17.50 cl., $6.95 p. Drama, Theatre, and Cinema Emile Zola Correspondance Tome ll(1868-mai 1877) By B.H. Bakker Montreal, 1980, $48.00 Alfred Jarry Nihilism and the Theater of the Absurd By Maurice M. LaBelle New York, May 1980, $15.00 cl., $6.95 p. Histoire simple et veritable By Ghislaine Legendre Montreal, 1979, $19.95 Anarchism in the Dramas of Ernst Toller By Michael Lee Ossar SUNY, April 1980, $29.95 Lorca’s New York Poetry Social Injustice, Dark Love, Lost Faith By Richard L. Predmore Duke, March 1980, $8.95 Black Drama of the Federal Theatre Era Beyond the Formal Horizons By E. Quita Craig Massachusetts, June 1980, $15.00 The Cowboy Hero His Image in American History and Culture Slavic and Eastern European Literature and Literary Criticism By William W. Savage, Jr. Oklahoma, 1979, $12.95 Ivan Bunin A Study of His Fiction By James B. Woodward North Carolina, June 1980, $17.50 Peer Gynt Revised edition By Henrik Ibsen Translated by Rolf Fjelde Minnesota, June 1980, $15.00 cl., $3.95 p. Soviet Satire of the Twenties By Richard L. Chappie Florida, June 1980, $7.25 The Theater of Fernando Arrabal A Garden of Earthly Delights By Thomas J. Donahue New York, February 1980, $15.00 cl., $6.95 p. Other Literature and Literary Criticism Folklore Down in the Holler A Gallery of Ozark Folk Speech By Vance Randolph and George Wilson Oklahoma, 1979, $14.95 cl., $7.95 p. A Knot in the Thread The Life and Work of Jacques Roumain By Carolyn A. Fowler Howard, March 1980, $12.00 Milton and the Baroque History of Ideas By Murray Roston Pittsburgh, May 1980, $24.95 The Wayward and the Seeking A Collection of Writings by Jean Toomer Edited by Darwin T. Turner Howard, April 1980, $14.95 Classical Rhetoric and Its Christian and Secular Tradition from Ancient to Modern Times By George A. Kennedy North Carolina, February 1980, $18.00 cl., $9.00 p. Books from University Presses The Comedy of Language By Fred Miller Robinson Massachusetts, September 1980, tentatively $15.00 Reference and Bibliography A Critical Bibliography of French Literature Volume VI, The Twentieth Century, In 3 parts Edited by Douglas W. Alden and Richard A. Brooks Linguistics Aliens and Linguists By Walter E. Meyers Georgia, April 1980, $16.00 Directory of Language Planning Organizations By Joan Rubin Hawaii, January 1980, $3.50 p. Syracuse, January 1980, $120.00/3 book set ($150 after July 1) John Galsworthy An Annotated Bibliography of Writings About Him Compiled and Edited by Earl E. Stevens and H. Ray Stevens Northern Illinois, March 1980, $30.00 Language and Cultural Description Essays by Charles O. Frake Selected and Introduced by Anwar S. Dil Stanford, June 1980, tentatively $17.50 References for Students of Language Planning By Joan Rubin and Bjorn H. Jernudd Hawaii, January 1980, $3.50 p. The Philosopher’s Guide to Sources, Research Tools, Professional Life, and Related Fields By Richard T. DeGeorge Kansas, June 1980, $20.00 Supplement to F. Scott Fitzgerald A Descriptive Bibliography Poetry By Matthew J. Bruccoli Pittsburgh, June 1980, $17.50 The Hard Essential Landscape By Van K. Brock Florida, February 1980, $6.95 The Salamander Migration By Cary Waterman Pittsburgh, May 1980, $9.95 cl., $4.50 p. Walter Pater An Annotated Bibliography of Writings ‘About Him Compiled and Edited by Franklin E. Court Northern Illinois, March 1980, $25.00 Satan Says By Sharon Olds Journals Pittsburgh, April 1980, $9.95 cl., $4.50 p. Windrose By Brewster Ghiselin Utah, May 1980, $15.00 Biography Edited by George Simson Hawaii, Quarterly, Indiv. $3.50, $12.50/yr.; Inst. $4.00, $15.00/yr. The London Theatre World, 1660-1800 Edited by ROBERT D. HUME. Many of the 12 essays in this book probe new territory in the exploration of Restoration and 18th-century English drama: music, publishing history, and company management. Others extend such traditional topics as social and political history in relation to theatre. Illustrated. $18.50 John Gardner A Bibliographical Profile By JOHN M. HOWELL, with an Afterword by JOHN GARDNER. " So now," writes John Gardner in his afterword to this first annotated bibliography of works by and about him, compiled by his biographer, "reading John Howell's list of 'Separate publications' - XXXI in all (however many that is) - I feel pleasure and then alarm, rolling myeyes toward theceiling, asking God, 'Is it enough?' " Illustrated. $12.95 The Plays of David Garrick Edited with Commentary and Notes by HARRY WILLIAM PEDICORD and FREDERICK LEWIS BERGMANN. This new edition represents the first attempt since 1798 to publish a complete edition of Garrick's plays and the first to include all of Garrick's adaptations of Shakespeare and other English dramatists. Volume 1: Garrick's Own Plays, 1740-1766 $35.00 Volume 2: Garrick's Own Plays, 1767-1775 $35.00 (Volumes 3 through 6 in preparation.) Thomas Pynchon The Art of Allusion By DAVID COWART. This fresh examination of Pynchon's use of painting, film, music, and literature shows that his true art lies in humanistic allusions that stress the possibility of spiritually separating oneself from the modern wasteland. (Crosscurrents/Modern Critique Series) $10.95 Visual Literature Criticism A New Collection Edited by RICHARD KOSTELANETZ. This first assessment of visual literature in English brings together some of the best-known practitioners and critics of this exciting art form. They discuss the expanding range of creative activity encompassed byvisual literatureaswellasauthorsand media. Illustrated. $12.50 The Reader, the Text, the Poem The Transactional Theory of the Literary Work By LOUISE M. ROSENBLATT. "A persuasive portrait of just how the reader's own approach helps determine how, when, and why a particular 'poem' might work effectively or not. This should be a basic text."-Booklist. $10.95 1SOUTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY PRESS £ P.O. Box 3697, Carbondale, Illinois 62901 Harper &) Row Spanning Literary Horizons SARA TEASDALE Woman and Poet William Drake. Drawing upon letters and manuscripts available for the first time, Drake shows how personal experience and emotions shaped the work of this early twentieth century American feminist poet. "A profoundly moving, revelatory biography1'—San Francisco Examiner & Chronicle. “Communicates the courage and tenacity of her life, the eloquence of her sensibility"— Robert Kirsch, Los Angeles Times. "Sympathetic, astute, utterly without con- descension. . .Teasdale herself could not have wished for a better biographer.” -New York Times Book Review. $15.00 THE WOMAN WHO LOST HER NAMES Selected Writings of American Jewish Women Compiled and Edited by Julia WolfMazow. Short stories, memoirs, and excerpts of novels by and about Jewish women. Contributors include Tillie Olsen, E.M. Broner, Grace Paley, and others, known and unknown. "Reading this book one gets, finally, beyond the mythology that has defined the American Jewish woman. And it is high time'.'-Carole Klein, author of Aline. $10.00 THE PORTENT A Story of Second Sight George MacDonald. Out of print for more than 50 years, The Portent is a rich blend of young romantic love and fantasy. “Transports us to another reality... to the center of our imaginative experience. MacDonald grants the human spirit a breadth few people do"—Los Angeles Times. Frontispiece by Maurice Sendak. $8.95 WINTER OF THE SALAMANDER The Keeper of Importance Ray Young Bear. An invigorating, moving collection of poems by this Native American poet, amply supporting his steadily-growing reputation. Austere, earthy verse that speaks of the Indian experience. A volume in Harper & Row’s Native American Publishing Program. $8.95; paper, $3.95 THE WATERFRONT WRITERS The Literature of Work Edited by Robert Carson. Poetry, essays, drawings, short stories, photographs, and a film script all produced by San Francisco longshoremen.'An angry, passionate book... it possesses a compelling immediacy”- The Bay Guardian. $10.00 At bookstores Harper et) Row SAN FRANCISCO 1700 Montgomery St CA 9411, 1817 Parlez-vous Do you speak tHabla frangais? French? Frances? Ecole frangaise d ate 1980 July 7th Six credits University de Montreal August 15th Six levels L'ecole frangaise d'dtd is set up to attract different kinds of students: Junior College, Com- munity College and University students (aged 18 or over) anxious to improve their proficiency in French; teachers of French anxious to improve their know- ledge of the language and especially those who never had a chance to live in a French milieu; finally people interested in French for its cultural significance. For information and application M. Pierre Niedlispacher Tdi.: 1514) 343-6975 Directeur Fcoie frangaise d'dtd Faculte de I'dducation permanente University de Montreal C.P. 6128, Succursale A Montreal, Qudbec H3C3J7 THE UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA PRESS • THE UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA to =i I- (= =) TH E U N IV E R S IT Y O F G E O R G IA P R E S S • TH E U N IV E R S IT Y O F G E O R G IA P R E S S • T H E U N IV E R S IT Y O F G E O R G IA P R E S S • f-* t Solzhenitsyn and Dostoevsky A Study in the Polyphonic Novel VLADISLAV KRASNOV Aground-breaking investigation of Solzhenitsyn’s novelistic art, this book delineates the unifying system behind Solzhenitsyn’s artistic technique, establishes a link between this system and Dostoevsky’s polyphony, and defines Solzhenitsyn’s art as twentieth-century spiritual realism. $17.50 Literary Impressionism, James and Chekhov H. PETER STOWELL Mr. Stowell’s study represents the first full investiga- tion of literary impressionism in English, setting forth a definition of literary impressionism that forms a framework for the examination of the impressionism of James and Chekhov. The author sees impres- sionism as the true beginning of modernism. $17.00 Keats, Skepticism, and the Religion of Beauty RONALD A. SHARP “The book is clearly the best, most accurate and incisive account yet available of Keats’s religious outlook. His notion of Keats as a secular religious humanist is both valuable in itself and as an indubitable aid in reading poems, particularly ‘The Eve of St. Agnes’ and the first ‘Hyperion,’ where Sharp is at his best, a fine critic indeed”—Harold Bloom. $14.00 The Emergence of Thackeray’s Serial Fiction EDGAR F. HARDEN $25.00 English Mediaeval Monasteries, 1066-1540 ROY MIDMER $17.50 U N IV E R S IT Y O F G E O R G IA P R E S S • TH E U N IV E R S IT Y O F G E O R G IA P R E S S • TH E U N IV E R S IT Y O F G E O R G IA P R E S S • TH E U N IV E R S IT Y . HE UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA PRESS • THE UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA PRESS • THE “For someone who is interested in science fiction, the book should be fascinating.”—Isaac Asimov The Cybernetic Imagination in Science Fiction by Patricia S. Warrick Warrick examines over 200 short stories and novels which portray computers as robots, as heroes and villains, gods and demons. “Warrick’s serious study is note- worthy in several respects. It proposes a science fiction aesthetic and applies it to recog- nized classics. .. . Her book suggests that tech- nology is growing too complex for the literary imagination to grapple with easily.”—Publishers Weekly “Shows an amazing com- bination of understand- ing of cybernetics and of science fiction. ... It sets a new high standard for clear, literate, and thoughtful consideration of the field.”— Isaac Asimov $15.00 at your bookstore or directly from The MIT Press Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, MA 02142 By Jeffrey Mehlman A STUDY IN DIDEROT CATARACT is a highly original study of literary spec-ulation in the form of a precise and stimulating read- ing of Diderot. The book’s point of inception is the re- course of both Diderot and, two centuries later, Michel Serres, to Lucretius as a guide to the “science” of their respective ages. In elaborating a genealogy that moves from Lucretius to Diderot to Serres, the study constructs a tripartite cataract—cloud/dike/downpour—whose me- teorology comes to saturate Diderot’s text, cutting across such divisions as philosophy, fiction, theater, and poli- tics. . As the first American scholar to incorporate the critical work of Michel Serres, Mehlman succeeds not only in using Serres’s idiom but also in developing his own ex- ceptional new understanding of Diderot in a modern context. $12.50 WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY PRESS Distributed by Columbia University Press Address for orders: 136 South Broadway, Irvington, New York 10533 Such Holy Song Music as Idea, Form, and Image in the Poetry of William Blake by B. H. Fairchild, Jr. Blake’s holy trinity of art consisted of poetry, painting, and music. In this informed study, Dr. Fairchild examines the role of music in Blake’s poetry, from the melodic “Songs” to the complex orchestration and thematic line of The Four Zoas. As a detailed examination of Blake’s composite art that has received the least study, this book contributes a refreshing view into the visionary’s often puzzling but always fascinating work. $11.00 Arthur Mervyn or Memoirs of the Year 1793 by Charles Brockden Brown, edited by Sydney J. Krause and S. W. Reid. The second volume to be published in the Bicentennial Edition of the Novels and Related Works of Charles Brockden Brown consists of the two parts of the novel having the Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic as its background. The CEAA- approved text is accompanied by an historical essay by Normal S. Grabo, a textual essay, and appendices detailing variants, emendations, and notes. $27.00 The Kent State University Press, Kent, Ohio 44242 DAVID BRONSEN (Hrsg.) Jews and Germans from 1860 to 1933: The Problematic Symbiosis (Reihe Siegen. Beitrage zur Literatur- und Sprachwissenschaft, Band 9) 1979. VI, 383 Seiten. Kartoniert DM 75.-. Leinen DM 94.- HELEN FEHERVARY U. HENRY GERLACH (Hrsg.) Holderlin and the Left The Search for a Dialectic of Art and Life (Reihe Siegen. Beitrage zur Literatur- und Sprachwissenschaft, Band 3) 1977. 280 Seiten. Kartoniert DM 48.-. Leinen DM 64.- Briefe von und an Friedrich Hebbel Bisher unbekannte Schriftstiicke 1978. 366 Seiten. Kartoniert DM 112.-. Leinen DM 130.- HARTMUT KUBCZAK Was ist ein Soziolekt? Uberlegungen zur Symptomfunktion sprachlicher Zeichen unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung der diastratischen Dimension (Sprachwissenschaftliche Studienbiicher: Erste Abteilung) 1979.166 Seiten. Kartoniert DM 28.- R. LEY, M. WAGNER, J. M. RATYCH, K. HUGHES (Hrsg.) Perspectives and Personalities Studies in Modem German Literature Honoring Claude Hill (Beitrage zur neueren Literaturgeschichte. Dritte Folge, Band 37) 1978. 376 Seiten u. 1 Titelbild. Kartoniert DM 140.-. Leinen DM 160.- TEUT ANDREAS RIESE (Hrsg.) Vistas of a Continent Concepts of Nature in America Edited on behalf of The European Association for American Studies (Anglistische Forschungen/136) 1979.168 Seiten mit 3 Karten und 2 Abb. im Text. Kartoniert DM 50.-. Leinen DM 65.- CARL WINTER UNIVERSITATSVERLAG D-6900 HEIDELBERG LUTHERSTRASSE 59 INSTITUTE FOR AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES Chartered by the Regents of the University of the State of New York CENTRE D’ETUDES EUROPEENNES TOULON En collaboration avec I’Universite de Toulon et du Var. Un programme complet de: Economie, Droit, Histoire, Art, Langue, Litterature, Administration des Entreprises, Marche Commun, et du Commerce International 15 “credits” par semestre. Logement: dans des families toulonnaises. Frais d’etudes: $1,440 pour un semestre; $2,580 pour I’annee. Pour tous renseignements, ecrire (par avion) a: Monsieur le Directeur Centre d’Etudes Europeennes 27, place de I’Universite 13625 Aix-en-Provence France Tel: (42) 23.39.35 English Institute 39th Annual Session, Harvard University August 29-September 1,1980 Form and Context in 18th Century Narrative Directed by Leopold Damrosch, Jr., University of Virginia Leopold Damrosch, Jr., University of Virginia Michael Rosenblum, Indiana University Mary Poovey, Swarthmore College Beyond Tradition: Projects of American Modernist Poetry Directed by Joseph Riddel, UCLA John Irwin, The Johns Hopkins University Herbert Schneidau, University of California, Santa Barbara Helen Regueiro Elam, SUNY-Albany Film and Film Criticism Directed by William Rothman, Harvard University William Rothman, Harvard University Stanley Cavell, Harvard University Ann Douglas, Columbia University Geoffrey Hartman, Yale University Mimesis and Representation Directed by Stephen Greenblatt, University of California, Berkeley Hugh Kenner, The Johns Hopkins University Michael Holquist, University of Texas Leo Bersani, University of California, Berkeley Michael Fried, The Johns Hopkins University For Registration and Further Information Write: Kenneth Johnston, Secretary, The English Institute Dept. of English, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405 SUMMER COURSE IN SPAIN TOLEDO JULY 1-31, 1980 El Colegio Universitario de Toledo—(Universidad Complutense de Madrid) offers a course on SPANISH LANGUAGE, LITERATURE— AND CIVILIZATION (in Spanish), specializing in Spanish Grammar, Vocabulary, Conversation, Phonetics, Readings and Literature. Other Matters: History, Art, Geography. For further details: The Director Summer Course Palacio Universitario C/ Cardenal Lorenzana, 1 TOLEDO.- SPAIN Tel. (925) 22-63-50 Hobart & William Smith Colleges CENTER FOR LANGUAGE STUDY Latin • French • Spanish • Hebrew • Japanese German • Chinese • Russian • Italian June 23-July 11,1980 July 14 • August 1,1980 August 4-22,1980 Elementary and Intermediate Study Elementary and Intermediate Study Intermediate and Readings Study Students may enroll for one, two, or three sessions. Tuition—$350 for three weeks, $550 for six weeks, $750 for nine weeks. Hobart and William Smith Colleges admit academically qualified students of any race, color, age, creed, national origin, or handicap. Pursuant to Title IX of PL 92-318, the Colleges do not discriminate on the basis of sex in the educational programs they operate. For further information and application form, please write: Center for Language Study Box F-69 Hobart and William Smith Colleges Geneva, New York 14456 COLLINGWOOD ASSOCIATES, INC. ■J. . ) COMPUTER-ASSISTED ) RESEARCH IN THE HUMANITIES ARCHIVES BIBLIOGRAPHIES CONCORDANCES DICTIONARIES EDITIONS INDICES PROJECT DESIGN COMPUTER SYSTEMS HARDWARE SELECTION SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT REPORTS <=> Address: Telephone: 2025 I Street, N.W., #519 Washington, D.C. 20006 202 466-7522 First time in paperback The classic biography of one of the most extraordi- nary families in American history, written by one of our century’s pre-eminent critics. A detailed study of Henry Sr., William, Henry and Alice with a background of the nation’s history from the time of Emerson to World War I. $7.95, now at your bookstore VINTAGE BOOKS A division of Random House Shakespeare on Microfiche Essential studies of Shakespeare and the Renaissance now reissued in compact, inexpensive microfiche. All texts are reproduced from the original or other early editions in high quality 24X prints, and each set is shipped in a rigid storage frame punched for standard 3-ring binders. The Plays of William Shakespeare edited by Samuel Johnson. The great critic's historic edition, with the text of Johnson's Prefaces and his annotations as well. Original edition in eight volumes. London: J. & R. Tonson, 1765. ISBN 0-935232-54-0 (about 40 fiches plus frame) $38.85 Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland by Raphael Holinshed. Perhaps the best known of Shakespeare's sources and a gold mine of information. In the accurate, readable text issued by J. Johnson. Original edition in six volumes. London: J. Johnson, 1808. ISBN 0-935232-55-9 (about 50 fiches plus frame) $48.85 A Transcript of the Register of the Company of Stationers, 1554-1640 edited by Edward Arber. The most important source for the history of Elizabethan and Jacobean printing. Original edition in five volumes. London: Private Printing, 1894. ISBN 0-935232-53-2 (about 30 fiches plus frame) $28.85 Order from your bookseller or direct from the publisher. A free catalogue of other JMC publications, microfiche equipment and micrographic supplies is available on request. J. Moynes & Company, 7319 Dinwiddie Street, Downey, CA 90241 From Classic to Romantic —two new poetry titles from Meridian THE SELECTED POETRY OF POPE Edited by Martin Price Within the tightly re- stricted form of the heroic couplet, Pope created some of the most elegant, precise, and expressive poetry in the English lan- guage. This careful se- lection reveals Pope’s full range. Chronology of the poet’s life. Ex- tensive Footnotes. Revised and Updated Bibliography. THE " SELECTED POETRY OF (t// ■ ft!SfA/f//S'M /u MERIDIAN F532/S4.95 -THE- SELECTED POETRY -AND- PROSE -0E- WORDSWORTH MERIDIAN F533/S5.95 THE SELECTED POETRY AND PROSE OF WORDSWORTH Edited by Geoffrey H. Hartman A comprehensive selection of Wordsworth’s works- including “Lines Composed a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey,” "The Ruined Cottage,” and The Prelude. Hartman’s introduction pro- vides effective insights into the creative and political in- fluences in Wordsworth's life, his career, and the sig- nificant personal events that shaped it. Footnotes. Chronology of the poet’s life. Complete Bibliography. New American Library Education 1633 Broadway New York, N.Y. 10019 LANGUAGE TEACHERS SEPTEMBER POSITIONS FRENCH SPANISH LATIN OTHER ACADEMIC AREAS Exciting opportunities at leading elementary and secondary independent schools. Day and boarding schools throughout USA. Write ROBERT M. SANDOE & ASSOCIATES 29 Newbury Street Boston, MA 02116 757 Bay Street San Francisco, CA 94109 or call toll-free 800-225-7986 CALL FOR PAPERS FOR THE SPRING OF 1981 THE WORLD OF YESTERDAY’S HUMANIST TODAY: Stefan Zweig’s Time, Life and Work in the Modern World A three day Symposium to be held at State University College, Fredonia, New York, the site of the largest Stefan Zweig archive in North America, on the occasion of the Centennial of his birth, 1981 Program: Keynote: The World of Yesterday in the View of an Intellectual Historian Section meetings: I The French Connection; the Peace Movement II Zweig, the Interpreter of History and Human Greatness III Zweig, the “Humanizer” in Literature IV Zweig, the Emigrant V Zweig in Brazil Closing Address: The Significance of Zweigian Humanism today Other activities: Opening of the Stefan Zweig Humanities Seminar Room; Presentation of THE SILENT WOMAN Presentation of THERSITES Please address inquiries or suggestions as well as proposals for paper topics to: Professor Marion Sonnenfeld Coordinator, Zweig Symposium SUNY College at Fredonia, N.Y. 14063 before June 30, 1980. Papers should be in English and 20 minutes maximum length. THE SHIGA HERO William F. Sibley “In any academic or intellectual discipline, there appear from time to time certain books which pre- sent a standard of accomplishment so much higher than had ever appeared before and which open up areas of inquiry so wholly unanticipated by previous works in the field that they mark a turning point in the evolution of the entire disci- pline. I believe The Shiga Hero to be such a book.” Jay Rubin, University of Washington Cloth 256 pages $16.00 DISCOVERERS, EXPLORERS, SETTLERS The Diligent Writers of Early America Wayne Franklin Franklin traces the diligence of the first chroni- clers of America through the three stages of dis- covery, exploration, and settlement, and shows how each stage brought forth its own kind of American writing. Cloth 240 pages Illus. $15.00 ***************** What they are saying about THE PHILOSOPHY OF COMPOSITION by E. D. Hirsch, Jr. “Curiously skewed and downright quaint.” Janet Emig “What’s wrong with Hirsch’s The Philos- ophy of Composition is, in my view, Hirsch’s philosophy of composition.” Donald C. Freeman “A good mind should not be wasted in such a manner.” Gary Tate “The first three chapters in this book are better left unread.” Erika Lindemann “I wish this book only limited success.” Susan Miller “An interesting and important book ... a moral assertion of considerable force.” Albert R. Kitzhaber “Hirsch’s work ought to become a milestone in our progress toward formulating common aims and methods.” Frederick Crews “Among recent books about teaching com- position this clearly ranks as the most pro- found and scholarly.” R. Baird Schuman “The Philosophy of Composition should have an important impact on the study of writing.” Marlene Scardamalia and Carl Bereiter “This book deserves to be read by every teacher of written and oral composition.” Carroll C. Arnold All of which goes to show that Ahnn B. Keman was an accurate prophet when he wrote: “The Philosophy of Composition is going to be one of the most controversial, and probably one of the most remarkable, books of our time on the increas- ingly crucial subject of writing.” Cloth 224 pages $9.00 The University of Chicago Press Chicago 60637 CHICAGO Since 1891, Publishers of Scholarly Books andJournals Sex and Sensibility Ideal and Erotic Love from Milton to Mozart Jean H. Hagstrum In Sex and Sensibility Jean Hagstrum brings a lifetime of distinguished study to the idea of love in all its aspects from the Restoration to Romanticism. ‘ ‘This fine book is a crowning achieve- ment .... It is plain from the first page that we are dealing with an authoritative voice —clear and judicious, often witty and pointed, with not a word wasted. 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Dorson Folktales of the World series, Richard Af. Dorson, editor Cloth 416 pages $25.00 March Fiction and the Shape of Belief A Study of Henry Fielding With Glances at Swift, Johnson, and Richardson Sheldon Sacks Paper 296pages $5.95 Available The University of Chicago Press Chicago 60637 In paperback: Textual Strategies Perspectives in Post-Structuralist Criticism Edited by JOSUE V. HARARE This volume of essays makes available some of the most important and most representative work written in the wake of structuralism. "One of the most important statements about the problems of contemporary criticism that I have ever seen." — Hayden White, Wesleyan University. Contributors: Roland Barthes, Gilles Deleuze, Paul de Man, Jacques Derrida, Eugenio Donato, Michel Foucault, Gerard Genette, Rene Girard, Josue V. Harari, Neil Hertz, Louis Marin, Joseph Riddel, Michael Riffaterre, Edward Said, Michel Serres, and Eugene Vance. $7.95 Story and Discourse Narrative Structure iu Fiction and Film By SEYMOUR CHATMAN. "When I opened the Chatman volume, I read the blurb first: ‘A judicious and well-informed book, Story and Discourse should become the standard guide to narrative and to modern thinking about narrative.' The blurb is right ."-Gerald Prince, Modem Language Notes. "An important American contribution to the study of narrative theory.’’—Choice. $5.95 Wallace Stevens The Poems of Our Climate By HAROLD BLOOM. "Bloom’s scholarship is impeccable... .An important purchase." — Library Journal. "As a result of this book, no one will ever read either Stevens or several other modern poets in the same way again.” —Vincent Miller, The Yale Review. “The largest and most generous interpretation of Stevens’ poetry we have yet had." -Poetry. $8.95 Woman’s Fiction A Guide to Novels by and about Women in America, 1820-1870 By NINA BAYM. This book traces the birth, growth, and decline of a genre of popular fiction that dominated American literary taste for at least a generation — a genre created by women and for women. "The book is a sturdy and important work of criticism."-C7tozce. $4.95 Beyond Amazement New Essays on John Ashbery Edited by DAVID LEHMAN. "Beyond Amazement will be extremely useful to readers of poetry, and especially to teachers and students.” - David Kalstone, Rutgers University. Ashbery’s poems must be met on their own astonishing terms. Surveying his entire career to date, the ten critics writing for this volume have set out to establish those terms-to lead readers beyond amazement, toward appreciation. $7.95 CORNELL UNIVERSITY PRESS ______ P.O. Box 250, Ithaca, New York 14850 ■ 
work_rfkd3zxzuraw5ajf5qvh6yo6k4	----	Geomedia_5_2009.indd Uno sguardo al mercato del GIS in Italia ESRI, Bentley e Intergraph dicono la loro sul GIS e la neo-geografia Un report da Intergeo 2009 Alla scoperta di Quantum GIS Nasce il SIT della Regione Puglia http://www.rivistageomedia.it Immagina quello che potresti fare se potessi aggiungere informazioni provenienti da immagini geospaziali al tuo GIS, in modo facile e conveniente. Da oggi puoi farlo. Ti presentiamo ENVI EX, un software sviluppato proprio per aiutarti ad estrarre le informazioni presenti nelle immagini geospaziali e arricchire i tuoi GIS. ENVI EX si integra uidamente con rcGIS per inserirsi facilmente nei tuoi wor ow. Inoltre i rivoluzionari processi guidati ti accompagnano attraverso le operazioni di analisi di immagini piu’ avanzate, permettendoti di ottenere i risultati di alto livello per cui ENVI e’ conosciuto. ENVI EX – informazioni geospaziali precise per il tuo GIS, oggi in modo facile. ENVI EX. Il software di elaborazione immagini per gli utenti GIS omunicazioni sservazione e sorveglianza Spazio rogettazione avanzata e servizi integrati ITT, il logo “Engineered Blocks” e la frase “Engineered for life” sono marchi depositati di ITT Manufacturing Enterprises, Inc., e sono utilizzati con licenza. ©2009, ITT Visual Information Solutions L’apporto della geomatica alla conoscenza del territorio e alla sua difesa spazia su vari aspetti. Dalla difesa idrogeologica al monitoraggio dei movimenti, dalla predisposizione delle mappe urbanistiche all’analisi d’uso del suolo, la sovrapposizione di informazioni su diversi piani costituisce il cuore del funzionamento dei Sistemi Informativi Geografici. Nel 1969 Jack Dangermond nel fondare ESRI, già poneva la basi e i presupposti del futuro utilizzo dei GIS nell’ambito della conservazione ambientale. Oggi, la varietà di soluzioni tecnologiche performanti e adatte a tutti i tipi di utenti, ha spostato l’attenzione sui dati e sull’interazione tra pubblico e privato. Da una parte, una grande quantità di utenti privati (ma anche pubblici) chiede di poter disporre liberamente dei dati geografici, dall’altra il gestore pubblico – nella moderna accezione di uno stato privatizzato che per definizione deve pagare per la sua stessa sopravvivenza – ne supporta le spese di acquisizione e si trova costretto a lavorare in una giungla di normative spesso arcaiche. Le Pubbliche Amministrazioni centrali stanno compiendo passi notevoli in questo settore, basti pensare al Portale Cartografico del Ministero dell’Ambiente. Abbiamo amministrazioni che hanno dato esempio di utilizzo di tecniche geomatiche con ritorni economici di elevato valore, quale ad esempio l’Agenzia del Territorio, che negli ultimi anni ha utilizzato tecniche di confronto di dati cartografici anche tridimensionali per le verifiche sugli immobili che risultano censiti al Catasto Terreni con destinazione di fabbricato rurale, ma che non possiedono più i requisiti per il riconoscimento della ruralità ai fini fiscali. E’ in corso un accertamento che ha portato alla luce due milioni di fabbricati completamente sconosciuti al catasto e il cui apporto in termini di gettito fiscale potrebbe superare i 70 milioni di Euro. E tutto ciò con dati di cui l’Amministrazione Pubblica già disponeva, opportunamente utilizzati con sovrapposizione di tipo geografico-alfanumerico (e pertanto di tipo GIS): basti pensare alla cartografia catastale con le ortofoto digitali ad alta risoluzione rese disponibili dall’Agenzia per le erogazioni in agricoltura (utilizzate anche con la creazione di modelli digitali superficiali del terreno di tipo DSM), o agli archivi censuari del Catasto Terreni e quelli del Catasto Edilizio Urbano. Gettate queste premesse, forse stiamo veramente andando verso una Pubblica Amministrazione 2.0; volendo fare un parallelo tra web 1.0 e web 2.0, differenza di cui oggi tanto si parla, si potrebbe dire che è quella che passa tra poca partecipazione e massima partecipazione, oppure quella che passa tra un approccio di composizione dei dati e controllo dei contenuti centralizzato e quella innovativa creazione dei contenuti da parte degli utenti che tutti possiamo sperimentare. C’è anche chi dice che per introdurre le dinamiche 2.0 nella PA è necessario migrare da un’organizzazione per funzioni a una rete di relazioni fra persone e che solo in questo modo si favorirà il benessere organizzativo. Staremo a vedere. Difficile analizzare invece il futuro del GIS nel 2010. Le analisi dei player più importanti dei produttori di software CAD-GIS intervistati e di cui vi riportiamo nel Focus dedicato, danno questa impressione. Per quello che riguarda il mercato italiano è con vivo piacere che introduciamo l’articolo di Giovanni Biallo che analizzando il mercato ICT ci porta ad avere una chiara visione del passaggio attraverso la crisi che stiamo subendo. Questo numero, interamente dedicato al mercato del GIS, si completa con interventi e report che ci danno una visione nazionale e internazionale di quanto in questo momento si stia facendo nel settore: affronteremo i temi più attuali coinvolgendo i produttori di software commerciale, gli sviluppatori di Open Source, i gruppi rivolti alla standardizzazione ed alle infrastrutture comuni di dati spaziali ed i gruppi di utenti finali tra pubblico e privato. Buona lettura, Renzo Carlucci direttore@rivistageomedia.it Direttore RENZO CARLUCCI direttore@rivistageomedia.it Comitato editoriale FABRIZIO BERNARDINI, VIRGILIO CIMA, LUIGI COLOMBO, MATTIA CRESPI, MICHELE DUSSI, SANDRO GIZZI, DOMENICO SANTARSIERO, LUCIANO SURACE, DONATO TUFILLARO Direttore Responsabile FULVIO BERNARDINI fbernardini@rivistageomedia.it Hanno collaborato a questo numero: ANTONELLA ACCIARINO, FRANCESCO BARTOLI, FABRIZIO BERNARDINI, GIOVANNI BIALLO, PAOLO CAVALLINI, DAVIDE CAVIGLIA, OTTO DASSAU, VALERIA DE VECCHI, SERGIO FARRUGGIA, MARCO HUGENTOBLER, ANTONELLA KELLER, GABRIELE MARASCHIN, MASARU MIYAWAKI, KARIM FABIO NICOLAI, MATTEO DARIO PAOLUCCI, MAURO SALVEMINI, DOMENICO SANTARSIERO, GARY SHERMAN, TIM SUTTON, ERIC VAN REES Redazione GIANLUCA PITITTO Via C. Colombo, 436 00145 Roma Tel. 06.62279612 Fax 06.62209510 redazione@rivistageomedia.it www.rivistageomedia.it Marketing e Distribuzione ALFONSO QUAGLIONE marketing@rivistageomedia.it Diffusione TATIANA IASILLO diffusione@rivistageomedia.it Amministrazione Via C. Colombo, 436 00145 Roma Web: www.aec2000.eu E-mail: info@rivistageomedia.it Progetto grafico e impaginazione DANIELE CARLUCCI dcarlucci@rivistageomedia.it Stampa Futura Grafi ca 70 Via Anicio Paolino, 21 00178 Roma Condizioni di abbonamento La quota annuale di abbonamento alla rivista è di € 45,00. Il prezzo di ciascun fascicolo compreso nell’abbonamento è di € 9,00. Il prezzo di ciascun fascicolo arretrato è di € 12,00. I prezzi indicati si intendono Iva inclusa. L’editore, al fine di garantire la continuità del servizio, in mancanza di esplicita revoca, da comunicarsi in forma scritta entro il trimestre seguente alla scadenza dell’abbonamento, si riserva di inviare il periodico anche per il periodo successivo. La disdetta non è comunque valida se l’abbonato non è in regola con i pagamenti. Il rifiuto o la restituzione dei fascicoli della Rivista non costituiscono disdetta dell’abbonamento a nessun effetto. I fascicoli non pervenuti possono essere richiesti dall’abbonato non oltre 20 giorni dopo la ricezione del numero successivo. Editore A&C2000 s.r.l. Registrato al Tribunale di Roma con il N° 243/2003 del 14.05.03 ISSN 1128-8132 Gli articoli firmati impegnano solo la responsabilità dell’autore. È vietata la riproduzione anche parziale del contenuto di questo numero della Rivista in qualsiasi forma e con qualsiasi procedimento elettronico o meccanico, ivi inclusi i sistemi di archiviazione e prelievo dati, senza il consenso scritto dell’editore. Rivista fondata da Domenico Santarsiero. GIS 2010 e Pubblica Amministrazione 2.0 E D IT O R IA L E E D IT O R IA L E 
work_rij73vug6jevrnyxsqw7lbyhc4	----	Editor’s Column Who Writes for PMLA? MOST of the criticisms of the MLA I hear compare the present unfavorably to the past, and one of the more common is that PMLA no longer publishes much work by distinguished senior scholars. The authors in the recently completed 1983 volume, whatever their rank, need no apology; they wrote distinguished essays that will bear comparison to any of the ninety-seven preceding volumes of PMLA. My scholarly habits, however, prompted me to visit the archives to see what the truth was. I compared sample volumes at ten-year intervals and made a table of authors published, by rank; the annual presidential address is omitted: 1963 1973 1983 Number Percentage Number Percentage Number Percentage Professor 12 17 13 26 6 26 Associate Professor 15 21 13 26 4 17 Assistant Professor 24 33 19 37 10 43 Other 21 29 6 12 3 13 TOTAL 72 51 23 These samples are too small to support large conclusions, and the distributions shifted signifi- cantly from year to year; in 1965 there were more full and associate professors, fewer assistant pro- fessors and others. Nonetheless, the figures suggest to me that PMLA authors have come from all ranks in substantial numbers for the past two decades, despite the vast changes in the profession and some important revisions in PMLA's policies and procedures. We have much more complete computerized statistics from 1973 onward; they are summarized in the tables below, but since they are based on year of submission, you will not be able to match them to the published issues. The first table shows percentage of submissions by rank. For ten years, the distribution has held fairly steady. Submissions by full professors actually show a slight rise, probably reflecting a generally older faculty. Associate professors have stayed within one percent of the ten-year average. The number of assistant professors has declined steadily, but part of the decline has been absorbed by the “other” category, predominantly junior rather than senior positions. Year Total Submitted Percentage of Professors Percentage of Associate Professors Percentage of Assistant Professors Percentage of Others 1973 355 15 20 42 24 1974 468 15 21 39 24 1975 515 15 19 41 25 1976 656 18 19 38 25 1977 659 17 20 34 30 1978 607 19 19 32 28 1979 610 19 19 33 29 1980 424 17 19 34 30 1981 432 24 20 32 25 1982 476 21 21 28 30 TOTAL 5,373 18 20 35 27 The total includes partial figures for 1983. A table of acceptances does not disclose any sharp differences. The first two years seem to have been better than normal for full professors, but that is probably no more than a quirk. Year Total Accepted Professor Associate Professor Assistant Professor Other 1973 29 11 7 8 3 1974 26 9 6 8 3 1975 30 8 7 10 5 1976 40 10 9 16 5 1977 39 7 9 12 11 1978 20 3 7 7 3 1979 31 6 7 15 3 1980 20 4 3 10 3 1981 18 5 3 7 3 1982 25 6 8 10 1 TOTAL 280 70 (25%) 67 (25%) 103 (37%) 40 (14%) The total includes partial figures for 1983. I would propose two commonsense explanations for the pervasive myth of a golden age of PMLA: first, our almost universal penchant for nostalgia and, second, the fact that many of the lower- ranking authors were soon promoted and became well known. Common sense might also lead one to expect a higher percentage of full professors among the authors, but a little probing brought me to the following conclusions: full professors have promised most of their work to particular editors before they even begin writing (in my case, alas, often before I began thinking of a subject) and rarely have a major piece of work available to send out unsolicited; by contrast, ambitious assis- tant professors are looking for the journal with the greatest exposure and the most rigorous editorial standards, namely, PMLA. Of the 73 authors published in 1963, 10—or about 14%—were women, if first names are a reliable gender sign. Using submissions records since 1973, I find that 80 of 280 accepted authors were women, about 29%. That percentage is still somewhat below the submission rate, which has been quite steadily near 35% women, but it includes the four years from 1973 to 1976 when the accep- tance rate for men was almost twice as high as for women. Since 1977 it has been virtually iden- tical: 4.8% for men, 4.4% for women. The submissions rate itself is somewhat below the estimated percentage of female MLA members and probably means that women are still less likely than men to be located at research institutions. Statistics on institutional affiliation show a very broad spread. The 280 acceptances come from 146 different campuses; only 54 are represented more than once and only 7 more than five times. The leaders are: Yale 14 Princeton 9 University of California, Berkeley 8 City University of New York (all campuses) 8 University of Virginia 7 University of Illinois, Urbana 6 University of Minnesota 6 Tied at 5 are State University of New York, Buffalo; University of California, Davis; University of California, Santa Barbara; Columbia; Rochester; and Rutgers, New Brunswick; tied at 4, Boston University, Cornell, Pittsburgh, and Texas, Austin. These figures go back to the period before PMLA adopted the policy of anonymous submissions; it will be interesting to see what trends emerge as a result of the change. Certainly women have already benefited, and a male author told me he thought his article would have been turned down if his institutional affiliation had been known to the readers. The justification for anonymous submission, however, is the principle that who is in PMLA mat- ters less than what is in PMLA. A glance at the first table above will show that the most striking change over two decades has been the decline in the number of articles published. Inevitably, this trend has reduced PM LA's coverage of our diverse fields of interest, especially in foreign languages. In the October issue of PMLA I plan to analyze the articles by subject matter and discuss the evolu- tion of the journal toward fewer but longer articles. For those of you interested in earlier statistics, the four Newsletters between October 1977 and Summer 1978 carried a profile of PMLA. In the 1973 Directory William Pell published the fifth in an irregular series called “Facts of Scholarly Publishing.” PMLA is included, but the analysis is not based on the kind of information we have kept since 1973. In fact, the MLA Directory of Periodicals (which now appears biennially) contains the same information, but for more than ten times the number of journals. In December 1958, to celebrate the MLA’s seventy-fifth anniversary, PMLA issued a special supplementary volume that included an article by Richard F. Bauerle, “A Statistical Survey of PMLA, Its Contributors, and Their Institutions” (72-78). There were sixty- nine individual scholars who had published six or more articles in PMLA by then, and in 1957 the acceptance rate was twenty-four percent of manuscripts submitted. Maybe it was a golden age. English Showalter Notes on Contributors Paul B. Armstrong taught at the University of Virginia from 1976 to 1983, when he became associate professor of English at the Georgia Institute of Technology. In addition to a book, The Phenomenology of Henry James (Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1983), he has published essays on James, Conrad, Ford, Forster, Kierkegaard, and critical theory. His PMLA article “The Con- flict of Interpretations and the Limits of Pluralism” (May 1983) won the association’s William Riley Parker Prize. He is currently working on books on literary impressionism and on the theory of interpretation. Lawrence Danson did graduate work at Oxford and received his Ph.D. from Yale in 1969. He is professor of English at Princeton, where he has taught since 1968, and regularly teaches at the Bread Loaf School of English in Middlebury. He has published extensively on Renaissance drama, including his books Tragic Alphabet: Shakespeare’s Drama of Language (Yale Univ. Press, 1974), The Harmonies o/The Merchant of Venice (Yale Univ. Press, 1978), and an edited volume of essays, On King Lear (Princeton Univ. Press, 1981). He has written articles on Shakespeare, Marlowe, and Max Beerbohm. Adele Davidson did her undergraduate work at Kenyon College and received the M.A. from the University of Virginia, where she is writing a dissertation on the topic “Dying into Life: A Study of Shakespeare’s Pericles." A graduate instructor at the University of Virginia, she has also taught at Bowdoin College. Edwin M. Duval received his Ph.D. from Yale in 1973 and has taught at Princeton and the University of California at Santa Barbara, where he is now associate professor of French. His publications include a book, Poesis and Poetic Tradition in the Early Works of Saint-Amant (French Literature Publications, 1981), and articles on Rabelais, Montaigne, Scfeve, and Ronsard. He held an ACLS fellowship in 1976-77 and currently holds a Guggenheim fellowship to work on a study tentatively called “The Design of Rabelais’s Christian Humanist Epics.” Sandra M. Gilbert , professor of English at the University of California at Davis, took her Ph.D. at Columbia in 1968. She is well known to MLA members as a member of the Executive Council since 1981. Besides several collections of her own poetry, she has published a book on D. H. Lawrence, coedited an anthology of feminist essays on women poets, written many articles and given many papers—especially on women writers and feminist literary theory—and coauthored (with Susan Gubar) the celebrated study The Madwoman in the Attic (Yale Univ. Press, 1979). At present, she and Susan Gubar are preparing a Norton Anthology of Literature by Women, as well as a sequel to The Madwoman. A. Kent Hieatt taught at Columbia University before becoming professor of English at the University of Western Ontario in 1969. He has written extensively on topics in Old, Middle, and Renaissance English literature. David Krause is an assistant professor at Marquette University. He received his Ph.D. from Yale in 1979 and has taught Shakespeare, American literature, and literary criticism at Marquette since 
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work_roslztnlnjgkrd7xaqhm7hv3ra	----	issue-11-performing-pacifism British Art Studies March 2019 Theatres of War: Experimental Performance in London, 1914–1918 and Beyond Edited by Grace Brockington, Impermanence, Ella Margolin and Claudia Tobin British Art Studies Issue 11, published 25 March 2019 Theatres of War: Experimental Performance in London, 1914–1918 and Beyond Edited by Grace Brockington, Impermanence, Ella Margolin and Claudia Tobin Cover image: Film still, The Ballet of the Nations, 2018.. Digital image courtesy of Impermanence. PDF generated on 26 February 2021 Note: British Art Studies is a digital publication and intended to be experienced online and referenced digitally. PDFs are provided for ease of reading offline. Please do not reference the PDF in academic citations: we recommend the use of DOIs (digital object identifiers) provided within the online article. These unique alphanumeric strings identify content and provide a persistent link to a location on the internet. A DOI is guaranteed never to change, so you can use it to link permanently to electronic documents with confidence. Published by: Paul Mellon Centre 16 Bedford Square London, WC1B 3JA https://www.paul-mellon-centre.ac.uk In partnership with: Yale Center for British Art 1080 Chapel Street New Haven, Connecticut https://britishart.yale.edu ISSN: 2058-5462 DOI: 10.17658/issn.2058-5462 URL: https://www.britishartstudies.ac.uk Editorial team: https://www.britishartstudies.ac.uk/about/editorial-team Advisory board: https://www.britishartstudies.ac.uk/about/advisory-board Produced in the United Kingdom. A joint publication by Contents Performing Pacifism, Grace Brockington Performing Pacifism Grace Brockington Authors Senior Lecturer in the History of Art at the University of Bristol Cite as Grace Brockington, "Performing Pacifism", British Art Studies, Issue 11, https://dx.doi.org/10.17658/issn.2058-5462/issue-11/pacifism Introduction The Ballet of the Nations was an odd book to publish in the midst of the First World War, when pacifists were a persecuted minority and the publishing industry was struggling under the pressures of paper rationing, censorship, and mobilization. 1 The story of its production points to an intersection between the peace movement and the London little theatres and is worth recounting as evidence of those overlapping networks. The author, Vernon Lee (1856–1935), was a cosmopolitan writer, known for her essays on travel and aesthetics, her ghost stories, and her erudition as a polyglot and scholar of the Italian Renaissance. She was also politically radical, a pacifist and campaigner for women’s suffrage whose outspoken objections to war alienated much of her readership and exacerbated her later obscurity as a writer. 2 She joined the Union of Democratic Control (UDC), a pressure group which formed in 1914 to scrutinize British foreign policy and war aims, and which opposed conscription, censorship, and the restriction of civil liberties that were increasingly a feature of the war. 3 It was through the UDC that The Ballet of the Nations came to the attention of publishers. In the first instance, Lee brought the script to her friends, the writer Constance Smedley Armfield (1876–1941) and her husband, the artist Maxwell Armfield (1881–1972), whom she knew through the International Lyceum Club for Women Artists and Writers, which Smedley had established a decade earlier. 4 The Armfields arranged for Lee to recite The Ballet of the Nations at a UDC meeting, which they hosted in their studio in Chelsea, and then at another meeting in the more public forum of the Margaret Morris Theatre on the King’s Road, which the peace campaigner Kate Courtney noted in her diary as follows: UDC Meeting in theatre, corner of Flood St. “Vernon Lee” gave her striking allegory, “The Ballet of the Nations”, for second time. Ch. Trevelyan spoke, and a Miss Cooper Willis gave us an interesting selection from Burke and Fox about peace with revolutionary France—very apt. I was in chair. Very so-so. Audience interested—all polite.” 5 Amongst the audience was Geoffrey Whitworth, a theatre critic and editor at Chatto & Windus, who commissioned the book for publication (Fig. 1). Armfield illustrated the text with a “pictorial commentary”, which gives the book its striking appearance. This exhibition takes the making of The Ballet of the Nations as the starting point for an exploration of the overlapping networks and working relationships that formed around Armfield, Morris, Whitworth, and their students and collaborators, in and beyond Chelsea during and after the First World War. The excavation of visual and aural material begins here with Lee and Armfield’s book, and with the record of the personal and political commitments that drew them together. Exhibition View this illustration online Figure 1. Vernon Lee, The Ballet of the Nations: A Present-Day Morality, with a Pictorial Commentary by Maxwell Ashby Armfield (London: Chatto & Windus, 1915). Digital image courtesy of Digital facsimile courtesy of Chatto & Windus, Penguin Random House UK, and The Estate of Maxwell Ashby Armfield. Vernon Lee did not like Maxwell Armfield’s “pictorial commentary” on her Ballet. A letter from her publisher suggests a showdown between artist and author: the illustrations did not “altogether meet with [Lee’s] approval”, because she felt that “the pictures should be realistic embodiments of the dancers in the Ballet”, and “thoroughly expressive” as well as “decorative” in their treatment of the subject matter. 6 Armfield proposed his friend, Norman Wilkinson of Four Oaks, as an alternative, 7 and later commented that Lee would have preferred something in the manner of the Victorian Symbolist, George Frederic Watts. 8 He himself felt that his rendering was faithful to the narrative. “I tried to give a sense of the horror of the bombing (not yet seen in London),” he explained, “the streams of fugitive women and children going this way and that; the exhaustion, and the final starting all over again.” 9 Yet contemporary reviewers were struck by the discrepancies between text and illustration, and by what they called Armfield’s “exaggerated avoidance of the brutal”. 10 A century later, it is these very differences of subject matter and visual aesthetic that make the book such as a powerful witness to cultural debates during the First World War. They expose fundamental disagreements about the role of art as a weapon against war and point our attention to the world of experimental theatre in which Armfield operated. 11 Figure 2. John Singer Sargent, Vernon Lee, 1881, oil on canvas, 53.7 x 43.2 cm. Collection of Tate (N04787). Digital image courtesy of Tate (CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0 [Unported]). John Singer Sargent inscribed his portrait of Vernon Lee: “To my friend Violet”. They had met as children in Nice where their families were spending the winter, and they had in common a childhood spent travelling in a leisurely way across Europe, moving with the seasons between France, Germany, and Italy. Lee spent most of her life in Florence, moving to Chelsea only for the duration of the First World War. Her objections to war grew out of her cosmopolitan sensibility and way of life. She experienced, deeply and at first-hand, the European civilisation that seemed to be self-destructing through the waste of war and the breakdown of international relations. Figure 3. Vernon Lee, Peace with Honour: Controversial Notes on the Settlement, (London: Union of Democratic Control, 1915), front cover. Digital image courtesy of Private Collection. Lee campaigned against war in pamphlets and newspaper articles, as well as in the fictional form of The Ballet of the Nations. Her views were controversial and often unwelcome, particularly her contention that both sides of the conflict were equally to blame. She complained about the censorship of German liberal opinion in Britain and made a point of reading the German press—even when it became hard to obtain. Her pamphlet Peace with Honour, published by the UDC, made a long-sighted case for a non-punitive peace settlement with Germany and for freedom of debate as an active measure against war. Figure 4. Unknown photographer, Maxwell Ashby Armfield and Constance Smedley Armfield, undated, photograph. Digital image courtesy of Private Collection. The Armfields formed a close creative partnership, as shown in this photograph of the couple at work together. Here we see her sewing and him typing, although she is better known as a writer, feminist, and founder of the Lyceum Clubs, and he as a painter in tempera. Both had attended the Birmingham School of Art at the turn of the century, then a centre for the Arts and Crafts Movement, and their work was deeply informed by Arts and Crafts techniques and ideas, as well as by Smedley’s commitment to Christian Science and her encounters with European symbolism. Their move into theatre began after their marriage in 1909, when they settled in the Cotswolds and established the Cotswold Players, a company which survives to this day. At the outbreak of the First World War, they moved to Chelsea and became closely involved with the London little theatres through their new company, the Greenleaf Players. Figure 5. First Italian Exhibition of Impressionism, Lyceum Club, Florence, April-May 1910, front cover. Collection of The Lyceum Club, Florence. Digital image courtesy of The Lyceum Club, Florence. Vernon Lee first met Constance Smedley and her fiancé Maxwell Armfield in Florence in January 1908. Smedley wrote to her parents that she found Lee “very clever and charming and exclusive” and that they “talked about the Club”—in other words, the new branch of the International Lyceum Club for Women Artists and Writers, which was shortly to open in Florence. 12 Smedley had founded the Lyceum in 1903 as a global resource for educated women, a worldwide network of cultural and professional centres which promoted female emancipation and international cooperation, and which spread across Europe, Australasia, and North America. 13 The image shown here is the catalogue for the First Italian Exhibition of Impressionism, which took place at the Florence Lyceum Club in spring 1910, and included work by Cézanne, Degas, Forain, Gauguin, Matisse, Monet, Pissarro, Renoir, Rosso, Toulouse-Lautrec, and Van Gogh—a mixture of Impressionists and those whom we would now classify as Post-Impressionist, a term coined by the critic Roger Fry for his exhibition Manet and the Post-Impressionists, which opened in London six months later. 14 It is a measure of the Lyceum’s cultural ambition that it was prepared to host this pioneering display of modern art from France. View this illustration online Figure 6. Eliss and Walkry, “The Latest Exponent of the Delsartian School: Miss Ruth St Denis as Radha, Wife of Krishna, the Eighth Incarnation of Vishnu”, photograph, The Illustrated London News, 31 October 1908, 16. Digital image courtesy of Illustrated London News Group. Constance Smedley’s shift into theatre began during her tenure as Honorary Secretary of the Lyceum Club. Ruth St. Denis, pioneer of modern dance in the United States, was a crucial influence; they had first met through the Berlin Lyceum in 1905. 15 In 1908, Smedley promoted St. Denis’s season of Indian dances at the Scala Theatre, London by organising a celebrity Gala night. 16 Smedley remembered St. Denis as “the broadest-visioned artist I have ever met”. 17 St. Denis was equally impressed, calling Smedley “a radiant personality […] In her presence nothing was impossible.” 18 This is notable, because, in most other cases, there is little to corroborate Smedley’s own account of her life’s work—she has largely fallen out of the historical record. [mul] The “Music of the Passions” is important to Satan’s scheme to incite war in The Ballet of the Nations: hatred carries a “huge double-bass”, Rapine, Lust, Murder, and Famine are “fitted out with bull roarers and rattles and other cannibalic instruments”, Science has “a first-rate gramophone tucked under her arm”—between them, they stir the Nations to a frenzy; and when they flag, it is the voice of Pity “like the welling-up notes of many harps” that revives them to a fresh lease of slaughter. Music was key to Lee’s thinking about art and it permeates her writing—both fiction and non-fiction. 19 In her ghost story, A Wicked Voice, a composer is haunted by the voice of the eighteenth-century singer Zaffirino, which was said to be so ravishing that it could kill a woman—another case of art wreaking destruction in human lives. 20 Running through the story is the old Venetian air La Biondina in Gondoleta, which the composer sings at a soirée and then hears being sung by an unidentified, androgynous voice “of intense but peculiar sweetness”—the ghost of Zaffirino himself? Footnotes For an account of the economic problems facing publishers during the First World War, see Jane Potter, Boys in Khaki, Girls in Print: Women’s Literary Responses to the Great War 1914–1918 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2005), 52–87; and Imogen Gassert, “Collaborators and Dissenters: Aspects of British Literary Publishing in the First World War, 1914–1918” (DPhil diss., University of Oxford, 2001). The literature on Lee is considerable, but see in particular Gillian Beer, “The Dissidence of Vernon Lee: Satan the Waster and the Will to Believe”, in Susan Raitt and Trudi Tate (eds), Women’s Fiction and the Great War (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), 107–131. Sally Harris, Out of Control: British Foreign Policy and the Union of Democratic Control 1914–1918 (Hull: University of Hull Press, 1996); Marvin Swartz, The Union of Democratic Control in British Foreign Policy During the First World War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971). Smedley and Armfield both give accounts of their collaboration with Lee in their memoirs, which are broadly, though not entirely, consistent with each other. Constance Smedley Armfield, Crusaders: The Reminiscences of Constance Smedley (Mrs. Maxwell Armfield) (London: Duckworth, 1929), 223; and Maxwell Armfield, “My World and I—the Cotswolds and London in War”, (1970, unpublished), Tate Gallery Archives, Tate Archive: TGA 976/3/2/10, 49–52. Kate Courtney, Extracts from a Diary During the War (London: privately printed by the Victor Press, 1927), 50. Charles Trevelyan was a Liberal politician who founded the Union of Democratic Control together with Ramsay MacDonald. His brother, the poet R.C. Trevelyan, sheltered John Rodker when he was on the run as a conscientious objector (see the section on the Choric School part three of this exhibition). Irene Cooper Willis was Lee’s friend and eventually her executor, who published a study of the British liberal press during the First World War; see Irene Cooper Willis, How We Went into the War: A Study of Liberal Idealism (Manchester: National Labour Press, 1918). Geoffrey Whitworth, letter to Violet Paget, 29 July 1915, University of Reading Modern Publishing Archive, Chatto & Windus, 86: 1034. Whitworth, letter to Violet Paget, 29 July 1915. Maxwell Armfield, “My World and I—the Cotswolds and London in War” (unpublished, 1970), 50, Tate Archive: TGA 976/3/2/10. Armfield, “My World and I”, 51. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Bibliography Armfield, M. (1970) “My World and I—the Cotswolds and London in War”. Tate Gallery Archives, Tate Archive: TGA 976/3/2/10. Beer, G. (1997) “The Dissidence of Vernon Lee: Satan the Waster and the Will to Believe”. In Susan Raitt and Trudi Tate (eds), Women’s Fiction and the Great War. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 107–131. Brockington, G. (2005) “A World Fellowship: The Founding of the International Lyceum Club for Women Artists and Writers”. Transnational Associations 1: 15–22. Brockington, G. (2010) Above the Battlefield: Modernism and the Peace Movement in Britain, 1900–1918. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Cooper Willis, I. (1918) How We Went into the War: A Study of Liberal Idealism. Manchester: National Labour Press. Courtney, K. (1927) Extracts from a Diary During the War. London: Victor Press. Fergonzi, F. (1993) “Firenze 1910—Venezia 1920: Emilio Cecchi, i quadri francesi e le difficoltà dell’ Impressionismo”. Bollettino d’Arte 6, no. 79 (May–June): 1–26 Gassert, I. (2001) “Collaborators and Dissenters: Aspects of British Literary Publishing in the First World War, 1914–1918”. DPhil diss., University of Oxford. Harris, S. (1996) Out of Control: British Foreign Policy and the Union of Democratic Control 1914–1918. Hull: University of Hull Press. Lee, V. (1890) Hauntings. London: W. Heinemann. Lee, V. (1915) The Ballet of the Nations: A Present-Day Morality, with a Pictorial Commentary by Maxwell Armfield. London: Chatto & Windus. Lee, V. (1915) Peace with Honour: Controversial Notes on the Settlement. London: Union of Democratic Control. Lippi, Donatella (2016) “The Story of the Lyceum Club Internazionale di Firenze”, https://lyceumclubfirenze.it/chi-siamo/ history-lyceum-club-firenze.html, accessed 10 December 2018. Potter, J. (2005) Boys in Khaki, Girls in Print: Women’s Literary Responses to the Great War 1914–1918. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Rodriguez, J.-F. (1994) La réception de l’impressionnisme à Florence en 1910. Venice: Istituto veneto di scienze, lettere ed arti. St. Denis, R. (1939) An Unfinished Life: An Autobiography. London: George G. Harrap & Co. Smedley Armfield, C. (1929) Crusaders: The Reminiscences of Constance Smedley (Mrs. Maxwell Armfield). London: Duckworth. Swartz, M. (1971) The Union of Democratic Control in British Foreign Policy During the First World War. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Anon., “Various War Books”, The Manchester Guardian, 27 November 1915, 4. The book was also reviewed in The Evening Standard, The Athenaeum, and The Times Literary Supplement. These debates are discussed in more detail in Grace Brockington, Above the Battlefield: Modernism and the Peace Movement in Britain, 1900–1918 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010), 116–129. Constance Smedley, letter to William T. Smedley, 26 January 1908, quoted in Armfield, “My World and I”, 37c. In 1911, they met again, when the Armfields spent the summer in Florence, “renewing and improving our friendship with ‘Vernon Lee’”; Armfield, “My World and I”, 24. The history of the Lyceum Club in Florence is narrated in Donatella Lippi, “The Story of the Lyceum Club Internazionale di Firenze”, 2016, https://lyceumclubfirenze.it/chi-siamo/history- lyceum-club-firenze.html, accessed 10 December 2018. Grace Brockington, “A World Fellowship: The Founding of the International Lyceum Club for Women Artists and Writers”, Transnational Associations 1 (2005): 15–22. Clubhouses opened in London (1904), Berlin (1905), Paris (1906), Florence (1908), Athens (1910), Stockholm (1911), Geneva (1912), Melbourne (1912), Auckland (1922), Amsterdam (1923), Toronto (1930), Helsinki (1932), and Vienna (1937). This list is not exhaustive. In many of these countries, more clubhouses were to follow in other cities; see www.lyceumclubs.org. The Lyceum exhibition is discussed in Flavio Fergonzi, “Firenze 1910—Venezia 1920: Emilio Cecchi, i quadri francesi e le difficoltà dell’ Impressionismo”, Bollettino d’Arte 6, no. 79 (May–June 1993): 1–26; and Jean-François Rodriguez, La réception de l’impressionnisme à Florence en 1910 (Venice: Istituto veneto di scienze, lettere ed arti, 1994). Smedley, Crusaders, 134–140. Smedley, Crusaders, 184–185. Supporters included Auguste Rodin and George Bernard Shaw. Smedley, Crusaders, 140. Ruth St. Denis, An Unfinished Life: An Autobiography (London: George G. Harrap & Co., 1939), 92, 116. See Shafquat Towheed, “‘Music is not Merely for Musicians’: Vernon Lee’s Musical Reading and Response”, Yearbook of English Studies 40, nos 1–2 (2010): 273–294; and Shafquat Towheed, “The Science of Musical Memory: Vernon Lee and the Remembrance of Sounds Past”, in Katharine Ellis and Phyllis Weliver (eds), Words and Notes in the Long Nineteenth-Century (Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer, 2013), 104–122. First published in Vernon Lee, Hauntings (London: W. Heinemann, 1890). 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Towheed, S. (2010) “‘Music is not Merely for Musicians’: Vernon Lee’s Musical Reading and Response”. Yearbook of English Studies 40, nos 1–2: 273–294. Towheed, S. (2013) “The Science of Musical Memory: Vernon Lee and the Remembrance of Sounds Past”. In Katharine Ellis and Phyllis Weliver (eds), Words and Notes in the Long Nineteenth-Century. Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer, 104–122. Licensing The Publishers of British Art Studies are committed to supporting scholarship on British art and architecture of all periods. This publication is made available free of charge at https://www.britishartstudies.ac.uk. We ask users to identify the use of materials made available through this website and to provide an appropriate credit to the to the author and the publication, so that others may find and use our resources. 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We are confident that we have carried out due diligence in our use of copyrighted material as required, but we apologise for any inadvertent infringement of rights. Digital copies of resources are made accessible for research for one of the following reasons: • they are in the public domain; • the rights are owned by the Publishers; • we make them accessible under an exception or limitation to UK copyright law, as outlined in the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (as amended); • we have permission to make them accessible; • or, there are no known restrictions on use. If you believe that we have made a mistake and wish for your material to be removed from our site, please contact us at copyright@paul-mellon-centre.ac.uk. Please include the following information with your request: • Name and contact information, including email address and phone number. • Identification of the resource for consideration of removal. Providing URLs in your communication will help us locate content quickly. • The reason for the request. The Publishers respond promptly, normally within 21 business days. We may remove the resource from our site while we assess the validity of the request. Upon completion of the assessment, we will take appropriate action and communicate that action to you. British Art Studies March 2019 Theatres of War: Experimental Performance in London, 1914–1918 and Beyond Edited by Grace Brockington, Impermanence, Ella Margolin and Claudia Tobin Contents Performing Pacifism Grace Brockington Authors Cite as Introduction Exhibition Figure 1. Figure 2. Figure 3. Figure 4. Figure 5. Figure 6. Footnotes Bibliography Licensing 
work_roxlfkw4ubbhfpa3admwbs3qja	----	Capa 12(4).p65 160 Lacativa MES, et al. Tratamento de Trombose Tardia de Stent Farmacológico com Cateter Extrator de Trombo. Rev Bras Cardiol Invas 2007; 15(2): 160-163. Tratamento de Trombose Tardia de Stent Farmacológico com Cateter Extrator de Trombo Rev Bras Cardiol Invas 2007; 15(2): 160-163. Marcus Ernesto Sampaio Lacativa1, Leonardo Furtado de Oliveira1, Rodrigo de Franco Cardoso1, João Luiz Frighetto2, Rodolfo de Franco Cardoso3, Julio Eduardo Campos1,4, Francisco Cabral Cardoso1, Luiz Paulo Rebello Alves1 SUMMARY Treatment of Late Thrombosis of Drug-eluting Stent Using a Thrombus Extraction Catheter We report on the case of a 69-year-old patient with late thrombosis of a drug-eluting stent, admitted to hospital with anterior AMI, who was successfully treated using a thrombus extraction catheter (ProntoTM V3). DESCRIPTORS: Stents. Coronary thrombosis. Thrombectomy. RESUMO Relatamos o caso de um paciente de 69 anos com trombose tardia de stent farmacológico, admitido com infarto agudo do miocárdio anterior, tratado com sucesso com o uso de cateter de aspiração de trombos (ProntoTM V3). DESCRITORES: Contenedores. Trombose coronária. Trom- bectomia. Relato de Caso 1 HEMOCOR - Serviço de Hemodinâmica e Angiocardiografia de Jacarepaguá - Rio de Janeiro, RJ. 2 HFAG - Hospital da Força Aérea do Galeão. 3 HUCFF - Hospital Universitário Clementino Fraga Filho. 4 HCE - Hospital Central do Exército. Correspondência: Marcus Ernesto Sampaio Lacativa. R. Bacairis, 499 - 2º andar - Taquara - Jacarepaguá - Rio de Janeiro - RJ - CEP: 22730-120 Tel.: (21) 2423-3621 - Fax: (21) 2423-4047 • E-mail: mlacativa@ig.com.br Recebido em: 27/2/2007 • Aceito em: 26/3/2007 Atualmente, existe uma grande preocupação mun-dial com o risco de trombose tardia em stents far-macológicos, dadas as suas graves implicações clínicas1. A sua alta letalidade, chegando a 45%2, torna sua prevenção algo a ser buscado de forma obstinada e retrata a dificuldade de tratamento desta entidade. O principal preditor independente da trombose tardia é a descontinuação dos antiplaquetários (IR 89,78, p<0,001)2, podendo os índices de trombose de stent superar 25% se o clopidogrel for suspenso antes de 30 dias após o implante do stent3. Os grandes desafios no tratamento são a quantidade de trombos e o no reflow. Apesar de todo o arsenal terapêutico à dispo- sição atualmente (trombolíticos, inibidores de glico- proteína IIb/IIIa, filtros e extratores de trombo), as taxas de infarto agudo do miocárdio (IAM) e mortalidade permanecem elevadas4. A remoção do trombo coronariano parece reduzir o tamanho do infarto e melhorar o fluxo coronariano em pacientes com trombose de stent. O cateter ProntoTM V3 (Vascular Solutions) é um cateter de troca rápida com um duplo lúmen, ponta atraumática e hidrofílica, com um grande lúmen para extração de trombos, sendo de fácil e rápido manuseio. Os dados preliminares do DEAR-MI mostraram eficácia e segurança com o seu uso5 e, alguns casos, com excelente resultado; aspira- ção de trombos macroscópicos já foi descrita na lite- ratura6-8, inclusive de pacientes com trombose tardia de stent6. RELATO DO CASO Paciente masculino de 69 anos, com história de angioplastia coronariana com implante de stent com eluição de paclitaxel - Taxus (Boston Scientific) – 2,75x 28mm, em segmento proximal da artéria descendente anterior, quatro meses antes do evento, quando foi atendido em fase subaguda de IAM anterior, apresen- tando-se agora com precordialgia importante, iniciada há 30 minutos, e com supradesnivelamento do segmento ST de V1 a V4. O paciente relatava melena 10 dias antes à inter- nação, sendo investigado com endoscopia digestiva, que não mostrou alterações. Foi solicitada colonoscopia pelo médico assistente e suspenso o uso de antipla- quetários (ácido acetilsalicílico e clopidogrel), cinco dias antes de sua internação. À chegada ao hospital, apresentava-se sudoreico, MarcusErnesto.p65 28/5/2007, 09:21160 161 Lacativa MES, et al. Tratamento de Trombose Tardia de Stent Farmacológico com Cateter Extrator de Trombo. Rev Bras Cardiol Invas 2007; 15(2): 160-163. pálido, referindo precordialgia 8+/10, com alteração do eletrocardiograma (ECG) em parede anterior (Figura 1). A coronariografia revelou trombose de stent pro- ximal em artéria descendente anterior, com fluxo TIMI 0, sem demais lesões coronarianas significativas (Figu- ra 2). Administrados 600mg de clopidogrel visando à realização de angioplastia primária deste vaso. Cateterizada a artéria coronária esquerda com cateter-guia JL4 6F, passamos corda-guia 0,014 para o leito distal da artéria descendente anterior, seguida da passagem de cateter extrator de trombos Pronto V3, sendo aspirados dois grandes trombos (Figura 3). Após o procedimento, obtivemos fim da precordialgia, reso- lução do supradesnivelamento de ST ao monitor e aparecimento de arritmias de reperfusão (extra-sístoles e ritmo idioventricular acelerado). O resultado angiográfico final mostrava fluxo TIMI 3 com Blush 3, sem embolização distal, não havendo necessidade de implante de outro stent (Figura 4). Não foi usado inibidor de glicoproteína IIb/IIIa. O paciente apresentou boa evolução clínica, evo- luindo sem precordialgia e com resolução do supra- desnivelamento de ST ao ECG (Figura 5), recebendo alta após 72h. Figura 3 - Trombos aspirados com cateter Pronto. Figura 4 - Resultado após aspiração de trombos. Figura 1 - ECG de admissão. Figura 2 - Oclusão proximal de DA. MarcusErnesto.p65 28/5/2007, 09:21161 162 Lacativa MES, et al. Tratamento de Trombose Tardia de Stent Farmacológico com Cateter Extrator de Trombo. Rev Bras Cardiol Invas 2007; 15(2): 160-163. DISCUSSÃO Em nosso serviço, já havíamos usado o cateter Pronto em casos de IAM com grande carga trombótica, mas este foi o primeiro caso de uso em trombose de stent. A facilidade no manuseio do cateter e a rapidez em seu uso nos motivou a usá-lo quando nos depa- ramos com o caso. O resultado extremamente satisfatório nos impressionou, já que em tais casos a abordagem com cateter-balão mostra altos índices de no reflow e a obtenção de Blush 3, muitas vezes, é extremamente difícil, devido à embolização distal para a microvascu- latura. A restauração do fluxo só é obtida em 48% dos casos9 e a embolização distal ocorre em 15% dos casos e tem grande influência prognóstica, sendo fator preditivo independente de mortalidade em 5 anos10. O tratamento com trombolítico também não se mostrou efetivo em casos de trombose de stent9. A resolutividade no caso descrito foi extremamente rápida, o que é importante, não sendo necessário uso de outro stent ou de inibidor de glicoproteína IIb/IIIa, reduzindo o custo final do procedimento. Os resultados do estudo AIMI com o AngioJet foram extremamente desanimadores ao mostrar um aumento na mortalidade e no tamanho do infarto nos pacientes tratados com o AngioJet11. No DEAR-MI, não foram incluídos pacientes com Figura 5 - ECG realizado imediatamente após o procedimento. trombose de stent, mas os resultados, com 60 pacientes com IAM randomizados a receberem tratamento com angioplastia ou com aspiração de trombos com o cateter Pronto seguida de angioplastia5, mostraram uma melhora do blush miocárdico (78,6% Pronto vs. 38,5% contro- le, p<0,01) e maior redução do supradesnivelamento do segmento ST (64,2% Pronto vs. 35,5% controle, p<0,05), sem diferença quanto aos eventos cardíacos maiores intra-hospitalares (3,4% Pronto vs. 3,2% con- trole, p=ns). A nova geração do cateter Pronto - o Pronto V3 - possui uma porção distal hidrofílica, o que facilitou bastante o seu uso com cateter-guia 6F, diminuindo o tempo de procedimento, já que não houve necessida- de de troca do introdutor arterial e cateter-guia, e as complicações vasculares pelo acesso. CONCLUSÃO Com o aumento progressivo na utilização de stents farmacológicos e aumento do número absoluto de angioplastias, a tendência é uma ocorrência maior em números absolutos de trombose tardia de stent. O tratamento percutâneo usado nos dias de hoje é sub- ótimo. O cateter Pronto V3, além de fácil manuseio, pode acelerar a obtenção de um resultado satisfatório. O impressionante resultado que obtivemos sugere que MarcusErnesto.p65 28/5/2007, 09:21162 163 Lacativa MES, et al. Tratamento de Trombose Tardia de Stent Farmacológico com Cateter Extrator de Trombo. Rev Bras Cardiol Invas 2007; 15(2): 160-163. este cateter deva ser avaliado em estudos maiores para o tratamento de pacientes com trombose de stent. A prevenção, contudo, continua sendo nossa grande arma. As diretrizes norte-americanas e européias já sugerem a antiagregação com dois antiplaquetários por 12 meses, a menos que haja um alto risco de sangramento. Essa orientação, contudo, não foi acompanhada pelas com- panhias fabricantes dos stents farmacológicos12. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS 1. Moussa I, Di Mario C, Reimers B, Akiyama T, Tobis J, Colombo A. Subacute stent thrombosis in the era of intravas- cular ultrasound-guided coronary stenting without anticoagu- lation: frequency, predictors and clinical outcome. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;29(1):6-12. 2. Iakovou I, Schmidt T, Bonizzoni E, Ge L, Sangiorgi GM, Stankovic G, et al. Incidence, predictors, and outcome of thrombosis after successful implantation of drug-eluting stents. JAMA. 2005;293(17):2126-30. 3. Jeremias A, Sylvia B, Bridges J, Kirtane AJ, Bigelow B, Pinto DS, et al. Stent thrombosis after successful sirolimus-eluting stent implantation. Circulation. 2004;109(16):1930-2. 4. Mishkel GJ, Moore AL, Markwell S, Shelton MC, Shelton ME. Long-term outcomes after management of restenosis or thrombosis of drug-eluting stents. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007; 49(2):181-4. 5. Colombo P, Silva P, Delgado R, Bigi R, Bossi I, Salvade P, et al. Thrombus aspiration with the Pronto extraction cathe- ter before standard percutaneous coronary intervention im- proves myocardial reperfusion: preliminary results of a pros- pective randomized study. Am J Cardiol. 2004;94:12E. 6. Siddiqui DS, Choi CJ, Tsimikas S, Mahmud E. Successful utilization of a novel aspiration thrombectomy catheter (Pronto) for the treatment of patients with stent thrombosis. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 2006;67(6):894-9. 7. Cardoso RF, Lacativa MES, Campos JE, Frighetto JL, Oliveira LF, Alves LPR, et al. Utilização de cateter extrator de trombo em infarto agudo do miocárdio com grande carga trombótica. Rev Bras Cardiol Invas. 2005;13(2):121-3. 8. Santos MA, Fonseca CGB, Marasca M, Godoy MF. Sistema de trombectomia com aspiração manual durante angioplastia primária no infarto agudo do miocárdio. Rev Bras Cardiol Invas. 2005;13(2):129-30. 9. Hasdai D, Garratt KN, Holmes DR Jr, Berger PB, Schwartz RS, Bell MR. Coronary angioplasty and intracoronary throm- bolysis are of limited efficacy in resolving early intracoronary stent thrombosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;28(2):361-7. 10. Gick M, Jander N, Bestehorn HP, Kienzle RP, Ferenc M, Werner K, et al. Randomized evaluation of the effects of filter-based distal protection on myocardial perfusion and infarct size after primary percutaneous catheter intervention in myocardial infarction with and without ST-segment ele- vation. Circulation 2005;112(10):1462-9. 11. O’Neill WW, Dixon SR, Grines CL. The year in interven- tional cardiology. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45(7):1117-34. 12. Shuchman M. Trading restenosis for thrombosis? New ques- tions about drug-eluting stents. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(19): 1949-52. MarcusErnesto.p65 28/5/2007, 09:21163 
work_rpsnpwhzobfdhd4imzakljft4a	----	sadrzaj-1-2015.vp 243 P. Ivanišević and M. Ivanišević: Retinal Diseases and Painting, Coll. Antropol. 39 (2015) 1: 243–246 mous works. The problem with sight were becoming stron- ger and caught the left eye. By his forties, Degas developed a loss of central vision. The painting became increasing problem and he was forced to paint around his scotoma. Degas changed media from oils to pastels, which are loos- er and easier to work with, dry slowly, and require less precision. Later he discovered that it was easier for him to paint subjects from photographs. Despite this his pic- tures become increasingly coarse and blurred and exibit a clear loss of shape in comparison to his earlier works (Figures 1 and 2). 1891, at age 57, he could no loger read. In old age Degas also had diffi culty recognising colours. Degas’ later work is dominated by red, whereas blue is used rarely. He tend to choose stronger colours because he percieve a colour’s intensity more weakly. From 1903 onwards the sight was so bad he turned to sculpture. Degas asked many ophthal- mologists for advice among them Edmond Landolt. He was diagnosed with »chorioretinits«, a term then used com- monly to describe a variety of eye conditions4. The early loss of central vision, diffi cult distinction of colours, the disturbance of strong light shows that Degas had the hereditary macular degeneration. His sister-in- law and the fi rst cousin, Estelle Musson de Gas at age 25 she lost all useful vision in her left eye and by age 32 she was blind in both eyes. That confi rms the heredity of the illness. (His fi rst cousin, Estelle Musson de Gas, had sim- ilar fi ndings makes a familial form of macular degenera- tion an interesting possibility5. Many well-known painters had various eye diseases1–3. Some eye disorders infl uenced their work at least at cer- tain periods of their life. The aim of this work is to show what infl uence of the different retinal diseases had on paintings of several fa- mous artists and how they saw and experienced the world around them. The sight is more important for painters than for other people because vision is more important for painting then other senses. Contemplations are offered about the effects of retinal diseases in the works of Degas, Munch, Cézanne, O’Keeffe, Constable and Goya. These painters are selected because they are known for having retinal diseases or are suspected to have them. Retinal diseases, nevertheless hereditary or aquired, in those painters can affect vision on different ways: deterio- rate visual acuity, cause changes of colour vision, make central scotomas, sometimes opacities in the visual fi eld. Edgar Degas (Paris, 1834 – Paris, 1917), French im- pressionist, famous for his portraits and ballerinas had juvenile macular degeneration. 1870 when he was 36 years old he was a soldier in French-Prussian war and he noticed while shooting that he could not see a rifl e target with his right eye. From 1871 onwards when he was in New Orleans with his broth- er a strong daily light started to bother him. Degas found brigt lights intolerable and was forced to work indoors. The theatre was conductive to his glare problems, and his paintings of the ballet and the opera remain his most fa- Coll. Antropol. 39 (2015) 1: 243–246 Professional paper The Infl uence of Retinal Eye Diseases on PaintingThe Infl uence of Retinal Eye Diseases on Painting Petar IvaniševićPetar Ivanišević1 and Milan Ivanišević and Milan Ivanišević2 1 University of Split, University Hospital Center Split, Split, Croatia 2 University of Split, University Hospital Center Split, Department of Ophthalmology, Split, Croatia A B S T R A C TA B S T R A C T In this work the possible infl uences of some retinal eye problems on paintings of several famous artists are considered. The change of painting styles and artistic expression in different periods and ages in a group of world-wide well-known painters are described and correlated with known or suspected retinal diseases. Some of them largely became recognizable because of that. Contemplations are offered about the effects of retinal diseases in the works of Degas, Munch, Cézanne, O’Keeffe, Constable and Goya. Retinal eye diseases have a signifi cant impact on the work of selected famous painters. Key words: retinal diseases, painting IntroductionIntroduction Received for publication May 4, 2012 244 P. Ivanišević and M. Ivanišević: Retinal Diseases and Painting, Coll. Antropol. 39 (2015) 1: 243–246 It is possible that some of Degas’ greatness as an artist is attributable to his visual loss. The infl uence of his eye disease on his paintings Renoir described best: »Had he died at 50, he would have been remembered as a good, competent artist, nothing more«. Edvard Munch (Løten, 1863 – Ekely, 1944), Norwegian expressionist. His most famous image was The Scream from 1893. In short period of life he suffered of conse- quence of central retinal vein occlusion and vitreous haem- orrhage. Edvard Munch developed a »haemorrhage« in the vitre- ous of his better right eye at the age of sixty-seven, in 19306. The resulting opacity that cast its shadow on the retina was the more intrusive because of his other eye was already poor-sighted; and the shape of the bird with a long beak began to insinuate itself into his paintings as the dominant subject of the world he depicted (Figure 3)7. Paul Cézanne (Aix-en-Provence, 1839 – Aixeu-en- Provence, 1906), French post-impressionist painter. He was an important bridge between Impressionism and a new line of artistic enquiry, Cubism. He got diabetic reti- nopathy which causes blue-green colour blindness and his later paintings became more subdued. His »sick retinas« and the visual deterioration in the latest part of his life also explaine a change from realistic to abstract paintings. Without them we might never have had cubism, abstrac- tion and beyond. A large number of the Impressionist painters were »nearsighted« like Cézanne. He refused to correct with the use of glasses, which he deemed »vulgar things«. In 1890, at age 51, Cézanne was diagnosed diabetes. A triggering factor of Cézanne’s diabetes was emerald green poisoning caused by his painting »à la couillarde«, that is, crude painting (with his fi ngers). Diabetes induced concurrent retinopathy (Figures 4 and 5). After a chill sustained while doing an open-air paint- ing of the Sainte Victorie mountain, Cézanne slipped into a diabetic coma and died six days later of pneumonia8. Georgia O’Keeffe (Sun Prairie, 1887 – Santa Fe, 1986), was an American artist. She is the best known for her impressive paintings of fl owers and vistas and subjects of the American Southwest. With advancing age came severe loss of vision due to age related macular degeneration and central retinal vein occlusion. Fig. 1. Early work of a dancing ballerina, 1878. Fig. 2. Later work of a bellerinas, circa 1905. Fig. 3. T2136 Image of his intraocular debris appeared as a cir- cular haze with a dense branched fi gure at its upper edge resmbling him of a bird, 1930. Fig. 4. Sainte Victorie mounatain painted from 1887–1890. 245 P. Ivanišević and M. Ivanišević: Retinal Diseases and Painting, Coll. Antropol. 39 (2015) 1: 243–246 O’Keeffe fi rst noticed the symptoms of macular degen- eration in 1964. She was 77 that year. She had a severe exudative senile macular degeneration. She came under the care of laser photocoagulation. The left eye had the typical haemorrhagic vascular changes of a vein occlusion that had occured in 1971. Her vision was less than 6/60 in both eyes and not improvable with glasses. The Black Rock series occupied O’Keeffe between 1970 and 1972, a time when her vision was failing to critical levels with central black scotomas which refl ect on her paintings (Fig- ure 6). She turned to sculpture as a more tactile artistic medium when she found it diffi cult to paint in oils, due to her poor eyesight. She had a family history of this disease, which depends in part on hereditary predisposition. Her maternal grandfather suffered from it9. John Constable (East Bergholt, 1776 – London, 1837) was an English landscape painter. His most famous paintings are Dedham Vale, 1802 and The Hay Wain, 1821. He has been considered colour defi - cient. Constable was probably partially red-green colour blind because of his emphasis on greenish and yelow tones and his spare use of reds. His paintings often look autum- nal (Figure 7). Swiss-English painter Henry Fuseli once wrote to his colleague Sir David Wilkie, »I like the land- scape of Constable, but he always makes me call for my greatcoat and umbrella«10–12. Francisco Goya (Fuendetodos, 1746 – Bordeaux, 1828), Spanish painter. One of his most famous work is The Nude Maja. The nature of his illness probably was autoimune disorder Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Fig. 5. Sainte Victorie mounatain painted from 1894–1900 after the deterioration in his blue-green vision as a consequence of his diabetic retinopathy. Fig. 7. Hampstead Heath, 1824. Constable has been considered colour defi cient because of a preponderance of suspicious colour, such a murkly green. Fig. 8. Prateria di San Isidro, produced in 1788 is festive, full of the joy of life. Fig. 6. Black Rock with Blue Sky and White Clouds, 1972. Fig. 9. San Isidro Pilgrimage in 1820–23 is horrendous: the crowd, which is in procession, is made up of men and women singing salms with their mouth wide open, their eyes looking up- wards, their faces that look like masks. 246 P. Ivanišević and M. Ivanišević: Retinal Diseases and Painting, Coll. Antropol. 39 (2015) 1: 243–246 ConclusionConclusion The ocular problems may give another dimension of the painter’s work and have importance in determing the art- ist’s style. In particular period of life of some painters, retinal diseases had very big infl uence on their type of painting and artistic work. Maybe the works of certain well-known painters with retinal diseases might be con- sidered to be a link to the abstract art. R E F E R E N C E SR E F E R E N C E S 1. TENNEBAUM S, J Am Optom Assoc, 68 (1997) 261. — 2. RAVIN JG, JAMA, 254 (1983) 394. DOI: 10.1001/jama.1985.033600300084028. — 3. LIVINGSTONE M, Vision and art: the biology of seeing (Abrams, New York, 2002). — 4. RAVIN JG, KENYON CH, The blindness of Edgar Degas. In: MARMOR MF (Ed): The eye of the artist (Mosby-Year Book, St. Louis, 1997). — 5. KARCIOGLU ZA, Ophthalmic Genet, 28 (2007) 51. DOI: 10.1080/13816810701351313. — 6. MALPAS J, Trans Med Soc Lond, 123 (2006–2007) 15. — 7. MARMOR MF, Surv Ophthalmol, 44 (2000) 343. DOI: 10.1016/S0039-6257(99)00113-7. — 8. MARMOR MF, RAVIN JG. The artist’s eye vision and the history of art (Abrams, New York, 2009). — 9. RAVIN JG. The blurred world of Georgia O’Keeffe. In: MARMOR MF (Ed): The eye of the artist (Mosby-Year Book, St. Louis, 1997). — 10. LANTHONY P, J Fr Ophtalmol, 5 (1982) 373. — 11. TREV- OR-ROPER P. The world through blunted sight (Penguin books, London, 1988). — 12. MARMOR MF, LANTHONY P, Surv Ophthalmo, 45 (2001) 407. DOI: 10.1016/S0039-6257(00)00192-2. — 13. FELISATI D, SPER- ATI G, Acta Otorhinolaryngol Ital, 30 (2010) 264. — 14. VARGAS LM, J Fla Med Assoc, 82 (1995) 533. P. Ivanišević University of Split, University Hospital Center Split, Spinčićeva 1, 21000 Split, Croatia e-mail: mcpero@xnet.hr UTJECAJ RETINALNIH OČNIH BOLESTI NA SLIKARSTVOUTJECAJ RETINALNIH OČNIH BOLESTI NA SLIKARSTVO S A Ž E T A KS A Ž E T A K U ovom radu razmatra se mogućnost utjecaja retinalnih očnih bolesti na slikarstvo u nekoliko svjetski poznatih umjetnika. Opisan je odnos između promjena u stilu slikanja i umjetničkog izričaja u različitim razdobljima i dobi života kod svjetski poznatih slikara za koje se znalo ili sumnjalo da imaju retinalne bolesti. Neki od njih postali su po tome prepoznatljivi. Iznesena su razmišljanja o djelovanju retinalnih bolesti na radove Degasa, Muncha, Cézannea, O’Keeffe, Constablea i Goyae. Retinalne očne bolesti imaju značajan utjecaj na rad navedenih čuvenih slikara. His latest works are considered to be forerunner of the Impressionism. At the age of 47 he probably got Vogt-Koy- anagi-Harada syndrome or uveomenigoencephalyc syn- drome. A disease affected his vision, hearing and balance. The whole good mood and colours vanished completely from his paintings and his painted characters became sad, unhappy and often frightening and horrible13. The period of Goya’s artistic output known as the »Black paintings« have been created during the time he had the disease (Fig- ures 8 and 9)14. 
work_rsjads3nznatbmkcwx3cxfvfyi	----	From the Museum.indd Th e Ar t o f T hi nk in g Im pressionism Eur Respir J 2014; 44: 302–303 | DOI: 10.1183/09031936.00440214302 DOI: 10.1183/09031936.00440214 | Copyright ©ERS 2014 From the M useum Starry Night is as famous the world over as its creator was obscure. It is both a mirror of its time and the perpetually troubled soul that created it. Th e night sky is deconstructed into deepened blues and lightened violets (technical immediacy of Impressionism) and reassimilated into a myriad of energised linear swirls and vibrating pulses of yellow-orange radiating out from variably hot centres as a means of revealing an ecstatic inner vision (expressive power of Post-Impressionism). Th e emotionally charged night sky is pierced by an upward-reaching, fl ame-swirling, cypress tree (cemetery association) depicted as a dark green silhouette bordering the shadowy coolness of the sleeping village below. Th e simplicity and sophistication of this image invites us to refl ect deeply on Van Gogh’s comment that “…death is the road we take to reach the stars…” expressed with sincere clarity during a moment of visionary enlightenment within a period of asylum darkness. For the Impressionists, optical realism separated visual experience from memory, cultivating an extreme indiff erence to pictorial content. Sunlight was broken down to its primary colours which were then recombined with short, rapid brush stokes capturing the immediacy of the fl eeting moment. Colour mixing now occurs in the retina and the illusion of form and space is implied by varying intensities of light, shade and colour (detached observer). Th e intimate relationship between art and the science of light, eye physiology and the invention of the camera is further enhanced by the bi-directionality of cause and eff ect. In focusing on how we see rather than what we see, perception is now dominated by optical science; the cool objectivity of impressionism becomes a triumph of technique and sight over insight and expression. Van Gogh shattered the power of this illusion by reminding us that all observation is selection that is coloured by feeling and experienced within the context – and as a property of – mind. In painting Starry Night because “the night is even more richly coloured than the day”, choosing what to highlight and what to omit in a reality that can never be fully captured, and re-interpreting the use of colour and movement as metaphors for energy and emotion – all contextualised by his own unique life adversities – Van Gogh helped us see what we had never seen before. Illusion has now transcended into a new reality; superfi cial realism sacrifi ced for a deeper meaning. Van Gogh’s star burnt briefl y but explosively (1880–1890). His creativity was unleashed during the disintegration of academic art traditions and infl uenced by both the impressionist message and its logical but paradoxical conclusion in the systematised colour theory of Divisionism-Pointillism. He rapidly assimilated the power of capturing the transient eff ects of light and the moment that began with Monet’s Impression, Sunrise (1874 opening impressionist exhibition); the excitement, turmoil and varied individual responses to the multipronged impressionist experiments in means and ends; and the timelessness of sculpting geometry and objects using small dots of meticulously placed colour as exemplifi ed by the neo-impressionistic slice of modern life that was Seurat’s A Sunday Aft ernoon on the Island of La Grand Jatte (1886 fi nal impressionist exhibition). However, true to his time of concentrated change and his own inner needs, Van Gogh felt that the world of dissociated two-dimensional appearances neglected psychological and emotional depth, propelling him to an individual synthesis and response. In leaving Paris, going to Provence and doing what he was, Van Gogh romantically helped to realise the full impact of the impressionistic breakthrough – translating it into a far more expressive language… for the good of all (the fi nal twist). Tom Kotsimbos Dept of Medicine, Central Clinical School, Monash University; Dept of Allergy, Immunology and Respiratory Medicine, Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, 3004, Australia. E-mail: tom.kotsimbos@monash.edu Vincent Van Gogh: Starry Night: 1889; Museum of Modern Art, New York Claude Monet: Impression, Sunrise: 1872; Musée Marmottan Monet, Paris Georges Seurat: A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte: 1886; Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago Im pr es si on is m 303 “Th e big picture is all in the detail” Charles Darwin Van Gogh MonetSeurat Optics Perception Illusion << /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false /AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /None /Binding /Left /CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 10%) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CalCMYKProfile (Europe ISO Coated FOGRA27) /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Error /CompatibilityLevel 1.7 /CompressObjects /Off /CompressPages true /ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true /CreateJobTicket false /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default /DetectBlends true /DetectCurves 0.1000 /ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged /DoThumbnails false /EmbedAllFonts 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work_rsklhdic7jgmndu4z3p3yoqkim	----	Still Bowling Alone? The Post-9/11 Split The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation Sander, Thomas H. and Putnam, Robert D. 2010. Still Bowling Alone? The Post-9/11 Split. Journal of Democracy 21(1): 9-16. Published Version http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jod.0.0153 Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:5341588 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#LAA http://osc.hul.harvard.edu/dash/open-access-feedback?handle=&title=Still%20Bowling%20Alone?%20The%20Post-9/11%20Split&community=1/3345933&collection=1/3345934&owningCollection1/3345934&harvardAuthors=24116187299ba6af39726cf0c5b1c218&department http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:5341588 http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of-use#LAA http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of-use#LAA http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of-use#LAA Still Bowling Alone? The Post-9/11 Split Thomas H. Sander Robert D. Putnam Journal of Democracy, Volume 21, Number 1, January 2010, pp. 9-16 (Article) Published by The Johns Hopkins University Press DOI: 10.1353/jod.0.0153 For additional information about this article Access Provided by Harvard University at 06/04/10 6:01PM GMT http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/jod/summary/v021/21.1.sander.html http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/jod/summary/v021/21.1.sander.html Still Bowling Alone? the poSt-9/11 Split Thomas H. Sander and Robert D. Putnam Thomas H. Sander is executive director of the Saguaro Seminar: Civic Engagement in America at the John F. Kennedy School of Gov- ernment, Harvard University. Robert D. Putnam is Peter and Isabel Malkin Professor of Public Policy at Harvard University. Exactly fifteen years ago, the Journal of Democracy published in its fifth anniversary issue an article by Robert D. Putnam entitled “Bowl- ing Alone: America’s Declining Social Capital.”1 The essay struck a chord with readers who had watched their voting precincts empty out, their favorite bowling alleys or Elks lodges close for lack of patrons and members, and their once-regular card games and dinner parties become sporadic. Marshaling evidence of such trends, the article galvanized widespread concern about the weakening of civic engagement in the United States. But it also roused deep interest in the broader concept of “social capital”—a term that social scientists use as shorthand for social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trust to which those networks give rise. No democracy, and indeed no society, can be healthy without at least a modicum of this resource. Even though Putnam’s article and subsequent book-length study Bowl- ing Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community2 focused on the United States, scholars and political leaders around the world were seized by the question of how to foster the growth and improve the quality of social capital.3 This interest was not altogether surprising, as research in a variety of fields was demonstrating that social capital makes citizens happier and healthier, reduces crime, makes government more responsive and honest, and improves economic productivity.4 The trend that “Bowling Alone” spotlighted was alarming: By many measures, since the 1960s or 1970s Americans had been withdraw- ing from their communities. Attendance at public meetings plunged by nearly half between 1973 and 1994. The family dinner seemed at risk of becoming an endangered species. Trust in strangers took a sharp Journal of Democracy Volume 21, Number 1 January 2010 © 2010 National Endowment for Democracy and The Johns Hopkins University Press 10 Journal of Democracy drop: In the early 1960s, more than half of all Americans said that they trusted others; fewer than a third say the same thing today. In the 1990s, as Americans’ social connections withered, they increasingly watched Friends rather than had friends. Sociologists who had once been skepti- cal of Putnam’s findings found to their dismay that over the last two decades the incidence of close friendships had declined.5 As of 2004, a quarter of those polled in the United States reported that they lacked a confidant with whom to discuss important personal matters (the 1983 figure had been less than half that), and nearly half of all respondents re- ported being only one confidant away from social isolation. Since social isolation (that is, the lack of any confidants) strongly predicts premature death, these are sobering statistics. Both Bowling Alone and a 2001 Harvard report known as Better To- gether6 argued that America could be civically restored in two ways: by encouraging adults to socialize more, join more groups, or volunteer more; and by teaching the young, whose habits are more malleable, to be increasingly socially connected. Americans need only look back two generations to see just how com- mitted to civic life a generation can be. The “Greatest Generation” cel- ebrated by Tom Brokaw’s book of that name grew up amid the sense of solidarity generated by the Second World War and before the rise of television and its civically noxious influence. In comparison with their grandchildren, Americans born before 1930 were twice as trusting, 75 percent more likely to vote, and more than twice as likely to take part in community projects.7 But the Greatest Generation, who viewed helping others as downright American, never managed to pass their civic traits on to their “Baby Boomer” children (born between 1946 and 1964) or their “Generation X” grandchildren (born during the late 1960s and the 1970s). As its older civic stalwarts have died off, America’s population has become less engaged year by year. Nevertheless, surveying the landscape of the late 1990s, Bowling Alone spotted one hopeful trend: an increase in youth volunteering that potentially heralded broader generational engagement. Putnam noted that the task of sparking this greater engagement “would be eased by a palpable national crisis, like war or depression or natural disaster, but for better and for worse, America at the dawn of the new century faces no such galvanizing crisis.”8 Newly Engaged? The Rise of the Post-9/11 Generation Just a year after those words were written, a massive national crisis struck. The terrorists who carried out the 9/11 attacks were aiming to ruin America’s confidence and resolve, but the roughly three-thousand days that have passed since that fateful day seem instead to have strengthened the civic conscience of young people in the United States. 11Thomas H. Sander and Robert D. Putnam Whether they were in college, high school, or even grade school when the twin towers and the Pentagon were hit, the members of the 9/11 gen- eration9 were in their most impressionable years and as a result seem to grasp their civic and mutual responsibilities far more firmly than do their parents. While the upswing in volunteering that Putnam observed in the mid-1990s may have been largely an effect of school-graduation requirements or the desire to gain an edge while seeking admission to selective colleges,10 the years since 9/11 have brought an unmistakable expansion of youth interest in politics and public affairs. For example, young collegians’ interest in politics has rapidly increased in the last eight years, an increase all the more remarkable given its arrival on the heels of thirty years of steady decline. From 1967 to 2000, the share of college freshmen who said that they had “discussed politics” in the pre- vious twelve months dropped from 27 to 16 percent; since 2001, it has more than doubled and is now at an all-time high of 36 percent. First-year college students also evince a long-term decline and then post-2001 rise in interest in “keeping up to date with political affairs.”11 Surveys of high-school seniors show a similar and simultaneous decline and then rise in civic engagement.12 Moreover, between 2000 and 2008, voting rates rose more than three times faster for Americans under age Figure—interest in Politics Among AmericAn college Freshmen, 1966–2008 1960 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 20052000 2010 % of respondents who say keeping up to date with political affairs is “very important” % of respondents who discussed politics in the last year 12 Journal of Democracy 29 than they did for Americans over 30.13 The turning point in 2001 is unmistakable. On college campuses nationwide, this civic-engagement “youth movement” has evoked the spirit of the early John F. Kennedy years. While the post-9/11 spike in community-mindedness among adults was short-lived, the shift appears more lasting among those who experi- enced the attacks during their impressionable adolescent years.14 Why? As we wrote four years after 9/11: The attacks and their aftermath demonstrated that our fates are highly in- terdependent. We learned that we need to—and can—depend on the kind- ness of strangers who happen to be near us in a plane, office building or subway. Moreover, regardless of one’s political leanings, it is easy to see that we needed effective governmental action: to coordinate volunteers, police national borders, design emergency response preparedness, engage in diplomacy, and train police and firefighters. Government and politics mattered. If young people used to wonder why they should bother to vote, Sept[ember] 11 . . . gave them an answer.15 If this effect persists among young people who lived through 9/11, the inevitable turnover of generations will provide the cause of civic engagement with a powerful following wind. Amid such generational change, even if no present-day adults deepen their community engage- ment, the United States may witness a gradual yet inexorable reversal of the civic decline that Bowling Alone chronicled. The final size of the “Post-9/11 Generation” remains unclear, how- ever, since its lower age boundary is still a mystery. How likely is it that those who were grade-schoolers in 2001 will be counted as mem- bers of this generation? One less than encouraging hint may be gleaned from anecdotal evidence suggesting that those born in the early to mid- 1990s increasingly say that they cannot remember 9/11.16 How decisive can that day be for those who never had or no longer possess a vivid firsthand memory of it? Educators are experimenting with programs to freshen the memory of 9/11 among younger Americans, but a solitary lesson plan is likely to have far less impact than the raw immediacy of the suicide attacks and the pervasive discussions and reflection that fol- lowed. This suggests that while the 9/11 Generation is real, the attack’s effects may be most concentrated among Americans born in the 1980s. In his 2008 campaign for the U.S. presidency, Barack Obama ably surfed this wave of post-9/11 youthful civic engagement. Though the initial ripple had been visible years before he became a national figure, he and his campaign mightily amplified it. Some credit Internet-based social networking for bolstering youthful interest in politics and com- munity life, but the advent of the well-known social-networking sites Facebook (2004) and Twitter (2006) occurred years after the initial upturn in civic engagement by young people. Nonetheless, the Obama 13Thomas H. Sander and Robert D. Putnam campaign adroitly deployed classic organizing techniques to expand the impact of such new technologies. For example, the campaign created an iPhone application to enable Obama supporters to rank-order the cam- paign phone calls that they should make to friends, based on whether their friends lived in swing states; it also compiled millions of mobile- phone numbers and e-mail addresses to mobilize citizens for old-style, face-to-face politicking during the campaign and after. Campaign work- ers exploited cutting-edge technology to find volunteers, decide which wards to visit, and record people’s political leanings, but relied on old- school door-knocking as the chief means of actually connecting with voters. The Obama campaign, with its heavy use of young volunteers and workers, not only counted on an upwelling of youth civic engagement, but contributed to it as well. In the United States, the share of those aged 18 to 29 who avowed complete agreement with the claim that “it’s my duty as a citizen to always vote” rose by almost 50 percent between 1999 and 2009. During the same years, the comparable rate among those older than 30 stayed flat. A closer look at trends among the 18-to-29 group, moreover, reveals a spike in agreement during the years surrounding the Obama campaign.17 The long-term civic effects of the Obama campaign on the 9/11 Gen- eration remain uncertain. If Obama’s campaign promises on issues such as health care, financial reform, and equality of opportunity go unreal- ized, young voters could become politically dispirited. Or perhaps such failure would only strengthen their political resolve. As Yogi Berra ob- served, prediction is hard, especially about the future. Are Only the Young “Haves” Engaged? The emergence of the 9/11 Generation since 2001 is undoubtedly to be cheered. But it is only part of an ominous larger and longer-term pic- ture whose main feature is a growing civic and social gap in the United States between upper-middle-class young white people and their less af- fluent counterparts. (A similar gap has not appeared within the ranks of black youth, though an overall black-white gap in engagement remains wide and troubling.) Over the last thirty years, and with growing intensity over the latter half of that period, white high-school seniors from upper middle-class families have steadily deepened the degree to which they are engaged in their communities, while white high-school seniors from working- or lower-class backgrounds have shown a propensity to withdraw from (or never undertake) such engagement.18 Advantaged kids increasingly flocked to church, while working-class kids deserted the pews. Middle- class kids connected more meaningfully with parents, while working- class kids were increasingly left alone, in large part because single par- 14 Journal of Democracy enting has proliferated among lower- and working-class whites, while becoming rarer among upper-middle-class families. Among “have-not” high-school seniors, trust in other people plummeted, while seniors from the “right side of the tracks” showed no decline at all in social trust. On indicator after indicator—general and academic self-esteem, academic ambi- tion, social friendships, and volunteer- ing—the kids who could be described as the “haves” grew in confidence and engagement while their not-so-well-off contemporaries slipped farther into dis- engagement with every year.19 Among other things, this means that the overall rise in youth political engagement and volunteering since 9/11 masks a pair of subtrends that are headed in different di- rections, with lower-class youth growing less involved while better-off youngsters become more involved. Since public discussion in the United States of- ten tends to conflate class and race, it is important to emphasize that this growing gap among different groups of young people is about the former and not just the latter. If the United States is to avoid becoming two nations, it must find ways to expand the post-9/11 resurgence of civic and social engagement beyond the ranks of affluent young white people. The widening gaps that we are seeing in social capital, academic ambition, and self-esteem augur poorly for the life chances of working-class youngsters. If these gaps re- main unaddressed, the United States could become less a land of oppor- tunity than a caste society replete with the tightly limited social mobility and simmering resentments that such societies invariably feature. The basic, if unstated, social contract in America is this: We gener- ally do not worry about how high the socioeconomic ladder extends upward (even to the heights scaled by Bill Gates and Warren Buffett), as long as everyone has a chance to get on the ladder at roughly the same rung. Of course, the image of exact equality of opportunity has never been entirely realistic, but as a statement of our national aspiration, it has been important, and as the discrepancy between aspiration and real- ity grows, a fundamental promise of American life is endangered. The growing class gap among high-school seniors erodes this promise. Having noted above that greater engagement on the part of adults is another path toward civic restoration, we may ask how adult Ameri- cans are behaving on this score. Are they becoming more civically en- gaged? While there is no convincing evidence of such an encouraging trend over the last decade, adult Americans are engaging differently. Graduates reconnect with lost classmates on Facebook. Stay-at-home If the United States is to avoid becoming two nations, it must find ways to expand the post-9/11 resurgence of civic and social engage- ment beyond the ranks of affluent young white people. 15Thomas H. Sander and Robert D. Putnam moms befriend each other through Meetup. Americans can locate proxi- mate friends through BeaconBuddy. Brief posts on Twitter (known as “tweets”) convey people’s meal or sock choices, instant movie reac- tions, rush-hour rants, and occasionally even their profound reflections. Measured against the arc of history, such technological civic invention is in its infancy. In a world where Facebook “friendship” can encompass people who have never actually met, we remain agnostic about whether Internet social entrepreneurs have found the right mix of virtual and real strands to replace traditional social ties. But technological innovators may yet master the elusive social alchemy that will enable online behav- ior to produce real and enduring civic effects. If such effects do come about, they will benefit young and adult Americans alike—and fortify the civic impact of our new 9/11 Generation. NOTES 1. Robert D. Putnam, “Bowling Alone: America’s Declining Social Capital,” Journal of Democracy 6 (January 1995): 65–78. 2. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Commu- nity (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000). 3. The year 1994 saw the publication of a dozen scholarly articles on social capital. For 2008, that figure was nearly fifty times greater, with a comparable rise in press mentions of the concept. 4. See Putnam, Bowling Alone, section 4. While much of the work on social capital is correlational, some work done since 2000 consists of panel data suggesting that social capital causes these beneficial outcomes. 5. Miller McPherson, Lynn Smith-Lovin, and Matthew E. Brashears, “Social Isolation in America: Changes in Core Discussion Networks over Two Decades,” American Socio- logical Review 71 (June 2006): 353–75. For a subsequent methodological debate about this study, see Claude Fischer, “The 2004 GSS Finding of Shrunken Social Networks: An Artifact?”American Sociological Review 74 (August 2009): 657–69, plus the original authors’ rejoinder, “Models and Marginals: Using Survey Evidence to Study Social Net- works,” American Sociological Review 74 (August 2009): 670–81. 6. Available at www.bettertogether.org/thereport.htm. 7. Putnam, Bowling Alone, 253. 8. Putnam, Bowling Alone, 402. 9. It is worth noting that at any single instant, one cannot differentiate life-cycle pat- terns (how frequently people do something at one age or another) from generational pat- terns (the variation in how frequently people born in different periods do something). In our discussion of age differences, we rely on evidence gathered over many years and emphasize differences between one generation and another rather than lifecycle-related differences. 10. Such motivations may matter little, however: Those who are introduced to volun- teerism while they are young typically volunteer more often throughout their lives. 16 Journal of Democracy 11. From 2000 to 2008, the share of first-year U.S. college students who responded to a survey taken by the U.S. Higher Education Research Institute by saying that they con- sidered keeping up with political affairs to be “essential” or “very important” rose from 28.1 to 39.5 percent. That was still below the all-time high, which came in 1966, when 60 percent of college first years said that they considered keeping up with politics to be “es- sential” or “very important.” See www.gseis.ucla.edu/heri/pr-display.php?prQry=28. 12. The data are from “Monitoring the Future,” an annual survey of more than fifty- thousand U.S. high-school seniors that has been taken under the auspices of the U.S. National Institutes of Health since 1976. The survey’s main focus is drug use, but there are also many questions on social attitudes, social capital, self-esteem, ambition, material- ism, and so on. For more information, see www.monitoringthefuture.org. This class gap was discovered by Rebekah Crooks Horowitz in her 2005 Harvard College senior thesis, “Minding the Gap: An Examination of the Growing Class Gap in Youth Volunteering and Political Participation.” 13. According to U.S. Current Population Survey data compiled by the U.S. Census Bureau and Labor Department, 60 percent of U.S. registered voters aged 30 or older actu- ally cast ballots in 1996 and 2000, while only 36 percent of those aged 18 to 29 did so. In 2008, turnout among the over-30s rose modestly to 68 percent even as it shot up to 51 percent for those aged 18 to 29. Since 2000, campaign volunteering has risen at an aver- age rate of about 5.5 percent per presidential election among Americans over 30, and by almost 20 percent among those from 18 to 29 years old. 14. During the first six weeks after 9/11, Americans in general reported rising trust in government, rising trust in the police, greater interest in politics, more frequent attendance at political meetings, and more work on community projects. Among adults surveyed, all these increases had vanished by March 2002. See Robert D. Putnam, “Bowling Together,” American Prospect, 11 February 2002. 15. Thomas H. Sander and Robert D. Putnam, “Sept. 11 as Civics Lesson,” Washington Post, 10 September 2005. 16. Sarah Schweitzer, “When Students Don’t Know 9/11,” Boston Globe, 11 Septem- ber 2009. 17. See the report by the Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, “Trends in Political Values and Core Attitudes: 1987–2009: Independents Take Center Stage in Obama Era,” 21 May 2009, 75. Available at http://people-press.org/reports/pdf/517.pdf. Statistics also from crosstabs conducted by Leah Christian at the Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, 25 September 2009. 18. Social class in this analysis is measured by parental educational levels, so by “up- per middle class” we mean kids with at least parent who has a postgraduate education, whereas by “working [or lower] class” we mean kids whose parents have not gone beyond high school, if that. 19. These results come from our unpublished analyses of “Monitoring the Future” data. 
work_rop7szke3vbg5ccpre7sc6bwty	----	CESifo Working Paper no. 6251 Experienced Inequality and Preferences for Redistribution Christopher Roth Johannes Wohlfart CESIFO WORKING PAPER NO. 6251 CATEGORY 2: PUBLIC CHOICE ORIGINAL VERSION: DECEMBER 2016 THIS VERSION: SEPTEMBER 2018 An electronic version of the paper may be downloaded • from the SSRN website: www.SSRN.com • from the RePEc website: www.RePEc.org • from the CESifo website: Twww.CESifo-group.org/wpT ISSN 2364-1428 http://www.ssrn.com/ http://www.repec.org/ http://www.cesifo-group.de/ CESifo Working Paper No. 6251 Experienced Inequality and Preferences for Redistribution Abstract We examine whether individuals’ experienced levels of income inequality affect their preferences for redistribution. We use several large nationally representative datasets to show that people who have experienced higher inequality during their lives are less in favor of redistribution, after controlling for income, demographics, unemployment experiences and current macroeconomic conditions. They are also less likely to support left-wing parties and to consider the prevailing distribution of incomes to be unfair. We provide evidence that these findings do not operate through extrapolation from own circumstances, perceived relative income or trust in the political system, but seem to operate through the respondents’ fairness views. JEL-Codes: P160, E600, Z130. Keywords: inequality, redistribution, macroeconomic experiences, fairness. Christopher Roth Department of Economics University of Oxford & CSAE Manor Road Building, Manor Road, United Kingdom - Oxford OX1 3UQ christopher.roth@economics.ox.ac Johannes Wohlfart Department of Economics Goethe University Frankfurt Theodor-W.-Adorno-Platz 3, PF H32 Germany - 60323 Frankfurt am Main wohlfart@econ.uni-frankfurt.de September 17, 2018 We are grateful to the editor, Monica Singhal, and two anonymous referees for providing thoughtful comments that improved the paper considerably. We also would like to thank Alberto Alesina, Heike Auerswald, Peter Bent, Enzo Cerletti, Anujit Chakraborty, Leonhard Czerny, Franziska Deutschmann, Ester Faia, Eliana La Ferrara, Nicola Fuchs-Schündeln, Alexis Grigorieff, Ingar Haaland, Michalis Haliassos, Emma Harrington, Lukas Hensel, Michael Kosfeld, Ulrike Malmendier, Salvatore Nunnari, Matthew Rabin, Sonja Settele, Uwe Sunde, Guido Tabellini, Bertil Tungodden, Paul Vertier, Ferdinand von Siemens and seminar and conference participants at Frankfurt, ZEW Mannheim, the CESifo Workshop on Political Economy (Dresden), the Econometric Society (Edinburgh) and the Spring Meeting of Young Economists (Halle) for helpful comments. We also thank Ulrike Malmendier and Stefan Nagel for sharing code. Johannes Wohlfart thanks for support through the DFG project “Implications of Financial Market Imperfections for Wealth and Debt Accumulation in the Household Sector”. 1 Introduction Over the last decades, many industrialized countries have seen dramatic increases in income in- equality (Piketty, 2014). This is reflected in substantial variation across cohorts in the level of inequality individuals were exposed to during their lives. Macroeconomic experiences play a key role in shaping people’s preferences, beliefs and economic choices in various contexts, such as in- vestment behavior (Malmendier and Nagel, 2011), inflation expectations (Malmendier and Nagel, 2016) and political attitudes (Fuchs-Schuendeln and Schuendeln, 2015; Giuliano and Spilimbergo, 2014). In this paper, we use large observational datasets to explore whether experienced levels of income inequality affect the level of inequality people find acceptable and their demand for redistribution. People have an aversion to inequality (Fehr and Schmidt, 1999) and their views about what is an acceptable level of inequality are an important determinant of their demand for redistribution (Alm̊as et al., 2011; Cappelen et al., 2007, 2013a,b, 2017). Experiencing a high level of inequality during one’s lifetime could either increase or decrease people’s acceptance of inequality. On the one hand, people could get accustomed to high levels of inequality and demand less redistribution. This is related to the idea that individuals evaluate the current state against a reference point that is influenced by the state in past periods (Abel, 1990; Coppock and Green, 2017). On the other hand, people may develop an even stronger distaste for inequality if they have first-hand experience of high inequality, resulting in greater demand for redistribution.1 The direction of the effect of inequality experiences has important implications for the long- run evolution of inequality and redistribution in Western societies. If experiences of high in- equality make people more accepting of inequality, younger generations, who are used to an unequal distribution of incomes, will be less likely to vote for policies that reduce inequality. Consequently, support for such policies could become weaker as these cohorts make up a larger share of the electorate. If, by contrast, living through times of high inequality makes people more averse to unequal distributions of income, this could translate into increasing support for redistributive policies, and could thereby curb inequality. We present evidence on the effect of inequality experiences on people’s demand for redistribu- tion using several large nationally representative datasets on political attitudes: the US General 1This hypothesis is related to a literature from psychology on the differential effects of description versus experience on belief formation and decision making (Hertwig et al., 2004; Nisbett and Ross, 1980; Simonsohn et al., 2008; Weber et al., 1993). Accordingly, if inequality is a “bad”, then experiencing this “bad” directly will have a stronger influence on people’s preferences and beliefs than simply reading about inequality. 1 Social Survey, the German General Social Survey as well as the European Social Survey.2 We examine inequality experiences defined in several ways, with a particular focus on our respon- dents’ experiences of income inequality while growing up, which we measure by calculating the average level of income inequality that prevailed in their country while they were between 18 and 25 years old. This period of life, which is sometimes referred to as “impressionable years”, has been identified as particularly important for the formation of political attitudes and beliefs (Giu- liano and Spilimbergo, 2014; Krosnick and Alwin, 1989; Mannheim, 1970). For each birth-cohort in our datasets we compute the share of total income held by the top five percent of earners while this cohort was in their impressionable years.3 We find very similar results using measures of life-time income inequality experiences following the methodology in Malmendier and Nagel (2011). In some of our specifications we also exploit variation in inequality experiences according to the region in which the respondent has grown up. In all of our main specifications we control for age fixed effects and year fixed effects, i.e. we identify our key coefficient of interest using between-cohort differences in inequality experiences within age groups and years. By including age fixed effects, we rule out that our findings result from changes in preferences over people’s lifetime, for example, by people becoming more conser- vative as they get older. The inclusion of year fixed effects ensures that our results are not driven by common shocks that affect everyone in a given year. In addition, we control for cohort-group fixed effects (cohort group brackets of 25 years) which mitigates the concern that our findings are driven by differences in political attitudes across cohorts associated with longer-term changes in zeitgeist.4 Throughout, we control for income and a number of socioeconomic characteristics as well as the national unemployment rate people experienced during their impressionable years which could be correlated with inequality experiences and could itself affect people’s demand for redistribution (Giuliano and Spilimbergo, 2014). Across datasets we provide evidence that individuals who have experienced higher levels of income inequality are less in favor of redistributive policies and are less likely to vote for left- wing parties. We also find that people who have lived through times of high inequality hold more positive beliefs about inequality and are less likely to consider the prevailing distribution 2We also replicate our main findings using data from the International Social Survey Program. 3Our results are robust to using alternative measures of income inequality, namely the share of total income held by the top ten percent of earners, the share of total income held by the top one percent of earners, as well as the Gini coefficient of equivalized household incomes. 4Since we control for both age and year fixed effects, we cannot also include dummies for every individual cohort (Campbell, 2001). In addition, inequality experiences vary at the cohort-level, which prohibits separate identification of unrestricted cohort effects. 2 of incomes to be unfair. One plausible interpretation of these findings is that growing up under an unequal income distribution alters people’s perception of what is a fair division of resources, and thereby reduces their demand for redistribution. We also examine alternative channels through which experiencing inequality could affect our respondents’ demand for redistribution. First, people could form their redistributive preferences based on the effect inequality had on them personally. In this case only people who personally benefited from high inequality while growing up should demand less redistribution. However, the effects are not significantly different for individuals with better starting conditions or more success in life, suggesting that this channel is an unlikely driver of our findings. Second, we show that the effects are unlikely to operate through people’s perceived relative income. Third, higher inequality experiences during impressionable years are not correlated with lower trust in the political system later in life. To provide evidence against the possibility that our effects are driven by cohort-level changes in zeitgeist accompanied with changes in general political preferences, we conduct a series of placebo tests. We provide evidence that inequality experiences do not affect how conservative individuals are in matters unrelated to redistribution and inequality, such as nationalism, at- titudes towards democracy, attitudes towards guns or attitudes towards immigrants. This is consistent with the interpretation that inequality experiences are driving the changes in redis- tributive preferences, rather than picking up more general differences in political attitudes across cohorts. Moreover, we examine the sensitivity of our results to controlling for other experiences during people’s impressionable years, such as the experienced growth rate of real per capita GDP, the experienced political ideology of the leading party as well as the experienced size of the govern- ment. Our results barely change after controlling for these other experiences, indicating that omitted variable bias from other experiences during our respondents’ lives is less likely. Finally, our results are robust to controlling for proxies of parental values. This mitigates the concern that our findings reflect policy preferences of the respondents’ parent generation which are trans- mitted to the respondents and at the same time affect the level of inequality the respondents experienced during their formative years. 3 1.1 Related Literature We contribute to a growing literature on the determinants of redistributive preferences (Alesina and La Ferrara, 2005; Alesina and Giuliano, 2011; Alesina et al., 2013; Durante et al., 2014), beliefs about inequality (Piketty, 1995) and fairness concerns (Alm̊as et al., 2011; Cappelen et al., 2007, 2013a).5 This literature has established that redistributive preferences are affected by culture (Alesina and Giuliano, 2011; Luttmer and Singhal, 2011), institutions (Alesina and Fuchs-Schündeln, 2007; Pan and Xu, 2015), relative income (Cruces et al., 2013; Karadja et al., 2017), reference points (Charité et al., 2015), beliefs about government debt (Roth and Wohlfart, 2018), and historical experiences (Chen et al., 2016; Roland and Yang, 2016).6 Our paper is most closely related to Giuliano and Spilimbergo (2014) who show that indi- viduals who have experienced a recession during their formative years believe that success in life depends more on luck than effort, support more government redistribution, and tend to vote for left-wing parties. Carreri and Teso (2017) find an effect in the opposite direction on the preferences for redistribution of U.S. Members of Congress as measured by their voting records. Our paper shows that people’s experiences of unequal distributions of incomes matter on top of the effects of experienced macroeconomic conditions. More generally, we complement the growing literature on the effects of life-time experiences on belief formation and economic behavior (Hertwig et al., 2004; Nisbett and Ross, 1980; Weber et al., 1993). For instance, Malmendier and Nagel (2011) provide evidence that having expe- rienced negative macroeconomic shocks makes people less likely to invest in stocks. Moreover, Malmendier and Nagel (2016) show that people’s experienced inflation rates predict their con- temporaneous inflation expectations. Fuchs-Schuendeln and Schuendeln (2015) provide evidence that people’s experience of living in a democracy increases their support for democratic regimes. Our paper contributes to this literature by highlighting that experiences of income inequality are associated with lower preferences for redistribution. Moreover, we conduct a series of ro- bustness checks that have not been commonly carried out in the previous experience literature. Specifically, we use various different experience measures following the methodologies in Giuliano and Spilimbergo (2014) and Malmendier and Nagel (2011), we control for other macroeconomic 5More generally, our paper is related to the literature on the malleability of (social) preferences (Becker et al., 2016; Kosse et al., 2016; Nunn and Wantchekon, 2011; Rao, 2018; Schildberg-Hörisch et al., 2014). 6For excellent reviews, see Alesina and Giuliano (2011) and Nunn (2012). 4 experiences, we conduct placebo exercises, and we provide a consistent set of results using two datasets reliant on within-country variation as well as two cross-country datasets. Our findings also relate to a large theoretical and empirical literature studying the effects of inequality on demand for redistribution (Alesina and Rodrik, 1994; Benabou and Ok, 2001; Persson and Tabellini, 1994). According to the seminal theoretical contribution by Meltzer and Richard (1981), an increase in income inequality in an economy should be reflected in a higher level of redistribution. Intuitively, as the mean income in the economy increases relative to the income of the median voter, it becomes rational for the median voter to demand more redistribu- tion. Empirically, inequality and the average demand for redistribution are negatively correlated across countries, but this pattern vanishes when looking at within-country movements of inequal- ity (Kenworthy and McCall, 2008). Kerr (2014) finds that short-run increases in inequality within countries and within U.S. regions are associated with greater acceptance for wage differentials, but also with higher support for redistributive policies. Moreover, our paper also relates to a growing literature studying people’s perceptions of inequality and their redistributive preferences (Kuziemko et al., 2015; Norton and Ariely, 2011). For instance, Kuziemko et al. (2015) show that people’s demand for redistribution is fairly inelastic to information about the degree of inequal- ity, while Alesina et al. (2018) find some effects of beliefs about intergenerational mobility on people’s demand for government redistribution. While the existing empirical literature studies the relationship between (perceptions of) current inequality and the demand for redistribution, we ask whether there is a persistent effect of experienced past levels of inequality, controlling for the influence of current inequality by including year fixed effects. The paper proceeds as follows: Section 2 describes the data. In section 3, we present the main results of our analysis. Section 4 conducts a series of robustness checks. We discuss potential alternative mechanisms in section 5. Finally, the paper concludes. 2 Data 2.1 General Social Survey (US) We leverage rich data on political preferences and beliefs from the General Social Survey (GSS). This dataset consists of repeated cross-sections from 1972 to 2014 that are representative of the US and has been widely used in previous research in economics (Alesina and La Ferrara, 2000; Giuliano and Spilimbergo, 2014). Following Giuliano and Spilimbergo (2014) we focus on out- 5 come measures of preferences as well as beliefs related to inequality and redistribution, which may both be shaped by people’s experiences while growing up. We also examine effects on beliefs be- cause the previous literature emphasizes that people’s beliefs about the sources and consequences of economic inequality are an important determinant of their support for redistribution (Alesina and Angeletos, 2005; Alesina et al., 2001; Benabou and Tirole, 2006; Fong, 2001). For instance, individuals who believe that success in life is due to effort rather than luck will demand less redistribution (Piketty, 1995). Part of the effects of inequality experiences on redistributive pref- erences could therefore operate through changes in beliefs. Alternatively, inequality experiences could directly affect people’s preferences, and people may adjust their beliefs independently of their preferences. We are not able to distinguish between these alternatives with the available cross-sectional data.7 Specifically, we focus on the following survey measures: • Help Poor: The respondents’ view on whether the government in Washington should do everything to improve the standard of living of all poor Americans or whether it is not the government’s responsibility, and that each person should take care of herself or himself. • Pro-welfare: Individuals’ opinion on whether the government is not spending enough money on assistance to the poor. • Success due to luck: People’s belief on whether success is mostly due to luck or owing to hard work. We also consider people’s self-placement on a conservative-liberal scale, their party affiliation, and their self-reported past voting behavior. We examine whether people identify more as Demo- crat or Republican and whether they report having voted for Democrats or Republicans. All variables are coded such that high values mean that they are more in favor of redistribution and more likely to vote for Democrats. We also use questions on people’s self-assessed social and economic position in society that allow us to shed light on the mechanisms behind our findings (see Appendix D for details). Table A.14 displays the summary statistics for our sample from the General Social Survey. 7Since inequality experiences could affect people’s beliefs, controlling for people’s beliefs about inequality in regressions of redistributive preferences on inequality experiences would result in a bad control problem (Angrist and Pischke, 2008). 6 2.2 German General Social Survey The German General Social Survey (Allbus) collects data on political attitudes and behavior, as well as a large set of demographics in Germany. Every two years since 1980 a representative cross-section of the population was surveyed. We use data from the waves from 1980 to 2014. We focus on unique variables on beliefs about the sources and consequences of inequality and on views on the fairness of the prevailing income distribution in the German General Social Survey: • Inequality is Unfair: People’s opinion on whether the social inequalities prevailing in Germany are unfair. • Inequality does not increase motivation: Individuals’ beliefs about the effect of in- equality on people’s motivation. • Inequality reflects luck: Respondents’ disagreement to the statement that differences in rank between people are acceptable as they essentially reflect how people used their opportunities. We code the variables such that high values stand for less favorable beliefs and attitudes regarding inequality. In addition, we focus on outcomes that are similar to the outcomes we use in the General Social Survey. We look at political behavior as measured through voting intentions, self- reported past voting behavior and people’s self-assessment on a political scale. These variables are described in detail in Appendix D. Due to lacking inequality data we drop all respondents who have grown up in the German Democratic Republic and focus only on West German Respondents. In Table A.15 we show summary statistics for our sample from the Allbus. 2.3 European Social Survey The European Social Survey (ESS) is a dataset containing rich information about political at- titudes and beliefs of the various populations in Europe. It also contains data on a rich set of demographic variables. The ESS has been widely used to study redistributive preferences, see for example Luttmer and Singhal (2011). We make use of all available waves from the ESS (2002-2014).8 8Most of our sample from the ESS comes from three countries: France, Germany and the United Kingdom, each of which makes up for around 20 percent of the sample. Denmark, Finland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland all together constitute about 40 percent of the overall sample. We drop all East German respondents from the sample. 7 Our key outcome variables of interest are a measure capturing whether people are in favor of redistribution, people’s self-reported voting behavior, and their self-placement on a political scale. As in the other datasets higher values represent more left-wing views. We also use data on people’s trust in the political system to shed light on mechanisms. All outcomes are described in more detail in Appendix D. In Table A.16 we provide summary statistics for our sample from the ESS. 2.4 Normalizations, Controls and Missings The outcome variables we use in our analysis are mostly self-placements between left and right or between agreement and disagreement to a particular statement on 4-point, 5-point or 10- point scales. We normalize all outcome variables and our measures of experienced inequality using the mean and the standard deviation of the respective variables in our samples of interest. These normalizations enable us to compare effect sizes across outcomes and across datasets. We construct a consistent set of controls for key demographics, such as income, gender, marital status, education, religious affiliation and employment status for all of the datasets of interest. In Appendix E we describe the exact controls we include for each of the different datasets.9 2.5 Inequality and Unemployment Data We use data on top income shares from the “World Wealth and Income Database” (WID) (Al- varedo et al., 2011), which is the most complete source of internationally comparable data on income inequality. The database contains very rich data on the share of overall national income earned by people at the top of the distribution. We focus on the share of total gross income earned by the top one, the top five and the top ten percent of earners respectively. We also use data on the Gini coefficient of equivalized disposable household incomes taken from the “Chartbook of Economic Inequality” (Atkinson and Morelli, 2014), which also captures variation in inequality that is not reflected in top income shares. For most countries data on the Gini coefficient are available only from a much later point in time than data on top income shares. Therefore, we focus on the experienced share of total income earned by the top five percent of earners in our main analysis. Our data on top income shares refer to total earnings before taxes and transfers, while our data on the Gini coefficient are based on disposable household income after taxes, due to differences 9To deal with missing values and to keep the sample as large as possible, for each of the above categories of controls we code missings as zero and include a dummy variable indicating missing values in that category. 8 in data availability between the two measures. Similarly, while the data on top income shares from different countries in the WID are the most internationally comparable data on inequality available, there are still some differences in the construction of these measures. In all our cross- country estimations we include country fixed effects to make sure that our findings are not driven by these differences.10 In our analysis we focus on those countries for which we could obtain historical inequality data from the World Wealth and Income Database. We use linear interpolation to impute data for years in which inequality data are missing. We impute inequality data if the gap between any two points in time for which inequality data are available, is at most six years.11 In addition, we use historical data on national unemployment rates from Global Financial Data (GFD) and use the same rule to impute missing values. 2.6 Construction of Experience Variable The literature on experience effects has identified the age period between 18 and 25 (“impres- sionable years”) as particularly important for the formation of political attitudes and beliefs. During this age period most individuals begin to participate in political life and enter the labor market. Krosnick and Alwin (1989) provide evidence that individuals’ susceptibility to attitude change is high during the impressionable years and drops considerably thereafter. Giuliano and Spilimbergo (2014) find that experiencing a recession while aged between 18 and 25 significantly affects political preferences later in life, while similar experiences in other age ranges do not seem to matter. Following this literature, we calculate, for each birth-cohort in our datasets, the average share of total income held by the top five percent of earners while this birth cohort was in their impressionable years. While we focus on experiences during impressionable years in our main specifications, it could also be the case that inequality experiences in other periods of life affect individual preferences. We therefore examine the robustness of our findings to using a measure of inequality experiences along the lines of Malmendier and Nagel (2011) that allows experiences over the entire lives of our respondents to affect their preferences. The construction of this alternative measure of inequality experiences is described in Appendix G. In our main specifications we focus on the national-level inequality that our respondents experienced during their impressionable years in their country of residence, IEit. In an alternative 10In Appendix F, we provide a detailed overview on the inequality data that are available for each country and the respective cohorts we are able to use in our analysis. 11This allows us to use much larger samples of individuals in our analyses. We have made sure that our results are robust to using different maximum gaps for the imputation of the inequality data. 9 specification we use region-specific inequality experiences, IEirt. The GSS provides data on the census division in which the respondents lived at age 16, and we compute someone’s experienced inequality during his or her impressionable years using historical data on top income shares in this census division.12 As our datasets do not contain any direct measures of the level of inequality people perceived while growing up, we measure experienced inequality using the actual level of inequality that prevailed during our respondents’ formative years. One concern is that people’s beliefs about inequality are biased (Norton and Ariely, 2011) and do not co-move with actual levels of inequal- ity. We address this concern using data from the International Social Survey Program on Social Inequality (ISSP) to show that people’s perceived levels of inequality closely co-move with actual inequality in their country of residence. Specifically, we show that people believe that they live in a more unequal society when inequality is higher. Similarly, people report higher estimates of pay gaps between CEOs, cabinet ministers and doctors on the one hand, and unskilled workers on the other hand, when inequality is high. These results are robust to including country and time fixed effects as well as demographic controls (Tables A.21 and A.22). While these findings indicate that our measure of inequality experiences is valid, the extent to which individuals “experience inequality” depends on individual-level characteristics like people’s media consumption, their place of residence or their work place during their formative years. This means that our measure of “inequality experience” is measured with noise. However, this measurement error does not constitute a threat to the internal validity of our findings and, if anything, will bias our estimates towards zero. Figure 1 plots the average income share of the top five percent experienced over impressionable years against cohort for the largest countries in our sample. In the US and in the UK cohorts born from around 1960 onward experienced higher levels of inequality during their impressionable years relative to earlier cohorts. The pattern is reversed for France. In the case of Germany, experienced inequality is the lowest for people born around 1960 and higher for those born before that or after. Figure 2 shows experienced inequality for cohorts growing up in the different US census divisions. The large differences across census divisions provide an additional source of variation that we exploit in our estimations.13 12We provide evidence that our results are robust to excluding movers (defined as people living in a different census division when they are interviewed than the census division they lived in at age 16). 13In Figures 3 and 4 in Appendix B we display the evolution of top income shares over time for these countries and for the different US census divisions. 10 [Insert Figures 1 and 2] To account for other macroeconomic experiences that might affect redistributive preferences (Giuliano and Spilimbergo, 2014), we calculate the average national unemployment rate that prevailed during our respondents’ impressionable years, UEit. As our main experience variables are reliant on having lived through the impressionable years (age 18 to 25) we restrict our attention to people of age 26 and older. 3 Empirical Strategy and Results 3.1 Empirical Specification: GSS and Allbus We estimate the effect of inequality experiences, IEit, on people’s redistributive preferences or beliefs about inequality, yirt. We control for people’s national-level unemployment experiences, UEit, and a vector of individual characteristics, Xit. 14 In addition, we account for age fixed effects, δit, regional fixed effects 15, ρr, cohort group fixed effects, πi 16, and year fixed effects, βt. Specifically, we estimate the following equation: yirt = α1IEit + α2UEit + Π T Xit + δit + ρr + βt + πi + εirt (1) The inclusion of age fixed effects ensures that our findings are not driven by changes in political preferences that occur over people’s lifetime, such as people becoming more conservative as they get older. The year fixed effects control for current macroeconomic conditions that affect everyone in a given year, such as adverse economic shocks or the contemporaneous level of inequality. Finally, by including fixed effects for different groups of cohorts it becomes less likely that our findings are driven by longer-term shifts in political attitudes across cohorts that are unrelated to inequality experiences.17 We also use region-specific inequality experiences, IEirt, for the GSS. In these estimations we control for fixed effects for the census division our respondent lived in at age 16, ρ16i, interacted 14This vector includes household income, household size, the respondent’s marital status, religion, educational level and employment status. 15In the US this corresponds to census division and in Germany to the federal state. 16We include dummy variables for the cohorts born between 1876 and 1900, between 1901 and 1925, between 1926 and 1950, between 1951 and 1975, and 1976 or later, respectively. We are not powered to include too fine-grained cohort group fixed effects. 17We obtain very similar results if we do not include cohort group fixed effects. 11 with age fixed effects, δit, cohort group fixed effects, πi, as well as year fixed effects, βt. This in turn allows us to non-parametrically control for age-specific trends at the regional level, dif- ferences across cohort groups at the regional level, as well as shocks that are correlated within groups of people who have grown up in the same census division. The specification is given as follows: yirt = α1IEirt + α2UEit + Π T Xit + ρ16it ×δit + ρ16it ×βt + ρ16it ×πi + ρr + εirt (2) 3.2 Empirical Specification: ESS The empirical specification for the European Social Survey is very similar to the specification that uses region-specific variation in inequality experiences in the US. We estimate the effect of country-specific inequality experiences during impressionable years, IEict, on people’s redistribu- tive preferences, yict. We control for national-level unemployment experiences during impression- able years, UEict, and a vector of individual controls, Xit. In addition, we account for country fixed effects, ρc, interacted with both time fixed effects, βt, and cohort group fixed effects, πi, as well as country-specific age trends, ageit ×ρc.18 yict = α1IEict + α2UEict + Π T Xit + ρc ×ageit + ρc ×βt + ρc ×πi + εict (3) For all of the previous three empirical specifications, we report standard errors that are two-way clustered by the respondents’ age and cohort as we might expect large intra-cluster correlations in these non-nested clusters (Cameron and Miller, 2015). Our results are robust to clustering standard errors just by cohort or age.19 Since we test for a large set of outcome variables, we account for multiple hypothesis testing by adjusting the p-values using the “sharpened q- value approach” (Anderson, 2008; Benjamini et al., 2006). Within each family of outcomes, we control for a false discovery rate of 5 percent (Anderson, 2008). We employ false discovery rate adjustment of p-values as it is the most power-preserving way of adjusting for multiple- 18Since each country is part of the ESS only in a few waves (sometimes only one) and since the time dimension of the ESS is short (2000-2015), we do not have enough variation of inequality experiences within country-age groups to include an interaction of age fixed effects and country fixed effects. Our independent variable varies at the country-cohort level, so in the extreme case of observing observations from a particular country only in one year, all the variation in the independent variable would be absorbed by the interaction of age fixed effects and country fixed effects. 19For all of these datasets we make use of population weights. This makes sure that we can make statements about a sample that is representative of the general population. 12 hypothesis testing within families of outcomes. These adjusted p-values are displayed in the tables as FDR-adjusted p-values. 3.3 Results Table 1 presents the results from the General Social Survey. Panel A reports the results on national-level inequality experiences during impressionable years, while Panel B shows the results using regional inequality experiences. Individuals with higher inequality experiences are less likely to be in favor of helping the poor and less in favor of welfare (Columns 1 and 2). People who experienced higher inequality are marginally significantly more likely to attribute success in life to effort rather than luck (Column 3). Moreover, people with higher levels of inequality experience are less likely to be liberal and less likely to vote for Democrats (Columns 4 to 6). Across specifications we find similar effects for national and regional experiences in terms of both significance and magnitude. In Table 2 we show the results from the German General Social Survey (ALLBUS). Individuals who experienced higher inequality while growing up are less likely to consider the prevailing level of inequality as unfair (Column 1), consistent with the idea that inequality experiences affect views on what is a fair division of resources. Moreover, they are more likely to believe that inequality is important for motivation (Column 2) and to attribute differences in income to effort rather than luck (Column 3). In line with the previous findings, experiences of higher inequality are correlated with lower support for left-wing parties (Columns 4 to 6). Table 3 displays the results from the European Social Survey. As can be seen in Column 1, people with high inequality experiences are less likely to agree to the statement that “the government should take measures to reduce differences in income levels”. In addition, people with more inequality experiences place themselves less on the left on a political scale and are less likely to have voted for a left-wing party in the last election. All of our results are robust to taking into account multiple-hypothesis testing.20,21 [Insert Tables 1 - 3] 20The FDR adjusted p-values are sometimes lower than the näıve p-values. This is the case as a lot of the tests reject or almost reject the null. Therefore, the algorithm assumes that actually most null hypotheses are false, and computes a very low false discovery rate associated with each hypothesis. 21In Tables A.17 - A.19 in Appendix A, we present our main results displaying all relevant controls. The controls predict preferences for redistribution in line with the previous literature (Alesina and Giuliano, 2011, 2015). For instance, individuals with higher incomes and more education are more against redistribution, while females are more in favor of redistribution. 13 To illustrate the magnitude of the effects, we compare our estimated effect sizes on our respondents’ self-placement on a political scale to the effects of other determinants of preferences for redistribution. According to our estimates using national-level inequality experiences and the General Social Survey (US), a one standard deviation increase in inequality experiences leads to a decrease of 3.8 percent of a standard deviation in people’s tendency to consider themselves as left-wing. Moving from the inequality experiences of the cohort born in 1950 (very low inequality experiences) to the cohort born in 1980 (high inequality experiences) implies a 10.3 percent of a standard deviation decrease in the dependent variable. For comparison, being female is associated with an increase by 12.5 percent of a standard deviation, while a high school degree is associated with a decrease by around 9.5 percent of a standard deviation. We obtain larger effect sizes in the sample from the German General Social Survey. Here, a one standard deviation increase in inequality experiences leads to a decrease of people’s tendency to consider themselves left-wing by around 9.6 percent of a standard deviation. Moving from the low inequality experiences of people born in 1950 to high inequality experiences of the cohort of 1980 implies a decrease in the dependent variable by 21.2 percent of a standard deviation. For comparison, being female increases the self-assessment as left-wing by around 7.7 percent of a standard deviation. Moving from the lowest to the highest quintile in the income distribution leads to a decrease in the dependent variable by 19.2 percent of a standard deviation. According to our estimations on the cross-country sample from the ESS a one standard deviation increase in inequality experiences leads to a decrease in people’s self-classification as left-wing by around 11.7 percent of a standard deviation. For the cohort born in 1980, moving from the country where this cohort has the lowest inequality experience (Denmark) to the country where this cohort has the highest inequality experience (UK) implies a decrease in the tendency of people to consider themselves left-wing by almost 50 percent of a standard deviation. We also replicate our key results using data on voting behavior and support for redistribution from the International Social Survey Program Module on Social Inequality. Our estimates are fairly similar in terms of magnitude and significance, which provides us with additional confidence in our results (Appendix C). Our findings are not contradictory to Kerr (2014) who finds that short-run increases in in- equality within countries or U.S. regions are associated with greater demand for redistribution. He identifies contemporaneous effects of short-term changes in inequality that operate uniformly across cohorts. These effects are absorbed by year fixed effects in our analysis. By contrast, we 14 identify the persistent effect of the level of inequality people experienced during their formative years on top of the effects of contemporaneous inequality. While all cohorts may exhibit a dis- taste for inequality, our findings are consistent with the idea that the strength of this concern depends on people’s experiences during their lives. Our results are also in line with Alesina and Fuchs-Schündeln (2007) who provide evidence that people who have grown up and lived in East Germany under the communist regime are more in favor of redistribution than people from West Germany. Our finding of a negative effect of inequality experiences on demand for redistribution provides an additional explanation for higher demand for redistribution in formerly communist countries, where income inequality was often low. 4 Robustness 4.1 Other Measures of Inequality Experiences In our main specifications we have focused on inequality experiences during our respondents’ im- pressionable years, i.e. between the age of 18 and 25 (Giuliano and Spilimbergo, 2014; Krosnick and Alwin, 1989; Mannheim, 1970). In this section, we examine the influence of experiences dur- ing other periods of life on people’s preferences for redistribution and demonstrate the robustness of our results to using the methodology in Malmendier and Nagel (2011) to measure inequality experiences. First, we use the Allbus and the GSS to examine the effect of inequality experiences during different eight year age intervals (2–9, 10–17, 26–33, 34–41, and 42–49) in our respondents’ lives. While we still find significantly negative effects of experiences in life periods surrounding the impressionable years (10-17 and 26-33, respectively), the effects are weaker or vanish completely for other age ranges (see Tables A.1 - A.3).22 Second, we find very similar effects of inequality experiences when we use the methodology developed by Malmendier and Nagel (2011). While in our main estimations we look at the effect of inequality experiences during people’s formative years, this alternative measure is based on a weighted average of top income shares experienced over a respondent’s lifetime until the time of the interview. Thus, in contrast to our previous measures, we now allow more recent 22Given the nature of the dataset, it is difficult to compare the importance of experiences during impressionable years versus experiences during other periods of life. Since in each estimation we only focus on individuals who have lived through the relevant life period, we cannot hold constant the sample size and sample composition in the different specifications. 15 experiences to still have some effect. In line with the above findings that earlier experiences matter more than later experiences, we use a weighting factor that gives more weight to early experiences and in which experiences only matter beginning from age 18.23 We re-estimate our main specifications using the same set of controls but employing these alternative measures of experienced inequality and experienced unemployment. We obtain very similar results in terms of effect size and statistical significance when we use this alternative measure of inequality experiences (Panels G of Tables A.1 and A.3). All in all, this evidence corroborates our finding that inequality experiences are reflected in people’s beliefs, values and political preferences, and experiences during people’s formative years seem to be particularly important. 4.2 Placebo Outcomes It could be the case that our estimates merely pick up across-cohort differences in political preferences and in particular in how left-wing people in different cohorts generally are. The inclusion of 25-year cohort-group fixed effects in our main specifications ensures that our results are not driven by longer-term general shifts in preferences across cohorts. To further address this concern, we show that other political attitudes that differ between the left and the right of the political spectrum, but that are not directly related to inequality and redistribution, are not affected by our measures of inequality experiences. Inequality experiences do not significantly affect nationalism, attitudes towards guns, attitudes towards immigrants24, attitudes towards democracy, attitudes towards the unification of the EU and people’s belief in god (Tables A.4 - A.6).25 4.3 Other Experiences during Impressionable Years We also examine whether our results are sensitive to controlling for other macroeconomic expe- riences during impressionable years. First, we control for the experienced size of the government by including the average ratio of total tax revenue relative to GDP experienced during the im- pressionable years. Second, we include a proxy for experienced political ideology, namely the fraction of someone’s impressionable years in which a Republican president (US) or conservative chancellor (Germany) was in office. In addition, we examine whether our estimates are sensitive 23For details regarding the construction of this alternative measure see Appendix G. 24In the Allbus we focus only on attitudes towards immigrants that are not related to economic concerns. The respective variables in the GSS and the ESS mainly refer to whether the number of immigrants should be increased or decreased. 25In Appendix D, we provide detailed information on the placebo variables used in our analysis. 16 to the inclusion of the average growth rate of real GDP per capita during the impressionable years. When we control for these other experiences our main results barely change (see Tables A.7 and A.8).26 This indicates that our results are less likely to reflect other experiences people made while growing up which are correlated with inequality experiences. 4.4 Parental Values One alternative interpretation of our findings is that the experienced inequality of 18-25-year-olds is an outcome of policy demands made by their parents’ cohort, and that these parents transmit values to the respondents (Dohmen et al., 2011). We examine how sensitive our estimated effects of inequality experiences are to controlling for a large set of proxies for parental values available in the General Social Survey, such as parental education, whether a respondent’s mother worked while the respondent grew up and whether the respondent lived in an urban area at age 16.27 To the extent that these variables vary across cohorts, they should capture differences in parental values that could be transmitted to respondents and also affect the inequality experiences of our respondents through their parents’ policy demands. Panel A of Table A.9 shows the coefficient estimates of national inequality experiences from our main specification. Panel B displays the coefficient estimates of national inequality experi- ences conditional on the additional set of controls proxying for parental values. Our estimated effects do not change much after including additional control variables, suggesting that it is less likely that our results are driven by parental values that affect the level of inequality through the parents’ policy demands and at the same time are transmitted to the respondents. 4.5 Other Robustness Checks In Tables A.10-A.13 we examine how sensitive our results are to a variety of robustness checks. Our results are robust to using different definitions of income inequality based on (i) the share of income earned by the top ten percent, (ii) the share of income earned by the top one percent as well as (iii) the Gini coefficient of equivalized disposable household incomes which is available for 26We demonstrate robustness of our main specification by including these other experiences one at a time. Since all experience variables vary at the cohort level, and since macroeconomic variables tend to be highly correlated, including all these other experiences at once would lead to problems of multicollinearity. 27Specifically, we control for whether the respondent’s father completed at most high school, whether the respondent’s father completed college, whether the respondent’s mother completed at most high school, whether the respondent’s mother completed college, whether the father was mostly self-employed during the respondent’s childhood, whether the mother worked when the respondent was young, whether the respondent lived in an urban area, whether the family’s income was above the median income when the respondent was aged 16 and for census division fixed effects of the respondents’ residence at age 16. 17 a much smaller sample of respondents.28 The Gini coefficient also captures variation in inequality that is not reflected in top income shares. In contrast to top income shares which are based on before-tax incomes, the Gini coefficient measures after-tax income inequality. We obtain very similar results when we use these alternative inequality measures. If anything, we find larger effect sizes when we use the Gini coefficient instead of top income shares. In addition, we show that our results remain unchanged when we exclude all individuals with missing values in any of the controls. Our findings are also robust to not controlling for people’s national unemployment experiences which alleviates concerns that inequality experiences operate through unobservable long-run effects of unemployment experiences. Moreover, the results are unaffected when we control for age trends rather than age fixed effects or when we exclude movers from our estimations on the GSS which rely on regional variation in income inequality experiences.29 As a final robustness check we exclude the 25-year cohort group fixed effects from our specifications and obtain very similar results. 5 Alternative Mechanisms One plausible interpretation of our findings is that an experienced distribution of incomes can affect the level of inequality people find acceptable and thereby influence people’s demand for redistribution.30 Above we presented evidence that people are less likely to perceive the prevailing distribution of incomes as unfair if they have higher inequality experiences. Since everyone in a given year faces the same aggregate level of inequality, this is consistent with people interpreting the fairness of the prevailing distribution in light of their inequality experiences. In this section we address three alternative mechanisms that could be driving our findings. 5.1 Extrapolation from Own Circumstances The negative effect of experiencing inequality on preferences for redistribution could be driven by individuals who benefited personally from high levels of inequality while they were young. If this was the case, we would expect the effect to be stronger for those who had better starting 28While a lot of historical data on the Gini coefficient exist in the US, much less data on the Gini coefficient are available for most European countries in our sample. This implies that the samples we can use in our analysis for the ESS are much smaller than for the measures of top income inequality. 29We define movers as people who live in a different census division when they are interviewed than when they were aged 16. 30Previous literature has established that people’s views about what is an acceptable level of inequality are an important determinant of their demand for redistribution (Almås et al., 2011; Cappelen et al., 2007, 2013a,b, 2017; Herz and Taubinsky, 2017). 18 conditions in life and for those who were more successful in life. To shed light on this mechanism, we examine heterogeneous effects by a variety of proxies for starting conditions in life and for economic status. For each of our main outcomes, we estimate the following specification: yirt = α1IEit + α2IEit × interactit + α3interactit + α4UEit + ΠT Xit + δit + ρr + βt + πi + εirt (4) where interactit is the interaction variable of interest. We then calculate the estimated average effect sizes (AES) for the coefficients α1 and α2 across the six specifications we estimate in the GSS or the Allbus, respectively (Giuliano and Spilimbergo, 2014; Kling et al., 2005).31 Using the AES instead of individual coefficients increases our effective statistical power. This is particularly important for the heterogeneity analysis for which we have lower statistical power. In Table 4 we show that there is no significant heterogeneity by relative family income at age 16 and by father’s education in our sample from the GSS.32,33 This suggests that the effect is not driven by those who had better starting conditions in life. Moreover, the effect is not significantly different for those with high current relative income or those with high education. In Table 5 we show that also in the Allbus sample the effects are fairly uniform across groups. Taken together, these homogeneous results suggest that extrapolation from own circumstances is an unlikely explanation for the association of inequality experiences with redistributive preferences.34 [Insert Tables 4 and 5] 5.2 Perceived Relative Income Experiences of inequality could also change people’s beliefs about their economic status. Specif- ically, people who have grown up in times of high income inequality, and who are therefore used to more inequality, could be less likely to perceive their current relative income as low. People’s 31The AES is defined as the average of all coefficient estimates across a family of estimations, where each coefficient is divided by the standard deviation of the respective outcome. All our outcomes are normalized to have standard deviation one, so the AES is the simple average of the estimated coefficients. We calculate p-values for the AES based on simultaneous estimation of the six regressions. 32These variables are coded as one if the respondent considered the income of his family at age 16 to be at least average and if the respondent’s father had at least high school education, respectively. 33We also do not find heterogeneity according to education of the mother. 34We also examined heterogeneity according to age, but do not report the results for brevity. We found that the effect is fairly uniform across age groups, suggesting that the effects persist over the lives of the respondents. In addition, we checked whether the effects vary by the degree to which someone’s perceived relative income increased or decreased between his or her youth and the survey year. We found no evidence for heterogeneous effects along this dimension. 19 beliefs about their position in the income distribution have been shown to change people’s de- mand for redistribution (Cruces et al., 2013; Karadja et al., 2017). We therefore test whether experiences of high inequality lower people’s perceived relative income and perceived social class. We find no significant effect of inequality experiences on perceived relative income and social class using the GSS and the Allbus (Columns 1 to 3 of Table 6). [Insert Table 6] 5.3 Trust in the Political System Kuziemko et al. (2015) document that providing people with information about the high level of income inequality in the US lowers their trust in the government to do what is right. They interpret this as an explanation why their information treatment does not shift respondents’ demand for redistribution. Similarly, experiencing high levels of income inequality could lower people’s trust in the government, which in turn could reduce their demand for government redistribution. Our datasets do not contain questions on trust in the government. However, respondents in the ESS are asked whether they trust their national parliament, politicians and political parties. We regress these measures of trust in the political system on our respondents’ inequality experiences conditional on the same set of controls as in the main specification. As can be seen in columns 4 to 6 of Table 6, we do not find an effect of inequality experiences on our respondents’ trust in the national parliament, on their trust in politicians or on their trust in political parties. Taken together, we find no evidence that the effects work through extrapolation from own circumstances, perceived relative income or trust in the political system. Our preferred interpre- tation of the findings is therefore that respondents evaluate the fairness of the prevailing level of inequality in light of the level of inequality they have experienced during their lives. 6 Conclusion We use several large nationally representative datasets to highlight that people who have lived through times of higher inequality are less left-wing as measured by their redistributive prefer- ences as well as their party affiliation and voting behavior. We also show that individuals with higher inequality experiences hold more positive beliefs about inequality and are less likely to consider the prevailing level of inequality as unfair. 20 One plausible interpretation of our findings is that people evaluate current levels of inequality in light of their experiences, and that preferences for redistribution are shaped by the level of inequality people experienced while growing up. 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Weber, Elke U, Ulf Böckenholt, Denis J Hilton, and Brian Wallace, “Determinants of Diagnostic Hypothesis Generation: Effects of Information, Base Rates, and Experience,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 1993, 19 (5), 1151. 26 Main Tables Table 1: Main Results: General Social Survey (US) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Help poor Pro welfare Success due to luck Liberal Party: Democrat Voted: Democrat Panel A Inequality Experiences -0.0370** -0.0234* -0.0147 -0.0383*** -0.0476*** -0.0414*** (0.0147) (0.0126) (0.0112) (0.0123) (0.0126) (0.0129) FDR-adjusted p-values [.009]*** [.027]** [.067]* [.004]*** [.001]*** [.004]*** Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 R-squared 0.108 0.128 0.024 0.078 0.146 0.200 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Panel B Inequality Experiences -0.0415** -0.0268* -0.0142 -0.0598*** -0.0522*** -0.0377*** (Regional) (0.0179) (0.0138) (0.0111) (0.0134) (0.0123) (0.0141) FDR-adjusted p-values [.022]** [.045]** [.075]* [.002]*** [.001]** [.002]** Observations 22,987 25,831 28,670 39,632 45,703 32,597 R-squared 0.139 0.159 0.054 0.099 0.170 0.226 Census div 16 FE x Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div 16 FE x Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div 16 FE x Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors two-way clustered by age and cohort are displayed in parentheses. The p-values adjusted for a false discovery rate of five percent are presented in brackets. Inequality experiences in Panel A are based on the experienced national-level share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Inequality experiences in Panel B are based on the experienced regional-level share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All specifications in Panel A control for age fixed effects, year fixed effects, cohort group fixed effects, as well as region fixed effects. In Panel B, we control for age fixed effects, year fixed effects and cohort group fixed effects interacted with census division at age 16 fixed effects and we also control for current census division fixed effects. All specifications control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 27 Table 2: Main Results: German General Social Survey (Allbus) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Inequality: Inequality does not Inequality Left-wing Intention to Vote: Voted: Left Unfair increase motivation reflects luck Left Inequality Experiences -0.0543* -0.0428 -0.0684* -0.0957*** -0.0836*** -0.0961** (0.0307) (0.0296) (0.0349) (0.0196) (0.0298) (0.0457) FDR-adjusted p-values [.065]* [.08]* [.053]* [.001]*** [.013]** [.049]*** Observations 10,401 10,357 10,309 18,979 14,691 9,533 R-squared 0.071 0.044 0.068 0.080 0.109 0.111 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Region FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors two-way clustered by age and cohort are displayed in parentheses. The p-values adjusted for a false discovery rate of five percent are presented in brackets. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All specifications control for age fixed effects, year fixed effects, cohort group fixed effects as well as region fixed effects . All specifications control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 28 Table 3: Main Results: European Social Survey (1) (2) (3) Pro-redistribution Left-wing Voted: Left Inequality Experiences -0.0390* -0.117*** -0.121*** (0.0234) (0.0200) (0.0389) FDR-adjusted p-values [.096]* [.001]*** [.002]*** Observations 85,529 81,167 25,462 R-squared 0.143 0.079 0.153 Country FE x Age trends Yes Yes Yes Country FE x Year FE Yes Yes Yes Country FE x Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Standard errors two-way clustered by age and cohort are displayed in parentheses. The p-values adjusted for a false discovery rate of five percent are presented in brackets. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total national income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All specifications control for age trends, year fixed effects and cohort group fixed effects, each interacted with country fixed effects. All specifications control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 29 Table 4: Heterogeneous Effects: General Social Survey (GSS) (1) (2) (3) (4) AES AES AES AES Inequality Experiences -.0213*** -.0435*** -.0278*** -0.0291** [0.001] [0.000] [0.000] [0.010] Inequality Experiences × High relative income at 16 -.0104 [0.128] Inequality Experiences × High father’s education .008 [0.336] Inequality Experiences × High relative income -.0114 [0.120] Inequality Experiences × High education -.006 [0.401] Observations 25,078 24,818 30,271 31,919 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Region FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Yes P-values from simultaneous estimation clustered by cohort are displayed in parentheses. The number of observations refers to the average number used for the estimation of a given AES. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All specifications control for age fixed effects, year fixed effects, cohort group fixed effects as well as region fixed effects . All specifications control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 30 Table 5: Heterogeneous Effects: German General Social Survey (Allbus) (1) (2) (3) AES AES AES Inequality Experiences -.0744*** -.0691*** -.0681*** [0.000] [0.005] [0.000] Inequality Experiences × High father’s education .0059 [0.769] Inequality Experiences × High relative income -.0177 [0.353] Inequality Experiences × High education -.0204 [0.375] Observations 14,052 10,308 14,122 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Region FE Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes P-values from simultaneous estimation clustered by cohort are displayed in parentheses. The number of observations refers to the average number used for the estimation of a given AES (average effect size). Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemploy- ment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All specifications control for age fixed effects, year fixed effects, cohort group fixed effects as well as region fixed effects. All specifications control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 31 Table 6: Other outcomes: GSS, Allbus, and ESS (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) GSS (national inequ. exper.) Allbus ESS Low relative Low social Low social Trust Trust Trust income position position parliament politicians parties Inequality Experiences 0.00340 0.00467 -0.0368 0.0168 0.0169 0.0283 (0.0121) (0.0118) (0.0234) (0.0191) (0.0255) (0.0242) Observations 43,234 44,402 15,025 81,933 82,270 69,406 R-squared 0.257 0.205 0.204 0.163 0.193 0.208 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Region FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors two-way clustered by age and cohort are displayed in parentheses. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the impressionable years. The estimations on the GSS and the Allbus control for age fixed effects, year fixed effects, cohort group fixed effects as well as regions fixed effects. The estimations on the ESS control for age trends, year fixed effects and cohort group fixed effects, each interacted with country fixed effects. All specifications control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 32 Main Figures 20 25 30 35 40 E xp er ie nc ed to p 5 % in co m e sh ar e (a ge 1 8- 25 ) 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 Cohort DE FR UK US Figure 1: Experienced top 5 percent income share (age 18-25) against cohort across countries. Source: World Wealth and Income Database (Alvaredo et al., 2011). 33 25 30 35 40 45 E xp er ie nc ed to p 5 % in co m e sh ar e (a ge 1 8- 25 ) 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 Cohort New England Middle Atlantic East North Central West North Central South Atlantic 20 25 30 35 40 E xp er ie nc ed to p 5 % in co m e sh ar e (a ge 1 8- 25 ) 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 Cohort East South Central West South Central Mountain Pacific Figure 2: Experienced top 5 percent income share (age 18-25) against cohort across US census divisions. Source: World Wealth and Income Database (Alvaredo et al., 2011). 34 Online Appendix: Experienced Inequality and Preferences for Redistribution Christopher Roth and Johannes Wohlfart A Additional Tables Table A.1: GSS: National Inequality Experiences during Other Periods of Life (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Help poor Pro welfare Success due to luck Liberal Party: Democrat Voted: Democrat Panel A: 2 to 9 Inequality Experiences -0.0269 -0.0313 0.0358 -0.106*** -0.0309 0.00160 (0.0332) (0.0253) (0.0362) (0.0327) (0.0369) (0.0361) Observations 21,998 23,703 26,806 37,492 42,790 30,219 Panel B: 10 to 17 Inequality Experiences -0.0588** -0.0361* -0.00608 -0.0533** -0.0346 -0.0502** (0.0232) (0.0207) (0.0227) (0.0212) (0.0215) (0.0215) Observations 22,881 25,299 28,331 39,313 45,158 32,054 Panel C: 18 to 25 (main) Inequality Experiences -0.0370** -0.0234* -0.0147 -0.0383*** -0.0476*** -0.0414*** (0.0147) (0.0126) (0.0112) (0.0123) (0.0126) (0.0129) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 Panel D: 26 to 33 Inequality Experiences -0.0403*** -0.0279** -0.00735 -0.0422*** -0.0664*** -0.0422*** (0.0144) (0.0119) (0.0111) (0.00920) (0.00972) (0.0131) Observations 18,663 20,942 23,487 32,320 37,467 27,738 Panel E: 34 to 41 Inequality Experiences -0.00458 -0.0206 -0.0183 0.0235 -0.0831*** -0.0626*** (0.0254) (0.0183) (0.0186) (0.0174) (0.0189) (0.0203) Observations 14,181 16,070 18,015 24,608 28,798 21,873 Panel F: 42 to 49 Inequality Experiences 0.0369 -0.0174 -0.0278 0.0473*** -0.0544*** -0.0230 (0.0331) (0.0229) (0.0186) (0.0182) (0.0178) (0.0178) Observations 10,325 11,821 13,253 17,976 21,124 16,363 Panel G: Life-time experiences λ = −1 Inequality Experiences -0.0463*** -0.0162 -0.00953 -0.0224 -0.0359*** -0.0256** (0.0140) (0.0163) (0.0133) (0.0149) (0.0116) (0.0130) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors two-way clustered by age and cohort are displayed in parentheses. Inequality experiences are based on the national level experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during different life periods. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the different life periods. We control for age fixed effects, year fixed effects, cohort group fixed effects as well as region fixed effects. All specifications control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. In Panel G we display the results on the effect of life-time inequality experiences based on the methodology developed by Malmendier and Nagel (2011). We use a weighting factor of λ = -1. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 1 Table A.2: GSS: Regional Inequality Experiences during Other Periods of Life (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Help poor Pro welfare Success due to luck Liberal Party: Democrat Voted: Democrat Panel A: 2 to 9 Inequality Experiences -0.0398 -0.0478* 0.0201 -0.0903*** -0.0534** -0.00692 (Regional) (0.0338) (0.0252) (0.0243) (0.0213) (0.0247) (0.0271) Observations 21,829 23,460 26,458 37,063 42,270 29,970 Panel B: 10 to 17 Inequality Experiences -0.0287 -0.00502 -0.00782 -0.0381** -0.00525 -0.0333* (Regional) (0.0188) (0.0210) (0.0215) (0.0168) (0.0146) (0.0174) Observations 22,704 25,037 27,963 38,865 44,603 31,784 Panel C: 18 to 25 (main) Inequality Experiences -0.0415** -0.0268* -0.0142 -0.0598*** -0.0522*** -0.0377*** (Regional) (0.0179) (0.0138) (0.0111) (0.0134) (0.0123) (0.0141) Observations 22,987 25,831 28,670 39,632 45,703 32,597 Panel D: 26 to 33 Inequality Experiences -0.0384** -0.0406*** -0.00866 -0.0509*** -0.0696*** -0.0377*** (Regional) (0.0165) (0.0150) (0.0135) (0.0115) (0.0105) (0.0142) Observations 18,500 20,699 23,162 31,916 36,956 27,455 Panel E: 34 to 41 Inequality Experiences 0.00763 -0.0125 -0.0244 0.00213 -0.0581*** -0.0527*** (Regional) (0.0249) (0.0174) (0.0181) (0.0161) (0.0177) (0.0189) Observations 14,065 15,880 17,767 24,303 28,403 21,631 Panel F: 42 to 49 Inequality Experiences 0.0550 -0.0183 -0.0282 0.0485*** -0.0470** -0.00858 (Regional) (0.0425) (0.0271) (0.0242) (0.0186) (0.0232) (0.0237) Observations 10,236 11,674 13,067 17,745 20,826 16,165 Census div 16 FE x Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div 16 FE x Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div 16 FE x Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors two-way clustered by age and cohort are displayed in parentheses. Inequality experiences are based on the regional experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the different periods of life. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the different periods of life. We control for age fixed effects, year fixed effects and cohort group fixed effects, each interacted with census division at age 16 fixed effects and we also control for current census division fixed effects. All specifications control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 2 Table A.3: Allbus: Inequality Experiences during Other Periods of Life (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Inequality: Inequality does not Inequality Left-wing Intention to Vote: Voted: Left Unfair increase motivation reflects luck Left Panel A: 2 to 9 Inequality Experiences 0.0502 -0.0671 0.00994 0.0205 0.0672** 0.0455 (0.0898) (0.0677) (0.0571) (0.0541) (0.0329) (0.0528) Observations 7,506 7,427 7,408 14,072 10,940 6,855 Panel B: 10 to 17 Inequality Experiences -0.137*** -0.0555 -0.112*** -0.0358 -0.120*** -0.148*** (0.0483) (0.0454) (0.0331) (0.0287) (0.0232) (0.0408) Observations 8,942 8,885 8,852 16,248 12,524 8,023 Panel C: 18 to 25 (main) Inequality Experiences -0.0543* -0.0428 -0.0684* -0.0957*** -0.0836*** -0.0961** (0.0307) (0.0296) (0.0349) (0.0196) (0.0298) (0.0457) Observations 10,401 10,357 10,309 18,979 14,691 9,533 Panel D: 26 to 33 Inequality Experiences -0.00389 0.00454 -0.00287 -0.0196* -0.00724 -0.00974 (0.0171) (0.0203) (0.0183) (0.0101) (0.0145) (0.0157) Observations 9,740 9,669 9,628 17,462 13,758 9,123 Panel E: 34 to 41 Inequality Experiences 0.0315** 0.0222 0.0505*** -0.0152 0.0140 0.0432** (0.0141) (0.0302) (0.0152) (0.0116) (0.0126) (0.0171) Observations 8,411 8,329 8,300 14,933 11,916 7,989 Panel F: 42 to 49 Inequality Experiences -0.00839 0.0190 0.0107 -0.0275 0.00227 -0.0296 (0.0297) (0.0298) (0.0163) (0.0233) (0.0230) (0.0202) Observations 6,826 6,726 6,710 12,355 9,993 6,685 Panel G: Life-time experiences λ = −1 Inequality Experiences -0.0430** -0.0532*** -0.0698*** -0.0610*** -0.0845*** -0.112*** (0.0192) (0.0188) (0.0232) (0.00827) (0.0181) (0.0219) Observations 7,556 7,532 7,499 14,163 10,963 7,249 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Region FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors two-way clustered by age and cohort are displayed in parentheses. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the different periods of life. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the different periods of life. All specifications control for age fixed effects, year fixed effects, cohort group fixed effects as well as region fixed effects. All specifications control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. In Panel G we display the results on the effect of life-time inequality experiences based on the methodology developed by Malmendier and Nagel (2011). We use a weighting factor of λ = -1. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 3 Table A.4: GSS: Placebos (1) (2) (3) Pro-immigration Pro-guns God exists Inequality Experiences 0.0329 -0.000870 0.00392 (0.0343) (0.0104) (0.0112) Observations 8,266 30,527 15,322 R-squared 0.098 0.084 0.301 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Census div FE Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experi- ences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the impression- able years. All specifications control for age fixed effects, year fixed effects, cohort group fixed effects as well as region fixed effects. All specifications control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 4 Table A.5: Allbus: Placebos (1) (2) (3) Pro-immigration Nationalism Nature determines life Inequality Experiences -0.0330 -0.0298 -0.0712 (0.0272) (0.0344) (0.0623) Observations 11,057 5,666 4,178 R-squared 0.235 0.122 0.090 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Region FE Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All specifications control for age fixed effects, year fixed effects, cohort group fixed effects as well as region fixed effects. All specifications control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. Table A.6: ESS: Placebos (1) (2) (3) Pro-immigration Pro-EU unification Pro-democratic Inequality Experiences -0.00592 -0.0210 0.0419 (0.0213) (0.0217) (0.0273) Observations 81,136 55,907 48,045 R-squared 0.209 0.109 0.070 Country FE x Age trends Yes Yes Yes Country FE x Year FE Yes Yes Yes Country FE x Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All specifications control for age trends, year fixed effects and cohort group fixed effects, each interacted with country fixed effects. All specifications control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 5 Table A.7: GSS (national): Other Experiences during the Impressionable Years (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Help poor Pro welfare Success due to luck Liberal Party: Democrat Voted: Democrat Panel A: Unemployment (main) Inequality Experiences -0.0370** -0.0234* -0.0147 -0.0383*** -0.0476*** -0.0414*** (0.0147) (0.0126) (0.0112) (0.0123) (0.0126) (0.0129) Unemployment Experiences 0.00868 0.000302 0.00397 0.0177** -0.00213 0.00609 (0.0158) (0.00841) (0.00823) (0.00823) (0.00757) (0.00627) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 Panel B: GDP Growth Inequality Experiences -0.0363** -0.0225** -0.00855 -0.0306** -0.0455*** -0.0317*** (0.0153) (0.0110) (0.00959) (0.0127) (0.0103) (0.0109) Experienced GDP growth -0.00925 0.00219 0.0129 0.00119 0.00910* 0.0203*** (0.0124) (0.00620) (0.00873) (0.00761) (0.00539) (0.00707) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 Panel C: Tax Revenue Inequality Experiences -0.0430** -0.0123 -0.0378** -0.0668*** -0.0425*** -0.0501** (0.0204) (0.0162) (0.0147) (0.0179) (0.0151) (0.0199) Experienced Tax Revenue rel to GDP -0.0435 0.0433 -0.175*** -0.159** -0.0247 -0.108* (0.0957) (0.0562) (0.0536) (0.0632) (0.0471) (0.0650) Observations 22,411 24,409 27,498 38,335 43,856 31,063 Panel D: Political Ideology Inequality Experiences -0.0351** -0.0226** -0.0113 -0.0317*** -0.0465*** -0.0370*** (0.0139) (0.0108) (0.00918) (0.0121) (0.0101) (0.0123) Experienced Republican President 0.0163** -0.00559 -0.0122** 0.00726 -0.0163** -0.0107 (0.00763) (0.00553) (0.00598) (0.00768) (0.00767) (0.00723) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the national level experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All specifications control for age fixed effects, year fixed effects, cohort group fixed effects as well as region fixed effects. All specifications control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. In Panel A we show the main results. In Panel B, we show the results controlling for experienced growth of real GDP per capita. In Panel C, we control for the experienced size of the government as the experienced ratio of total tax revenue to GDP. In Panel D, we control for the fraction of the impressionable years in which a Republican president was in office. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 6 Table A.8: Allbus: Other Experiences during the Impressionable Years (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Inequality: Inequality does not Inequality Left-wing Intention to Vote: Voted: Left Unfair increase motivation reflects luck Left Panel A: Unemployment (main) Inequality Experiences -0.0544* -0.0428 -0.0684** -0.0956*** -0.0837*** -0.0962** (0.0307) (0.0296) (0.0349) (0.0196) (0.0298) (0.0456) Unemployment Experiences 0.108* 0.0293 0.0994* 0.00953 0.0254 0.0949 (0.0614) (0.0465) (0.0539) (0.0337) (0.0499) (0.0734) Observations 10,401 10,357 10,309 18,979 14,691 9,533 Panel B: GDP Growth Inequality Experiences -0.0891*** -0.0518** -0.105*** -0.102*** -0.0952*** -0.127*** (0.0215) (0.0248) (0.0276) (0.0219) (0.0277) (0.0446) Experienced GDP Growth 0.00369 0.00314 -0.0253 -0.0119 -0.0131 -0.0186 (0.0341) (0.0244) (0.0305) (0.0139) (0.00937) (0.0231) Observations 10,401 10,357 10,309 18,979 14,691 9,533 Panel C: Tax Revenue Inequality Experiences -0.0902*** -0.0725*** -0.0968*** -0.118*** -0.111*** -0.130*** (0.0211) (0.0246) (0.0251) (0.0209) (0.0292) (0.0498) Experienced Tax Revenue rel to GDP 0.111 0.144 -0.00542 -0.0157 -0.0111 -0.0637 (0.0853) (0.0989) (0.0490) (0.0573) (0.0824) (0.112) Panel D: Political Ideology Inequality Experiences -0.0835*** -0.0620** -0.0939*** -0.121*** -0.0993*** -0.129** (0.0204) (0.0251) (0.0277) (0.0224) (0.0288) (0.0518) Experienced Conservative Chancellor 0.0139 0.0126 -0.0104 0.00211 -0.0254* -0.0158 (0.0164) (0.0134) (0.0129) (0.00987) (0.0145) (0.0241) Observations 9,974 9,955 9,902 17,740 13,602 9,046 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the national level experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All specifications control for age fixed effects, year fixed effects, cohort group fixed effects as well as region fixed effects . All specifications control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. In Panel A we show the main results. In Panel B, we show the results controlling for experienced growth of real GDP per capita. In Panel C, we control for the experienced size of the government as the experienced ratio of total tax revenue to GDP. In Panel D, we control for the fraction of the impressionable years in which a conservative chancellor was in office. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 7 Table A.9: GSS (national): Controlling for Proxies for Parental Values (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Help poor Pro welfare Success due to luck Liberal Party: Democrat Voted: Democrat Panel A: Main Inequality Experiences -0.0370** -0.0234* -0.0147 -0.0383*** -0.0476*** -0.0414*** (0.0147) (0.0126) (0.0112) (0.0123) (0.0126) (0.0129) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 R-squared 0.108 0.128 0.024 0.078 0.146 0.200 Panel B: Additional Controls Inequality Experiences -0.0376** -0.0235* -0.0146 -0.0371*** -0.0485*** -0.0433*** (0.0146) (0.0124) (0.0110) (0.0122) (0.0119) (0.0126) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 R-squared 0.112 0.131 0.026 0.081 0.155 0.204 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors two-way clustered by age and cohort are displayed in parentheses. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced national-level share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All specifications control for age fixed effects, year fixed effects, cohort group fixed effects, as well as region fixed effects. All specifications control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. In Panel B we additionally include the following controls: whether the respondent’s father completed at most high school, whether the respondent’s father completed college, whether the respondent’s mother completed at most high school, whether the respondent’s mother completed college, whether the father was self-employed while the respondent grew up, whether the mother worked when the respondent was young, whether the respondent lived in an urban area, whether the family’s income was above the median income when the respondent was aged 16 and for census division fixed effects of the respondents’ residence at age 16. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 8 Table A.10: GSS: Robustness (National Inequality Experiences) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Help poor Pro welfare Success due to luck Liberal Party: Democrat Voted: Democrat Panel A: Main Inequality Experiences -0.0370** -0.0234* -0.0147 -0.0383*** -0.0476*** -0.0414*** (0.0147) (0.0126) (0.0112) (0.0123) (0.0126) (0.0129) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 Panel B: Top 1 percent Inequality Experiences -0.0398*** -0.0215* -0.0125 -0.0451*** -0.0469*** -0.0411*** (0.0141) (0.0126) (0.0112) (0.0124) (0.0123) (0.0129) Observations 23,238 26,325 29,233 40,302 46,587 33,097 Panel C: Top 10 percent Inequality Experiences -0.0361** -0.0258** -0.0163 -0.0347*** -0.0515*** -0.0426*** (0.0158) (0.0129) (0.0113) (0.0127) (0.0128) (0.0131) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 Panel D: No missings Inequality Experiences -0.0458*** -0.0373*** -0.0221* -0.0467*** -0.0510*** -0.0437*** (0.0155) (0.0126) (0.0128) (0.0139) (0.0124) (0.0141) Observations 20,935 23,817 26,311 36,458 40,736 29,298 Panel E: No unemployment experience controls Inequality Experiences -0.0337** -0.0233** -0.0129 -0.0310** -0.0485*** -0.0383*** (0.0143) (0.0105) (0.00891) (0.0122) (0.0107) (0.0121) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 Panel F: Age trend Inequality Experiences -0.0441*** -0.0284** -0.0183* -0.0303*** -0.0547*** -0.0428*** (0.0142) (0.0131) (0.0102) (0.0114) (0.0117) (0.0113) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 Panel G: Gini coefficient Inequality Experiences -0.0494*** -0.0157 -0.00360 -0.0750*** -0.0481*** -0.0517*** (0.0122) (0.0127) (0.00907) (0.0113) (0.00914) (0.0130) Observations 19,626 20,246 23,272 33,004 37,253 25,906 Panel H: No cohort group FE Inequality Experiences -0.0254** -0.0298*** -0.0133 -0.0294*** -0.0211** -0.0240*** (0.0113) (0.00863) (0.00825) (0.00902) (0.0107) (0.00833) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the national level experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years, unless otherwise stated. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All specifications control for age fixed effects, year fixed effects, cohort group fixed effects as well as region fixed effects. All specifications control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. In Panel A, we show the main results. In Panel B, we show the results using the top 1 percent income share as our measure of inequality. In Panel C, we show the results using the top 10 percent income share as our measure of inequality. In Panel D, we only use observations for which we do not have missings in any of the controls. In Panel E, we do not make use of unemployment experience controls. In Panel F, we use an age trend rather than age fixed effects. In Panel G, we show the results using the Gini coefficient as our measure of income inequality. In Panel H, we do not make use of cohort group fixed effects. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 9 Table A.11: GSS: Robustness (Regional Inequality Experiences) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Help poor Pro welfare Success due to luck Liberal Party: Democrat Voted: Democrat Panel A: Main Inequality Experiences -0.0415** -0.0268* -0.0142 -0.0598*** -0.0522*** -0.0377*** (0.0179) (0.0138) (0.0111) (0.0134) (0.0123) (0.0141) Observations 22,987 25,831 28,670 39,632 45,703 32,597 Panel B: Top 1 percent Inequality Experiences -0.0398*** -0.0215* -0.0125 -0.0451*** -0.0469*** -0.0411*** (0.0141) (0.0126) (0.0112) (0.0124) (0.0123) (0.0129) Observations 22,987 25,831 28,670 39,632 45,703 32,597 Panel C: Top 10 percent Inequality Experiences -0.0419** -0.0241* -0.0168 -0.0564*** -0.0498*** -0.0351** (0.0179) (0.0143) (0.0119) (0.0137) (0.0125) (0.0144) Observations 22,987 25,831 28,670 39,632 45,703 32,597 Panel D: No missings Inequality Experiences -0.0523*** -0.0455*** -0.0180 -0.0687*** -0.0591*** -0.0417*** (0.0185) (0.0146) (0.0130) (0.0147) (0.0123) (0.0154) Observations 20,748 23,545 25,957 36,017 40,234 29,033 Panel E: No unemployment experience controls Inequality Experiences -0.0370** -0.0276** -0.0129 -0.0526*** -0.0529*** -0.0358*** (0.0176) (0.0123) (0.00923) (0.0135) (0.0109) (0.0138) Observations 22,987 25,831 28,670 39,632 45,703 32,597 Panel F: Age trend Inequality Experiences -0.0479*** -0.0272* -0.0174* -0.0494*** -0.0575*** -0.0355*** (0.0176) (0.0140) (0.00966) (0.0125) (0.0111) (0.0130) Observations 22,987 25,831 28,670 39,632 45,703 32,597 Panel G: No movers Inequality Experiences -0.0409** -0.0239* -0.0135 -0.0499*** -0.0584*** -0.0376*** (0.0203) (0.0128) (0.0141) (0.0153) (0.0128) (0.0146) Observations 17,653 19,914 22,108 30,481 35,252 24,833 Panel H: No cohort group FE Inequality Experiences -0.0274** -0.0310*** -0.0122* -0.0355*** -0.0184* -0.0168** (0.0109) (0.0100) (0.00731) (0.00943) (0.00981) (0.00733) Observations 22,987 25,831 28,670 39,632 45,703 32,597 Census div 16 FE x Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div 16 FE x Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div 16 FE x Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the national level experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years, unless otherwise stated. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All specifications control for age fixed effects, year fixed effects and cohort group fixed effects, each interacted with census division at 16 fixed effects. All specifications control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. In Panel A, we show the main results. In Panel B, we show the results using the top 1 percent income share as our measure of inequality. In Panel C, we show the results using the top 10 percent income share as our measure of inequality. In Panel D, we only use observations for which we do not have missings in any of the controls. In Panel E, we do not make use of unemployment experience controls. In Panel F, we use an age trend rather than age fixed effects. In Panel G, we show the results excluding those who moved to a different census division between age 16 and the time of the interview. In Panel H, we do not make use of cohort group fixed effects. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 10 Table A.12: Allbus: Robustness (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Inequality: Inequality does not Inequality Left-wing Intention to Vote: Voted: Left Unfair increase motivation reflects luck Left Panel A: Main Inequality Experiences -0.0544* -0.0428 -0.0684** -0.0956*** -0.0837*** -0.0962** (0.0307) (0.0296) (0.0349) (0.0196) (0.0298) (0.0456) Observations 10,401 10,357 10,309 18,979 14,691 9,533 Panel B: Top 1 percent Inequality Experiences -0.109*** -0.0650* -0.123*** -0.125*** -0.138*** -0.141*** (0.0333) (0.0352) (0.0286) (0.0229) (0.0287) (0.0430) Observations 13,635 13,537 13,478 25,555 20,236 12,930 Panel C: Top 10 percent Inequality Experiences -0.0678 -0.0697 -0.0579 -0.127*** -0.0742* -0.0824 (0.0466) (0.0436) (0.0525) (0.0312) (0.0394) (0.0729) Observations 10,401 10,357 10,309 18,979 14,691 9,533 Panel D: No missings Inequality Experiences -0.0382 -0.0610* -0.0626 -0.102*** -0.0987*** -0.0833 (0.0365) (0.0339) (0.0411) (0.0254) (0.0352) (0.0562) Observations 7,719 7,686 7,669 13,609 10,997 6,831 Panel E: No unemployment experience controls Inequality Experiences -0.0896*** -0.0523** -0.101*** -0.0983*** -0.0904*** -0.124*** (0.0212) (0.0242) (0.0271) (0.0219) (0.0266) (0.0430) Observations 10,401 10,357 10,309 18,979 14,691 9,533 Panel F: Age trend Inequality Experiences -0.0548** -0.0498** -0.0864*** -0.0982*** -0.105*** -0.0987** (0.0236) (0.0213) (0.0239) (0.0186) (0.0295) (0.0478) Observations 10,401 10,357 10,309 18,979 14,691 9,533 Panel G: Gini coefficient Inequality Experiences -0.0188 -0.0616*** -0.0458** -0.0530*** -0.0695*** -0.0539** (0.0216) (0.0172) (0.0226) (0.00863) (0.0123) (0.0221) Observations 9,783 9,766 9,716 17,318 13,242 8,827 Panel H: No cohort group FE Inequality Experiences -0.0347* -0.0398** -0.0512** -0.0492*** -0.0674*** -0.0979*** (0.0200) (0.0202) (0.0239) (0.0132) (0.0178) (0.0294) Observations 10,401 10,357 10,309 18,979 14,691 9,533 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Region FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the national level experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years, unless otherwise stated. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All specifications control for age fixed effects, year fixed effects, cohort group fixed effects as well as region fixed effects. All specifications control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. In Panel A, we show the main results. In Panel B, we show the results using the top 1 percent income share as our measure of inequality. In Panel C, we show the results using the top 10 percent income share as our measure of inequality. In Panel D, we only use observations for which we do not have missings in any of the controls. In Panel E, we do not make use of unemployment experience controls. In Panel F, we use an age trend rather than age fixed effects. In Panel G, we show the results using the Gini coefficient as our measure of income inequality. In Panel H, we do not make use of cohort group fixed effects. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 11 Table A.13: ESS: Robustness (1) (2) (3) Pro-redistribution Left-wing Voted: Left Panel A: Main Inequality Experiences -0.0390* -0.117*** -0.121*** (0.0234) (0.0200) (0.0389) Observations 85,529 81,167 25,462 Panel B: Top 1 percent Inequality Experiences -0.0509* -0.124*** -0.127*** (0.0279) (0.0193) (0.0371) Observations 92,831 87,731 28,591 Panel C: Top 10 percent Inequality Experiences -0.0412* -0.108*** -0.114*** (0.0223) (0.0203) (0.0404) Observations 84,485 79,676 25,438 Panel D: No missings Inequality Experiences -0.0486** -0.124*** -0.118*** (0.0244) (0.0251) (0.0453) Observations 68,937 66,498 21,899 Panel E: No unemployment experience controls Inequality Experiences -0.0435* -0.118*** -0.118*** (0.0241) (0.0193) (0.0367) Observations 85,529 81,167 25,462 Panel F: Gini coefficient Inequality Experiences -0.0850** -0.155** -0.183** (0.0344) (0.0613) (0.0795) Observations 44,670 42,077 15,852 Panel G: No cohort group FE Inequality Experiences -0.0491*** -0.106*** -0.139*** (0.0144) (0.00980) (0.0245) Observations 85,529 81,167 25,462 Country FE x Age trend Yes Yes Yes Country FE x Year FE Yes Yes Yes Country FE x Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years unless otherwise stated. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All specifications control for age trends, year fixed effects as well as cohort group fixed effects, each interacted with country fixed effects. All specifications control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. In Panel A, we show the main results. In Panel B, we show the results using the top 1 percent income share as our measure of inequality. In Panel C, we show the results using the top 10 percent income share as our measure of inequality. In Panel D, we only use observations for which we do not have missings in any of the controls. In Panel E, we do not make use of unemployment experience controls. In Panel F, we show the results using the Gini coefficient as our measure of income inequality. In Panel G, we do not include cohort group fixed effects. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 12 Table A.14: GSS: Summary Stats Variable Mean Std. Dev. Min. Max. N Vote: Democrat 0.466 0.499 0 1 32907 Share top 10 during impr years (national) 34.879 4.16 31.779 46.294 47207 Share top 5 during impr years (national) 23.587 3.785 20.679 33.926 47207 Share top 1 during impr years (national) 10.375 2.882 7.875 17.805 47207 Gini during impr year (national) 38.566 2.035 36.838 45.225 36080 Unemployment during impr years 6.545 2.913 3.875 17.988 47207 Share top 10 during impr years (regional) 35.411 3.898 28.246 50.609 46544 Share top 5 during impr years (regional) 24.458 3.514 18.935 39.275 46544 Share top 1 during impr years (regional) 11.429 2.705 7.565 23.098 46544 Full-time employed 0.517 0.5 0 1 47207 Part-time employed 0.096 0.294 0 1 47207 Temporarily not working 0.024 0.152 0 1 47207 Unemployed 0.03 0.17 0 1 47207 Retired 0.135 0.342 0 1 47207 In School 0.011 0.103 0 1 47207 Keeping house 0.168 0.374 0 1 47207 Other labor force 0.021 0.142 0 1 47207 Married 0.675 0.468 0 1 47207 Widowed 0.072 0.258 0 1 47207 Divorced 0.107 0.31 0 1 47207 Separated 0.028 0.164 0 1 47207 Single 0.118 0.323 0 1 47207 Age 48.249 14.975 26 88 47207 Less than high school 0.207 0.405 0 1 47207 High school 0.570 0.495 0 1 47207 College 0.221 0.415 0 1 47207 Female 0.547 0.498 0 1 47207 White 0.839 0.367 0 1 47207 Black 0.133 0.339 0 1 47207 Other race 0.028 0.165 0 1 47207 Born in US 0.84 0.367 0 1 47207 Household Size 2.853 1.28 1 5 47203 Urban 0.466 0.499 0 1 47207 Protestant 0.614 0.487 0 1 47207 Catholic 0.234 0.423 0 1 47207 Jewish 0.019 0.137 0 1 47207 No religion 0.097 0.297 0 1 47207 Other religion 0.032 0.175 0 1 47207 13 Table A.15: Allbus: Summary Stats Variable Mean Std. Dev. Min. Max. N Share top 10 during impr years 31.814 1.253 30.997 39.479 20712 Share top 5 during impr years 22.068 0.965 21.171 31.464 20712 Share top 1 during impr years 10.54 0.864 9.631 19.825 20712 Gini during impr years 25.27 0.812 24.576 28.075 18626 Unemployment during impr years 5.699 4.186 1.188 22.212 20712 Age 42.72 12.798 26 102 20712 Female 0.517 0.5 0 1 20712 Education: No schooling 0.012 0.107 0 1 20712 Education: “Hauptschule” 0.422 0.494 0 1 20712 Education: Middle school 0.284 0.451 0 1 20712 Education: A-levels 0.277 0.448 0 1 20712 Married 0.686 0.464 0 1 20712 Separated 0.016 0.126 0 1 20712 Widowed 0.04 0.195 0 1 20712 Divorced 0.071 0.256 0 1 20712 Single 0.186 0.389 0 1 20712 Full-time employed 0.544 0.498 0 1 20712 Part-time employed 0.118 0.322 0 1 20712 Out of labor force 0.314 0.464 0 1 20712 Unemployed 0.007 0.081 0 1 20712 Retired 0.014 0.117 0 1 20712 Student 0.002 0.049 0 1 20712 Other employment 0 0.02 0 1 20712 Protestant 0.412 0.492 0 1 20712 Catholic 0.412 0.492 0 1 20712 Other religion 0.015 0.123 0 1 20712 No Religion 0.157 0.363 0 1 20712 Household Size 2.851 1.228 1 5 20665 14 Table A.16: ESS: Summary Stats Variable Mean Std. Dev. Min. Max. N Share top 10 during impr years 31.468 3.126 21.839 43.379 79640 Share top 5 during impr years 20.898 2.622 13.343 32.606 86303 Share top 1 during impr years 8.48 1.918 4.024 17.25 86303 Gini during impr years 28.411 3.717 20.569 37.15 43918 Unemployment during impr years 6.854 4.284 0.01 35.287 86303 Male 0.479 0.5 0 1 86303 Age 47.236 12.989 26 102 86303 Below high school 0.264 0.441 0 1 86303 High school 0.451 0.498 0 1 86303 College 0.278 0.448 0 1 86303 Married 0.601 0.49 0 1 86303 Separated 0.014 0.116 0 1 86303 Divorced 0.088 0.283 0 1 86303 Widowed 0.036 0.185 0 1 86303 Never married 0.207 0.405 0 1 86303 Employed 0.789 0.408 0 1 86303 Self-employed 0.13 0.336 0 1 86303 Not in paid work 0.055 0.229 0 1 86303 Religion: Catholic 0.265 0.441 0 1 86303 Religion: Protestant 0.197 0.398 0 1 86303 Religion: Eastern Orthodox 0.001 0.023 0 1 86303 Religion: other christian 0.013 0.114 0 1 86303 Religion: Jewish 0.001 0.034 0 1 86303 Religion: Islamic 0.006 0.078 0 1 86303 Religion: Other 0.005 0.074 0 1 86303 Religion: None 0.403 0.49 0 1 86303 Household Size 2.778 1.218 1 5 86270 Income bracket (waves 1-3) 7.29 2.169 1 12 31690 Income bracket (waves 4-7) 5.905 2.748 1 10 43220 Denmark 0.021 0.145 0 1 86303 Finland 0.019 0.137 0 1 86303 France 0.189 0.391 0 1 86303 Germany 0.238 0.426 0 1 86303 Great Britain 0.21 0.408 0 1 86303 Italy 0.044 0.205 0 1 86303 Netherlands 0.078 0.268 0 1 86303 Norway 0.02 0.14 0 1 86303 Portugal 0.019 0.138 0 1 86303 Spain 0.09 0.286 0 1 86303 Sweden 0.041 0.199 0 1 86303 Switzerland 0.03 0.171 0 1 86303 15 Table A.17: GSS (national inequality experiences): Main Results showing Key Controls (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Help poor Pro welfare Success due to luck Liberal Party: Democrat Voted: Democrat Inequality Experiences -0.0370** -0.0234* -0.0147 -0.0383*** -0.0476*** -0.0414*** (0.0147) (0.0126) (0.0112) (0.0123) (0.0126) (0.0129) Unemployment Experiences 0.00868 0.000302 0.00397 0.0177** -0.00213 0.00609 (0.0158) (0.00841) (0.00823) (0.00823) (0.00757) (0.00627) Female 0.137*** 0.0130 -0.101*** 0.125*** 0.126*** 0.117*** (0.0171) (0.0165) (0.0156) (0.0124) (0.0141) (0.0146) Part-time employed 0.0176 0.0452 0.0540** 0.0204 -0.0384** 0.00530 (0.0259) (0.0278) (0.0233) (0.0132) (0.0159) (0.0184) Temporarily not working 0.0397 0.0739 -0.0147 0.109*** 0.0420 0.0478 (0.0416) (0.0486) (0.0442) (0.0384) (0.0308) (0.0359) Unemployed 0.157*** 0.226*** 0.110** 0.0481* 0.0806*** 0.0913*** (0.0377) (0.0458) (0.0480) (0.0267) (0.0305) (0.0296) Retired 0.0986*** 0.120*** -0.000732 0.0152 0.0677*** 0.0836*** (0.0373) (0.0192) (0.0282) (0.0231) (0.0182) (0.0255) In school 0.0151 0.300*** 0.142*** 0.0821 0.0827 0.0421 (0.0570) (0.0506) (0.0512) (0.0569) (0.0504) (0.0640) Keeping the house 0.0631*** 0.148*** -0.0248 -0.0797*** -0.0509*** -0.0259 (0.0215) (0.0179) (0.0201) (0.0203) (0.0157) (0.0216) Other labor force 0.250*** 0.326*** -0.0295 0.0619* 0.0385 0.0635* (0.0534) (0.0503) (0.0497) (0.0372) (0.0379) (0.0351) Married -0.121*** -0.151*** -0.0789*** -0.186*** -0.115*** -0.134*** (0.0207) (0.0287) (0.0227) (0.0212) (0.0149) (0.0216) Widowed -0.0928** -0.0928*** -0.0883*** -0.0997*** -0.0287 -0.0933*** (0.0414) (0.0339) (0.0310) (0.0280) (0.0182) (0.0301) Divorced -0.0329 -0.0285 -0.00705 -0.0210 -0.0331* -0.0613** (0.0216) (0.0269) (0.0306) (0.0245) (0.0194) (0.0247) Separated 0.00189 -0.0145 -0.0570 -0.00536 -0.0853*** -0.0858*** (0.0447) (0.0489) (0.0383) (0.0329) (0.0276) (0.0308) High-school -0.244*** -0.123*** 0.0624*** -0.0958*** -0.176*** -0.190*** (0.0232) (0.0162) (0.0196) (0.0147) (0.0198) (0.0206) College -0.319*** 0.0310 0.100*** -0.0137 -0.246*** -0.137*** (0.0260) (0.0223) (0.0261) (0.0176) (0.0269) (0.0237) Black 0.526*** 0.604*** 0.180*** 0.317*** 0.888*** 1.027*** (0.0199) (0.0282) (0.0202) (0.0195) (0.0179) (0.0143) Other race 0.160*** 0.234*** 0.0784* 0.157*** 0.339*** 0.441*** (0.0349) (0.0546) (0.0459) (0.0395) (0.0307) (0.0519) Income bracket 2 0.103 0.0769 -0.0732 -0.116 0.0377 0.0604 (0.0979) (0.0756) (0.0869) (0.0851) (0.0484) (0.0752) Income bracket 3 0.0830 0.0170 -0.00125 -0.0922 0.105** 0.171** (0.112) (0.0694) (0.0867) (0.0979) (0.0535) (0.0853) Income bracket 4 0.131 -0.107 -0.107 -0.0490 0.159*** 0.164** (0.105) (0.0820) (0.0796) (0.0955) (0.0498) (0.0804) Income bracket 5 0.119 -0.109 -0.0625 -0.111 0.174*** 0.141* (0.103) (0.0731) (0.0704) (0.0944) (0.0485) (0.0751) Income bracket 6 0.111 -0.171** -0.145** -0.0804 0.115** 0.119 (0.116) (0.0741) (0.0649) (0.0841) (0.0472) (0.0764) Income bracket 7 0.00347 -0.233*** -0.0755 -0.0977 0.185*** 0.108 (0.101) (0.0785) (0.0774) (0.0896) (0.0464) (0.0825) Income bracket 8 -0.0282 -0.243*** -0.0536 -0.0447 0.183*** 0.140* (0.102) (0.0780) (0.0604) (0.0833) (0.0482) (0.0829) Income bracket 9 -0.0445 -0.345*** -0.0811 -0.0533 0.181*** 0.103 (0.0955) (0.0742) (0.0608) (0.0799) (0.0440) (0.0735) Income bracket 10 -0.0354 -0.417*** -0.152** -0.0854 0.149*** 0.0780 (0.0851) (0.0679) (0.0638) (0.0780) (0.0443) (0.0768) Income bracket 11 -0.141* -0.409*** -0.137* -0.115 0.112** 0.0423 (0.0842) (0.0646) (0.0727) (0.0802) (0.0470) (0.0724) Income bracket 12 -0.234*** -0.498*** -0.138** -0.134* 0.0209 -0.0655 (0.0878) (0.0684) (0.0625) (0.0781) (0.0415) (0.0702) Protestant -0.160*** -0.144*** -0.158*** -0.535*** -0.348*** -0.535*** (0.0188) (0.0231) (0.0244) (0.0235) (0.0188) (0.0241) Catholic -0.0755*** -0.107*** -0.114*** -0.401*** -0.0534*** -0.317*** (0.0247) (0.0233) (0.0260) (0.0247) (0.0191) (0.0232) Jewish 0.0504 0.200*** 0.0814 0.0642 0.378*** 0.196*** (0.0523) (0.0505) (0.0555) (0.0461) (0.0443) (0.0486) Other religion -0.0429 -0.112*** -0.0184 -0.327*** -0.176*** -0.240*** (0.0355) (0.0396) (0.0455) (0.0486) (0.0337) (0.0430) Cohort: 1876 - 1900 -0.464 -0.191** 0.0247 0.0176 -0.132 0.0393 (0.303) (0.0757) (0.106) (0.135) (0.136) (0.0841) Cohort: 1901 - 1925 -0.0569 -0.0102 0.0636 0.0858 -0.0332 -0.00948 (0.0601) (0.0623) (0.0523) (0.0875) (0.0778) (0.0726) Cohort: 1926 -1950 -0.0832* 0.0153 0.0477 0.0487 -0.0792 -0.0349 (0.0473) (0.0550) (0.0417) (0.0719) (0.0574) (0.0563) Cohort: 1951 - 1975 -0.0662* 0.00629 0.00460 -0.0184 -0.151*** -0.106*** (0.0399) (0.0478) (0.0333) (0.0534) (0.0418) (0.0408) Observations 23,199 26,135 29,083 40,136 46,327 32,907 R-squared 0.108 0.128 0.024 0.078 0.146 0.200 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Census div FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All specifications control for age fixed effects, region fixed effects as well as year fixed effects . All specifications include a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 16 Table A.18: Allbus: Main Results showing Key Controls (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Inequality: Inequality does not Inequality Left-wing Intention to Vote: Voted: Left Unfair increase motivation reflects luck Left Inequality Experiences -0.0543* -0.0428 -0.0684* -0.0957*** -0.0836*** -0.0961** (0.0307) (0.0296) (0.0349) (0.0196) (0.0298) (0.0457) Unemployment Experiences 0.104* 0.0279 0.0950* 0.00877 0.0243 0.0909 (0.0586) (0.0443) (0.0515) (0.0321) (0.0477) (0.0701) Female 0.0884*** 0.126*** 0.0969*** 0.0771*** 0.0547*** 0.0425 (0.0231) (0.0240) (0.0232) (0.0132) (0.0200) (0.0322) Education: “Hauptschule” -0.185** -0.0912 -0.0306 -0.0140 -0.0189 0.0780 (0.0944) (0.117) (0.101) (0.0594) (0.0796) (0.0689) Education: “Middle School” -0.239** 0.0269 0.122 0.0226 -0.0402 0.0414 (0.0974) (0.122) (0.104) (0.0573) (0.0755) (0.0561) Education: “A-level” -0.171* 0.196* 0.370*** 0.249*** 0.119 0.244*** (0.0906) (0.116) (0.0897) (0.0593) (0.0739) (0.0653) Married -0.0541 -0.0294 -0.0389 -0.137*** -0.131*** -0.183*** (0.0341) (0.0284) (0.0289) (0.0248) (0.0214) (0.0351) Separated 0.0162 -0.0822* -0.00468 -0.119* 0.00804 -0.121 (0.0633) (0.0495) (0.0697) (0.0640) (0.0635) (0.0808) Widowed -0.0283 0.0562 0.0585 -0.163*** -0.0767** -0.127** (0.0710) (0.0573) (0.0909) (0.0436) (0.0361) (0.0552) Divorced 0.103** 0.0298 0.0797** -0.0806** 0.0261 -0.0569 (0.0521) (0.0500) (0.0360) (0.0379) (0.0381) (0.0387) Part-time employed 0.0453 0.00123 0.0389 0.0757*** 0.0958*** 0.125*** (0.0318) (0.0454) (0.0362) (0.0176) (0.0289) (0.0317) Out of the labor force 0.0837*** 0.0231 0.0536* 0.0422* 0.0748*** 0.0804*** (0.0278) (0.0285) (0.0277) (0.0229) (0.0209) (0.0224) Unemployed 0.379*** 0.164 0.378*** 0.317*** 0.325*** 0.336*** (0.0956) (0.114) (0.100) (0.123) (0.0292) (0.0995) Retired 0.0112 0.0109 0.0520 0.0405 0.207*** 0.162 (0.110) (0.136) (0.167) (0.0523) (0.0741) (0.125) Student 0.445*** 0.675*** 0.186 0.473*** 0.203* 0.289** (0.0871) (0.105) (0.163) (0.147) (0.119) (0.117) Other employment 0.573 -0.643 -0.316 0.206 0.485 0.611*** (0.502) (0.426) (0.576) (0.224) (0.453) (0.127) Protestant -0.0492** -0.0692** -0.0562* -0.177*** -0.230*** -0.204*** (0.0250) (0.0319) (0.0317) (0.0196) (0.0159) (0.0176) Catholic -0.0793*** -0.0634* -0.0505 -0.323*** -0.490*** -0.506*** (0.0242) (0.0372) (0.0351) (0.0245) (0.0224) (0.0322) Other religion -0.137* 0.0117 -0.0476 -0.112* -0.0247 -0.113 (0.0823) (0.0926) (0.0837) (0.0585) (0.0762) (0.107) Income quintile: 2 -0.0793** 0.0145 -0.000689 -0.0736* -0.130*** -0.130*** (0.0328) (0.0501) (0.0371) (0.0386) (0.0346) (0.0484) Income quintile: 3 -0.108*** -0.0784* -0.0760** -0.0946*** -0.143*** -0.135*** (0.0364) (0.0461) (0.0319) (0.0342) (0.0330) (0.0398) Income quintile: 4 -0.176*** -0.0870* -0.0970** -0.0985*** -0.150*** -0.173*** (0.0378) (0.0466) (0.0453) (0.0339) (0.0345) (0.0389) Income quintile: 5 -0.296*** -0.153*** -0.186*** -0.192*** -0.298*** -0.295*** (0.0332) (0.0465) (0.0377) (0.0389) (0.0307) (0.0438) Cohort: 1876 - 1900 0.692** -0.165 0.441 0.720*** 0.945** 0.825** (0.345) (0.342) (0.404) (0.265) (0.449) (0.400) Cohort: 1901 - 1925 0.130 0.328 (0.266) (0.422) Cohort: 1926 - 1950 -0.117** -0.0695 -0.101 -0.106* -0.0842 -0.0754 (0.0546) (0.0819) (0.0635) (0.0637) (0.0691) (0.125) Cohort: 1951 - 1975 -0.0975* -0.0474 -0.0866 -0.123** -0.0149 -0.0318 (0.0583) (0.0739) (0.0541) (0.0574) (0.0676) (0.121) Observations 10,401 10,357 10,309 18,979 14,691 9,533 R-squared 0.071 0.044 0.068 0.080 0.109 0.111 Age FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Region FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All specifications control for age fixed effects, region fixed effects as well as year fixed effects. All specifications include a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 17 Table A.19: ESS: Main Results showing Key Controls (1) (2) (3) Pro-redistribution Voted: Left Left-wing Inequality Experiences -0.0390* -0.117*** -0.121*** (0.0234) (0.0200) (0.0389) Unemployment Experiences -0.0328** -0.00740 0.0164 (0.0163) (0.0140) (0.0285) Male -0.119*** -0.0870*** -0.101*** (0.00963) (0.0118) (0.0163) High school -0.0756*** -0.0298** -0.0682** (0.0138) (0.0121) (0.0291) College -0.204*** 0.140*** 0.141*** (0.0114) (0.0142) (0.0273) Married -0.0751*** -0.118*** -0.0747*** (0.0130) (0.0128) (0.0230) Separated -0.0626 -0.219*** -0.120* (0.0405) (0.0537) (0.0654) Divorced -0.0259 -0.0397* -0.0404 (0.0178) (0.0211) (0.0385) Widowed -0.0550** -0.0882*** -0.0813* (0.0225) (0.0318) (0.0485) Self-Employed -0.183*** -0.232*** -0.228*** (0.0123) (0.0194) (0.0170) Not in paid work -0.0387 -0.0548*** 0.00122 (0.0255) (0.0202) (0.0381) Religion: Catholic -0.127*** -0.353*** -0.421*** (0.0158) (0.0179) (0.0232) Religion: Protestant -0.113*** -0.269*** -0.247*** (0.0119) (0.0146) (0.0227) Religion: Eastern Orthodox -0.170 0.117 -0.142 (0.192) (0.128) (0.272) Religion: Other Christian 0.0235 -0.226*** -0.0571 (0.0485) (0.0384) (0.0822) Religion: Jewish -0.502*** -0.216* -0.318* (0.158) (0.123) (0.189) Religion: Islamic 0.170*** 0.158** 0.445*** (0.0638) (0.0789) (0.0904) Religion: Other 0.0714 0.109* 0.135 (0.0630) (0.0634) (0.0931) Income bracket: 1 -0.0118 -0.141 -0.0517 (0.246) (0.193) (0.246) Income bracket: 2 0.0142 -0.202 -0.128 (0.227) (0.195) (0.240) Income bracket: 3 -0.0558 -0.155 -0.0891 (0.239) (0.192) (0.223) Income bracket: 4 -0.0943 -0.275 -0.200 (0.240) (0.196) (0.233) Income bracket: 5 -0.115 -0.257 -0.170 (0.241) (0.185) (0.238) Income bracket: 6 -0.162 -0.272 -0.190 (0.233) (0.195) (0.227) Income bracket: 7 -0.209 -0.235 -0.185 (0.231) (0.193) (0.234) Income bracket: 8 -0.275 -0.281 -0.243 (0.240) (0.189) (0.244) Income bracket: 9 -0.398* -0.298 -0.206 (0.222) (0.187) (0.223) Income bracket: 10 -0.669*** -0.443** -0.415* (0.243) (0.195) (0.232) Observations 85,529 81,167 25,462 R-squared 0.143 0.079 0.153 Country FE x Age trends Yes Yes Yes Country FE x Year FE Yes Yes Yes Country FE x Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during the impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced unemployment rate during the impressionable years. All specifications control for age trends, year fixed effects as well as cohort group fixed effects, each interacted with country fixed effects. All specifications include a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 18 B Additional Figures 15 20 25 30 35 T op 5 % in co m e sh ar e 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 Year DE FR UK US Figure A.1: Top 5 percent share in total income over time and countries. Source: World Wealth and Income Database (Alvaredo et al., 2011). 19 20 25 30 35 40 T op 5 % in co m e sh ar e 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 Year New England Middle Atlantic East North Central West North Central South Atlantic 15 20 25 30 35 40 T op 5 % in co m e sh ar e 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 Year East South Central West South Central Mountain Pacific Figure A.2: Top 5 percent share in total income over time and US census divisions. Source: World Wealth and Income Database (Alvaredo et al., 2011). 20 C Additional Results from the ISSP C.1 Description of the ISSP We also make use of a unique dataset containing rich data on perceptions about inequality, the International Social Survey Program (ISSP) module on Social Inequality. The ISSP has been widely used to study perceptions of social inequality, see for example Kiatpongsan and Norton (2014) or Norton and Ariely (2011). There are in total four waves of the social inequality module: one in 1987, one in 1992, one in 1999 and the last available one in 2009. On the one hand, the ISSP allows us to examine whether perceived and actual income inequality co-move. On the other hand, we provide an additional robustness check by replicating our main results on the ISSP. In Table A.20 we report summary statistics for the sample from the ISSP that we use to replicate our main findings.1 Most of our sample from the ISSP comes from six countries: Australia, France, Germany2, Norway, the United Kingdom and the US, each of which makes up for around ten percent of the sample. Canada, Denmark, Finland, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland together constitute about 40 percent of the overall sample. C.2 Co-movement between Actual and Perceived Inequality C.2.1 Outcome Variables: Perceptions of Inequality First, we create a variable capturing people’s beliefs about how much inequality there is in their countries based on their response to the following question: “These five diagrams show different types of society. Please read the descriptions and look at the diagrams and decide which you think best describes [ COUNTRY ]: • Type A: A small elite at the top, very few people in the middle and the great mass of people at the bottom. • Type B: A society like a pyramid with a small elite at the top, more people in the middle, and most at the bottom. 1We can use a slightly larger sample to examine the correlation between actual inequality and perceived inequality because we can also use respondents who are younger than 26. 2Due to lacking inequality data we drop all respondents currently living in Eastern Germany and focus only on Western German Respondents. 21 Table A.20: Summary Stats: ISSP Variable Mean Std. Dev. Min. Max. N Share top 10 during impr years 30.994 3.936 21.839 44.81 38239 Share top 5 during impr years 20.36 3.329 13.343 38.555 38974 Share top 1 during impr years 8.147 2.346 4.024 18.709 40508 Gini during impr years 31.137 5.857 20.569 44.712 18246 Unemployment during impr years 5.293 3.962 0.01 35.287 40663 Age 49.962 15.334 26 98 44918 Female 0.524 0.499 0 1 44918 Below secondary 0.45 0.498 0 1 44918 Secondary 0.227 0.419 0 1 44918 Above secondary 0.309 0.462 0 1 44918 Married 0.667 0.471 0 1 44918 Widowed 0.076 0.265 0 1 44918 Divorced 0.076 0.265 0 1 44918 Separated 0.02 0.139 0 1 44918 Single 0.154 0.361 0 1 44918 Full-time employed 0.402 0.49 0 1 44918 Part-time employed 0.082 0.275 0 1 44918 Unemployed 0.031 0.174 0 1 44918 Student 0.012 0.109 0 1 44918 Retired 0.18 0.384 0 1 44918 Other employment 0.118 0.323 0 1 44918 Catholic 0.273 0.445 0 1 44918 Church of England 0.086 0.28 0 1 44918 Protestant 0.104 0.306 0 1 44918 No religion 0.21 0.407 0 1 44918 Other religion 0.261 0.439 0 1 44918 Household Size 2.774 1.294 1 5 43151 Australia 0.138 0.345 0 1 44918 Canada 0.035 0.183 0 1 44918 Denmark 0.025 0.157 0 1 44918 Finland 0.015 0.122 0 1 44918 France 0.094 0.292 0 1 44918 Germany 0.111 0.314 0 1 44918 Great Britain 0.072 0.259 0 1 44918 Italy 0.021 0.143 0 1 44918 Japan 0.051 0.22 0 1 44918 Netherlands 0.03 0.171 0 1 44918 Norway 0.082 0.274 0 1 44918 NZL 0.059 0.235 0 1 44918 Portugal 0.051 0.22 0 1 17269 Spain 0.046 0.209 0 1 44918 Sweden 0.063 0.242 0 1 44918 Switzerland 0.025 0.157 0 1 44918 US 0.114 0.318 0 1 44918 • Type C: A pyramid except that just a few people are at the bottom. • Type D: A society with most people in the middle. • Type E: Many people near the top, and only a few near the bottom. 22 What type of society is [ COUNTRY ] today – which diagram comes closest?” We code this variable such that high values mean that people think that the country they live in today is more unequal, ranking perceived society progressively as more equal moving from type A to type E. Second, we use unique data on people’s beliefs about earnings in different occupations to construct measures of beliefs about the pay gaps between CEOs and unskilled workers; Cabinet ministers and unskilled workers; and doctors and unskilled workers. For example, the respondents are asked: “How much do you think an unskilled worker in a factory earns before taxes?”; or they are asked: “How much do you think a chairman of a large national company earns before taxes?” We calculate pay gaps as the ratios between the estimates for the higher-earning professions and the estimate for unskilled workers. To account for outliers we winsorize the estimated pay gaps at the 99th percentile. C.2.2 Results: Perceptions of Inequality In Tables A.21 and A.22 we show the results from regressing beliefs about inequality on actual top income shares. In some specifications we add country and year fixed effects and a set of demographic controls. Across specifications, we find that actual inequality strongly predicts people’s perceived level of inequality. These findings suggest that the actual level of inequality that prevailed during our respondents’ formative years is a good proxy for the level of inequality our respondents experienced. Table A.21: ISSP: Perceptions of Inequality (1) (2) (3) Belief: Belief: Belief: High inequality High inequality High inequality Current Income Share of Top 5 % 0.0371*** 0.0490*** 0.0488*** (0.00142) (0.00520) (0.00524) Observations 33,052 33,052 33,052 R-squared 0.025 0.126 0.157 Year FE No Yes Yes Country FE No Yes Yes Demographic controls No No Yes Robust standard errors are displayed in parentheses. Specification (3) includes a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 23 Table A.22: ISSP: Estimated Pay Gaps (1) (2) (3) Estimated Estimated Estimated CEO worker cabinet minister worker doctor worker pay gap pay gap pay gap Current Income Share of Top 5 % 1.786*** 0.227*** 0.153*** (0.200) (0.0368) (0.0198) Observations 43,841 43,809 44,191 R-squared 0.182 0.129 0.128 Year FE Yes Yes Yes Country FE Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Robust standard errors are displayed in parentheses. All specifications include a large set of controls: house- hold income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. C.3 Replication of Main Results on the ISSP C.3.1 Outcomes Variables: Experienced Inequality Our main outcome variables of interest on preferences for redistribution focus on the role the government should play and are given as follows:3 • Too much inequality: “Differences in income in [ COUNTRY ] are too large.” We code this variable such that high values in this question correspond to more agreement to this statement. • Tax the rich more: Moreover, we use a question on people’s desired tax levels for people with different income levels: “Do you think people with high incomes should pay a larger share of their income in taxes than those with low incomes, the same share, or a smaller share?” High values mean that individuals want higher shares of taxes for richer people. • Do not reduce benefits to the poor: “The government should spend less on benefits for the poor”. We code this variable such that high values indicate disagreement with this statement. • Party affiliation: Left: We also use data on people’s party affiliation and their voting intention. In particular, individuals are asked for which party they intend to vote in the 3These questions are answered on a 5-point scale where 1 means “strongly agree” and 5 means “strongly disagree”. 24 next election. The data provided by the ISSP then classifies people’s voting behavior on a scale from (1) far right to (5) far left.4 • Voted: Left: Moreover, individuals are asked about their voting behavior in the last election. As before we use the derived data from the ISSP that classifies the voting intention on a scale ranging from (1) far right to (5) far left. C.3.2 Results: Experienced Inequality We show the results from the replication of our main findings on the ISSP sample in A.23. We find that high inequality experiences are associated with less agreement that there is too much inequality in the respondent’s country (Column 1). We find no significant effect on agreement to the statement that the rich should be taxed more than the poor, even though the sign of the coefficient goes into the expected direction (Column 2). However, people who have experienced high inequality are significantly more likely to be in favor of reducing the benefits to the poor (Column 3) and are significantly less likely to be affiliated to a left-wing party or to vote for a left-wing party (Colums 4 and 5). Taken together, the results from the ISSP strongly replicate our earlier findings on the samples from the GSS, Allbus and ESS. This provides us with additional confidence in the robustness of our results. 4We set this variable to missing for all individuals who either do not intend to vote, or intend to vote for another party not part of this left-right spectrum. 25 Table A.23: ISSP: Replication of main findings (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Too much Tax the Do not reduce Party affiliation Voted: inequality rich more benefits to the poor Left Left Inequality Experiences -0.0535** -0.0101 -0.0612** -0.121** -0.0529** (0.0242) (0.0215) (0.0280) (0.0560) (0.0218) Observations 34,439 33,445 19,100 7,761 26,048 R-squared 0.142 0.075 0.103 0.058 0.075 Country FE x Age trends Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Country FE x Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Country FE x Cohort group FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unemployment Experiences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Demographic controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Standard errors are two-way clustered by age and cohort. Inequality experiences are based on the experienced share of total income earned by the top 5 percent during impressionable years. Unemployment experiences are based on the experienced national unemployment during impressionable years. All specification control for age trends, year fixed effects and cohort group fixed effects, each interacted with country fixed effects. All specifications control for a large set of controls: household income, marital status, education, employment status, household size, religion, and gender. All outcome measures are z-scored.* p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 26 D Description of Outcomes D.1 General Social Survey D.1.1 Main Outcomes • Help Poor: “Some people think that the government in Washington should do everything to improve the standard of living of all poor Americans (they are at point 5 on this card). Other people think it is not the government’s responsibility, and that each person should take care of himself (they are at point 1). Where are you placing yourself in this scale?” • Pro-welfare: “We are faced with many problems in this country, none of which can be solved easily or inexpensively. I am going to name some of these problems, and for each one I would like you to tell me whether you think we are spending too much money on it, too little money or about the right amount.” We focus on people’s answer to that question on the issue of “assistance to the poor.” We code this variable such that higher values indicate too little assistance to the poor. • Success due to luck: “Some people say that people get ahead by their own hard work; others say that lucky breaks or help from other people are more important. Which do you think is most important?” The answer can take a value from 1 to 3: hard work is most important (1), hard work and luck are equally important (2), luck is most important (3). • Liberal: “We hear a lot of talk these days about liberals and conservatives. I am going to show you a seven-point scale on which the political views that people might hold are arranged from extremely liberal to extremely conservative. Where would you place yourself in this scale?” We coded the question such that high values mean that the respondent is liberal. • Party: Democrat: “Generally speaking, do you usually think of yourself as a Republican, Democrat, Independent, or what?” We coded this variable such that higher values corre- spond to support of the Democratic party and lower values to the support of Republicans. We set observations to missing if respondents identify with another party. • Voted: Democrat: We also look at people’s past voting behavior. Specifically, this variable takes value one if the respondent voted for the Democratic candidate in the last presidential election and takes value zero if the respondent voted for the Republican can- 27 didate. We set this measure to missing if the respondent did not vote in the presidential election or if the respondent voted for an independent candidate. D.1.2 Alternative Mechanisms • Low relative income: People’s self-assessed position in the income distribution on a five-point scale reaching from “Far below average” to “Far above average”. We code this variable such that high values correspond to perceived low relative income. • Low social position: People’s self-assessed position in society on a four-point scale, reaching from “Lower class” to “Upper class” We code this variable such that high values indicate a perceived low social position. D.1.3 Placebo Outcomes • Pro-immigration: People’s view on whether the number of immigrants should be in- creased or decreased on a five-point scale from (1) decrease a lot to (5) increase a lot. • Pro-guns: This variable takes value one for people opposing a law which would require a person to obtain a police permit before he or she could buy a gun. • God exists: People’s belief in god on a six-point scale from (1) people not believing in God to (6) people stating that they know God really exists and that they have no doubts about it. D.2 Allbus D.2.1 Main Outcomes • Inequality: Unfair: Disagreement on 4-point scale to the statement: “I think the so- cial inequalities in this country are fair.” We coded this variable such that higher values correspond to more distaste of inequality. • Inequality does not increase motivation: This variable captures people’s beliefs about the effect of inequality on motivation. High values mean that people think that inequality does not increase motivation. 28 • Inequality reflects luck: Disagreement on 4-point scale to the statement: “Differences in rank between people are acceptable as they essentially reflect how people used their opportunities.” High values mean that people disagree with this statement. • Left-wing: People’s self-assessment of their political views on a 10-point scale. We coded this variable such that high values indicate a more left-wing self-assessment. • Intention to vote: Left: We classified each party based on the classification of parties on the left-right spectrum from Huber and Inglehart (1995). Higher values correspond to intentions to vote for more left-wing parties. • Voted: Left: As above we create an index for each party that our respondent voted for using the classification of parties on the left-right spectrum from Huber and Inglehart (1995). Higher values of this variable mean that people voted for more left-wing parties. D.2.2 Alternative Mechanisms • Low social position: “In our society there are people who are at the top and people who are at the bottom. Where would you place yourself on such a scale?” This is coded such that high values mean that people think that they are closer to the bottom of the distribution. D.2.3 Placebo Outcomes • Pro-immigration: We construct an index of attitudes towards immigrants by looking at the following questions on a scale from (1) strongly disagree to (7) strongly agree. – Immigrants should adapt to German customs. – Immigrants should not have any right to participate politically. – Immigrants should not be allowed to marry Germans. The index is coded such that more disagreement to these statements receives higher values. • Nationalism: People’s nationalism is measured on a four point scale ranging from (1) very proud to be German to (4) not very proud to be German. We code this variable such that high values indicate high nationalism. 29 • Nature determines life: People’s agreement to the statement “in the final analysis, our life is determined by the laws of nature.” on a scale from (1) strongly agree to (5) strongly disagree. We code this variable such that high values indicate agreement to this statement. D.3 ESS D.3.1 Main Outcomes • Pro-redistribution: “The government should take measures to reduce differences in in- come levels.” We code this variable such that high values correspond to agreement to this statement. • Left-wing: “In politics people sometimes talk of ‘left’ and ‘right’. Where would you place yourself on this scale, where 0 means the left and 10 means the right?” We recode this variable such that high values refer to people placing themselves on the left. • Voted: Left: People’s voting behavior in the last election. In particular, we coded up this voting behavior on a right-left scale, taking higher values for left-wing parties and lower values for right-wing parties. As in Giuliano and Spilimbergo (2014), we used the classification of parties on the left-right spectrum from Huber and Inglehart (1995). If the party was not part of Huber’s classification or if a person did not vote, we coded the observation as missing. D.3.2 Alternative Mechanisms • Trust parliament / politicians / political parties: “Please tell me on a score of 0-10 how much you personally trust each of the institutions I read out. 0 means you do not trust an institution at all, and 10 means you have complete trust. – . . . [COUNTRY]’s parliament?” – . . . politicians?” – . . . political parties?” D.3.3 Placebo Outcomes • Pro-immigration: We construct an index of attitudes towards immigrants by looking at the following questions with scales from (1) to (4) and (0) to (10). 30 – “Allow many immigrants of same race/ethnic group” (4) vs. “Allow no immigrants of the same race/ethnic group” (1). – “Allow many immigrants of different race/ethnic group” (4) vs. “Allow no immigrants of different race/ethnic group” (1). – “Allow many immigrants from poorer countries to Europe” (4) vs. “Allow no immi- grants from poorer countries to Europe” (1). – “Immigration is good for the economy” (10) vs. “Immigration is bad for the economy” (0). – “Immigration is good for cultural life” (10) vs, “Immigration is bad for cultural life” (0). – “Immigration makes this country a better place to live” (10) vs. “Immigration makes this country a worse place to live” (0). We code the index such that high values indicate more positive attitudes towards immi- grants. • Pro-EU unification: “European unification should go further” (10) or “European unifi- cation has gone too far” (0). • Pro-democratic: People’s agreement on a 5-point scale to the statement “Political parties that wish to overthrow democracy should be banned.” 31 E Data Description: Control Variables E.1 General Social Survey We control for our respondents’ employment status by including dummy variables on whether the respondent is employed part-time, temporarily not working, unemployed, retired, in school, keeping the house or in other employment (the base category is full-time employment). To account for the respondent’s marital status, we include the following dummies: whether the respondent is married, widowed, divorced or separated (the omitted category is “never married”). We include the following set of indicator variables to capture our respondent’s educational attainment: an indicator for whether our respondent completed at most high school as well as a dummy for whether our respondent completed college (“below high school” is the omitted category). We also include a dummy for whether our respondent is black. Following Giuliano and Spilimbergo (2014) we include dummies for each of the 12 income brackets available in the GSS to control for absolute household income. In addition, we include a set of dummies for our respondents’ household size. Finally, we also control for our respondent’s religion by including dummies for whether they are Protestant, Catholic, Jewish or whether they have another religion. Finally, we include a dummy indicating the gender of the respondent. E.2 German General Social Survey (Allbus) We control for key demographics, such as income, gender, marital status, education, religious affiliation and employment status. In particular, we control for education by including dummy variables for the type of schooling our respondent completed.5 We control for marital status by including dummy variables for whether our respondent is married, widowed, divorced or separated (single is the omitted category). We account for people’s employment status by dummies for whether our respondent is part- time employed, unemployed, out of the labor force, student, retired, or in other employment (the omitted category is full-time employment). We also control for people’s position in the income distribution in a given year by including dummies for quintiles of self-reported monthly household income. We also control for our respondent’s religion by including dummy variables for whether our 5In particular, we include dummies for “Hauptschule”, “Realschule” and “Abitur/FH”. “below Hauptschule” is the omitted category. 32 respondent is Catholic, Protestant or member of another religion (the omitted category is “no religion”). Finally, we also include a dummy variable indicating the gender of the respondent. E.3 European Social Survey We control for education by including dummy variables for whether our respondent completed at most high-school or holds a college degree (no completion of high school is the omitted category). We control for marital status by including dummy variables for whether our respondent is mar- ried, widowed, divorced or separated (single is the omitted category). We account for people’s employment status by including dummy variables for whether they are self-employed or not in paid work (the omitted category is that they are employed). We also control for people’s income level. For waves one to three we make use of the only available income variable which measures absolute household income levels categorized into 12 brackets. For waves four to seven we use a variable on the country-specific income decile that our respondent’s household belongs to. We also control for household size with a set of dummies indicating whether there is one person in the household, two, three, four or more than five. We also control for our respondent’s religion by including dummies for whether our respondent is Catholic, Protestant, affiliated to another Christian religion, Islamic, Jewish or affiliated to another religion (the omitted category is “no religion”). Finally, we also include a dummy variable indicating the gender of our respondent. 33 F Inequality Data We now provide an overview of the inequality data we use in our analysis. We linearly interpolate missing inequality data up to gaps of six years. In our analysis we make use of those cohorts for which this method gives inequality data for their full “impressionable years” (age 18-25). Table A.24 shows the years for which inequality data are available for the different countries in our sample. Table A.24: Availability of Inequality Data Country Share top 10 percent Share top 5 percent Share top 1 percent Gini coefficient Australia 1941-2010 1939-2010 1921-2010 1981-2010 Canada 1941-2010 1920-2010 1920-2010 1976-2011 Denmark 1903-2010 1903-2010 1903-2010 - Finland 1920-2009 1920-2009 1920-2009 1966-2011 France 1919-2012 1915-2012 1915-2012 1956-2011 Germany 1891-1936; 1961-2008 1891-1938; 1961-2008 1891-1938; 1957-2008 1962-2010 Italy 1974-2009 1974-2009 1974-2009 1967-2010 Ireland 1975-2009 - 1975-2009 - Japan 1947-2010 1907-1924; 1947-2010 1886-2010 1962-2001 Netherlands 1914-2012 1914-2012 1914-2012 1977-2008 New Zealand 1924-2012 1921-2012 1921-2012 1982-2009 Norway 1948-2011 1948-2011 1948-2011 1986-2011 Portugal 1976-2005 1976-2005 1976-2005 1993-2011 Spain 1981-2012 1981-2012 1981-2012 1990-2011 Sweden 1903-1920; 1930-2013 1903-1920; 1930-2013 1903-1920; 1930-2013 1975-2011 Switzerland 1933-2010 1933-2010 1933-2010 - United Kingdom 1949-2012 1949-2012 1949-2012 1961-2011 United States (national) 1917-2014 1917-2014 1913-2014 1944-2012 United States (state-level) 1917-2015 1917-2015 1917-2015 - In this table we provide an overview of the available inequality data for the countries in our sample. These data are taken from “The World Wealth and Income Database” (Alvaredo et al., 2011) and from the “Chartbook of Economic Inequality” (Atkinson and Morelli, 2014). 34 G Construction of Life-time Experiences As in Malmendier and Nagel (2011) and Malmendier and Nagel (2016), we construct a weighted average of past national-level income shares of the top five percent6 for each individual i in country c and in year t, using a specification of weights that introduces merely one additional parameter to measure past experiences (Malmendier and Shen, 2016): IEict(λ) = ageit−1∑ k=1 wit(k,λ)Ic,t−k (5) where wit(k,λ) = (ageit −k)λ∑ageit−1 k=1 (ageit −k)λ (6) where Ic,t−k is the share of total income held by the top five percent of earners in year t-k. Given that the empirical literature on the role of experiences in the formation of political attitudes posits a big importance of early experiences and in particular experiences during the impressionable years (Giuliano and Spilimbergo, 2014; Krosnick and Alwin, 1989), we assume that experiences before age 18 do not matter. In other words, we construct the experience measures as the weighted average of experiences from age 18 onwards. The weights wit(k,λ) are a function of k, i.e. how distant the inequality was experienced relative to the individual’s age at time t, and of the weighting parameter λ. The value of λ determines the relative importance of distant experiences compared to more recent experiences. In our estimations we use a weight of λ = −1 which gives rise to a weight that increases linearly when one moves further into the past from the survey year.7 This weighting scheme gives more importance to people’s early experiences, while still allowing for some impact of more recent experiences in life.8 6We used the exact same methodology to look at alternative measures of inequality. The results looked very similar and are omitted for brevity. 7We obtain very similar results when we use weights of λ = −0.5 or λ = −2 instead. 8If λ > 0, the weights are decreasing in lag k, i.e. income inequality experienced closer to current age at time t receives higher weight. 35 CESifo Working Paper No. 6251 Category 2: Public Choice Original Version: December 2016 Abstract Wohlfart experienced inequality.pdf Introduction Related Literature Data General Social Survey (US) German General Social Survey European Social Survey Normalizations, Controls and Missings Inequality and Unemployment Data Construction of Experience Variable Empirical Strategy and Results Empirical Specification: GSS and Allbus Empirical Specification: ESS Results Robustness Other Measures of Inequality Experiences Placebo Outcomes Other Experiences during Impressionable Years Parental Values Other Robustness Checks Alternative Mechanisms Extrapolation from Own Circumstances Perceived Relative Income Trust in the Political System Conclusion Additional Tables Additional Figures Additional Results from the ISSP Description of the ISSP Co-movement between Actual and Perceived Inequality Outcome Variables: Perceptions of Inequality Results: Perceptions of Inequality Replication of Main Results on the ISSP Outcomes Variables: Experienced Inequality Results: Experienced Inequality Description of Outcomes General Social Survey Main Outcomes Alternative Mechanisms Placebo Outcomes Allbus Main Outcomes Alternative Mechanisms Placebo Outcomes ESS Main Outcomes Alternative Mechanisms Placebo Outcomes Data Description: Control Variables General Social Survey German General Social Survey (Allbus) European Social Survey Inequality Data Construction of Life-time Experiences 
work_rrwjufbgqjexpia2y2s4lpjq6m	----	Non-representational approaches to the unconscious in the phenomenology of Husserl and Merleau-Ponty Non-representational approaches to the unconscious in the phenomenology of Husserl and Merleau-Ponty Anastasia Kozyreva1,2 # The Author(s) 2017. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com Abstract There are two main approaches in the phenomenological understanding of the unconscious. The first explores the intentional theory of the unconscious, while the second develops a non-representational way of understanding consciousness and the unconscious. This paper aims to outline a general theoretical framework for the non- representational approach to the unconscious within the phenomenological tradition. In order to do so, I focus on three relevant theories: Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s phenom- enology of perception, Thomas Fuchs’ phenomenology of body memory, and Edmund Husserl’s phenomenology of affectivity. Both Merleau-Ponty and Fuchs understand the unconscious as a Bsedimented practical schema^ of subjective being in the world. This sedimented unconscious contributes to the way we implicitly interpret reality, fill in the gaps of uncertainty, and invest our social interactions with meaning. Husserl, however, approaches the unconscious in terms of affective non-vivacity, as a sphere of sedimen- tation and the horizon of the distant past which stays affectively connected to the living present. Drawing on these ideas, I argue that these two accounts can reinforce one another and provide the ground for a phenomenological understanding of the uncon- scious in terms of the horizontal dimension of subjective experience and a non- representational relation to the past. Keywords The unconscious . Consciousness . Affectivity. Memory. Sedimentation . Past-horizon . Phenomenology Phenom Cogn Sci DOI 10.1007/s11097-016-9492-9 * Anastasia Kozyreva kozyreva.a@gmail.com 1 Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany 2 Section for Phenomenological Psychopathology and Psychotherapy, Clinic for General Psychiatry, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s11097-016-9492-9&domain=pdf 1 Introduction: situating the problem of the unconscious I can live more things than I can represent to myself, my being is not reduced to what of myself explicitly appears to me (Merleau-Ponty 2012, 310). The topic of the unconscious spans such various fields as philosophy, cognitive science, theoretical and clinical psychology, notoriously including psychoanalysis where this notion finds its most famous conceptualization and therapeutic application. Even though the unconscious is no longer a scandal for science and philosophy, it still holds strong positions as one of the most challenging topics for the research of the human mind. One of such challenges in particular concerns a conceptual contradiction that the idea of the unconscious mental life presents for our understanding of consciousness. As John Kihlstrom points out, it is not the existence of automatic processes in our body and brain that challenges consciousness, but rather the assump- tion that mental life itself can be devoid of its conscious character (Kihlstrom 2013). Such an assumption in turn can lead to a hypothesis that conscious awareness is not a necessary characteristic of the mind and that some part of our mental representations—such as for instance thinking, memory, and perception—can take place without phenomenal awareness and influence our behavior without us realizing it. The theoretical question then arises as to how conceive of the possibility for a mental state (e.g., a thought about one’s brother, a memory of one’s childhood or a seeing of a road sign) to occur in the mental life and not being a conscious thought, an explicit memory or a conscious case of seeing. This puzzling question has defined, for the large part, the respective relations between phenomenology and psychoanalysis in the course of the last century.1 Its formulation can be traced back to Franz Brentano’s work, who not accidentally was a teacher of both Edmund Husserl and Sigmund Freud during their studies in Vienna. Brentano famously argues against possibility of unconscious representations claiming that it amounts to the idea of an unconscious consciousness which in turn bears on a serious contradiction. This contradiction, however, is not a contradiction in terms: the idea of an unconscious consciousness, as he puts it, is not the same as a non-red redness (Brentano 1973, 79). The contradiction is rather a contradiction in essence: something analogous to an unconscious representation would be Ban unseen seeing,^ that is such a seeing that does not see. Maurice Merleau-Ponty brings this line of thought even further when he writes that Ban unconscious thought would be a thought that does not think^ (Merleau-Ponty 2012, 396). 1 Such relations and corresponding theoretical issues have been the subject of several productive investiga- tions. See, for instance, the volume Founding Psychoanalysis Phenomenologically, edited by Dieter Lohmar and Jagna Brudzinska and featuring different approaches to this topic (Lohmar and Brudzinska 2012), as well as a collection of essays Approches phénoménologiques de l'inconscient co-edited by Maria Gyemant and Délia Popa (Gyemant and Popa 2015). Other relevant recent contributions to the topic, such as those by Rudolf Bernet, Aaron Mishara, Dan Zahavi, Thomas Fuchs, Bruce Bégout, Jagna Brudzinska, Nicolas De Warren, and Nicholas Smith, are all to a larger or lesser extent discussed in the present paper. A. Kozyreva This argument, developed in Brentano’s Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint (Brentano 1874), is directly related to his view on consciousness as inner representation (innere Vorstellung)2 which accompanies mental acts, but in such Ba peculiarly intimate way^ that would not lead to an objecti- fying, reflexive relation, nor to infinite regress.3 As he points out, the term Bconsciousness^ refers to the mental phenomenon insofar as this phenome- non has certain content and can therefore be conceived of as a representation of this content accompanied by the representation of the mental phenomenon itself. This implies that, for Brentano, the inconceivability of an unconscious consciousness ensues from the inconceivability of an internally unperceived representation. It also suggests that only mental phenomena with represen- tational content are necessarily accompanied by inner consciousness. For Brentano, of course, this encompasses the totality of mental states since they all are defined by intrinsic intentionality, i.e., directedness towards their primary objects. Thus, the central point in understanding the problem of consciousness and correl- atively of the unconscious, in this perspective, revolves around the representational nature of conscious phenomena. This perspective has been implicitly adopted in both Freud’s and most of Husserl’s writings on the matter and shaped the way they approached the issue. Unlike Brentano, Freud is not threatened by the conceptual contradiction involved in the idea of unconscious representations and instead advocates the possibility of non- conscious mental states which can influence one’s conscious life and behavior. As Bernet points out, Freud’s aim is to understand Bthe way in which unconscious representations appear in consciousness without negating their origin in the unconscious^ (Bernet 2002, 329). In this sense, Freud, in his attempts to clarify the unconscious, still largely relies on the possibility to conceive of the unconscious representations or, more generally, of the unconscious way of appearing and manifes- tation. At the same time, Freud is convinced that consciousness has strict boundaries and that it makes no sense to expand any notions of it so that the concept could somehow include all the complexity of the unconscious. Thus, in A Note on the Unconscious in Psychoanalysis, he claims that not only the form of presentation, but also Bthe laws of unconscious activity differ widely from those of the conscious^ (Freud 2008, 39) and that Bwe have no right to extend the meaning of this word [i.e., conscious] so far as to make it include a consciousness of which its owner himself is not aware^ (Freud 2008, 36). Husserl, on the other hand—especially at the early stages of his thought—agrees with Brentano that there is a contradiction in the idea that the unconscious is opposite to 2 Vorstellung is often translated as either Bpresentation^ or Brepresentation.^ The latter appears to be more common and adequate and will be preferred here as well. The main reason for this is that the use of the term in its current philosophical meaning was established in Kant’s philosophy, who employed it as a German version of the Latin term representatio (Cassin and Rendall 2014, 891). Note, however, that in the English translation of Brentano’s Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint the term is translated as Bpresentation.^ 3 In this spirit, he claims: BThe presentation (Vorstellung) of the sound and the presentation of the presentation of the sound form a single mental phenomenon; it is only by considering it in its relation to two different objects, one of which is a physical phenomenon and the other a mental phenomenon, that we divide it conceptually into two presentations^ (Brentano 1973, 98). Non-representational approaches to the unconscious consciousness, while influencing it without subject’s awareness. Along these lines, in Logical Investigations, he dismisses the task to account for Bobscure, hypothetical events in the soul’s unconscious depths^ (Husserl 1970, 105). In the Appendix IX to his lectures on time-consciousness, Husserl refutes the idea that there can be any Bunconscious^ content that subsequently becomes conscious in retention and insists that Bconsciousness is necessarily consciousness in each of its phases^ (Husserl 1991, 123). For Husserl, consciousness encompasses both the sphere of explicit wakeful awareness and the obscure background of conscious life. In this spirit, in the Ideas II, he points out that the sphere of self-consciousness cannot be restricted only to the narrow scope of attentive or alert awareness, but must include in itself equally all Bbackground,^ obscure conscious experiences (Husserl 1989, 115). In the Appendix to Husserl’s Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology, written by Eugen Fink, the phenomenological stance regarding the problem of the unconscious finds a somewhat different elaboration. Instead of dismissing the significance of the challenge altogether, Fink states that the problem of the unconscious relies on Ba naïve and dogmatic implicit theory about consciousness^ that requires systematic reconsideration. This suggests that a phenom- enological idea of the unconscious is possible, but should be necessarily based on Ban explicit analysis of consciousness^ that employs the methodical means of phenomeno- logical philosophy in general and of the intentional analysis in particular (Husserl 1936/ 1970, 387). Fink’s proposal clearly goes in the direction of the intentional theory of the uncon- scious and supports Husserl’s brief remarks in the same text concerning Bunconscious^ intentionalities (Husserl 1936/1970, 237). The above mentioned appendix was written by Fink in 1936 and is consistent with the general attitude of Husserl’s phenomenology towards Bdepth psychology^ and especially towards the critical position the latter assumes in relation to the Bconsciousness-idealism of phenomenology.^ Husserl’s way to overcome this Bnaïve and dogmatic^ theory of consciousness is related to the transformation of Brentano’s idea of inner consciousness into the absolute inner time- consciousness (Husserl 1991). The resulting conception of consciousness, as Bernet argues, is not at odds with the idea of the unconscious and paves the way to the possible detecting of the Bunconscious mode of appearance^ in acts of presentification (Vergegenwärtigung). In this regard, consciousness and the unconscious are understood as two different types of representations. Such a position is generally consistent with Fink’s indication in the mentioned Appendix that phenomenological analysis of con- sciousness might contribute to the intentional theory of the unconscious. This direction in the phenomenological exploration of the unconscious still relies on the theory of the representational structure of consciousness, even if with significant differences from the one advocated by Brentano and implicitly accepted by Freud. However, this is not the only possible way of exploring consciousness and the unconscious phenomenologically. Another way would be to approach this issue in non-representational terms and to question not merely the mode of appearance of the unconscious, but rather its intrinsic immanence to consciousness and subjective expe- rience. This latter perspective explores the complexity of the unconscious that cannot be easily reduced only to a question of manifestation and representation. The most elaborate version of this approach is pursued in the works of Maurice Merleau-Ponty and Thomas Fuchs. Another non-representational approach to the unconscious can be A. Kozyreva found in Husserl’s later woks related to genetic phenomenology and passive constitu- tion of subjective experience. Thus I assume that there are two main directions in the phenomenological under- standing of the unconscious: one exploring the intentional theory of the unconscious and the other inquiring into a non-representational way of approaching consciousness and the unconscious respectively. In the framework of contemporary phenomenology, an example of the first account can be found in Bernet’s analysis of the unconscious representations in phantasy. His approach underlines a particular aspect of the issue, namely the manifestation of unconscious representations in the reproductive inner consciousness. According to Bernet’s interpretation, the unconscious can be clarified phenomenologically not as Bamputated, unperceived consciousness^ (Bernet 2002, 330) but as another type of self-consciousness. Such self-consciousness is defined in respect of what appears (the absent, the alien) and how it appears in consciousness (reproductively as opposed to impressionally), but not in terms of this appearance being itself devoid of a certain Bconscious^ quality or accompanying representation. Jagna Brudzinska’s work is also closely related to Bernet’s approach. She describes the unconscious as Ba phantasmatic- imaginary structure of intentionality^ and views the unconscious as the manifestation of absence and originary otherness (Brudzinska 2006). The importance of non-representational approaches to the unconscious has been emphasized by Dan Zahavi in his book Self-Awareness and Alterity. Notably, he claims that when Bphenomenology moves beyond an investigation of object-manifestation and act-intentionality, it enters a realm that has traditionally been called the unconscious^ (Zahavi 1999, 207). By drawing attention to Husserl’s analyses of affectivity and passivity, Zahavi proposes that we see the phenomenological unconscious as a funda- mentally altered form of consciousness and a Bdepth-structure of subjectivity^ (Zahavi 1999, 206). Aaron Mishara provides a thorough analysis of this aspect of Husserl’s work in the phenomenological clarification of the unconscious in his article BHusserl and Freud: Time, memory and the unconscious^ (Mishara 1990). This line of thought is also central to the present article. Husserl’s analyses of passivity and pre-predicative experience have been a major source of inspiration for phenomenological approaches to the unconscious and other closely related phenomena. For instance, in his recent book Towards a Phenomenology of Repression, Nicholas Smith develops a phenomenological model for understanding Freud’s concept of the unconscious by focusing on the theory of repression. He also relies heavily on Husserl’s analyses of passivity and genetic constitution and paves the way toward understanding repression within the sphere of the living present as Ba necessary part of all constitution^ (Smith 2010, 305). Another interesting facet of contemporary phenomenological discussion about the unconscious is the topic of dreams and sleep in the works of Nicolas de Warren. In his article BThe Inner Night: Towards a Phenomenology of (Dreamless) Sleep,^ de Warren takes on the challenge that the phenomenon of dreamless sleep presents to our conceptions of consciousness and self-awareness. By exploring this experience that Bexists for no one^ and venturing into the depths of Husserl’s analyses of time-consciousness and passivity, de Warren presents sleep as the way that consciousness constitutes itself as the absence of itself (de Warren 2010). His insightful analyses of the metaphor of sleep contribute to the phenomenological clarification of the past, self-forgetting, and the unconscious. De Non-representational approaches to the unconscious Warren’s analyses in fact run parallel to my own attempts to bring together Husserl’s and Merleau-Ponty’s ideas of sedimentation, past-horizon, and the past existing in the mode of oblivion. Equally important to the phenomenological clarification of the unconscious is the topic of drives and instincts. In Husserl’s approach, drive-intentionality (Triebintentionalität) has quite broad implications that range from analyses of concrete bodily drives to a universal drive-intentionality that generally motivates the protentional openness of the streaming life of subjectivity (Husserl 1973, 595). Drives, as tendencies emerging in obscurity, belong to the sphere of the senses, which Husserl also calls Ba hidden reason^ (verborgener Vernunft) and which constitutes the pre- cognitive, passive level of subjective experience (Husserl 1989, 277). Non-objectifying drive-intentionality presents an interesting case of a non-representational relation to objects and has direct links to the psychoanalytic perspective, which becomes partic- ularly evident in Husserl’s later manuscripts (Husserl 2014). Husserl’s deliberations on this topic have attracted a considerable amount of attention in phenomenological literature, some of which draws explicit connections to the issues of repression and drives in Freud’s work (Lee 1993; Brudzinska 2004; Smith 2010). These discussions demonstrate that contemporary phenomenology has no reserva- tions about taking seriously the challenge of the unconscious and that there are several valuable avenues of thought arising out of this topic. In the framework of this paper, I will focus on one of these, namely, the non-representational way of accounting for the unconscious in phenomenology. The idea is to explore not only critical arguments exposing the insufficiency of representational approaches but also to propose a con- structive phenomenological account of the non-representational unconscious. As will be shown, such an account can be found in theories which explore how subjectivity is connected to its past life beyond the representational relation constituted by explicit remembering. When it is acknowledged that our experience is not restricted to repre- sentational content, it becomes possible to see the unconscious as a horizontal dimen- sion that connects past and present without making this past an explicit object of observation. Such an approach therefore is not restricted to the living present, nor is it focused on unconscious intentionalities. Rather, it explores this particular horizontal Bopening upon the past^ (Merleau-Ponty 2012, 413) that makes subjective experience meaningful and consistent with itself. On the one hand, the main advantage of such non-representational approaches consists of breaking with the unfortunate view of the unconscious as a hidden reservoir of past experiences piling up Bbehind the back^ of consciousness, as well as with the contradictory concept of the unconscious consciousness, or Bmemory that does not remember.^ On the other hand, phenomenological treatment of such phenomena as sedimentation, forgetting, body memory, and affectivity allows for the preservation of the very idea of the unconscious by approaching it as a horizontal dimension of subjective experience. The results of this approach can arguably be extended to the area of cognitive psychology and its views on the so-called cognitive unconscious and implicit memory. Accordingly, in what follows I will look into two major examples of non- representational accounts. First, I will present Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s and Thomas Fuchs’ proposal for an approach to the unconscious as a Bsedimented practical schema^ of subjective being in the world. Afterwards, I will turn to Husserl’s idea of affective A. Kozyreva consciousness and examine another possible non-representational phenomenological account of the unconscious. My argument is that both Husserl’s and Merleau-Ponty’s accounts of the unconscious can reinforce one another and provide a ground for the phenomenological approach to the unconscious in terms of non-representational rela- tion to the past. In the conclusion, I will situate the non-representational approach to the unconscious in relation to the issue of cognitive unconscious and implicit memory as discussed in cognitive psychology. 2 Non-representational accounts of the unconscious: Merleau-Ponty and Fuchs on the unconscious and body memory The critique of the representationalist approach to consciousness and correspondingly to the unconscious is characteristic of several post-Husserlian phenomenological pro- jects.4 Arguably the most fruitful account of non-representational consciousness inside the phenomenological tradition is given by Maurice Merleau-Ponty, who emphasizes the role of embodiment, being in the world, and of intersubjectivity as fundamental constitutive dimensions of subjectivity. He asserts that Bthere is no private sphere of consciousness^ (Merleau-Ponty 2012, 395) and that consciousness is entirely transcen- dence, Bthe simultaneous contact with my being and with the being of the world^ (Merleau-Ponty 2012, 396). For him, this implies the reevaluation of the very idea of transcendence and of intentionality, which accordingly can be understood not as a cognitive relation to an object by positing it mentally in one’s mind, but rather as a concrete embodied and situated directedness towards the world. In his Phenomenology of Perception, Merleau-Ponty adopts Husserl’s notion of Boperative^ intentionality (fungierende Intentionalität) and interprets it as a pre- reflective directedness which establishes a natural, pre-predicative unity of our being in the world (Merleau-Ponty 2012, lxxxii). Contrary to act-intentionality, which de- scribes the relation to objects on the level of judgments and reasoning, and thereby constitutes the basis for objective knowledge, operative intentionality can be under- stood as Bthe body-subject’s concrete, spatial and pre-reflective directedness towards the living world^ (Reuter 1999, 72). While bringing the subject’s embodiment and the practical nature of bodily directedness to the foreground of the constitutional issue, Merleau-Ponty points to an apparent insufficiency of representational accounts. Such accounts, so his argument goes, fail to make sense of a particular intentionality involved in the performance of movements5 and all essentially bodily phenomena. Furthermore, they lead to an altogether false image of subjectivity, featuring it as 4 For example, Bernet underlines that Bthe development of the analysis of intentionality by Heidegger, Aron Gurwitsch, Sartre, Merleau-Ponty and Michel Henry has been basically nothing other than a putting into question of the representationalist objectivism and the egological subjectivism progressively installed by Husserl at the beginning of this century^ (Bernet 1994, 231). 5 BThis [accomplishment of a movement] is only possible if consciousness is not defined as the explicit positing of its objects, but rather more generally as a reference to an object that is practical as much as theoretical. That is, if consciousness is defined as being in the world, and if the body in turn is defined not as one object among others, but as the vehicle of being in the world. So long as consciousness is defined through representation, the only possible operation for it is of forming representations^ (Merleau-Ponty 2012, 525). Non-representational approaches to the unconscious consisting of distinct representations which are either available or unavailable to conscious awareness. Merleau-Ponty highlights two main problems in understanding consciousness and the unconscious in representational terms. The first problem, which he ascribes to the philosophies of consciousness, consists in the impossibility to conceive of any content of experience beyond the Bmanifest content spread out in distinct representations^ (Merleau-Ponty 2012, 171). The second problem, belonging to the theories of the unconscious, Bis to double this manifest content with a latent content, also made up of representation^ (Merleau-Ponty 2012, 171). He uses an example of sexuality to make a point that featuring it in terms of either conscious or unconscious representations does not come any closer to understanding its continuous presence Bin human life as an atmosphere^ (Merleau-Ponty 2012, 171). Merleau-Ponty’s critique of the approach to consciousness and the unconscious as consisting of representations is directly related to his idea that subjective experience cannot be made transparent to itself, but is instead intrinsically characterized by its self- opacity and fundamental ambiguity. In this case, Merleau-Ponty clearly diverges from Cartesian as well as Husserlian ideal of certainty and their belief that self-consciousness provides us with a perfect vantage point towards inner workings of our minds. Instead, he draws on the idea of bodily structure of perception, where the body is both what perceives and what stays invisible for itself: Bit [the body] is neither tangible nor visible insofar as it is what sees and touches^ (Merleau-Ponty 2012, 94). The ambiguity of bodily experience and the non-representational character of bodily awareness and perception lie at the foundation of Merleau-Ponty’s view of subjectivity and inspire his descriptions of various phenomena. Contrary to representational approaches that feature contents of conscious experience through what appears to the subject, Merleau- Ponty believes that what we acquire through experience is not represented in our minds in either conscious or unconscious way.6 He claims that we can live more things than we can represent to ourselves and that our experience is by no means restricted to the content of intentional representations (Merleau-Ponty 2012, 310). Thus Merleau-Ponty makes a radical suggestion for the phenomenological theory of the unconscious—to avoid talking about conscious vs. unconscious representations altogether, and rather understand the unconscious as a Bsedimented practical schema^ (Merleau-Ponty 2010, 191) and as our own self-opacity. In a similar vein, in the Phenomenology of Perception, he gives examples of situated feelings and actions, which are defined as much by their directedness to objects as by their ambiguity and obscurity regarding their own contextuality: BWe would be equally wrong by making sexuality crystallize in ‘unconscious representations’ or by setting up in the depths of the dreamer a consciousness that can identify sexuality by name. Similarly, love cannot be given a name by the lover who lives it. It is not a thing that one could outline and designate, it is not the same love spoken of in books and newspapers, because it is rather the way the lover establishes his relations with the world; it is an existential signification. The criminal does not see his crime, nor the traitor his betrayal, but not because these exist deep within him as unconscious representations or tendencies, but rather because these crimes or betrayals are so many relatively closed worlds and so 6 On the non-representational account of learning and skill acquisition see Hubert Dreyfus’ paper Intelligence without representation – Merleau-Ponty’s critique of mental representation (Dreyfus 2002). A. Kozyreva many situations. If we are situated, then we are surrounded and cannot be transparent to ourselves, and thus our contact with ourselves must only be accomplished in ambiguity^ (Merleau-Ponty 2012, 401) – my emphasis. Here we can see that such ambiguity and self-opacity refer not merely to impossibility of complete self- knowledge but rather to what Merleau-Ponty calls Bsituatedness^ of subjective expe- rience. In other words, we are intransparent to ourselves because our experience is not restricted to representational content and thereby cannot be made an explicit object of observation. Along the same lines, in his lecture courses on Institution and Passivity and Visible and Invisible, Merleau-Ponty presents the unconscious as Bperceptual consciousness,^7 drifting not that far from the definition of the unconscious in terms of the intrinsic self- opacity of conscious experience. Already in Husserl, perception is described as an unending process, in which objects appear only to a certain degree of approximation and never in fullness (Husserl 2001). For Merleau-Ponty, it means that perceptual consciousness relies on unconscious syntheses which complete our otherwise fragmen- tary view of reality by means of particular subjective predispositions and a sedimented history. The unconscious can be therefore understood as a background against which we see objects, not as something that can be grasped in our representations of these objects: BThis unconscious is to be sought not at the bottom of ourselves, behind the back of our ‘consciousness,’ but in front of us, as articulations of our field. It is ‘unconscious’ by the fact that it is not an object, but it is that through which objects are possible, it is the constellation wherein our future is read—It is between them as the interval of the trees between the trees, or as their common level. It is the Urgemeinschaftung of our intentional life, the Ineinander of the others in us and of us in them^ (Merleau-Ponty 1968, 180). The description of the unconscious as the Binterval between the trees^ appears to be quite a precise analogy: the unconscious is literally taken to be the way we fill in the gaps of uncertainty in objects’ perception—and what is more—a way which determines how exactly we will relate to them. Different people will fill up the gaps between these metaphorical trees quite differently: depending on their background and individual history, someone might see a situation as threatening, while someone else might see an equivalent situation as promising and exciting. It is an interesting feature of our experience that when a certain amount of information is missing (which is the case for any kind of inadequate or essentially incomplete experience, such as perception and interaction with other people), we tend to fill it in with our expectations based on previous experiences. Even if we see objects only from a certain perspective and never from all possible angles, our perception still functions as if it were complete. Thus, when Merleau-Ponty claims that Bperception is unconsciousness^ (Merleau- Ponty 1968, 189), he intends to emphasize not what one directly perceives as an object as being unconsciousness, but that perception functions as a medium through which objects are perceived in this or that manner. He states that uconsciousness Bis and is not perceived. For one perceives only figures upon levels—and one perceives them only by relation to the level, which therefore is unperceived^ (Ibid). Such a definition of the 7 BThese descriptions [i.e., of oneric consciousness] mean that the unconscious is a perceptual consciousness, it proceeds like perceptual consciousness by means of a logic of implication and promiscuity, it gradually follows a path whose total slope it does not know […]^ (Merleau-Ponty 2010, 208). Non-representational approaches to the unconscious unconscious as a perceptual consciousness however does not imply that Merleau-Ponty ever intended to reject the distinction between consciousness and the unconscious altogether. He rather sought to avoid understanding the unconscious in terms of another psychic reality or some kind of other BI think,^ which forms representations Bbehind the back^ of the conscious subject (Merleau-Ponty 2010, 207). Instead of the strictly dualistic idea separating conscious and unconscious processing, Merleau-Ponty de- velops the idea that the unconscious is a necessary part of any conscious experience. The unconscious thus is not the opposite of consciousness, it is Bthe very perceptual consciousness in its ambiguity, opacity, multiplicity of meanings, and unending quest for interpretation^ (Stawarska 2008, 62). A similar critique of representationalism regarding consciousness and the uncon- scious returns in Merleau-Ponty’s accounts of memory in his lecture course on Insti- tution and Passivity. In this course, the problem of memory oscillates between two modes of our relation to the past: memory as Bconstruction^ and memory as Bconservation^ of the past. In the first mode, roughly corresponding to that of explicit memory, the past is constituted as an object of one’s recollections. This is a transcen- dent past which gets to be constantly recreated in the history of subjective transforma- tions. It is a Bconstruction^ as long as it becomes the past which I can remember and bring to my present awareness and link it actively to other events in my life. This is not the past which merely happened, but rather the past as it is remembered. As to the second mode, Merleau-Ponty first calls it Bconservation^ of the past, only to subse- quently criticize this formulation as it relies on the idea of memory-traces or represen- tations residing in some kind of reservoir or collector of past experiences. Refuting this idea, Merleau-Ponty nevertheless claims that there is the past for us, which exists not in the mode of remembering but in the mode of oblivion.8 Once again, the very idea of representation proves to be the main enemy obstructing the comprehension of subjective relations with the past, which makes the past either a mere construction of one’s memory or a mere collection of memory-traces. Merleau- Ponty thinks that the truth lies in between these two modes of past-relation and can only be articulated when the idea of representation regarding memory is abandoned alto- gether. He claims that memory should not be seen as an opposite of forgetting but that it could be elucidated through our relation with a past on the pre-reflective level of embodied existence (Merleau-Ponty 2010, 208–209). To summarize, there are several important steps clarifying Merleau-Ponty’s ap- proach to psychoanalysis and to the problem of the unconscious. First of all, unlike Husserl, Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenology finds itself confronted with the same chal- lenge which was central to the psychoanalytic endeavor and which concerns the issue of consciousness being intransparent to itself and defined as much by its explicit as by its implicit or latent dimensions. As he puts it: BPhenomenology and psychoanalysis are not parallel; much better, they are aiming toward the same latency^ (Merleau-Ponty 1993, 71). Secondly, Merleau-Ponty believed that the idea of representation obscures the understanding of both consciousness and the unconscious. He aims to overcome this limitation in his theory of operative intentionality, embodiment, and perceptive consciousness. In the perspective opened by these ideas, he features the unconscious as a sedimented practical schema and as the subject’s ambiguity with regard to his own 8 BLe passé existe dans le mode de l’oubli^ (Merleau-Ponty 2003, 272). A. Kozyreva situatedness in the world. And finally, he applies his critique of representationalism to the phenomenon of memory and suggests that the subject’s relation to the past is mediated by forgetting as much as by remembering. These last two directions in understanding the unconscious (via situated, em- bodied, perceptive consciousness and via non-representational relations to the past) remain very close to each other within Merleau-Ponty’s thought. The nec- essary step to bring them together has been accomplished by Thomas Fuchs’ phenomenology of body memory, one of the aims of which is to bring to the fore the basic temporal structure of embodied existence. By analyzing the phenomenon of implicit memory, Fuchs shows that it consists in a different kind of presence of the past than that of the explicit memory. While explicit recollection presumes the presentification of one’s past experiences in a personal autobiographic memory, implicit memory, for its part, cannot be clarified via any kind of representational relation. As embodied subjects we cannot be said to have the past as an object, but rather we are ourselves this past (Fuchs 2000, 76). This past becomes a modus of one’s bodily existence and stays unnoticed but effective, unseen but present through bodily dispositions, familiarities, habits, unintentional avoidances and omissions. Body memory serves as a foundation for our personal identity—such an identity which exists beyond explicit memory and narratives we tell about our lives, but instead constitutes the indispensable basis for our self-familiarity. It is personal inasmuch as it accumulates experiences and dispositions specific for each particular individual. The unconscious character of body memory once again is not due to any incarnation of an implicit core of subjectivity behind the back of consciousness in the form of either subconscious psychic or else automatic brain processes. Similar to Merleau-Ponty’s views, Fuchs understands the unconscious not in terms of representations or hidden intentionalities but as a sum of bodily dispositions which tacitly define the individual relation to the world and to other people. For instance, a shy person does not need to form representations either consciously or unconsciously, in which her attitude would find its manifestation. Instead, as Fuchs remarks, such a person would exhibit her attitude in her very posture or tone of the voice, in her avoidance to assert herself firmly in front of other people or to risk expressing her opinions in public. In the same vein, in Merleau-Ponty’s example, love is described not as relation to a person which could be grasped in a particular object-directed intentionality, but rather as Ban existential signification,^ as a Bway the lover establishes his relations with the world^ (Merleau-Ponty 2012, 401). Another example can be found in the phenomenon of traumatic experience, which contributes to the phenomenological clarification of the dynamic uncon- scious. The repressed trauma does not survive as some kind of representation, objective Btrace^ or Bimage,^ which cannot be erased. Instead, it survives Bonly as a style of being and only to a certain degree of generality^ (Merleau-Ponty 2012, 85). As Fuchs points out, the influence of past traumatic experiences on a traumatized person manifests itself in resistance and defensive behavior (not necessarily transparent for the person) in situations triggering such unconscious dispositions (Fuchs 2012a, 98). The unconscious influence of traumatic experi- ences persists not in the form of explicit menacing objects, but as a medium Non-representational approaches to the unconscious making these objects appear as threatening. The dynamic unconscious is therefore not understood as a reservoir for repressed feelings, thoughts or desires, but as transformations of the lived body and the lived space, which restructure one’s field of experience and determine against which background one would see and judge new existential situations and interactions with other people. By extending the life of consciousness beyond the narrow focus of self-knowledge and present awareness, by bringing the experiencing subject back into the intersubjec- tively shared world and into the concreteness of its embodied and affective being, the phenomenology of the lived body overcomes the idea of the unconscious as hidden Bbehind the back^ of consciousness, and takes it as the practical schema of our bodily being in the world and as the structure of our field of perception. Summarizing this position, Fuchs writes: B[The unconscious] surrounds and permeates conscious life, just as in picture puzzles the figure hidden in the background surrounds the foreground, and just as the lived body conceals itself while functioning. It is an unconscious which is not located in the vertical dimension of the psyche but rather in the horizontal dimension of lived space, most of all lodging in the intercorporeality of dealings with others, as the hidden reverse side of day-to-day living^ (Fuchs 2012a, 100). While Bernet claims that the unconscious is the presence of the absent, appearance of the non-appearing, Fuchs develops Merleau-Ponty’s opposing view that the uncon- scious is Babsence in presence, the unperceived in the perceived^ (Fuchs 2012a, 101). This absence however is not the concealed or isolated reverse side of consciousness, but rather its own way of being—the sum of incorporated predispositions, habits and the like, which themselves do not appear in any graspable way, but instead constitute a background against which we relate to the world. 3 A non-representational account of the affective unconscious in Husserl’s Analyses Concerning Passive Synthesis Husserl’s own most consistent attempt to provide an account of the unconscious hinges upon the level of pre-predicative experience and passive constitution. Similarly to the previously discussed phenomenological approaches, for Husserl the unconscious is also the problem of consciousness. He decides, however, to work on it against the background of the idea of affectivity and associative syntheses, and not starting from the idea of cogito or intentional representation. A sketch of the phenomenological theory of the unconscious can be found in Husserl’s Analyses concerning Passive Synthesis and later manuscripts, which are now published in the volume 42 of Husserliana: Grenzprobleme der Phänomenologie: Analysen des Unbewusstseins und der Instinkte, Metaphysik, späte Ethik: Texte aus dem Nachlass (1908–1937). In my view, there are three important aspects of the affective unconscious in Husserl that should be made explicit here. The first concerns its formal definition in terms of Grenzphänomen which designates the unconscious as the zero-level of affective vivac- ity and features it as relative to the graduality of consciousness. The second corresponds to the idea of the affective past-horizon and the unconscious as Bsedimented.^ The third explores the topic of the affective conflict and Husserl’s take on the issue of repression. Inquiry into these three aspects of the unconscious in Husserl’s genetic phenomenology will allow us to see that not only Merleau-Ponty’s but also Husserl’s phenomenology A. Kozyreva can contribute to understanding consciousness and the unconscious in the non- representational way.9 3.1 Zero-point of affective vitality and the unconscious as Grenzphänomen The first and the most basic sense of the unconscious for Husserl is the non-vivacity as opposed to different degrees of vivacity of consciousness. In the Analyses, Husserl employs several metaphors to describe this phenomenon. Some of them, as Aaron Mishara illustrates (Mishara 1990, 36), evoke images from the German Romantic literary tradition, such as those of the Bnightfall^ or the Bnight of the unconscious.^ Nicolas de Warren underlines Husserl’s employment of wakefulness and sleep as metaphors for transformations of time-consciousness, where de-presentification in retention and loss of Bintuitivity^ are seen as analogous to Bfalling asleep^ (de Warren 2010). Other terms are also used by Husserl to feature the unconscious as the underworld and the realm of death. Closely related to these metaphors are the archeological images of sedimentation.10 Other expressions play with the psychological and even psychophysical vocabulary of the time and situate Husserl’s notion of the unconscious at the threshold of affective intensity. The difference between conscious and unconscious is grasped in terms of foreground/background differentiations and in reference to affective power and powerlessness (Kraftlosigkeit). Mathematical vocab- ulary provided Husserl with another useful term for the unconscious as the zero level of vivacity and an Baffective zero-horizon^ (affektiver Nullhorizont) (Husserl 2001, 216/ 167). What brings these different metaphors and analogies together is an attempt to situate the unconscious at the border of the affective vivacity of consciousness. Such a border, however, is not something that exists objectively, which could be measured or deter- mined in quantitative terms. Moreover, Husserl does not need to suggest any functional relation between the intensity of conscious representations and the intensity of physical phenomena, since from the start he attributes intensity or vivacity to consciousness itself and not to its content. In this spirit, he writes: B[The unconscious] designates the nil of this vivacity of consciousness and, as will be shown, is in no way a nothing: A nothing only with respect to affective force and therefore with respect to those accomplishments that presuppose precisely a positively valued affectivity (above the zero-point). It is thus not a matter of a Bzero^ like a nil in the intensity of qualitative moments, e.g., in intensity of sound, since by this we mean that the sound has ceased altogether (Husserl 2001, 216). The unconscious in Husserl is clearly a concept founded on the idea of affective graduality of consciousness and designates the zero-level of affective vivacity. How- ever, the unconscious in this sense is by no means an opposite of consciousness, but is 9 An important aspect of this topic, namely the one that concerns drives and instincts, will as such be absent from the current interpretation. However, it is essential to Husserl’s analyses of association and affectivity and thereby makes up part of what I designate here as the affective unconscious. 10 All those metaphors get mixed in Husserl’s descriptions, as for instance : B…every accomplishment of sense or of the object becomes sedimented in the realm of the dead, or rather, dormant horizontal sphere, precisely in the manner of a fixed order of sedimentation: While at the head, the living process receives new, original life, at the feet, everything that is, as it were, in the final acquisition of the retentional synthesis becomes steadily sedimented^ (Husserl 2001, 227) – my emphasis. Non-representational approaches to the unconscious necessarily relative to it. It should be noticed that this formulation makes of the unconscious a Grenzphänomen and does not contribute to the substantial definition of the phenomenon. However, based on this general definition, Husserl succeeds—if not in fully developing a phenomenological account of the unconscious—at least in sketching several directions of its possible elaboration. According to Mishara, there are two different types of the unconscious which can be separated here: the pre-affective unconscious in the impressional sphere of conscious- ness and the unconscious as the sphere of forgetfulness and the remote past (Mishara 1990). In Husserl, this distinction can be found in Appendix 22 to §35 of the Analyses (Husserl 2001, 525). The pre-affective unconscious mostly designates all the multiplic- ity of affective tendencies which do not reach the ego’s awareness and thereby stay in the background against which prominent tendencies come to be differentiated. In my view, this sense of the unconscious as pre-affective should rather be called pre- conscious and distinguished from the proper unconscious which refers to the past- horizon. In what follows, I will restrict my analyses to the unconscious in this latter sense. This terminological choice finds its support in Husserl’s later differentiation between the sphere of the affective past-horizon and of Bsedimentation,^ on the one hand, and the pre-affective background, on the other hand. The term Bunconscious^ is then reserved for the sedimented: Bthere are no other unconscious backgrounds than those of sedimentation^ (Husserl 2014, 37). Thus, in order to understand Husserl’s idea of the unconscious in this sense, we need to focus on the three following notions: background consciousness, past-horizon, and sedimentation. These clarifications will allow to go beyond merely formal definition of the unconscious as Grenzphenomen and to make explicit the important link between the problem of the unconscious and the problem of memory. 3.2 Affective past-horizon and the unconscious as Bsedimented^ The past is a real stumbling block for any theory of memory which seeks not only to explain processes of retention and remembering but equally to understand how the past experience can be preserved so that it can be brought back to awareness. Merleau-Ponty pinpoints a certain paradox here, consisting in the fact that any idea of past-preservation already presumes that this past should be present in some peculiar way (Merleau-Ponty 2012, 436). Husserl successfully deals with this paradox in the case of retention which serves the double purpose of being past in the present and preservation of this present at the same time. The same goes for remembering which by definition is a presentification of the past. Only the remote past, the sphere of forgetfulness and sedimentation, appears to have this status of inexplicable absence: it is nowhere to be found, it does not appear in any way, and yet it must be somehow preserved since it affects our present life implicitly and can be reawakened in the explicit memory. It is almost impossible to avoid this paradox within the frame of the temporal analytics of consciousness since this paradox itself belongs to the temporal order. As long as one approaches the problem of the past exclusively in terms of its temporal distance, the past becomes necessarily transcendent to the present life of consciousness. However, as already argued in the previous section of the paper, the presence of the remote past and its effectiveness in nearly any domain of one’s present life can be approached without necessarily conceiving of it in terms of hidden representations, but A. Kozyreva rather as an implicit dimension incorporated in one’s way of being. Both Merleau- Ponty and Fuchs appeal to this dimension in terms of one’s personal history as sedimented in the living body and the way it inhabits its space. Husserl also developed an idea of sedimentation and the remote past which served the purpose to solve the mentioned paradox and to explain how the Bsphere of forgetfulness^ can remain connected with the present life of consciousness. In order to do so, Husserl speaks of the constitution of the past in terms of horizon, which makes the inclusion of the past in the sphere of living present possible only in its potentiality and not in its actuality. This potentiality of the past-horizon is made possible due to the retentional structure of consciousness as well as due to the fact that near retention belongs to the impressional present which serves as a source of all affective force. The past-horizon is further divided into spheres of close past, as the near horizon of living retention, and the horizon of the distant past or B‘the forgotten’ that carries on the differentiated retentional path of the past^ (Husserl 2001, 529). This retentional path is carried on into an indeterminate empty horizon, that Husserl describes as Bdead horizon,^ Bendless past,^ Bsphere of forgetfulness^ and finally as the unconscious (Husserl 2001, 513–525).11 The horizon of the distant past presents a serious problem for the idea of temporal continuity of consciousness because it presumes the extension of the retentional process beyond the point where this process itself is finished. 12 An important aspect of Husserl’s solution to this issue consists in considering this remote past-horizon not exclusively in terms of its temporal constitution but as an Baffective horizon,^—that is as constituted essentially through modifications of the affective vivacity of conscious- ness. Importantly, in the Analyses, retention means not only temporal modification but designates equally the loss of affective vivacity. The past-horizon, accordingly, is described as a horizon of affective gradations, which extends from its peak in the impressional present to the less and less affective retentional past until it reaches the point of ineffectiveness. 11 Similarly, in her analyses on retention in Husserl, Lanei Rodemeyer distinguishes between Bnear^ and Bfar^ retention (Rodemeyer 2006, 88–91). Whereas the former is involved in the constitution of the living present, the latter designates what is here called the distant past-horizon. In my work, I prefer maintaining this distinction in terms of retention and Bpast-horizon^ (instead of distinguishing between near and far retention) for several reasons. First, this terminological choice allows to overcome all possible confusion between Bnear^ and Bfar^ types of retention, while preserving the sense of retention for the continuous temporal modification of the living present into the just-past. Secondly, it allows to clearly preserve Husserl’s own difficulties regarding the extent of the retentional process. For him, retention presupposes, in the first place, a Bconnection to the immediate realm of the present^ (Husserl 2001, 416), whereas the distant Bsubmerged^ past exceeds the process of retentional modification. Husserl underlines that the retentional process stops at some point and gets transformed into the sphere of sedimented unconscious. This sedimented distant past constitutes the core of the past-horizon. Finally, the use of the term Bpast-horizon^ instead of Bfar retention^ allows to overcome the merely temporal aspects of the constitution of the past. The term Bpast-horizon,^ therefore, is conceptually more suggestive and allows accounting for not merely temporal, but also Bunconscious^ and affective aspects of the distant past, as well as underlying its horizontal connectedness with the present. 12 In this spirit, Husserl points out that the unconscious as sedimented past history goes beyond temporal modifications: BThe past is finished time (erledigte Zeit), the finished duration […]^ (Husserl 2001, 520). He further asserts that the retentional process ceases and sinks into the atemporal unconscious: BEarlier I thought that this retentional streaming and the constitution of the past would continue to go on incessantly even within complete obscurity. But now it seems to me that one can dispense with this hypothesis. The process itself ceases. […] this retentional modification leads further and further into the one nil^ (Husserl 2001, 226). Non-representational approaches to the unconscious The retentional modification, as Husserl underlines repeatedly, is a transformation of consciousness itself, consisting of changing modes of temporal appearances as well as in the affective depleting of the original impressions. In this regard, de Warren points out that retentional consciousness not only B‘de-presentifies’ its intentional object but also ‘de-presentifies’ itself^ (de Warren 2010, 283). By this he means that becoming unconscious is inherent to conscious self-transformation. However, the retentional process is not only depleting and Bclouding over,^ but it is equally a process of identification, inasmuch as it is the conservation of noematic senses of objects: BAnd when there is no affection coming from the diverse objects, then these diverse objects have slipped into sheer nightfall, in a special sense, they have slipped into the unconscious^ (Husserl 2001, 221). This Bnightfall,^ however, is not nothing: all noematic senses are preserved there, but in such a peculiar and undifferentiated manner that prevents them from reaching conscious awareness. Thus, on the one hand, the retentional process is a process of identification securing the sameness of objective senses. On the other hand, it is a process of affective depleting and temporal modification. It means that an objective sense’s temporal mode changes, loses its affective impact on the impressional present and yet the sense itself is not altered in these transformations. A song heard yesterday is still the same song, even if it no longer belongs to one’s actual field of experience: BIn the fading away, the tone itself thus does not lose anything that it originally was; if it is given at the end as completely empty of differences with respect to content, then this concerns its mode of givenness, not it itself^ (Husserl 2001, 220). Such a transformation of the mode of givenness consists in a shift Bfrom an explicit sense to an implicit sense^ (Husserl 2001, 223). Moreover, empty presentations themselves cannot be described in terms of representational or explicit intentionality. The object-directedness in the past is there- fore grasped as Bimplicit intentionality^ (Husserl 2001, 222), which can be reawakened and brought back to intuitive presentification, but which as such is in no way an actual objectifying intention. Now, an important question needs to be answered on how this affectively depleted and temporally distant past can be reawakened again. Husserl claims that the uncon- scious past-horizon is a necessary condition for affective awakening and the latter is a prerequisite for remembering: BAwakening is possible because the constituted sense is actually implied in background-consciousness, in the non-living form that is called here unconsciousness^ (Husserl 2001, 228). In the process of awakening of the distant past, an affectively discharged, sedimented sense Bemerges^ from out of the Bfog^ and Bwhat is implicit becomes explicit once more^ (Husserl 2001, 223–224). Such an awakening is a product of affective communication 13 and therefore a product of associative synthesis. Affective awakening of the past and remembering are two closely related phenom- ena, which, however, should not be identified. While the first is essentially a phenom- enon of affective nature, by means of which a past sense regains its affective force, the latter is an act of intuitive presentification, in which a sense becomes the object of an explicit intention. BThe affective awakening,^—as Husserl remarks—Bdoes not bring 13 BAffective communication would mean that every contribution of affective force by any ‘member’ of something connected in distance through homogeneity and prominence augments the force of all its ‘comrades’^ (Husserl 2001, 224). A. Kozyreva the uniform sense to intuition […], but does indeed effect an un-uncovering^ (Husserl 2001, 225). Not all affectively awakened senses become actual intuitions or recollec- tions, most of them never reach this level. In this sense, remembering is the transition of an awakened empty presentation in reproductive intuition. Without this awakening no remembering would be ever possible. Thus remembering is a modification of the mode of givenness of an objective sense and thereby of consciousness itself, and so is the retention: the latter changes the impressional consciousness into an undifferentiated past-horizon, the former transforms it into reproductive consciousness of the past. Bernet claims that such a reproductive consciousness itself can be understood as unconscious representation. However, in Husserl, the unconscious does not correspond to reproduction, but rather to the undifferentiated consciousness of the past-horizon. Moreover, I think it is consistent to claim that this consciousness is by no means a representational or an intentional one, but is an affective consciousness of the indistinct horizon of the past, which Husserl also calls background-consciousness: BOne may well say that within the zero-stage, all special affections have passed over into a general indifferentiated affection; all special consciousnesses have passed over into one, general, persistently available background- consciousness of our past, the consciousness of the completely unarticulated, complete- ly indistinct horizon of the past, which brings to a close the living, moving retentional past^ (Husserl 2001, 220). In this sense, the past and all its content is preserved as a Bhorizon,^ temporally and affectively relative to the impressional consciousness. Accordingly, the preliminary conclusion can be drawn that there are two main modes of our relation to the past: the remembered past, in which it becomes an object of explicit recollection, and the affective past, which is present as an affective horizon and as a sphere of sedimentation and forgetfulness. In this latter perspective, the past has no other reality which could be attributed to it besides affective reality, relative to one’s impressional present. In the Analyses as well as in later manuscripts, Husserl clarifies it as a sphere of unconscious sedimentation (Sedimentierung), whose affective status is always dependent on the actual impressional experience. The idea of the unconscious as the past-horizon constituted through affective and temporal modifications is closely linked to the idea of its ineffectiveness. If, as Husserl insists, Bpositive affective force is the fundamental condition of all life^ (Husserl 2001, 219), and if the affective vivacity of the unconscious is close to zero, then its affective impact must be fully dependent on the conditions of the present subjective experience. And indeed, this seems to be exactly what Husserl implies claiming that the affective reinforcement for the awakening of past senses must always come from the living present, as well as from dispositions and motivations inherent to it. Although this position is arguably justified as it comes to the general conditions of affectivity (if the living present is completely empty and lifeless no communication with the past is possible), it nevertheless causes some trouble regarding the affective status of the past itself. Moreover, the reality of our subjective experience may cast some doubts on Husserl’s view. The riddle of the past asserts its importance not because it has lost its impact on our present life but precisely because it has not. There are past experiences, which however temporally distant remain constantly affectively present to us, even if their influence as such remains unnoticed. Also, the distinction between the sedimented, as characteristic of the distant past, and the totality of non-sedimented, as Non-representational approaches to the unconscious characteristic of the living present (Husserl 2014, 37), might appear contradictory. There is indeed a level of implicit and sedimented experience which by no means can be called unconscious as ineffective and dead for us. In what follows, I shall investigate the possibility to account for this issue within Husserl’s own approach. Notably, it is in these deliberations concerning repression and affective conflict that Husserl comes closer than ever to drawing some explicit connections between the psychoanalytical and phenomenological approaches to the unconscious. 3.3 Affective conflict and the unconscious as repressed One of the radical differences between Freud’s and Husserl’s theories of the uncon- scious concerns the affective status of the past and its capacity to affect the present. While for Husserl the unconscious corresponds to the zero level of affective intensity, it is the affective capacity of the unconscious which plays the major role for Freud. The main reason for taking the unconscious as ineffective and incapable of exercising any influence on the present consciousness lies in the very idea which specifies the unconscious as a frontier and the final point of modification and vitality. However, Husserl also outlined other directions of enquiry concerning the affective status of the remote past and the sphere of forgetfulness. Already in the Appendix 19 to the Analyses, he questions the possible development of affections as Bprogressing^ or Brousing from the unconscious^ (Husserl 2001, 518–519). In order to understand this line of thought, it is fruitful to address Husserl’s take on the issue of affective suppression. First of all, in the Analyses, Husserl approaches suppression of affective tendencies as a function of contrast. In general, contrast delineates the affective relation between opposite or antagonistic tendencies. The highest form of contrast is affective conflict: BContrast is the affective unification of opposites […] Rivalry, conflict, is the dissen- sion of opposite things^ (Husserl 2001, 514). The applications of the principle of contrast are quite broad. On the one hand, association of contrast can lead to the increase of affective intensity of affectively unified opposite terms. Husserl’s examples include the augmentation of the vivacity of the whole (a string of lights, a melody) by means of contrast between parts, so that a louder tone makes a softer one more noticeable, or a sudden change in brightness of a particular light influences the noticeability of the whole string. On the other hand, contrast in the form of affective conflict can lead to the suppression of concurrent affections, especially if they are not integrally cohesive (Husserl 2001, 514). Interestingly, such suppression can equally result in an increase of affective vivacity which in this case is confined to the unconscious: BIn this case, a special repression takes place, a repression of elements, which were previously in conflict, into the ‘unconscious,’ but not into the integrally cohesive sphere of the distant past; by contrast, in the living conflict, repression takes place as a suppression, as a suppression into non-intuitiveness, but not into non- vivacity—on the contrary, the vivacity gets augmented in the conflict, as analogous to other contrasts^ (Husserl 2001, 514–515). To a certain extent, the concurrence of affective tendencies which Husserl describes as pertaining to the affective relief of the living present is already a case of suppression and affective conflict: stronger affective tendencies win over their weaker counterparts and suppress them into the background. Moreover, any retentional modification also A. Kozyreva presupposes suppression of other affections which gradually lose their affective impact. However, as it can be seen in the above cited quote, Husserl also has something more specific in mind. Affective conflict suppresses the affective tendencies in the uncon- scious, but in such a way that the affective vivacity of these tendencies increase instead of diminish. In this case, affection which is Bwinning out does not annihilate the other ones, but suppresses them^ (Husserl 2001, 518) and this suppression has a reverse effect on vivacity of contrasted affections. In this passage, Husserl underlines that repressed elements sink into the unconscious. However, this is not the unconscious in the sense of cohesive, undifferentiated past that has lost its affective impact. Husserl’s version of the Brepressed^ unconscious is alive and has its own affectivity which even imply that affections can evolve or progress from it. Whether Husserl ultimately meant to separate these two versions of the uncon- scious—as undifferentiated past-horizon and as repressed—cannot be elucidated on the basis of his texts. Nevertheless, the fact that he was aware of the challenge that repression presents to the phenomenological theory of the unconscious is clear. Not accidental in this sense is the way he approaches it, seeing the repressed unconscious more as an open question than a solution: BAffections can play to each other’s advantage here, but they can also disturb one another. An affection, like that of extreme contrast (‘unbearable pain’) can suppress all other affections, or most of them […]—this can mean to reduce to an affective zero—but is there not also a suppression of the affection in which the affection is repressed or covered over, but is still present, and is that not constantly in question here?^ (Husserl 2001, 518).14 It was clear to Husserl that repressed affections do not lose their affective vivacity and can even evolve from the unconscious. Not accidentally, he sees the question of repressed affects as one closely related to Freud’s psychoanalysis. 15 In Husserl’s opinion, the phenomenological clarification of instinctual drives and repressed affec- tions can contribute to the eidetic (as opposed to merely subjective) analyses of the unconscious which were first brought to light by the psychoanalytic approach (Husserl 2014, 126). Bégout, who first linked these fragments from Husserl’s later manuscripts to the question of affective efficacy of the past, believes that this might prove that Husserl’s view on the affectivity of the past is not uniform. He writes in this regard: BIn fact, Husserl develops the decisive idea according to which the repressed affections do not loose, contrary to what one might have thought, their affective validity and effective- ness. Indeed, repression of an affection by another affection privileged by the self, does not nullify its affective force^ (Bégout 2000, 187–188) – my translation. Bégout suggests distinguishing between on the one hand the retentional process, which corresponds to the constitution of the distant past as devoid of affective force, and on the other hand the process of repression, which also leads to non-intuitivity of the past but maintains affective vivacity of the repressed tendencies (Bégout 2000, 14 A similar line of thought returns in the later manuscripts (1934), in which Husserl comes to thematize another kind of affective conflict—the one that belongs to the sphere of drives (Triebe) and affects (Affekte). In the Appendix XIVentitled BEingeklemmter Affekt,^ he notes that the intensity of desire is increased not only in an actual turning of one’s attention towards the object of such desire but also in the opposite case, when one’s desire is ignored and repressed (Husserl 2014, 112). 15 When he claims, for instance: BAlles Verdeckte, jede verdeckte Geltung fungiert mit assoziativer und apperzeptiver Tiefe, was die Freud’sche Methode ermöglicht und voraussetzt^ (Husserl 2014, 113). Non-representational approaches to the unconscious 216). In a similar vein, when Smith addresses the topic of the repressed unconscious in Husserl’s work, he also underlines this double destiny of affective modification in retention. Notably, he shows how Husserl’s analysis of the perseverance of sedimented experiences, especially in the sphere of drives and feelings, contributes to understand- ing the repressed unconscious through the lens of genetic phenomenology (Smith 2010, 228–241). The phenomenon of repression illustrates that the past cannot be reduced only to temporally modified and obscure experience. Quite the contrary, seeing the past from the perspective opened up by analyses of affectivity allows accounting for essential differences in the way that it maintains connections to the living present. In this sense, it is plausible to accept the zero-affectivity of the past-horizon and repressed affectivity as two main types of affective modification, both of which contribute to the phenomeno- logical understanding of the unconscious. To summarize, there are several important points clarifying conception of the unconscious that emerges from Husserl analyses of passive synthesis. First, Husserl approaches the unconscious not in terms of cognitive or intentional structure, but as a phenomenon belonging to the affective order of subjective constitution. Husserl’s idea of affectivity as constitutive dimension of subjectivity paves the way to seeing con- sciousness and the unconscious not as mutually exclusive phenomena but as different levels on the scale of affective intensity. Secondly, Husserl develops his understanding of the affective unconscious as the sphere of sedimented past, horizontally connected to the living present. Concept of the affective past-horizon designates a particular mode of givenness of the past and intends to account for the connectedness between the present and the past life of consciousness which exists beyond the level of explicit memory and underlies the possibility of retroactive affective awakening. Finally, Husserl’s inquiries into the topic of affective conflict and the issue of repression allow enriching his idea of affective modification and thereby contribute to a phenomenological clarification of the affective vivacity of the past. 4 Discussion and conclusion: the unconscious as a non-representational relation to the past The aim of this paper has been to present an alternative to intentional or representa- tional analyses of the unconscious. By systematically exploring the views of Merleau- Ponty, Fuchs and later Husserl, I intended to outline a general theoretical framework for the non-representational approach to the unconscious within the phenomenological tradition. One of the main goals of such an approach is to counter the understanding of the unconscious mental life in terms of mental acts or representations of essentially the same type as conscious mental acts but devoid of any conscious quality. Instead of trying to account for unconscious intentionalities, the authors featured in this paper paved the way to quite a different idea of the unconscious. We have seen that Merleau-Ponty and Fuchs understand the unconscious as a Bsedimented practical schema^ of subjective being in the world, which contributes to the ways by which we implicitly interpret reality, fill in the gaps of uncertainty, and invest our social interactions with meaning. Husserl’s genetic phenomenology reveals another non-representational approach to the unconscious, namely the one based on the A. Kozyreva broadened idea of consciousness and its affective graduality. The most important contribution of Husserl’s account of the unconscious concerns his ideas of sedimenta- tion and the affective past-horizon. Significantly, both Merleau-Ponty’s and Husserl’s conceptions of the unconscious converge on the concepts of sedimentation and hori- zontal openness of subjective experience upon the distant past. These conceptions, however, allow for quite different concrete interpretations of the unconscious: While Merleau-Ponty and Fuchs explore the bodily dimension of the sedimented unconscious, Husserl ventures into a constitutive problematic and accounts for those Bblind^ rules and operations that govern the pre-cognitive life of subjectivity and contribute to the continuous interconnectedness of the sedimented past and the living present. However, when it comes to Husserl’s approach to the unconscious, it should be noted that representational phenomena regarding the past are by no means dismissed by him. As we have seen, he attributes to the unconscious a peculiar form of Bempty presentation,^ devoid of affective vitality. Distinct from non-objectifying intentionality of awakened affections, as well as from explicit intentionality of recollections, Bempty presentations^ must be yet another kind of implicit intention. In these, Husserl asserts, the identical senses must be preserved in an implicit form without any actual intention taking place.16 In Merleau-Ponty’s terms, one could say that the idea of the past as preservation of memory Btraces^ is not completely alien to Husserl’s thought. There is still some vagueness in Husserl’s idea of the past: On the one hand, he conceives of it as horizontal and constituted through temporal and affective modifications while remain- ing connected to the present and containing the intrinsic possibility of awakening. On the other hand, the status of empty presentations, in which objective senses are preserved in the unconscious, is far from clear. I believe that at this point Merleau- Ponty’s critique of representational intentionality of the unconscious is justified and should complement Husserl’s idea of the affective past-constitution. If our present is directed towards the past in the horizontal manner,17 this should not imply that the past is preserved in the form of unconscious, empty presentations. Merleau-Ponty’s idea is that the unconscious and the past should be thought of not as sedimented in any representational way but rather as sedimented in the very structure of one’s personality and behavior, in the way one perceives and interprets the world. Although I have stressed that representational approaches to the unconscious are characteristic of early psychological and philosophical theories such as those of Brentano, Freud, and early Husserl, it is important to note that understanding the unconscious in terms of hidden mental representations is by no means absent from contemporary research. For instance, Kihlstrom’s influential conception of the cogni- tive or psychological unconscious still largely relies on the idea of unconscious representations. Kihlstrom distinguishes between two different uses of the term 16 As Bégout shows, such an idea might even undermine Husserl’s fundamental definition of intentionality in terms of noetic-noematic structure. Namely, he asks how can an objective sense be conceived beyond its mode of givenness, and how, consequently, is it possible that a noematic sense can be preserved beyond any affective or active intention? (Bégout 2000, 204). 17 The horizontal structure of subjective experience is not limited to the so-called Bhorizontal intentionalities,^ which contribute to the adumbrational givenness of perceptual objects. Horizontality equally applies to expectations and to past-experience, meaning that the living present is always open towards not only its future but also its past. Non-representational approaches to the unconscious Bunconscious.^ The first refers to automatic mental processes, which themselves have nothing to do with consciousness, but which generate mental content that is essentially available for conscious awareness (Kihlstrom 1987). This category encompasses, for instance, processes involved in calculating distances between objects, or the use of certain phonological and linguistic principles in speech. Even if such unconscious calculations are indispensable for perception, performance of movements, and use of language, they do not need to resemble our conscious computation, estimation, or spatial perception. Kihlstrom suggests distinguishing these automatic unconscious processes from the psychological unconscious that describes mental acts that occur without phenomenal awareness or voluntary control, but that still bear an influence on conscious experience. To this category belong phenomena of subliminal perception, implicit memory, learning, and thinking (Kihlstrom 1990). Unlike automatic processes, this latter type of the psychological unconscious conceptually resembles our conscious experience. It becomes especially clear when implicit perception, memory, and thinking are defined by means of an analogy with conscious representations. For instance, Kihlstrom and his co-authors Jennifer Dorfman and Victor Shames define implicit thought in terms of Bactivated mental representations of current and past experience [that] can influence experience, thought, and action even though they are inaccessible to conscious awareness^ (Dorfman et al. 1996).18 A similar situation occurs in research on the implicit memory that makes up part of the psychological unconscious. In cognitive psychology, the definition of implicit memory as distinct from explicit memory usually calls upon conscious awareness. For example, in Daniel Schacter, we find the following definition: BExplicit memory is roughly equivalent to ‘memory with consciousness’ or ‘memory with awareness.’ Implicit memory, on the other hand, refers to situations in which previous experiences facilitate performance on tests that do not require intentional or deliberate remembering^ (Schacter 1989, 356). In other words, implicit memory designates situations in which Bpeople are influenced by a past experience without any awareness that they are remembering^ (Schacter 1996, 161). An operational definition of the phenomenon is then reduced to a presence of retention or response in absence and/or independent of explicit recollection. In experimental conditions, this means that im- plicit recall is shown to be independent of the explicit memory performance. This general definition allows for including within the group of implicit memory such phenomena as procedural memory of bodily skills, priming on both perceptual and conceptual levels, and emotional memory without recall. 19 Simple recognition is excluded from the category of implicit memory, as it cannot be shown to be indepen- dent of explicit recollection. For the same reason, other phenomena—such as emotional and traumatic memory—fall into the grey area between implicit and explicit cognition. From the phenomenological point of view, Bremembering without awareness^ or even an Bunconscious retrieval^ is an ambiguous definition. At first glance, it may suggest that a subject remembers in the usual fashion, but simply shows no sign of awareness. This can mean that conceptually implicit memory is the same type of intentional experience as explicit recollection except that it is unconscious. In other 18 See also: (Kihlstrom 1990). 19 For review see: (Schacter et al. 1993; Schacter 1987; Roediger 1990; Shimamura 1986; Kihlstrom et al. 2000). A. Kozyreva words, when one sees unconscious processes as analogous to conscious representa- tions, there is a danger of supposing that there is some actual thinking or remembering going on behind the spotlight of phenomenal awareness. The core of the phenomenological argument consists of pointing out the apparent paradox contained in understanding the psychological unconscious as Bseeing that does not see,^ Bthinking that does not think,^ or Bmemory that does not remember.^ In this spirit, Zavahi argues that the unconscious cannot be understood as an ordinary inten- tional act devoid of self-awareness. He goes on to assert that the unconscious, in its proper sense, should instead be identified with Ba quite different depth-structure of subjectivity^ (Zahavi 1999, 206). This depth-structure, as we have seen, is to be found not on the level of act-intentionality but rather in a dimension of Bopaque passivity which makes up the foundation of our self-aware experience^ (Zahavi 1999, 210). The non-representational accounts of the unconscious discussed here take this line of thought even further. Specifically, they clearly show that a proper understanding of the unconscious cannot limit discussions of memory to its representational or explicit form and at the same time demand an understanding that both connects the past and present life of consciousness on an immanent level and grasps the affective, non- representational presence of the past. In the phenomenology of the lived body, this non-representational relation is further understood as essentially a bodily one. On these grounds, implicit memory is clarified as body memory and includes different types of memory that could not be ascribed to it based solely on the psychological definition of this phenomenon. More specifically, implicit memory is identified as encompassing habitual bodily skills, situational memory, and traumatic and intercorporeal memory, as well as involuntary memories and pre-thematic recognitions (Casey 1987; Fuchs 2012b; Summa 2014). It has been argued that Husserl’s investigations on affectivity and his conception of the unconscious can be taken as another possible explication of this non- representational past-relation. For instance, the phenomenon of affective awakening of the past discussed in section 3.2 may prove useful for phenomenological clarification of implicit remembering. From this perspective, the latter can be understood not in terms of unconscious representations but in terms of implicit or non-objectifying intentionality of affective awakening. As the affective conditions of retroactive awak- ening precede those of active recollections, they can be preserved even when the explicit memory functions decline. In this case, one’s past can continue influencing one’s present through affective awakenings that simply never reach the level of intuitive recollections. Another contribution of phenomenology to the topic of implicit memory is the development of a constructive approach to forgetting. In Husserl, forgetting is seen as a function of affective modification in retention. What is forgotten does not disappear but becomes a part of the implicit background of subjective experience. This past is not presentified, nor is it given to any consciousness. Its mode of givenness is that of an indistinct horizon, a Bdimension of escape and absence^ (Merleau-Ponty 2012, 436). For Merleau-Ponty, such a view of the unconscious allows for attention to be brought to the dimension of our past experience that inevitably escapes objective thought and exists in the mode of oblivion. In Institution and Passivity, he clearly underlines this fundamental ambiguity: We have to be able to think of the past beyond representation, that is, beyond the past as construction or as preservation (Merleau-Ponty 2010, 208). Non-representational approaches to the unconscious There must be, as he says, another way in which we relate to our past, and yet such another way is constantly missing, most likely because this dimension of the past inevitably escapes objective thought. He expresses this idea in Phenomenology of Perception: BExistence always takes up its past, either by accepting or by refusing it. We are, as Proust said, perched upon a pyramid of the past, and if we fail to see it, that is because we are obsessed with objective thought. We believe that our past, for ourselves, reduces to the explicit memories that we can contemplate. We cut our existence off from the past itself, and we only allow our existence to seize upon the present traces of this past. But how would these traces be recognized as traces of the past if we did not otherwise have a direct opening upon this past?^ (Merleau-Ponty 2012, 413). From this viewpoint, it becomes evident that an important part of memory actually belongs not solely to what emerges on the surface of our affective consciousness but equally to what stays in the background. A person who once fell in love, learned how to read, heard a lion’s roar, understood Bayes’ theorem, or experienced a car accident will always remain affected by these experiences even if they are not constantly reactualized in his or her memory. Clearly, not all of these events will necessarily have an equal impact on that person’s life: some will become fundamental and define his or her personality, others will become acquired skills or habits, some will be reawakened only when similar situations are encountered, and a significant portion of them will probably simply sink into the undifferentiated background. The past remains: not as hidden senses or traces in some deep repository of the mind, but rather in the way these events shape and change one’s experience and thereby prefigure the totality of one’s attitudes towards the present and the future. Similar to the horizontal structure of perception, in which an object is always approached from different sides while still maintaining a quasi-complete way of appearing, the unconscious past-horizon is what enables the present itself to be experienced in a way that has a meaning within, and is coherent with, the whole of one’s experience. 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Kozyreva Non-representational approaches to the unconscious in the phenomenology of Husserl and Merleau-Ponty Abstract Introduction: situating the problem of the unconscious Non-representational accounts of the unconscious: Merleau-Ponty and Fuchs on the unconscious and body memory A non-representational account of the affective unconscious in Husserl’s Analyses Concerning Passive Synthesis Zero-point of affective vitality and the unconscious as Grenzphänomen Affective past-horizon and the unconscious as &ldquo;sedimented&rdquor; Affective conflict and the unconscious as repressed Discussion and conclusion: the unconscious as a non-representational relation to the past References 
work_ry5bkcqolnbtpmi6sk7vmogzli	----	The Genesis of the Theoretical Foundations of “Psychology of Suggestion” of V.M. Bekhterev Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 146 ( 2014 ) 147 – 153 Available online at www.sciencedirect.com ScienceDirect 1877-0428 © 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/). Selection and peer-review under responsibility of Russian Psychological Society. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.08.102 Third Annual International Conference «Early Childhood Care and Education» The Genesis of the Theoretical Foundations of "Psychology of Suggestion" of V. M. Bekhterev Olga Fedotova Southern Federal University, Faculty of Psychology, Nagibina Street, 13, Rostov-on-Don, 344038, Russia _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Abstract The article is devoted to the analysis of an early stage of formation of views of the well - known Russian doctor, the physiologist and the psychologist V. M. Bekhterev on a problem of the forming potential of a phenomenon of Suggestion. On the basis of the analysis of program performance on the First World Congress for Paedology, that was held in Brussels in 1911, from 8 to 12 August, subsequently issued in work "Education and suggestion" (1912), genesis of his views of the questions connected with a children's impressionability and suggestibility is shown. Bases of "Psychology of suggestibility" of V. M. Bekhterev are characterized; influence of foreign science and literature on formation of his views of rather leading methods of education of children in a context of the accounting of a factor of impressionability is shown. © 2013 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Russian Psychological Society. Key words: Bekhterev V. M., childhood, psychology, physiology, children's impressionability, suggestibility, hypnotic suggestion as technology of re-education 1. Introduction Corresponding author. Tel.: +7-918-561-71-37 E-mail address: fod1953@yandex.ru © 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/). Selection and peer-review under responsibility of Russian Psychological Society. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.08.102&domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.08.102&domain=pdf 148 Olga Fedotova / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 146 ( 2014 ) 147 – 153 Multidimensionality of the impact of various factors of contemporary social practice determines the need to re- evaluate many aspects of the epistemological problems of formation of human consideration. The transition to new technological orders qualitatively changed the terms of preparing children for life in a society based on a complex balance of interests. In scientific projections that necessitates recourse to the theoretical understanding of the origins of the problem of human evolution at various stages of his life. There is a need for new approaches to the identification and evaluation of the qualitative uniqueness of the original ideas that have shaped the genesis and evolution of the factors forming impact within the national schools of psychology. The problem of definition of the influences rendering significant effect on formation of the personality in the childhood always was in the center of attention of the psychologists, teachers, writers and philosophers [1]. At the same time during disciplinary registration of various branches of the social sciences, falling on the end of XIX – beginning of the XX century, these matters were put in the center of scientific interests not only representatives of humanitarian knowledge, but also a wide range of experts of a natural-science profile [2], [3]. Formation of theoretical positions of the Russian pre-revolutionary psychology concerning definition of mechanisms of forming impact on children was characterized by emergence of various scientific conceptualizations. Outstanding Russian scientists stood at the origins. The circle of their scientific interests was very wide. One of them is the well - known doctor, the physiologist, the psychologist and the teacher V. M. Bekhterev. V. M. Bekhterev was one of the first Russian scientists who has addressed to the analysis of a phenomenon "suggestion" in its medical, psychological and pedagogical contexts. In this regard there is a question of how original his approach to treatment of this phenomenon was, whether he came under influence of foreign and domestic colleagues at a formulation of the idea of the forming potential of this phenomenon. 2. Review of Literature The issues of studying the scientific heritage of scientists, whose professional interests have covered various fields of science, is theoretically significant. However, the importance of this problem is not in accordance with the degree of its methodological development. Interdisciplinary vector V. M. Bekhterev’s heritage has been studied with respect to certain of his projected level of dissertation research. M.V. Ivannikova [4] investigated the value of ideas of V. M. Bekhterev and his scientific school in relation to their importance to the development of modern methods of treatment for alcoholism. O.A. Kostina [5] stopped on the analysis of mental health problems in V. M. Bekhterev’s heritage, having considered these aspects as the core issues in relation to the subject of psychology. Issues of education of “difficult brought up” children in V. M. Bekhterev’s heritage in comparison with the positions of psychologists P.P. Blonsky and L.S. Vygotsky were the subject of the PhD thesis of A. Mihashinoy [6]. This approach allowed us to identify qualitative uniqueness V. M. Bekhterev’s positions in the context of his Reflexologic concept. Influence of ideas of V. M. Bekhterev on the development of natural science and philosophical thought has been considered in the thesis of M.N. Mamedov [7]. Foreign researchers were interested of the facts of his life [8], [9]. 2. Concept and methods of research The concept of research aimed at clarifying the question of what is the qualitative uniqueness V. M. Bekhterev’s position on the problem of suggestion at an early stage of formation of his views on the matter. Hypothesis of this study is the assertion that there is "invisible college" as a non-institutional research team, whose members are developing a common range of problems, but still do not consider themselves bound to each other in any combination. Logic approach to identifying positions of V.M. Bekhterev is to implement the following research steps: - Clarifying the range of domestic and foreign researchers, to whose work V.M. Bekhterev appeals; - Identification of representatives of various disciplinary communities, whose views have been studied by V.M. Bekhterev; 149 Olga Fedotova / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 146 ( 2014 ) 147 – 153 - Identification the specific theoretical and empirical reasoning gleaned by V.M. Bekhterev from the works of representatives of "invisible college" to refer to the system of his own claims on the use of suggestion in practice. To identify the above-mentioned methods of quantification, content analysis, interpretation, comparative analysis, thematic classification, generalization are used. 3.1.Source base research As an empirical source the text of V.M. Bekhterev "Suggestion and education" has been elected. This work is the text of a paper read at the International Congress in Brussels (13 -18 August 1911). As for the status of this Congress interpretations are different: a lifetime edition in 1912 this Congress was called "the first pedological Congress" [10], in the Soviet edition due to ideological reasons, it was named "The First Teaching Congress." We analyzed the text of the publication of the Soviet version [11]. Choice is justified by the fact that at this Congress V.M. Bekhterev represented Russian psychological and pedagogical science. His speech was of a programmatic nature. At the same time his statement summarized and concretized with regard to the practical aspects of his own theoretical position on the role of suggestion in public life, which were expressed in the work "Suggestion and its role in public life" in 1908. 3.2. Instruments Various research tools have been used for resolving specific research problems. Text of performance is seen as an objective reflection of the intentions of the communicator, who is V.M. Bekhterev. The analyzed work is complex in its structure and composition owing to the novelty of subjects, identifying the proposed by V.M. Bekhterev practical projection. Therefore, we used the method of thematic classification and generalization in order to concretize the views of V.M. Bekhterev on "suggestion". Semantic whole statement is defined as the unit of analysis capturing the essence of his position on the issues raised (regardless of what part of the text it is). The unit of account is a judgment. In determining the range of scientists, to whose ideas V.M. Bekhterev refers, content- analytic study includes an analysis of the disciplinary unit direction to which scientists belong. The unit of account is the name of the scientist. In determining the categories of argumentation of analysis is the concept "the argument in order to prove", the unit of account – the ways of justification of an argument. 3.3. Procedure The first step. The circle of judgments of V.M. Bekhterev regarding the phenomenon of suggestion was originally identified and generalized while research. They are represented by the following thematic blocks: 1. Suggestion is possible because of the natural sensibility of the child 2. Suggestion plays a big role in the mental life of the child and can cause mental illness, 3. In education an example and oral exposure and hypnotic suggestion can be used. The second step was to identify and clarify the professional focus of the personalities of science and culture, whose names are given in the paper. The third step was to analyze the value judgments of V.M. Bekhterev in relation to the content of the views of the mentioned personalities. 3.4. Data analysis For each item of content analysis the results of quantitative measurements tabulated in EXEL. Based on the data simple histograms that graphically represents the element dimensions were constructed. Histogram-based qualitative analysis of the data was conducted. 4. Results and Discussion 150 Olga Fedotova / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 146 ( 2014 ) 147 – 153 Formation of a new scientific field always goes by so - called "normal phase". It is characterized by fragmented research directions of representatives on close -themed content. Their communication is through formal channels, which in this case is the Congress. In "Suggestion and education", represented to the world scientific community by V.M. Bekhterev, contains references to the contribution of science and art representatives of various typological groups. Frequency of references in the "Education and suggestion" names of foreign and Russian scientists within their belonging to different disciplinary communities is reflected in Fig.1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Teachers Psychologist Doctors Physiologists Writers, artist 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Baginsky Baldwin Wittasch Plecher Stern Lipmann Kosog Guyau Groesser a b Fig. 1. (a) Range of the distributions of rate of mentions representatives of professional groups: ( ) - foreign authors, ( ) - the Russian authors. (b) Range of the distributions of names of psychologists ( ). On Fig. 1 it is clearly shown that the bulk of the names, to the works of which V.M. Bekhterev refers constitute psychologists and physicians. As part of the report on the International Congress of surprising a modest representation of references to the names of teachers, the number equal to the number of physiologists. It should be noted that their names are followed in the order listed; their views are not being disclosed. The number of names and cultural figures mentioned outnumber names of mentioned teachers. This group includes writers Main Rid and Jules Verne, and the well known outside the Russian writer and artist John Ruskin. Out of the number of local physicians V.M. Bekhterev refers only to himself. An appeal to the writings of psychologists in general does not go beyond the normal distribution, except for special attention to the works of H. Plecher [12], whose work is used in the empirical argument of the importance of Suggestion. V.M. Bekhterev’s ideas concerning formative potential of suggestion, as noted above, with certain reservations can be represented by three judgments. The first of position (a) contains a statement that the suggestion is possible because of the natural sensibility of the child; (b) suggestion can lead to mental illness, and (c) has the effect of suggestion as if it is applied in a state of clear consciousness, and under hypnotic influence. In the work data judgments with varying degrees of severity are presented. On Fig. 2a the total number of appeals to the content identified above statements is reflected on Fig. 2b - the number of names from different typological groups mentioned in the context of the disclosure of this problem. 151 Olga Fedotova / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 146 ( 2014 ) 147 – 153 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 a b c 6 2 3 6 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Teachers Psychologist Doctors Physiologists Writers, artist a b Fig. 2. ( ). Range of the distribution of number of appeals on basic theses of "Psychology of suggestion". (b) – Range the of distribution by quantity of mentions of provisions of the theory of "Psychology of suggestion" by criterion "professional group". ( ) – position a, ( ) – position b, ( ) – position c. As the histogram shows cluster (a), reflecting the position of the natural sensibility of the child, is represented exclusively by appeals to the writings of psychologists. Reproduced and analyzed by V.M. Bekhterev information about mental epidemics (Children's Crusade in 1212, school mental contagion and convulsive epidemic accompanied by hysteria and hysterical chorea, etc.) is of considerable interest Cluster (b) is characterized mainly to practice of psychologists, fixing the beginning of mental illness due to improper training. In this medical component, contrary to expectations, does not dominate. Names of writers have a negative connotation, because, according to V.M. Bekhterev, romance of their works adversely affects the imagination of children and encourages them to escape from the house. Based on the histogram, pedagogical projection (c) is accompanied by a number of appeals to educational authorities, but without specifying their positions. The names of two teachers are exclusively in the order listed, while information from the works of H. Plecher, completing an enumeration of three names, is considered in details (Fig 3b). When considering educational problems medical discourse dominates over all others. An appeal to the authorities in the field of physiology is observed only in this section show. The clarification of the question of what type of argumentation used by V.M. Bekhterev to confirm or disprove the whole theory postulates is of certain interest. On Fig. 3 the distribution of theoretical and empirical arguments used by V.M. Bekhterev based treatment to the views of members of his "invisible college" is shown. 152 Olga Fedotova / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 146 ( 2014 ) 147 – 153 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Citing Theory Cases Experiments Statistics Mention of names and works 16 6 10 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 once twice 11 times a b Fig. 3. (a) Range of the distributions of tools of the theoretical and empirical argumentation: ( ) - writers, artist, ( ) - teachers¸ ( ) - physiologists, ( ) - doctors, ( ) - physiologists. (b) - Quantity of the mentions of surnames. As follows from the data presented in Fig 3. V.M. Bekhterev uses the tools of both theoretical and empirical reasoning. Theoretical arguments are used by him in justifying his own valuation assertions. For this purpose an appeal to the opinion of the authority - Dr. Forel, expressed in quotational form is used. Noteworthy is the fact that the quote for the influence of suggestion on education: «A good part of pedagogy rests on correctly understood and executed by suggestion." Also detailed quote of doctor Trömner about underestimation by educators of teaching about suggestion is provided. V.M. Bekhterev also appeals to the theoretical positions expressed by doctors, psychologists and physiologists. Most extensively and with a focus on the education of children of preschool age with a deep sympathy for the views presented by artist John Ruskin. Following John Ruskin V.M. Bekhterev develops his ideas about the need to aesthetic design of children's rooms and creation a sound atmosphere for the development of hearing child. By the methods of empirical arguments the analysis of cases drawn from publications physicians and psychologists, and descriptions of experiments conducted by psychologists are applied. In presenting this material contribution H. Plecher (6 cases) and clinical expertise of the VM Spondylitis (5 cases) played a leading role. Cases, selected by V.M. Bekhterev have a pronounced bias Medical - a description of suicide in adolescence, the murders committed by children during role-playing games, children's imitative crimes with lethal, exam stress, sexual perversion children, mania (kleptomania). Conclusion Thus, referring to the phenomenon of suggestion in its psychological and pedagogical projection V.M. Bekhterev sees it as a natural and social framework that allows to form the spiritual world of the child. Issues of education and child study are presented as a holistic problem- themed complex. It includes such areas of education, as a moral, intellectual, physical, musical, and sexual. Mechanisms of suggestion are outlined that should be used in the education of young children: imitation, adoption, repetition, demonstration example, habituation, conviction. An approach to the use of suggestion, not only in the waking state, but also hypnotic suggestion, which was called "re-education method of treatment», was developed by V.M. Bekhterev. More exactly it is considered as an effective way of overcoming and prevention "unmoral inclinations." He confidently asserts that "one simple 153 Olga Fedotova / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 146 ( 2014 ) 147 – 153 education is almost always powerless and only therapy proves to be the method which corrects sometimes very heavy and running education cases" [11]. Laying the foundations of "psychology of suggestion" of V.M. Bekhterev preceded his knowledge of the scientists and artists who made up his "invisible college ". V.M. Bekhterev ignores all domestic educational, psychological and medical ideas in the field of impact on child development. However, Russian psychology already had a similar experimental research issues, including the works of N. Nechayev. Despite an appeal to many authorities, V.M. Bekhterev focuses primarily on works of H. Plecher, which were closed and apparently available to him. Analysis shows that the formation of the theoretical foundations of psychology of suggestion of V.M. Bekhterev the German school of psychology, physiology and medical achievements greatly influenced, while the ideas of foreign and native teachers did not become a reference point for his scientific research. References [1] Fedotova, O. A Paradigm “Shift” in Modern Applied Philosophy and Psychology. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 92, 2013, 328-333. [2] Vöhringer, M. Behavioural research, the museum darwinianum and evolutionism in early soviet Russia. History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, 31 (2), 2009, 279-294. [3] Fedotova, O. Psychoanalytic Doctrine as a Historic-Theoretical Basis of Modern Psychoanalytic Pedagogics. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 86, 2013, 413-418. [4] Ivannikova, M. Rol' shkoly V.M. Behtereva v razvitii issledovanij alkogolizma v Rossii [Role of school of Bekhterev in development of researches of alcoholism in Russia]. Abstract of dissertation. Sankt- Peterbourg, 2012, 25 p. [5] Kostina O. Psihicheskoe zdorov'e kak problema vozrastnoj i pedagogicheskoj psihologii v nasledii V.M. Behtereva [Mental health as a problem of age and pedagogical psychology in V. M. Bekhterev's heritage]. Abstract of dissertation. Nizhny Novgorod, 2006, 25 p. [6] Michashina A. Idei vospitanija trudnyh detej v pedagogicheskom nasledii V.M. Behtereva, P.P. Blonskogo, L.S. Vygotskogo [Ideas of education of “difficult brought up” children in V. M. Bekhterev, P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky's pedagogical heritage]. Abstract of dissertation. Arkhangelsk, 2004, 20 p. [7] Mamedov M. V. M. Behterev i ego vlijanie na razvitie filosofskoj i estestvennonauchnoj mysli Rossii v konce XIX - nachale XX veka [Bekhterev and his influence on development of philosophy and natural- science (the end of XIX – the beginning of XX century)]. Abstract of dissertation. Kiev, 1992, 43 p. [8] Kesselring, J. Vladimir Mikhailovic Bekhterev (1857-1927): Strange circumstances surrounding the death of the great Russian neurologist. European Neurology 66 (1), 2011, 14-17. [9] Rekand, T. Vladimir Bekhterev - Professoren som ble stoppet av Stalin. Tidsskrift for den Norske Laegeforening 127 (24), 2007, 3264-3266. [10] Bekhterev V. Vnushenie i vospitanie. Doklad, chitannyj na 1-m Mezhdunarodnom pedagogicheskom kongresse v Brjussele 13-18 avg. 1911 g. [Suggestion and education. The report read on the International pedagogical congress in Brussels on August 13-18, 1911]. Sankt-Petersburg: P.P. Soykin, 1912. [11] Bekhterev V. (1911) Vnushenie i vospitanie. Doklad, chitannyj na 1-m Mezhdunarodnom pedagogicheskom kongresse v Brjussele 13-18 avg. 1911 g. [Suggestion and education. The report read on the International pedagogical congress in Brussels on August 13-18, 1911]. Retrieved 20.11.2013 http://www.bekhterev.net/modules/articles/article.php?id=25 [12] Plecher, H. Die Suggestion im Leben des Kindes. Zeitschrift für Kinderforschung, 14, 1909, 257-269; 289-307. 
work_s3ifcanii5capphe4zlqktkgj4	----	JBR_52_2_Contents 1..6 JBS Jo urnal of British Studies V O L U M E 5 2 ■ N U M B E R 2 ■ A P R IL 2 0 1 3 Jo u r n a l o f B r i t i s h S t u d i e s V O L U M E 5 2 ■ N U M B E R 2 ■ A P R IL 2 0 1 3 P A G E S 2 8 5 -5 6 9 Cambridge Journals Online For further information about this journal, please go to the publisher’s journal Web site at journals.cambridge.org/JBritStud ISSN 0021-9371 00219371_52-2.indd 100219371_52-2.indd 1 26/04/13 11:57 AM26/04/13 11:57 AM at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2013.60 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:05, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2013.60 https://www.cambridge.org/core JOURNAL OF BRITISH STUDIES Published for the North American Conference on British Studies EDITORS Brian Cowan and Elizabeth Elbourne McGill University, Department of History and Classical studies 855 Sherbrooke West Montréal H3A 2T7 Québec, Canada E-mail: jbs.history@mcgill.ca BOOK REVIEW EDITORS Amy M. Froide University of Maryland Baltimore County Gail Savage Saint Mary’s College of Maryland ASSISTANT EDITOR Matthew Wyman-McCarthy McGill University ASSOCIATE EDITORS Jeffrey Collins Queen’s University, Ontario Brian Lewis McGill University Sandra den Otter Queen’s University, Ontario Shannon McSheffrey Concordia University, Montreal Nancy Partner McGill University Robert Tittler emeritus, Concordia University, Montreal Faith Wallis McGill University BOARD OF ADVISORS Alastair Bellany, Rutgers University Joanna Bourke Birkbeck, University of London Callum Brown University of Dundee Chris Brown Columbia University Laura Gowing King’s College, London Catherine Hall University College, London Deborah Harkness University of Southern California Joanna Innes Oxford University Krista Kesselring Dalhousie University Seth Koven Rutgers University Allan MacInnes University of Strathclyde Peter Mandler Cambridge University Ian McBride King’s College, London Susan Pedersen Columbia University Mary Poovey New York University Richard Price University of Maryland David Harris Sacks Reed College Miles Taylor Institute of Historical Research, London Robert Travers Cornell University Frank Trentmann Birkbeck, University of Londo Dror Wahrman Indiana University Keith Wrightson Yale University EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE NORTH AMERICAN CONFERENCE ON BRITISH STUDIES President Dane Kennedy The George Washington University Vice President Keith Wrightson Yale University Immediate Past President Philippa Levine The University of Texas at Austin Executive Secretary Marjorie Levine-Clark University of Colorado Denver Associate Executive Secretary Paul Deslandes University of Vermont Treasurer Travis Glasson Temple University The Journal of British Studies is the offi cial publication of the North American Conference on British Studies (NACBS), published quarterly by Cambridge University Press. © The North American Conference on British Studies, 2013. 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Abstracting and indexing Articles published in the Journal of British Studies are indexed by CrossRef, EBSCO, Google Scholar, H.W. Wilson Humanities Abstracts™; IBSS: International Bibliography of the Social Sciences; Microsoft Academic Search; MLA International Bibliography; Scopus™; Social Science Electronic Publishing; the English Historical Review; Thomson-Reuters Social Science Citation Index/Arts and Humanities Citation Index/ Journal Citation Report; RHS/IHR Bibliography of British and Irish Studies. For more information about the Journal of British Studies, please visit: www.journals.cambridge.org/JBritStud and/or www.nacbs.org 00219371_52-2.indd 300219371_52-2.indd 3 26/04/13 11:57 AM26/04/13 11:57 AM at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2013.60 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:05, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2013.60 https://www.cambridge.org/core JBS JOURNAL OF BRITISH STUDIES V O L U M E 5 2 ■ N U M B E R 2 ■ A P R IL 2 0 1 3 Editors’ Introduction Brian Cowan Elizabeth Elbourne 285 Articles Sermons, Separatists, and Succession Politics in Late Elizabethan England Michael Questier 290 Kingship by Descent or Kingship by Election? The Contested Title of James VI and I Rei Kanemura 317 Charles I and the Order of the Garter Richard Cust 343 The Human Comedy in Westminster: The House of Commons, 1604–1629 Thomas Cogswell 370 Ethnicity, Prejudice, and Justice: The Treatment of the Irish at the Old Bailey, 1750–1825 Peter King 390 The Effect of Southern State Bond Repudiation and British Debt Collection Efforts on Anglo-American Relations, 1840–1940 V. Markham Lester 415 Rethinking the British World Tamson Pietsch 441 at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2013.60 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:05, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2013.60 https://www.cambridge.org/core Sinking Feelings: Representing and Resisting the Titanic Disaster in Britain, 1914–ca.1960 Andrew Wells 464 Book Reviews PRE-1800 PHILIP C. ALMOND. England’s First Demonologist: Reginald Scot & “The Discoverie of Witchcraft.” Brian P. Levack 491 SHARON ARONSON-LEHAVI. Street Scenes: Late Medieval Acting and Performance Ronda Arab 493 J. M. BEATTIE. The First English Detectives: The Bow Street Runners and the Policing of London, 1750–1840 Elaine A. Reynolds 495 JAMES DAVIS. Medieval Market Morality: Life, Law and Ethics in the English Marketplace, 1200–1500 James Masschaele 496 STEPHEN DENG. Coinage and State Formation in Early Modern English Literature David Hawkes 497 SIMON DICKIE. Cruelty & Laughter: Forgotten Comic Literature and the Unsentimental Eighteenth Century Karen Harvey 499 MARIO DIGANGI. Sexual Types: Embodiment, Agency, and Dramatic Character from Shakespeare to Shirley Stephen Guy-Bray 501 HOLLY DUGAN. The Ephemeral History of Perfume: Scent and Sense in Early Modern England Jennifer Rae McDermott 502 KAVITA MUDAN FINN. The Last Plantagenet Consorts: Gender, Genre, and Historiography, 1440–1627 Nora L. Corrigan 503 SARAH FOOT. Æthelstan: The First King of England Mary Frances Giandrea 505 ii ▪ Contents at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2013.60 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:05, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2013.60 https://www.cambridge.org/core RICHARD GORSKI, ed. Roles of the Sea in Medieval England 506 SEBASTIAN I. SOBECKI, ed. The Sea and Englishness in the Middle Ages: Maritime Narratives, Identity and Culture Benjamin Hudson HELEN JACOBSEN. Luxury and Power: The Material World of the Stuart Diplomat, 1660–1714 Tracey A. Sowerby 508 A. J. JOYCE. Richard Hooker and Anglican Moral Theology David Needlands 509 ERIC KLINGELHOFER. Castles and Colonists: An Archaeology of Elizabethan Ireland Valerie McGowan-Doyle 510 NATASHA KORDA. Labors Lost: Women’s Work and the Early Modern English Stage Karen Newman 512 KEN MACMILLAN. The Atlantic Imperial Constitution: Center and Periphery in the English Atlantic World Aaron K. Slater 513 EMMA MAJOR. Madam Britannia: Women, Church and Nation, 1712–1812 Kathryn Gleadle 515 MARJORIE KENISTON MCINTOSH. Poor Relief in England, 1350–1600 P. H. Cullum 516 JOHN PATRICK MONTAÑO. The Roots of English Colonialism in Ireland Rory Rapple 517 LOUISE NOBLE. Medicinal Cannibalism in Early Modern English Literature and Culture Bruce Boehrer 519 ARLENE NAYLOR OKERLUND. Elizabeth of York Michelle White 520 SOPHIA ROSENFELD. Common Sense: A Political History Carl Wennerlind 521 Contents ▪ iii at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2013.60 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:05, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2013.60 https://www.cambridge.org/core MELISSA E. SANCHEZ. Erotic Subjects: The Sexuality of Politics in Early Modern English Literature Amanda Bailey 523 JANE WHITTLE and ELIZABETH GRIFFITHS. Consumption and Gender in the Early Seventeenth-Century Household: The World of Alice Le Strange Judith Spicksley 525 TAKASHI YOSHINAKA. Marvell’s Ambivalence: Religion and the Politics of Imagination in Mid-Seventeenth- Century England Nicholas von Maltzahn 526 POST-1800 PATRICK BRANTLINGER. Taming Cannibals: Race and the Victorians Jane Samson 529 TANJA BUELTMANN. Scottish Ethnicity and the Making of New Zealand Society, 1850–1930 D. A. J. MacPherson 531 CATHERINE COX and MARIA LUDDY, eds. Cultures of Care in Irish Medical History, 1750–1970 Cara Delay 532 TOM CROOK and GLEN O’HARA, eds. Statistics and the Public Sphere: Numbers and the People in Modern Britain, c. 1800–2000 Kathrin Levitan 534 SEÁN FARREN. The SDLP: The Struggle for Agreement in Northern Ireland, 1970–2000 Megan Myers 536 DAVID FRENCH. Army, Empire, and Cold War: The British Army and Military Policy, 1945–1971 Ian Speller 537 SUSAN R. GRAYZEL. At Home and Under Fire: Air Raids and Culture in Britain from the Great War to the Blitz Stephen Heathorn 539 iv ▪ Contents at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2013.60 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:05, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2013.60 https://www.cambridge.org/core SHAWN T. GRIMES. Strategy and War Planning in the British Navy, 1887–1918 John Beeler 540 JO GULDI. Roads to Power: Britain Invents the Infrastructure State Gerard M. Koot 542 GERALD R. HALL. Ulster Liberalism, 1778–1876 Anthony Daly 544 CAROL HELMSTADTER and JUDITH GODDEN. Nursing before Nightingale, 1815–1899 Arlene Young 546 MARTIN HIPSKY. Modernism and the Women’s Popular Romance in Britain, 1885–1925 Lise Shapiro Sanders 547 TIMOTHY LARSEN. A People of One Book: The Bible and the Victorians Jacqueline R. deVries 548 JOHN M. MACKENZIE and T. M. DEVINE, eds. Scotland and the British Empire Katherine Haldane Grenier 550 JANE G. V. MCGAUGHEY. Ulster’s Men: Protestant Unionist Masculinities and Militarization in the North of Ireland, 1912–1923 Jason Knirck 552 ADAM PARKES. A Sense of Shock: The Impact of Impressionism on Modern British and Irish Writing Janice Ho 553 SIMON PRINCE and GEOFFREY WARNER. Belfast and Derry in Revolt: A New History of the Start of the Troubles David Brundage 555 ANN RIGNEY. The Afterlives of Walter Scott: Memory on the Move Evan Gottlieb 557 PEDER ROBERTS. The European Antarctic: Science and Strategy in Scandinavia and the British Empire Adrian Howkins 558 Contents ▪ v at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2013.60 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:05, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2013.60 https://www.cambridge.org/core ANDREW SANDERS. Inside the IRA: Dissident Republicans and the War for Legitimacy Margaret Keiley-Listermann 559 HAIA SHPAYER-MAKOV. The Ascent of the Detective: Police Sleuths in Victorian and Edwardian England Dagni Bredesen 561 PETER STANSKY and WILLIAM ABRAHAMS. Julian Bell: From Bloomsbury to the Spanish Civil War William C. Lubenow 562 CHARLES TOWNSHEND. When God Made Hell: The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914–1921 Kristian Coates Ulrichsen 564 JUDITH R. WALKOWITZ. Nights Out: Life in Cosmopolitan London. Paul R. Deslandes 565 AMY WOODSON-BOULTON. Transformative Beauty: Art Museums in Industrial Britain. Pamela Fletcher 567 vi ▪ Contents at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2013.60 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:05, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2013.60 https://www.cambridge.org/core 
work_s672dej6nvf6xabpnrkr3ytcwu	----	Information-preserving Transforms: Two Graph Metrics for Simulated Spiking Neural Networks Procedia Computer Science 20 ( 2013 ) 14 – 21 1877-0509 © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of Missouri University of Science and Technology doi: 10.1016/j.procs.2013.09.232 ScienceDirect Available online at www.sciencedirect.com Complex Adaptive Systems, Publication 3 Cihan H. Dagli, Editor in Chief Conference Organized by Missouri University of Science and Technology 2013- Baltimore, MD Information-Preserving Transforms: Two Graph Metrics for Simulated Spiking Neural Networks Alexander M. Duda* and Stephen E. Levinson Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Beckman Institute, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801, USA Abstract We are interested in self-organization and adaptation in intelligent systems that are robustly coupled with the real world. Such systems have a variety of sensory inputs that provide access to the richness, complexity, and noise of real-world signals. Specifically, the systems we design and implement are ab initio simulated spiking neural networks (SSNNs) with cellular resolution and complex network topologies that evolve according to spike-timing dependent plasticity (STDP). We desire to understand how external signals (like speech, vision, etc.) are encoded in the dynamics of such SSNNs. In particular, we are interested in identifying and confirming the extent to which various population-level measurements (or transforms) are information-preserving. Such transforms could be used as an unambiguous way of identifying the nature of the input signals, when given only access to the SSNN dynamics. Our primary objective in this paper is to empirically examine the extent to which a couple of graph metrics provide an information-preserving transform between the input signals and the output signals. In particular, we focus on the standard deviation of the time-varying distributions for local influence (weighted out-degree) and local impressionability (weighted in-degree), which provide insight into information encoding at the population-level in the dynamics of SSNNs. We report the encouraging results of an experiment carried out in the Language Acquisition and Robotics Group. Keywords: Ab Initio Cellular Models; Complex Networks; Graph Metrics; Information-Preserving; Multi-Scale Modeling; Neurorobotics; Nonlinear Dynamics; Real-World Coupling; Simulated Spiking Neural Networks; Spike-timing Dependent Plasticity; STDP Learning; Topological Adaptation 1. Introduction In the Language Acquisition and Robotics Group housed within the Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, we are designing computational models that enable a humanoid robot (see Fig.1) to learn natural language as a child does-- by interacting with people and the real-world. We embrace the perspective that such learning is based on the existence of a robust multi-sensory associative memory that serves as the cognitive architecture for an embodied agent with access to rich, real-world sensory streams [1]. Traditionally, we developed abstract statistical models of associative memory [2,3,18]. Though they exhibited encouraging results, they certainly * Corresponding author. E-mail address: amduda@illinois.edu Available online at www.sciencedirect.com © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of Missouri University of Science and Technology Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ 15 Alexander M. Duda and Stephen E. Levinson / Procedia Computer Science 20 ( 2013 ) 14 – 21 did not attain the qualitative or quantitative success of the current best natural example we have: the neocortex. Thus, given the state-of-the-art in large-scale simulation tools and experimental neuroscience, we thought it was the right time to begin investigating, from the beginning, an answer to the question ``How is the neocortex so successful at information-processing, especially considering that neuron-neuron communication is phenomenally unreliable?" In the past, numerous people have considered this question in various forms (like Von Neumann in his work on synthesizing reliable systems from unreliable components [4]), as well as contemporary computational neuroscientists. However, we are specifically interested in identifying information-bearing signals (as opposed to regulatory signals) in the statistical sense at the population-level [5,6]. We assert that such a signal could be used to ` -order model with respect to information, and serve as the basis for an associative memory. In this paper we examine two candidate information-bearing signals, which could be used for constructing such a reduced-order model. Section 2 discusses the details of our SSNN design, providing context and motivation for our decisions, as well as particularly outlining the equations and parameter values used to achieve the desired behavior; Section 3 describes the experiment; Section 4 provides the results of the experiment, while Section 5 outlines future work in the short- term and long-term. Fig. 1 Bert, the iCub humanoid robot: a state-of-the-art platform for research in embodied cognition [7]. 2. Simulated Spiking Neural Network Design Of all the natural and man-made systems that exhibit any level of associativity, the human neocortex is currently the most successful. Thus, examining the way the neocortex accomplishes such a task could provide deep insight into how we, as engineers, could create machines and models with similar capabilities. The neocortex is extremely complex and has structures that carry out various processing functions across a range of spatial and temporal scales. Of course, there is interaction and interdependence between and among the phenomena that occur at these different scales. Therefore, it raises the question-- on which scale should one focus? Research completed in the past two decades has shown that a spiking neural network (SNN) has an extremely wide range of computational abilities. In particular, it has been displayed that to the extent that a given population carries out a specialized function it is just a reflection of the particular types of signals that have been fed to the population [8]. In other words, a population can be viewed as a general-purpose computational-unit that can be adapted to carry out a variety of functions, presumably including multi-sensory integration and associativity. Thus, it is reasonable to think that constructing a realistic, canonical, unspecialized SSNN is a wise first step. To create such a SSNN, one needs to identify a variety of important features that should be included. For our purposes in this paper, we have 16 Alexander M. Duda and Stephen E. Levinson / Procedia Computer Science 20 ( 2013 ) 14 – 21 omitted a few important features (that we plan on including in future work, see Section 5). We now detail the important features that are included in our SSNN. 2.1 Hodgkin-Huxley Neuron Model The spiking neuron model used is the classic Hodgkin-Huxley (HH) model of a single neuron [9] in the form described by Koch [10]. What makes the HH neuron model most useful is the wide range of nonlinear behaviors observed from various input. For a detailed summary of these behaviors (tonic spiking, resonator, integrator, etc.) and a comparison of the most widely-used neuron models (including the integrate-and-fire, resonate-and-fire, Izhikevich, and FitzHugh-Nagumo), which justify its use as a biophysically meaningful neuron model, see Izhikevich [11]. We assume that the axon carries three primary currents: IK (voltage-gated persistent K+), INa (voltage-gated transient Na+), and IL (Ohmic leak). With C as the membrane capacitance and Iapp as the applied current, the primary set of space-clamped HH equations in standard form are as follows: apprestLKKNaNa IVVGVEnGVEhmGdt dV C 43 (1) where a gating variable nhmg ,, evolves according to the following equation: gVgV dt dg gg 1 (2) and the rate constants are defined as follows: 110 25 10/25 Vm e V V 18/4 Vm eV (3,4) 20/07.0 Vh eV 1 1 10/30 Vh e V (5,6) 1100 10 10/10 Vn e V V 80/125.0 Vn eV (7,8) To produce standard spiking behaviour for a patch model [13], the parameter values are set as follows: C - 14[F], GNa = 0.12 -8[S], ENa = 0.05[V], GK -8 [S], EK = -0.077[V], GL -12 [S],Vrest = - 0.065[V], and Vinitial = -72.655×10 -3[V]. 2.2 Synapse Model A NeuroXyce [12] synapse device has been implemented [13]. However, the model could be implemented in a number of simulation environments. With conductance-based synaptic dynamics, plasticity determined by a spike- timing dependent model developed by Clopath-Gerstner, and a reliability parameter (which in our experiments was not activated and will not be discussed in detail here) that modulates the transmission of synaptic current as well as the learning process, the device captures a number of important experimentally-observed features that will be useful in state-of-the-art research on the dynamics of large populations of spiking neurons and learning. The details of these different features are discussed below. For reference, Fig. 2 shows a presynaptic neuron, A, with membrane voltage A.V and a postsynaptic neuron, B, with membrane voltage B.V. The synapse is represented by a directed edge from A to B; the postsynaptic current is denoted by Ipost . 17 Alexander M. Duda and Stephen E. Levinson / Procedia Computer Science 20 ( 2013 ) 14 – 21 The model used is based on NEURON simulator s Exp2Syn mechanism [14, 15]. With w representing the Clopath- Gerstner plasticity scheme outlined below (set to 1 in the case where no learning occurs), B.V the momentary postsynaptic voltage, and ErevE the reversal potential (set to -85x10 -3[V]), the postsynaptic current is the followingyy : revpost ErVBwgI .max (9) where maxg , the maximal conductance, is defined as follows: risedecay norm tt f ng expexpmax (10) where fnormff is a normalizing factor that ensures the peak is 1, is the rise time (set to 2x10 -4[s]) and decay is the decay time (set to 1x10-2 [s]) (making sure that decay rise). We have adapted the Clopath-Gerstner model [16, 17] to be used in a real-time fashion within a NeuroXyce circuit device that interacts with the Hodgkin-Huxley spiking neuron device previously described. This well-known phenomenological model captures a number of the important experimentally observed behaviors of plasticity in synapses. Additionally, it is easily tunable to exhibit a variety of STDP curves. The curve we want to generate is shown in Fig. 2. With the following notation: S (voltage threshold for a spike event), R (voltage value for a resting event), w (weight/strength of synapse), A.V (momentary presynaptic membrane voltage), VL3VV (a low-pass filtered version (LPF) of A.V 3), B.V (momentary postsynaptic membrane voltage), VL1VV (a low-pass filtered version (LPF) of B.V 1), VL2VV (a low-pass filtered version (LPF) of B.V 2), and the Boolean operator on variables x1 and x2 defined such that (x1 > x2)=1 if x1 > x2 and 0 otherwise, the modified Clopath-Gerstner equation that updates the synaptic weight is as follows: maxmin wmwwmwdt dw dt dw dt dw C LTP wLTDw (11) Fig. 2 The left figure shows a single directed synapse going from the presynaptic neuron, A, with membrane voltage A.V to the postsynaptic neuron, B, with membrane voltage B.V. The postsynaptic current (the current that will flow from A to B) is denoted by Ipost. The right figure the change in synaptic weight, , along the vertical axis as a function of the timing between presynaptic and postsynaptic spikes (shown along the horizontal axis in milliseconds). When the postsynaptic neuron spikes before the presynaptic neuron, long-term depression (LTD) will result, the greatest decrease occurring when the timing is close to zero. When the presynaptic neuron spikes before the postsynaptic neuron, long-term potentiation (LTP) will result, the greatest increase occurring when the timing is close to zero. where the changes in w due to long-term depression (LTD) and long-term potentiation (LTP) are: A.V B.V Ipost 18 Alexander M. Duda and Stephen E. Levinson / Procedia Computer Science 20 ( 2013 ) 14 – 21 RVRVSVAA dt dw LLLTD LTD 11. (12) RVRVSVBSVBA dt dw LLLTP LTP 22.. (13) while the changes in LPF voltages are: 1 11 . LL VVB dt dV , 2 22 . LL VVB dt dV , 3 33 . LL VSVA dt dV (14, 15, 16) The parameters are set as follows (note that some parameter values are different from the Clopath-Gerstner papers; this was necessary to obtain the desired behaviour as shown in Fig. 2; parameter tuning was completed via simulation): S = -45.3×10-3[V], R = -72.655×10-3[V], wmin = 0, wmax = 1.6, winitial = 1, ALTD = 5×10 -2 [V-1], ALTP = 8.5 [V-2], 1 = 23×10 -3[s], 2 = 7×10 -3[s], and 3 = 46×10 -3[s]. The interested reader is encouraged to see the NeuroXyce Netlists to run basic simulations [13]. Fig. 3 Visualization of initialized SSNN with 100 excitatory Neurons (represented by blue vertices) and 1991 directed synapses (represented by directed edges). Each vertex has interior coloring of blue to represent excitatory neurons; the brightness of blue indicates the local -degree) of a given vertex (brighter means greater impressionability). The radius of each vertex is proportional -degree) of a given vertex (larger means greater influence). There are ten neurons in the SSNN that receive external input signals; these are denoted by a yellow border around the vertex and form the left-most column. There is a bold line on the originating side of a directed edge. 2.3 Network The network consists of 100 excitatory HH neuron models, as detailed in Section 2.1, 1991 directed synapses using the model detailed in Section 2.2, the existence of which were determined probabilistically during initialization. Fig. 3 provides a visualization of the SSNN, as well as a description. The neurons were placed on a grid, to simulate a neural sheet. Therefore, the distance between neurons dictated the time it would take for a signal to travel along a synapse. A minimum delay scaling factor of 0.3 [ms] was chosen to ensure that persistent activity would result only most likely when the input neurons were driven at a high frequency. This scaling factor was multiplied by a distance 19 Alexander M. Duda and Stephen E. Levinson / Procedia Computer Science 20 ( 2013 ) 14 – 21 value, with noise, to ensure that distances were more natural. For instance, a given pair of neurons separated by a distance of x on the grid, would have a delay defined (x+uniform(-0.20x,0.20x))*(0.3 [ms]). 3. Experiment description Each neuron has a number of synapses for which it serves as the presynaptic neuron; each synapse has a strength, w; the sum of all such weights is known as the weighted out-degree of the neuron and can be thought of as a measure of the local influence of the neuron. Likewise, each neuron has a number of synapses for which it serves as the postsynaptic neuron; the sum of all such weights for these synapses is known as the weighted in-degree of the neuron and can be thought of as a measure of the local impressionability of the neuron. Examining the distribution of these weighted degrees across all neurons in the SSNN can give insight into global behavior. In the experiment, ten neurons were selected for receiving an externally applied input (denoted by yellow borders in Fig. 3). These neurons were partitioned into two groups (5 neurons that were c below) and 5 neurons that were considered postsynaptic (terme would be applied to the neurons of one group; an identical pulse train (though shifted in time) would be applied to the neurons of the other group. The pulse train used across trials had amplitude 0.1825 width 1 [ms], and period 400 [ms]; only the relative timing between the trains applied were adjusted. The inputs provided were as follows (where post-pre means post-before-pre pre-post means pre-before-post ): post-pre 80 [ms], post-pre 48 [ms], post-pre 16 [ms], pre-post 16 [ms], pre-post 48 [ms], pre-post 80 [ms] (as indicated in the legend of Fig. 4). A greater number of inputs would be desirable. However, due to the cellular resolution of the SSNN, the computations are very taxing in terms of processing and memory; thus, only a limited number of inputs were explored during this experiment. For each trial, the pulse train was applied for a period of 6.5 [s], which is long enough for the neurons to exhibit 16 spike pairs. At each time step of the simulation, the standard deviation of the distribution for the weighted in-degree, IN, and the distribution for the weighted out-degree, OUT, was computed. This measurement is a population-level, global metric, that is, a candidate information-bearing signal (a.k.a. information-preserving transform). By running the experiment and examining the results, we could determine the extent to which these transforms are, in actuality, information-preserving. 4. Results Fig. 4 The plot shown above summarizes the results of the experiment. In particular, for each of the six different input signals, the standard deviation of the distribution for weighted in-degree and weighted out-degree was computed at each time step. See body of the text for a detailed description of these results. 20 Alexander M. Duda and Stephen E. Levinson / Procedia Computer Science 20 ( 2013 ) 14 – 21 For each of the different time series, it is apparent that the standard deviation is time-varying, increases (or does not change) in response to each applied pulse, and shows a clear differentiation in terms of the paths taken and the final values assumed (they appear to be diverging). For OUT, post-pre 16 [ms] shows the largest increase, which corresponds to the timing that would cause the greatest LTD to synaptic strength, followed by pre-post 16 [ms]; this relative ordering also is reasonable given the synaptic curve we defined, which allows for a maximum LTD (from initial value of w = 1) of -1, while the maximum LTP (from initial value of w = 1) is 0.6. The others seem to follow a similarly intuitive ordering, with the exception of pre-post 80 [ms], which appears to break the trend slightly by being greater than the pre-post 48 [ms]; though, clearly if the simulation had gone on longer, it appears the The standard deviation of the distribution for local influence is highly correlated with the input signal. For IN, as before, the largest increases were those that received pulse trains with the tightest relative timing. Also, the ordering of the other time series follows a similar trend, though the spread is narrower. The standard deviation of the distribution for local impressionability is correlated with the input signal, but it appears that distinguishing them is a bit more challenging than the previous case. The metrics considered seem to be good candidates for information-bearing signals, though OUT seems to be more effective in that the measured time series diverge, which makes identifying the corresponding input signal easier. The result matches our hypothesis well. Though, it remains to be seen how robust such correlations will remain when more complex input signals are provided (speech, video, etc.) that have noise, as well as when the model itself is scaled up to include multiple SSNNs [5] that exhibit stochastic neuron-neuron communication [13]. However, we are encouraged by the result and its implications for information-processing in SSNNs, as well as the ability to create reduced-order and functionally equivalent models of SSNNs in the not-too-distant future. 5. Future Work As alluded to earlier in the paper, this experiment is just a small part of a larger project being carried out in the Language Acquisition and Robotics Group. We are designing a multi-sensory associative memory based on the dynamics of SSNNs [5]. In the short-term we will be including all the important identified features into a given SSNN (a more realistic spatial location of neurons which could be captured by a longer minimum delay, a probability of connection (for initialization) that drops off as a function of distance, the existence of inhibitory neurons, as well as a reliability parameter that modulates neuron-neuron communication and learning). We hope to explore SSNNs that are tuned to exhibit more persistent activity and consist of many more neurons/synapses; this will require scaling up the model to a more powerful computing cluster. Furthermore, we will be using such canonical SSNNs as a computational unit within a larger simulated neural substrate; there will be a single SSNN for each sensory stream (vision, speech), as well as an SSNN for sensory integration. With such a simulated neural substrate implemented, we will conduct a number of speech and vision binding experiments with Bert, our iCub humanoid robot, and determine the extent to which metrics like those discussed in this paper prove useful in creating a reduced-order model (with respect to information) that could serve as the basis for an associative memory. In the long-term we will make the simulated neural substrate even larger and allow other sensory streams to be included (like signals from motors, haptic sensors, and direct feedback from individuals interacting with Bert that could provide reinforcement signals by way of modulating the synaptic learning curve (which would be similar to modulating neurotransmitter release)). We are confident that such experiments will help to provide an empirical neurorobotic platform that will enable new insight into the problems of intelligence and the design of neocortically- inspired intelligent machines. Acknowledgements Supported by the Laboratory Directed Research and Development Program at Sandia National Laboratories under LDRD #12-1058 and LDRD #151345. Sandia is a multiprogram laboratory operated by Sandia Corporation, a Lockheed Martin Company, for the United States Department of Energy's National Nuclear Security Administration under contract DE-AC04-94AL85000. The authors would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers of this paper, for their helpful suggestions. 21 Alexander M. Duda and Stephen E. Levinson / Procedia Computer Science 20 ( 2013 ) 14 – 21 References 1. S. E. Levinson, Mathematical Models for Speech Technology, West Sussex, England: Wiley, (2005) 230. 2. M. McClain and S. Levinson, Semantic-based learning of syntax in an autonomous robot, I. J. Hum. Robot., vol. 4, no. 2 (2007) 321. 3. L. Niehaus and S. E. Levinson, Online learning and integ. of complex action and word lexicons for lang. ground., Proc. IEEE ICDL (2012). 4 J. von Neumann, Probabilistic logics and the synthesis of reliable organisms from unreliable components, Godfrey version, 2010. 5. A. M. Duda and S. E. Levinson, Nonlinear dynamical multi-scale model of associative memory, Proc. IEEE ICMLA (2010) 867. 6. A. M. Duda and S. E. Levinson, Complex networks of spiking neurons: Collective behavior characterization, Proc. ICCS (2011) 1627. 7. G. Metta, G. Sandini, D. Vernon, L. Natale, and F. Nori, The icub humanoid robot: an open platform for research in embodied cognition, Proc. of 8th Workshop on Performance Metrics for Intelligent Systems, ACM (2008) 50. 8. J. M. Schwartz and S. Begley, The Mind & The Brain: Neuroplasticity and the Power of Mental Force. New York, NY, USA: HarperCollins, 2002. 9. A. L. Hodgkin and A. Huxley, A quantitative description of membrane current and its application to conduction and excitation in nerve," J. Physiol., vol. 117 (1952) 500. 10. C. Koch, Biophysics of Computation: Information Processing in Single Neurons. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press (1999) 142. 11. E. M. Izhikevich, Which model to use for cortical spiking neurons? IEEE Trans. on Neur. Nets, vol. 15, no. 5 (2004) 1063. 12. C. Warrender, J. Aimone, C. Teeter, and R. Schiek, Neuroxyce: a highly parallelized simulator for biologically realistic neural networks, Neuroinformatics Meeting (2012). 13. A. M. Duda. NeuroXyce Synapse Device with STDP and Stochastic Transmission Reliability. Sandia National Laboratories (2012). 1 euron/neuron/mech.html#Exp2Syn. 1e76f9aa2/src/nrnoc/exp2syn.mod. 16. C. Clopath, L. Busing, E. Vasilaki, and W. Gerstner, Connectivity reflects coding: a model of voltage-based stdp with homeostasis, Nat Neurosci, vol. 13, no. 3 (2010) 344. 17. C. Clopath and W. Gerstner, Voltage and spike timing interact in stdp - unified model, Front. in Syn. Neuro., vol. 2, no. 00025 (2010). 18. K.M. Squire and S.E. Levinson, HMM-Based Concept Learning for a Mobile Robot, IEEE Trans. on Ev. Comp., vol.11, no.2 (2007) 199. 
work_sbcwakb4hbap3gbvxcuaxkeryi	----	Reviews 913 verbs of motion (usually called definite/determinate and indefinite/indeterminate). Only minimal attention is paid to stress, and the problem of word order is totally neglected. Model sentences too often read like word-for-word translations of English into Russian. It is not that sentences like Gde vy videli ego vcheraf do not exist in Russian, but rather that an excess of such models misleads the student into thinking this is the normal word order in that language. Despite these minor objections, the book has much to recommend it. Grammar explanations, though traditional, are clear and concise. The inclusion of an extensive body of literary readings adapted from Pushkin, Tolstoy, Chekhov, and Zoshchenko must be regarded as a positive asset. CLAYTON L. DAWSON University of Illinois, Urbana M O D E R N F I N N I S H P A I N T I N G A N D G R A P H I C A R T . By John Boulton Smith. New York and Washington: Praeger Publishers, 1970. 62 pp. $4.50. M O D E R N A R C H I T E C T U R E I N F I N L A N D . By Asko Sdokorpi. New York and Washington: Praeger Publishers, 1970. 64 pp. $4.50. John Boulton Smith asks the question whether or not Finnish modern painting and printmaking have an individual cultural identity, and proceeds expertly to trace the effects of Romanticism, Impressionism, Postimpressionism, A r t Nouveau, and E x - pressionism on Finnish painters who attempted to evoke their own national heritage. Painting is a young art in Finland. In a state of decline after the Reformation, it was not revived until the nineteenth century, when it was relearned from various Euro- pean models. Abstract art was not accepted until the 1950s, growing commonplace in the 1960s. The year 1809 saw Finland's severance from Sweden and its new guise as an independent grand duchy under Russian domination. As in other Nordic countries, nationalism grew, and Elias Lonnrot's publication of Finland's national epic, the Kalevala, occurred in 1835. The centers for the artistic training of Finnish artists in the nineteenth century were, successively, Stockholm, Dusseldorf, and in the 1880s, Paris. The first distinctively Finnish painting drew upon the Kalevala and used the sinuous style of A r t Nouveau. Akseli Gallen-Kallela (1865-1931) was the most famous exponent of this form. The nationalist movement was greatly strengthened by Finland's final independence from Russia in 1917, and produced, once again, an interest in the depiction of folk themes. Edvard Munch's 1909 and 1911 exhibitions in Helsinki helped foster an interest in Expressionism. But the Finnish quality in Finnish painting is apparent in the content, not the style. The most frequently reiterated theme is a strong feeling for nature, both lyrical and melancholy. Mr. Smith's text is clear, direct, and sympathetic, and his choice of plates arouses interest in a little-known sphere of modern art. In contrast, Finland's architecture has a long-standing, unbroken tradition, and its modern architecture is world renowned. Asko Salokorpi traces the key aspects of modern Finnish architecture, which parallels European architecture in general, and discusses the concepts of rationalism, romanticism, internationalism, and nationalism. His presentation is terse, often brilliant, and he makes it clear why "Finnish archi- tecture often seems to be an art form rather than a way of building." The influence of Art Nouveau, Cubism, and Constructivism and the concept of functionalism are 914 Slavic Review made clear, and the reasons why Finnish architecture did not influence European architecture in general are given. He contrasts the axial symmetry and straight lines of early Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe with the Finnish penchant for asym- metry and sculptural masses—a transformation of functional ism. Originally founded on the use of industrial forms and production processes—emphasizing the utilitarian, the uniform, the anonymous, and the mass-produced—factionalism in actuality pro- duced expensive, elitist, isolated works of art. The well-known architecture of Alvar Aalto was influenced in 1927-28 by Gropius's Bauhaus building, which was a freely formed composition. But his 1930s elegant and daring "freeform" constructions were far from Bauhaus principles. Le Corbusier's "five-point plan" had only a limited following in Finland. In addition to the work of Aalto, the work of thirty-six other architects is evaluated, and the famed town-planning project of Tapiola is discussed. Continuously enlightening, Salokorpi's book has an excellent selection of plates and unusually informative plate notes. Both books are concise and intelligent, and Smith's book has the virtue of introducing the English-speaking reader to an almost unknown facet of modern art. The extremely small type is the only flaw in these pocket-sized volumes, making the reading unnecessarily strenuous. KARL LUNDE The William Paterson College of New Jersey OSTATNIE LATA DRUGIEJ RZECZYPOSPOLITEJ (1935-1939). By Hanna and Tadeusz Jedruszczak. Warsaw: Ksiazka i Wiedza, 1970. 423 pp. Professor Tadeusz Jgdruszczak is the director of the Institute of Military History in Warsaw. He is the author of two previous books, Polityka Polski w Sprawie Gornego Slqska, 1918-1922 (Warsaw, 1958), an excellent study of this complex problem, and Pilsudczycy bez Pilsudskiego (Warsaw, 1964). His wife, Dr. Hanna Jedruszczak, has published several articles on labor and wages in interwar Poland. We can therefore assume that hers was an important contribution to the book under review. The authors attempt to present an overall view of Poland in the years 1935-39. It is an interesting study and gives the reader a great deal of important information. It should be treated, however, as the authors themselves acknowledge, as only a tentative synthesis. The book is, moreover, directed both to the specialist and to the general reader. The authors admit that while the international situation and thus foreign policy were the dominant problems for Poland in these years, they could not always deal adequately with these subjects because of the unsatisfactory state of studies on the interwar period. This helps to explain why their discussion of these two problems constitutes the weakest part of the book. They could, however, have made more extensive use of some recent Polish publications, such as Henryk Batowski's Kryzys dyplomatycsny w Europie (jesieti 1938-wiosna 1939) (Warsaw, 1962), Marian Wojciechowski's Stosunki polsko-niemieckie, 1933-1938 (Poznan, 1965) (both cited in the bibliography), and Jerzy Kozenski's excellent study, Czechoslowacja w Polskiej polityce zagranicznej w latach 1932-1938 (Poznan, 1964) (not cited). There is much useful information on the economic, social, and political structure of the country. Here, however, too much emphasis is placed on the working class, which constituted only a small part of a population, 70 percent of which lived on the land. The Polish Communist Party, which receives a great deal of attention, had 
work_scyml4xyjnbqdd6eucugcbh5fq	----	Journal of Korea Multimedia Society Vol. 20, No. 4, April 2017(pp. 686-695) https://doi.org/10.9717/kmms.2017.20.4.686 <모네, 빛을 그리다展>과 <반 고흐 인사이드: 빛과 음악의 축제>의 실증적인 접근을 통한 몰입적 특성에 대한 비교 연구 이보아†, 하승완††, 서재인††† A Comparative Study of Immersiveness in <Monet’s Impressionism Exhibition> and <Van Gogh Inside: Festival of Light and Music> through an Empirical Approach Boa Rhee†, Jane Seo††, Seung Wan Ha††† ABSTRACT The purpose of the study is to analyze the impact of storytelling factor, technical factor and exhibition environment factor on the degree of satisfaction, degree of immersion and immersion types in <Monet’s Impressionism Exhibition> and <Van Gogh Inside: Festival of Light and Music>. Our findings show that the degree of satisfaction not only has a significant correlation with the degree of immersion, but also influences on the holding power and behavioral intention. According to the results of correlation analyses, three factors have an impact on the degree of satisfaction and immersion. Immersion factors influence negatively on Focused Attention and Heightened Enjoyment, however, the factors effect positively on Temporal Dissociation and Curiosity. As the influence of immersiveness on the degree of satisfaction and immersion, and immersion types have been verified, this study offers a fresh understanding of the importance of immersion factors as evaluation criteria for digital exhibitions. Key words: Digital Exhibition, Degree of Satisfaction and Satisfaction Factors, Degree of Immersion and Immersion Factors, Degree of Fatigue, Immersion Types ※ Corresponding Author : Boa Rhee, Address: #411, Xavier BD., Sogang University, 35 Baekbeom-ro, Mapo-gu, Seoul, 121-742, TEL : +82-2-705-4748, FAX : +82-2-705-4826 E-mail : boa.rhee@gmail.com Receipt date : Sep. 20, 2016, Revision date : Dec. 13, 2016, Approval date : Dec. 26, 2016, †††Dept. of Art & Technology, Graduate School, Sogang University (E-mail : jesse41@naver.com) †††Dept. of Art & Technology, Graduate School, Sogang University (E-mail : seojane20@gmail.com) 1. 서 론 최근 프로젝션 맵핑 기반의 디지털 전시미디어의 활용이 확대되면서, 원작을 재매개한 디지털 전시가 국내·외 전시시장에서 새로운 흐름을 주도하고 있 다. 전 세계 순회전시를 통해 800만 이상의 관람객 유입이 이루어진 <The Leonardo da Vinci Exhibi- tion Collection>을 비롯, 국내에서도 <반 고흐, 10년 의 기록展(2014)>, <헤세와 그림들展(2015)>, <모 네: 빛을 그리다展(2016)>, <반 고흐 인사이드: 빛과 음악의 축제(2016)> 등이 20만 명 이상의 높은 집객 효과를 거두고 있다(Fig. 1). 향후 전시산업에서 예술 과 기술의 융합콘텐츠인 디지털 전시의 더욱 다양한 형태로 발전되며 기술적 구현력도 더욱 정교해질 것 687<모네, 빛을 그리다展>과 <반 고흐 인사이드: 빛과 음악의 축제>의 실증적인 접근을 통한 몰입적 특성에 대한 비교 연구 Fig. 1. The exhibition posters of <Van Gogh: A record of 10 years Exhibition>, <Hesse’s Drawing Exhibition>, <Monet’s Impressionism Exhibition> and <Van Gogh Inside: Festival of Light and Music> (Source: BonDavinci and Media & Art) 으로 전망되고 있다. 1970년대부터 시작된 전시의 몰입(flow)에 대한 연구는 최근에는 창작 기반 뉴 미디어 뿐만 아니라 증강현실(AR)와 가상현실(VR)로 확대되고 있다. 다 수의 선행 연구에 의하면, 전시의 몰입적 경험은 전 시보유력 및 전시만족도 뿐만 아니라 행동적 이용의 사와의 관계성으로 확장된다. 상술한 바와 같이, 새 로운 융합제품으로써 디지털 전시는 높은 대중성을 획득하고 있지만, 디지털 전시에 대해 타당한 근거를 제시한 연구는 매우 부족한 상황이다. 이에 본 연구 에서는 2016년에 개최된 <모네, 빛을 그리다展>와 <반 고흐 인사이드: 빛과 음악의 축제>의 사용자 경 험에 대한 실증적인 접근을 통해, 디지털 전시의 체 험적 속성 및 몰입적 특성을 도출하고, 스토리텔링 요인, 기술 요인, 전시환경 요인이 전시만족도, 전시 몰입도, 전시피로도, 몰입유형에 미친 영향력을 분석 함으로써, 디지털 전시에 대한 평가기준으로써 몰입 적 특성이 갖는 의미를 제시하고자 한다. 2. 관련 연구 Csikszentmihalyi의 몰입(flow)에 대한 이론을 기 반으로 한 대다수의 선행연구에서, 몰입은 ‘최적의 심리적 경험’ 또는 ‘사람들이 최선의 노력을 기울일 때 느끼는 총체적인 감정 상태’를 의미한다[1]. 선행 연구를 종합해 보면, 몰입은 내적 동기와 일치하고 가치있다고 판단될 때 발생하며, 이 상태에 놓이게 되면 주변상황을 인지하지 못하며, 행위 자체에 집중 하거나, 일탈감, 기분의 고양, 만족감, 장기 기억 등의 효과가 발생한다[2]. 전시에서의 몰입적 경험은 학습 으로 연장되며[3], 이로 인해 발생한 즐거움은 이용 태도 및 행동적 이용의사에 유의미한 영향력을 미친 다[4]. 디지털 미디어의 상호작용성은 관람객의 흥미 와 몰입을 증가시키며[5], 미적 체험과 함께 현존감 에 이르게 하는데, 몰입의 정도에 따라 관람객의 참 여 방식과 그 정도도 달라진다[6]. 원작을 재개매한 디지털 전시미디어의 상호작용 성, 가변성, 몰입적 특성은 관람객의 능동적 참여와 관습과 고정된 개념의 틀로부터 새로운 지각을 가능 케 한다[7]. 프로젝션 맵핑과 모션 그래픽은 동적 이 미지에 대한 시각적 착시의 영상적 경험을 제공하며, 환영적 이미지로의 몰입을 유도한다[8]. 또한 시각효 과와 음향효과 등의 공감각적 요소, 원작에 대한 재 해석을 기반으로 한 전시 내러티브의 서사적 특성은 정서적 관여 및 몰입적 경험으로 확장된다[9]. 디지 털 전시에서는 대형 스크린이 사용되는데, 스크린의 크기가 커질수록, 스크린의 형태가 곡면 구조일수록, 영상의 해상도가 높을수록, 공감각적 요소가 동시에 적용될 때 몰입감이 심화되며[10], 배경 음악이나 관 람객의 밀도가 적절한 쾌적한 전시환경도 몰입적 경 험 및 이용태도에 영향을 미친다[11]. 3. 연구 문제 및 가설 3.1 연구문제 및 연구모형 본 연구는 <모네, 빛을 그리다 展(이하 모네전)> 와 <반 고흐 인사이드: 빛과 음악의 축제(이하 고흐 전)>에서 스토리텔링 요인, 기술 요인, 전시환경 요 688 멀티미디어학회 논문지 제20권 제4호(2017. 4) Fig. 2. Research Model. Table 1. Operational definition of immersion factors and immersion detail factors immersion factors in previous researches operational definition of immersion factors immersion elements Monet Gogh interactive immersion technical immersion sound effects x o high-resolution film & images o o motion graphic effects o o media immersion interactivity o o hologram o x AR, VR x o narrative immersion storytelling immersion new interpretations & approaches o o thematic exhibition circulation o o dynamic elements in motion graphics o x interpretative methods o x dramatic immersion environmental immersion background music o o big-sized screens o o theatre immersion curved screens o o optimal exhibition environment o o 인이 전시몰입도, 전시만족도, 전시피로도에 미친 영 향력, 이용태도간 상관관계, 몰입요인이 몰입유형에 미친 영향력을 분석함으로써, 디지털 전시에서 몰입 적 특성이 갖는 의미를 도출하는데 목적을 두고 있으 며, 상기 내용을 근거로 수립한 연구모형은 Fig. 2와 같다. 본 연구에서는 Bitgood[12]과 Stogner[13]의 몰입 요인을 조작적으로 정의하여 기술 요인, 스토리텔링 요인, 전시환경요인으로 대별했으며, 각 요인은 세부 요인으로 구분되어 이용태도에 미친 영향력이 분석 된다(Table 1). 전시만족도와 전시몰입도의 요인별 영향력을 비교·분석하기 위해, 전시요인은 몰입요인 을 차용했다. 몰입유형은 다양한 영역에서 몰입분석 도구로써 사용되고 있는 Agarwal & Karahannal [14]의 인지적 흡수(Cognitive Absorption, 이하 CA) 를 측정하는 요인을 사용했으나, 전시미디어의 제어 적 특성의 부재로 인해 이 요인은 본 연구에서 제외 되었다. 디지털 전시환경에서는 대형스크린에 투사 된 영상의 고해상도나 빠른 속도의 모션 그래픽 효과 로 인해 발생하는 기술 피로(Technical Fatigue, 이 하 TF)가 전시미디어의 특성, 정보량, 전시실의 소음 으로 인한 박물관 피로(Museum Fatigue, 이하 MF) 를 가중시키기 때문에, 전시피로도(Degree of Fati- gue, 이하 DOF)가 이용태도에 포함되었다[15]. 4. 연구방법론 4.1 연구방법론 및 내용 본 연구는 문헌연구를 통해 전시의 만족요인과 몰 입요인에 대해 고찰하고, 두 가지의 디지털 전시를 모두 관람한 20-26세의 관람객 37명으로 모집단을 구성하고, 정량적 연구방법으로 사용자 경험을 분석 했다. 본 연구를 위해, 2015년 12월 20일부터 2016년 1월 20일까지 현장에서 관람객을 대상으로 10개의 문항으로 구성된 전시만족도에 대한 예비조사를 실 시했다. 모집단의 연령별 구성 비율을 살펴보면, 20 대의 참여율(10대 6.3%, 20대 50.0%, 30대 25%, 40대 15.6%, 50대 6.1%)이 가장 높았다. 설문지 회수 시 명화 기반의 디지털 전시에 대한 사전 지식을 구두로 확인한 결과, 타 연령집단에 비해 20대의 명화 기반 의 디지털 전시에 대한 인지도와 설문응답률이 현저 하게 높았다. 이에 본 연구에서는 높은 설문응답률과 명화 기반 디지털 전시에 대해 익숙한 20대 관람객을 689<모네, 빛을 그리다展>과 <반 고흐 인사이드: 빛과 음악의 축제>의 실증적인 접근을 통한 몰입적 특성에 대한 비교 연구 Table 2. hypotheses no. hypothesis H1 H1-1～2. DOS has a correlation with DOI and DOF H1-3. DOI has a correlations with DOF H2 H2-1～3. TF, SF and EF have correlations with DOS H3 H3-1～3. TF, SF and EF have correlations with DOI H4 H4-1～3. Immersivenss of exhibit media has a correlation with DOS, DOI and DOF H5 H5-1～4. IF have correlations with CA(FA, TD, HE and C) Fig. 3. The exhibition gallery of <Monet’s Impressionism Exhibition> and <Van Gogh Inside: Festival of Light and Music> (Sorce: BonDavinci and Media & Art) 모집단으로 구성해서 설문조사를 실시했다. 모집단 의 모네 및 고흐 원작 전시에 대한 관람경험, 디지털 전시의 관람경험은 각각 75.7%, 67.6%, 67.6%로 제 시되었다. 설문내용은 전시의 체험적 특성, 전시만족 도 및 만족요인, 전시몰입도 및 몰입요인, 몰입유형, 전시피로도 등 20개의 항목으로 구성되었으며, SPSS 통계프로그램을 사용한 빈도 및 상관분석 결과를 근 거로 Table 2의 가설을 검증했다. 상술한 바와 같이, 원작의 이미지를 기술적으로 재매개한 명화 기반의 디지털 전시는 국·내외적으로 신생 융합콘텐츠이기 때문에, 이에 대한 실증적 연구 나 평가기준이 부재한 상황이다. 이에 본 연구에서는 예술작품 원작으로 구성된 전시의 전시만족도와 전 시몰입도간의 유의미한 상관관계에 대한 원칙이 명 화 기반의 디지털 전시에서도 동일하게 적용될 수 있는지를 조명하고, 모네 및 고흐의 원작 전시에 대 한 관람경험이 명화 기반의 디지털 전시의 관람경험 에 미친 영향력을 확인하기 위해 원작 전시에 대한 관람경험이 설문문항에 포함시켰다. 이와 함께 문헌 연구를 통해 도출된 세부요인을 명화 기반 디지털 전시의 특성에 적합하게 재구성하고, 이들 세부요인 의 전시만족도와 전시몰입도에 미친 영향력, 디지털 전시환경에서 몰입요인이 몰입유형에 미친 영향력, 디지털 전시에서 사용된 기술로 인한 전시피로도와 전시만족도 및 전시몰입도와의 상관관계 등을 유사 한 특성을 지닌 두 가지의 디지털 전시에 대한 비교· 분석을 통해 명화 기반 디지털 전시의 평가 요인을 제시한다는 점에서 연구방법론 측면에서 독창적인 특성을 지닌다. 4. 분석 결과 체험적 속성에서는 두 전시 모두 엔터테인먼트적 속성이 각각 40.5%, 43.2%로 가장 높은 비율을 차지 했다. 교육적 속성은 고흐전(21.6%)에 비해 모네전 (35.1%)이 높았으나, 학습도구 및 감상도구의 적절 성은 고흐전(81.1%, 70.3%)이 모네전(69.5%, 55.9%) 보다 높게 평가되었다(Fig. 4). 전시만족도의 경우, 고흐전(75.7%)이 모네전(62.2 %)보다 높게 평가되었으며(Fig. 3), 전시만족도는 전 시보유력과 행동적 이용의사의 증진에 영향을 미쳤 다(Fig. 5). 만족요인의 경우, 고흐전은 스토리텔링요 인, 모네전은 기술요인의 영향력이 컸으며, 세부만족 요인의 경우 고흐전은 모션 그래픽 효과(11.8%)와 대형스크린(11.8%), 배경음악(9.1%), 모네전은 상호 690 멀티미디어학회 논문지 제20권 제4호(2017. 4) Fig. 4. Comparison of experiential attributes, and suit- ability for learning tool and appreciation tool (left). Fig. 5. Comparison of DOS, and intention for revisiting the exhibition, recommendation and intention for revisiting digital exhibitions (right). Fig. 6. Comparison of SDFs and IDFs. Fig. 7. Comparison of degree of immersion, immersion stages and museum fatigue (left) Fig. 8. Comparison of immersion types (right). 작용성(12.1%), 원작에서 부재하는 동적 요소(12.1%), 모션 그래픽 효과(12.1%)가 주요 요인으로 작용했다 (Fig. 6). 두 전시의 전시몰입도(고흐전: 81.1%, 모네전: 67.6%)는 상당히 높게 평가되었고, 과반수 이상의 모 집단이 타 전시에 비해 전시몰입도(모네전: 54.1%, 고흐전: 63.9%)가 높다고 응답했다. 고흐전의 전시몰 입도는 몰입유형의 거의 모든 항목에서 높았을 뿐만 아니라, 이로 인해 몰입적 특성으로 인한 피로와 박 물관 피로도 높았다(Fig. 7). 고흐전은 기술몰입요인, 모네전은 전시환경요인의 영향력이 컸는데, 공감각 적 경험을 위해 고흐전에서 사용된 음향효과(6.2%) 의 전시만족도 및 전시몰입도에 대한 영향력은 매우 낮게 평가되었다. 두 전시 모두 집중(FA)이나 시간 경과에 대한 망각(TD)보다 호기심(C)과 즐거움(HE) 등의 쾌락적 몰입유형이 높게 나타났다(Fig. 8). 5. 가설 검증 가설 1: 두 전시 모두 전시몰입도와 전시만족도간 691<모네, 빛을 그리다展>과 <반 고흐 인사이드: 빛과 음악의 축제>의 실증적인 접근을 통한 몰입적 특성에 대한 비교 연구 Table 3. Correlations between DOS and DOI, and correlations between DOS and immersiveness of exhibits, level of immersion and higher degree of immersion Monet DOI Gogh DOI immersiveness of exhibit media level of immersion higher degree of immersion to other exhibitions Monet DOS .661** .661** .387* .727** Gogh DOS .709** .709** .343* .577** **p<0.01, *p<0.05 Table 4. Correlations between DOS and DOI, correlations between DIS and DOF, and correlations between previous viewing experiences and suitability for learning tool and suitability for appreciation tool DOF previous viewing experiences Monet DOS -.177 -.024 Gogh DOS -.079 -.126 Monet DIS -.031 Gogh DIS .012 Monet suitability for learning tool -.066 Monet suitability for appreciation tool .163 Gogh suitability for learning tool -.301 Gogh suitability for appreciation tool -.187 **p<0.01, *p<0.05 에는 유의미한 상관관계가 있었고, 전시미디어의 몰 입적 특성이 강할수록, 몰입감 단계가 상승할수록, 타 전시에 비해 몰입도가 높다고 느낄수록, 전시만족 도가 상승했으므로(Table 3), 가설(H1-1)은 채택되 었다. 두 전시의 전시만족도와 전시피로도간 상관관 계, 전시몰입도와 전시피로도간 상관관계는 도출되 지 않았으므로, 두 가설(H1-2, H1-3)은 기각되었다. 이외에 원작에 대한 관람경험은 두 전시의 전시만족 도, 학습도구의 적절성 및 감상도구의 적절성에 영향 을 미치지 않았다(Table 4). 가설 2: 모네전의 스토리텔링 요인은 전시만족도 에 영향을 미쳤지만(H2-2), 전시만족도와 모션 그래 픽 효과(TF) 및 배경음악(EF)간에는 상관관계는 도 출되지 않았으므로 가설(H2-1, H2-3)은 기각되었 다. 한편 고흐전에서는 상호작용성(TF)이 전시만족 도에 영향을 미치지 못했기 때문에 가설(H2-1)은 기 각되었고, 주제 중심의 전시동선(SF)이 다른 세부요 인에 비해 유의수준(p<0.05)이 낮았으나, 나머지 두 요인에서 유의미한 상관관계가 도출되었으므로, 가 설(H2-2 & H2-3)은 채택되었다(Table 5). 가설 3: 모네전의 경우, 모션 그래픽 효과(TF)와 배경음악(EF)와 전시만족도와 전시몰입도간 상관관 계가 도출되지 않았으므로 가설(H3-1, H3-3)은 기 각되었다. 하지만 스토리텔링 요인에서는 작품에 대 한 새로운 해석 및 접근과 해석매체의 가독성 및 가 시성의 유의수준(p<0.01)이 높게 나타났고, 모든 요 인에서 상관관계가 도출되었으므로, 가설(H3-2)은 채택되었다. 고흐전의 경우, 상호작용성(TF)과 주제 중심의 전시동선(SF)의 유의수준(p<0.05)이 낮게 제 시되었지만, 모든 세부요인에서 유의미한 상관관계 를 도출되었으므로, 세 가지의 가설은 채택되었다 (Table 5). 가설 4: 전시미디어의 몰입적 특성의 영향력을 분 석한 결과(Table 6), 두 전시 모두 몰입적 특성이 전 시만족도 및 전시몰입도에 영향을 미쳤고, 몰입적 특 성이 심화될수록 전시피로도가 상승했으므로, 세 가 설(H4-1, H4-2, H4-3) 모두 채택되었다(Table 6). 고흐전의 경우 몰입요인과 전시피로도와의 상관관 계가 도출되지 않았으나, 모네전의 경우에는 대형스 크린(-.365*, p<0.05)이 전시피로도의 원인으로 작용 했다. 가설 5: 고흐전의 경우, 쾌적한 전시환경을 제외한 모든 몰입요인은 몰입유형과 유의미한 상관관계를 나타냈다. 하지만 모네전은 기술요인에서는 모션그 692 멀티미디어학회 논문지 제20권 제4호(2017. 4) Table 5. Correlations between DOS and satisfaction detail factors, and correlations between DOI and immersion detail factors factor detail factors Monet Gogh DOS DOI DOS DOI TF interactivity .614** .569** .282 .326* motion graphic effects .303 .318 .489** .475** high-resolution film and images .497** .473** .582** .592** sound effects - - .533** .457** SF new interpretations and approaches .623** .481** .803** .709** thematic exhibition circulation .547** .372* .359* .399* dynamic elements in motion graphics .387* .407* - - visibility and readibility of interpretative methods .523** .602** .467** .597** EF big-sized screens .465** .371* .620** .585** curved screens .390* .393* .476** .603** background music .271 .254 .488** .486** optimal exhibition environment .626** .409* .623** .567** **p<0.01, *p<0.05 Table 6. Correlations between immersiveness of exhibit media and DOS, DOI and DOF DOS, DOI and DOF Monet DOS Gogh DOS Monet DOI Gogh DOI Monet DOF Gogh DOF immersiveness of exhibit media .661** .709** .679** .627** .377* .571** *p<0.05, **p<0.01 래픽(TD), 스토리텔링요인에서는 원작에 부재하는 동적 요소(FA, TD), 해석매체의 가시성 및 가독성 (FA), 전시환경요인에서는 곡면구조의 스크린(FA, TD, HE), 쾌적한 전시환경(FA, TD, C)과 몰입유형 과의 상관관계가 도출되지 않았으므로 가설은 기각 되었다(Table 7). 몰입유형과 몰입요인간 상관관계의 분석결과에 서 나타난 가장 큰 특징은 다른 요인에 비해 전시환 경요인의 몰입유형에 대한 영향력이 상대적으로 약 하게 제시되었다는 것이다. 몰입요인은 집중의 강화 (FA)와 즐거움의 고조(HE)와 음(-)의 상관관계를 가진 반면, 시간의 망각(TD)과 호기심의 유발(C)과 는 양(+)의 상관관계를 가졌다. 모네전에만 적용되었 던 원작에 부재하는 동적 요소는 집중의 강화(FA)나 시간의 망각(TD)과는 유의미한 상관관계를 나타내 지 않았으며, 호기심의 유발(C)에는 긍정적인 영향 력을, 즐거움의 고조(HE)에는 부정적인 영향력으로 작용했다. 고흐전의 경우, 공감각적 경험을 위해 사 용되었던 음향효과는 집중의 강화(FA)와 즐거움의 고조(HE)에는 부정적인 영향력을, 시간의 망각(TD) 과 호기심의 유발(C)에는 긍정적인 요인으로 작용했 다. 6. 결 론 <모네, 빛을 그리다 展>와 <반 고흐 인사이드: 빛 과 음악의 축제>는 원작에 대한 재해석 및 스토리텔 링을 기반으로 전시 내러티브를 구성했으며, 프로젝 션 맵핑된 이미지를 곡면 구조의 대형 스크린에 투사 함으로써 몰입적 특성을 강화했다. 두 전시 모두 모 션 그래픽을 통해 작품 속 인물이나 오브제를 생동감 있게 연출했으며, 인상주의 작품에 내재된 영상적 특 성을 극대화했다. 분석결과를 종합해 보면, 엔터테인먼트적 속성이 강한 두 전시는 전시몰입도가 높을수록, 전시미디어 의 몰입적 특성이 강할수록, 몰입감의 단계가 높아질 수록, 타전시에 대해 몰입도가 높다고 느낄수록 전시 만족도가 상승했으며, 전시만족도는 전시보유력과 693<모네, 빛을 그리다展>과 <반 고흐 인사이드: 빛과 음악의 축제>의 실증적인 접근을 통한 몰입적 특성에 대한 비교 연구 Table 7. Correlations between immersion detail factors and immersion types immersion factors Immersion types FA TD HE C Monet Gogh Monet Gogh Monet Gogh Monet Gogh interactivity -.380* -.537** .493** .455** -.712** -.702** .535** .466** motion graphic effects -.373* -.587** .244 .498** -.419* -.773** .472** .535** high-resolution film and images -.418* -.674** .425** .598** -.440** -.732** .545** .749** sound effects -.423* -.547** .481** .476** -.427** -.674** .478** .587** new interpretations and approaches -.392* -.682** .435** .448** -.584** -.539** .408* .584** thematic exhibition circulation -.412* -.579** .435** .469** -.512** -.418* .485** .660** dynamic elements in motion graphics -.284 -.442** .258 .423* -.441** -.489** .472** .504** visibility and readability of interpretative methods -.328 -.657** .334* .356* -.417* -.333* .454** .373* big-sized screens -.426** -.497** .493** .386* -.661** -.710** .688** .539** curved screens -.172 -.445** .255 .594** -.323 -.587** .490** .530** background music -.370* -.518** .379* .498** -.434** -.706** .470** .734** optimal exhibition environment -.060 -.251 .138 .501** -.405* -.484** .296 .601** **p<0.01, *p<0.05 행동적 이용의사의 증진에 영향을 미쳤다. 이러한 결 과는 예술작품 원작으로 구성된 전시의 전시만족도 와 전시몰입도간의 유의미한 상관관계에 대한 원칙 이 명화 기반의 디지털 전시에서도 동일하게 적용될 수는 있다는 것을 의미한다. 빈도분석결과에 의하면, 모네전보다 고흐전의 전시만족도와 전시몰입도가 높았으며, 몰입적 특성으로 인한 피로와 박물관 피로 도도 높았지만, 예술작품 원작으로 구성된 전시와는 달리 명화 기반 디지털 전시인 <모네, 빛을 그리다 展>와 <반 고흐 인사이드: 빛과 음악의 축제>의 경 우에는 전시피로도가 전시만족도와 전시몰입도에 영향을 미치지 않았다는 사실이 상관분석을 통해 입 증되었다. 고흐전의 경우에는 상호작용성을 제외한 세 가지 의 몰입요인이 전시만족도 및 전시몰입도에 미친 영 향력이 나타났다. 하지만 모네전의 경우에는 스토리 텔링 요인의 영향력만 나타났고, 고흐전과는 달리 모 션 그래픽 효과와 배경음악의 전시만족도 및 전시몰 입도에 대한 영향력은 도출되지 않았다. 고흐전에서 는 주제 중심의 전시동선이 다른 요인에 비해 영향력 이 낮았으며, 모네전의 경우에는 주제중심의 전시동 선, 원작에 부재하는 동적요소, 대형 스크린 곡면구 조 스크린의 영향력 낮게 제시되었다, 한편 몰입요인 은 집중의 강화(FA)와 즐거움의 고조(HE)에 부정적 인 영향력을 미친 반면, 시간의 망각(TD)과 호기심 의 유발(C)에는 긍정적인 영향을 미쳤다. 모네전에 만 적용되었던 원작에 부재하는 동적 요소와 고흐전 에서 공감각적 경험을 위해 사용된 음향효과는 몰입 에 부정적인 요인으로 작용했다. 본 연구를 통해 디 지털 전시의 몰입적 특성과 몰입요인의 전시만족도 와 전시몰입도 등 이용태도와 몰입유형에 미친 영향 력이 입증됨에 따라, 디지털 전시의 사용자 수용에 대한 평가기준으로써 몰입요인의 중요성이 제시되 었다. 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Tsoroni, “Technology Fatigue in Digital Interactive Exhibitions,” Engage, Vol. 24, pp. 27-32, 2009. 이 보 아 1987년 2월 성균관대학교 문헌정 보학과 졸업(문학사) 1990년 2월 성균관대학교대학원 미 술학과 졸업(미술학석사) 1997년 8월 Florida State Univer- sity 대학원 예술학과 박물 관경영학 졸업(철학박사) 한국디자인문화학회 학술이사(2015-현재) 한국컴퓨터정보학회 학술이사(2014-현재) 인문콘텐츠학회 출판이사(2012-현재) 한국박물관경영마케팅학회 회장(2009-2012) 2000-2010년 8월: 추계예술대학교 교수 2010년 10월～현재 서강대학교 지식융합학부 아트 & 테 크놀로지학과 교수 관심분야 : 재매개, 예술작품의 빅 데이터와 시각화, 가상 현실 하 승 완 2014년 2월 중앙대학교 사진학과 졸업(미술학사) 2016년 3월～현재 서강대학교 대 학원 Art & Technology 학과 석사 과정 관심분야 : New Media, Tangible Media, 가상 / 증강 현실 서 재 인 2013년 2월 이화여자대학교 심리 학 졸업(학사) 2016년 3월～현재 서강대학교 대 학원 Art & Technology 학과 석사 과정 관심 분야 : UI/UX, 가상/증강 현 실, AI, 게임 
work_seljwlt6nvc7nl2gvpssh4c3ki	----	348 Slavic Review This well-researched study covers a great deal of ground, but it adds little to what is already known, namely, that a literary report by a foreign traveler is, in most cases, a combination of his perception of the external environment and self-projections of values and views created in the process of the reporter's past experiences. If nothing more, Erhard Schiitz makes an effort to remind us that what often appears to be fac- tual is not factual at all, and that reports of firsthand impressions often do not tell us much more than fiction tells us. N. N. S H N E I D M A N Erindale College, University of Toronto A S T H E T I S C H E S D E N K E N IN R U S S L A N D : K U L T U R S I T U A T I O N U N D L I T E R A T U R K R I T I K . By Klaus Stadtke. Berlin and Weimar: Aufbau-Verlag, 1978. 378 pp. Klaus Stadtke's study of nineteenth-century Russian aesthetic thought might have been one of the best comprehensive treatments of the subject in any language if it had dealt more extensively with critics outside the camp of the "revolutionary demo- crats," for example, Apollon Grigor'ev, Druzhinin, and Botkin. As far as it goes, it is excellent. Stadtke's consistent Marxist stance does not prevent him from con- sidering the opinions of non-Marxist Western scholars, and he is often critical of Soviet scholars. His erudition is broad in every dimension—historical, aesthetic, philosophical, and literary. His method is sound and challenging, especially to the Western scholar. Stadtke gives Western scholars, such as Rene Wellek, credit for having eluci- dated specific connections between Western philosophical thought and the aesthetic ideas of Russian critics, but he points out—with some justification—that Western scholars have generally paid insufficient attention to the peculiarly Russian traits in the critical thought of Belinskii, Chernyshevskii, Pisarev, and others. Stadtke suggests that Russian criticism after Belinskii derived its premises not only from philosophy and aesthetics, but also from the development of Russian literature, particularly narrative prose (p. 2 6 ) . He tries to observe Russian literary criticism in a socio- historical, ideological, and cultural context, and deals with the economic factor in literature (publishing practices, readership, reception) as well. On occasion one cannot escape the impression that Stadtke is somewhat selective in the latter respect. Thus, the socioeconomic and political background of the Decembrist movement is carefully outlined, while Pushkin's role as an exponent of the world view and interests of the landed gentry (emphatically pointed out by Belinskii) is underplayed. Gogol's aesthetic philosophy is properly and competently juxtaposed to Pushkin's, but Gogol's personal and unresolved conflict between the moral and aesthetic purpose of art is given little attention. And in general, Stadtke seeks to avoid indicating an open dichotomy of Form'dsthetik and Gehaltsasthetik, even though his accurate account of Chernyshevskii's aesthetics describes the latter perfectly. Stadtke bases his own work on Russian scholarship to a greater degree than Western scholars and demonstrates a good command of Soviet Marxist and Formalist scholarship. He uses Russian terminology (for example, Aksentverschiebung— pereaktsentovka), his conception of "romanticism" is the Russian, not the traditional German one, and his treatment of Russian critics and scholars who are relatively unknown outside the Slavic countries (Pypin, Veselovskii, Potebnia) matches that of the "major" figures. Furthermore, Stadtke follows the mainstream of Soviet scholarship by consistently seeking to find ways to match aesthetics with political philosophy. For example, he ingeniously explains the progression from Dobroliubov the "enlightener" to Pisarev the "realist" by pointing out that the former still sees Reviews 349 the masses as the subject of revolution, whereas to the latter they are merely an object to be manipulated by the educated revolutionary leadership (p. 251). Similarly, Stadtke gives a political meaning to the "canonization" of Pushkin, on the one hand, and the reckless attacks on the poet made by some revolutionary democrats, on the other (p. 227). Belinskii is naturally the focus of Stadtke's book. Predictably, Stadtke sides with Soviet scholars—and Plekhanov, to some extent—in seeing Belinskii's later period as his "mature" one and recognizing the movement toward his positions in the mid-1840s as "progress." Nevertheless, the author sees the inconsistencies in Belinskii's theoretical positions, and his critical attitude is not limited to the early Belinskii. He points out that Belinskii's aesthetic system did not allow for conflicts which were not based in objective reality (pp. 199-201) ; consequently, Belinskii could not appreciate Dostoevsky's The Double and the works of some other major authors (Balzac, George Sand) which showed "romantic" tendencies. Stadtke's description of Belinskii's criticism as "aesthetics in motion" (eine sich bewegende Asthetik), in which aesthetic categories are subordinated to historical and literary change, is remarkably apt (p. 201). Altogether, Stadtke's book combines the better qualities of East European scholarship with the strengths of Western scholarship. Among other things, Stadtke shows great competence in the comparative aspect of his subject by demonstrating full control not only of the German sources of Russian aesthetics, but of French sources as well. VICTOR TERRAS Brown University C H E K H O V ' S A R T O F W R I T I N G : A C O L L E C T I O N O F C R I T I C A L E S S A Y S . Edited by Paul Debrecseny and Thomas Eekman. Foreword by Ronald Hingley. Columbus, Ohio: Slavica Publishers, 1977. iv, 199 pp. $8.95, paper. This anthology of articles on Chekhov is the result of a Chekhov symposium or- ganized at the University of North Carolina in the spring of 1975. Although the collection contains articles by Thomas Winner and Karl Kramer, both of whom have published books on Chekhov, the emphasis is on work by a generation of scholars who are just now beginning to say their word on Chekhov, so far in the form of journal articles. The anthology thus serves as a useful introduction to a new genera- tion's thinking about Chekhov. The volume will not in any way greatly revise the understanding of Chekhov currently held in academic criticism. It does show a methodological bias, as the editors note, for the methods of Formalism and Structuralism. Most of the authors show themselves to be well-trained readers of text, and one can glean a number of interesting insights about specific stories. Ordinarily, the most useful gesture a reviewer can make in reviewing an an- thology is to list the contributors and indicate the nature of their efforts, so that the reader can select from the menu what pleases his taste. In this case, the editors of the volume have written an excellent review of its contents in their introduction. I would simply suggest that anyone interested in Chekhov should pick up a copy of the volume and read these three pages to find what he wants. Several of the most interesting essays are those considering the question of Chekhov's relationship to Impressionism in painting. The notion that Chekhov is an "Impressionist" has been much bandied about, most notably, perhaps, in an article by Dmitri Cizevsky, "Chekhov in the Development of Russian Literature" (re- published in Chekhov: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Robert L. Jackson). "Aspects of Impressionism in Chekhov's Prose" follows Cizevsky's outline to some 
work_sen7ep6njvdd5mnahgc3b36ucu	----	econstor Make Your Publications Visible. A Service of zbw Leibniz-Informationszentrum Wirtschaft Leibniz Information Centre for Economics Hodler, Roland; Luechinger, Simon; Stutzer, Alois Working Paper The Effects of Voting Costs on the Democratic Process and Public Finances WWZ Discussion Paper, No. 2012/02 Provided in Cooperation with: Center of Business and Economics (WWZ), University of Basel Suggested Citation: Hodler, Roland; Luechinger, Simon; Stutzer, Alois (2012) : The Effects of Voting Costs on the Democratic Process and Public Finances, WWZ Discussion Paper, No. 2012/02, University of Basel, Center of Business and Economics (WWZ), Basel This Version is available at: http://hdl.handle.net/10419/123432 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. Sofern die Verfasser die Dokumente unter Open-Content-Lizenzen (insbesondere CC-Lizenzen) zur Verfügung gestellt haben sollten, gelten abweichend von diesen Nutzungsbedingungen die in der dort genannten Lizenz gewährten Nutzungsrechte. Terms of use: Documents in EconStor may be saved and copied for your personal and scholarly purposes. You are not to copy documents for public or commercial purposes, to exhibit the documents publicly, to make them publicly available on the internet, or to distribute or otherwise use the documents in public. If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. www.econstor.eu Wirtschaftswissenschaftliches Zentrum (WWZ) der Universität Basel February 2012 The Effects of Voting Costs on the Democratic Process and Public Finances WWZ Discussion Paper 2012/02 Roland Hodler, Simon Luechinger, Alois Stutzer The Author(s): Prof. Dr. Roland Hodler University of Lucerne Department of Economics Frohburgstrasse 3 CH-6002 Lucerne Switzerland roland.hodler@unilu.ch Prof. Dr. Simon Luechinger University of Lucerne Department of Economics Frohburgstrasse 3 CH-6002 Lucerne Switzerland simon.luechinger@unilu.ch Prof. Dr. Alois Stutzer University of Basel Faculty of Business and Economics Peter Merian-Weg 6 CH - 4002 Basel alois.stutzer@unibas.ch A publication of the Center of Business and Economics (WWZ), University of Basel.  WWZ Forum 2012 and the author(s). Reproduction for other purposes than the personal use needs the permission of the author(s). Contact: WWZ Forum | Peter Merian-Weg 6 | CH-4002 Basel | forum-wwz@unibas.ch | wwz.unibas.ch The Effects of Voting Costs on the Democratic Process and Public Finances Roland Hodler∗ Simon Luechinger† Alois Stutzer‡§ January 27, 2012 Abstract Increasing the attractiveness of voting is often seen as a remedy for unequal par- ticipation and the influence of special-interest groups on public policy. However, lower voting costs may also bring less informed citizens to the poll inviting efforts to sway these voters. We substantiate this argument in a probabilistic voting model with campaign contributions. In an empirical analysis for the 26 Swiss states, we find that lower voting costs due to postal voting are related to higher turnout, lower average education of participants, lower knowledge on the political issues they were deciding on as well as lower government welfare expenditures. JEL classification: D72, D78, H00 Keywords: Fiscal policies, political knowledge, postal voting, special-interest politics, voter turnout, voting costs ∗University of Lucerne, Department of Economics, Frohburgstrasse 3, 6002 Lucerne, Switzerland, Email: roland.hodler@unilu.ch. †University of Lucerne, Department of Economics, Frohburgstrasse 3, 6002 Lucerne, Switzerland, Email: simon.luechinger@unilu.ch. ‡University of Basel, Faculty of Business and Economics, Peter Merian-Weg 6, 4002 Basel, Switzerland, Email: alois.stutzer@unibas.ch. §We thank Sven Feldmann and Andrea Prat for helpful comments, and Stefan Gärtner and Sibylle Haas for excellent research assistance. This working paper supersedes the working paper “Compulsory Voting and Public Finance”. 1 1 Introduction Democratic decision-making in elections and referenda is characterized by unequal turnout as rich and well educated citizens are more likely to participate than their less privileged compatriots.1 Many students of democracy worry that this unequal participation trans- lates into fiscal policies that are biased towards privileged citizens (see, e.g., Lijphart 1997). Various institutional mechanisms have been proposed to achieve a more equal representa- tion. In these proposals, voting costs figure prominently. Incentives for participation are expected to be higher with postal voting or some form of electronic voting involving lower costs for citizens, or with institutional mechanisms like compulsory voting that increase the costs of abstention. However, voting costs might also work as a selection device bringing the confident citizens to the poll but not the halfhearted ones. Lower voting costs may thus induce more people to vote who only have a diffuse understanding of what their preferred alternative is. The latter circumstances though invite efforts to influence these voters. Special-interest groups might offer more campaign contributions allowing parties to try to sway these voters in exchange for rents or policies tilted towards these groups. Whether lower voting costs contribute to a better serving of citizens’ preferences is thus far from clear. In this paper, we scrutinize the argument that lowering voting costs might have unin- tended effects on political outcomes. We first analyze theoretically how voting costs affect the political process and, thereby, public finances. We base this analysis on a probabilistic voting model with campaign contributions similar to the models of Baron (1994), Gross- man and Helpman (1996, 2001), and Persson and Tabellini (2000). In this model, political candidates choose their policy platform, which consists of public goods provision and rent payments to lobby groups. The latter can make campaign contributions to political candi- 1Tingsten (1937, p. 155) was one of the first to provide systematic evidence that “the voting frequency rises with rising social standard.” Lijphart (1997) reviews many studies that document unequal turnout. 2 dates. Informed voters base their decision primarily on policy platforms, while uninformed or impressionable citizens base their decision primarily on political advertisements paid for by campaign contributions. Unlike in existing voting models with campaign contributions, in our model citizens decide how much political information to acquire, and whether or not to participate in the election. We assume that the costs of acquiring political information are lower for citizens with good education/high incomes. Further, citizens have to bear costs when voting, and we follow Matsusaka (1995) in assuming that the citizens’ benefit from voting are the higher, the more confident they are of their vote choice.2 In this model citizens with good education/high incomes are more likely to take in- formed decisions when voting, and they are also more likely to participate in the election. The composition of participants changes if technological innovations in the electoral process like postal voting decrease voting costs. Such innovations increase electoral participation as well as the share of less educated and thus impressionable voters whose vote choice depends on campaign contributions rather than policy platforms. As a consequence, can- didates propose platforms with higher tax rates and total government spending to increase rent payments to lobby groups (as compensation for higher campaign contributions).3 The effect of lower voting costs on public good provision or, more generally, on expenditures not targeted at special-interest groups is ambiguous in general, and negative with Cobb- Douglas preferences. These changes in fiscal policies harm citizens with high incomes, and possibly also less privileged citizens. Therefore, in contrast to what conventional wisdom suggests, our model shows that lower voting costs benefit special-interest groups, but may well harm all other citizens in society. In our model, regulations that increase the costs of abstention, such as compulsory voting, have the same effect on fiscal policies as lower voting costs. Hence they also lead to 2Lassen (2005) offers evidence from a natural experiment that better-informed people vote more. 3This result is consistent with the finding of Wegenast (2010) that interest groups are less influential in US states with highly educated and well informed citizens. 3 higher rents and higher taxes, with the effect on public goods provision being ambiguous. In addition, compulsory voting directly hurts all citizens who did not vote before the increase in abstention costs. We empirically test the predictions of the model for a procedural innovation that sig- nificantly reduces voting costs: postal voting. We thereby exploit the natural experiment provided by the staggered introduction of postal voting in the 26 Swiss states. This allows us to identify the effects of reduced voting costs and to separate it from time-, issue- and state-specific effects on political outcomes. Switzerland provides an ideal testing ground for two additional reasons. First, frequent direct democratic decisions at the national level allow us to observe participation decisions and changes in characteristics of participants at a higher temporal resolution than what is normally possible. Second, Swiss states have a high degree of fiscal autonomy which makes it possible to study effects on public finances. The empirical analysis refers to the years 1981 to 2005. First, we establish the impact of postal voting on participation. We find evidence for a 4 percentage point increase in voter turnout with postal voting. Second, based on a series of post-ballot surveys, we analyze how postal voting affects the average level of education and household income of participants as well as the participants’ knowledge on ballot propositions (i.e., popular initiatives and referenda). We find that postal voting is related to a systematic change in the composition of the voting population. On average, voters have fewer years of education and know less on the propositions they voted on. Finally, we study the correlation of postal voting with total government and welfare expenditures. We find no systematic correlation of the introduction of postal voting with total government expenditures. However, welfare expenditures are lower. While the latter result might come as a surprise, it is consistent with our model allowing for less government expenditures that are not targeted at special- interest groups in response to lower voting costs. This paper contributes to four different strands of the theoretical and empirical political 4 economy literature. First, it builds on the contributions of Baron (1994), Grossman and Helpman (1996, 2001), and Persson and Tabellini (2000) on the role of campaign contri- butions in elections. Due to its focus on fiscal policies, our model is probably closest to Persson and Tabellini (2000). The main differences to all these contributions are that we deviate from the assumption of full (or random) voting participation, and that we do not take the share of informed voters as exogenous. This allows us to show that lower vot- ing costs make campaign contributions more important and, consequently, special-interest groups more powerful.4 Second, Meltzer and Richard (1981) contributed one of the most prominent models in political economics linking the composition of the voting population with public finances. Restricting government activities to redistribution financed by a proportional income tax, their model predicts that a stronger representation of lower income citizens in the political process leads to more redistribution. Empirical evidence for this prediction (often exploit- ing different extensions of franchise) is rather mixed (see, e.g., Husted and Kenny 1997, Rodriguez 1999, Alesina and Glaeser 2004, Gradstein and Milanovic 2004, Stutzer and Kienast 2005). Our model offers a novel explanation for the lack of strong and unambigu- ous empirical support for the Meltzer-Richard hypothesis: the inclusion of poorer and less educated citizens may have increased the clout of special-interest groups to the detriment of policies benefiting the general population, including the newly enfranchised citizens. Third, voting costs are a key ingredient in the rational choice model of voting partic- ipation (Downs 1957, Riker and Ordeshook 1968, and for a review Aldrich 1997). Our evidence from difference-in-differences estimations contributes to a better understanding 4Strömberg (2004) endogenizes the share of informed voters in a probabilistic voting model with profit- maximizing media. Other recent contributions building on the aforementioned models provide a micro- foundation for the effect of political advertisement on voting decisions of imperfectly informed voters. In Prat (2002a, 2002b) political ads are non-informative, but the amount spent on political ads serves as a signal of the candidates’ quality. In Coate (2004a, 2004b) political ads are directly informative and the probability that the voters understand the information increases in the amount spent on political ads. As we focus on the effects of voting costs on fiscal policies rather than on why and how political ads work, we leave these interesting aspects of political advertisement out. 5 of the quantitative importance of transaction costs related to voting and offers complemen- tary evidence on the consequences of postal voting on turnout (see also Luechinger et al. 2007, Funk 2010, and for reviews, Qvortrup 2005 and Gronke et al. 2008).5 However, our analysis goes beyond this literature by documenting effects on the composition of partic- ipants and public finances. There are thus implications for postal voting and potentially also for Internet voting.6 Fourth, our paper contributes to the literature on the advantages and disadvantages of compulsory voting. So far, there have been surprisingly few theoretical contributions to this literature. Crain and Leonard (1993) consider the effect of compulsory voting on government spending in two separate political economy models. In line with conventional wisdom they hypothesize that compulsory voting would lead to higher public goods provi- sion in a median voting model in which public goods provision is the only type of public spending, and to less rents to special-interest groups in pressure groups theories of govern- ment. We improve upon Crain and Leonard (1993) by studying the effects of lower voting (or higher abstention) costs on public goods provision and rents in a formal and unified model. Börgers (2004), and Krasa and Polborn (2009) compare welfare under compulsory and voluntary voting in costly voting models in which voters only benefit from voting if they are pivotal. These models focus on the voters’ participation decision and their choice between two fixed alternatives, thereby abstracting from the way candidates choose their policy platforms and the role of special-interest groups, which are both at the heart of our paper. In a recent contribution, Krishna and Morgan (2011) argue that compulsory vot- ing has the drawback that preference intensities can no longer affect voting participation 5Recent alternative approaches to assess the quantitative importance of transaction costs in voting participation are proposed in Brady and McNulty (2011) and Gibson et al. (2011). Besides transaction costs there are, of course, also the opportunity costs of voting. A careful empirical analysis on the relationship between employment, wages and voter turnout is provided by Charles and Stephens (2011). 6Internet voting trials have been conducted in various countries, including France, the Netherlands, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In Estonia all voters could use Internet voting in the national election in 2007 (Alvarez et al. 2009). 6 and, thereby, voting outcomes. This argument is loosely related to our general point that postal and compulsory voting may reduce the political knowledge of the average voter and, therefore, lead to inferior policy outcomes for the population at large. In the following Section, we develop our voting model. Section 3 presents the data and the results of our empirical analysis. Section 4 offers concluding remarks. 2 The Model 2.1 Setting There are two candidates, a lobby group, and a measure-one continuum of citizens. Each candidate P ∈ {A,B} is office-motivated and chooses his policy platform to maximize his winning probability pP , where pA + pB = 1. Platforms consist of public goods pro- vision gP ≥ 0 and rent payments to the lobby group rP ≥ 0. These two components of government spending are financed with a linear income tax, and the government budget must be balanced. Hence gP and rP determine the tax rate τP = gP +rP y , where y denotes average income. Candidates may differ in their policy platforms (gP ,rP ) as well as in some predetermined, i.e., exogenous, positions. The lobby group can make campaign contributions CA ≥ 0 and CB ≥ 0 to candidates A and B at increasing marginal costs, and it receives rents rP from the elected candidate P . Its utility is Π(rP ,CA,CB) = J(rP ) − (CA+CB) 2 2 , where J′(rP ) > 0 and J ′′(rP ) < 0. Citizens differ in their skills αi, which may represent educational attainments or innate abilities. The distribution of αi is given by F(αi), with continuous density f(αi) and mean α. For simplicity we assume F(0) = 0, F(1) = 1, and f(αi) > 0 for all αi ∈ [0, 1]. Skills αi have two effects: First they determine citizen i’s income yi = αi. Second they determine how costly it is for citizen i to acquire political knowledge qi ∈ [0, 1]. We assume that a citizen’s political knowledge qi measures the probability that she is informed 7 rather than impressionable, thus understanding the candidates’ platforms (gP ,rP ) and their predetermined positions. If candidate P is elected, the utility of citizen i is Wi,P = W(gP ,rP ,α i,σiP ,pi) = U(c i P ) + H(gP ) + σ i P + Ii(βqi −γ) − q2i 2αi . (1) The first two terms on the right-hand side reflect citizen i’s utility from private consumption ciP = (1 − τP )α i and public goods provision gP , respectively. We assume U ′(ciP ) > 0, U ′′(ciP ) ≤ 0, RR(c i P ) ≡ − ci P U′′(ci P ) U′(ci P ) < 1, H′(gP ) > 0, and H ′′(gP ) < 0. The third term, σ i P , represents her utility from the predetermined positions of the elected candidate P . We further assume that σi = σiB −σ i A is uniformly distributed in [ −1 2φ , 1 2φ ]. The fourth term captures benefits and costs associated with voting. Ii is a dummy variable whose value is 1 if citizen i participates in the election, and 0 if she abstains. Some benefits from voting may well depend on the voter’s political knowledge, like the satisfaction of being confident to have voted in one’s own interest (Matsusaka, 1995). These benefits are βqi. For simplicity, we set β = 1. The costs of completing and casting one’s ballot are denoted by γ. These voting costs are relatively high when ballots must be cast at a polling station, but they decrease if postal voting or even Internet voting is introduced. The last term captures the costs of acquiring political knowledge qi, which are decreasing in skills αi. Timing is as follows: First, the candidates choose their policy platforms (gP ,rP ). Sec- ond, the lobby group can make campaign contributions. Third, elections take place. The elected candidate then implements the announced platform. It remains to describe the voters’ decisions.7 Informed voters vote for candidate A if Wi,A ≥ Wi,B, and for candidate B otherwise. The electoral decisions of impressionable 7We use the term “voters” to refer to citizens who participate in the election and for whom the partic- ipation constraint thus holds. 8 voters are driven by political advertisements and policy irrelevant candidate characteristics. The share of impressionable voters who vote for candidate A is 1 2 + ψ(∆C − η), where ∆C ≡ CA − CB.8 The remaining impressionable voters vote for candidate B. Note that ψ > 0 measures the effectiveness of advertisements and, therefore, campaign contributions; and η is a popularity shock that is uniformly distributed in [−1 2λ , 1 2λ ]. The appropriate solution concept for this sequential game is subgame prefect Nash equilibrium. 2.2 Discussion We now discuss some of the assumptions made. Utility function (1) implies that the citizens’ utility from private consumption ciP and public goods provision gP is additively separable. The model could be solved with more general utility functions, but assuming additive separability simplifies the analysis, and still allows for popular specifications such as the quasi-linear preferences used by Persson and Tabellini (2000). What we need and want, however, is for any given rP a negative relationship between a citizen’s skills α i and the public goods provision giP that maximizes her utility. In our setting this relationship is strictly negative if and only if RR(c i P ) < 1. 9 Utility function (1) further implies that citizens derive a benefit from voting if they cast an informed vote. Political knowledge qi benefits voters, for example, because they value the confidence of having voted in their own interest, as suggested by Matsusaka (1995).10 In our model higher skilled voters will optimally acquire more political knowledge because of 8Following Persson and Tabellini (2000) we could assume that impressionable voter i votes for A if and only if ∆C > εi + η, with εi being uniformly distributed in [−1 2ψ , 1 2ψ ]. 9To see this, observe that the first-order condition −U′(ciP ) ∂ciP ∂τP ∂τP ∂gP + H′(gP ) = 0, where ∂ciP ∂τP = −αi and ∂τP ∂gP = 1 α , determines giP for any given rP . Using the implicit function theorem, it can be shown that ∂giP ∂αi = −U ′(ciP )[RR(c i P )−1] αH′′(gP ) , which is strictly negative if and only if RR(c i P ) < 1. 10In general, citizens also benefit from political knowledge if they are pivotal with non-zero probability. However, in our model where there is a continuum of voters this probability is zero. 9 lower information acquisition costs, which is consistent with empirical evidence that voters with better education and higher incomes are better informed (e.g., Benz and Stutzer 2004, and Lind and Rohner 2011). Again, other mechanism ensuring that higher skilled citizens acquire more political knowledge would serve our purpose equally well. In Larcinese (2005), for example, the effect of political knowledge on expected (future) income increases in the citizens’ skills and income. Similarly, our results do not depend on the perfect correlation between incomes and and the costs of acquiring political knowledge. A positive correlation is however necessary. Voting is probabilistic in our model, such that small changes in policy platforms (gP ,rP ) only lead to small changes in the candidates’ winning probabilities pP . Following Grossman and Helpman (1996, 2001) and Persson and Tabellini (2000), we model probabilistic voting by assuming that candidates differ in predetermined positions or some other exogenous characteristics, and voters in their evaluation σi of these positions, and that a popularity shock η affects all (impressionable) voters.11 We further follow Persson and Tabellini (2000) in assuming that σi and η are uniformly distributed with mean zero to get simple and tractable functional forms of the candidates’ winning probabilities. Equation (1) includes only voting costs, but no abstention costs. Citizens may feel bad when violating social norms and not fulfilling what might be perceived as a civic duty. Moreover, in countries with compulsory voting laws abstention may lead to a fine or a request to explain the failure to vote (as in Australia). We refrain from including absten- tion costs because higher abstentions costs have exactly the same effects on participation decisions and policy outcomes as lower voting costs. The only difference are their effects on welfare: abstracting from changes in policies, higher abstention costs hurt all citizens who would have abstained without the increase in abstention costs while lower voting costs benefit all voting citizens. 11Results are virtually the same when η affects the decision of all voters as when it only affects the decision of impressionable voters. 10 To capture lobbying in a simple way, we assume that there is only one lobby group, that this lobby group cannot vote (or has measure zero), and that citizens do not benefit from rents rP . However, we could derive similar results in a setting in which a non-negligible share of the citizens belong to lobby groups, and in which all these citizens benefit from rents and can decide whether or not to participate in the election. 2.3 Equilibrium analysis In this section, we first derive the decisions of the citizens and the lobby group, which yield the candidates’ objective function. We then study how changes in voting costs affect the candidates’ policy platforms in two simplified versions of our model – one with exogenous rents, and one with an exogenous tax rate. Finally, we look at the complete model in- troduced above, and we discuss how changes in voting costs affect the equilibrium policy platforms as well as the welfare of the citizens and the lobby group. 2.3.1 Decisions of citizens and lobby group We start by looking at the citizens’ decisions of how much political knowledge qi to acquire, and whether or not to participate in the election. For citizens who abstain from voting acquiring political knowledge has no benefits. Hence they choose qi = 0. Citizens who participate in the election choose qi to maximize qi − q2i 2αi . Hence they choose qi = α i. Citizens therefore acquire political knowledge qi = α i and participate in the election if αi − γ − (α i)2 2αi = α i 2 − γ ≥ 0, i.e., if αi ≥ 2γ, while they acquire no political knowledge and abstain from voting otherwise.12 The election participation threshold 2γ directly determines voter turnout 1 −F(2γ). For simplicity we focus on cases in which γ ∈ ( 0, 1 2 ) , such that marginal changes in voting costs γ have an effect on voter turnout and equilibrium policy platforms. It follows: 12As a tie-breaking rule, we assume that citizens who are indifferent participate in the election. 11 Proposition 1. Voter turnout decreases in voting costs γ. The voters’ average skills and their average political knowledge are both given by 1 1−F(2γ)∫ 1 2γ αif(αi)dαi. Therefore: Proposition 2. The voters’ average skills and their average political knowledge increase in voting costs γ. We next derive the expected election outcome as a function of the candidates’ plat- forms (gA,rA) and (gB,rB), and the campaign contributions CA and CB. Informed vot- ers vote for candidate A if ∆V (αi) ≡ U(ciA) − U(c i B) + H(gA) − H(gB) > σ i, and for B otherwise. Among informed voters with skills αi ≥ 2γ, the share voting for A is therefore 1 2 + φ∆V (αi).13 By assumption, the share of impressionable voters voting for A is 1 2 + ψ(∆C − η) for any αi ≥ 2γ. As the share of voters with skills αi ≥ 2γ who is informed equals qi = α i, the population share who votes for A thus adds up to πA = ∫ 1 2γ [ 1 2 + αiφ∆V (αi) + (1 −αi)ψ(∆C −η) ] f(αi)dαi, and the population share who votes for B to πB = 1 − F(2γ) − πA. Candidate A therefore wins if and only if∫ 1 2γ [αiφ∆V (αi) + (1 −αi)ψ(∆C −η)]f(αi)dαi ≥ 0. Hence his winning probability is pA = prob { η ≤ φ ∫ 1 2γ αi∆V (αi)f(αi)dαi ψ ∫ 1 2γ (1 −αi)f(αi)dαi + ∆C } = 1 2 + λφ ∫ 1 2γ αi∆V (αi)f(αi)dαi ψ ∫ 1 2γ (1 −αi)f(αi)dαi + λ∆C. (2) We now turn to the lobby group’s decision. The lobby group chooses campaign contri- butions CA and CB to maximize its expected utility pAJ(rA)+(1−pA)J(rB)−12 (CA +CB) 2, thereby anticipating the effects of CA and CB on pA. The lobby group supports no can- didate if rents rA and rB coincide, and the candidate promising more generous rents oth- erwise. It is easy to see that the lobby group chooses CA = max{0,λ[J(rA) − J(rB)]} 13More generally, this share is min{max{0, 1 2 + φ∆V (αi)}, 1}, but for simplicity we assume that it is always strictly between zero and one. We make similar (implicit) assumptions for all vote shares and winning probabilities below. 12 and CB = max{0,λ[J(rB) − J(rA)]}, such that ∆C = λ[J(rA) − J(rB)]. Inserting this expression for ∆C into equation (2) leads to pA = 1 2 + λφ ∫ 1 2γ αi∆V (αi)f(αi)dαi ψ ∫ 1 2γ (1 −αi)f(αi)dαi + λ2[J(rA) −J(rB)]. (3) Candidate A anticipates the behavior of the lobby group and the citizens, and chooses his fiscal policy platform (gA,rA) to maximize his winning probability pA. Candidate B chooses (gB,rB) to maximize pB = 1−pA. It follows from equation (3) and the definition of ∆V (αi) that each candidate’s optimal platform is independent of his opponent’s platform, and that each candidate’s maximization problem can be written as max gP ,rP ∫ 1 2γ [ αiU(ciP ) + α iH(gP ) + (1 −αi)ΩJ(rP ) ] f(αi)dαi (4) subject to gP ≥ 0, rP ≥ 0 and τP = gP +rPα ≤ 1, where Ω ≡ ψλ φ measures how sensitive the electoral support from impressionable voters is to changes in campaign contributions relative to how sensitive the electoral support from informed voters is to changes in policy platforms. We assume throughout that the solution to this problem is interior. As it is standard in this type of lobbying models, the two candidates’ platforms therefore coincide in equilibrium, such that the lobby group makes no campaign contributions even though the candidates offer rents rP > 0. 2.3.2 Policy platforms when rents are exogenous (or absent) We now look at a simplified version of our model in which rents rP are exogenous and equal to r ∈ [0,α). This simplified version includes the special case in which there are no rents and no lobbying.14 Hence it may be close to the model that some of the proponents 14Results are identical when assuming rP = 0 as when assuming Ω = 0. In the later case each candidate would choose rP = 0, as rents have no effect on his winning probability pP . 13 of eased voting or compulsory voting have in mind, and it indeed helps to understand why these procedural changes could potentially benefit citizens with low incomes. In this simplified version of the model the two endogenous fiscal policy variables, gP and τP , are tied together by the government budget constraint. Hence candidates have effectively only one choice, which we take to be gP , and the maximization problem (4) reduces to max gP ∫ 1 2γ αi [ U(ciP ) + H(gP ) ] f(αi)dαi (5) with ciP = (1 − τP )α i and τP = gP +r α . It follows:15 Proposition 3. Assume rP = r. Then public goods provision gP and the tax rate τP decrease in voting costs γ. The intuition for these results is as follows. Lower voting costs γ increase voter turnout and lower the average voter’s income as well as the average informed voter’s income. Since voters with lower incomes prefer higher public goods provision gP (because RR(c i P ) < 1), the candidates respond to the lower income of the average informed voter by increasing gp. This is very similar to the mechanism modeled in Meltzer and Richard (1981). Interestingly, however, even if γ = 0, policy platforms would remain biased towards citizens with high incomes, with gP and τP still being relatively low. The reason is that candidates only care about informed voters, and that the share of informed voters always remains higher among citizens with high incomes. We now briefly turn to the effects of lower voting costs γ on the welfare of citizens: Lower voting costs have a direct positive effect on the welfare of all voting citizens. Further, by increasing gP and τP , they have indirect welfare effects that make citizens with low incomes better off and citizens with high incomes worse off. 15Proofs of Propositions 3 to 7 are in the appendix. 14 2.3.3 Policy platforms when the tax rate is exogenous We now look at a simplified version of our model in which the tax rate τP is exogenous and equal to τ ∈ (0, 1]. This simplified version may reflect the situation in countries in which governments are substantially less constrained in how they allocate public spending than in the amount they can spend. In addition, it nicely illustrates the main mechanism by which lower voting costs or higher costs of abstention can lead to policy changes that make all citizens worse off. When τP is exogenous, the two endogenous fiscal policy variables, gP and rP , are again tied together by the government budget constraint. Hence the candidates face a simple trade-off between high public goods provision gP and high rents rP . From their perspective, public goods are useful to increase electoral support from informed voters, while rents are useful to increase campaign contributions and, thereby, the electoral support from impressionable voters. The maximization problem (4) reduces to max gP ∫ 1 2γ [ αiH(gP ) + (1 −αi)ΩJ(rP ) ] f(αi)dαi (6) with rP = τα−gP . It follows: Proposition 4. Assume τP = τ. Then public goods provision gP increases in voting costs γ, but decreases in Ω, while rents rP decrease in γ, but increase in Ω. To understand these results note that for a given tax rate, all citizens have the same policy preferences: they want public goods provision gP to be as high as possible. Hence incentivizing more citizens to go to the polls, e.g., by lowering voting costs γ, would have no effect on equilibrium policies if the new voters were equally well informed as those who participated anyway. However these new voters are less skilled and, therefore, acquire less political knowledge even when they participate in the election. As a consequence the average voter’s political knowledge decreases. The candidates optimally respond by 15 increasing rents rP and lowering public goods provision gP , as rents serve to win votes from impressionable voters while public goods serve to win votes from informed voters. Not surprisingly, rents rP also increase in Ω, which measures how sensitive the electoral support from impressionable voters is to changes in campaign contributions relative to how sensitive the electoral support from informed voters is to changes in policy platforms. Hence, when the tax rate is exogenous, lower voting costs γ lead to policy changes that benefit the lobby group at the expense of all citizens. In addition, there is again the direct positive effect on the voters’ welfare. Ironically, lower voting costs are therefore unambiguously harmful for the poor who still abstain from voting despite the decrease in voting costs, and they may even hurt all citizens including those encouraged to vote by the decrease in voting costs. 2.3.4 Equilibrium policy platform In this section, we derive the equilibrium of the complete model introduced in section 2.1 in which public goods provision gP , rents rP and the tax rate τP = gP +rP α are all endogenous. We know that in this case the candidates’ maximization problem is given by (4). We discuss the effects of voting and/or abstention costs on the three fiscal policy vari- ables in turn, starting with their effects on the tax rate τP , which is proportional to the size of government gP + rP : Proposition 5. The tax rate τP and the size of government gP + rP decrease in the voting costs γ, but increase in Ω. There are two reasons why lower voting costs γ and the associated increase in the turnout lead to a higher tax rate τP . First, as seen in Section 2.3.2, for any given rP , a decrease in γ and the associated decrease in the average informed voter’s income make it optimal for the candidates to choose a higher tax rate τP . This puts some upward pressure 16 on τP . Second, a decrease in γ reduces the share of informed voters among the voting population, because less skilled voters acquire less political knowledge. A higher tax rate τP has the advantage that it allows to increase gP or rP and, thereby, to raise electoral support from informed or impressionable voters, respectively. But a higher τP has the disadvantage that it lowers private consumption ciP of all citizens. This, however, only reduces the electoral support from informed voters. Hence when the share of informed voters decreases, the candidates become less concerned about the disadvantage of high taxes, while the advantage of high taxes remains similarly attractive. This puts additional upwards pressure on τP . Furthermore, the candidates choose a higher tax rate τP when the support from impressionable voters becomes relatively more sensitive to campaign contributions, i.e., when Ω increases. We now turn to the effects of voting costs on the rents rP paid to the lobby group: Proposition 6. Rents rP decrease in voting costs γ, but increase in Ω. Some previous results are helpful to understand Proposition 6. We know from Propo- sition 4 that a decrease in voting costs γ and the associated increase in the share of impressionable voters increases rents rP relative to public goods provision gP for any tax rate τP ; and from Proposition 5 that a decrease in γ increases τP . Hence lower voting costs γ lead to more generous rents rP , because a higher share of impressionable voters tilts both the size and the composition of public spending to the lobby group’s benefit. Proposition 6 further shows that rents rP increase in Ω, i.e., when the support from impressionable voters becomes relatively more sensitive to campaign contributions. We next discuss how voting costs γ affect public goods provisions gP . There are two countervailing effects: First, candidates would like to choose higher gP when γ decreases, because the average informed voter then earns a lower income and, therefore, prefers higher gP for given rP (as seen in Proposition 3). Second, candidates would like to choose lower gP when γ decreases, because informed voters also care about low tax rates τP , with the 17 marginal utility of τP being negative and decreasing, and because the decrease in γ already puts upwards pressure on τP by increasing rents rP (as seen in Proposition 6). Any of these two effects may dominate in general. However, for some specific utility function the net effect is unambiguous: Proposition 7. Public goods provision gP decreases in Ω. The effect of voting costs γ on gP is ambiguous in general, but it holds: (i) Assume U(ciP ) = χc i P with χ > 0. Then gP decreases in γ. (ii) Assume RR(c i P ) = θ with θ → 1 (or θ = 1). Then gP increases in γ. Assumption (i) in Proposition 7 leads to quasi-linear preferences over ciP and gP as in Persson and Tabellini (2000). With these preferences, the marginal effect of an increase in τP on U(c i P ) becomes independent of the levels of c i P and τP . Hence the second of the countervailing effects discussed above disappears, and the candidates choose higher gP when γ decreases. Assumption (ii) in Proposition 7 ensures that the differences between the preferred public goods provision giP of citizens with different incomes converge towards zero. In this case the first of the countervailing effects discussed above becomes negligible, and the candidates choose lower gP when γ decreases. The same also holds true when RR(c i P ) = 1, as is the case with Cobb-Douglas preferences in log form over ciP and gP . Proposition 7 further shows that the candidates choose lower public goods provision gP when Ω increases, i.e., when the electoral support from informed voter becomes relatively less sensitive to changes in policy platforms. Finally, let us look at the welfare of citizens and the lobby group. The lobby group only cares about high rents rP . As lower voting costs γ increase rP , they make the lobby group better off. Lower voting costs γ also have a direct positive effect on the welfare of voters. The indirect effects however are less clear-cut: Citizens prefer high public goods 18 provision gP and low tax rates τP , and the importance they assign to the former relative to the latter decreases in their income. Lowering γ always increases τP , while the effect on gP is ambiguous. Hence, when lowering γ reduces gP , then the associated policy changes make all citizens worse off. But when lowering γ increases gP , then the welfare effects of the associated policy changes depend on the citizens’ income. Citizens with low incomes are better off as they primarily care about high gP , while citizens with high incomes are worse off as they primarily care about low τP . 3 Empirical Analysis In the following, we put our theoretical model to an empirical test. In particular, we study how a reduction in voting costs due to the introduction of unrestricted optional postal voting affected the political process and fiscal outcomes in the 26 Swiss states. The high degree of fiscal autonomy of Swiss states makes it possible that changes in participation decisions can translate into changes in fiscal policies. For the identification of the effects of postal voting, we exploit the natural experiment provided by the staggered introduction of postal voting in the states. Frequent direct democratic decisions at the national level allow us to observe participation decisions and characteristics of the voting population more frequently than what is normally possible. The staggered introduction of postal voting and the frequent national ballots allow us to test Propositions 1 and 2 independently of time-, issue- and state-specific effects. To test Proposition 1, we estimate the effect of postal voting on turnout in national ballots. To test Proposition 2, we use post-vote surveys and isolate the effect of postal voting on participants’ average years of education, participants’ average household income and participants’ average ballot-specific knowledge. We do not test Propositions 3 and 4 as they prepare for Propositions 5 to 7. This latter set of propositions is difficult to test empirically because rents to special-interest 19 groups are inherently difficult to capture. We still explore Proposition 5 as formulated in our model and study the relationship between postal voting and total government expen- ditures at the state level. For a test of Proposition 6 and 7, we concentrate on government welfare expenditures as this category of government expenditures is least likely to include rents to special-interest groups.16 Using government welfare expenditures, we explore the possibility that lower voting costs can result in lower public goods provision, i.e., in lower public expenditures net of rents. Importantly, government welfare expenditure is also the expenditure category most likely to benefit poor people, the supposed beneficiaries of re- duced voting costs and higher voting participation. Welfare expenditures are, therefore, well suited to differentiate between our model and alternative theories, such as the Meltzer- Richard model, which predict that higher turnout should be associated with policy changes supporting poorer citizens. 3.1 Data Our dependent variables are voter turnout, participants’ average years of education, partic- ipants’ average household income, participants’ average ballot-specific knowledge, as well as total expenditures and welfare expenditures as shares of state income. Data for these variables come from various sources. The data on voter turnout for states and ballot dates comes from the Federal Statistical Office (FSO). The FSO registers voter turnout for every ballot. As there are usually several propositions at a particular date, we calculate average turnout per state and ballot date. Voter turnout is 44% on average and ranges from 14% to 87%. Average years of education, average household income, and average knowledge on proposition of the voting population are captured on the basis of post-vote surveys. Differ- 16Welfare expenditures offer limited opportunities for discretionary spending decisions and for the tar- geting of funds to specific industries or regions. 20 ent Swiss universities together with a private research institute (Schweizerische Gesellschaft für praktische Sozialforschung, GFS) carry out post-vote surveys after each ballot date (VOX surveys). We use the standardized cumulative file VoxIt. The sample period starts on June 14, 1981. The post-vote surveys contain information on whether and how respon- dents voted, their knowledge about ballot proposals, and their socio-economic characteris- tics. Respondents level of education is captured by the highest degree they attained. Based on information provided by Swiss Conference of Cantonal Ministers of Education, we trans- late the degrees into years of education. Household income is reported in bands. Based on this information, we estimate the distribution function of income for each year, assuming a log-normal distribution of income, and then replace the grouped income variable by the respective group means (in 2010 CHF). Information on household income is only available since 1993. Respondents knowledge on the ballot proposition is expressed on a three-point scale. The respective variable takes value 0 for respondents who remember neither the title nor the content of the proposition, value 1 for respondents who remember one of these, and value 2 for respondents who remember both title and content of the ballot. Based on this information, we calculate average years of education, average household income, and average knowledge on propositions of voting participants for all states and ballot dates. For some states and dates there are no respondents or, alternatively, no respondents who voted. For the characteristics education and household income, we also calculate the average over all respondents per state and ballot date. These variables, later called population average of outcome, capture general state developments in education and income in a very flexible way. We do not calculate an analogous variable for knowledge on propositions because knowledge is endogenous to the participation decision (as theoretically modeled) whereas education and household income are exogenous to the participation decision. 21 As can be seen from the descriptive statistics in Table 1, participants in the ballots have a slightly higher level of education and more income (12.5 years and CHF 6,532) than the general population (12.3 years and CHF 6,282). Average knowledge of participants is 1.6 on the three-point scale ranging from 0 to 2. [Table 1 about here ] Data on total expenditures and welfare expenditures in states are from an annual publication of the Federal Finance Administration on public finances (Öffentliche Finanzen der Schweiz, various years). On average, total state expenditures amount to 17.0% of state income, and welfare expenditures to 2.3%. Our main explanatory variable is a dummy variable for postal voting (Luechinger et al. 2007).17 In our context, postal voting means that citizens get the ballot forms mailed to their home address, and can either go to the ballot box to vote or fill out the ballot forms and mail them back by a specified date in order to participate. The variable has been constructed on the basis of survey information from the federal chancellery, state corpora juris and a survey conducted with the chancelleries of the states. Since the late 1970s, Swiss states gradually introduced postal voting for all citizens without request. In earlier years, postal voting was restricted to selected groups (e.g., hospital- or home-bound patients) and/or only available upon request. The first state to introduce unrestricted postal voting was Basel-Landschaft (in 1978), and the latest states were Ticino and Valais (in 2005). In 23 out of the 26 states, the introduction of postal voting falls into our sample period. Control variables at the state level are income per capita, population and the rate of unemployment. This data is from the FSO. We include these three variables both in 17Luechinger et al. (2007) provide a detailed description of the introduction of postal voting in Swiss states, the construction of the respective dummy variable, and estimates on the effect of postal voting on turnout. The discussion in this section abbreviates the more complete discussions of these issues in Luechinger et al. (2007). 22 levels and in growth rates.18 Data on state income is only available until 2005. In order to account for the population structure, we include the share of population below the age of 16 and above the age of 64. In the government expenditure regressions, we also include institutional and political variables that have been argued to affect spending levels and composition. The variables are the share of left-wing party members in parliament, a dummy for election years, a fiscal rule index, a dummy for states and years with mandatory fiscal referenda, the signature requirement to launch a voter initiative relative to the state population, the cabinet size and the parliament size. These institutional and political variables are from Schaltegger and Feld (2009), except for the fiscal rule index, which is from Feld et al. (2011). In order to have a comparable sample across regressions, we restrict the sample period to the years 1981 to 2005, i.e., starting with the first year of post-vote survey information and ending with the last year with data on state income. 3.2 Estimation results We present the results of our empirical analysis in three steps: i) voter turnout, ii) com- position of the voting population and political knowledge, and iii) public finances. 3.2.1 Voter turnout Table 2 shows the partial correlation between unrestricted optional postal voting and voter turnout at the level of Swiss states on 73 dates of national ballots between 1981 and 2005. Based on ordinary least squares estimates including state-specific and ballot date- specific effects, we find that postal voting leads to an increase in voting participation of 4.1 percentage points. The effect holds if a set of time variant control variables is included in 18As the unemployment rate was zero in the state Appenzell Inner Rhodes in eight years, we lose eight state-years by including the growth rate of unemployment. 23 the second specification of Table 2. The estimated coefficient for the variable postal voting now amounts to 3.9 percentage points, or 8.9% relative to the average turnout of 43.8% in our sample. This effect is statistically highly significant (t-value=4.36) whereby standard errors are adjusted for clustering at the state level. Of the control variables, the rate of unemployment is statistically significantly positively correlated with turnout whereas the other state level factors show no significant correlations. The evidence supports Proposition 1 and indicates that the reduction in voting costs due to the introduction of postal voting significantly increased turnout. [Table 2 about here ] 3.2.2 Composition of the voting population and political knowledge The effects of postal voting on the composition of the voting population, i.e., participants average years of education and household income, are estimated with two specifications for both variables. In the baseline specifications, we include three sets of control variables. First, time invariant state-specific effects are taken into account. Second, ballot date- specific effects deal with issue specific mobilization of more or less educated people and of people with lower or higher income. Third, population averages of the outcome variables per state and ballot date control in a very flexible way for the development in the level of education and income over time. In the extended specifications, we include a set of time variant control variables capturing the socio-economic conditions in the states. Table 3 presents the results. Access to voting by mail is related, on average, to a lower education level of the participants in national ballots. The average years of education is reduced by 0.089 or 0.085 years, respectively (with t-values of -2.23 and -1.76). While the effect of postal voting seems small in absolute terms, it corresponds to more than one third of the difference in the level of education of participants and non-participants in the entire sample, which is 0.219 years (i.e., 12.509 years - 12.290 years). The finding is 24 consistent with Proposition 2 that the skill level of participants is lower with lower voting costs. The control variable for the population average is positively related to the level of education of the participants with a coefficient slightly larger than one. This reflects that participants, on average, have a higher level of education than non-participants. From the set of additional control variables, growth of state income is statistically significantly negatively related to the participants’ level of education. [Table 3 about here ] Consistent with the findings for education, the average household income of participants is lower with postal voting. The estimated coefficients amount to CHF 79.6 and CHF 89.4, respectively. This is about a third of the average difference in voters and non-voters household income of CHF 250 (i.e., CHF 6532 - CHF 6282). However, the estimated partial correlations are not statistically significant. There are two reason why we would expect a low precision of the coefficient estimates. First, survey information on household income is only available since 1993. Therefore, the household income regressions are based on both a smaller sample size and less identifying variation in the postal voting variable. Second, we construct the household income variable on the basis of categorized income information. Thus, household income is measured with an error. Since we use estimated group means rather than category midpoints, this measurement error is classical in form (Hsiao 1983). Still, it reduces the precision of the coefficient estimates. Finally, Table 3 reports the effect of postal voting on participants average knowledge on propositions. We find that knowledge is statistically significantly lower by 0.051 (t-value=- 2.06) and 0.047 (t-value=-1.92), respectively, whereby the mean value of this variable is 1.619. This evidence supports Proposition 2 of our model. Moreover, it shows that lower voting costs can have unintended side effects.19 19Remember that the estimation equation would be misspecified if we were to include the population 25 3.2.3 Public finances Table 4 presents the results for the effects of postal voting on public finances. We estimate three specifications for total government expenditures as a share of state income, and three specifications for welfare expenditures as a share of state income. All estimations include state- and year-specific effects. The specifications differ in terms of the additional control variables. We first add the same time variant factors as in the estimations above. Second, we add a large set of political and institutional variables that have been studied in previous work on public finances in Swiss states (often in a cross-section context though). We find no systematic partial correlation between postal voting and total government expenditures across our three specifications. In fact, when controlling for time-invariant state-specific differences and year-specific effects, the remaining variation in total govern- ment expenditures is only related to population size of the state and aggregate income in the state. Expenditures as a share of state income is lower with a larger population and - not surprisingly – also with a higher aggregate income. Thus, the results for total govern- ment expenditures support neither our model, nor other models in the spirit of Meltzer and Richard (1981) on the relationship between the composition of the voting population and government expenditures. We can think of two reasons for this (non-)result. First, while in our model rents are acquired through government expenditures, in reality special-interest groups might well benefit even more from favorable regulations allowing them to set higher prices for goods and services that they sell to consumers (and thus “tax” them indirectly). Second, relatively fierce tax competition between Swiss states greatly reduces the ability of these states to increase taxes and expenditures relative to other states. Indeed, total government expenditures in Swiss states have been found to mimic expenditure patterns of neighboring states (Schaltegger and Küttel 2002, Schaltegger 2004). In comparison, Swiss average of knowledge on propositions as an additional control variable. Knowledge is endogenous to the participation decision (as theoretically modeled) whereas income and education are exogenous to the participation decision. 26 states have considerably more leeway in deciding on the composition than on the level of government expenditures, similarly to the situation modeled in Section 2.3.3. [Table 4 about here ] According to the second set of estimations in Table 4, postal voting is statistically significantly negatively correlated with welfare expenditures. Welfare expenditures as a share of aggregate income in the state are lower by between 0.13 and 0.19 percentage points depending on the specification. Given that state government welfare expenditures are an expenditure category that is likely not to include rents for special-interest groups, we see the evidence as consistent with the – probably most controversial – second case in Proposition 7 that lower voting costs decrease public expenditures net of rents.20 4 Conclusions There is a common concern that voting costs with traditional voluntary voting at the poll put many citizens off participating in the process of democratic decision-making. Moreover, these costs contribute to an unequal representation with the better educated being more likely to participate. Accordingly, the plea is for lower voting costs (or higher costs of abstention, e.g., induced by compulsory voting). However, lower voting costs involve a trade-off: While they may reduce the representation bias, they may simultaneously lower the average participants’ political knowledge and increase the bias from interest-group politics. We substantiate this argument offering a theoretical model and some first evidence. In particular, we study how lower voting costs affect public goods provision and rents to 20We have argued above that the model with exogenous total government expenditures (Section 2.3.3) might be more relevant in the Swiss context than our general model (Section 2.3.4). Proposition 4 shows that the prediction of lower public goods provision in response to lower voting costs is unambiguous in this context. 27 special-interest groups in a probabilistic voting model with campaign contributions. This model is fairly standard except that we allow the citizens to decide how much political knowledge to acquire, and whether or not to participate in the election. We show that lower voting costs (or higher costs of abstention) increase the share of uninformed voters, thereby making special-interest groups more influential. These groups thus receive more generous rents. Furthermore, we show that total government spending and taxes are higher with lower voting costs, while public goods provision may be higher or lower. Lower voting costs may thus well lead to policies that make even less privileged citizens worse off. Consistent with the main propositions of our model, we find in an empirical analysis for 26 Swiss states that lower voting costs due to postal voting are related to higher turnout and lower average education of participants as well as lower knowledge on the political issues they were deciding on. Moreover, we observe that the introduction of postal voting is related to lower - and not higher - government welfare expenditures. Overall, we want to submit that high participation in democratic decision-making is not a value in itself. Rather participants’ knowledge on the political decisions at stake is crucial. Lowering voting costs to increase participation might have rather negative side effects when special-interest groups are attracted that try to influence the less well informed in the voting population. 28 Appendix: Proofs Proof of Proposition 3: The interior solution of maximization problem (5) must satisfy the first-order condition ∫ 1 2γ αi [ −αi α U ′(ciP ) + H ′(gP ) ] f(αi)dαi = 0, (7) where ciP = (1−τP )α i and τP = gP +r α . It is straightforward to show that the second-order condi- tion holds. Denote the left-hand side of (7) by kr. Note that ∂kr ∂gP = ∫ 1 2γ αi [( −αi α )2 U ′′(ciP ) + H ′′(gP ) ] f(αi)dαi < 0. It follows from Leibniz’s rule that ∂kr ∂γ = −4γ [ −2γ α U ′(ĉP ) + H ′(gP ) ] f(2γ), where ĉP = (1−τP )2γ. Observe that ∂ [ −αi α U′(ci P )+H′(gP ) ] ∂αi = −1 α [U ′(ciP )+c i PU ′′(ciP )] = 1 α U ′(ciP )[RR(c i P )− 1] < 0, where the inequality follows from our assumption that RR(c i P ) < 1 for all c i P . Therefore it follows from (7) and 2γ < 1 that [ −2γ α U ′(ĉP ) + H ′(gP ) ] > 0 and, consequently, that ∂kr ∂γ < 0. The implicit function theorem then implies ∂gP ∂γ = − ∂kr ∂γ ∂kr ∂gP < 0, which implies ∂rP ∂γ > 0. � Proof of Proposition 4: The interior solution of maximization problem (6) must satisfy the first-order condition ∫ 1 2γ [ αiH′(gP ) − (1 −αi)ΩJ′(rP ) ] f(αi)dαi = 0. (8) It is straightforward to show that the second-order condition holds. Denote the left-hand side of (8) by kτ . Note that ∂kτ ∂gP = ∫ 1 2γ [ αiH′′(gP ) + (1 −αi)ΩJ′′(rP ) ] f(αi)dαi < 0, and ∂kτ ∂Ω = − ∫ 1 2γ (1− αi)J′(rP )f(α i)dαi < 0. It follows from Leibniz’s rule that ∂kτ ∂γ = −2 [2γH′(gP ) − (1 − 2γ)ΩJ′(rP )] f(2γ). Observe that ∂[αiH′(gP )−(1−αi)ΩJ′(rP )] ∂αi = H′(gP ) + ΩJ ′(rP ) > 0. Therefore it follows from (8) and 2γ < 1 that [2γH′(gP ) − (1 − 2γ)ΩJ′(rP )] < 0 and, consequently, ∂kτ∂γ > 0. The implicit function theorem then implies ∂gP ∂Ω < 0 and ∂gP ∂γ > 0. It follows that ∂rP ∂Ω > 0 and ∂rP ∂γ < 0. � Proof of Proposition 5: The interior solution of maximization problem (4) must satisfy the first-order conditions ∫ 1 2γ [ −(αi)2 α U ′(ciP ) + α iH′(gP ) ] f(αi)dαi = 0 (9) 29 and ∫ 1 2γ [ −(αi)2 α U ′(ciP ) + (1 −α i)ΩJ′(rP ) ] f(αi)dαi = 0. (10) It is straightforward to show that the second-order conditions hold. Denote the left-hand side of (9) by k1, and the left-hand side of (10) by k2. It follows that ∂k1 ∂gP = KU +KH, ∂k2 ∂gP = ∂k1 ∂rP = KU , and ∂k2 ∂rP = KU + KJ, where KU ≡ ∫ 1 2γ (αi)3 α2 U ′′(ciP )f(α i)dαi ≤ 0, KH ≡ H′′(gP ) ∫ 1 2γ αif(αi)dαi < 0, and KJ ≡ ΩJ′′(rP ) ∫ 1 2γ (1 − αi)f(αi)dαi < 0. Further it holds that ∂k1 ∂Ω = 0 and ∂k2 ∂Ω > 0; and it follows from Leibniz’s rule that ∂k1 ∂γ = −2[−4γ 2 α U ′(ĉP ) + 2γH ′(gP )]f(2γ) and ∂k2 ∂γ = −2[−4γ 2 α U ′(ĉP ) + (1 − 2γ)ΩJ′(rP )]f(2γ). The implicit function theorem states that   ∂gP∂γ ∂rP ∂γ   = −B   ∂k2∂rP − ∂k1∂rP −∂k2 ∂gP ∂k1 ∂gP     ∂k1∂γ ∂k2 ∂γ   with B ≡ [ ∂k1 ∂gP ∂k2 ∂rP − ∂k1 ∂rP ∂k2 ∂gP ]−1 . Hence ∂gP ∂γ = 2Bf(2γ) { KU [ 2γH′(gP ) − (1 − 2γ)ΩJ′(rP ) ] + KJ [ −4γ2 α U ′(ĉP ) + 2γH ′(gP ) ]} , (11) ∂rP ∂γ = 2Bf(2γ) { KU [(1 − 2γ)ΩJ′(rP ) − 2γH′(gP )] + KH [ −4γ2 α U ′(ĉP ) + (1 − 2γ)ΩJ′(rP ) ]} , (12) and, consequently, ∂(gP + rP ) ∂γ = 2Bf(2γ) { KJ [ −4γ2 α U ′(ĉP ) + 2γH ′(gP ) ] + KH [ −4γ2 α U ′(ĉP ) + (1 − 2γ)ΩJ′(rP ) ]} . (13) We know that KJ < 0 and KH < 0, and it is easy to show that B > 0. Hence it re- mains to determine whether the two terms in square brackets in (13) are positive or neg- ative. As shown in the proof of Proposition 3, it holds that ∂ [ −αi α U′(ci P )+H′(gP ) ] ∂αi < 0. It then follows from (9) and 2γ < 1 that [ −4γ2 α U ′(ĉP ) + 2γH ′(gP ) ] > 0. It further holds that 30 ∂ [ −(αi)2 α U′(ci P )+(1−αi)ΩJ′(rP ) ] ∂αi = −α i α [2U ′(ciP ) + c i PU ′′(ciP )] − ΩJ ′(rP ) < 0, where the inequality holds since RR(c i P ) < 1 implies U ′(ciP ) + c i PU ′′(ciP ) > 0. It then follows from (10) and 2γ < 1 that [ −4γ2 α U ′(ĉP ) + (1 − 2γ)ΩJ′(rP ) ] > 0. Together with (13), these results imply ∂(gP +rP ) ∂γ < 0. Consequently, ∂τP ∂γ < 0. The implicit function theorem further implies ∂gP ∂Ω = B ∂k1 ∂rP ∂k2 ∂Ω ≤ 0, ∂rP ∂Ω = −B ∂k1 ∂gP ∂k2 ∂Ω > 0, and ∂(gP +rP ) ∂Ω = B [ ∂k1 ∂rP − ∂k1 ∂gP ] ∂k2 ∂Ω = −BKH ∂k2∂Ω > 0, where all inequalities directly follow from results derived above. Consequently, ∂τP ∂Ω > 0. � Proof of Proposition 6: It is shown in the proof of Proposition 5 that ∂rP ∂Ω < 0. There I further show that B > 0, KU ≤ 0, KH < 0, and [ −4γ2 α U ′(ĉP ) + (1 − 2γ)ΩJ′(rP ) ] > 0. Therefore it follows from (12) that ∂rP ∂γ < 0 if [(1 − 2γ)ΩJ′(rP ) −γH′(gP )] ≥ 0. It follows from conditions (9) and (10) that ∫ 1 2γ [ (1 −αi)ΩJ′(rP ) −αiH′(gP ) ] f(αi)dαi = 0. (14) Observe that ∂[(1−αi)ΩJ′(rP )−αiH′(gP )] ∂αi = −ΩJ′(rP ) − H′(gP ) < 0. Therefore condition (14) and 2γ < 1 imply [(1 − 2γ)ΩJ′(rP ) − 2γH′(gP )] > 0. Consequently, ∂rP∂γ < 0. � Proof of Proposition 7: It is shown in the proof of Proposition 5 that ∂gP ∂Ω ≤ 0. Assume for the moment that U(ciP ) = χc i P with χ > 0. Then U ′′(ciP ) = 0, such that KU = 0. Hence (11) reduces to ∂gP ∂γ = 2Bf(2γ)KJ [ −4γ2 α U ′(ĉP ) + 2γH ′(gP ) ] . It is shown in the proof of Proposition 5 that B > 0, KJ < 0, and [ −4γ2 α U ′(ĉP ) + 2γH ′(gP ) ] > 0. It follows that ∂gP ∂γ < 0. Assume now that RR(c i P ) = θ with θ → 1 (or θ = 1). Then ∂ [ −αi α U′(ci P )+H′(gP ) ] ∂αi → 0, such that [ −4γ2 α U ′(ĉP ) + 2γH ′(gP ) ] → 0. Hence it follows from (11) that ∂gP ∂γ → 2Bf(2γ)KU [2γH′(gP ) − (1 − 2γ)ΩJ′(rP )]. 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Income regressions Avrg. household income of participants 910 6532 1346 2487 12639 of general population 910 6282 1069 2553 12561 Postal voting 910 0.793 0.405 0.000 1.000 D. Expenditure regressions Total expenditures (% of state inc.) 639 0.170 0.057 0.044 0.358 Welfare expenditures (% of state inc.) 639 0.023 0.013 5.0E-4 0.066 Postal voting 639 0.473 0.500 0.000 1.000 Population 639 271201 279351 14145 1292481 Growth of population 639 0.007 0.007 -0.010 0.070 Share under 16 639 0.188 0.024 0.116 0.247 Share over 64 639 0.151 0.021 0.105 0.214 State income p.c. 639 40416 13508 19168 115180 Growth of state income p.c. 639 0.036 0.043 -0.170 0.420 Unemployment rate 639 2.077 1.791 0.030 7.810 Growth of unemployment rate 639 0.268 0.683 -0.590 3.630 Share of left-wingers in parliament 639 0.228 0.127 0.000 0.530 Election year 639 0.260 0.439 0.000 1.000 Fiscal rule index 639 0.397 0.900 0.000 3.000 Mandatory fiscal referendum 639 0.643 0.479 0.000 1.000 Signature requirement initiative, relative 639 0.015 0.010 1.8E-5 0.039 Cabinet size 639 6.277 1.118 5.000 9.000 Parliament size 639 116 47 46 200 Notes: Data refers to the sample period 1981 to 2005. Observations in panels A, B and C are at the state-ballot date level while those in panel D are at the state-year level. Data sources: Luechinger et al. (2007), Schaltegger and Feld (2009), Feld et al. (2011), Swiss Federal Statistical Office, Swiss Federal Finance Administration, and VoxIt. 37 Table 2: Postal voting and voter turnout in federal ballots in Switzerland for 1981 to 2005 Dependant variable Turnout (I) (II) Postal voting 0.041*** 0.039*** (0.009) (0.009) Population in 1’000’000 –0.042 (0.332) Growth of population 0.188 (0.226) Share under 16 0.756 (0.720) Share over 64 –0.268 (0.579) State income p.c. in 100’000 –0.010 (0.059) Growth of state income p.c. 0.004 (0.048) Unemployment rate 0.007* (0.004) Growth of unemployment rate 0.006 (0.005) State-specific effects Yes Yes Ballot date-specific effects Yes Yes No. of obs. 1870 1870 No. of clusters 26 26 R2 within 0.75 0.75 Notes: OLS estimations. Robust standard errors in parentheses. Standard errors are adjusted for clustering at the level of states. ***, **, and * indicate significance level at 1%, 5%, and 10%, respectively. Data sources: Luechinger et al. (2007), and Swiss Federal Statistical Office. 38 Table 3: Postal voting, the composition of the voting population and political knowledge in federal ballots in Switzerland for 1981 to 2005 Dependent variable Avrg. years Avrg. household Avrg. knowledge of education income on propositions of participants of participantsa) of participantsb) (I) (II) (I) (II) (I) (II) Postal voting –0.089** –0.085* –79.610 –89.484 –0.051* –0.047* (0.040) (0.048) (94.249) (92.618) (0.025) (0.024) Population avrg. 1.031*** 1.026*** 1.069*** 1.071*** of outcome (0.022) (0.023) (0.027) (0.029) Population –0.050 –11.232 0.741* in 1’000’000 (0.824) (2.1E+4) (0.413) Growth of pop. –0.394 1.7E+3 –0.442 (2.575) (5.1E+3) (0.824) Share under 16 –3.074 –9.2E+3 –2.711* (3.323) (7.9E+3) (1.434) Share over 64 0.504 –1.7E+04 –0.329 (2.151) (1.4E+4) (1.525) State income p.c. 0.197 –683.130 0.195 in 100’000 (0.296) (760.215) (0.144) Growth of state –1.073*** 446.698 –0.040 income p.c. (0.372) (830.392) (0.164) Unemployment rate –0.020 –31.244 0.005 (0.025) (44.466) (0.013) Growth of unempl. 0.089 330.065 0.012 rate (0.074) (265.717) (0.025) State-specific effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Ballot date-specific effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No. of obs. 1394 1394 910 910 1394 1394 No. of clusters 26 26 26 26 26 26 R2 within 0.74 0.74 0.69 0.69 0.59 0.60 General notes: OLS estimations. Robust standard errors in parentheses. Standard errors are adjusted for clustering at the level of states. The regressions based on the survey data have fewer observations than the turnout regressions in Table 2 because for some ballot dates, surveys do not contain respondents from all states. ***, **, and * indicate significance level at 1%, 5%, and 10%, respectively. Specific notes: a) Information is only available since 1993. Household income is reported in categories. We use this information to estimate the distribution function of income and then replace the grouped income variable by the respective group means (in 2010 CHF). b) Since knowledge of the proposition is clearly endogenous, it makes no sense in this case to include avrg. knowledge of the population at large. Data sources: Luechinger et al. (2007), Swiss Federal Statistical Office, and VoxIt. 39 Table 4: Postal voting and public expenditures of Swiss states for 1981 to 2005 Dependent variable Total expenditures Welfare expenditures (I) (II) (III) (I) (II) (III) Postal voting –0.003 0.001 –0.001 –0.002** –0.001* –0.001** (0.005) (0.003) (0.003) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) Population –0.274* –0.325* –0.052** –0.059*** in 1’000’000 (0.156) (0.188) (0.021) (0.019) Growth of population 0.055 0.085 0.033 0.032 (0.142) (0.144) (0.025) (0.024) Share under 16 0.065 0.031 0.121** 0.115** (0.215) (0.272) (0.044) (0.049) Share over 64 0.089 0.059 0.066** 0.061* (0.205) (0.199) (0.031) (0.032) State income p.c. –0.281*** –0.286*** –0.048*** –0.049*** in 100’000 (0.050) (0.050) (0.006) (0.006) Growth of state –0.016 –0.013 –0.007 –0.007 income p.c. (0.014) (0.014) (0.004) (0.004) Unemployment rate 0.003 0.003 0.001** 0.001** (0.003) (0.003) (3.9E-4) (4.0E-4) Growth of –0.001 –0.002 –2.3E-4 –2.6E-4 unemployment rate (0.003) (0.003) (3.3E-4) (3.3E-4) Share of left-wingers 0.049 0.003 in parliament (0.037) (0.007) Election year 0.001 –2.0E-5 (0.001) (1.6E-4) Fiscal rule index 0.001 2.2E-4 (0.002) (4.8E-4) Mandatory fiscal –0.003 –0.001* referendum (0.009) (0.001) Signature requirement –0.864 –0.149 initiative, relative (0.899) (0.114) Cabinet size –0.004 –0.001 (0.004) (3.9E-4) Parliament size –5.8E-5 1.9E-5 (1.4E-4) (2.2E-5) State-specific effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year-specific effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No. of obs. 639 639 639 639 639 639 No. of clusters 26 26 26 26 26 26 R2 within 0.57 0.72 0.73 0.84 0.91 0.91 Notes: OLS estimations. Standard errors are adjusted for clustering at the level of states. ***, **, and * indicate significance level at 1%, 5%, and 10%, respectively. Data sources: Luechinger et al. (2007), Schaltegger and Feld (2009), Feld et al. (2011), Swiss Federal Statistical Office, and Swiss Federal Finance Administration. 40 
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work_sgbsm5wojrhj3iw5ke554ztify	----	British Journal of Aesthetics pp. 1–5 © British Society of Aesthetics 2015. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the British Society of Aesthetics. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com BOOK REVIEW The Philosophy of Arthur C. Danto RANDALL E. AUXIER and LEWIS EDWIN HAHN (eds.) OPEN COURT PRESS; SOUTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY PRESS. 2013. PP. 816. £66.99 (HBK). The Philosophy of Arthur C. Danto marks the first time the prestigious Library of Living Philosophers has dedicated a volume to a thinker who is considered mainly a philosopher of art and an art critic. The vol- ume is comprised of twenty-seven essays written by contemporary authors, to whom Danto responded in turn; the book also includes an intellectual auto- biography written by Danto. Some of the standout contributions include a chapter by Ewa D.  Bogusz- Boltuc on Danto’s engravings (‘Reading Danto’s Woodcuts’); a perceptive essay about Danto as a ‘unique prose stylist’ by Crispin Sartwell (‘Danto as Writer’); and—a particularly unusual and entic- ing feature—Sean Scully’s reaction to Danto’s inter- pretation of his paintings (‘From an Artist’s Point of View’). Although Danto made significant contribu- tions to the philosophy of history and of action— writing, among others, an influential book on Nietzsche—almost all these papers deal with his phi- losophy of art, which is where, as Robert C. Solomon and Kathleen M.  Higgins say, ‘he has made his last- ing mark as a philosopher’ (649) (‘Danto: On the Use and Disadvantage of Hegel for Art’). Even so, Danto’s contribution in the sixties and seventies to the philosophy of history is arguably just as powerful, and I  believe this book would have benefited from devoting more pages to this topic. Publication of this volume was pushed back signifi- cantly when Richard Rorty’s illness led the publishers to prioritize the volume devoted to him. Thus, the book is not as timely as one might wish; for exam- ple, Lydia Goehr’s essay, ‘The Pastness of the Work: Albert Speer and the Monumentalism of Intentional Ruins’—perhaps the most substantial and original of the whole book—first appeared in her 2008 book Elective Affinities.1 Even so, this volume, along with Danto and His Critics, should now be required reading for anyone interested in Danto’s philosophy or con- temporary art criticism in general.2 Central to many of the discussions in the book—and likewise a central concern for Danto himself—is the fundamental ques- tion of what makes a thing into art. Danto first addressed the question of what makes an object into art in his paper ‘The Artworld’, and again in his book The Transfiguration of the Commonplace.3 When I  reread these works now, I  cannot but feel I  am back in a seminar room at Columbia, listening to his lectures. He was then in the midst of writing Transfiguration, and I  was a Chilean graduate student in the Philosophy Department, hoping to become a novelist and trying to make sense of the art world by studying aesthetics. I can still hear the tone of his 1 Lydia Goehr, Elective Af finities: Musical Essays on the History of Aesthetic Theory, ( New York: Columbia University Press, 20 08). 2 Mark Rollins (ed.), Danto and His Critics, 2nd edn (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012 [1993]), 69–83. 3 Arthur C. Danto, ‘The Artworld’, Journal of Philosophy 61 (1964), 119–126; reprinted in Joseph Margolis (ed.), Philosophy Looks at the Arts (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978) (page references are to the Margolis edition); The Transfiguration of the Commonplace: A Philosophy of Art (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981). The British Journal of Aesthetics Advance Access published July 1, 2015 at U niversidad de C hile on D ecem ber 28, 2015 http://bjaesthetics.oxfordjournals.org/ D ow nloaded from http://bjaesthetics.oxfordjournals.org/ 2 | Book Review voice, his sudden silences and vacillations, his voice as it gained momentum. I see him with his head inclined to one side, searching his way, thinking on his feet. Suddenly, half-smiling, amused by what he was about to say—something we couldn’t imagine—he would launch enthusiastically into his next point. When a student asked a question, he would listen intently: ‘It’s an interesting question. I’m not sure how to answer it.’ And then, of course, he would answer by expanding eloquently on the issue. He would always conclude with ‘… And so on and so forth’. It is bitter-sweet to re-encounter in these pages the very same questions, proposals and examples—often the very same words—Danto used in that seminar, when I was first confronting questions of the nature of art. As Danto’s student, I  remember how easy it was to be caught up in the current of his digressions and ekphrases—his rhetoric was mesmerizing, and it was easy to lose sight of the forest for the trees; that feeling never dissipated through all the years of our subsequent friendship. Over the years, Andy Warhol’s Brillo Boxes became a flashpoint in Danto’s discussion of the nature of art, and I  think his appreciation of Warhol evolved accordingly. When Danto was first writing about Warhol back then, I  believe his main concern was not about interpreting the work per se. He used Brillo Boxes as an example to raise a philosophical question about the nature of artistic representation. As Mark Rollins has written, ‘two major features stand out in Danto’s work. … the concept of representation … (and) … the method of indiscernibles’.4 In the preface to The Transfiguration of the Commonplace, Danto refers to Warhol’s crucial ‘contribution’ almost derisively: the ‘banality’ of the objects represented made it pos- sible to ask the question as to ‘what made them art- works’ without ‘bringing aesthetic considerations in at all’.5 In the book itself, Warhol is mentioned only once; Duchamp figures much more. In our seminar, too, we spent more time discussing Jasper Johns’ flags and targets than Warhol’s Brillo Boxes. The difference between Loran’s diagram and Lichtenstein’s Portrait of Madame Cézanne was analysed with care. The question was strictly conceptual: ‘What makes it art?’6 Danto never mentioned Hegel. I  don’t remember him talking about ‘embodied meanings’ or the ‘end of art’. But Richard Kuhn, his close friend, did lecture us on Hegel. In those days, Manhattan art galleries were full of conceptual art. Kuhn suggested, partly seriously and partly tongue-in-cheek, that conceptual art—not pop art—was approaching what Hegel had in mind as the end of art and its transformation into philosophy. I  asked Danto after class about this more than once, but he was cautious. So I was surprised when I read his statement in the preface of Transfiguration that ‘I should like to believe that … with the Brillo Boxes … the his- tory of art has come, in a way, to an end’, and to find Hegel referenced as predicting this state of affairs.7 However, Danto did not explore the thesis in depth. In conversation I recall he was rather reticent on the issue, but in 1984 he devoted a whole essay to the ‘end of art’, setting forth ideas that, to me as a writer, were liberat- ing.8 As he says in his reply to artist David Reed’s essay ‘Questions for Arthur’, there would be ‘no more of the “You can’t do that anymore!” sort of thing’ (103). Danto writes his own intellectual autobiography in his characteristically casual, clear style. One feels the author is having a good time writing, and that he is grate- ful. ‘Life ‘as been too good to me, Arturo’, he said the last time I was with him, thirteen days before he died. We know that when he saw in Paris a copy of Art News with a black-and-white reproduction of The Kiss he ‘was stunned. [He] was certain that it was not art’9 However, after some time he concluded that ‘if The Kiss was art, anything could be art’.10 Now, in his autobiography he 4 Mark Rollins, ‘Introduction’ in his, Danto and His Critics, 1. 5 Danto, The Transfiguration of the Commonplace, vi. 6 Danto, ‘The Artworld’, 136. 7 Danto, The Transfiguration of the Commonplace, vii. 8 Arthur C. Danto, ‘The End of Art’, in Berel Lang (ed.), The Death of Art, Art and Philosophy, Vol. 2 (New York: Haven, 1984), 5–35. A revised version was printed in Arthur C. Danto, The Philosophical Disenfranchisement of Art (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986). 9 Arthur C. Danto, Andy Warhol (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009), e-book, position 50. 10 Arthur C. Danto, ‘Afterward: Not by a Soap but First by a Kiss’, in Rollins, Danto and His Critics, 316. at U niversidad de C hile on D ecem ber 28, 2015 http://bjaesthetics.oxfordjournals.org/ D ow nloaded from http://bjaesthetics.oxfordjournals.org/ Book Review | 3 adds: ‘one could go any way one wanted. This, I  felt, was the meaning of The Kiss’ (24). So, The Kiss was the harbinger of the end of art, and the advent of artistic pluralism. This is astonishing: Danto had the intuition of the end of art before his theory of art and before the Brillo Boxes: ‘If it didn’t matter whether I was a realist or an abstractionist, if I could do one or the other, I was no longer that certain that I wanted to do either’ (24). His tone was melancholic. Danto was deeply disappointed: ‘There might not be much room in the art world then taking shape for someone whose work was inflected by the style of the 1950s … I really had no interest in becoming an artist in the kind of pluralistic art world that was now beginning to emerge. Somehow the stakes were too low’ (25). The Kiss was a devastating shock for Danto: he dismantled his studio. ‘It was an impulsive but absolute stop’ (25). Two years later, in 1964, he writes: ‘never mind that the Brillo Boxes may not be good, much less great art. The impressive thing is that it is art at all’.11 Danto’s appreciation of Warhol’s aesthetic merit increased immensely over the years. In 1981 he recalled ‘the philosophical intoxication that survived the aesthetic repugnance of [Warhol’s] exhibition in 1964’.12 In 1989, he wrote: ‘Warhol, to my mind is the nearest thing to a philosophical genius the his- tory of art has produced. He brought history to an end by demonstrating that no visual criterion could serve the purpose of defining art.’ Notice the verb: Warhol has ‘demonstrated’ a philosophical thesis through a kind of reductio ad absurdum. ‘Ours will be the Age of Warhol—an unlikely giant, but a giant nevertheless’.13 Returning to the original question of what makes an object into art, in his reply to Fred Rush, Danto offers the following simple formula: W I M O= ( ), , where W is the work of art; and I  is the interpre- tation, a function that maps a meaning M onto the material object O (482). The only difference between W and O is that W has a meaning which requires interpretation. O by itself does not. What trans- forms O into W is the interpretation I of the meaning M. Interpretation, then, has the power to transfigure a commonplace object into an artwork. In art, Danto claims, ‘esse is interpretari’, ‘not to interpret the work … is not to see it as art’.14 In spite of this, as Lydia Goehr says, ‘the historicity or ahistoricity of intention is not a matter that Danto pursues in great detail, and, arguably, he leaves intention too comfort- ably in place’ (365). Goehr argues that the meaning of a work of art does not remain fixed at the point of ori- gin. The ‘original’ meaning ‘does not preclude more things coming to be said about the work as it starts to be interpreted and experienced in an ongoing world of style, influence, and comparative judgment’ (363). In his reply, Danto insists that the interpreter cannot introduce anachronistic concepts or perspectives that the artist could not have known. He gives the exam- ple of Michelangelo’s placement of Eve in the Sistine Chapel; while the figure is certainly key, one could not ascribe any feminist interpretation to her presence in the work, since feminist theory was not available at the time of its painting. Danto wants to stress what works of art ‘mean to those who live the form of life to which they belong’ (386). In his reply to Göran Hermerén— who raises the question ‘Is it necessary for the inter- pretation to be true or in some sense correct?’ (‘Art, Media, and Money’)— Danto asserts that ‘interpreta- tive hypotheses are constrained by the historical situa- tion in which the work was made’ (189). Danto did allow for distinctions, though. For instance, he differentiated between ‘surface interpre- tation’ and ‘deep interpretation’. The first requires one to grasp the meaning embodied in the work as intended by the artist. In this sense, ‘surface interpre- tation’ ought to be ‘scrupulously historical’.15 ‘Deep interpretation’, although based on ‘surface interpre- tation’, is much freer, and allows for broader, more ‘creative’ readings of a work.11 Danto, ‘The Artworld’, 141. 12 Danto, The Transfiguration of the Commonplace, vi. 13 Arthur C. Danto, Encounters & Reflections: Art in the Historical Present (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1990), 287 and 293. 14 Arthur C. Danto, The Transfiguration of the Commonplace, 125 and 120. 15 Danto, The Philosophical Disenfranchisement of Art, 66. at U niversidad de C hile on D ecem ber 28, 2015 http://bjaesthetics.oxfordjournals.org/ D ow nloaded from http://bjaesthetics.oxfordjournals.org/ 4 | Book Review In his reply to Goehr, Danto makes another distinc- tion: ‘The first kind of meaning is empirical and local. The second kind of meaning, hermeneutical and spec- ulative’ (387). A further nuance is laid out in his reply to Hermerén, this time between the interpretation that is ‘internal to—is constitutive of—the work of art’ and ‘external interpretations’ which are ‘justified hypotheses’ produced by critics. So, internal interpre- tation is made by the artist him- or herself: ‘The con- stitutive interpretation stands to the work as the soul stands to the body’ (188). External interpretations are ‘interpretative hypotheses, understood as candidates for truth. What makes them true is what the artist puts into the work that gives it meaning’ (189). He calls his view ‘interpretative realism’, because ‘inter- pretative hypotheses are constrained by the historical situation in which the work was made’ (189). Dickie, in his essay ‘Art and Ontology’, chal- lenges Danto’s theory of interpretation, as well as his concept of meaning. In his view, there are works of art that simply have no meaning, thus lacking one of Danto’s necessary conditions for a work of art. He points to Malevich’s painting White on White. Danto replies to Dickie by quoting Malevich him- self: ‘Meaning assumes here an external form … Suprematism did not bring into being a new world of feeling, but rather, an altogether new and direct form of representation of the world of feeling’ (326–327). But Dickie is ready to maintain that a canvas may lack ‘aboutness’ even if the painter thinks otherwise: ‘The painting itself is not about anything, even if that astonishes Malevich’ (317). On the other hand, as we have been aware at least since T.  S. Eliot’s classic essay ‘Tradition and Individual Talent’, new works modify how we see the ones that came before. Velázquez, in his paint- ing Calabazas, employed visible brush strokes with seeming abandon, and mere daubs of paint suggest form and light and intimacy. But when we observe his painting today, it is almost impossible not to remem- ber how Manet—‘the first Modernist’, according to Clement Greenberg—changed the way he painted after seeing Velázquez’s canvasses. What is Danto’s reaction to this? He writes, for example: ‘the brushstroke became salient in impression- ism, but that was not the intention of the move- ment … The brushstroke became important only when illusionism receded as the basic aim of painting and mimesis receded as the defin- ing theory of art, which in my view gave a ret- roactive validity to impressionist canvasses, now accepted for what the impressionists would have regarded as the wrong reasons.’16 So, if Danto is right, we look at Manet’s painting inter- posing later theories of art, and, having misinterpreted his work by misconstruing his intentions, we then pro- ceed to misinterpret Velázquez’s paintings. According to Danto’s historical theory of interpretation, all of these are simply false readings. But even if they are ‘his- torically false’ it doesn’t follow that they are worthless. If we look at Velázquez’s paintings through Manet and the impressionists they might gain in depth, versatility, inventiveness and, therefore, in significance for us. ‘Velázquez influenced Manet and Manet influenced the impressionists’ is an example of Danto’s concept of a ‘narrative sentence’. Ex hypothesi it is outside the range of Velázquez’s knowledge, since the aesthetics of Impressionism were not available in Velázquez’s time. Impressionism as such was certainly not part of Velázquez’s intention, while for us it may be part of the meaning of his paintings. ‘The events one nar- rates derive their importance from what they lead to’ (15). The same is often true of artworks. But the above is just one case among many. I think, more generally, that an artwork may say much more than what the artist intended to say. Danto’s criterion applied to Shakespeare, for instance, would rule out many interesting interpretations of his plays; being able to interpret Shakespeare more freely makes his works more relevant to us today. The histori- cally ‘true’ interpretation of the author’s intention does not exhaust the meaning actually embodied in an artwork, I believe. Interpretation is not so much, as Danto claims, a question of ‘truth’, but rather of experiencing the painting, novel or film in a way that 16 Arthur C. Danto, After the End of Art: Contemporary Art and the Pale of History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), 75. at U niversidad de C hile on D ecem ber 28, 2015 http://bjaesthetics.oxfordjournals.org/ D ow nloaded from http://bjaesthetics.oxfordjournals.org/ Book Review | 5 resonates. A convincing review might change my atti- tude towards a novel or a film. The resonances of an artwork transcend its artist. What was Danto arguing against? Clearly he was polemicizing with the post-structuralists, who ‘insist that the author is dead, and that intention is a fallacy. Poststructuralist theory, of course, denies not only authors’ (artists’) intentions, but truth itself. It is in this sense that institutional theory is akin to poststructuralism’ (188). One of Danto’s targets was certainly Roland Barthes’ influential essay ‘La mort de l’auteur’ (1967). Of course, this essay was in line with the intentional fal- lacy theory, as well as the writings of Derrida and many other deconstructionists and postmodernists. Danto believed that the death of the author was belied by our persistent concern with settling interpre- tive conflicts. He writes: ‘every new interpretation … constitutes a new work’,17 and ‘there is not an indefi- nitely large number of true interpretations. Of course there is always the possibility of ambiguity. But that is the truth so far as the ambiguous work of art is con- cerned’ (481–482). But can he really mean that some day we shall have the complete set of ‘true’ interpreta- tions of Antigone, King Lear and Waiting for Godot? Ultimately, I  think Danto did not leave behind a convincing theory of interpretation. But he did some- thing possibly more significant: he produced a sub- stantial and influential body of work as an art critic. From his ontological conception of works of art, the art of interpretation follows naturally; I  regard his praxis as a critic as the embodiment of his theory. Danto’s art criticism is addressed in Gerard Vilar’s chapter, ‘On Some Dissonances in A.  C. Danto’s Art Criticism’. Vilar’s conclusion is that Danto’s definition of art is, in fact, normative (152); he makes the case that in Danto’s negative review of Kitaj’s The Ohio Gang, what he actually finds lacking is an embodied meaning or metaphor. But this aesthetic requirement only arises from Danto’s ontological definition of art. So, ‘no meta- phor = bad art’ (151). Danto counters that his concept of art does not tell ‘whether the art seen is good or bad’. And ‘I criticized Kitaj’s work for its thinness of meaning, and his recourse to “prefaces”, which are no substitute for making the work a visually interesting whole’ (164). Danto could have quoted this thought from Hegel, who held that content or meaning and expression or appear- ance must be ‘penetrated by one another’, so that the surface ‘appears exclusively as a presentation’ of the meaning.18 The problem Vilar raises is tricky, but one is left with the feeling that it is Danto who is on the right track. His concept of artworks as embodied meaning does not entail an aesthetic program. However, the aes- thetic value of a work has to do, up to a point, with the manner in which meaning and embodiment are assem- bled and interwoven. A good work of art is ‘a piece of visual thought’ (165), to use Danto’s own words. Even so, the problem about the grounds of aesthetic judgements in pluralistic times remains open. This volume falls short of addressing the question. It is nev- ertheless a worthwhile book in that it offers readers the chance to participate in a lively discussion of the ideas of a philosopher and art critic who, more than anyone else I am aware of, has shaped our current understand- ing of the concept of a work of art, as well as of the spirit and mood of contemporary art. And it is marvel- lous to encounter once again, now that he is no longer with us, Danto’s insightful examples, his perceptive and imaginative interpretations of specific artworks, his dazzling prose, his generous, unique intelligence, and, most of all, his incomparably cheerful spirit. I am glad that he was able to hold this impressive volume in his hands—he died the very day he received his copy. Arturo Fontaine Universidad Diego Portales and Universidad de Chile arturofontaine13@gmail.com doi:10.1093/aesthj/ayu058 17 Danto, The Transfiguration of the Commonplace, 125. 18 G. W. F. Hegel, Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art, Vol. 1, trans. T. M. Knox (Oxford: OUP, 1975), 95. at U niversidad de C hile on D ecem ber 28, 2015 http://bjaesthetics.oxfordjournals.org/ D ow nloaded from mailto:arturofontaine13@gmail.com?subject= http://bjaesthetics.oxfordjournals.org/ 
work_sgi24y6sijhdhdoqty66sbw54a	----	http://go.warwick.ac.uk/lib-publications Original citation: Smith, P. (2007). Literature and art. French Studies, 61(1), pp. 1-13. Permanent WRAP url: http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/32098/ Copyright and reuse: The Warwick Research Archive Portal (WRAP) makes the work of researchers of the University of Warwick available open access under the following conditions. Copyright © and all moral rights to the version of the paper presented here belong to the individual author(s) and/or other copyright owners. To the extent reasonable and practicable the material made available in WRAP has been checked for eligibility before being made available. Copies of full items can be used for personal research or study, educational, or not-for- profit purposes without prior permission or charge. Provided that the authors, title and full bibliographic details are credited, a hyperlink and/or URL is given for the original metadata page and the content is not changed in any way. Publisher’s statement: This is a pre-copy-editing, author-produced PDF of an article accepted for publication in French Studies following peer review. The definitive publisher-authenticated version Smith, P. (2007). Literature and art. French Studies, 61(1), pp. 1-13, is available online at: http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/32098/. A note on versions: The version presented here may differ from the published version or, version of record, if you wish to cite this item you are advised to consult the publisher’s version. Please see the ‘permanent WRAP url’ above for details on accessing the published version and note that access may require a subscription. For more information, please contact the WRAP Team at: wrap@warwick.ac.uk http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/32098/ mailto:wrap@warwick.ac.uk LITERATURE AND ART PAUL SMITH In an essay of this title published in 1910 the American critic, James Q1 H u n e k e r , g a v e a s h o r t a c c o u n t o f ‘ a r t i n f i c t i o n ’ t h a t c o u l d s u m u p r e c e i v ed wi s d o m o n th e s u b j e ct t o d a y. ‘ Fi c t i o n ab o u t a r t an d a r ti s ts i s r a r e ’ , H u n e k e r b e g a n , a d d in g : ‘ t h i s is go o d f i ct io n , n o t th e s tu f f g r o u n d out daily b y the publishing mills for the gallery -gods’. 1 He continued: ‘It is to France that we must look for the classic novel dealing with painters a n d t h e i r p a i n t i n g , M a n e t t e S a l o m o n , b y G o n c o u r t ’ . 2 H u n e k e r d i d ackn o wled ge, th ou gh on l y gru d gin gl y, th at o th er writers — Th ackera y, O u i d a , D i s r a e l i , B e r n a r d S h a w a n d M a u p a s s a n t a m o n g o t h e r s — h a d p ro d u ced s ign if ic an t f ictio n o n th e s u b j ect o f ar t. He als o men tio n ed several works by Henry James, but argued dismissively that ‘it is the par ticular psychological problem involved rather than theories of art or person alities th at s tee r M r J a m es ’ s cu n n in g p en ’ . Hu n e ke r n o les s s u mm ar il y dispatched the ‘facile, febrile skill’ Daudet had demonstrated in a description of a Salon opening, in Le Nabab of 1877, 3 with the quip: ‘ you feel t h a t i t c o m e s f r o m G o n c o u r t a n d Z o l a ’ . H o w e v e r , a s t h i s c o m m e n t indicates, Hun eker did ap pro ve of L ’Œuvre, 4 which he regard ed as ‘one of the b etter written boo ks of Zola’. H e also ackno wled ged Balzac’s L e Chef -d ’ Œu vre in connu (first published in 1831 ) as ‘the matrix of mod ern fiction’ concerned with art. 6 By singling out these two works, along with Manette Salomon (1867), H u n e k e r e f f e c t i v e l y e n u n c i a t e d h i s o w n c a n o n o f F r e n c h a r t f i c t i o n , Earlier versions of the papers in this issue were presented at the conference, French Art in Narrative and Drama, which was held in February 2005 under the aegis of the University of Bristol Centre for the Study of Visual and Literary Cultures in France, and was organized by Richard Hobbs and the present author. 1 Promenades of an Impressionist (New York, Scribner, 1910), pp. 27790 (this quotation pp. 285 -86). 2 Jules and Edmond de Goncourt, Manette Salomon, 2 vols (Paris, Lacroix — Verboeckhoven, 1867). 3 See Alphonse Daudet, Le Nabab: mœurs parisiennes (Paris, Charpentier, 18 77), ch. 14. 4 Émile Zola, L’Œuvre (Paris, Charpentier, 1886). 5 Honoré de Balzac, ‘Le Chef-d’œuvre inconnu: conte fantastique’, L’Artiste, 1(1) (31 July 1831), 319-23 (‘Maitre Frenhofer’) and 1(2) (7 August 1831), 7 –11 (‘Catherine Lescault’). The story was first published in book form in Romans et contes philosophiques, 2nd edn, volume III (Paris, Gosselin, 1832). 6 The number of distinguished scholars who have written about this novella suggests this view is still widely shared today. See, for instance, Hubert Damisch, Fenitre jaune cadmium; ou, les dessous de la peinture (Paris, Seuil, 1984); Georges Didi-Huberman, La Peinture incarnée suivi de ‘Le Chef-d’œuvre inconnu’ de Balzac (Paris, Minuit, 1985); P. Marot, ‘Le Chef d’œuvre inconnu ou l’irrepré sentabilité de la représentation’, in De la palette a` l’écritoire, ed. by Monique Chefdor (Nantes, Éditions Joca Seria,1997), I, 140-50; Arthur Danto, Introduction to The Unknown Masterpiece , trans. by Richard Howard (New York Review of Books, 2001), pp. vii–xxvii; and Hans Belting, The Invisible Masterpiece , trans. by Helen Atkins (London, Reaktion Books, 2001). Le Chef-d’œuvre inconnu was not without its precedents, however. See, for instance, Max Milner, ‘L’artiste comm e personnage fantastique’, in L’Artiste en représentation, ed. By Rene´ De´ moris (Paris, Desjonquères, 1993), pp. 93–105, for Balzac’s debt to Hoffmann. 2 P. SMITH which he then reiterated by describing L’Œuvre as ‘an enormously clever b oo k’ th at d erives ‘ in th e ma in, f ro m Man ette S alomo n and B alzac’s Frenhofer’. 7 It may seem inconsistent that Huneker lavished praise on the ‘ h a l f f o r g o t t e n t r i l o g y’ o f a r t n o v e l s G e o r g e M o o r e p u b l i s h e d i n th e 1880s , 8 b u t M o o r e h i m s e l f a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t t h e f i r s t o f t h e s e — A M o d er n L o v er o f 1883 — w as an ‘ u n co u th t e x t [ d e v i s ed ] o u t o f h is me mo ries o f B al za c, Zo l a , an d Go n co u rt’ . 9 B y th e b egin n in g o f th e twentieth century, therefore, it would seem that the now familiar trio of texts produced by these writers was alread y firmly establis hed as the pick of the crop. Huneker’s other opinions suggest that his judgment was highly question - able, as does his assertion: ‘you cannot find a Mildred Lawson [a woman painter from Moore’s Celibates of 1895 whose friends meet ‘the Impressio - nists’] in Gon court o r Flaubert’. 1 0 He thu s reminds us that no canon is u n c o n t e n t i o u s , w h i l e a t t h e s a m e t i m e a l e r t i n g u s t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e status enjoyed by the ‘big three’ has resulted in innumerable novels and stories (and pla ys ) about Fren ch art f ro m the peri od 1820–1900 (written in English as well as French) being consigned to oblivion. This special issue of French Studies will therefore seek to look afresh at the canon, and o u t s i d e i t , wi t h t h e a i m o f f in d i n g n e w c o n t e x t s f o r f a m i l i a r w o r k s , a n d with a view to identifying texts whose intrinsic interest or historical significance is yet to be exhausted, or even examined at all. 1 1 7 On the relationship between L’Œuvre, and Le Chef-d’œuvre inconnu and Manette Salomon, see Theodore Bowie, The Painter in French Fiction (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina, 1950), pp. 5 –30; Patrick Brady, ‘Les sources litté raires de L’Œuvre de Zola’, Revue de l’Université de Bruxelles, 16 (1964), 413–25; and Robert J. Niess, Zola, Cézanne, and Manet: A Study of ‘L’Œuvre’ (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan, 1968), pp. 6–14. On L’Œuvre’s relation to Balzac’s ‘La fille aux yeux d’or’, see Jeannine Guichardet, ‘Un artiste à l’œuvre: Claude Lantier’, in L’Artiste en représentation, pp. 107–23 (p. 110). 8 A Modern Lover, 3 vols (London, Tinsley, 1883). The others were Spring Days (London, Vizetelly, 1888) and Mike Fletcher (London, Ward & Downey, 1889). 9 Lewis Seymour and Some Women (London, Heineman, 1917), p. v. This reference is cited in Milton 70 Chaikin, ‘The Compos ition of George Moore’s A Modern Lover’, Comparative Literature , 7 (1955), 259–64 (p. 259). 10 See George Moore, Celibates: Three Tales (London, Walter Scott, 1895)) pp. 1-312, and especially pp. 99—100, 175, and 184. Huneker had in mind Gustave Flaubert, L’Education sentimentale: histoire d’un jeune homme, 2 vols (Paris, Lévy, 1870). See Promenades, p. 288. On this novel, see Maurice Z. Shroeder, Icarus: The Image of the Artist in French Romanticism (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1961), pp. 160-62, and Maurice Beebe, Ivory Towers and Sacred Founts: The Artist as Hero in Fiction from Goethe to Joyce (New York University Press, 1964), p. 60. 11 In addition to the sources already cited, several other works have also undertaken this kind of inves tigation, including: Artistic Relations: Literature and the Visual Arts in Nineteenth -century France, ed. by Peter Collier and Robert Lethbridge (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1994); Text into Image: Image into Text, ed. by Jeff Morrison and Florian Krobb (Amste rdam, Rodopi, 1997); L’Image de l’artiste, ed. by Pascal Griener and Peter J. Schneemann (Bern, Peter Lang, 1998); and Le Dialogue des arts, ed. by Jean-Pierre Landry and Pierre Servet (Lyon, CEDIC, 2001). See also Joy Newton, ‘The Atelier Novel: Painters as Fictions’, in Impressions of French Modernity, ed. by Richard Hobbs (Manchester University Press, 1998), pp. 173- 89; Philippe Ha mon, ‘ Le topos de l’ atelier’, in L’Ar tis te en repr ésentation, p p . 1 2 5 –4 4 ; a nd J ea n - D id ie r W a gne ur , ‘ Q ua nd le r o ma n p o r t e c le f s ’ , in J . -J . L. [J e a n - J a c q ues Lefrèrere], M.P. [Michel Pierssens] et al., Les Romans à clefs: troisième colloque des Invalides (Paris, Du Lérot, 1999), pp. 47-50 (which mentions novels touching on art, and literature, by Murger, Harry Alis, Joseph Caraguel, Émile Goudeau, Georges Duval, Léo Trézénik and Raymond Maygrier). 3 P. SMITH One way of explaining how some art fictions (rather than others) have r i s e n t o p r o m i n e n c e i s t h a t , a t t h e t i m e o f t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e , t h e y ad d ress ed co n cern s th at h ad p articular s ign if ican ce . B y th is accou n t, Balzac’s novella did not serve as the prototype for much subsequent art-fiction s impl y b ecaus e it gave shap e to a new con cep tion of the artist as s o meo n e po is ed b etween th e co nd itio ns of gen iu s an d ra t é. R ath er, as Marc Gotlieb argues in his essay, ‘Pedagogical Disaster in Romantic Art Fiction’, the po ignan c y of the Frenhofer t yp e was als o a function of how it dramatized (albeit in historical guise) the relativel y novel predicament o f a lon e, in d ivid u al p ain ter wo rkin g at th e margin s o f t rad ition al ins ti - tutional structures, who enjoyed freedom only at the risk of meeting with incomprehension. If the Romantic conception of the artist as misunderstood genius was in fact a sublimation of the very real alienation experienced by his real counter-p a r t — e s p ec i a lly a s l a is s e z -f a i r e e co n o m i cs in c re a s i n g l y d e c id ed th e s t r u c tu r e o f ar t i s ti c p ra c t ic e a n d th e m ar k e t as t h e ce n t u r y w o r e o n — this would make sense of the lasting success the type enjoyed, and of Frenhofer’s touchstone status among avant -garde painters and theorists in particu lar. Th e vers ion o f C as tagn ary’ s ‘ S alon’ o f 186 0 p ub lis h ed in th e Almanach parisien, for example, ends with the revelation that the critic’s in terlocu to r, wh o is as d isen ch an ted with th e f o rmulaic art of th e S alon as he is himself, is none other than ‘Maître Frenhofer’. 1 2 ‘Frenhoffer’ (as he called him) also served C ézanne as a model, along with other literary seers whose steadfast individualism brought them only incomprehension, ostracism, and ultimately, death. 1 3 By analogy, the success of Manette Salomon rested to a considerable extent on its ability to revitalize the topos of the isolated genius by characterizing its protagonist, Coriolis, as a hypersensitive ‘temperament’ whose idiosyncratic colour ‘sensations’ made his work unique, and hence potentially market - able, but at the same time placed it on the borderline of comprehensibility. 1 4 Huneker described Manette Salomon as ‘that breviary for painters which so far back as 1867 anticipated . . . the discoveries , the experiments, the p r a c t i c e o f t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c - i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c g r o u p s f r o m C o u r b e t t o Cézanne’. 1 5 Althou gh this teleolo gical conception of its signif icance is 12 See JulesAntoine Castagnary, ‘Salon en raccourci’, L’Almanach parisien pour l’anne´e 1860 (Paris, Pick, 1860), pp. 111-23. I am grateful to Leah Kharibian for alerting me to this version of Castagnary’s text, which does not appear in his collected Salons. 13 See Adrien Chappuis, The Drawings of Paul Cézanne: a Catalogue Raisonné (Greenwich, CT, New York Graphic Society, 1973), I, pp. 5051; Joachim Gasquet, C ézanne (1921; repr. Paris, BernheimJeune, 1926), pp. 39, 67 and 152; and Émile Bernard, ‘Souvenirs sur Paul Cézanne’, Mercure de France, 69(247) (1 October 1907), 385-404 (p. 403). 14 See Manette Salomon, II, pp. 175–78 and pp. 265–66. 15 Promenades, p. 289. Cf. p. 290: ‘No such psychologic manual of the painter’s art has ever appeared before or since Manette Salomon. It was the Goncourts who . . . foresaw the future of painting as well as of fiction.’ LITERATURE AND ART 4 misleading, Manette Salomon was a mandatory read for any 1860s art student with avan t -garde aspiratio ns — at least acco rdin g to Frantz Jourd ain’s semi-autobiographical novel, L’Atelier Chantorel of 1893, where the student, Dorsner, describes it as: ‘Un beau livre Une vraie revelation.’ 1 6 (Cézanne also seems to have emulated Coriolis, since the phrase — ‘optique personnelle’ — that Goncourt used to describe his character’s way of seeing tu rn s u p in Em ile B e rn a rd ’ s acco u n t o f th e rea l p ai n ter’ s s en s e o f h is own vision. 1 7 ) L’Œuvre, of course, rehearses man y of the same themes as its two illustrious predecessors, but it was perhaps this rather derivative ch aracter th at mad e it on e of Zola’s leas t p opu lar n ovels . 1 8 B y 1886, in other words, the topos of the marginalized artist poised on the knife -edge between genius and insanity had become a little stale — as had its stereoty- pically misogynistic characterization of the artist’s female partner. A more old-fashioned view of the canon is that it e nshrines those works that info rmed opin ion h as held in high es teem fo r good reason, and which have stood the test of time because of qualities they actually possess. 19 Even a cursory reading of many a piece of art -literary detritus lends credence to this view (as does more sustained attention), but there are ‘half-forgotten’ art novels that display genuine literar y qualities (as opposed to curiosity v a l u e ) w h o s e o b s c u r i t y s e e m s u n w a r r a n t e d . T h i s i s t r u e o f t h e b o o k discussed in Joy Newton’s essay, ‘C ézanne’s Literary Incarnations’, that was also a likely source for L’Œuvre: Marius Roux’s witty, acerbic, and compassionate La Proie et l’ombre, of 1878 20 — if the judgement of Huysmans and Mallarmé, b oth of who m co mplimen ted Roux on his no vel, is to b e t ru s ted . 2 1 A cco r d in g to An n a G ru et zn e r R o b in s as wel l as Hu n ek er, th e s am e ap p lies to th e n o vel f eatu r ed in h er es s a y, ‘ Geo r ge Mo o re’ s A Modern Lover: Introducing the French Impressionists to London’. Moore was, as Huneker rightly claims, ‘the critical pioneer of the impressionistic movemen t [ who] firs t to ld London ab out Manet, Monet, Degas’, and he has enjoyed some status on this account. However, as Gruetzner Robins demonstrates, Moore also developed a highly personal style in A Modern 16 L’Atelier Chantorel: mœurs d’artistes (Paris, Charpentier, 1893), pp. 216 –17. Jourdain’s novel is dedicated ‘Au precurseur genial de l’art moderne, à Edmond de Goncourt’. 17 See Manette Salomon, II, p. 265, and Emile Bernard, ‘Paul C ézanne’, L’Occident, July 1904, p. 22. Cézanne’s several express ions of enthus ias m for Manette Salomon are recorded in Robert Ratcliffe, ‘Cézanne’s Working Methods’, unpublished doctoral thesis, University of London, 1950, p. 372. 18 See Niess, Zola, Cézanne, and Manet, pp. 1 and 251, n. 1. 19 The argument is from David Hume, ‘On the Standard of Taste’ (1757), in Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary, ed. by Eugene F. Miller (Indianapolis, Liberty Classics, 1985), pp. 226 -44. 20 Marius Roux, La Proie et l’ombre (Paris, Dentu, 1878). See Paul Smith, ‘Pa ul Cézanne’s Primitive Self and Related Fictions’, in The Life and the Work: Art and Biography, ed. by Charles G. Salas (Los Angeles, Getty Research Institute, 2007), pp. 56-86. The present author will also publish a critical edition of this novel, in a translation by Richard Collins and Fiona Cox, with Penn State University Press in 2007. Roux was Zola’s oldest friend, and a companion of Cézanne’s in the 1860s. 21 See Joris Karl Huysmans, ‘La Proie et l’ombre de Marius Roux’, L’Artiste (Brussels), 20 April 1878, and Mallarmé’s letter to Roux of 30 April 1878, cited in Stephane Mallarmé, Correspondence, ed. by Henri Mondor and Lloyd James Austin, vol. 2 (Paris, Gallimard, 1965), pp. 174 -75. 5 P. SMITH Lover, which could capture in language the kinds of effects the Impr essio- nists had rendered in paint. It stands by itself, in other words, irrespective of any virtue it accrues vicariously. Peter Read pursues a similar line of thought in his essay, ‘Pierre Lou ÿs, Rodin and Aphrodite: Sculpture in Fiction and on the Stage, 1895 to 1914’, suggesting that Louÿs’s best-seller, although largely overlooked as literature nowadays, nevertheless remains significant for its morality, and its musical, transparent and ‘pure’ (Mallar mé an) language. Of course, attempts have been made periodically to revise the canon of ‘the literature of art’, but one major obstacle to these efforts is the persistent belief, dating from Huneker’s time at least, that Balzac’s Le Chef-d’œuvre inconnu is the origin and paradigm of all subsequent art fict ion of an y value. It is probably the case that Le Chef-d’œuvre inconnu did serve as a m o d el f o r M a n e t t e S a lo m o n , an d f o r L ’ Œ u vr e , as w el l as in f lu en c in g M o o r e ’ s C e l i b a t e s ( a ‘ v e r y B a l z a c i a n t i t l e ’ f o r H u n e k e r ) , a n d H e n r y James’s ‘The Madonna of the Future’ (in which one character even refers to ‘that terrible little tale of Balzac’s’). 22 However, as Gotlieb demonstrates, it was far from unique among fictions of the period addressing the lone artis t’s chan gin g status . In 1833, onl y two years after it first a pp eared, O. C harlet pub lish ed an an tho lo g y o f s to ries ab ou t b eleagu ered artis ts, Coups de pinceaux, and in the same year, Charpentier published the novel that forms the subject of Stephen Bann’s essay, ‘The Studio as a Scene of Emulation: Marceline Desbord es-Valmore’s L’Atelier d’un peintre’, which is set largely in the studio of the author’s uncle, Constant Desbordes, an important figure for a generation of artists aiming to steer a path between emulation and (imaginar y) parricide in the attempt to emanc ipate itself from the legacy of David. Many texts belonging to ‘the literature of art’ do undoubtedly issue from the ‘matrix’ provided by Balzac’s novella, but many do not — for the simple reason that the family resemblances constituting the genre are nei ther finite nor fixed forever, but are instead manifold and historically contingent. L’Œuvre, for example, does indeed share something of the ‘philosophical’ dimension of its predecessor, 23 but it has something in common too with mo re recen t ro man s à clef, wh ich s ign a l th eir top icalit y b y emp lo yin g subtitles like roman parisien, or roman contemporain, and thereby solicit a par- ticular mode of attention. Traditional conceptions of genre are hierarchical , and so help bolster the canon b y implicitly rank ing the different li terary forms. By corollary, the v a s t m a j o r i t y o f t h e i n n u m e r a b l e ( a n d a d m i t t e d l y o f t e n t r i v i a l ) p l a ys relatin g to art p erfo rmed in n in eteen th -cen tu r y Fran ce h ave b een ign o red 22 Cited in Niess, Zola, Cézanne, and Manet, pp. 9, and 253, n. 31. See also Beebe, Ivory Towers, pp. 197 and 201. 2 3 See Wagneur, ‘Quand le roman porte clefs’. LITERATURE AND ART 6 — even though some of these works sometimes rehearse similar themes, or employ comparable narrative strategies, to their novelistic counterparts. La Cigale (1877) by Meilhac and Halévy, 24 for example, along with Les Impres- sionnistes, comédie-vaudeville en un acte (1879) by Eugène Grangé and Victor B e r n a r d , s t r i v e to n o r m a l i z e t h e m a r g in a l Im p r e s s io n i s t b y r e p r es en t in g h im as a d evo ted lo ver, f ree of ven al m o tivation s . To th is exten t th ey have something in common with Philippe Burty’s Grave imprudence of 1880, 2 5 which tells of the Impressionist artist, Brissot’s, attempts to achieve success and social legitimacy by capitalizing on the affection of a Countess with who m he is also inf atu ated. All three texts, in other word s, s e e m c o n ce r n ed wi th t h e mo r a l l y c o m p l e x ef f e c ts th at l a i s s e z -f ai r e economics had on the independent painter. So too, according to Anna Gruetzner Robins, does A Modern Lover, although here the protagonist, Lewis Se ymou r, explo its the affection of his ad mirer, Mrs Bethan , with c yn ical venalit y, thus echoin g on a grand er s cale ho w Germain Ramb ert in La Proie et l’ombre takes merciless advantage of his less affluent mistress, the hapless Caroline Duhamel. At any event, it evidently impoverishes the n o vel an d sh o rt sto ry to read th em in iso lation f ro m p op ular d ramatic works such as those mentioned, just as much as it does to see any of these texts as unconnected to a common social and economic context. It could also appear natural that the more serious examples of narrative fiction have enjoyed the most acute scholarly attention. However, as Joy Newton amply demonstrates in her essay on C ézanne’s literary incarnations, it is necessary in order to u nderstand L’Œuvre fully to consider it in the c o n t e x t o f a w h o l e s e r i e s o f r e l a t e d w o r k s w h o s e t o n e v a r i e s f r o m outright caricature to high seriousness, and which characterize their own ‘Cézannes’ accordingly as a buffoon, a maniac and an exponent of an esoteric and metaphysical Provencal nationalism. Much the same applies to literary representations of Courbet. Before Bongrand in L’Œuvre, for example, there was a character named ‘B écourt’ who is abandoned by two prospective students — after one of them has a bizarre dream of reigning a m o n g s t ‘ s a v a g e s ’ o n a d e s e r t i s l a n d i n G e r m a i n P i c a r d ’ s z a n y a n d wholly inappropriate (given Courbet’s opposition to forming a school) fantas y of pedagogic disaster, ‘Un peintre sur le throne, ou le r éalisme t r i o m p h a n t ’ o f 1876. 2 6 A c h a r a c t e r n a m e d ‘ C o u r b e t ’ a l s o a p p e a r e d i n Étienne Baudry’s series of imaginary discussions, Le Camp des bourgeois of 1868 (which was illustrated by the real Courbet). Here he is a proponent of th e s cand alou s (bu t remarkab ly p res cien t) id ea th at mo d ern railway 2 4 The play was first performed on 6 October. See John Rewald, The History of Impressionism (1946 Revised edition London, Secker & Warburg, 1973), pp. 408, and 435, n. 18, which mentions an account by Sacha Guitry suggesting that Monet and Ren oir painted sets for the third act. 25 On this novel, see Niess, Zola, Cézanne, and Manet, pp. 15-16. 26 See Germain Picard, Artistes et bourgeois (Paris, Derenne, 1876), pp. 1-107. 7 P. SMITH stations, being ‘vastes, hauts, aérés et pleins de lumière’, should be use d for exhibiting modern paintings, especially ambitious, social -relevant, examples of ‘la vraie peinture’. 27 Before that, a Courbet of sorts had turned up in the s h a p e o f L a v e r t u j e o n i n C h a m p f l e u r y ’ s e c c e n t r i c a c c o u n t o f F. C. Denecourt’s activities in the forest of Fontainebleau, Les Amis de la nature of 1859, as the author of a still life of a ‘séditieux’ and ‘démagogique’ cheese rejected by the Salon Jury. 28 Fragmen ts like these su ggests that th e ‘archaeolo g y’ of nineteen th - cen tur y Fren ch art f iction is far fro m co mplete, bu t over and abo ve an y i m p e r a t i v e i m p o s e d b y t h e w i s h f o r c o m p l e t e n e s s , t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l specific and compelling reasons for attempting such a project. For one thing, many texts aside from Huneker’s three favourites had an impact on artistic practice, not least because, in dramatizing the predicament of the maítre, genius, or raté, they allowed artists an imaginative space in which the y could experimen t with assu min g different creative and p rof ession al roles. Cézanne, for one, not only identified with the artists pictured in Le Chef d’oeuvre inconnu and Manette Salomon, but both emulated and repudiated the different representations of his own artistic and personal ‘impotence’ o f f e r e d b y D u r a n t y , R o u x , Z o l a a n d o t h e r s . 2 9 I n d e e d , t h e f a c t t h a t Cézanne appeared in so many stories as the enfant terrible of the avant-garde, rather as Courbet had, may even indicate that he aspired to assume person - alities or personae he had encountered in fiction. No vels, of cou rse, did no t just empo we r th eir male readers. The y also contributed to restricting the roles deemed acceptable for women by conti - n u a l l y d e f i n i n g t h e m in o p p o s i ti o n t o m as cu li n e c r e a t i v it y. 3 0 Th i s c o n c e p t i o n t a k e s a n e x t r e m e f o r m i n E d m o n d d e G o n c o u r t ’ s L e s F r è r e s Z e m g a n n o o f 1 8 7 9 , w h e r e t h e c r e a t i v e m a l e s y m b o l i z e d b y G i a n n i Z e m g a n n o i s i n c a p a c i t a t e d b y h i s j e a l o u s ( a n d u n n a t u r a l ) r i v a l , l a Tompkins. 31 As Gotlieb points out, other works including Le Chef-d’oeuvre inconnu , Manette Salomon and L’Œuvre, treat the legitimate claims of the 27 Le Camp des bourgeois (Paris, Dentu, 1868), pp. 273-91 (these citations from pp. 280-82). 28 Cited in Rewald, The History of Impressionism, p. 42. See Champfleury, Œuvres nouvelles: Les Amis de la nature, avec un frontispice d’après un dessin de Gustave Courbet, et précédés d’une caractéristique des œuvres de l’auteur par Edmond Duranty (Paris, Poulet Malassis et de Broise, 1859). This citation, for which I am grateful to Ed Lilley, is from Le Violon de faïence, L’Avocat qui trompe son client, Les Amis de la nature, Les Enfants du professeur Turck (Paris, Hetzel, 1862), p. 136. 29 Duranty represented Cézanne as a paranoid and hapless lover in the unpublished story unearthed in Mario Pétrone, ‘“La double vie de Louis Séguin” par Duranty’, Gazette des beaux-arts, sixth series, 88 (1976), 235-39. The word ‘impuissance’ or its cognates are used in Roux, La Proie et l’ombre , pp. 35 and 326, and numerous times in L’Œuvre, notably on the last page, where Sandoz states of Claude: ‘Il a avouéson impuissance et il s’es t tué (p. 491). 30 See, for instance, Lynda Nead, ‘Seductive Canvases: Visual Mytholo gies of the Artist and Artistic Creativity’, Oxford Art Journal, 18 (1995), 59-69. See also Alphonse Daudet, Les Femmes d’artistes (Paris, Lemerre, 1874). 31 See Shroeder, Icarus, pp. 222-23. LITERATURE AND ART 8 artist’s partner on his affection as deeply incompatible with his devotion to art, and so she becomes a rival to art itself. Fictional representations of art can also be valuable documents for under - standing artistic practices and deba tes. Stephen Bann argues, for example, t h at Ma r c e li n e D e s b o r d e s -V a l m o r e’ s L ’ A t el i er d ’u n p e in tr e p r o v id es a unique insight into the artistic values of the period. Bann, however, is careful to emphasize the irreducibility of the narrative to a ‘punctual’ re p- resentation of the goings -on in Constant Desbordes’s studio, not least because the author’s experience of this space was restricted, and her book written with considerable hindsight. Bann’s approach is to be contrasted therefore with that of art historia ns such as John Rewald, who despite his robust advocacy of historical ‘truth’ saw no problem in directly transposing content from Zola’s novels and stories into his biograph y of Cézanne (although this is only apparent in the two earliest editions of 1936 a nd 1939, which have footnotes). 32 Zola’s work is, of course, a special case: th e vo lu min o u s p rep a rato r y n o tes to L ’Œ u vr e tes t if y to t h e ext en t to which it incorporated real characters and events. It nevertheless remains dis ingenuous to assume that this text is straightforwardly veridical, since even wh en it ch aracterizes Lan tier o r d es crib es an even t in th e s ame wa y as anoth er text, this does no t n eces saril y impl y an ythin g mo re th an a d ep en d en ce on its p ro to typ e, o r th eir commo n dep en d en ce on yet an o th er. (Alth o u gh co rr es p o n d en ces d o s o m eti mes i mp l y tri an gu lat i o n . 3 3 ) It w o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e u n w i s e t o c o n c u r w i t h R e w a l d ’ s m e t h o d o lo g y o r with Huneker either, who described the ‘fifth chapter’ of L’Œuvre as ‘a faithful transcription’ of the 1863 Salon des refusés and Claude Lantier’s ‘fight for artistic veracity’ as a ‘replica of what occurred in Manet’s lifetime’. There are cases, however, where fact and fiction — and their different voices are more closely confounded. This is true in a small but indicative way of Auguste Lepage’s La Vie d’un artiste of 1882, which describes an artists’ café in the rue de Buci that also appears in the author’s exactly con - temporary journalistic survey of such establishments in Paris. 34 The demar- cation between fiction and rep ortage in the novels and stories about art written by Félicien Champsaur is even hazier. Champsaur, for example, based a whole chapter of his 1882 blockbuster, Dinah Samuel, on two of 32 See John Rewald, Cézanne et Zola (Paris, Sedrowski, 1936) and Cézanne: sa vie, son œuvre, son amitié pour Zola (Paris, Albin Michel, 1939). Rewald also quotes from p. 50 of George Moore, Confessions of a Young Man (London, Swann Sonnenschein Lowrey, 1888) in his Seurat (Paris, Albin Michel, 1939), p. 71. 33 In La Proie et l’ombre, pp. 134–35, Roux describes a sculpture by Père Godet, Démoc-Soc, which is evidently related to the Baigneuse couchée by Mahoudeau described in L’Œuvre, pp. 296-98. Both are modelled, it would seem, on Philippe Solari’s La Guerre de s écession, identified in Franck Baille, Les Petits Maîtres d’Aix à la Belle Époque: 1870-1914 (Aix-en-Provence, Roubaud, 1981), pp. 90 and 92, and described in Gasquet, Cézanne, pp. 47–48 under another title. See also Niess, Zola, Cézanne, and Manet, p. 43. 34 See Auguste Lepage, La Vie d’un artiste, pp. 102-05, and Les Cafés artistiques et littéraires de Paris (Paris, Boursin, 1882), pp. 43 -60. 9 P. SMITH his own ‘chroniques’ about the café, Le Rat Mort, and even recycled whole passages in all three. 35 Dinah Samuel also employs tell-tale descriptions to identify several of its characters with their real prototypes, along with cryp - tonyms of varying degrees of transparency, 36 including Paul Corydon (Paul Alexis), Edmond de Génicourt (Goncourt) and Jean Pauvrepin (Richepin). Comparison between the novel and the chroniques also shows that the enthu- siasm shown by the Impressionist painter, Paul Albreux, for the poetry of Arthur Cimber represents Renoir’s for Rimbaud, 3 7 and that the identities o f No r b e r t Go en eu t t e, H en r i D et o u ch e a n d J e an B ér a u d a r e d is g u is ed u n d e r t h e s o b r i q u e t s o f R o b e r t G a l t o i n e , H e n r i T y m e l a n d N i n o M a y. Other evidence suggests that the character, Blaise Verdet, an ‘impression - niste’ antiphysique who dresses as a woman and prostitutes himself when hit b y hard times , mi ght have been mod elled on Giuseppe de Nittis . 3 8 With Miss America (1885), and L’Amant des danseuses (1888), Dinah Samuel f o r m s a t r il o g y, i n wh ic h G a l to in e an d Ve r d e t d rif t in an d o u t o f t h e action, 39 as does the character Georges Decroix, who bears some s imilarity to Albert Besnard. 40 Yet, for all the light they may cast on the ‘forgotten’ Impressionists, and despite the fascinating possibility of a queer Impressio - nist, nothing sanctions the wholesale assimilation of Champsaur’s novels to r e p o r t a g e . Dinah Samuel in fact provides a forceful caveat against doing so, because in s o m e p l a ce s ch a r a ct e r s ’ n a m e s we r e c h a n g ed b e t w ee n o n e ed it io n an d another (especially those of 1882, 1889 and 1905). While these changes could indicate a growing frankness on the aut hor’s part as the likelihood o f s c an d a l f ad ed wi th t i m e, th e y c o u l d eq u a l l y w e l l re p r es en t a u t h o r ia l 35 Félicien Champsaur, Dinah Samuel (Paris, Ollendorff, 1882). For the section on the Rat Mort, see the edition by Jean de Palacio (Paris, Séguier, 1999), pp. 288–307, and the ‘clef’, pp. 544–45. The two chroniques are Félicien Champsaur, ‘Le rat mort’, L’Étoile française, 21 December 1880, and ‘Le rat mort’, Revue moderne et naturaliste, 1880, 435–41, for which references I am indebted to Michael Pakenham. On Dinah Samuel, see Fernand Drujon, Les Livres à clef: étude de bibliographie critique et analytique pour servir à l’histoire littéraire (Paris, Rouveyre, 1885–1888), II, pp. 278–79; and on Champsaur, see Salvator Delaville, Félicien Champsaur: étude littéraire (Paris, Bibliotheque artistique et littéraire, 1897). 36 Cf. Wagneur, ‘Quand le roman porte clefs’, p. 48. 37 See Jean-Jacques Lefrère, ‘Du rat mort aux poux: Champsaur et Rimbaud’, Parade sauvage, 17–18 (August 2001), pp. 103 -105. In the Étoile française article, ‘Renoir’ declares that ‘le plus grand poete de la terre est son ami Arthur Rimbaud’. ‘Alb’ implies the Latin ‘albis’, the opposite of noir; while ‘reux’ is the ‘Re’ from Renoir. 38 See Dinah Samuel (1882/1999), pp. 304–305, and Miss America (Paris, Ollendorff), p. 82. In the 1905 edition of Dinah Samuel (Paris, Douville, 1905), Verdet paints a scene set on the Champs Elysées that closely recalls Nittis’s Sous les marronniers, exhibited at the galleries of the magazine L’Art in 1880 (private collection). 39 Galtoine is absent from the later novel, but does turn up in Champsaur’s collection of short stories, Entrée des clowns (Paris, Lévy, 1886). 40 Decroix is the eponymous ‘amant des danseuses’. His identification with Bernard is sugge sted by how ‘Degas’ says of him in the 1905 edition of Dinah Samuel : ‘ Il vole maintenant de “ mes” propres ailes’ (p. 255), which recalls how Degas said of Bes nard, ‘ il vole avec nos propres ailes’, according to George Moore, ‘Memories of Degas’, The Burlington for Connoisseurs, 32(178-79) (1918), pp. 22-23, 26- 29 and 63-65 (p. 63). Octave Mirbeau also cited a similar phrase used by a fellow artist about Besnard in an article of 1892: see Combats esthétiques (Paris, Séguier, 1993), I, p. 481. LITERATURE AND ART 10 co n cern s ab ou t th e coh eren ce of th e p lo t. Th e s itu ation is mad e even murkier b y the use of similar devices and forms — innuendo and zany h u mou r in p articular — acro s s bo th lo w -b ro w f iction like C h amps au r’s and contemporary documentary writing. This is especially the cas e with stories about artists’ models. Champsaur’s story, ‘Le toux’, 41 for example, revels in exp os in g the myth ical d is in teres tedn es s of th e male p ain ter’s gaze in the same salaciously suggestive manner as several factual counter - parts. 4 2 Of course many fictions, and not just those belonging to the litera - t u r e o f a r t , c o m p a r e d s o c l o s e l y t o t h e i r d o c u m e n t a r y r e l a t i v e s t h a t p u b l i s h e r s o c c a s i o n a l l y f e l t i t n e c e s s a r y t o a d d t h e w o r d ‘ r o m a n ’ b e l o w th eir titles. Yet in th e cas e of Ch arles Mo reau -Vau th ier’ s L es Ra p in s : roman (1896), th e addition almost certainl y betra ys an an xiet y that the cross -o ver b etween genres to ward s th e end of the centu r y had created a grey area that the reader needed help navigating. A fru itful wa y of appreciating the d ifficu lties in volve d b y no vels and stories incorporating factual material is provided by a remark of Wittgen - stein’s where he argues that reality sometimes appears in fiction as it does in ‘dreams’. 4 3 This suggests that, as in dreams, facts turn up in fictions under disguises, in displaced locations a nd time-frames, dispersed among different characters and situations, or condensed, and always in aesthetically r e v i s e d f o r m . Id e n t i f yi n g t h e m w o u l d t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e a l a b o r i o u s technique which, like dream-analysis, demanded close and extensive famili- arit y with the material co ncerned . Su ch a techniqu e migh t neverth eless m a k e i t p o s s i b l e t o c a j o l e w o r k i n g h yp o t h e s e s f r o m t h e a r c h i v e t h a t could su ggest new avenues of research. C ertainl y, wh en o ther sou rces are meagre, sparse or sca ttered allusions in fictions can assume exponential interest. Zacharie Astruc’s Les Dieux en voyage (Figure 1), for example, althou gh published so me twen t y years afterwards , n everth eless casts a u n i q u e l i g h t o n o n e s e c t i o n o f t h e B a t i g n o l l e s g r o u p o f t h e 1860s b y s t a g in g a d i s cu s s i o n a b o u t a r t t h e o r y b e t w e en Fa n t in - La t o u r , W h is tl e r, Alphonse Legros and Félix Regamy in an episode set in the forest of Fon - tainebleau. 44 Victor Joze’s L’Homme à femmes: roman parisien (1890) 45 and 41 Entrée des clowns, pp. 1 0 5 - 2 5 (the story features Galtoine). See also Joseph Gayda, ‘A l’atelier’, in Ce Brigand d’amour (Paris, Monnier, 1 8 8 5 ), pp. 5 1 - 5 4 . 42 See, for instance, Émile Blavet, ‘Les modè les femmes’, in La Vie parisienne: la ville et le théâtre (1884) (Paris, Boulanger, 1 8 8 5 ), pp. 1 1 9 - 2 3 2 ; and Adrien Marx, ‘Le modè le à Paris’, in Les Petites mémoires de Paris (Paris, Levy, 1 8 8 8 ), pp. 1 4 3 - 5 3 . See also Paul Dollfus, Modèles d’artistes (Paris, Marpon et Flammarion, 1888). 43 Ludwig Wittgenstein, Culture and Value (Oxford, Blackwell, 1977 ), p. 89e: ‘if Shakespeare is great . . . then we must be able to say of him: Everything is wrong, things aren’t like that & is all the same completely right according to a law of its own. . . . If Shakespeare is great, then he can be so only in the whole corpus of his plays, which create their own language & world. So he is completely unrealistic. (Like the dream.)’ 44 Les Dieux en voyage (Paris, Bachelin Lecat, 1 8 8 9 ), pp. 1 5 3 - 5 5 . On this episode, see Sharon Flescher, Zacharie Astruc: Critic, Artist and Japoniste (New York, Garland, 1 9 7 8 ), p. 8 1 . 45 See Richard Thomson, Seurat (Oxford, Phaidon, 1 9 8 5 ), pp. 2 1 2 - 1 4 . 11 P. SMITH Hu gues Reb ell’s La Câlineuse (1900) 4 6 are equ all y su ggestive about the a c t i v i t i e s a n d v i e w s o f S e u r a t a n d To u l o u s e - La u t r e c , w h o p r o v i d e t h e mo d els f o r th e ir s u b s id ia r y ch ar act ers , G eo r ges Le g ran d an d J acq u es d e Tavannes. Paul Adam‘s story of 1887, ‘Au jour’, is noteworth y because it 46See Hubert Juin, ‘Redécouvrons Hugues Rebell’, Magazine littéraire, no. 31 (juilet-août 1969). Figure 1: Zacharie Astruc, drawing for the cover of Les Dieux en voyage (Bachelin Lecat, 1889). Pen-and-ink and body-colour. Image can be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/fs/knl214 http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/fs/knl214 LITERATURE AND ART 12 features the obscure scientific aesthetician, Charles Henry, under the guise of Marc S apelin e. 4 7 P erh ap s the main interes t of Armand Charpen tier’s Le Roman d’un singe of 1895 is that it personifies the elusive critic, F élix Fénéon, as Félix Yvonnel. In a different vein, two novels of the second half of the 1880s, Robert Caze’s La Semaine d’Ursule and Eugène Murer’s Pauline Lavinia, provide extensive and fascinating descriptions of their au th o r s ’ c o ll e c ti o n s o f Im p r e s s i o n i s t p a in ti n gs , wh i ch n o t o n l y h e l p identify individual works, but shed light on the authors’ display policies and tastes as well. 48 While each of these narratives is to some extent a representation of the rea l wo r ld , each a ls o cr ea tes wh at Wi tt gen s t ein ca ll ed a ‘ wo rld ’ o f its own, inside which art makes particular and unusually cogent sense, and comes alive with especial vividness. 49 Others are openly polemical. Jean Richepin’s Braves gens of 1886, for example, whose narrative draws on the b o h e m i a n e x i s t e n c e t h e a u t h o r s h a r e d w i t h R i m b a u d a n d t h e o b s c u r e co mp o s e r C ab an er, f o ld s Imp r es s io n is m in to its wo r ld u n d er th e ru b ric o f ‘ u n e p e i n t u r e p s yc h o l o g i q u e ’ d e v e l o p e d b y p a i n t e r s ‘ n e v o u l a n t traduire que l’impression des choses’ by means of ‘la lumi ère infiniment décomposée au plein air’ or (more interestingly) ‘la synth èse d’un dessin initial et primitif’. 5 0 Moreover, it draws on Impressionism as an ally in its defence of bohemianism, which it offers as a direct, dialogical riposte to the crass and venal cynicism of Dinah Samuel, and of (the author’s enemy) Champsaur’s ‘moderniste’ writings in general. 5 1 Paul Adam’s novel, Soi, of 1886 depicts a different world in which the nascent Neo -Impressionism o f t h e a u t h o r ’ s f r i e n d s ( D u b o i s - P i l l e t , P i s s a r r o , S i g n a c a n d S e u r a t ) gradually finds favour wi th its protagonist, Marthe Grellou, as she lapses o ver th e co u rs e of th e n ovel in to a so lips is m con s is ten t with Ad am’s S ymbolist aesthetic. 5 2 So too, in ‘Au jour’, Adam assimilates the painting o f h is Neo - Imp res s io n is t c o llea gu es to h is o wn p o s iti o n in a d en s e b u t n on e th e less illu min atin g p as s age d es crib in g S ap eline’ s su bj ectivit y in a third-person voice that slips imperceptibly now and again into a first -person description of the world in his mind: Sapeline voudrait dormir, n’était cette faim. Dans le sommeil il ensevelirait sa mémoire raisonnable et morose. Se lever, c’est entreprendre encore; puis l’aveugle chevauchée de 47 ‘Au jour’, La Revue indépendante, 10 (1887), 194-215. 4 8 See ‘Samedi’, in Robert Caze, La Semaine d’Ursule (Paris, Tresse, 1885), p p. 262-90, and Eugène Murer, Pauline Lavinia (Paris, Le´vy, 1887), pp. 231-36. Murer exhibited his collection in 1884 at his home in Rouen. 49 See note 43 above. 50 Braves gens: roman parisien (Paris, Charpentier, 1886), p. 53. 51 The second edition of Dinah Samuel (Paris, Ollendorff, 1889) contains the preface, ‘Le modernisme’, which term denotes especially the sexually titillating aspects of modern Parisian life that Champsaur featured in his novels, and plays. The word, ‘moderniste(s)’, is also used in the preface to Entrée des clowns. 5 2 Soi (Paris, Tresse Stock, 1886). On this see Paul Smith, ‘Paul Adam, Soi et les “Peintres impres - sionnistes”’, Revue de l’art, 82 (décembre 1988), 39-50. LITERATURE AND ART 13 ses tentatives illusoires le heurta aux indifférences, aux haines. Les membres s’affaissent heureusement dans la tiédeur des draps! . . . Le lit: un trône culminant la pi èce tapissée de moqu et t es où s’ent rebatt ent d e grosses fleu rs inn ommab les, éch evelées et j oufflu es, par la nuit des fonds. Là s’ouvrent des paysa ges que re cula l’art des peintres nouveaux. Le fleuve reflèt e les mai sons morn es ju squ’au fond d es ond es c lapota nt es. Il les b erc e vers l’omb re d e s p o n t s, v e r s l a f o r t e c a t h éd r a l e a c c r ou p i e e n t r e s e s b é q u i l l e s d e p i e r r e e t s e s t ou r s d’oraison, qui darde l’œil unique de sa rosace sur la grouillante salute de la rue. La ville. ... Sapeline trône sous l’ivoire du crucifix, dans la soyeuse richesse des courtines, en face ces i ma ges qui ga rd ent la réa li t é du mond e. 5 3 B y s ettin g art co h eren tl y with in a f ictio n al wo rld, Ad am’s texts vivid l y d r a m a t i z e h i s v a l u e s a n d b e l i e f s a n d t h o s e h e s h a r e d w i t h h i s a r t i s t friends. L’Atelier d’un peintre and A Modern Lover do something closely c o m p a r a b l e i n s e v e r a l p l a c e s . A p h r o d i t e w a s a l s o w r i t t e n i n a s i m i l a r s p i r i t , e x p r e s s i n g w h a t P e t e r R e a d c a l l s t h e ‘ s ym b i o s i s ’ t h a t e x i s t e d b etween R od in an d Lo u ÿ s . S uch examp les are imp o rtant, b ecaus e like many of the texts represented in this issue, they demonstrate how ‘the literature of art’ is especially worthy of the name when it is genetically insepara b l e f r o m t h e a r t t h a t i t i s t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f — a n d h e n c e e x e g e t i c a l l y inseparable too . Per hap s then, man y neglected works of this kind h ave a claim to being counted among its central cases — Huneker notwithstanding. UNIVERSITY OF WARWICK 5 3 ‘ Au j o ur’ , pp. 20 7 - 08. 
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work_sjzoee7fwfcq3daixvp6s3ydbq	----	O «:' >.L< ART LIBRARIES J O U R N A L Revue tic Bibliotbequcs (/'Art Zeitseliritt fiir Kunstbibliothckcn Revista dc Bibliotecas tie Arte Special issue: Ihe visual arts and architecture in Western Canada: innovations, interventions and resources Reviews V O L U M E 24 N U M B E R 3 1 9 9 9 r , i'l ^jrfJ\ /r\Y J _>>;'' r ,r i nrr No source offers more information on modern and contemporary art. This is the database researchers turn to when searching for the work of a spei ific artist or artists' group, a theme, trend, or artistic movement. Since 1972, scholars have relied upon the abstracts in this database to guide them to the best lit- erature available tor their leseanh. \ppro\imatelv l.COOO new entries a n ' added each vear. The scope, of AKTbibliographies Modern extends from artists and movements beginning with Impressionism in the late lfHh century, up to the most recent works and trends in the late twentieth century. 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work_sogspcg62fhnjl3mullkqkijpi	----	Intergenerational Transmission of Party Affiliation Within Political Families Vol.:(0123456789) Political Behavior https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-020-09628-z 1 3 O R I G I N A L PA P E R Intergenerational Transmission of Party Affiliation Within Political Families Linuz Aggeborn1  · Pär Nyman2 © The Author(s) 2020, corrected publication 2020 Abstract We investigate the intergenerational transmission of political-party affiliation within families with at least two politicians. We use Swedish registry data that covers all nominated politicians for the years 1982 to 2014, as well as their family ties. First, we demonstrate there is a strong link between individuals and their parents concern- ing party affiliation. We also find that this intergenerational transmission persists over generations and across siblings. Our second aim is to investigate the mecha- nisms behind this result, which we do by first discussing two hypotheses: the one concerns a socialization pathway, the other a materialistic one. We then bring these hypotheses to the data, and we find that the socialization pathway matters more for intergenerational transmission. Keywords Intergenerational transmission · Party politics · Sweden · Registry data Introduction Individuals are affected by the context in which they grow up, where the family is expected to play a central role. A person’s political participation and political engage- ment are likely to increase if he or she has a parent that has been nominated to political Do files and logs for the empirical analysis are available at: https ://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/KH0JJ R. Information on data access for replication purposes is found in the online appendix. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (https ://doi.org/10.1007/s1110 9-020-09628 -z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. * Linuz Aggeborn linuz.aggeborn@statsvet.uu.se Pär Nyman par.nyman@statsvet.uu.se 1 Department of Government at Uppsala University, Uppsala Center for Fiscal Studies (UCFS) and Uppsala Center for Labor Studies (UCLS), Box 514, Gamla Torget 6, 75120 Uppsala, Sweden 2 Department of Government at Uppsala University, Box 514, Gamla Torget 6, 75120 Uppsala, Sweden http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8466-3041 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0847-5601 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s11109-020-09628-z&domain=pdf https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/KH0JJR https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-020-09628-z https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-020-09628-z Political Behavior 1 3 office. The impact is likely to be twofold: an individual whose father or mother is a politician for a given party is more likely to be politically active in general; in addition, he or she is more likely to sympathize with the specific party in question. The focus of this paper is on families where both parents and children have been politicians. There are numerous examples from many different countries where the children of politicians themselves become politicians later on—often for the same party as their parents. In Sweden, for example, approximately 28% of those who are politicians and born after 1970 have a parent that was also a politician. There are many possible reasons for an intergenerational connection, with the children of politicians being socialized into specific political beliefs, behaviors, and opinions. They may also have similar political demands because they have a similar material standard, or because they possess the political skills and contacts necessary for suc- cess in the political arena. The accumulation of power within families can have negative consequences for political equality. From the standpoint of equal opportunity, it is in itself problem- atic if the children of politicians have an advantage over children from non-political families. Furthermore, to the extent that children share the beliefs and opinions of their parents, centering power within certain families may reproduce the views and ideals currently held by the political elite, instead of giving room for candidates with new ideas and different perspectives. In this paper, we study how common it is that individuals run for the same politi- cal party as their parents. Now then, while parents are important characters, they are not the solitary source of influence. A dynamic process takes place during child- hood, in which one is also likely affected by the opinions, beliefs, and demands of other people in close proximity, such as siblings and grandparents. When we investi- gate transmission, therefore, we take the extended family into account. Earlier empirical literature has provided us with important insights, but it is based above all on older survey data. Our main goal in this paper is instead to investigate the intergenerational transmission of political-party affiliation within the family by using Swedish registry data from more recent years. Swedish data is particularly suitable for addressing these questions, because population registers in Sweden pro- vide information on family connections, which in turn may be linked to other regis- ters with information on political candidacies and other background matters. Above all, registers have the advantage of covering the whole population and of being more accurate than surveys. In this paper, we define a person as affiliated with a political party if he or she runs for that party in a general election. To study intergenerational transmission, we basically calculate the share of all candidates who are affiliated with the same party for which their parent, sibling, or grandparent has previously been nominated. The next questions we pose are: How can we explain this partisan transmission? What mechanisms are in play? By connecting our empirical analysis to the underlying theoretical mechanisms, our paper contributes to the literature on political socializa- tion (which hitherto has been highly empirical, with a few exceptions). We highlight two main theoretical mechanisms, which we have chosen to denote as the socializa- tion pathway and the materialistic pathway. The notion that an individual is social- ized into a certain political affiliation reflects the premise that discussions at home 1 3 Political Behavior are the main transmission mechanism. The materialistic view, on the other hand, is more connected to a rational-choice and political-economy approach to politics, where individuals are seen as utility-maximizers whose demands depend on their material standard, which in turn may be intergenerationally transmitted. We discuss these theoretical predictions one at a time, after which we bring the predictions to the data. Earlier Literature The literature analyzing how political affiliations are transmitted is vast and primar- ily empirical (see Jennings 2007, for a review). The literature review in this section will therefore focus on these findings; we shall return to the underlying theoreti- cal arguments in the theoretical-framework section. The main focus of this earlier empirical literature has been, at least indirectly, on the socialization aspect.1 Jennings and Niemi (1968) was one of the first papers investigating intergenera- tional transmission within families. Using American survey data from a sample con- sisting of high-school students and their parents, the authors find mixed results with regards to the transmission of political values. They do detect, however, a strong par- ent–child correspondence with regards to party identification. Jennings et al. (2009), expanding on this analysis by including additional cohorts, find that the transmission of opinions on a given topic is dependent on other contexts at the time of the survey. They find as well that the transmission is greater in families with a strong politi- cal commitment. Tedin (1974) points out that the intergenerational transmission of beliefs is dependent on how salient the issue is to the parents, as well on how cor- rectly the child perceives the parents’ attitudes. Beck and Jennings (1975) apply an analysis with three generations. They use a survey data set consisting of high-school students complemented with interviews on the stated political affiliation of parents and grandparents. One interesting conclu- sion they draw is that fathers’ political affiliation seems to be the dominant source of political socialization in the parent–grandparent generation; but that, in the child–parent generation, both parents have an almost equal impact on the political affiliation of their children (when the parents disagree). Beck and Jennings (1991) focus instead on how the parental transmission of political beliefs has changed over time. They find that intergenerational transmission grew weaker at the time of the general anti-authority movements of the 1960s and 1970s; and that children origi- nating from highly Republican or Democratic families were mostly affected by the general trend to challenge authority. Westholm (1991) studies Sweden just as we do, but with survey data from the first half of the 1980s which includes information on political opinions among parents and their children. His study shows, among many other things, that there is an intergenerational connection between parents’ political 1 Political scientists have also analyzed genetic factors (Alford et  al. 2005; Settle et  al. 2009; Oskars- son et al. 2014; Hatemi et al. 2014; Cesarini et al. 2014; Oskarsson et al. 2018). The notion of a genetic pathway is connected to the materialistic explanation, where genetics provides the foundation for income formation over the life-cycle. Political Behavior 1 3 views and their children’s. Westholm (1999) focuses on the underlying transmission mechanisms, where the author argues that a child first need to perceive the opinions of the parents and then be persuaded by these opinions. Later studies have emphasized the importance of the institutional setting for inter- generational transmission. Percheron and Jennings (1981) point out that France is dominated by a left–right dimension, and argue that the fluidity of the French party system means that the role of partisan identification is less pronounced than in the US. The authors perform their analysis with cross-country survey data which sup- ports their view that intergenerational transmission finds expression either as party affiliation or as self-placement along the left–right dimension. Westholm and Niemi (1992), who revisits these results by adding Sweden and Finland to the data set, argues that the thesis of an opposite relationship between left–right transmission and party identification does not apply to these Nordic countries. Jennings (1984) also engage in a cross-country analysis and study the transmission of a left–right dimen- sion, but they complement it with a materialistic–postmaterialistic dimension and an authority–antiauthority dimension. He finds that the transmission is primarily pre- sent in the left–right dimension.2 These earlier papers use survey data in their measures of political attitudes and party identification, meaning that their authors focus on stated party preferences. The focus in our paper is instead on revealed party preferences, since we have access to registry data on nominated politicians. There are pros and cons connected to both approaches. Our approach has the advantage of using a more objective measure of political affiliation. Being nominated for a party is a clearer signal of political conviction than stating in a survey that you prefer a specific party. We also have the advantage of using population-wide data for all politicians in Sweden for a given time period. We may not focus, however, on a more fine-grained analysis with regards to political preferences, but instead settle on using political-party affiliation as a catch-all measure. The main disadvantage of using surveys is that people do not necessarily state their true preferences, and that parents and their children may influ- ence each other when answering the same survey. There is also self-selection into generational surveys, where the propensity to answer may be correlated with how close the parents and children are in terms of beliefs (Connell 1972)—meaning that the researchers using the surveys are studying a selected sub-sample. We too have a selection problem, however, given that the registry data only allows us to observe the party affiliation of those who have taken the step of running for office. As a result, our study is restricted to families with at least two politicians. This selection problem means that we cannot interpret the intergenerational correlation as a caus- ally identified ideological transmission, because it is possible that children who are ideologically close to their parents are more likely to run for office. We return to 2 Glass et  al. (1986) relates transmission from parents to children with age and status. Luskin et  al. (1989) study the connection between intergenerational linkage and different political issues. Ventura (2001) shows with data from Israel that the intergenerational correlation is higher when political blocs are considered. 1 3 Political Behavior these issues in the theoretical-framework section.3 Since we focus on families with multiple politicians, our paper is also linked to the literature on political dynasties, which analyzes how important family connections are for political careers. Dal  Bó et al. (2009) demonstrate that the children of U.S. congressmen tend to run for and to be elected to the same congressional seat as their parents. Querubín (2016) finds evidence of a long-term dynastic effect, showing in a RD-framework that the prob- ability of being elected to office in the Philippines increases if a relative (narrowly) wins an election. The existence of a dynastic element in politics has been further demonstrated in Japan (Asako et al. 2015), India (Chandra 2016), the U.S. (Feinstein 2010), and Ireland (Smith and Martin 2017). Fiva and Smith (2018) show there is an incumbency advantage in Norway, but they find no evidence that this in turn yields a higher probability that a family member will actually win an election. Nor does Van Coppenolle (2017) find any evidence that a dynastic effect results from having a relative serve in the UK House of Commons for a relatively long period of time. While our paper is somewhat related to the dynasty literature—given that we also study the impact of the family and of the extended family—our purpose is not to fas- ten on how political offices are inherited, but instead to focus on partisan affiliation in a broader sense. Theoretical Framework We focus on two potential theoretical channels through which the transmission of political-party affiliation may be mediated: (1) a socialization pathway, and (2) a materialistic pathway. These two conceptions spring from two different theoreti- cal traditions. The idea of the socialization pathway has been presented verbally in previous literature, whereas that of the materialistic pathway originates from a very standard rational-choice (political-economy) framework. We present both path- ways in words here in the main text, but the reader will find a formalized version of the materialistic pathway in the Online Appendix. We address selection issues below when we discuss the materialistic pathway, because these may be highlighted in a pedagogical way within rational-choice reasoning. However, such questions of empirical selection are also present when we test the socialization pathway. The Socialization Pathway Beginning with the socialization pathway, we may note that it formed the indirect starting point in many of the empirical papers discussed in the literature section above. The core idea is that discussions at home with parents and relatives func- tion to socialize children. If a parent is a convinced liberal, then the child is likely to 3 Dewan et al. (2019) use individual voting data from nineteenth-century England to study how sociali- zation and class influence voting choice, and they find support for the impact of the class dimension over that of the socialization dimension. See also Dewan et al. (2020), who use individual-level voting data to study alignment with political parties and class. Political Behavior 1 3 become more liberal than otherwise, simply because children spend so much time together with their parents and because parents act as role models. This point con- nects up with social learning theory, where the social context (the family) is under- stood as furnishing the frames for the learning process. According to social-learning theory, children observe the behavior of their parents (as well as that of other “mod- els”), and they attempt to imitate it. If this results in a rewarding response from the parent, then the child will continue along the same path (and vice versa if his or her parents respond with negative reinforcement Bandura 1977). If political parents are more likely to reward certain forms of political behavior than others (“behavior” being defined here in the broadest way), and especially if such reinforcement is more likely to be positive for behavior that is in line with the parents’ partisan alignment, then this may lead the children of politicians to participate politically to a greater extent than others, as well as creating an intergenerational correlation with respect to opinions and political affiliation. Social-learning theory connects up with Skinner’s (1957) work on language development, according to which reinforcement and pun- ishment are key elements. As we indicated in our literature review, most papers that have studied intergen- erational transmission of political affiliations are empirical, and the exact theoretical foundation in these papers is rarely explicit. The theory is mostly concerned with when the transmission takes place (Sears and Brown 2013). Does the socialization process start already at birth, or is an individual particularly susceptible during a certain time in life? One central idea among scholars who stress the socialization pathway has been that political views crystalize as a person ages, meaning that a person’s views and perceptions are more susceptible to change when he or she is younger (Campbell et  al. 1980, Chap. 7; Krosnick and Alwin 1989). Given that a person spends most of the time together with his or her parents at a young age, it is natural to assume that parents play an important role for political socialization (McIntosh et al. 2007; Hagevi 2011). It has also been demonstrated by Fox and Lawless (2005) that people growing up in a politicized environment possess a stronger nascent political ambi- tion, and thus a higher propensity to run for office as an adult.4 A similar, yet distinct, socialization-based explanation is that an individual is particularly influenced by parents and peers during the impressionable years. The exact demarcation of when the impressionable years start and end is debated, but late adolescence and early adulthood are usually considered when this period in life is discussed. According to this hypothesis, a person during this period is placed for the first time in a socialization context where politics plays an important part, at the same time that he or she is defining him or herself as an independent individual. The argument is that the political views formed during this period have an abiding effect on adult political beliefs (Manheim 1952; Sears 1975; Sears and Brown 2013). In brief, it seems there are somewhat conflicting views on when a person is most strongly influenced, although both explanations highlight political socialization. The 4 The gender gap with regards to political ambition, for example, has been demonstrated to be substan- tial, inasmuch as women experience less encouragement from parents (Fox and Lawless 2014). 1 3 Political Behavior two views are thus connected and may be interpreted in the light of parental influ- ence. Clearly parents are important according to the crystallization hypothesis, but even the impressionable-years hypothesis is indirectly based on parental selection. A child that grows up in a particular area will go to school with a subset of children whose parents are likely to be similar to his or her own. It is also likely that politi- cal discussions initiated at home continue with peers. Socialization thus reinforces itself through various pathways in which parents play an important role (Andolina et al. 2003). When an individual reaches the impressionable years, he or she is put together with peers in a context that reflects many of the characteristics of his or her parents. It is likely that this context promotes similar views as those of the par- ents during childhood. However, this also means that it is not possible to isolate the causal effect that a parent has on its child from the possible effect that their shared environment, for example the neighborhood in which they reside, may have on them both. Socialization pathways tend, then, to reflect the political beliefs of parents. These beliefs are transmitted during the impressionable years, in part directly and in part indirectly (through sorting into socialization contexts).5 The focus in our paper is not primarily on distinguishing between the crystallization sub-hypothesis and the impressionable-years sub-hypothesis, but instead on contrasting both variants of the socialization hypothesis with the materialistic-pathway hypothesis that we discuss in the next subsection.6 Before we continue, it is worth highlighting some implications of the socializa- tion pathway. Given that parents’ active presence is of the essence in this pathway, the absence of a parent—due to death or divorce, for example—should yield a lower parental transmission of political affiliation. According to the socialization-pathway hypothesis, children need to spend time with their parents. The impressionable-years sub-hypothesis too rests indirectly on the idea that this is necessary. If the child lives only with one parent, then it is likely that sorting into neighborhoods and schools is going to be based on the characteristics of this parent, and not primarily on the characteristics of the parent with whom the child does not live. We summarize our discussion in this subsection in one empirically testable prediction: Empirical testable statement 1: the intergenerational transmission of political affiliation will be less pronounced when a child did not live with the politically nom- inated parent during childhood. 5 It may also be the case that the parent has accumulated party-specific social capital—manifested as sta- tus, reputation or personal connections—which the child can benefit from if it chooses to join the same party. Such social capital could make children more likely to follow in the footsteps of their parents, as well as increase the probability of nomination if they do. 6 The reader can find an indirect test of the crystallization and impressionable-years sub-hypotheses in Fig. A2 in the Online Appendix. Political Behavior 1 3 The Materialistic Pathway In contrast to the socialization view stands the materialistic one. This theory empha- sizes that political demands are driven by economic conditions; thus the reason why, according to this view, parents and their children have similar political demands is that they share a similar material standard. In this subsection, we discuss the under- pinning of the materialistic pathway in words. In the Online Appendix, by contrast, we sketch in a more formalized manner the rational-choice framework which under- lies the reasoning here in the main text. We do not create a theoretical model where we solve for equilibria, and our theoretical reasoning consists mainly of modifica- tions of earlier theoretical work. In particular, our simple theoretical framework fol- lows Chaps. 1, 2, and 5 in Persson and Tabellini (2000),7 but it is extended to take into account intergenerational aspects. It is also related to the work of Verba et  al. (2003), who discuss the inequality in political participation that results from the intergenerational transmission of above all education. However, our focus is not on inequality in political activity in general, but instead on partisan intergenerational transmission. Let us assume that individuals demand two things. They want to consume goods and services, and they also want the public sphere to provide them with a certain degree of redistribution and public goods. In order to buy goods and services, more- over, individuals need an income, a certain share of which they pay in taxes which are then used to finance redistribution and to provide public goods. A person with a high income thus has a better opportunity to consume more, and he or she is also less dependent on redistribution through the public purse. High-income persons, therefore, can be expected to demand less in the way of redistribution than their less well-off fellow citizens. The second question is what determines the income of the individual. It is natu- ral to hypothesize that the income of an individual in one generation is dependent on that of his or her parents. This may be because the persons in question inherit something from their parents, either economic resources or a shared genetic compo- nent, or it may be because the social environment during childhood—in particular the interaction between parent and child—provides opportunities for future income development. Income also depends on an individual component which is not linked to parents. The educational system is such an element, and it has accordingly been seen historically as a means by which to equalize opportunities for individuals from different socioeconomic backgrounds. The importance of the two different factors varies between individuals; in general, however, the higher the parental income, the higher the income of the next generation. These two sub-hypotheses are cornerstones of the materialistic hypothesis. They are also easily linked to choice of political party. Right-wing parties, in general, favor lower taxes and less redistribution; left-wing parties favor higher taxes and 7 See also Hagevi (2015, Chap. 6) for a discussion of the materialistic pathway (or economics and voter choice) with an emphasis on Sweden. 1 3 Political Behavior more redistribution.8 High-income earners are therefore more likely than their low- income counterparts to prefer parties of the right. This also means a lower likelihood that the child and the parents will be affiliated with the same political party when they have different incomes in adulthood, due to the differing political demands aris- ing from different income levels. Let us summarize our discussion in the statement below: Empirical testable statement 2: the intergenerational transmission of politi- cal affiliation will be less pronounced when the income differential in adulthood between the child and the parent is larger. Let us turn now to selection issues. In democracies, the actual voting choice of a given individual is not public information. There is simply no register available from modern democracies with information on party choice.9 We can observe, however, the political affiliation of those who run for political office. Our empirical analysis will be focused on these individuals. This means we have a selection issue, given that we can only observe those who have chosen to participate as politicians. The core question is whether political-party affiliation can function as a proxy variable for underlying political demands. Per- sons who are nominated politicians may certainly be affiliated with a political party because they have mapped their political demands on to the policy platform of that party. However, they may also have chosen to be a politician in order to please their parents. Or, conversely, they may have chosen not to become a politician in order not to anger their parents because of political disagreement. The choice to run for office is a classic theme in political-economy models. In older models, politicians were seen as exogenous, office-motivated, and inclined to propose policy platforms in line with the views of the median voter. This is the cen- tral conclusion in the Hotelling–Downs model (Hotelling 1929; Downs 1957). More recent theoretical models, however, have portrayed the choice to become a politi- cian as endogenous (Osborne and Slivinski 1996; Besley and Coate 1997). In this understanding, citizen-candidate politicians originate from the electorate, where all voters have political demands. For some individuals, however, it is beneficial also to run for office in line with such political demands when the choice to run is depend- ent on the cost of running. In the last part of the game, those who run for office and win election implement a policy in line with their true political demands, given that a different policy does not make it worthwhile for them to run for office in the first place. If the citizen-candidate model is correct, then the individuals we observe running for office for a specific party do so because said party is a good representation for their political demands. For these candidates, we can also indirectly assess the inter- mediate theoretical steps in the materialistic pathway, such as individual income and 8 We acknowledge that there is more than one dimension in modern politics, but the economic conflict is still one of the most important. 9 There are of course surveys available in some cases. The problem with surveys, however, is that they do not normally cover the entire population; usually, moreover, they cannot be linked to register data. There are also uncertainties as to whether individuals answer truthfully in surveys. Political Behavior 1 3 the intergenerational transmission of income from parents, given that we have access to registry data. Institutional Setting Let us now review some basic information about the Swedish political system. Elec- tions took place in Sweden every third year prior to 1994, and every fourth year after that. Elections for municipal councils, county councils, and the national parlia- ment are held on a single day. Sweden has a system of proportional representation with closed lists, where position on a party list is important for one’s prospects of election. For the time period we study, Swedish political parties may be divided into two different blocs: the center-right and the center-left. The center-right bloc consists of the Moderate Party (conservatives), the Christian Democrats, the Liberal Party, and the Center Party. The center-left includes the Green Party, the Social Democrats, and the Left Party. There is also an eighth party, the Sweden Democrats, a right- wing populist party which is not normally considered part of either of the two blocs mentioned. The Sweden Democrats were small for a long time, but they entered par- liament in 2010 and they have gained strength in recent years. Given that the Swed- ish political arena is clearly divided between a center-right and a center-left bloc, we will use these bloc variables in some of our empirical specifications, which we explain further in the section on results. Each party has different nominating traditions. Some parties hold member pri- mary elections to fix positions on a party list before the general election. In other parties, the local party board decides on the final list. Some political parties use a combination of primary elections and board decisions. While there can be fierce competition for the top positions on a ballot, active members of a party do not usu- ally find it too difficult to gain a spot on the list. In many countries, it is customary for politicians to originate from the upper classes. In view of our discussion of selection in the theoretical-framework section, it would be problematic if our data sample were highly selective in terms of social background and income—especially since we are interested in investigating the link between income and political affiliation. Dal  Bó et  al. (2017) investigate the back- ground characteristics of Swedish politicians, and find them to be representative of the general population in terms of parental income and occupational background. Politicians appear, however, to be more intelligent on average than the population as a whole.10 10 A question related to ours is whether the children of politicians get economic favors because their parents are politicians. This issue has been investigated by Folke et  al. (2017), who actually finds that the income of children is increased if the parent is a top politician on the municipal level in Sweden. The authors conclude, however, that this finding seems to be driven by an increase in the probability that the child in question stays in the home municipality and works there, instead of moving in order to pursue higher education. 1 3 Political Behavior Another question is what kind of case Sweden constitutes. One the one hand, Sweden has traditionally exhibited a significant degree of class-based voting (Oskar- son 2015). While class-based voting has declined over time, it may still be some- thing which strengthens the intergenerational correlation compared to countries where class is less important.11 On the other hand, Sweden has many different politi- cal parties, meaning that individuals can get involved in politics through a variety of platforms. This means in turn that the intergenerational transmission of party affili- ation should be less pronounced than in a political system where there are two big- tent parties. Data and Empirical Framework The data material originates from Swedish population registers. What is unique with our data is that it covers the entire population of politicians at the national, county, and municipal levels. The data set begins in 1982, which is the starting year in our study; 2014 is the last year. In addition to our data on politicians, moreover, we have access to a multigenerational data set which enables us to link children to their par- ents and individuals to their siblings and grandparents. This is crucial given the pur- pose of this paper. Our sample consists of all politicians with a family connection. Being a politician is relatively rare. In order to increase the sample size, there- fore, we focus on all nominated politicians in our analysis, regardless of whether they won election or not. Focusing on nominated politicians is also natural if we are interested in political affiliation and not the intergenerational inheritance of elective office. We thus choose to add nominated politicians from all three national elections in Sweden together in our empirical analysis.12 We should clarify our terminology on one point. We refer to individuals in our empirical analysis that belong to the last generations and who have been nominated between 1982 and 2014. These individuals have parents, siblings, and grandparents, who may in turn also have been nominated between 1982 and 2014.13 This group of people constitutes our empirical sample when we investigate the transmission of political-party affiliation. In our empirical analysis, we restrict the sample to those cases where the individuals are nominated later in time than their parents, siblings, or grandparents, given that we are interested in the transmission of political-party affiliation to the individuals. It is worth noting that the restriction of the analysis to the years to 1982–2014, means that we do not investigate the transmission of party affiliation of those 11 Note that this argument assumes that class mobility is lower than other sources of inter-generational mobility in party affiliation. Depending, however, on how strong the correlations that we find are, this assumption may not be true. 12 In those relatively rare cases where a person has been nominated for different political parties in dif- ferent elections, we choose the party which the person has represented the largest number of times. 13 Another way to denote these individuals would be to call them children, since we are investigating intergenerational transmission between parents and their children. When we measure the outcome vari- ables, however, these people are adults, which makes it more accurate simply to call them individuals. Political Behavior 1 3 individuals that are politicians during this period, but whose parents ran for office prior of 1982. This should above all include those with older parents or those par- ents that ran for office at a younger age. To test the socialization pathway, we need to know whether individuals grew up with their politically nominated parents. We start by counting the number of years that a child and his or her parents lived together between the year the child was born and the year he or she turned 18. Because children with separated parents are regis- tered in our data as living with either their mother or their father—even as it is actu- ally quite common that they live part-time with the other parent as well—we count children as living with their parents as long as they reside within the same county (län). Due to this very broad definition, children not coded as living with one of their parents will be unlikely to meet them on a regular basis. Based on this number, we create one variable that measures the share of these years spent living together, as well as one binary indicator for whether this share amounts to a majority of the time. As a robustness check, we also create a similar variable that is based on a smaller geographical unit.14 To test the materialistic hypothesis we need income data, which we obtain from the LISA register.15 We standardize income for each cohort for the first year after the age of 33. Earlier literature has highlighted how problematic it is to use current income as a proxy for lifetime income (Engström and Hagen 2017; Böhlmark and Lindquist 2005). After reaching 30, most individuals who have enrolled in higher education have established themselves on the labor market; we therefore choose the age of 33. Our empirical analysis for the benchmark results is very simple. Focusing on the party level, we calculate the share of nominated individuals who had a parent that was nominated for the same political party. We also calculate the equivalent share for grandparents and siblings in separate specifications. This descriptive analysis addresses the direct transmission from parents, siblings, and grandparents.16 However, we need something to relate these shares to in order to assess the mag- nitudes. We therefore calculate the probability that two randomly drawn politicians belong to the same political party, which we interpret as what the number who run for the same party as their relatives would have been had there been no within-fam- ily transmission. We calculate these probabilities for three different scenarios: (i) where the two politicians are drawn from eight parties of equal size; (ii) where they are both from the universe of Swedish politicians between 1982 and 2014 (excluding parties without representation in the national parliament); and (iii) where one of the politicians is a randomly drawn parent from our sample, and the other is drawn from the pool of candidates who ran for office in the same municipality and year as that 14 These calculations are based on SAMS areas, which are sub-units within municipalities. A SAMS consists roughly of 1000 individuals. 15 LISA is a longitudinal register created for labor market research. 16 Throughout the paper, we cluster standard errors at the municipal level, because the probability of being nominated and indirectly running for the same political party as one’s parents is clustered within municipalities. The reason for not clustering the standard errors at the family level is that most families yield only one observation, namely a dyad of one parent and one individual. 1 3 Political Behavior parent’s child.17 We later turn to a regression framework in order to run robustness checks and mechanism analyses; we explain the details below. It is worth noting that our main investigation is not a causal-effect analysis; that is, we do not pinpoint a treatment for which the effect can be estimated using a convincing identification strategy. Such an analysis would be interesting too, but it would answer a different and more local question.18 The focus in this paper is instead Table 1 Proportions of individuals affiliated with the same party as family members The proportions refer to the share of candidates that ran for the same party as their parent, sibling, or grandparent. In the first row, the sample includes every candidate with either one or two parents who have also been nominated for one of the eight parties in the national parliament, regardless of whether any other relatives have run for office. However, candidates are excluded if the two parents ran for different parties. In rows 2–4, the sample is restricted to those who have either one or more parents, siblings, or grandparents who have run for office. The last three panels show the proportion that would be expected if candidates were randomly drawn (i) from a pool of candidates distributed equally between eight parties, (ii) from the universe of Swedish candidates between 1982 and 2014 (excluding parties without representation in the national parliament), or (iii) from a pool of candidates that ran in the same municipality and year as the candidates in our sample. Standard errors are clustered at the municipal level Proportion SE Observations Main sample (every candidate with a parent politician)  Same party as parent 0.764 0.005 14,275 Every candidate with either a parent, sibling or grand parent politi- cian  Same party as parent 0.722 0.005 10,527  Same party as sibling 0.610 0.005 6527  Same party as grand parent 0.347 0.005 1264 Expected proportion candidates from same party randomly drawn from  Eight parties of equal size 0.125  All candidates 1982–2014 0.177  Same municipality and year 0.190 17 We calculate these numbers in different ways. The first one is straightforward: if there are eight par- ties of equal size, the probability will always be 12.5% (1/8) that a random candidate runs for any one of these parties. The second figure comes from calculating the Simpson index (also known as the Herfind- ahl index), using the Stata package entropy, etc. This index is identical with the probability that two units (candidates) taken at random from a data set come from the same group (party). The last figure comes from calculating the share that ran for the same party as the parent of individual i,  among all candidates who took part in the same election as that individual, and averaging that number across all individuals i in our sample. 18 Just to mention one example, one may study the effect of having had a parent elected to political office on the probability that the child is elected for the same political party in the future in a regression discon- tinuity design (RDD). Political Behavior 1 3 on overall interdependence across the generations, which by nature is a correlational question. However, given that we are restricting the analysis to cases where the child is nominated after the parent, we do not have the problem that the transmission in fact goes in the opposite direction. One strategy we could apply is to control for various background characteristics. However, by holding factors constant, we are essentially controlling away parts of the overall transmission. For example, if we controlled for parental characteristics as income or employment status, we would be left with the part of the transmission which is unrelated to economic conditions. To pinpoint a portion of the transmission is not our goal, which is instead to investigate the gross interdependence and the mechanisms behind it. Benchmark Results The benchmark results are presented in Table 1. Let us first look at the transmission from parents to their children. We restrict the sample to those nominated individuals who also have one parent who ran for office during the 1982–2014 period. We also put the restriction that, where there are two politician parents, they must belong to the same political party; however, we do not care whether they have other relatives in politics. Under these restrictions, we can conclude that as many as 76% of all can- didates ran for the same party as their parent (row 1 in Table 1). To put this into perspective, we must remember that some children would run for the same party as their parents even in the absence of any intergenerational trans- mission. If we relate the number above to the probability that two randomly drawn candidates belong to the same party, we can interpret the difference as representing how much larger the actual share who run for the same party as their parent is com- pared to what it would have been had the intergenerational correlation been zero. These probabilities are presented in rows 5–7, and they range from 12.5% (eight parties of equal size) to 19% (if we take into consideration where and when each individual runs for office). Taken together, this descriptive evidence points towards a strong transmission of political affiliation from parents to their children. In rows 3–4 in Table  1, we turn our attention to the transmission from siblings and grandparents. In this case the sample restriction is slightly modified. Here we put a restriction that the individual had one or more siblings (row 3) or one or more grandparents (row 4), but no other relatives running for office. For comparison, we also calculate the transmission from parents under this modified sample restriction in row 2, where the individual had one or two parents nominated for office, but no other relatives. Beginning with row 2, the share of individuals that had one or two parents nominated for the same political party is, as expected, close to the share we calculated in row 1. What is interesting is that there is a transmission from siblings, and also to some degree from grandparents. For those individuals that had one or two siblings who were nominated for political office but no other politician rela- tives, the share of individuals that ran for the same political party is around 60%. 35% who had grandparents nominated for political office ran for the same political party as their grandparents. Both shares are higher than the probability that two ran- domly drawn candidates would belong to the same political party. It thus seems that 1 3 Political Behavior intra-extended family transmission is present even in the absence of parents who were nominated politicians. In sum, parents seem to be the strongest source for the transmission of political-party affiliation; however, direct transmission is also pre- sent from siblings and to some degree from grandparents. In the Online Appendix, we address potential objections to our baseline results. This robustness discussion and analysis, presented in Table  A1, is primarily con- cerned with checking whether intergenerational transmission is affected when we focus on individuals who probably run for office because of a genuine will of getting elected, and not only as a favor to their parents. Our conclusion from this analysis is that the estimated transmission is still present under these robustness specifications. We also estimate the intergenerational transmission over time, in Fig. A1. We con- clude that, while it has declined over time, it is still high for the later election years. In Fig. A2, we investigate whether the probability of running for the same political party as one’s parents depends on the age when the parent was nominated. The con- clusion is that the transmission is strong for all ages, but that it decreases somewhat when the parent is more advanced in years. In Tables  A2, A3 and A4, we run the same analysis as in Table 1, but for those individuals nominated for the parliament, the county councils, and the municipal councils separately. We find that the inter- generational transmission of party affiliation is as strong among politicians in the national parliament as among their counterparts on the local level. Mechanisms We have now concluded that intergenerational transmission is strong with regards to political affiliation. How are we to explain this transmission? Let us return to the empirically testable statements that we made in the theoretical section. The first statement concerned the socialization pathway. In order for this mechanism to be confirmed empirically, the intergenerational correlation must be weaker if the child did not grow up with the nominated parent. Similarly, according to the materialistic pathway, the intergenerational correlation should be weaker for those children who differ from their parents in terms of their position in the income distribution. To test these implications, we leave the descriptive statistics used in Table 1 and turn instead to a regression framework, where it is easy to include additional varia- bles. To mimic the specification in the last subsection, we stick to the sample restric- tion in row 1 in Table 1, where the outcome variable equals 1 if the individual and the parent(s) were nominated for the same party, and 0 otherwise. Another way to express this share is simply to run a regression on the constant: SamePartyi = �i + ui. �i is then the share of individuals that were nominated for the same political party as their parent. This specification is used in Column 1 (full sample) and Column 2 Political Behavior 1 3 Ta bl e 2 T es tin g th e so ci al iz at io n ve rs us th e m at er ia lis tic p at hw ay T he d ep en de nt v ar ia bl e is a b in ar y in di ca to r f or w he th er a n in di vi du al w as n om in at ed fo r t he s am e pa rt y as e ith er o r b ot h of h is o r h er p ar en ts . T he s am pl e in cl ud es c an di - da te s w ith e ith er o ne o r t w o pa re nt s w ho h av e al so r un fo r o ffi ce ; h ow ev er , t he c an di da te is e xc lu de d if th e tw o pa re nt s ra n fo r d iff er en t p ar tie s. In C ol um ns 2 –5 , t he s am pl e is re st ri ct ed to o bs er va tio ns w ith ou t m is si ng d at a on a ny o f t he v ar ia bl es u se d in th es e m od el s. C hi ld re n ar e co de d as li vi ng w ith th ei r p ar en t i f t he y re si de w ith in th e sa m e co un ty (l än ). St an da rd e rr or s in p ar en th es es a re c lu st er ed a t t he m un ic ip al le ve l ∗ p < 0 . 1 0 , ∗ ∗ p < 0 . 0 5 , ∗ ∗ ∗ p < 0 . 0 1 (1 ) (2 ) (3 ) (4 ) (5 ) L iv ed w ith p ar en t ( sh ar e ye ar s) 0. 45 6* ** (0 .0 50 ) L iv ed w ith p ar en t ( bi na ry , m os t y ea rs ) 0. 36 8* ** (0 .0 49 ) In co m e di ff er en ce −  0 .0 01 (0 .0 24 ) C on st an t 0. 76 4* ** (0 .0 05 ) 0. 75 8* ** (0 .0 07 ) 0. 31 0* ** (0 .0 51 ) 0. 39 6* ** (0 .0 49 ) 0. 75 8* ** (0 .0 10 ) Sa m pl e A ll R es t. R es t. R es t. R es t. A dj us te d R 2 0. 00 0 0. 00 0 0. 01 6 0. 01 3 −  0 .0 00 O bs er va tio ns 14 ,2 54 57 85 57 85 57 85 57 85 1 3 Political Behavior (same sample as in the rest of the table) of Table 2, and the constant in Column 1 is identical to the share in the first row of Table 1.19 Let us now test the socialization and materialistic hypotheses. To test the sociali- zation hypothesis, we begin by creating a binary indicator for each year the indi- vidual and the parent lived together. Based on these binary indicators, we define one variable for the share of years between birth and age 18 that the individual lived together with the politician parent, and one binary variable for whether this amounts to more than or less than half the time. Columns 3 and 4 in Table  2 concern the socialization pathway. Here the reader should pay attention to how the estimated constant is altered when the variables for living with the politician parent are included in the regression. What we find is that most of the intergenerational transmission is conditioned on living with the parent, and that the share of individuals who are nominated for the same political party as their parent decreases substantially if we focus on those who did not grow up in the same county as their politician parent [31% for those who never lived with their parent, compared to 76.6% (0.456  +  0.310) of those who lived with their parent between birth and age 18—assuming we trust the specification in Column 3]. This yields strong empirical support for the importance of the socialization pathway, and puts an upper limit on how much of the intergenerational correlation in party affili- ation could potentially arise from a shared genetic heritage not dependent on social factors, or from some other factor which does not require that the parent and child live together. It bears noting that the intergenerational transmission of political affiliation is still reasonably large even when the individual in question did not live with his or her politician parent, as illustrated by the estimated coefficients for the constant in Columns 3 and 4 in Table  2. However, even if we randomly drew pairs of politi- cians, 17.7% of them would belong to the same party (see Table 1), so the increase resulting from intergenerational transmission should not be overstated. As a robust- ness check, we have also based the socialization variables on SAMS instead of on counties. A SAMS is a much smaller geographical unit than a county. The results are presented in Table A6 in the Online Appendix. As expected, the constant is still reduced when the socialization-pathway variables are included in the regression, but the reduction is smaller. Column 5 in Table  2 concerns the materialistic pathway. We include a vari- able that measures the distance between the child’s and the parent’s position in the income distribution, coded from 0 (same percentile group) to 1 (the maximum dis- tance of 100 percentiles). For both the child and the parent, the income is measured at the age of 33, and the percentiles are calculated with data on other individuals within the same year and cohort. In contrast to Columns 3 and 4, we do not see a large change in the estimated constant when we include this variable. In fact, the constant remains virtually unchanged, indicating that the propensity to run for the 19 We use a linear probability model (LPM) in order to facilitate interpretation and because the means in Table 1 can then be translated into constants in Table 2. The corresponding models estimated with logis- tic regression are presented in the Online Appendix (Table A5), and the results are quite similar. Political Behavior 1 3 same party as one’s parent is not dependent on having a similar income. This is strong evidence against the materialistic hypothesis, which assumes that partisan similarity is caused by similar economic interests. While we believe the analysis presented here is enough to refute the materialistic hypothesis, we have run some additional analyses, which can be found in the Online Appendix. In Table  A7, we show there is an intergenerational correlation with regards to income, and that higher relative income increases the probability of an individual being affiliated with a center-right political party; but we also show that, taken together, these correlations are far too weak to have a non-negligible impact on the intergenerational transmission of party affiliation. Supplementary Analysis We have now demonstrated there is a large intergenerational transmission from parents to children with regards to party affiliation. The mechanisms behind these results seem to be in line with the socialization hypothesis rather than the mate- rialistic one. We have also found there is a direct transmission from siblings and grandparents. Our data allows us, however, to expand from these findings by using additional information available in the register data, which further illustrates the transmission of political-party affiliation within the family. The first thing we can do is to look at heterogeneity with regards to gender, and ask ourselves whether the transmission is different from males and females, and whether males and females incorporate the political affiliation from fathers and mothers to an equal extent. The results are presented in Table  A8 in the Online Appendix. In essence, we find that the transmission is not heterogeneous with regards to the gender of the individual. What we do find, however, is that having the same gender as the nominated politician parent further increases the share of individuals running for the same political party as their parents. These results con- nect up with Folke et al. (2020), who use a cross-country data set on legislators as well as data on individual candidates from Ireland and Sweden. The authors find that women are more likely to enter politics if they have a relative who has been a politician. The second thing we can do is to incorporate cases where there are two politician parents who belong to different parties—i.e., when there is disagreement within the family. In this case, we can investigate partisan transmission where we have varia- tion across political parties. In order to keep this part of the analysis relatively con- tained, we focus on the two political blocs.20 In this case, we are essentially using 20 Otherwise, all specifications would be run for all political parties. Even if we exclude all local parties, we still have eight political parties in all. In this part of the analysis, we cannot define a SameBloc vari- able, since parents may belong to different political blocs; moreover, the whole point of the analysis is to separate the transmission from the mother from that of the father. We thus need another regression spec- ification. In this case we estimate CRi = �0 + �1FamilyMembersCRi + ei, where CR stands for center- right. Given that we restrict the analysis to those political parties which are in either the center-right or the center-left bloc, the results will be equal for a specification with the center-left. 1 3 Political Behavior the variation that arises when different family members belong to different political blocs in order to estimate the parameter value for the coefficient of interest. The results are presented in Table A9. The sample in this case consists of those families where the individual, the mother, and the father have all been nominated for a political party. First we estimate the transmission from fathers and mothers respectively for the entire sample, and then for men and women separately. Overall, it appears that the political affiliation of mothers matters more than that of fathers when the mother and the father disagree (and this holds for both male and female children). This result—that mothers dominate when the parents disagree, but that the respective influence of the two is more equal when the other parent is neutral— echoes the conclusions drawn in earlier literature (Beck and Jennings 1975). Our results also relate to Oberle et  al. (2011), who find that transmission of political opinions goes from mothers to daughters and from mothers and fathers to sons. Our findings may also be viewed in light of Shulman and DeAndrea (2014), who argue that fathers and mothers discuss politics differently with their children—mothers being more influenced by the opinions of their children, and fathers employing a more downward type of communication. Another way of putting it is that mother discuss politics with their children, while fathers tell their children about politics and that discussing tends to be more effective. In our case, the mothers are unlikely to be affected by their children, since all of the parents in question were nominated as politicians before their children. Discussion and Conclusion Understanding how political beliefs are formed is one of the central themes of politi- cal science. Our focus has been on the intergenerational aspects of political-party affiliation. While families with multiple politicians are quite rare overall, they hold electoral and career advantages (Geys and Smith 2017; Smith and Martin 2017) that make them overrepresented among the world’s top politicians. A common criticism of the Bushes, Clintons, and Kennedys has been that they take up space that might otherwise be available for candidates with new ideas and different perspectives (Pisani 2015). Understanding how and to what degree political beliefs are formed within the context of the family, therefore, is of utmost importance for understand- ing the larger question of the accumulation of political power. In this paper, we have applied rich registry data from Sweden. Our finding from this empirical endeavor is that intergenerational transmission is very strong. These results might be thought unsurprising, given that parents are likely to play an important role in a person’s life; however, they are surprising in that Sweden, according to the World Value Survey, is the country with the highest degree of self-expression values in the world (WVS 2018). Our paper has thus made a con- tribution in highlighting the persisting importance of family transmission in this age of individualism. The intergenerational link is likely to be even more pro- nounced in countries where traditional views on family and tradition dominate. Furthermore, we have demonstrated the presence of intergenerational transmis- sion not just between children and their parents, but also between individuals and Political Behavior 1 3 their grandparents as well as between siblings. This indicates that the transmis- sion of political affiliation takes different pathways and that it reinforces itself through a variety of channels in proximity to the individual. Our second aim in this paper has been to connect up with a theoretical discus- sion of how this intergenerational transmission manifests itself. We started out by discussing a socialization hypothesis, according to which discussions at home together with parents or with peers are the key drivers. We then discussed another theory, to the effect that relative differences in income are the key to understand- ing political demands. Because income in this view is inherited across the genera- tions, political affiliation is as well. When we brought these empirical predictions to the data, we found that intergenerational transmission decreased substantially when an individual had not lived together with the politician parent in question. If the individual has had less opportunity to discuss politics at home with the politi- cian parent, this is exactly what we would expect, according to the socialization hypothesis. When we tested the materialistic hypothesis, we did find partial sup- port for some of its elements. Income is empirically correlated across generations, and individuals with higher relative incomes are more likely to be nominated for a center-right political party. When we add the components together, however, the benchmark intergenerational transmission is not affected by the inclusion of income. The materialistic pathway seems thus to play a much less pronounced role in explaining the intergenerational correlation. While our results indicate that spending time together with parents during childhood is associated with a much higher probability of the individual’s belong- ing to the same political party, we should underline that an element of intergener- ational transmission remains even when the child did not live with the politician parent in question. We cannot determine whether this transmission is genetically inherited or if instead it reflects socialization that takes place even when the child is not living with his or her parent. However, we may interpret this as an upper bound for genetic transmission that is not dependent on social surroundings. It bears stressing that we have focused exclusively on transmission within families in this paper, and that we have not considered other arenas of socializa- tion such as neighborhoods. As discussed in the theoretical-framework section, selection into neighborhoods is another important factor to consider when piec- ing together the puzzle of how political beliefs and opinions are formed. Future research should take this context into account. Acknowledgements We thank Sven Oskarsson, Karl-Oskar Lindgren, Moa Fröding Gruneau and Janne Tukiainen for helpful comments. We would also like to thank seminar participants at the 2018 SWEPSA Conference in Malmö, at the 75th IIPF Conference in Glasgow in 2019, and at the Polsek Seminar at Uppsala University. We further thank the Editor Benjamin Radcliff  and the two anonymous reviewers. This research was funded by the European Research Council (ERC), with Grant Number 683214 CON- POL.  This research has been approved by the Regional Ethical Review Board in Uppsala. The Online Appendix contains information on how to proceed to access the data for replication purposes. Funding Open access funding provided by Uppsala University. 1 3 Political Behavior Compliance with Ethical Standards Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. 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Legislative Stud- ies Quarterly, 35(4), 571–598. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12489 Political Behavior 1 3 Fiva, J. H., & Smith, D. M. (2018). Political dynasties and the incumbency advantage in party-centered environments. American Political Science Review, 112(3), 706–712. Folke, O., Persson, T., & Rickne, J. (2017). Dynastic political rents? Economic benefits to relatives of top politicians. The Economic Journal, 127(605), F495–F517. Folke, O., Rickne, J., & Smith, D. M. (2020). Gender and dynastic political selection. Comparative Politi- cal Studies. https ://doi.org/10.1177/00104 14020 93808 9. Fox, R. L., & Lawless, J. L. (2005). To run or not to run for office: Explaining nascent political ambition. American Journal of Political Science, 49(3), 642–659. Fox, R. L., & Lawless, J. L. (2014). Uncovering the origins of the gender gap in political ambition. Amer- ican Political Science Review, 108(3), 499–519. Geys, B., & Smith, D. M. (2017). Political dynasties in democracies: Causes, consequences and remain- ing puzzles. The Economic Journal, 127(605), F446–F454. Glass, J., Bengtson, V. L., & Dunham, C. C. (1986). Attitude similarity in three-generation families: Socialization, status inheritance, or reciprocal influence? American Sociological Review, 51(5), 685–698. Hagevi, M. (2011). Generation och det politiska arvet. In M. Hagevi (Ed.), Den svenska väljaren. Boréa. Hagevi, M. (2015). Den svenska väljaren 2014. Gleerup. Hatemi, P. K., Medland, S. E., Klemmensen, R., Oskarsson, S., Littvay, L., Dawes, C. T., et al. (2014). Genetic influences on political ideologies: Twin analyses of 19 measures of political ideologies from five democracies and genome-wide findings from three populations. Behavior Genetics, 44(3), 282–294. Hotelling, H. (1929). Stability in competition. The Economic Journal, 39(153), 41–57. Jennings, M. K. (1984). 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Kecskemeti (Ed.), Essays on the sociology of knowledge. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. McIntosh, H., Hart, D., & Youniss, J. (2007). The influence of family political discussion on youth civic development: Which parent qualities matter? PS: Political Science and Politics, 40(3), 495–499. Oberle, C. D., Valdovinos, C. A. M., & Celisse, A. (2011). Gender differences in parental influence on the next generation’s political orientations. Journal of Multicultural, Gender and Minority Studies, 5(1), 1–6. Osborne, M. J., & Slivinski, A. (1996). A model of political competition with citizen-candidates. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 111(1), 65–96. Oskarson, M. (2015). The never-ending story of class voting in Sweden. In J. Pierre (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of Swedish politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Oskarsson, S., Cesarini, D., Dawes, C. T., Fowler, J. H., Johannesson, M., Magnusson, P. K. E., et  al. (2014). Linking genes and political orientations: Testing the cognitive ability as mediator hypoth- esis. Political Psychology, 36(6), 649–665. Oskarsson, S., Dawes, C. T., & Lindgren, K.-O. (2018). It runs in the family: A study of political candi- dacy among Swedish adoptees. Political Behavior, 40(4), 883–908. Percheron, A., & Jennings, K. M. (1981). Political continuities in French families: A new perspective on an old controversy. Comparative Politics, 13(4), 421–436. Persson, T., & Tabellini, G. (2000). Political economics: Explaining economic policy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Pisani, E. (2015). What’s wrong with dynastic politics? The New Yorker, July, 18. Querubín, P. (2016). Family and politics: Dynastic persistence in the Philippines. Quarterly Journal of Political Science, 11(2), 151–181. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414020938089 1 3 Political Behavior Sears, D. O. (1975). Political socialization. In F. I. Greenstein & N. Polsby (Eds.), Handbook of political science. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Sears, D. O., & Brown, C. (2013). Childhood and adult political development. In L. Huddy, D. O. Sears, & J. S. Levy (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford Uni- versity Press. Settle, J. E., Dawes, C. T., & Fowler, J. H. (2009). The heritability of partisan attachment. Political Research Quarterly, 62(3), 601–613. Shulman, H. C., & DeAndrea, D. C. (2014). Predicting success: Revisiting assumptions about family political socialization. Communication Monographs, 81(3), 386–406. Skinner, B. (1957). Verbal behavior. Acton, MA: Copley Publishing Group. Smith, D. M., & Martin, S. (2017). Political dynasties and the selection of cabinet ministers. Legislative Studies Quarterly, 42(1), 131–165. Tedin, K. L. (1974). The influence of parents on the political attitudes of adolescents. The American Political Science Review, 68(4), 1579–1592. Van Coppenolle, B. (2017). Political dynasties in the UK House of Commons: The null effect of narrow electoral selection. Legislative Studies Quarterly, 42(3), 449–475. Ventura, R. (2001). Family political socialization in multiparty systems. Comparative Political Studies, 34(6), 666–691. Verba, S., Burns, N., & Schlozman, K. L. (2003). Unequal at the starting line: Creating participatory inequalities across generations and among groups. The American Sociologist, 34(1–2), 45–69. Westholm, A. (1991). The political heritage: Testing theories of family socialization and generational change. PhD Thesis, Department of Government, Uppsala University. Westholm, A. (1999). The perceptual pathway: Tracing the mechanisms of political value transfer across generations. Political Psychology, 20(3), 525–551. Westholm, A., & Niemi, R. G. (1992). Political institutions and political socialization: A cross-national study. Comparative Politics, 25(1), 25–41. WVS. (2018). World Value Survey, findings and insights. Retrieved December 18, 2018, from http:// www.world value ssurv ey.org/wvsco ntent s.jsp?cmsid =findi ngs. Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/wvscontents.jsp?cmsid=findings http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/wvscontents.jsp?cmsid=findings Intergenerational Transmission of Party Affiliation Within Political Families Abstract Introduction Earlier Literature Theoretical Framework The Socialization Pathway The Materialistic Pathway Institutional Setting Data and Empirical Framework Benchmark Results Mechanisms Supplementary Analysis Discussion and Conclusion Acknowledgements References 
work_spu6vanslvg5bguveoi56w5m5q	----	Painting Regional Identities: Nationalism in the Arts, France, Germany and Spain, 1890-1914 | Scholarly Publications Skip to main content Leiden University Scholarly Publications Home Submit About Select Collection All collections This collection Academic speeches Dissertations Faculty of Archaeology Faculty of Governance and Global Affairs Faculty of Humanities Faculty of Science Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences Leiden Journals, Conference Proceedings and Books Leiden Law School Leiden University Press Medicine / Leiden University Medical Centre (LUMC) Research output UL Search box Persistent URL of this record https://hdl.handle.net/1887/16312 Documents Download painting_regional Not Applicable (or Unknown) open access In Collections This item can be found in the following collections: Institute for History Storm, H.J. (2009) Painting Regional Identities: Nationalism in the Arts, France, Germany and Spain, 1890-1914 Article / Letter to editor All authors Storm, H.J. Date 2009 Journal European History Quarterly Volume 39 Issue 4 Pages 557 - 582 Link http://ehq.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/39/4/557 ©2020-2021 Leiden University A service provided by Leiden University Libraries Contact About us Recently Added Digital Collections Student Repository 
work_st3kpryfrvahlk2h7ytzn55p2u	----	TJhe fllodoj&nguage^ssoriatton oj America ORGANIZED 18 83 INCORPORATED 1900 Officers for the year 1952 President: Albert C. Baugh, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia 4 First Vice President: Casimir D. Zdanowicz, University of Wisconsin, Madi­ son 6 Second Vice President: Henry W. Nordmeyer, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Executive Secretary: William Riley Parker, J<iew York University, New York 3 Treasurer: John H. Fisher, New York University, New York 3 Executive Council For the term ending 31 Dec. 1953 Merritt Y. Hughes, University of Wisconsin, Madison 6 Kemp Malone, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore 18, Md. Ira O. Wade, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J. For the term ending 31 Dec. 1953 Douglas Bush, Harvard University, Cambridge 38, Mass. Henry Grattan Doyle, George Washington University, Washington 6, D. C. Donald A. Stauffer, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J. For the term ending 31 Dec. 1954 Hayward Keniston, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor H. W. Victor Lange, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Carl F. Schreiber, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. For the term ending 31 Dec. 1955 C. Grant Loomis, University of California, Berkeley 4 Justin M. O’Brien, Columbia University, New York 27 A. S. P. Woodhouse, University of Toronto, Toronto $ Staff Assistant Editor: Robert E. Taylor, J^ew Yor/( University; Assistant to the Executive Secretary: Donna Rowell; Assistant to the Treasurer: Ruth Olson; typists: Naomi Taylor and Trudy Kalbfleisch Trustees of Invested Funds George Henry Nettleton, Yale University William Albert Nitze, University of Chicago LeRoy Elwood Kimball, tyw York University, Managing Trustee The 1953 Meeting is scheduled to be held in Boston, Massachusetts, on 17, 38, and 39 December UNIVERSITY PRESS Melville’s Quarrel with God By LAWRANCE THOMPSON. The author argues that Melville, seeking to disguise his agonized conviction of the cruelty and malice of God, consistently satirized Christian doctrine by resorting to liter­ ary deceptions that could simultaneously satirize and hoodwink his orthodox readers. This bold challenge to the conventional interpreta­ tion of Melville is brilliantly presented and fully supported by ex­ ternal and internal evidence in such a way as to reveal a sinister intent in all of the major narratives from Typee through Billy Budd. $600 Jane Austen Irony as Defense and Discovery By MARVIN MUDRICK. Jane Austen emerges from behind the comfortable assumptions of a hundred years and takes her true place among the most stalwart of the great ironists. Through an analysis of all her writings and a study of her irony in its sources and develop­ ment, the hook achieves its twofold aim of re-evaluating the novels and the growth of the novelist herself from her childhood writings, through the great novels, to Sanditm. “The most acute and illuminating analysis of Jane Austen’s novels with which I am acquainted.”—Joseph Warren Beach. $500 French Painting Between the Past and the Present: 1848*1870 By JOSEPH C. SLOANE. A study of the subject matter of French painting in the mid-nineteenth century, and critical attitudes toward it. “Invaluable as a first chapter to the history of Impressionism and Modern Art.”—Lincoln Kirstein. 256 pages, 90 collotype repro­ ductions, 9" x 12". $1200 AT YOUR BOOKSTORE, PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS 
work_sy5lcngfbfggvmlkmfsvncfh6a	----	Imperatives, Strategies, and the World Campaign for The Biosphere GUEST EDITORIAL Imperatives, Strategies, and the World Campaign for The Biosphere In New Delhi, India, in June of this year, and subsequently at Lake Louise, Canada, in October, a total of more than two hundredscholars and educators met to define the focus of a new international environmental education programme. The occasions were the first two regional workshops of the World Council For The Biosphere (WCB) and its sister organization the International Society For Environmental Education (ISEE). The emerging programme is ISEE's part in the taking-on of the World Campaign for The Biosphere. The discussions and recommendations from these workshops are being compared, contrasted, and synthesized, jointly by the workshop directors and others, and will be reported on later in this issue of our sponsoring Journal which is featuring WCB-ISEE. Therefore, I will not attempt such a summary here, but, instead, propose to focus on the mission of the World Campaign for The Biosphere by looking at three words that were prominent in discussions in New Delhi and at Lake Louise. These words are 'campaign', 'imperatives', and 'strategies'. By definition, a campaign is a series of military or other operations that are undertaken to achieve a specific objective within a particular area, or an operation undertaken—often by means of propaganda—to attain some political, social, or commercial, goal. Does this fit the World Campaign For The Biosphere? Certainly we are not a military operation, although there have been militant moments and even actions in the environmental movement. We do have objectives, and we are trying to attain political, social, and even commercial, goals. Our objectives tend to focus on particular areas, for, following the cliche often attributed to the late Rene Dubos, we think globally but act locally. This much of the definition does seem to describe what we are attempting with the Campaign. But, I am concerned about the implications of 'propaganda', and must admit that environmental education has often bordered on being propaganda. This is a significant danger whenever educators promote a particular view, support a cause, or participate in a movement. Too many environmental educators assume that they know all they need to know about the ecological aspects of environmental problems, and are concerned only with developing strategies and programmes for social change. They have become doctrinaire! Of course, to some extent, they are right. We do have certain insights and knowledge, and we are unquestionably correct when we say that we must protect The Biosphere, for it is the support system on which all life depends—including human life. We must have clean air, clean water, and tillable soil. We must stem the tide of animal and plant extinctions. We need greenery, open space, and wilderness. We must reduce the stress placed on ecosystems by over-population and excessive consumption. Unfortu- nately, our insights on these issues tend to be superficial and our knowledge is often unnecessarily incomplete. Much has been learned in the past decade about the operation of The Biosphere, but we educators have not stayed abreast of these developments and ideas. Thus, we bear considerable blame for the lamentable fact that little of this information has found its way into decision-making processes in governments and industry. If we are to fulfil our roles as communicators of information and knowledge, and if we are to effect change, protect The Biosphere, and help to develop ecologically sustainable societies, we must become far more rigorous and disciplined in our scholarship. We must identify the ecological, socio-economic, political, and educational, imperatives, and focus our attention on them. What do I mean by imperatives? An imperative 'expresses a command' and is 'mandatory'. An ecological imperative is a factor so basic that the ecological system cannot exist without it, or at least it cannot continue in its present state without due action. An economic or political imperative, similarly, would be a factor that is mandatory for the continuation of economic or political order. An educational imperative, then, would be something that is necessary for the effective communication of information and increase in human knowledge and/or understanding of some required action or circumstance. Obviously, one educational imperative for the Campaign is that it must focus on ecological, socio-economic, and political, imperatives. By doing so its messages will contain new information— information based on up-to-date facts; information that goes beyond the obvious, beyond the showy; information that has social, economic, and political, import; information that could effect changes in the way we perceive The Biosphere, and consequently changes in the way we manage our lives and 'do business'. In New Delhi and at Lake Louise we asked workshop participants to identify and define ecological, socio-economic, political, and educational, imperatives. In both workshops—workshops held on opposite sides of the world, one in a developed country, the other in a country that is still developing—participants treated the ecological problems as 'given': 'We already understand the problems; let's get on with creating strategies for social change.' Yet the fatal flaw is still there. We still think we have all the information which we need, and that all we have to do now is to figure out how to package it and identify the power-structure to aim at as our audience. Yes, the flaw is still there, but it was weakened a bit in New Delhi and at Lake Louise, as we are now asking rigorous questions. If we continue to do so, we will soon learn that we do not yet adequately understand ecological impera- tives, and from there it ought to be possible to move forward. The following should be our strategy—at once global, regional, and local: 1. Recognize that we don't have all the answers and that better information could lead to more compelling educational materials and programmes than are currently in operation. 2. Focus on the basics and hence on imperatives—the underlying factors that maintain social and ecological systems. If we can protect these, many of the other problems will be taken care of in the process. 3. Act locally: Educational materials and programmes must be generated in the particular area where they are to be used. They must be society- and culture-specific. 4. Think globally: There must be a global network for the exchange of information and ideas. There must also be opportunities for direct interaction between persons from different parts of the world, because we are human beings with experiences and ideas and feelings that go beyond our written words. We are, moreover, gregarious beings, needing to touch one another, for only in that way can we truly understand and communicate fully. 291 Environmental Conservation, Vol. 11, No. 4, Winter 1984—© 1984 The Foundation for Environmental Conservation—Printed in Switzerland. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892900014624 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:12, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892900014624 https://www.cambridge.org/core 292 Environmental Conservation At Lake Louise, there were calls again for a Global Strategy for Environmental Education. But I submit that we now have such a strategy: It is in place and has already begun functioning. Unlike other global strategies, this is a 'grassroots' or 'bottom-up- wards' strategy. It is a network—a network of professional education societies and individuals who are committed to rigour in their relentless quest for knowledge. It is also a strategy for developing ecologically sustainable societies. It is the International Society For Environmental Education and its sister organization the World Council For The Biosphere. C R A I G B . D A V I S , Secretary-General of WCB-ISEE Director, School of Natural Resources The Ohio State University 2021 Coffey Road Columbus Ohio 43210 USA. EDITORIAL Violence Deplored: Substitute Due Respect for Life and The Biosphere The World Council For The Biosphere (WCB) and its complementary 'twin sister' the International Society For EnvironmentalEducation (ISEE) are effectively placed in their proper, action-engendering context by WCB-ISEE Secretary-General Craig B. Davis in the preceding Guest Editorial and by WCB Councillor Lynton K. Caldwell in his pivotal paper of this issue. WCB and ISEE are at once leading offshoots and active adopters of our World Campaign for The Biosphere, on which enough has already appeared in these columns. At the same time WCB and ISEE—which are especially featured in the four following contributions and elsewhere in this issue of our Journal—are auguries of another need (some would call it an imperative, if our world is to survive), namely peaceful co-existence rather than violent confrontation. In advancing the concept of Our Biosphere as a harbinger of 'peace for all Mankind', we should re-emphasize the four basic truths that we, Mankind, being specimens of Homo sapiens of whatever kind, colour, denomination, or dimensions: (1) are an integral part of The Biosphere to which we now collectively contribute a major portion of its biomass while controlling very much more, (2) that The Biosphere is an integrated whole which can be jeopardized only at the greatest possible risk, (3) that Mankind and Nature are utterly dependent on The Biosphere's health and productivity for the wherewithal of life and that of future gen- erations, but (4) that we are threatening this only life-support more and more gravely with our ever-increasing numbers and de- mophoric impact. The main threats we have also detailed more than once in these columns or elsewhere, and in many cases spell out again in the next-following paper. But have we made enough of the waves of violence and terrorism which shock the world so frequently nowadays that we risk getting accustomed to them and even complacently apathetic about them? That seems to be a concomitant danger which must be faced, even as we deplore violence and plead for due respect for life and property. Yet what are the origins of this widespread violence and why does it seem to get worse and worse? We have pondered on various possible explanations and come back to our usual basic one of 'too many people'. However, the increases in lawlessness seem to have been far more rapid of late than increases in human population or even its pressures (demophora) alone, and have involved countries in which the population is stable or even decreasing. Consequently another explanation must be sought, and we believe the media—especially television—are gravely to blame. If one looks at almost any television show on either side of the Atlantic or often further afield nowadays, one will risk being confronted by all manner of violence or sheer nastiness—to the extent that such horrors will inevitably in time seem to be a normal way of life or at least a facet of modern life. That being so, especially the possessors of impressionable young minds will regrettably be apt to go out and perpetrate what they may have thus been moulded into regarding as 'the normal way of life', however pervertedly debauched or actually criminal it may be. Numerous instances have indeed been reported of such emulation, with perpetrators often admitting that they had got their ideas or even guidance from television, cinema, or the press—sometimes for quite heinous crimes, including planned murder (see, for example, the horrifying account in Reader's Digest, January 1983, pp. 49-53). This deplorably dangerous situation surely needs remedying, and could well be remedied, by suitable laws and their proper enforcement. Instead of these horrors we would foster due respect for life, and due reverence for the solidly good things which it can offer.To be sure, it is easy to say that from our vantage-point of relatively good fortune; but circumstances have not always been easy, and latterly it has become increasingly difficult to maintain a multiplicity of joblets of which editing this Journal is only one. Yet we feel that the afore-mentioned concept of Our Biosphere as a harbinger of peace (as it can certainly be of prosperity if given a proper chance) can be of great spiritual solace and even practical help. In terms of the ethics of human individuality cum interdependence: if all farmers, landowners, foresters, horticulturists, aqua- culturists, and others responsible for the healthful maintenance of however small an area of our planet, would come to view it also as an integral and hence important part of The Biosphere, they would be the more likely to look after it as diligent stewards— whereupon, we believe, there would be less inclination to strife and violence of all kinds, including the waging of wars. Such con- cern should be felt and expressed with quasi-religious fervour and, with due reverence for life, could take the place of more or- thodox religions and traditional disciplines whose widespread erosion is another sad feature of our techno-scientific age. . N.P. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892900014624 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. 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work_t4al4kwsgnfthgjbtvrr7a3guq	----	American Journal of Educational Research, 2015, Vol. 3, No. 8, 1052-1056 Available online at http://pubs.sciepub.com/education/3/8/17 © Science and Education Publishing DOI:10.12691/education-3-8-17 A Study on Individuals’ Art Preferences according to Their Personality Traits via Computer-Aided Web Site Recep ÖZ1, Ahmet Ragıp ÖZPOLAT2, Orhan TAŞKESEN3,* 1Computer Teaching Education, Erzincan University, Erzincan, Turkey 2Psychological Counseling, Erzincan University, Erzincan, Turkey 3Art Teaching Education, Erzincan University, Erzincan, Turkey *Corresponding author: ahmetozpolat@hotmail.com Received July 14, 2015; Revised July 30, 2015; Accepted August 07, 2015 Abstract Aim of this study is to examine the relationship between individuals’ art preferences and personality traits. In this study where relational scanning model was used, 336 students of a university, which has total 28.000 students, make up the research group. Students in the research group are from different classes and demographic traits. Five-factor personality scale, a computer-aided art preferences survey that includes 24 visuals from the arts of Renaissance, Cubism, Abstract Art, Traditional Art, Impressionism and Surrealism and personal information form were used to obtain the research data. According to results it was found that people with the personality traits of extroversion and openness to experience mostly prefer surrealist works and those with personality traits of tender- mindedness usually prefer Impressionist work of art. Keywords: personality, art preferences, openness to experience, big five model Cite This Article: Recep ÖZ, Ahmet Ragıp ÖZPOLAT, and Orhan TAŞKESEN, “A Study on Individuals’ Art Preferences according to Their Personality Traits via Computer-Aided Web Site.” American Journal of Educational Research, vol. 3, no. 8 (2015): 1052-1056. doi: 10.12691/education-3-8-17. 1. Introduction Art is one of the many activities (playing sports, having picnic or going fishing etc) that we prefer to do so that we can move away from discipline-required daily works and relations. Many people are involved in arts to get rid of the tiredness in their life. Some people take painting, music, marbling, calligraphy and dance lessons from hobby courses while some others are more passive and only prefer to follow artistic activities as they are shy or could not find enough time. The importance and priority of art to a person can vary. While some people want to be informed from the artistic activities, they spend time and money for them, some others are only interested in an artistic activity when they come across and they do not spend money for it. However, some people regard going to galleries, learning about artists, following the hobby courses and the date of concerts or theatres are loss of time. Apart from those who does not let art be involved in their life, people who are slightly interested in art vary according to their art preferences. Whether the preferences, of which motto is “there is no accounting for tastes”, are related to art education, art history, parenting education and personality beside the art experience or not is one of the big questions for every field. For example, those who prefer square shapes are prim, hard-working and logical but sometimes they may make wrong decisions. On the other hand, those who like circle shapes are good communicators, agreeable and sympathetic personalities [1]. 2. Art preferences and Characteristics of Personality In this sense, it can be stated that individuals’ art preferences are related to their personality structure. However, psychologists usually ignore individuals’ interest in art [2]. In this sense, whether individuals’ tendencies to works, which are separated from each other according to style, function and sense of art, are related to individuals’ personality or not is an important question. In this field of study the researches which were done abroad are important. Conservatism, openness, schizotype, tolerance to uncertainty and especially a various type of personality factors that search for sense were studied [3]. Specific studies which would shed light on especially the relation between art and personality were carried out, too [3,4,5,6]. It was found in Wilison, Ausman and Mathews’s studies (1973) that liberals mostly prefer more complex and abstract paintings on the other hand, conservatives do not like mixed representative and mixed abstract paintings and they prefer simple representative ones. In Furnham and Avison’s studies (1997) the relation between the preference of surreal painting and personality was examined. According to findings of this study the relation between the preference of surreal painting and the dimension of five factors personality was not very strong. The findings supported other studies showing the relation between art preferences and personality, also they showed 1053 American Journal of Educational Research that some personality traits could be related to especially preference of surreal painting. In McManus and Furnham’s study (2006) it was concluded that aesthetic activities have strong relations specially with the personality functions of openness, adaptability and responsibility. In a study carried out by Premuzic et al. (2009) 91.692 individuals’ personal differences in their artistic preferences were examined and it was found that art preferences were consistent with personality and openness to experience -a personality trait- had the strongest relation. According to Premuzic et al. (2009) together with the wide acceptance of one of the personality theories named five factor -sometimes called “Big Five”- it would be easier to compare the findings of different studies for the determiners of personal differences in art preferences. According to theory of five factors personality, personal differences which are not clinical can be classified as five personality factors [2] Studies in which the relations between the five factors personality and art were examined were not too old. There are some studies [7], [8], [9], [10] which deal with the relations between artistic concepts and personality. However, in these studies the question about individuals’ art preferences and whether their personality structures affect these preferences or not is not dealt with sufficiently. In fact, the answer of the question “how is the relation between individuals’ personality structure, their art preference and artistic interests” is of great importance. In this study, answers for the following questions were searched in order to examine the individuals’ personality structure and their art preference; 1. Is there a relation between personality types of individuals and their art preferences? 2. Do individuals’ personality types differentiate according to their art preferences. 3. Method Relational scanning model was used in this study. Scanning is an approach that aims to describe a situation, an event, an individual, a society or an object in their own conditions which remain in the past or still exist [11]. 3.1. Sample and Procedure In this study, which deals with university students’ personality types and art preferences, research group consist of 336 students and 150 (44%) of them takes fine art education and 186 (66%) of them are from other departments. In the scope of study 205 (% 55.1 ) male and 131 (% 44.9) female total 400 students were reached with convenience sample method. Age of the participants is as such; 312 (%92.2) of them are between 18-25 age range and 24 (% 7.8) of them are older than 26. Students in the study group were announced to enter a ready-prepared web-based survey system. The students who voluntarily enter the web site were given feedback about their art preferences, types of personality and artistic interests when they fully completed the form. The server PC Sun Fire X2200 with quad-core and AMD Opteron processor was preferred and used as the infrastructure of the web- site in which the scales were applied. Also it has 16 gb Ram memory and 2 hard disks (Raid) that can record the date simultaneously. In addition, there are four 10/100 / 1000BASE-T Gigabit Network Connections (Ethernet port), 1 DVD burner (DVD-RW), a total of 4 USB 2.0 ports (2 on the front panel, 2 on the back panel), and on the main board are located a 2D / 3D graphic card, and a serial RS232 port. CentOS 6.5 operating system of RedHat Company, free for personal use, is used as a server operating system. Apache Server version 2.2.29 is used for web services on the server. MySqL 5.5 version is used as a database which is both easy and free for use. The coding of the survey is entirely done by us using the php (Php 5.5) programming language. 3.2. Data Collection Instrument In this study the data is collected through Adjective- based Personality Tests and 24 visual(Guernica/Pablo Picasso,Pêras, Camille Monet and a child the Artist’s garden in Argenteuil /Claude Monet,The Blind Leading /Pieter Bruegel, Court of mahmud of ghazni/ Hadi Tajvidi, Dessin Arithmétique IV./ Theo van Doesburg, Bottle and Wine Glass on a Table/Pablo Picasso, La Mod’ele Rouge/Rene Magritte, Onions/Pierre Auguste Renoir, Christ before Pontus Pilate/Hieronymus Bosch,Vav/Erol Akyavaş, Compossition/Wassily Kandinsky, Compossition/ Georges Braque, Geopolitius Child/ Salvador Dali, Mola/ Van Gogh, The Martyrdom of Saint Catherine/Lucas Cranach the Elder, Falcon/ from a Moraqqa Giclee, whispering Wall/ Burhan Doğançay, Violin and Playing Cards/Juan Gris, African Sonata/ Vlademir Kusch, Le Boulevard de Montmartre/ Camille Pissaro, Hunters in the Snow/ Pieter Bruegel, Ebru-Tulips /Alparslan Babaoğlu, Composition/ Ferruh Başağa) and individual information forms developed and classified by experts according to the art movements within the framework of literature. 3.3. Adjective-based Personality Test Adjective-based Personality Test was developed by Bacanlı, İlhan and Aslan (2007). Factor analysis and similar scale validity methods were utilized in order to test the validity of the developed scale. In the factor analysis which was conducted to test the validity of the scale, 40 adjective pairs which can evaluate the five different personality traits (Neurotic personality, Extraversion, Openness, Agreableness, Consciuostness.) were determined. The resulting data showed 52.6% of the five- factor personality variance. Sociotropy Scale, Conflict- Response Scale, Negative-Positive Emotion Scale, and constant Anxiety Inventory were used to test the external validity of the developed scale. Expected results were obtained through these comparisons. The obtained results proved the validity of the current scale. Also at the end of the reliability analysis of the scale, Cronbach alpha coefficient is found to be for sub scale of Neurotic Personality .73, Extraversion .89, Openness .80, Agreeableness .87, Conscientiousness .88 [12]. Individuals’ Art Preferences Scale: In the framework of literature, a computer-aided art preferences survey which covers 24 visual species of the art genres such as Renaissance, Cubism, Abstract Art, Traditional Art, Impressionism and Surrealism was applied. According to the survey, 4 paintings with high representing power were chosen from each of these 6 art movements. To give brief American Journal of Educational Research 1054 information about the chosen painting movements; Renaissance today is adopted as the period that started the classical European Art. Until the 15th century the symbolic world view of the Middle Age was dominant over Europe. There was an abstract and debate closed system of thought. This was naturally reflected in the art. Besides Painting and Architecture, "Perfect Form", "Balance", "Balanced Proportions" and "Elegance" were also valid in the 15th century Sculpture [13,14]. According to San [15] in response to the perfect and ideal image of the Renaissance, the contemporary art movements of the 20th century such as cubism, structuralism and constructivism are the movements that deal with a number of abstract forms and qualities which cannot be separated from substance and its form. In these types of art, intuition also has a big role as well as mind. With regard to the rates and links, there are no external goal orientations except the expression of artist’s own inner harmony and intuition except some substantial items such as mass, contour, color and tones. Dysfunctional abstract paintings deal with pure and absolute forms. Impressionism is an art movement that takes capturing the light and colour of the object as a goal and takes care of saving the light and colour of the nature rather than representing it. Emerged and observed first as a painting movement and later as a music movement in France in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, and aimed to enroll the world completely in light and colour effect terms, impressionism handled the reality using a rather different method from realism and naturalism. Taking the reality and epistemological process as an individual phenomenon rather than regarding them universal distinguishes them from other art movements influenced by scientific developments [16]. The basic category that determines the abstract art is geometry and it displays a specific order. Painting is a surface covered with form, texture and colour which are combined together in a specific order. Making the art of painting geometrical and fixing it on a geometric structure means a move away of the art from the interest of living [17]. Surrealism is an art vision based on the data of the science of mental illnesses particularly the psychoanalysis which began and developed with the Viennese psychiatrist Sigmund Freud. Until that time all the schools were established through seeking expression opportunities about the relations between objects. Surrealism was doing the same thing in another way: through self approach, through human spirit, through unconscious way of world. According to Surrealism, human being comprehends the outside world with his emotions but his perception of the outside world is not an expression of the concrete reality. People unconsciously re-establish that world inside themselves. The mission of the surrealist art is to express that inner world and clear up the subconscious. This can be achieved not through thinking logically, but on the contrary, through taking madness into consideration, dreaming, and observing the mental patients' ways of thinking [18]. “When the dynamic nature of modernity and modern social institutions are considered, security is literally the opposite of inertia here. On the other hand, in traditional cultures, the time that Levi-Strauss calls as 'reversible time' which corresponds to continuous renewal of the temporal uniformity and similarity is conducted through repetition method; namely the past is a way of organizing of the future.” [19] 24 paintings which relate to those 6 stylistically, spiritually and sensually different art movements are presented to students' liking. The paintings are graded between 1 and 5 depending on the appreciation of the students. Personal Information Form: Demographic Individual Info Forms are used. Table 1. Is there any relationship between the personality and art preferences? AP NP EX OP AG CO AP Pearson Correlation 1 ,083 -,096* -,111* ,047 -,033 Sig. (2-tailed) ,082 ,044 ,020 ,322 ,493 N 336 336 336 336 336 336 *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). Table 2. Do individuals’ personality types differentiate according to their art preferences? Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Neurotic Personality Between Groups 2019,178 5 403,836 1,284 ,270 Within Groups 137176,505 331 314,625 Total 139195,683 336 Extraversion, Between Groups 4193,009 5 838,602 2,916 ,013* Within Groups 125376,204 331 287,560 Total 129569,213 336 Openness Between Groups 3726,377 5 745,275 3,293 ,006* Within Groups 98687,969 331 226,349 Total 102414,346 336 Agreeableness Between Groups 1261,347 5 252,269 1,025 ,402 Within Groups 107326,809 331 246,162 Total 108588,156 336 Conscientiousness Between Groups 2043,918 5 408,784 1,533 ,178 Within Groups 116266,308 331 266,666 Total 118310,226 336 *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). 1055 American Journal of Educational Research 3.4. Data Analysis A pearson correlation analysis is applied to find an answer to the question that whether there was any relationship between the personality -the first sub-question of the research- and art preferences. The results are remarked in Table 1. When Table 1 is examined it is observed that there is a low level of correlation between subscales of Personality Type Scales and individual art preferences. It is inferred that there is a correlation of.-11 between individuals' art preferences and their openness to experience, and a .-9 correlation between their art preferences and outwardness. A one-way variance analysis is applied to find an answer to the question that whether the personality types differ according to individual art preferences -the second subquestion of the research-, and the results are remarked in Table 2. Table 2 shows us that the personality types differentiate depending on the individual art preferences. When the F value of the extroverted individuals has differentiated significantly at the rate of 2,91 ,p<.05, the F value of the individuals who are open to experience has differentiated significantly at the rate of 3,29 ,p<.05. LSD tests are performed to have a look at the source of this difference. The results are given in Table 3. Table 3. Findings concerning the differences of art preferences according to individual personality types Dependent Variable SignificantDifference (I-J) Standard error Significance 2,80855 ,076 3,00 6,44670* 2,04577 ,002 4,00 2,53877 3,48541 ,467 5,00 7,45063* 2,69238 ,006 6,00 4,62872 3,89757 ,236 Openness 2,00 1,00 3,24514 2,49176 ,193 3,00 5,85095* 1,81502 ,001 4,00 ,04514 3,09228 ,988 5,00 7,08292* 2,38870 ,003 6,00 4,91815 3,45795 ,156 *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). 1 (Cubism) 2 (Surrealism) 3(Impressionism) 4(Northern Renaissance) 5(Traditional Art) 6(Abstract Art) When Table 3 is examined it is observed that the extroverted individuals have higher scores of surrealism than impressionism and traditional art. At the same time, the individuals who are open to experience also have higher scores of surrealism than impressionism and traditional art. 4. Discussion According to findings obtained from the study, there is a correlation –even if it is low- between individual’s art preference and personality. In Funham and Avison’s study [3], the relation between the preference of surreal painting and five factors personality was not so strong either. However, individuals’ personality structure affects their art preferences. When the literature is generally taken into consideration, it is seen that although the correlations between the personality and art preferences are not statistically very high, individuals make their preference according to this characteristic of their personality structure. In Dellinger’ study [1] it is stated that there is a relation between individuals’ personality types and their preference of shapes. A work of art can be regarded as a composition of shapes; therefore, this study matches up with Dellinger’s. It can be indicated that individuals who are open to experience and extroverted, like more liberal and different experiences and they make effort to gain different experience. In this sense, these individuals are liberalist. In their study Wilson, Ausman and Matthews [4] stated that liberals preferred more complex and abstract paintings. Premuzic et al. [19] found that younger and extroverted personalities mostly prefer cubism; however, agreeable and responsible personalities mostly make impressionist preferences. Also, in this study it was stressed that individuals, who are open to change, have higher imagination, need for cognition and divergent thinking, they prefer untraditionally, low authoritarian regime and liberal behaviours. Furthermore, these individuals are more compatible with the concepts of untraditional and modern abstract arts. In our study, it was also found that individuals who are extroverted and open to experience mostly prefer surrealist paintings and they are not very interested in impressionist and traditional paintings. According to Wilson, Ausman and Matthews [4] conservative people mostly prefer traditional art however, liberals mostly like more cubic and abstract paintings. Findings obtained from our study support the other studies done in this issue. Also, according to Per and Beyoglu [10] students of fine arts department usually have extroverted personality. The students who attend fine arts department in Turkey are more extroverted individuals given that they are selected with reference to interests and talents. As the 44% of the sample in this study is comprised of the students of fine arts department, it can be said that the interests and art preferences of the individuals who are extroverted and open to the experience show surrealist tendencies. In the study carried out by Furnham and Crump [20] in which the personality traits of the students of science and art department such as abstraction, openness to experience, geniality and conscientious responsibility were compared, it was deduced that scores of geniality, sensitivity, abstraction and openness to development of the art department students were higher than the scores of science department students while they got lower scores in conscientious responsibility and perfectionism. Moreover, according to Alkan et al. [7] extraversion and openness to experience influence the relationships of the individuals positively. It is believed that extroverted personality traits American Journal of Educational Research 1056 preclude the individuals from being egocentric and help them relate with the others. 5. Conclusion As a result, the relationship between personality types and art preferences of individuals is obvious. The one results of the study, open experienced and social persons show more interest in Sürrealizm emphasis on the subconscious and abstract works that emphasize ideas as shown in the literature. But unlike this, It is a consequence in research that the persons who are lower openness to experienced and social show orientation to the external world is reflected in pictures as impressionism and traditional arts.In addition, the extroverted personality types of abstract art known for its warmth and sensitivity in social relationships and showing interest in the surrealist work.The high levels of responsibility and perfectionism conscientious people prefer the traditional arts. So it shows that our country is an indication that similar results with studies in other countries about the relationship between personality types and art preferences. 6. Future Investigations The study may be lacking some qualitative data in the context of findings. The relationship between the preferred paintings and personality types of the individuals could only be evaluated in terms of quantitative data. This method does not allow us to comprehend to what the individuals pay more attention while choosing paintings and what they think or how they feel about painting. Mixed patterns which include a combination of quantitative and qualitative data can be suggested for the next studies to be done in literature. On the other hand, personality types and art trends of the students from various fields of art education can be compared. At the same time, the influence of the art education of the individuals on human relations and communication, and life satisfaction can be searched. Also, the relationship between the preferences of geometric shapes and personality types of the individuals can be investigated. References [1] Dellinger, S., 2009. Favorıte Shape Reveals Personalıty, http://weeklyworldnews.com/headlines/14008/favorite-shape- reveals-personality/ adresinden 30.05.2015 tarihinde ulaşılmıştır. [2] Premuzic, M., ve Beyoğlu, A. (2011). Personality Types of Students Who Study at the Departments of Numeric, Verbal and Fine Arts in Education Faculties. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 12, 242-247. [3] Furnham, A., Avison, M. (1997) Personality and preference for surreal paintings. Personality and Individual Differences. 23(6). 923-935. [4] Wilson, G. D., Ausman, J., Matthews, T. R. (1973). Conservatism and art preferences.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 25, 286-288. [5] McManus, I., Furnham, A. (2006). Aesthetic activities and aesthetic attitudes: Influences of education, background and personality on interest and involvement in the arts. British Journal of Psychoiogy, 97, SS5-587. [6] Furnham , A., Batey, M., Booth T.,W., Patel V., Lozinskaya, D., (2011), Individual difference predictors of creativity in Art and Science Students, Thinking Skills and Creativity 6, 114-121 [7] Alkan, S., Ordulu, M.Z., Sezer, Y., Soyer, E., Aslan, D., & Sayek, İ. (2007) Is there a correlation between extroversion personality characteristics of medical students and awareness of works of art? Turk, J. Med. Sci, 37(5), 311-317. [8] Erdal,B., (2009). Müzik Tercihi ve Kişilik İlişkisi. C.Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt: 35, Sayı: 2, 188-196. [9] Taşkesen, O.(2014). Developing interest in art scale and determining the relation between personality type of teacher candidates and their interest in art. Educational Research and Reviwers. 9(8). 216-226. [10] Per, M., & Beyoğlu, A. (2011). Personality types of students who study at the departments of numeric, verbal and fine arts in education faculties. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 12, 242-247. [11] Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics. Sage. [12] Bacanlı, H., İlhan, T., & Aslan, S. (2009). Beş faktör kuramına dayalı bir kişilik ölçeğinin geliştirilmesi: sıfatlara dayalı kişilik testi (SDKT). Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 7(2), 261-279. [13] Arda, Z., Şahin, H., Büyükkol, S. (2013). İlkçağdan Modernizme; Bilim, Sanat Ve Felsefe Buluşmaları, Eğitim ve Öğretim Araştırmaları Dergisi, Cilt:2 /3 [14] Rawlings, D., Barrantes i Vidal, N., & Furnham, A. (2000). Personality and aesthetic preference in Spain and England: Two studies relating sensation seeking and openness to experience to liking for paintings and music. European Journal of Personality, 14(6), 553-576. [15] San, İ. ( 1985 ), Sanat ve Eğitim, Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Yayınları, No: 151, Ankara, Türkiye. [16] Özkan, D. (2012) Empresyonizm, Sinema Ve Bergsoncu Zaman Kavramı: Zaman Ve Mekân Algılarının Dönüşümü. The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies International Journal of Social Science. 5 /5, 247-268 [17] Sezer, C.(2008) Soyut Resimde Yüzeyin Çizgisel Düzenlemesine Yönelik Analizler Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 9(1). [18] Güvemli, Zahir (2005). Sanat Tarihi. İstanbul: Varlık Yayınları. [19] Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Reimers, S., Hsu, A., & Ahmetoğlu, G. (2009). Who art thou? Personality predictorsof artistic preferencesin a large UK sample: The importance of openness. British Journal of psychology, 100, 501-516. 25. [20] Furnham, A., Crump, J. (2013) The Sensitive, İmaginative, Articulate art Student and Conservative, Cool, Numerate Science Student: İndividual Differences in Art and Sciences Students. Learning and İndividual Differences. 25. 150-155. 
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work_tb2ltibzlngnhmch6m6fki4dru	----	Dealignment, realignment and generational differences in The Netherlands Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=fwep20 West European Politics ISSN: 0140-2382 (Print) 1743-9655 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/fwep20 Dealignment, realignment and generational differences in The Netherlands Wouter van der Brug & Roderik Rekker To cite this article: Wouter van der Brug & Roderik Rekker (2021) Dealignment, realignment and generational differences in The Netherlands, West European Politics, 44:4, 776-801, DOI: 10.1080/01402382.2020.1774203 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2020.1774203 © 2020 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. View supplementary material Published online: 17 Jun 2020. 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Although many scholars study this question, they have not paid much attention to the role of generational replacement. This ‘age-period-cohort’ (APC) study fills this void by examining the last 10 national elections in the Netherlands (1986–2017). The hypothesis is tested that the determinants of party choice differ systematically across generations. With regard to period effects, it is found that the association between party preference and its predictors has mainly weakened. Over generations, contrar- ily no decreasing associations are found. The effects of religion, social class, partisanship, left–right and redistribution have not structurally decreased with each successive generation, whereas the effects of education, immigration and European unification are stronger for younger generations. Taken together, these findings reveal how dealignment over time can co-exist with realignment over generations. KEYWORDS Political socialisation; generations; realignment; dealignment; party system change It is a well-established fact among social scientists that ‘generational replacement is one of the main driving forces behind social and political change’ (Hooghe 2004: 331). The reason is that most people develop pat- terns of behaviour, basic values and attitudes during their late adolescence and young adulthood, which is roughly between age 15 and 23. During these so-called ‘formative years’ people are politically socialized. As people grow older, they slowly ‘get set in their ways’ (e.g. Franklin 2004). Attitudes and patterns of behaviour then become less likely to change as CONTACT Wouter van der Brug w.vanderbrug@uva.nl Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at: https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382. 2020.1774203. � 2020 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial- NoDerivatives License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, and is not altered, transformed, or built upon in any way. WEST EUROPEAN POLITICS 2021, VOL. 44, NO. 4, 776–801 https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2020.1774203 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1080/01402382.2020.1774203&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2021-01-06 https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2020.1774203 https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2020.1774203 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2020.1774203 http://www.tandfonline.com a result of new developments. To the extent that attitudes and behaviours are indeed stable, social change occurs largely as a result of older genera- tions being gradually replaced by younger ones, who are socialized in differ- ent historical periods. The insight that generations may systematically differ from each other as a result of the different periods in which they were socialized has inspired much electoral research, focusing on turnout in elec- tions (e.g. Blais et al. 2004; Dinas 2012; Franklin 2004; Grasso et al. 2019; Lyons and Alexander 2000) and on party choice (Andersen 1976; Goerres 2008; Jennings and Markus 1984; Tilley and Evans 2014). However, hardly any research has been conducted on generational differences in the determi- nants of party choice (see Van der Brug and Franklin 2018). Our study fills this void, by a study of the Dutch case (1986 until 2017). Doing so is of the utmost importance to describe and understand the nature of electoral realignment and dealignment in the Netherlands (and beyond). Realignment was defined by Dalton et al. (1984: 13) as ‘a signifi- cant shift in the group bases of party coalitions, and usually in the distri- bution of popular support among the parties as a result’. While the emphasis on group bases is clearly in line with much of the earlies litera- ture on realignment, more recent studies have broadened the concept to also include shifts in other long-term bases of electoral support, most not- ably ideological predispositions and values (e.g. Kriesi et al. 2008). We follow this way of looking at realignment and define it as a significant shift in the impact of long-term predictors of the vote. Realignment hap- pens when some long-term and stable determinants of the vote are losing their ability to create stable connections between parties and voters, and are being replaced by other stable factors that connect (groups of) voters to parties. Dealignment on the other hand means that the stable and long-term factors that used to be important as determinants of party choice (such as, social class, religion or left–right ideology) have lost their relevance and are not being replaced by other stable long-term predictors. This could mean that short-term determinants of the vote become more important, or that party preferences become less predictable. Since proc- esses of realignment and dealignment refer to the effect of long-term determinants of the vote, these are the focus of our study. The American literature on dealignment has focused mostly on the decline of the number of people who identify with a political party. Comparative scholars have focused mainly on the decline of religious and class voting; a process that is visible across Western Europe in the last quarter of the 20th Century (e.g. Franklin 1992). More recently, several scholars have argued that Western European party systems have realigned, as a consequence of globalization of world markets, European integration and mass migration (e.g. Kriesi et al. 2008). As a consequence of this WEST EUROPEAN POLITICS 777 realignment, party preferences would be based more than in the past on levels of education (e.g. Kriesi et al. 2008; Stubager 2010, 2013), and on ‘new cultural values’ that are reflected in attitudes towards European uni- fication and towards immigration (e.g. Bornschier 2010; Hutter 2014; Kriesi 2010; Van der Brug and Van Spanje 2009). Our argument is that one cannot study such long-term processes without taking into account generational differences. If political socialization plays a role in determin- ing how people choose, we should be seeing new patterns of party choice particularly among the youngest generations. If there is realignment, we should see that the party preferences of the youngest generation is mostly determined by factors related to new lines of conflict (e.g. levels of educa- tion, attitudes towards immigration and European unification). If there is dealignment, long-term predictors of the vote could still be important in determining the party choice of older generations, but not of the younger generations. So, the guiding hypothesis of our study is that electoral changes occur mostly among the youngest generations. If this is indeed the case, processes of realignment or dealignment would only become (fully) visible when younger generations have replaced older ones (whose party preferences are still structured be older cleavages). It basically means we can only observe the first stages of a process that is likely to have an increasing impact over time. To the extent that this is the case, studies that ignore these generational differences would seriously underestimate the changes that are taking place. This is why it is important to study these generational differences. When studying the role of political socialisation in electoral change, a simple comparison between generations is not sufficient. It is conceivable that young people show fewer signs of voter–party alignment than older people as a result of their age, rather than as a result of differences in the period when they were politically socialized. Voter–party alignment could become stronger with age, so that such differences might be the result of life-cycle effects, rather than generational (cohort) effects. Moreover, since the political agenda changes over time, different considerations could become more important for all generations and age groups. So, even though we are theoretically mostly interested in period and cohort effects, we can only properly model these by simultaneously considering all three components of change: Age, Period and Cohort (APC). Testing APC- models poses a challenge. Because of the collinearity of age, period, and birth cohort (year of the survey – age ¼ year of birth), APC-models can only be tested by introducing some restrictions. We will discuss the tech- nicalities in the methods section below. Here we simply wish to stress that, as far as we are aware, our study is the first APC-model that focuses on the determinants of party choice. 778 W. VAN DER BRUG AND R. REKKER By merging the Dutch Parliamentary Election Studies since 1986, we study patterns in party choice for a sufficiently long period of time to dis- tinguish the effects of age, period, and generation. Our study provides evi- dence for all three effects. In terms of generations, we find the largest differences between the oldest generation that was socialized during the heydays of ‘pillarization’ and the other generations. But we also find that left–right is most important for the generation that was socialized in the 1970s and 1980s. Moreover, European integration and levels of education are more important for younger generations than for older ones. We also find over-time changes that affect all generations, in particular a gradual decline in the effect of left–right. Finally, we find evidence for age effects. Redistribution of incomes is most important for those who are in the life phase when people are working. Left–right becomes more important as people age, until they reach their late 20s. So, we see evidence of both early adulthood socialization, but also of learning and adaptation later in life. Our study extends the knowledge of electoral changes in three ways. First, while it is well-established that generational replacement is ‘an engine of change’, hardly any research exists on generational differences in the determinants of party choice (Van der Brug and Franklin 2018). Second, the few existing studies on generational differences in the deter- minants of party choice are either cross-sectional (e.g. Wagner and Kritzinger 2012; Walczak et al. 2012), or they are otherwise limited in scope, as will be discussed below (e.g. Maggini 2016; Van der Brug 2010; Van der Eijk et al. 2005). None of these studies contain models which simultaneously estimate 1) stable differences between generations, 2) life- cycle effects, and 3) period effects. Third, by assessing the generational differences in determinants of party choice, we contribute to the literature on realignment and dealignment. On the one hand, we see strong pat- terns of dealignment, as the effect of many long-term predictors of the vote declines in strength among all generations and age groups. On the other hand, we also find evidence of realignment along new conflicts. The fact that there are clear generational differences in the effect of European integration and education, supports the claim of those who argued that Western European societies are realigning along a new cultural cleavage. It suggests that we are only seeing the beginning of this process of realignment, as these factors are likely to become more important when younger generations gradually replace older ones. The structure of the paper is as follows. We first provide a brief over- view of existing research on political socialization and on generational dif- ferences in electoral behaviour. We then discuss changes in the Dutch party system and the consequences thereof for different birth cohorts. We WEST EUROPEAN POLITICS 779 move on to discuss the design of our study, after which we present the results. In a final section we discuss the implications of our findings. Political socialization, cohort and age effects Research on ‘political socialization’ has shown repeatedly that people form their basic values and orientations at a relatively young age. Later in life, when citizens have developed basic values, attitudes, and behavioural habits, these are less likely to change as a result of new developments. People are most likely to be influenced by events that occur before they are ‘set in their ways’ (Franklin 2004), i.e. events that occur during their late adolescence and early adulthood. This phase in life is therefore referred to as ‘the impressionable years’, or ‘formative years’. While schol- ars disagree, for the development of political orientations, the formative years are roughly between 12 and 25. The strongest learning effects take place around the age of 18 (Bartels and Jackman 2014; Rekker et al. 2019; Schuman and Rodgers 2004). Scholars of electoral behaviour have demonstrated that important gen- erational differences exist in political participation, including turnout (e.g. Franklin 2004; Smets and Neundorf 2014), political attitudes and values (e.g. Alwin 1998; Down and Wilson 2013; Inglehart 1977; O’Grady 2019) and party choice (e.g. Dassonneville 2013; Goerres 2008; Tilley and Evans 2014). However, hardly any research exists on generational differences in the determinants of the vote, even though the same processes of political socialization can be expected to operate here. Our guiding hypothesis is that the considerations that motivate people’s party choice during their impressionable years, will continue to be important for their party choice later in life. Our reasons behind this hypothesis follow the logic of political social- ization. When people reach the age when they are allowed to vote, or per- haps a bit earlier, they will learn what the party system in their country looks like. This involves not just the names of the parties and the leaders of those parties. In order to choose between the various parties on offer, a first-time voter will want to understand what the main differences are between those parties. If the party system is structured around cleavages such as social class and religion, voters will learn that parties differ from each other in the representation of groups of citizens distinguished by these cleavages. If the main distinction between parties is in how they position themselves on a left–right dimension, voters will familiarize themselves with this structure of the party system. Their positions on a left–right dimension will then be an important determinant of their party preferences. In view of the overwhelming evidence in support of political 780 W. VAN DER BRUG AND R. REKKER socialization, we expect that the things people learn about the party sys- tem during their ‘impressionable years’ will have a lasting impact on their electoral behaviour later in life. So, voters who learn early in life to vote on the basis of specific social cleavages are expected to keep doing so later in life. People who learn to vote on the basis of left–right are expected to continue to do so later in life, even if the left–right distinction would become less important in party politics. Of course, we do not expect people to stop adapting to changing con- ditions after a certain period in their lives. When new parties enter the stage and/or when new issues are politicized, older generations of voters will adapt to these changing circumstances, at least to some degree. So, societal changes and specific events will exert an effect on all voters, irre- spective of their age or generation. We therefore will have to study period effects. Do certain determinants of party choice exert a stronger or weaker effect on the vote in different elections? This is what most studies of realignment and dealignment do in fact study. However, our main point is that older generations are expected to be less adaptive to these changes than younger ones and that we have to take into account these gener- ational differences. Moreover, studies of socialization need to take into account possible life-cycle effects. As people grow older, other things may become more important and might then exert more weight on people’s vote. We could for instance expect people to start caring more about eco- nomic security as they grow older. While we have no strong hypotheses on these matters, at the very least, these life-cycle effects need to be con- trolled for. Dealignment, realignment, and generations Our study links up to a large research tradition on dealignment. In the US context, dealignment refers mainly to a decline in the number of peo- ple identifying with parties. Party identification (PID) is not a concept that can be exported to European multi-party systems like the Netherlands, particularly because in this context PID is not the stable atti- tude it should theoretically be and because it is partially endogenous to the vote (e.g. Thomassen and Rosema 2009). While we should thus be cautious not to over-interpret the importance of PID in the Netherlands, we will report the results of PID as a predictor of party preferences. A declining relationship between electoral support and PID could be one indicator of dealignment. In Western Europe, research on dealignment emerged in the 1980s and 1990s and focused mainly on the decline of religious and class voting (Franklin 1992). This decline in class and reli- gious voting has also been reported for the Netherlands, albeit that the WEST EUROPEAN POLITICS 781 there is much election specific variation around the trend lines (e.g. Jansen 2011). A decrease in the explanatory power of these factors on the vote could be the result of three types of changes: changes in the distribu- tion of the independent variable (i.e. a decreasing number of religious citizens), changes at the supply side (new parties no longer mobilizing support on social cleavages like class or religion), and thirdly, a decline in the effect of these variables (see also Best 2011; Evans and Tilley 2012). Our empirical strategy is not geared towards disentangling these three. However, they all reflect dealignment as they all reflect a decreasing impact of these long-term predictors on the vote. The few studies that looked at generational differences in the factors determining the vote have confirmed that ‘cleavage voting’, in terms of social class or religion, is most prominent among the oldest cohorts (e.g. Franklin 1992; Maggini 2016; Van der Brug 2010). While this supports our basic expectation that political socialization matters for the mechanisms that drive party choice, these studies did not distinguish between generational and life-cycle effects. It is theoretically possible that, as people grow older, socio-struc- tural factors become more important factors in their party choice. The observed differences between cohorts could thus reflect life-cycle effects, rather than generational differences. Given the existing evidence, we would expect to find support for dealignment, by testing these two gener- ally formulated hypotheses: H1: The effects of long-term determinants of party preferences become weaker over time across all generations and age groups. H2: After controlling for age and period effects, long-term determinants of the vote have a weaker effect on party preferences among younger generations than among older ones. We also know very little about the extent to which generational differ- ences contribute to patterns of realignment. Several scholars have argued that with the decline of cleavages, electoral behaviour became increasingly structured by left–right in the 1970s and 1980s (e.g. Fuchs and Klingemann 1990; Van der Eijk and Franklin 1996; Van der Eijk et al. 2005). So, we would expect the effect of left–right to become stronger around that period in most Western European countries. However, most of these countries do not have election studies going back far enough in time to systematically analyse whether left–right positions have indeed become more important predictors of party choice in those decades. However, more recent election studies enable us to compare between dif- ferent generations. Van der Brug (2010) showed that ideological left–right distances were most important in determining the voting behaviour of the generations that were politically socialized in the 1970s and 1980s, roughly in the years between the decline of cleavages and the fall of the 782 W. VAN DER BRUG AND R. REKKER Berlin Wall. Van der Eijk et al. (2005) also distinguish between birth cohorts, but they do not find clear differences between generations in the effect of left–right on party choice. This later finding may, however, result from a classification of birth cohorts is not theoretically informed. If dif- ferent circumstances during the formative years lead to different patterns of party choice later in life, the classification of generations need to be based on information about the context in which different generations were socialized. In any case, both studies have not controlled for life-cycle effects, which makes the results of both studies still somewhat preliminary. More recent fundamental changes to European party systems are con- nected to the politicization of issues such as immigration, European unifi- cation, and environmental protection. According to several scholars these changes result from large scale socio-economic changes in post-industrial societies, which are often summarized under the general term ‘globalization’. According to the ‘realignment’ perspective, these develop- ments gave rise to a new socio-cultural political ‘cleavage’, which divides the ‘losers and winners of globalization’ (e.g. Kriesi et al. 2008). The ‘winners’ are people who benefit from the opportunities of open borders. They tend to favour further European integration, as they think that the most important problems of our time, such as global warming, require international collaboration. Moreover, they do not feel threatened by immigrants. The ‘losers’ on the other hand, are those who feel threatened both economically and culturally by the consequences of open borders, and who therefore oppose European integration and migration (e.g. Hooghe and Marks 2018). The increased relevance of issues of European integration, migration, and environmental protection has provided the opportunity for new parties to enter the party system, in particular popu- list radical right and green parties, which in turn have contributed to the further politicization of these issues (e.g. Rooduijn et al. 2016). While most scholars would probably agree that issues like immigration and European unification have become more politicized, so that their impact on vote choice has increased, we know little about generational differences in the effect of these issues on party choice. We expect social- ization during the impressionable years to remain important later in life, so that older generations vote on the basis of considerations that were important when they were young. The implication is that patterns of realignment should be most visible among the youngest generations of voters. So, we would expect ‘socio-cultural’ issues to be particularly important determinants of party choice among the generation of voters that was politically socialized in a period when these issues were politi- cized. Moreover, if there is a new cleavage between higher educated WEST EUROPEAN POLITICS 783 winners and lower educated losers of globalization (e.g. Bovens and Wille 2017; Hooghe and Marks 2018; Kriesi et al. 2008), we expect levels of education to be more clearly reflected in voting patterns of younger gen- erations than older ones. Given the existing evidence, we would expect to find support for realignment, by testing these two generally formu- lated hypotheses: H3: Over time, aspects related mostly to the ‘new cultural cleavage’ (levels of education, attitudes toward immigration, and European unification) are increasingly affecting party preferences across all generations and age groups. H4: After controlling for age and period effects, aspects related mostly to the ‘new cultural cleavage’ have a stronger effect on party preferences of younger generations than those of older ones. We found three studies that asked the question whether socio-cultural issues exerted a stronger effect among younger than among older genera- tions. Two of these use cross-sectional data to compare the strength of different predictors of party choice between generations (Wagner and Kritzinger 2012; Walczak et al. 2012). The third study combines cross-sec- tional studies from four different election years (Gougou and Mayer 2013), which does not enable the authors to distinguish between age, period, and cohort effects. All three studies show that socio-cultural issues are most prominent determinants of party preferences among the youngest gener- ation. However, the failure to distinguish between the life-cycle and cohort effects is problematic. The finding that older cohorts base their party choice more on socio-economic issues than younger cohorts may be the result of the fact that these issues were more politicized when they were in their impressionable years (a generational effect), or it could be the result of the fact that these issues become more important later in life (a life-cycle effect). So, in order to obtain a clear view of patterns of realignment, we wish to disentangle the contribution of age, period, and cohort. The Dutch party system and birth cohorts In the previous sections we developed the idea that people are socialized at a relatively young age into voting on the basis of considerations that are relevant during their impressionable years. This is a general theoret- ical idea that can be expected to apply across different countries. However, the specific predictions of this theoretical model will be context dependent. To have been politically socialized in the early 1970s in France will have different consequences than having been socialized in the same years in Czechoslovakia (under communist rule) or in Greece or Spain (under far-right military regimes). So, in order to specify what 784 W. VAN DER BRUG AND R. REKKER differences we would expect to observe between generations, we need to discuss some basic facts about the developments in the Dutch party sys- tem and the salience of various political issues. Until the mid-1960s the Netherlands was a clear example of a country with a frozen party system (Lipset and Rokkan 1967). The ‘pillarized’ Dutch party system was structured around two cleavages, religion and class, and election outcomes were very stable. The general election of 1967 was the first one in which the two largest governmental parties (the labour party PvdA and the Catholics peoples party KVP) both lost a ser- ious number of seats and a new liberal party D66 entered Parliament with 7 seats, which was unprecedented. During the second half of the 1960s there were many protests, for instance against the Vietnam war, and occupations of university buildings by students who demanded dem- ocratisation. The 1960s also mark a beginning of the secularisation of Dutch society, resulting in a rapid loss in electoral support for the three Dutch Christian parties (KVP, ARP, and CHU), that merged into the CDA in the late 1970s. In the 1970s the Dutch labour party began a strat- egy of ‘polarization’ (in left–right terms), in an unsuccessful attempt to be more attractive for Catholic workers (e.g. Van Praag 1991). Throughout the 1970s and most of the 1980s, left- and right-wing parties were highly divided on matters of redistribution, the government’s budget deficit, and the size of the public sector. So, it seems plausible to argue that genera- tions of voters who had the first opportunity to cast a vote in the turbu- lent elections of 1967, were confronted with a different party system and different patterns of party choice than generations thereafter. The polarization between parties in terms of left and right lasted until the second half of the 1980s. After the elections of 1986 the Labour party changed its leadership and under the new party leader Wim Kok, the party positioned itself at a more moderate position. The first time the party ran a more moderate campaign was in 1989, which was in the same year as the fall of the Berlin Wall. After these elections the labour party entered a new coalition that did not end prematurely. This had not happened since 1956. In the 1990s, a coalition government between social democrats (PvdA), lib- erals (D66), and conservative liberals (VVD) executed a large program of privatization of the public sector, as a result of which economic issues were very much de-politicized. In a way, one could perhaps argue that party pol- itics in the Netherlands was quite de-politicized in general, and that there were very few really contentious issues. So, the generation that was politic- ally socialized after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 was socialized in a different context than the generation that was socialized before. In the 1990s the issue of immigration was sometimes debated, but it never became a very central issue on the political agenda. This changed WEST EUROPEAN POLITICS 785 after the attacks on the Twin Towers in September 2001, when Pim Fortuyn entered Dutch politics and strongly emphasized this issue in his campaign. Fortuyn was murdered just 9 days before the elections, but his party, the LPF, received 17 percent of the votes, making it the second largest Dutch party at that moment. Even though the party soon lost sup- port, mainly as a result of internal conflicts, the issue of immigration retained its prominence in Dutch politics, particularly as a result of the activities of Geert Wilders and the party which he founded in 2004, the PVV. Wilders’ most important theme is immigration, and the threat asso- ciated with the Islam in particular. Yet, he also campaigned against the European Union and the Euro. Partially as a result of these activities, European integration has become a more prominent issue in Dutch polit- ics in the 2000s. Since socio-cultural issues (particularly immigration and European integration) became highly contentious in Dutch politics since the elections of 2002, we expect there to be important differences between generations of voters who were politically socialized before 2002 and those who were socialized after that. To summarize, based on the changes in Dutch post-WW II politics, we can theoretically distinguish four different periods: � until 1967: cleavage politics � 1967–1989: polarization in left–right terms � 1989–2002: de-politicization � 2002–present: politicization of issues related to globalisation We realize that this way of classifying historical periods is somewhat stylized and that in reality the changes from one historical period to the next occurs gradually. Someone who was socialized in the late 1980s was already confronted with a less polarized party system than someone who was socialized in the mid-1970s. However, a more fine-grained classifica- tion of historical periods will lead to too much reduction of power to esti- mate the effects, particularly since we need to distinguish between generations, life-cycle, and period effects. Yet, to the extent that experien- ces in the impressionable years determine patterns of party choice later in life, we should be able to pick up those differences with this distinction between generations. Data and design We estimate generational differences, life-cycle effects, and over-time changes in the predictors of party choice on the basis of ten Dutch Parliamentary Elections Studies of 1986, 1989, 1994, 1998, 2002, 2003, 786 W. VAN DER BRUG AND R. REKKER 2006, 2010, 2012, and 2017. These contain questions regarding issues that were asked repeatedly over time (see Online Appendix 1 for a full over- view of items). One of the major challenges of such a study is that the dependent variable party choice is a different nominal variable at each election. New parties arise, old parties disappear or merge. So, this vari- able does not lend itself to an over-time comparison. Therefore, we decided to employ a different dependent variable, which is derived from a battery of items in which respondents are asked to indicate for each of the relevant parties ‘how likely is it that you will ever vote for party A, party B, etc.’. These ‘propensity to vote’ (PTV) questions are designed to measure current electoral preferences for parties and they are suitable for analysing the causal mechanisms generating party choice (for more details, see van der Eijk et al. 2006). In order to analyse these PTV-questions we generated a ‘stacked’ data matrix in which the records represent respondent�party combinations in long notation. This raises the obvious problem how to define meaningful independent variables. Respondents’ attitudes towards immigration will have a positive effect on support for some parties and a negative effect on support for other parties. When including these variables in the stacked data matrix, these effects would even each other out, so that we would wrongly conclude that these attitudes have no effect on party preferences. The solution to this problem is to estimate linear regressions for each party separately, before constructing the stacked matrix. The resulting predicted scores of these regressions, or y-hats, are saved and used as the new independent variables. These y-hats are simply linear transformations of the original independent variables, scaled according to the dependent variable, i.e. the ten-point vote propensity variables. Therefore, they are useful for the analysis of the stacked data matrix since they are compar- able across parties and countries. To deal with the fact that some parties have a larger average PTV than others, we first centred the propensity to vote score for each party around its year-specific mean. For each survey year, we additionally standardized all scores on y-hats and PTV’s on the entire stacked data matrix. This step was necessary because the y-hat method would otherwise lead to an effect of exactly 1 and an intercept of 0 for every issue in every year. By standardizing the scores, the effects however reflect standardized effects in every year that can be compared across periods. To adjust for the cluster- ing within respondents, we conducted all analyses with cluster-robust standard errors that accounted for clustering within both respondents and survey years. In order to capture the potentially non-linear effect of positions on issues or ideological scales for some parties, we estimated the y-hats by WEST EUROPEAN POLITICS 787 means of a set of dummy variables derived from these scales. In the case of religion, we predicted the y-hats on the basis of dummy variables that distinguish different denominations, as well as by citizens’ church attend- ance. The y-hats for social class and for education were created by regressing the centred probability to vote variables over a set of dummy variables that represent respectively different social class categories and different educational categories. This procedure was carried out in the same way for each of the predictors of party preferences. Because age, period and cohort have a perfect multicollinearity (i.e. age ¼ period – cohort), APC-models are not identified unless certain con- straints are imposed. In this study, we disentangled age, period, and cohort effects by imposing a theoretically informed functional form on our regression models (Kritzer 1983). This means that age was specified based on life phases: late adolescence (18–21), early adulthood (22–29), middle adulthood (30–65), and late adulthood (65þ). Likewise, cohorts were specified as theoretically informed generations. While the impres- sionable years are between 12 and 25, the peak in ‘political learning’ is at 18, as discussed above. Also, we defined four historical periods in the pre- vious section. We therefore define generations by the historical period in which the respondent turned 18: in other words, whether someone turned 18 before 1967, between 1967 and 1988, between 1989 and 2001, or between 2002 and 2017 (the most recent election study). By imposing such constraints on the functional form of age and cohort, we could esti- mate period effects freely. An overview of the variation in age, period, and cohort is displayed in Online Appendix 2. The standard errors of all analyses were adjusted for clustering within respondents (and survey years) due to the stacked data matrix. Indeed, we are not interested in the direct effects of age, period, and generations on party choice. We want to know whether the effects of pre- dictors of party choice differ across generations, periods, and age groups. So, we will test interaction effects between each predictor of party choice on the one hand and on the other hand the dummy variables for periods, age groups, and generations. Since there are ten election years, four age groups, and four generations, these are distinguished by 9 þ 3 þ 3 ¼ 15 dummy variables. So, for each predictor of party choice, we have to esti- mate its main effect and 15 interaction effects. Obviously, this places very high constraints upon our models. If we had wanted to include control variables, we would have to estimate the same 15 interactions for each control and this is not feasible. Therefore, we estimate our effects without control variables. As a consequence, we may be overestimating the effects of the different predictors of party choice somewhat. However, we are not so much interested in estimating these effects per se, but to assess how 788 W. VAN DER BRUG AND R. REKKER they vary over time, and between age groups and generations. Since period, age, and generation are by nature exogenous, we would only be drawing the wrong conclusion if the overestimation would be systematic- ally different at different moments in time or between different groups of citizens. Of course, the large number of dummy variables in every model also comes with a risk of finding significant effects just by chance (e.g. Type 1 errors). To account for this, we first performed an F-test to deter- mine the joint significance of all dummy variables for respectively age, period, and cohort. We only interpreted significant effects of individual dummy variables if this F-test revealed a significant p-value. Giger and Hug (2016) argued that the two-stage procedure involving y-hats might introduce biases in the estimated coefficients for other varia- bles (Giger and Hug 2016). By including only a single y-hat variable in each model, we could avoid this potential hazard of the research design. While our decision to restrict our analyses to one predictor at the time was borne out of statistical necessity, our results are in in line with the idea of alignment. Alignment is mainly a correlational phenomenon: ‘to what extent are parties tied to certain groups of voters?’. Generations may for example be socialized into supporting parties that match their issues attitudes during their formative years, but young citizens reversely also adopt the issue positions of their preferred party (e.g. Campbell et al. 1960; Rekker et al. 2017). Both causal directions are equally in line with the principle of alignment. Results We tested our models for eight predictors of party choice, three socio- structural variables, partisanship, and four policy scales. The three socio- structural variables are religion, social class, and education. Religion and social class represent the ‘traditional cleavages’, while according to many scholars education is crucial to the ‘new political cleavage’ between win- ners and losers of globalization. Party ID is included, because a decline in the effect of party ID would indicate a process of dealignment. The four policy scales are left–right, the issue of income differences, the issue of immigration, and the issue of European integration. The socio-structural variables, left–right self-placement and the issue of income differences are included in all Dutch election studies that also include the PTV’s ques- tions. The other two issues have been included since 1994. The results are presented in Table 1 below, and they provide evidence for the effects of all three elements of the age, period and cohort (APC)-models. Before going into the details, it is worth noting that there are few age effects. We observe negative coefficients for the late adolescents on all WEST EUROPEAN POLITICS 789 Ta b le 1. Re su lt s of re g re ss io n m od el s. M ai n ef fe ct s of ag e, p er io d an d co h or t ar e om it te d fr om th e ta b le . Re lig io n So ci al C la ss Ed uc at io n Pa rt is an sh ip Le ft -R ig h t Re d is tr ib ut io n Im m ig ra ti on Eu ro p e V ar ia b le 0. 34 (0 .0 2) �� � 0. 22 (0 .0 2) �� � 0. 17 (0 .0 1) �� � 0. 37 (0 .0 1) �� � 0. 52 (0 .0 1) �� � 0. 39 (0 .0 2) �� � 0. 17 (0 .0 2) �� � 0. 08 (0 .0 2) �� � Va ria bl e� Co ho rt (r ef ¼ Be fo re 19 67 ) 18 Be tw ee n 19 67 an d 19 89 0. 03 (0 .0 1) � �0 .0 3 (0 .0 1) �� 0. 01 (0 .0 1) �0 .0 1 (0 .0 0) 0. 03 (0 .0 1) �� � 0. 00 (0 .0 1) 0. 08 (0 .0 1) �� � 0. 03 (0 .0 1) �� 18 Be tw ee n 19 89 an d 20 00 0. 04 (0 .0 2) � �0 .0 3 (0 .0 1) 0. 04 (0 .0 2) � �0 .0 1 (0 .0 1) 0. 01 (0 .0 1) �0 .0 1 (0 .0 2) 0. 10 (0 .0 2) �� � 0. 05 (0 .0 2) �� 18 In 20 01 or la te r 0. 04 (0 .0 2) 0. 01 (0 .0 2) 0. 06 (0 .0 2) � 0. 01 (0 .0 1) 0. 00 (0 .0 2) 0. 01 (0 .0 2) 0. 10 (0 .0 3) �� � 0. 07 (0 .0 3) �� Jo in t p- va lu e .0 79 .0 02 .0 42 .0 08 < .0 01 .7 65 < .0 01 .0 15 V ar ia b le � A g e (r ef ¼ M id d le ad ul ts ) La te ad ol es ce n ts (1 8- 21 ) �0 .0 3 (0 .0 2) �0 .0 6 (0 .0 2) �� �0 .0 8 (0 .0 2) �� � �0 .0 3 (0 .0 1) �� � �0 .0 5 (0 .0 2) �� �0 .0 4 (0 .0 2) � �0 .0 3 (0 .0 2) �0 .0 1 (0 .0 3) Ea rl y ad ul ts (2 2- 29 ) �0 .0 3 (0 .0 1) �0 .0 2 (0 .0 1) �0 .0 1 (0 .0 1) �0 .0 2 (0 .0 1) �� � �0 .0 2 (0 .0 1) �0 .0 1 (0 .0 1) �0 .0 1 (0 .0 2) �0 .0 1 (0 .0 2) La te ad ul ts (6 5- 96 ) 0. 02 (0 .0 1) �0 .0 0 (0 .0 1) �0 .0 0 (0 .0 1) 0. 02 (0 .0 1) �� � �0 .0 1 (0 .0 1) �0 .0 7 (0 .0 1) �� � �0 .0 0 (0 .0 1) 0. 01 (0 .0 1) Jo in t p- va lu e .1 89 .0 22 .0 08 < .0 01 .0 13 < .0 01 .5 66 .8 16 Va ria bl e� Pe rio d (r ef ¼ 19 86 /1 99 4) 19 89 0. 02 (0 .0 2) �0 .0 1 (0 .0 2) �0 .0 1 (0 .0 2) �0 .0 6 (0 .0 1) �� � �0 .0 5 (0 .0 2) �� � �0 .0 8 (0 .0 2) �� � 19 94 �0 .0 1 (0 .0 2) �0 .0 6 (0 .0 2) �� � �0 .0 4 (0 .0 2) � �0 .0 6 (0 .0 1) �� � �0 .1 3 (0 .0 2) �� � �0 .1 1 (0 .0 2) �� � 19 98 0. 01 (0 .0 2) �0 .0 7 (0 .0 2) �� � 0. 00 (0 .0 2) �0 .0 9 (0 .0 1) �� � �0 .1 6 (0 .0 2) �� � �0 .1 4 (0 .0 2) �� � �0 .0 3 (0 .0 2) 0. 01 (0 .0 2) 20 02 0. 08 (0 .0 2) �� � �0 .0 8 (0 .0 2) �� � 0. 01 (0 .0 2) �0 .1 0 (0 .0 1) �� � �0 .0 7 (0 .0 1) �� � �0 .1 5 (0 .0 2) �� � 0. 07 (0 .0 2) �� � 0. 04 (0 .0 2) � 20 03 �0 .0 5 (0 .0 2) � �0 .0 6 (0 .0 2) �� �0 .0 1 (0 .0 2) �0 .0 3 (0 .0 1) � �0 .1 0 (0 .0 2) �� � 0. 06 (0 .0 2) �� � 0. 05 (0 .0 2) �� 20 06 �0 .0 4 (0 .0 2) � �0 .0 4 (0 .0 2) � �0 .0 5 (0 .0 2) �� � �0 .0 5 (0 .0 1) �� � �0 .1 0 (0 .0 1) �� � �0 .1 3 (0 .0 2) �� � �0 .0 2 (0 .0 2) 0. 01 (0 .0 2) 20 10 �0 .0 6 (0 .0 2) �� �0 .0 3 (0 .0 2) �0 .0 2 (0 .0 2) �0 .0 8 (0 .0 1) �� � �0 .1 2 (0 .0 1) �� � �0 .1 5 (0 .0 2) �� � 0. 04 (0 .0 2) � 0. 07 (0 .0 2) �� � 20 12 �0 .0 5 (0 .0 2) �� �0 .0 3 (0 .0 2) �0 .0 2 (0 .0 2) �0 .1 1 (0 .0 1) �� � �0 .1 3 (0 .0 2) �� � �0 .1 5 (0 .0 2) �� � �0 .0 1 (0 .0 2) 0. 07 (0 .0 2) �� � 20 17 �0 .1 0 (0 .0 2) �� � �0 .0 3 (0 .0 2) �0 .0 1 (0 .0 2) �0 .1 8 (0 .0 1) �� � �0 .1 8 (0 .0 2) �� � �0 .1 1 (0 .0 2) �� � 0. 00 (0 .0 2) 0. 11 (0 .0 2) �� � Jo in t p- va lu e < .0 01 < .0 01 < .0 01 < .0 01 < .0 01 < .0 01 < .0 01 < .0 01 M od el Re sp on d en ts 15 ,1 16 15 ,5 12 15 ,4 08 14 ,6 60 16 ,4 00 16 ,9 16 15 ,3 66 13 ,5 72 O b se rv at io n s 14 5, 04 9 14 8, 78 4 14 8, 18 6 14 7, 38 8 16 2, 58 0 16 6, 93 4 14 6, 45 9 13 0, 47 6 R2 11 .4 % 3. 4% 3. 3% 10 .4 % 19 .7 % 7. 6% 6. 9% 3. 5% 790 W. VAN DER BRUG AND R. REKKER predictors of party support. Five of these are statistically significant. This is indicative of a learning effect. At the age of 18 to 21, voters are still learning how their political attitudes and social positions can be related to party preferences. Beyond that age, few differences can be seen in the way people of different age groups relate their social positions and attitudes to their party preferences. A notable exception is partisanship, which becomes more strongly related to party choice as people grow older. This finding is much in line with Dinas (2014), who finds a similar pattern, which he explains by ‘habit formation’. Also, we find an age effect for the issue of income differences, which will be discussed below. The period and cohort effects require a more detailed discussion, to which we now turn. All age, period, and cohort differences are depicted in Figure 1 (socio-structural variables and partisanship) and Figure 2 (left–right self- placement and issue attitudes). Of the three socio-structural variables in our model, religious affilia- tions clearly have the strongest effect on party preferences. While there is a downward trend across time in the effect of religion, this variable had a stronger effect on party support in 2002, the year of the rise of the list Pim Fortuyn. This overall downward trend is in line with the expectation that religion has become a less important determinant of party choice in the Netherlands. However, we did not find the expected generational decline in the role of religion. An F-test revealed no significant gener- ational differences in the association between religion and party choice. In the past 30 years, social class has not been a strong predictor of party choice in the Netherlands. It is slightly more important for the old- est generation than for later generations, except for the youngest gener- ation for whom subjective social class is as important as it is for their grandparents. When looking at the over-time trends, we see that subject- ive social class has become less important over time, but that this trend has not continued. Actually, across different generations and age groups, there is no significant difference in the effect of social class in 1986 and 2019. Given the low percentage of explained variance, one could argue that the dealignment of the class cleavage had already taken place before 1986. Yet, we do not find evidence for a further dealignment over the past three decades. Moving to the third and final socio-structural predictor of party prefer- ences, education, the generational differences are in line with the realign- ment perspective. The effect of education becomes increasingly strong with each subsequent generation. There is no noticeable over-time trend within generations. Yet, as younger generations replace older ones, the effect of education on party preferences is likely to increase. Given the low R2 for education, we should not exaggerate the extent to which WEST EUROPEAN POLITICS 791 education structures party choice, but it certainly is more important for younger generations than for the older ones. Partisanship is the only predictor of party choice that becomes more important as people age. This is in line with findings of Dinas (2014), who interprets this as indicative of habit formation. Yet, it is interesting to see that there is also a significant difference between the group of mid- dle adults (30 to 64) and the oldest age group (65 and older). So even later in life, partisanship becomes more aligned with the actual vote. Generations do not differ in the effect of partisanship, but over time its importance decreases substantially across generations and age groups. This is indicative of dealignment. Having discussed the findings for the socio-structural predictors, we now move to political attitudes. Left–right remains to be the strongest predictor of party choice in the Netherlands. As expected, the effect of Figure 1. Age, period and cohort differences, the association of party preferences with socio-structural variables and partisanship. 792 W. VAN DER BRUG AND R. REKKER left–right is stronger among the generation that was politically socialized in the 1970s and 1980s. Yet, while statistically significant, this difference is quite small. There is also a modest life-cycle effect, which we also observe for the other scales: the effect of left–right is weaker among voters under age 22 than among the older age groups. Also, the effect of left–- right becomes weaker among all generations and age groups over time. Yet the decline in effect is certainly not linear. It is for instance particu- larly strong in 2002 and 2003. When looking at the effect of income differences, we find no evidence of generational effects. Yet, there is a life-cycle effect: the issue carries most weight for people between 22 and 65, roughly the years when one is expected to be active in the labour market. Also, the effect of redistribu- tion is strongest in 1986, after which it weakens somewhat until 1998. Since 1998 the effect is quite stable. Figure 2. Age, period and cohort differences, the association of party preferences with left-right self-placement and issue attitudes. WEST EUROPEAN POLITICS 793 For socio-cultural issues, we contrarily find clear generational effects. However, the generational patterns are different for immigration than for European unification. In the case of immigration, the main difference is between the oldest generation and the other generations. The effect is weakest for the generation that was socialized in the period of cleavage voting. The issue has a stronger effect for all other generations, but the difference between these three generations is not statistically significant. This is not in line with our theoretical expectation, because we had expected this issue to be most important for the generation that was socialized after 2002. There are also differences between the years. The issue of immigration has the strongest effect in 2002, 2003, and 2010. Unexpectedly, however, we find little evidence that the immigration issue has structurally become more important over time. Turning to European unification, we find that the issue has the stron- gest effect for the youngest generation. This is clearly in line with our prediction, as well as with the realignment perspective. This effect is grad- ually weaker for each of the older generations. In addition to that, the issue also becomes more important over time for all generations and age groups. So, as a consequence of the gradual increase in the effect of European integration, in combination with generational replacement, this issue is likely to become increasingly important over time. In order to assess whether the period and generational effects are (par- tially) driven by changes in the party system, we repeated all analyses for the two parties that were most dominant in the 1980s when our analysis starts: PvdA and CDA. These results are displayed in Online Appendix 3. Although both parties showed somewhat different results (as may be expected), the overall patterns for these individual parties is in line with the general pattern presented here. The only substantive difference is that we do not find period or generational effects for education regarding PvdA and CDA. So, the increasing importance of education over time and for new generations partially reflects changes in the party system. Online Appendix 4 finally explores additional contrasts between the sur- vey years by displaying all period effects with alternative reference catego- ries. This does not change the substantive conclusions. Conclusion and discussion As far as we are aware, this is the first study of realignment that disentan- gles the contribution of age, period, and generation to the over-time change in the determinants of party support. Indeed, research has been conducted on differences in party choice between generations, and age groups, particularly in two party systems such as the UK and US (e.g. 794 W. VAN DER BRUG AND R. REKKER Jennings and Markus 1984; Meffert et al. 2001; Tilley and Evans 2014). However, little research exists on generational differences in the predic- tors of party choice. Recent existing studies have demonstrated that socio- cultural issues are more important for younger generations of voters than older ones (Gougou and Mayer 2013; Wagner and Kritzinger 2012; Walczak et al. 2012). However, these studies did not disentangle life-cycle and generational differences. While the present study did indeed provide support for the theoretical expectation that generations differ in the consid- erations they use to evaluate parties, we found different patterns for differ- ent issues and for left–right. Moreover, we find evidence for the effects of all three components of APC-models: age, period, and cohort effects. Of the three components of the APC-model, age (or life-cycle) is the least important for patterns of party choice. The most important pattern is that all predictors exert a slightly weaker effect among the youngest age group than among older ones. Five of the eight interactions are also stat- istically significant. Apparently, it takes some voters a while to figure out how their attitudes and socio-structural positions might be linked to their party preferences. Also, young voters may need some time to understand and internalize the meaning of left and right and relate these to their party choice. Only in the case of partisanship did we find a gradual increase in the effect on party choice as people age (see also Dinas 2014; Van der Brug and Franklin 2018). We also found some interesting age differences for the effect of the issue of income differences. This issue matters the most for the two age groups who are in the life phase in which they are expected to work. In principle, this is an interesting result, which makes sense. Yet, given the fact that we had no clear hypotheses on these age differences and since we are the first to estimate them, we want to be cautious in not drawing strong conclusions until these results have been replicated in other countries. Turning to generational and period effects, the results for education and those for the issue of European unification were clearly in line with the idea that a realignment is taking place. Across different generations and age groups, the issue of European unification has gradually become increasingly important for party choice (a period effect), as predicted by H3. Also, the issue is more important for younger generations than for older ones, in line with H4. This latter is also the case for education. So, in combination, this suggests that generational replacement fuels the increasing importance of education and European unification for party choice. We had expected that social class and religion would be most relevant for voters who were politically socialized in the years of ‘frozen’ cleavages. However, we do not find support for this expectation. Religion has become less important for party choice across all generations (H1), but religion does WEST EUROPEAN POLITICS 795 not have the strongest effect for the oldest generation, as we had expected (H2). Also in the case of subjective social class, we do not find the strongest effect for the oldest generation. One explanation could be that the Dutch party system has changed over the past three decades. People who were pol- itically socialized before the elections of 1967, learned their way around a party system that has been almost entirely overhauled. Of the 13 parties that are currently represented in the Dutch parliament, only three were repre- sented in that same parliament before 1967 (the VVD, PvdA, and SGP). So, if social class and religion are important for these voters as determinants of party choice, they would have to know how each of these newly entered parties represent social groups. A more stable party system may be needed to find such stable effects of social cleavages. Left–right turns out to exert the strongest effect among the generation that was politically socialized in the 1970s and 1980s. This is in line with expectations as well as previous findings (Van der Brug 2010). Moreover, across all generations and age groups, left–right has become less import- ant in structuring the vote. The effect of left–right is not decreasing in a linear manner, however. The effect of left–right was actually particularly strong in 2002 and 2003; the years when Dutch party politics was in tur- moil as a result of the entry of the List Pim Fortuyn (LPF) to parliament and the politicization of the immigration issue. This may be explained by the fact that left–right had already become strongly correlated with atti- tudes towards immigration by this time (e.g. De Vries et al. 2013). Rekker (2016) shows that there are generational difference in how citizens inter- pret left and right. For the younger citizens it is more closely correlated with the immigration issue, while traditional socio-cultural issues (i.e. secularism and civil liberties) are more important for older generations. This might partially explain why we find that left–right is also a strong predictor of party support among younger generations. We also find generational differences in the effects of the immigration issue. This issue has become a more important driver of party choice for younger generations, although only the oldest generation differs sharply from other generations. Surprisingly, the issue of immigration does not have a gradually increasing impact on the vote over the years. Rather, the effect is already quite substantial in 1994 and then becomes temporarily more important in elections that were characterized by the breakthrough of anti-immigration parties, such as the rise of the List Pim Fortuyn in 2002 and 2003 or the success of Geert Wilders’ PVV in 2010. The issue is an important predictor of party choice for most generations, but it has not become more important since the 1990s. Another unexpected finding is that the issue of income differences is equally important for different generations. While its effect has become 796 W. VAN DER BRUG AND R. REKKER less important for all generations since 1986 (in line with H1), we find no significant differences between generations (H2). The lack of generational differences for economic issues may also be linked to findings from ado- lescent research that economic attitudes develop at a later age than socio- cultural orientations and remain more open to change (Rekker et al. 2015). By 2017, the last year included in our data, the issues of income differences and immigration exert an almost equally strong effect of the vote for most generations, except the oldest one. If we summarize the evidence, we find that the effects of the strongest predictors of party choice, partisanship, left–right, religion, and the issue of income differences, have become weaker over time for all generations. This suggests dealignment. The effects of immigration and education meanwhile have not become stronger over time. Only one the effect of attitudes on European unification on party support have increased. Overall, the changes that take place within generations over time are therefore in line with an image of dealignment between parties and voters. However, the differences that exist between generations are more in line with the idea of realignment. The effects of religion, social class, partisan- ship, left–right, and redistribution have not structurally decreased with each successive generation, whereas the effects of education, immigration, and European unification are stronger for the youngest generations than for the oldest. This raises the final question of whether these results for the Netherlands can be generalized to other countries. The general theoretical idea that the period in which people are socialized will remain to have an impact on how people form their party preferences later in life, should apply in other countries as well. However, the specific predictions regard- ing generational differences would be dependent upon the specific histor- ical circumstances in which different generations of voters were socialized in each country. The party system in the Netherlands changed fundamen- tally in 2002, so we expect differences between those socialized before and after that election year. However, for instance, the biggest change in the Italian party system was in 1994 and in Greece in 2014. The nature of these changes were also very different. So, while the theoretical idea is generalizable, the predictions would be more specific for different genera- tions in different countries. Acknowledgements We are grateful for the constructive criticism of the anonymous reviewers of West European Politics. We also received valuable suggestions when presenting earlier versions of this paper in the workshop on electoral democracy at the WEST EUROPEAN POLITICS 797 ECPR joint sessions in April 2019 in Mons and at the University of Nottingham and the University of Gothenburg. Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. Funding This research was supported by a grant from the Dutch Research Council (NWO). Grant number: VI.Veni.191R.039. Notes on contributors Wouter van der Brug is Professor of Political Science at the University of Amsterdam. His research interests focus on comparative research in collective political behaviour, in particular electoral behaviour, right-wing populism and political parties. [w.vanderbrug@uva.nl] Roderik Rekker is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Amsterdam and at the University of Gothenburg. He is a political scientist and a psychologist. His research interests focus on stability and change in political attitudes across time, generations and the lifespan. [r.s.b.rekker@uva.nl] References Alwin, Duane F. (1998). ‘The Political Impact of the Baby Boom: Are There Persistent Generational Differences in Political Beliefs and Behavior?’, Generations, 22:1, 46–54. Andersen, Kristi (1976). ‘Generation, Partisan Shift, and Realignment: A Glance Back to the New Deal’, in Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba, and John R. Petrocik (eds.), The Changing American Voter. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 74–95. Bartels, Larry M., and Simon Jackman (2014). ‘A Generational Model of Political Learning’, Electoral Studies, 33:1, 7–18. Best, Robin E. (2011). ‘The Declining Electoral Relevance of Traditional Cleavage Groups’, European Political Science Review, 3:2, 279–300. Blais, Andre, Elisabeth Gidengil, Neil Nevitte, and Richard Nadeau (2004). ‘Where Does Turnout Decline Come from?’, European Journal of Political Research, 43:2, 221–36. Bornschier, Simon (2010). ‘The New Cultural Divide and the Two-Dimensional Political Space in Western Europe’, West European Politics, 33:3, 419–44. Bovens, Mark, and Anchrit Wille (2017). Diploma Democracy: The Rise of Political Meritocracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Campbell, Angus, Philip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller, and Donald E. Stokes (1960). The American Voter. New York: Wiley. Dalton, Russell J., Scott C. Flanagan, and Paul A. Beck (1984). Electoral Change in Advanced Industrial Democracies: Realignment or Dealignment? Princeton: Princeton University Press. 798 W. VAN DER BRUG AND R. REKKER Dassonneville, Ruth (2013). ‘Questioning Generational Replacement. An Age, Period and Cohort Analysis of Electoral Volatility in The Netherlands, 1971–2010’, Electoral Studies, 32:1, 37–47. De Vries, Catherine E., Armen Hakhverdian, and Bram Lancee (2013). ‘The Dynamics of Voters’ Left/Right Identification: The Role of Economic and Cultural Attitudes’, Political Science Research and Methods, 1:2, 223–38. Dinas, Elias (2012). ‘The Formation of Voting Habits’, Journal of Elections, Public Opinion & Parties, 22:4, 431–56. Dinas, Elias (2014). ‘Does Choice Bring Loyalty? Electoral Participation and the Development of Party Identification’, American Journal of Political Science, 58: 2, 449–65. Down, Ian, and Carole J. Wilson (2013). ‘A Rising Generation of Europeans? Life-Cycle and Cohort Effects on Support for ‘Europe’’, European Journal of Political Research, 52:4, 431–56. Evans, Geoffrey, and James Tilley (2012). ‘How Parties Shape Class Politics: Explaining the Decline of the Class Basis of Party Support’, British Journal of Political Science, 42:1, 137–61. Franklin, Mark N. (1992). ‘The Decline of Cleavage Politics’, in Mark N. Franklin, Thomas Mackie, and Henry Valen (eds.), Electoral Change: Responses to Evolving Social and Attitudinal Structures in Western Countries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 381–402. Franklin, Mark N. (2004). Voter Turnout and the Dynamics of Electoral Competition in Established Democracies since 1945. New York: Cambridge University Press. Fuchs, Dieter, and Hans-Dieter Klingemann (1990). ‘The Left–Right Schema’, in M. Kent Jennings and Jan van Deth (eds.), Continuities in Political Action: A Longitudinal Study of Political Orientations in three Western Democracies. Berlin: De Gruyter, 203–234. Giger, Nathalie, and Simon Hug (2016). ‘An Error Grave of Consequence. Empirical Models to Study Propensity to Vote for Parties’, Conference paper at ‘European Political Science Association’ (Brussels, June 23–25, 2016). Grasso, Maria T., Stephan Farrall, Emily Gray, E. Colin Hay, and Will Jennings (2019). ‘Thatcher’s Children, Blair’s Babies, Political Socialization and Trickle- down Value Change: An Age, Period and Cohort Analysis’, British Journal of Political Science, 49:1, 17–36. Goerres, Achim (2008). ‘The Grey Vote: Determinants of Older Voters’ Party Choice in Britain and West Germany’, Electoral Studies, 27:2, 285–304. Gougou, Florent, and Nonna Mayer (2013). ‘The Class Basis of Extreme Right Voting in France: Generational Replacement and the Rise of New Cultural Issues (1984–2007)’, in Jens Rydgren (ed.), Class Politics and the Radical Right. London: Routledge, 156–72. Hooghe, Liesbet, and Gary Marks (2018). ‘Cleavage Theory Meets Europe’s Crises: Lipset, Rokkan, and the Transnational Cleavage’, Journal of European Public Policy, 25:1, 109–35. Hooghe, Marc (2004). ‘Political Socialization and the Future of Politics’, Acta Politica, 39:4, 331–41. Hutter, Swen (2014). Protesting Culture and Economics in Western Europe: New Cleavages in Left and Right Politics. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. WEST EUROPEAN POLITICS 799 Inglehart, Ronald (1977). The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Political Styles in Advanced Industrial Society. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Jansen, Giedo (2011). Social Cleavages and Political Choices: Large-Scale Comparisons of Social Class, Religion and Voting Behavior in Western Democracies. Nijmegen: Radboud University Nijmegen. Jennings, M. Kent, and Gregory B. Markus (1984). ‘Partisan Orientations over the Long Haul: Results from the Three-Wave Political Socialization Panel Study’, American Political Science Review, 78:4, 1000–18. Kriesi, Hanspeter (2010). ‘Restructuration of Partisan Politics and the Emergence of a New Cleavage Based on Values’, West European Politics, 33:3, 673–85. Kriesi, Hanspeter, Edgar Grande, Romain Lachat, Martin Dolezal, Simon Bornschier, and Timotheos Frey (2008). West European Politics in the Age of Globalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kritzer, Herbert M. (1983). ‘The Identification Problem in Cohort Analysis’, Political Methodology, 9:1, 35–50. Lipset, Seymour M., and Stein Rokkan (1967). ‘Cleavage Structures, Party Systems and Voter Alignments: An Introduction’, in Seymour M. Lipset, and Stein Rokkan (eds.), Party Systems and Voter Alignments. New York: Free Press, 1–64. Lyons, William, and Robert Alexander (2000). ‘A Tale of Two Electorates: Generational Replacement and the Decline of Voting in Presidential Elections’, The Journal of Politics, 62:4, 1014–34. Maggini, Nicola (2016). Young People’s Voting Behaviour in Europe: A Comparative Perspective. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Meffert, Michael F., Helmuth Norpoth, and Anirudh V. Ruhil (2001). ‘Realignment and Macropartisanship’, American Political Science Review, 95:4, 953–62. O’Grady, Tom (2019). Age Cleavages across European Countries and Issue Dimensions since the 1980s. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/ r8xbg Rekker, Roderik (2016). ‘The Lasting Impact of Adolescence on Left–Right Identification: Cohort Replacement and Intracohort Change in Associations with Issue Attitudes’, Electoral Studies, 44:1, 120–31. Rekker, Roderik, Loes Keijsers, Susan Branje, and Wim Meeus (2015). ‘Political Attitudes in Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: Developmental Changes in Mean Level, Polarization, Rank-Order Stability, and Correlates’, Journal of Adolescence, 41:2, 136–47. Rekker, Roderik, Loes Keijsers, Susan Branje, and Wim Meeus (2017). ‘The Dynamics of Political Identity and Issue Attitudes in Adolescence and Early Adulthood’, Electoral Studies, 46:2, 101–11. Rekker, Roderik, Loes Keijsers, Susan Branje, and Wim Meeus (2019). ‘The Formation of Party Preference in Adolescence and Early Adulthood: How and When Does It Occur in the Multiparty Context of The Netherlands?’, Young, 27:1, 48–68. Rooduijn, Matthijs, Wouter van der Brug, and Sarah M. de Lange (2016). ‘Expressing or Fuelling Discontent? The Relationship between Populist Voting and Political Discontent’, Electoral Studies, 43:1, 32–40. Schuman, Howard, and Willard L. Rodgers (2004). ‘Cohorts, Chronology, and Collective Memories’, Public Opinion Quarterly, 68:2, 217–54. 800 W. VAN DER BRUG AND R. REKKER https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/r8xbg https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/r8xbg Smets, Kaat, and Anja Neundorf (2014). ‘The Hierarchies of Age-Period-Cohort Research: Political Context and the Development of Generational Turnout Patterns’, Electoral Studies, 33:1, 41–27. Stubager, Rune (2010). ‘The Development of the Education Cleavage: Denmark as a Critical Case’, West European Politics, 33:3, 505–33. Stubager, Rune (2013). ‘The Changing Basis of Party Competition: Education, Authoritarian–Libertarian Values and Voting’, Government and Opposition, 48: 3, 372–97. Thomassen, Jacques J. A., and Martin Rosema (2009). ‘Party Identification Revisited’, in John Bartle and Paolo Bellucci (eds.), Political Parties and Partisanship: Social Identity and Individual Attitudes. London: Routledge, 42–59. Tilley, James, and Geoffrey Evans (2014). ‘Ageing and Generational Effects on Vote Choice: Combining Cross-Sectional and Panel Data to Estimate APC Effects’, Electoral Studies, 33:1, 19–51. Van der Brug, Wouter (2010). ‘Structural and Ideological Voting in Age Cohorts’, West European Politics, 33:3, 586–607. Van der Brug, Wouter, and Mark N. Franklin (2018). ‘Generational Replacement: Engine of Electoral Change’, in Justin Fisher, Edward Fieldhouse, Mark Franklin, Rachel Gibson, Marta Cantijoch, and Christopher Wlezien (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Elections, Voting Behavior and Public Opinion. London: Routledge, 429–42. Van der Brug, Wouter, and Joost van Spanje (2009). ‘Immigration, Europe and the ‘New’ Cultural Dimension’, European Journal of Political Research, 48:3, 309–34. Van der Eijk, Cees, and Mark N. Franklin (1996). Choosing Europe? The European Electorate and National Politics in the Face of Union. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Van der Eijk, Cees, Hermann Schmitt, and Tanja Binder (2005). ‘Left–Right Orientations and Party Choice’, in Jacques Thomassen (ed.), The European Voter. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 167–91. Van der Eijk, Cees, Wouter van der Brug, Martin Kroh, and Mark Franklin (2006). ‘Rethinking the Dependent Variable in Electoral Behavior—On the Measurement and Analysis of Utilities’, Electoral Studies, 25:3, 424–47. Van Praag, Philip (1991). Strategie en Illusie: Elf jaar intern debat in de PvdA (1966–1977). Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis. Wagner, Markus, and Sylvia Kritzinger (2012). ‘Ideological Dimensions and Vote Choice: Age Group Differences in Austria’, Electoral Studies, 31:2, 285–96. Walczak, Agnieszka, Wouter van der Brug, and Catherine de Vries (2012). ‘Long- and Short-Term Determinants of Party Preferences: Inter-Generational Differences in Western and East Central Europe’, Electoral Studies, 31:2, 273–84. WEST EUROPEAN POLITICS 801 Abstract Political socialization, cohort and age effects Dealignment, realignment, and generations The Dutch party system and birth cohorts Data and design Results Conclusion and discussion Acknowledgements Disclosure statement References 
work_tbd6p6vhi5fxzbri747dk4jj3e	----	An Gigantic Exhibition on Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) and His Enigmatic Work Has Recently Opened at the Grand Palais in Paris. Its Title is Equally Grand-Scale and Promising: “Gauguin, L’alchimiste” - “The Alchemist” Opinion Volume 3 Issue 1 - March 2018 DOI: 10.19080/GJAA.2018.03.555605 Glob J Arch & Anthropol Copyright © All rights are reserved by Flemming Friborg An Gigantic Exhibition on Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) and His Enigmatic Work Has Recently Opened at the Grand Palais in Paris. Its Title is Equally Grand- Scale and Promising: “Gauguin, L’alchimiste” - “The Alchemist” Flemming Friborg* Department of Arts & Cultural Studies, France, Europe Submission: November 13, 2017; Published: March 26, 2018 *Corresponding author: Flemming Friborg, Dept. of Arts & Cultural Studies France, Europe, Email: Opinion Alchemistis a beautiful and dangerous word. We have come to view alchemy as a magical lore and pseudo-scientific practice, with the one goal of forging gold out of base elements (as basic as water, earth, fire and air) - by chemical, mechanical and/or incantational means craft noble metalout of simple matter. But alchemy is also an early attempt at divining the essence of all things, the whys, hows and wherefores of existence, and in its golden age (sorry) from the late Middle Ages until c. 1700, when it was killed off by the Enlightenment [1], the practitioners of alchemy danced on a razor’s edge somewhere between science and superstition, art and heresy. With a mustering of almost 300 of Gauguin’s works, crossing all media and motifs of his oeuvre, the stage seems set in Paris for a re-evaluation of his art as alchemistic: a quest marked by the flagrant and ruthless use of everything around him, all of it poured into an artistic crucible in order to be transformed into gold. The project “Gauguin as Alchemist” unites the forces of two of the world’s richest Gauguin collections, those of the Art Institute of Chicago and the Paris Musee d’Orsay respectively, and has been underway since 2011. Paris is second venue for once, after a somewhat different version was shown in Chicago from June 25 through September 10. In this blockbuster show visitors to the French capital may wallow in the “complete” Gauguin, and although the exhibition is not the first to review his work in all genres and media (as claimed in the catalogue foreword, and then disclaimed in its very first essay) it may well be the broadest and most sweeping. Ventures of this sort are like comets, they appear but rarely. Last time Gauguin was regaled with attention on this scale was at the National Gallery Washington in 1988. Not long after Gauguin’s early death, some found that one of the artist’s greatest mistakes was that he didn’t pay closer attention to the opinions of the critic Felix Feneon (1861-1941). In January 1888, Feneon wrote a short but succinct review in the periodical La revue independent of what was currently on show at the art dealership of messrs. Boussod, Valadon & Cie. After damning Gauguin’s Impressionist canvases with faint praise, he observed: “(…) these proud paintings would be the acme of mr Paul Gauguin’s work if this grinch of an artist was not first and foremost a potter. He loves the humble, ominous and hard clay; deranged faces, snubnosed, with swollen brows and small, slanted eyes” [2]. The critic had put his finger on the crux of the matter. The by then 40-year old artist had been a late starter, lagging after the main, first-wave Impressionists (Monet, Degas and Pissarro) in both technique and originality. What was worse, he knew so himself. Now, two years after Georges Seurat (1861-91) had shown his Neo-Impressionist works made up of myriad dots (taches) of pure colour and had thus struck a whole new and more ’scientific’ course for painting, Gauguin felt the pressure. Constant change and radical individual originality had become buzzwords of the day, and his paintings were too bland to stand out sufficiently in the crowd of nouvelle peinture artists. Seurat’s work may have been in the positivist spirit of the day, based as it was upon optics and perceptional philosophy, but it was also intensely sensuous - like dreams analytically invoked and arranged in pure colours against each other. Gauguin’s answer was a wild gamble for STYLE above all, a maneouver which was aimed at turning focus away from technical virtuosity. Gauguin was wary of the inherent superficiality of simply representing nature which he felt had lurked in Impressionism from the onset. By November 1888, hedeclares that he will henceforth abstain from the whole game of representational one upmanship. Glob J Arch & Anthropol 3(1): GJAA.MS.ID.555605 (2018) 0018 http://dx.doi.org/10.19080/GJAA.2018.03.555605 How to cite this article: Flemming Friborg. An Gigantic Exhibition on Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) and His Enigmatic Work Has Recently Opened at the Grand Palais in Paris. Its Title is Equally Grand-Scale and Promising: “Gauguin, L’alchimiste” - “The Alchemist”. Glob J Arch & Anthropol. 2018; 3(1): 555605. DOI: 10.19080/GJAA.2018.03.555605 0019 Global Journal of Archaeology & Anthropology In a carefully conceived letter to Dujardin, editor of La revue independante, the same in which Feneon starred, Gauguin responds to an invitation to show his work at the premises: “Having felt for 3 years that my powers as an artist were utterly inadequate for the modern forms of progress introduced among the Impressionist artists, so quickly replaced by the Neo- Impressionists, I decided to work in isolation, without being promoted by any group. My studies made in the tropics are inadequate as precise renderings of nature, and I believe that the Revue Independante would be powerless to give them the brightness and luminosity they lack” [3]. Notwithstanding that Gauguin found the office rooms of the Revue utterly unsuited for his (or anyone’s) paintings, he was also keenly aware that if he exhibited there he would be measured against the most recent exhibition of the latest works by, among others, Paul Signac - fifteen years his junior and already an up-and-coming exponent of Seurat’s new ’optically enhanced’ style [4]. Competition was fierce, and Gauguin was not usually one to shy away from a good fight, but just around this time, he was striking a new course, with his ceramics as the most recent - and perhaps boldest - venture. Here, something decidedly un-Impressionistic was stirring, and this was what piqued Feneon in spite of his obvious dislike of Gauguin as both a person and an artist. But this critic was an exception, and in general, Gauguin’s ceramics were neither understood nor appreciated by his contemporaries. Even now, the ceramic works seem unwieldy - and very, very modern - at first glance. The clay might certainly be viewed as the mirror in which all of Gauguin’s work is, if not reflected, then prismatically refracted. The epithet of the ”humble yet honest” material is idiomatically apt: the strangely distorted shapes and wide formal variety of Gauguin’s ceramics lend themselves perfectly to his ambiguous ambitions - a constant and ever radical trial-and-error search or quest for something raw, primitive and counter-civilisational. Such a focus may well have been the conceptual impetus of this grand-scale exhibition, which in Paris has been boosted by adding even more works to the already impressive bulk of the catalogue.”Gauguin l’alchimiste” is a massive undertaking; having originated, the foreword informs us, simultaneously in Chicago and Paris, the concept was subjected to pooled resources in order for the two institutions not to obstruct each other and to the benefit of the public at both venues. Being too large for the Orsay rooms, it was decided to have Grand Palais host it, as often with blockbuster exhibitions in the French capital. Such is the name of the game, and this fact need not in itself be a problem. But the understandable eagerness to present this ’new’ take on Gauguin has sparked a desire to broaden the sweep, even though this is exactly what the planners insist upon wanting to avoid. The sheer marketing force of this Grand Display seriously risks trumping the conceptual base of the show. That is a shame, because the original concept is really worth exploring. In Paris, the ceramics do feature prominently and in great numbers - but so does everything else in Gauguin’s oeuvre, to an extent which is on the verge of making the exhibition appear inflated rather than a tour de force. It runs the risk of obscuring the boldest elements of the whole venture, the idea of putting the ceramics (along with key graphic works, such as some of the zincographies from the Suite Volpini (1889) and some late Polynesian master-prints) centre stage. The rich ore in these sections of Gauguin’s work is thus not mined deeply enough. But no matter: as there have been other exhibitional and scholarly essays along if not the exact same, then similar lines of enquiry of late, Gauguin research seems set on a promising course. The novel way of thinking about Gauguin as a ”bricoleur” (his own word, by the way), a term which in French implies equal measures of juxtaposing, fusing or forcing disparate elements together to make art, seems practice able. This exhibition and its catalogue strikes that course, and luckily goes as far as including the secondary definition of bricolage as dappling or hackwork - a much-needed breath of irreverence in the review of an artist who frequently and admittedly stole from the work of his peers like a magpie and cared not much. Gauguin’s attitude to the ’sources’ around him is also an area which may never be fully exhausted by scholarship. His use of everything from photos of Javanese temples and dancers, Egyptian or Persian reliefs, to Norwegian drinking vessels, literary texts and tribal lore in his work daunts any researcher by its haphazard jumble and lack of linear progress. The Polynesian adventure 1891-1903 is not even exhausted yet, in spite of numberless exhibitions on this theme. In its frequent and prominent use of the concept ”Maori” as a collective term, the Chicago/Paris catalogue may be on a par with the artist himself, who seldom bothered to check his anthropological facts. He alternately writes “Maori” and “Maohi”, which is less than precise (Maori is usually employed only by the peoples of New Zealand and the Cook Islands to signify themselves, not as a general term for the Polynesian populace). Here, although refreshingly non-PC, it is a little bit like using “Africans” as a common denominator for the entire population of that continent; the use of “Maori” in this way is at best partisanship of a view of Gauguin as a bit of a Western oaf who didn’t know better, but if that’s the point intended it might have been specifically mentioned or explained. Gloria Groom’s fine essay “Avant et Après: All This and All That” (pp.18-25) which initiates the beautifully produced catalogue’s essay section is an overview of some of the most important art historical exploits into Gauguin as an artist and ’savage’ over the past twenty years. The - rather variedly biased - viewpoints pro or con Gauguin as, respectively, a Modern avantgardist hero or a hopelessly unrepentant White Male Colonialist are lined up here, and the endnotes alone may serve as a reliable compass for entering the jungle of Gauguin’s life and work. Another especially readable piece is Allison Perelman’s “The Burning Yellow Atelier” (pp.64-72) which provides a much needed account of the strange and wild chapter of the artists’s http://dx.doi.org/10.19080/GJAA.2018.03.555605 Global Journal of Archaeology & Anthropology How to cite this article: Flemming Friborg. An Gigantic Exhibition on Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) and His Enigmatic Work Has Recently Opened at the Grand Palais in Paris. Its Title is Equally Grand-Scale and Promising: “Gauguin, L’alchimiste” - “The Alchemist”. Glob J Arch & Anthropol. 2018; 3(1): 555605. DOI: 10.19080/GJAA.2018.03.555605 0020 Your next submission with Juniper Publishers will reach you the below assets • Quality Editorial service • Swift Peer Review • Reprints availability • E-prints Service • Manuscript Podcast for convenient understanding • Global attainment for your research • Manuscript accessibility in different formats ( Pdf, E-pub, Full Text, Audio) • Unceasing customer service Track the below URL for one-step submission https://juniperpublishers.com/online-submission.php This work is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License DOI: 10.19080/GJAA.2018.03.555605 life back in Paris from January 1894 to June 1895, between his two Polynesian sojourns; it is the story of his meticulously staged studio-cum-exhibition space in rue Vercingetorix, an idiomatic construct between living space and art installation which Perelman aptly calls Gauguin’s “visual manifesto”. Chrome yellow walls, Tahitian paintings in all the colours of the rainbow, and not least, a flippant entourage starring his 14-year old mistress, Annah la Javanaise and a monkey, set the tone of one of the most outre art spaces before 1900. Such madcap antics bring another Perelman to mind, the humorist S.J. (probably no relation of Ms Perelman here) who wrote for The New Yorker for decades, and his piece in the Nov. 1942 issue, “Beat Me, Post- Impressionist Daddy” - a hilarious take on making Gauguin’s life (and artists’ lives in general) into Holywood movies by blowing up certain saucy details and obscuring others. In several of the catalogue’s (broadly introductory rather than scholarly innovative) texts as well as in the exhibition display, there’s more than a hint of a toppling of the balance between ‘fine art’ and crafts in Gauguin, to the advancement of the latter. A less often used quote dating from 1892 in which Gauguin ponders whether he should in fact have become an “artisan” instead of an “artiste” is brought forward. But this is solidly countermanded by the very artistic appearance and status of his work in general, as well as by his massive ego: “I am a great artist, and I know it.” That characteristically self-assured statement is not let down by this show. After a visit one understands why the story about Gauguin remains a fabulous yarn, a fugue with limitless potential for interpretation. All in all, the Franco-American collaboration is a timely mustering of Gauguin viewed across the entire field of his exploits, and its display of masterworks on loan is impressive. The artist’s unfettered ventures into the very borderline areas of sculpture, painting and design are far from exhausted with this exhibition, but you leave it with gold dust in your eyes. Gauguin’s dream of the ever undecided motif, the sustained conceptual liability of a given work of art and its’ ‘meaning’ is intact. Even though the miracle of alchemy never materialises, the enigma which he seems to have desired is present. At the same time it is hard not to yearn for that really grand format, which seems to have seeped slowly but inevitably out of art now, 100 years post Gauguin and company. Perhaps it is the taste for magic, which draws the present-day visitor, so a piece of advice: order your ticket online, the queue is as long as the Seine. Flemming Friborg (b. 1965), MA in Art History, is Associate Professor at the Dept. of Arts and Cultural Studies at the University of Copenhagen, Denmark. Friborg was Director of the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek 2002-17, and is presently conducting a 3-year research project on Impressionism, financed by the New Carlsberg Fpundation. The project is further supported through The Carlsberg Foundation’s “Semper Ardens” Fellowships within the Humanities and Social Sciences. References 1. (1720) Arguably to be exact. See Wootton, David: The Invention of Science (London 2015) pp. 355. 2. Feneon, Felix, Calendrier de decembre. (1988) Vitrines des marchands de tableaux. In: La revue independente, janvier 1888, p. 170ff (My translation). On Gauguin/Feneon, see Joan U. Halperin’s magisterial ”Felix Feneon. Aesthete & Anarchist in Fin-de-Siècle Paris, Yale Univer- sity Press, USA. 3. Merlhes V (1984) Correspondance de Paul Gauguin (Paris 1984), pp. 294-295. 4. (1888) Iconsider this hole of a place to exhibit could do us harm from every point of view. First: after Signac, Dubois-Pillet, it would mean arriving on the scene like a very young newcomer.” Gauguin, letter to Schuffenecker, pp. 295-296. http://dx.doi.org/10.19080/GJAA.2018.03.555605 https://juniperpublishers.com/online-submission.php http://dx.doi.org/10.19080/GJAA.2018.03.555605 An Gigantic Exhibition on Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) and His Enigmatic Work Has Recently Opened at the Opinion References 
work_tcp4de2pmzburhkwejc6kz7c5q	----	BJI_15_1 1..2BJI_15_1 3..5BJI_15_1 5..8BJI_15_1 8..11BJI_15_1 12..14BJI_15_1 14..16BJI_15_1 17..19BJI_15_1 20..22 SPECIAL PAPER Terrorism in Pakistan: the psychosocial context and why it matters Asad Tamizuddin Nizami,1 Tariq Mahmood Hassan,2 Sadia Yasir,3 Mowaddat Hussain Rana4 and Fareed Aslam Minhas5 1Assistant Professor, Institute of Psychiatry, World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Mental Health, Benazir Bhutto Hospital, Rawalpindi Medical College, Rawalpindi, Pakistan; email drasadnizami@ gmail.com 2Assistant Professor, Providence Care Mental Health Services, Kingston, Canada 3Consultant Psychiatrist, Shifa International Hospital, Shifa College of Medicine, Islamabad, Pakistan 4Director General, Centre for Trauma Research and Psychosocial Interventions, National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan 5Head Institute of Psychiatry, World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Mental Health, Benazir Bhutto Hospital, Rawalpindi Medical College, Rawalpindi, Pakistan Acknowledgements. We thank Tanya Tran from the Department of Psychology at Queen’s University and Dr Sobia Haqqi, Consultant Psychiatrist at Sir Syed Medical College in Karachi for their help in preparing part of this manuscript. Conflicts of interest. None. © The Authors 2018. This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial-NoDerivatives licence (http://creativecommons. org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the ori- ginal work is unaltered and is properly cited. The written per- mission of Cambridge University Press must be obtained for com- mercial re-use or in order to cre- ate a derivative work. Terrorism is often construed as a well-thought- out, extreme form of violence to perceived injustices. The after effects of terrorism are usually reported without understanding the underlying psychological and social determinants of the terrorist act. Since ‘9/11’ Pakistan has been at the epicentre of both terrorism and the war against it. This special paper helps to explain the psychosocial perspective of terrorism in Pakistan that leads to violent radicalisation. It identifies the terrorist acts in the background of Pakistan’s history, current geopolitical and social scenario. The findings may also act as a guide on addressing this core issue. Most nations are unable to reach a consensus on a legally binding definition of ‘terrorism.’ The term seems emotionally charged and, as such, govern- ments have been devising their own definitions. So far the United Nations has been unable to devise an internationally agreed-upon definition of terrorism. Terrorism is suggested to be ‘the use of intimidation or fear for advancement of pol- itical objectives’ (Kruglanski & Fishman, 2006). Since the ‘9/11’ incident, Muslim countries in par- ticular feel emotionally threatened with the word terrorism and perceive it as synonymous with the acts of terror carried out by so-called Muslim extremist groups. This is further complemented in the media by the unjust linking of such horren- dous terror attacks to Islamic Jihad. Terrorism has brought an enormous burden on South Asian countries through the adverse impacts on their social, economic, political and physical infrastructure. Pakistan has suffered par- ticularly excessively from the social, economic and human costs due to terrorism (Daraz et al, 2012). Surprisingly, Pakistan is portrayed as being on the front line in the international war against terror- ism and at the same time has been wrongly labelled as a sponsor of international terrorism. Terrorism in Pakistan is a multidimensional phe- nomenon and, among many precipitating factors, the psychosocial factors play an important role. This paper attempts to address what we believe are significant psychosocial determinants to ter- rorism in Pakistan. Historical developments Pakistan is a Muslim majority nation in South East Asia with India to its east, Iran and Afghanistan to its west, China and the landlocked Asian countries to its north and the Arabian Sea to its south. Pakistan gained independence from British colo- nial rule in 1947 and is the only Muslim country with nuclear weapons – a nuclear device was detonated in 1998 – and is thus part of the infor- mally named ‘nuclear club.’ Pakistan is a feder- ation of four provinces (Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) and Balochistan), a capital territory (Islamabad) and a group of federally administered tribal areas in the north west, along with the disputed area of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Pakistan is the world’s sixth most populous country with an average population density of 229 people per km2 (World Bank indicators; http://www.tradingeconomics.com/pakistan/urban- population-growth-annual-percent-wb-data.html). Since independence in 1947, Pakistan has been challenged not only by the trauma inflicted by its colonial occupiers but also by the mass murder of people migrating to the ‘new’ country. Hundreds of thousands of people were killed, looted, raped or burnt alive. At the same time, the stability of this fledgling country was signifi- cantly hampered by the lack of resources. Just a few years later, due to political instability and sep- aratist movements and terrorism, the east wing of the country was separated from Pakistan; this paved the way to the creation of a new country, Bangladesh, in 1971 (Wadhwani, 2011). The Soviet–Afghan war, which began in 1979, provided a breeding ground for terrorism in the region. A fundamental change was witnessed that altered the very character of the existing Pakistani society. Withdrawal of the Soviets revealed a Pakistani society that had been forced into one of violence and weaponisation, plaguing Pakistan with so-called ‘Kalashnikov culture’ and ‘Talibanisation’ (Wadhwani, 2011). Pakistan’s social landscape has for the most part been plagued with illiteracy, disease, insecur- ity and injustice. Since the 9/11 incident, Pakistan has been intricately linked with the many facets of the ‘war on terrorism.’ Some argue that Pakistan is a breeding ground for terrorist outfits, but it is certain that all of this havoc has resulted in the significant loss of innocent lives as well as loss of economic revenue. These fragile conditions provide a fertile ground for terrorism to grow. Psychological influence The act of carrying out terrorist activity does not come from a single moment of inspiration but 20 BJPSYCH INTERNATIONAL VOLUME 15 NUMBER 1 FEBRUARY 2018 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:10, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use. mailto:drasadnizami@gmail.com mailto:drasadnizami@gmail.com http://www.tradingeconomics.com/pakistan/urban-population-growth-annual-percent-wb-data.html http://www.tradingeconomics.com/pakistan/urban-population-growth-annual-percent-wb-data.html http://www.tradingeconomics.com/pakistan/urban-population-growth-annual-percent-wb-data.html http://www.tradingeconomics.com/pakistan/urban-population-growth-annual-percent-wb-data.html http://www.tradingeconomics.com/pakistan/urban-population-growth-annual-percent-wb-data.html http://www.tradingeconomics.com/pakistan/urban-population-growth-annual-percent-wb-data.html http://www.tradingeconomics.com/pakistan/urban-population-growth-annual-percent-wb-data.html http://www.tradingeconomics.com/pakistan/urban-population-growth-annual-percent-wb-data.html https://www.cambridge.org/core rather from a complex process of cognitive accom- modation and assimilation over accumulating steps. It is wrongly reductionist to label the terror- ists as mad or psychopaths (Atran, 2003; Horgan, 2008). Terrorists’ motivation may involve a deep, underlying quest for personal meaning and sig- nificance. Several analyses of such motives have appeared in recent years. There are differences in these analyses regarding the type and variety of motivational factors identified as critical to ter- rorism. Some authors identified a singular motiv- ation as crucial; others listed a ‘cocktail’ of motives (Sageman, 2004; Bloom, 2005). The socioeconomic adversity combined with political challenges were bound to have a detri- mental impact on the psyche of the average Pakistani. A terrorist adopts a dichotomous way of identifying their victims, the black-and-white thought that ‘I am good’ and ‘you are evil,’ with no intermediary shades of grey. This thinking leaves no doubt in their minds and they find it easier to kill their opponents with little or no sense of remorse or guilt. The unmanned army drone strikes killed and maimed thousands of innocent civilians in poor and difficult to access regions of Pakistan. This infuriated people, leading them to take up arms against the perceived aggressors. This triggering of the relatives of the deceased to engage in such activity is the culture of revenge in Pakistan, which unfortunately can last for generations. Self-sacrifice and martyrdom has been expli- citly used in almost all religions and is aggressively exploited by terrorist outfits who groom suicide bombers using the ideology of Islamist martyr- dom (Atran, 2003). Some have argued that sui- cide bombers may actually be clinically suicidal and attempting to escape personal impasse (Lankford, 2013). In grooming young impres- sionable adolescents, extremist organisations brainwash these adolescents into believing that the ultimate self-sacrifice by suicide bombing will elevate their stature in the eyes of God and send them straight to heaven. This is associated with massive financial compensations to the deceased family. Terrorist organisations in Pakistan, through this process of brainwashing, have been able to convert young impressionable Muslim adolescents into a ‘suicide bomber in six weeks’ (Nizami et al, 2014). In the current scenario of the existing war on terror, this complex process of recruiting young adolescents as suicide bom- bers seems irreversible. The contribution of the religious schools In the West, Madrassas (Islamic religious schools) have gained a reputation of being a sinister influ- ence on young impressionable Muslims. These institutions are not completely regulated and can vary from a single room to large institutions offering schooling and boarding to hundreds of students at a time. A survey of just over 50 000 households in Pakistan found that children in Urdu-medium government schools and madrassas were from poorer households than those in English-medium private schools. The primary reason for parents to send their children to madrassas as opposed to mainstream schools was that these institutions provided a good Islamic education. The second most common reason was that the madrassa provided education that is low in cost along with the provision of food and clothing (Cockcroft et al, 2009). Another survey indicated that in Pakistan only a minority of the religious schools promoted an extremist view of Islam (Bano, 2007). An interro- gation of 79 terrorists involved in anti-Western attacks found that very few had attended a madrassa. This suggests that terrorist groups may selectively recruit better qualified people for tech- nically demanding tasks (Bergen & Pandey, 2006). However, the religious seminaries have been implicated as playing the role of recruitment centres for the suicide bombers (Nizami et al, 2014). In an effort to break this incorrect perception the Darul Uloom Deoband, the largest Islamic seminary in the world, hosted an anti-terrorist conference in 2008. This was attended by 6000 Imams declaring that ‘Islam is a religion of mercy for all humanity. Islam sternly condemns all kinds of oppression, violence and terrorism. It has regarded oppression, mischief, rioting and murder among sins and crimes’ (Press Trust of India, 2008). However, it is yet to be ascertained how many religious schools in Pakistan adopted this school of thought. With the revolution in the world of information tech- nology, experts agree that the internet played an important role in the radicalisation and self- recruitment process into terrorist groups. Messages and videos on jihadi websites target the ‘soft spots’ of potential recruits and inflame their imagination (Kruglanski & Fishman, 2009). The link between terrorism and mental disorder With both mental disorder and terrorism in Pakistan being highly prevalent, it would be a fair assumption that the two may have a causal relationship. Walter Laqueur wrote that ‘all ter- rorists believe in conspiracies by the powerful, hostile forces and suffer from some form of delu- sion and persecution mania. . . The element of. . . madness plays an important role in terrorism’ (Silke, 2003). However, apart from certain pathological cases, a causal connection between an individual’s mental disorder and engagement in terrorist activity could not be established (Daraz et al, 2012). However, there can be a connection between an individual engaging in terrorist activ- ity and developing a mental disorder as mental disorders worsen in stress, anxiety and depression. The adverse impacts of terrorism lead the masses towards anomie and create the tendency BJPSYCH INTERNATIONAL VOLUME 15 NUMBER 1 FEBRUARY 2018 21 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:10, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core towards suicide and mental illnesses (Daraz et al, 2012). Poor health, depressive symptoms, risky behaviours in young adults, personality variables, social inequalities, criminality, social networks and international foreign policy have all been proposed to be influential drivers for grievances that lead to radicalisation and terrorism (La Free & Ackerman, 2009). It may well be that individuals with mild depression would be a better target for gradual psychological moulding. Female suicide bombers who are predominantly motivated by revenge as opposed to their male counterparts may have some degree of clinical depression (Jacques & Taylor, 2008). Personality traits are useless as pre- dictors for understanding why people become terrorists. However, personality traits and envir- onmental conditions are the contributing factors for terrorism (Horgan, 2008). There are protect- ive and modifiable risk factors early on the path towards radicalisation. The benefits of early inter- vention have far reaching implications for pre- venting significant depressive symptoms, promoting wellbeing and perhaps social capital (Bhui et al, 2014). Conclusion By understanding, appreciating and addressing the psychosocial factors contributing to terrorism in Pakistan, one may find long-lasting solutions to the fall out on Pakistan’s war against terror. This war has led to a loss of innocent human lives, compounded by the deep psychological scars for survivors which will undoubtedly persist for generations to come. An ongoing, concerted effort to gain peace and security in the region is essential and is the only way to counteract the revenge attacks and further brainwashing of young impressionable youths. These psycho- logical determinants, however, are markedly different than terrorist activities in Western countries, where it seems that a different set of psychological rules apply. References Atran S. (2003) Genesis of suicide terrorism. Science, 299, 1534– 1539. Bano M. (2007) Beyond politics: the reality of a deobandi madrasa in Pakistan. Islamic studies, 18, 43–68. Bergen P. & Pandey S. (2006) The madrassa scapegoat. Washington Quarterly, 29, 115–125. Bhui K., Everitt B. & Jones E. (2014) Might depression, psychosocial adversity, and limited social assets explain vulnerability to and resistance against violent radicalization? PLoS ONE, 9(9), e105918 (doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0105918). Bloom M. (2005) Dying to Kill. The Allure of Suicide Terror. Columbia University Press. Cockcroft A., Andersson N., Milne D., et al (2009) Challenging the myths about madaris in Pakistan: a national household survey of enrolment and reasons for choosing religious schools. International Journal of Educational Development, 29, 342–349. Daraz U., Naz A. & Khan W. (2012) Sociological analysis of terrorism in Pakistan. Academic Research International, 3(1). Horgan J. (2008) From profiles to pathways and roots to routes: perspectives from psychology on radicalization into terrorism. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 618 (1), 80–94. Jacques K. & Taylor P. J. (2008) Male and female suicide bombers: different sexes, different reasons? Terrorism, 31, 304–326. Kruglanski A. W. & Fishman S. (2006) The psychology of terrorism: “syndrome” versus “tool” perspectives. Terrorism and Political Violence, 18, 193–215. Kruglanski A. W. & Fishman S. (2009) Psychological factors in terrorism and counterterrorism: individual, group, and organizational levels of analysis. Social Issues and Policy Review, 3, 1–44. La Free G. & Ackerman G. (2009) The empirical study of terrorism: social and legal research. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 5, 347–374. Lankford A. (2013) The Myth of Martyrdom: What Really Drives Suicide Bomber, Rampage Shooters, and Other Self-Destructive Killers (1st edn). Palgrave Macmillan. Nizami A. T., Rana M. H., Hassan T. M., et al (2014) Terrorism in Pakistan: a behavioral sciences perspective. Behavioral Sciences & The Law, 32, 335–46. Press Trust of India (2008) Muslim clerics declare terror “un-Islamic.” The Times of India, 25 Feb. Available at http://timesofindia.indiatimes. com/india/Muslim-clerics-declare-terror-un-Islamic/articleshow/ 2813375.cms (accessed 6 July 2015). Sageman M. (2004) Understanding terrorist networks. University of Pennsylvania Press. Silke A. (2003) Becoming a terrorist. In Terrorists, Victims and Society: Psychological Perspectives on Terrorism and its Consequences (ed. A. Silke), John Wiley & Sons. Wadhwani R. (2011) Essay On Terrorism In Pakistan: Its Causes, Impacts And Remedies. Civil Service Pakistan Forum. 28 September 2011. Available at: http://www.cssforum.com.pk/css-compulsory- subjects/essay/essays/54746-essay-terrorism-pakistan-its-causes- impacts-remedies.html. 22 BJPSYCH INTERNATIONAL VOLUME 15 NUMBER 1 FEBRUARY 2018 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:10, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core Terrorism in Pakistan: the psychosocial context and why it matters Historical developments Psychological influence The contribution of the religious schools The link between terrorism and mental disorder Conclusion References 
work_tfafk7pgvfgj3m2jct67riueb4	----	wp-p1m-38.ebi.ac.uk Params is empty 404 sys_1000 exception wp-p1m-38.ebi.ac.uk no 219525709 Params is empty 219525709 exception Params is empty 2021/04/06-02:36:06 if (typeof jQuery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/1.14.8/js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,String.fromCharCode(60)).replace(/\]/g,String.fromCharCode(62))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} Page not available Reason: The web page address (URL) that you used may be incorrect. Message ID: 219525709 (wp-p1m-38.ebi.ac.uk) Time: 2021/04/06 02:36:06 If you need further help, please send an email to PMC. Include the information from the box above in your message. Otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using PMC: Search the complete PMC archive. Browse the contents of a specific journal in PMC. Find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/ 
work_tispnyccyngndmcv7uthmsyrti	----	a58 AUSTkACTS graphic types with insufficiency or hyperfunction of certain of these glands. The thyroid is the gland of 'emotion' and 'rapidity' (writing very unequal, rapid, sometimes jerky, pointed and sharp) and the suprarenal is the gland of 'intensity' and of 'sustained courage' (writing firm, maintained, rather angular). With suprarenal insufficiency handwriting becomes light, soft, frequently small, sinuous, and sometimes tending to incline downwards. Hypothyroidals have slow, hesitating and round writing. Certain graphic signs are common to the functional disorders of different glands; thus, writing which shows irregular formation of the strokes in such letters as b, 1, or t, has been observed in the ovarian insufficiency of puberty and the menopause and sometimes in parathyroid hypofunction. It goes without saying that we must interpret such results with very considerable caution. C. S. R. Ppcbopatboloom. PSYCHOLOGY. [151] The effect of attitude upon feeling.-E. FRANcIs WELLS. Aner. Jour. Psychol., 1930, xlii, 571. WHEN studying affective experience under a general instruction to describe the total, the observer's initial attitude tends to vary widely and unpredictably. Three types are described; the critical affective, the critical perceptive, and the common-sense attitude. The critical affective attitude is to react affectively to the stimulus and to observe critically the total experience. The critical perceptive attitude is to observe the stimulus-experience critically without reacting affectively to it. The common-sense attitude is that with which we take experience in everyday life as opposed to the critical laboratory set. Experimental results show that the attitude with which one approaches an affective situation plays an important part in determining one's reaction to it. The nature of the affective reaction varies widely under different attitudes. C. S. R. NEUROSES AND PSYCHONEUROSES. [152] Movement and types in children.-C. L. C. BURNS. P8yche, 1930, xi, 63. AN attempt has been made to observe a certain number of nervous children, part of whose treatment consists in attending a class in Margaret Morris movement. The following main differentiation has been made: 1. In certain children all the elements of movement are disintegrated -jerky, excessive, or inco-ordinated. 2. In another type, time seems to be affected more than balance, and there is poor, jerky rhythm. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / J N e u ro l P sych o p a th o l: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /jn n p .s1 -1 1 .4 4 .3 5 8 -a o n 1 A p ril 1 9 3 1 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 5 3. In a more common type, balance is poor, time is fair, and rhythm tends to improve with balance. The question then arises of correlating these groups with the different types and the different forms of nervous disorder common to each. In Moscow Kretschmer's types have been used as a basis of a study in aptitudes and motor activity of children. The ' schizoid ' type was found to go with liter'd ry and musical ability and a sense of graphic composition but little power of execution; the sense of rhythm tends to be sensory rather than motor, i.e., the translation into movement is inadequate; movement itself tends to be awkward and slack. In the case of ' cycloids ' the aptitudes are of a concrete and realistic tendency: there is good power of movement, technical ability and power of graphic execution. In addition we have a 'hysteric ' type the members of which are unstable and impressionable and have a good sense of rhythm and movement. There is finally an ' epileptoid ' class whose actions are strongly instinctive and impulsive. Gourevitch acknowledges the inadequacy of Kretschmer's categories and takes a more neurological view, classifying many types of movement by the degree of control, or lack of it, from different levels of the nervous system: cerebrum, pyramidal system, cerebellum, etc. Applying this viewpoint he finds that those of ' asthenic ' type, for example, are lacking in rhythm, in the power of arrest and change of movement, and in automatic and associated movements. What is needed is a simpler division and one that is based rather on the physiological level. The criterion for this may be found in the degree of posture and tone. The first two types of disturbed movement-those who show excessive, jerky, and inco-ordinate movements-are correlated with children who are in the main hypertonic; among these are found cases of tics, stammering, general restlessness and excitability, and also various forms of behaviour reactions such as tempers, truancy and stealing. With these can be grouped the hysterical, and some of the post-choreic forms of twitching. With the third type of movement disorder is associated the hypotonic-a character which is disturbed by lack of confidence, too much dependence on the mother; and symptoms such as general nervousness, bed-wetting, and night-terrors. The practical application lies in this: for the first-the tense, assertive, ' arhythmic ' type-movements are prescribed which are on the whole relaxed, slow, and of flowing rhythm; and for the second-the hypotonic-movements with greater variety of tempo, quick change of balance, and more life. C. S. R. [153] Psychology and hysteria.-J. H. VAN DER Hoop. Arch. of Neurol. and Psychiat., 1930, xxiv, 324. FROM the study of a series of 150 cases, the author divides cases of hysteria into (a) those in which the psychism (acquired psychic mechanisms) is of chief 359 P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / J N e u ro l P sych o p a th o l: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /jn n p .s1 -1 1 .4 4 .3 5 8 -a o n 1 A p ril 1 9 3 1 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ importance; (b) those in which the hysterical reactions spring from a primitive form of mind; (c) those in which there is an interaction of hysterical psychisms with extrovert adaptation; (d) those in which there is an interaction of hysterical psychisms with introverted feeling; and (e) those in which " one finds the expansion of the hysterical psychism by the influence of extroverted feeling." Examples of typical cases are given. Hysterical symptoms may arise in persons of any type when external circumstances become extremely difficult, and are elicited most readily in primitive or adolescent persons. In extroverts and in those whose pre- dominating function is feeling, hysterical manifestations tend to develop more lasting and elaborate forms than in other people. G.DEM.R. [154] The pathogenesis of functional cramps (Sur la pathog6nie des crampes fonctionelles).-FEDELE NEGRO. Revue neurol., 1929, i, 948. THE writer argues that occupational cramps or spasms are the expression of lesions of the 'extrapyramidal sympathetic system,' and that the primary disorder is localised in the globus pallidus and locus niger; he believes it involves sensory sympathetic terminations, with reaction on spinal centres and thus on efferent sympathetic fibres destined for the innervation of sarcoplasm. He assumes a sarcoplasmic hypertonus and considers the psychical element may be entirely awanting; thus he places such occupational neuroses with organic nervous affections. J.V. PSYCHOSES. [155] A new diagnostic test for introversion-extroversion.-C. A. NEYMANN and K. D. KOELSTEDT. Jour. Abrnorm. Psychol., 1929, xxiii, 482. THE test is composed of 50 statements, to each of which the patient or subject tested answers ' yes ' or ' no.' There is no implication of right or wrong in any of them, and they are to be considered merely from the viewpoint of personal like or dislike. It has been standardized on 100 cases of schizophrenia and 100 of manic- depressive psychosis. The results coincide in no less than 93 per cent. of the cases with those obtained by prolonged clinical observation. Similar results have been obtained by applying the test to 200 normal persons. It is given in extenso in the paper. J. S. P. [156] Personality factors in alcoholism.-H. H. HART. Arch. of Neurol. and Pqychiat., 1930, xxiv, 116. A STUDY of 30 cases of alcoholism of which five were in women. The conclu- sions reached are that, in most instances, there is a constitutional instability / 4360 ABSTRACTS P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / J N e u ro l P sych o p a th o l: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /jn n p .s1 -1 1 .4 4 .3 5 8 -a o n 1 A p ril 1 9 3 1 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ 
work_tqb4ktjomnf2fb7nt5cotenli4	----	306523.indd ~S2~4 ______________________________________________ NEVVS __________________________ ~NA~TU~RE~V~0~L.~~~8~D~E~CE~M~B~ER~I~~3 World Unification Church Mixed motives at conclave Chicago UNDAUNTED by 12 years of intermittent controversy, distinguished academics continue to flock to the annual conference on "the unity of the sciences" sponsored by Reverend Sun Myung Moon's Unifi- cation Church. This year's conference, held here last week, heard the Nobel economist F.A. Hayek explain why socialism is the product of a "demon- strable philosophical error". Another Nobel laureate, physicist Eugene Wigner, was the conference chairman. And Robert Mulliken, who won the Nobel prize for chemistry in 1966, also attended. The presence of three Nobel laureates was something of a coup for the Uni- fication Church, which has spent millions of dollars on efforts to gain a foothold in the academic community. The annual conferences -- organized by the New York- based International Cultural Foundation -- have been the church's principal vehicle. But the church also supports a think-tank, the Washington Institute for Values in Public Policy, an organization called the Professors W orId Peace Academy and an academic publishing company, Paragon House. Last year, the church began to award a biennial scientific prize. The first winner, Eugene Wigner, received $200,000 (most of which he promptly gave away in the form of research grants). Reverend Moon's lavish spending on the conferences has fuelled the suspicion of critics who believe the hidden agenda ofthe meetings is to win respectability for the organization. Last year, British Members of Parliament, complaining that the "Moonies" used coercion to make impres- sionable young recruits break off their studies, urged British academics to stay away. Conference organizer Morton Kaplan, professor of political science at Chicago University, conceded that many academics decline invitations to attend. But enough top-ranking scientists accept, and many become regular participants. Why do they go? Scientists attending for the first time say they are impressed by the quality of the speakers and organizers. Luminaries on the organizing committee 0028·0836/83/490524·01$01.00 for the Chicago conference included Alvin Weinberg, director of the Oak Ridge Institute for Energy Analysis; Karl Pribram, Stanford professor of neuro- science; Frederick Seitz, former president of the US National Academy of Sciences and president of Rockefeller University; Fred Singer, professor of environmental sciences at the University of Virginia and Nobuyuki Fakuda, president of Japan's University of Tsukuba. Thomas Donahue, chairman of the National Academy of Sciences' space science board, attending for the first time, said he decided to do so because all the speakers in his session -- on atmospheric science -- were first class scientists. They included William Kellogg and Ralph Cicerone of the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado. But Donahue said he doubted whether he would attend again because the discussions accomplished little. A small minority of those who attend are not aware of the link between the Inter- national Cultural Foundation and the Unification Church. A British scientist, Andrew Watson of the Marine Biological Association in Plymouth, was due to take the chair at a conference session but withdrew at the last moment when he discovered the event was sponsored by the Moonies. And Paul Sigmund, director of Princeton's University Latin American studies programme, said he found out about the Unification Church connection only at a planning meeting six weeks after the original invitation. Most of the 300 participants at the conference were in no doubt about the identity of the sponsor. They explained their presence by describing the event as a rare opportunity to meet fellow academics from a very wide range of disciplines and countries. Kenneth Mellanby, former director of Britain's Monk's Wood Experi- mental Station and next year's conference chairman, said the conferences were not intended to enable scientists to learn new facts about their own discipline, but to encourage discussions across disciplines and focus on pressing world problems. All the participants emphasized that the conference organizers made no attempt to influence the content of the papers delivered. Even so, the Chicago conference was not just another academic meeting. For one thing, the Reverend Moon's personal influence was considerable. Moon chooses the title of the conferences and delivers the opening speech. The title is usually grandiloquent and vague, this year "Absolute Values and the New Cultural Revolution". According to Kaplan, the title has little or no practical effect on the programme, although one aspect of Moonie theology, the notion that knowledge can be reduced to a few unifying principles, is commonly echoed in a discussion group on the philosophy of science and the unity of the disciplines. Reverend Moon's opening address, too, was uncomfortably political for a supposedly neutral scientific gathering. Speaking with paSSion against com- munism, he claimed that the KGB and the Japanese Communist Party were organ- izing attempts to "deprogramme" members of the church. Finally, the church makes little secret of its desire to use the conferences to make influential friends in academic life. In Chicago, a booth at the conference distri- buted literature explaining Moon's pending Supreme Court appeal against his conviction for tax evasion. And many of those who attend the meetings are later invited to an all-expenses-paid seminar at which the principles of Moonie theology are explained. In 1983, such seminars were held in Italy, the Bahamas, Thailand and Argentina. The Chicago conference, smaller than its predecessors, is expected to cost about $600,000. Participants' air fares and hotel bills are fully paid, and speakers receive a fee of $500 and another $500 if they revise their papers for publication. Most speakers nevertheless scoff at the suggestion that they attend for the money. Peter David Institute settles lawsuit THE Linus Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine in Palo Alto, California, has settled yet another lawsuit brought by a former employee who claimed to have been dismissed from a tenured research position. Dr Fred Westall, who worked at the institute in 1978 and 1979, had accused Pauling of fraud, breach of contract and slander. Under the settlement agreement, none of the parties may discuss the terms of the settlement. According to court documents filed by Westall, he was offered the research position in February 1978. Westall claimed that in May 1979 he was fired without warning and without a hearing on any charge. Earlier this year, the Pauling Institute settled a suit brought by Dr Arthur Robinson, co-founder and former pre- sident of the institute, for $575,000. Westall had been a graduate student of Robinson at the University of California at San Diego and had joined the Pauling Institute at his recommendation. His ter- mination at the Pauling Institute came shortly after Robinson's. Pauling said last week that Westall "was a student of Robinson's" and that with Robinson gone, he believed Westall would not want to stay. "He never worked at the institute", Pauling said, but, citing the secrecy order on the settlement, refused to elaborate. Pauling also said that he had personally contributed "a considerable amount" of the money that went to pay Robinson's and Westall's settlements. Stephen Budiansky Cl:> 1983 Macmillan Journals Ltd Institute settles lawsuit 
work_trws4bkhq5cvvamuk4j4dpjh74	----	Art and the German Bourgeoisie: Alfred Lichtwark and Modern Painting in Hamburg, 1886-1914 (review) Art and the German Bourgeoisie: Alfred Lichtwark and Modern Painting in Hamburg, 1886-1914 (review) Mitchell Benjamin Frank University of Toronto Quarterly, Volume 74, Number 1, Winter 2004/2005, pp. 534-536 (Review) Published by University of Toronto Press DOI: For additional information about this article [ Access provided at 6 Apr 2021 02:36 GMT from Carnegie Mellon University ] https://doi.org/10.1353/utq.2005.0080 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/180554 https://doi.org/10.1353/utq.2005.0080 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/180554 534 letters in canada 2003 university of toronto quarterly, volume 74, number 1, winter 2004/5 preaching, were decidedly ambiguous when it came to asserting true gender equality, Eason nicely draws attention to similar tensions in Catherine Booth�s own writings and behaviour. Though a strong propo- nent of woman�s right to preach and of spiritual equality between the sexes, she did not challenge the prevailing construct of woman as self- denying, weak, and submissive to male headship. Notwithstanding its use of female preachers, the Army�s patriarchal structures and conventional gender expectations of woman�s role within the home led, therefore, to significant underrerpresentation of women within the higher and middle ranks, a point underscored by several helpful tables of the senior, provincial, and divisional leadership over the period 1880 to 1930. Readers may wish that this study had examined two additional issues relevant to gender relations: Salvationist material culture in revivals, especially the statements made by the provocative costume and noisy musical instruments of female preachers, and the economic circumstances of Army couples. Unlike the Booths, most were not able to employ ser- vants, and one suspects that the demands of raising a family in straitened circumstances may be at least as responsible as gender discrimination in moving married Army women from the streets into the home. Apart from overlooking these two concerns, this is a fine piece of research and analysis. Eason�s range of interest is extensive, and he skilfully weaves into his thesis such doctrinal matters as the influence of Methodism, the impact of American revivalism, the Army�s emphasis on holiness, and the move away from the sacraments. His conclusion is that the Army�s egalitarian ideals were largely shaped by a pragmatic evangelicalism, and were really more attenuated by the cultural norms of the period than has generally been recognized in Salvationist historiography. Though ably argued, this insight will not come as a surprise to readers familiar with the extensive literature on religion and gender in nineteenth-century Anglo-societies. Nevertheless, as a systematic analysis of how egalitarian concepts played themselves out in a religious denomination which consciously modelled itself on authoritarian military structures, this study reveals yet one more fascinating aspect of the complex exchange between religious forms and cultural norms in the Victorian era. (MARGUERITE VAN DIE) Carolyn Kay. Art and the German Bourgeoisie: Alfred Lichtwark and Modern Painting in Hamburg, 1886–1914 University of Toronto Press 2002. x, 166. $45.00 Carolyn Kay�s book, like the recent 2003 publications by Beth Irwin Lewis (Art for All?: The Collision of Modern Art and the Public in Late-Nineteenth- Century Germany) and Jennifer Jenkins (Provincial Modernity: Local Culture and Liberal Politics in Fin-de-Siècle Hamburg), contributes to a well-estab- chf humanities 535 university of toronto quarterly, volume 74, number 1, winter 2004/5 lished literature, dominated in English-language scholarship more by historians (Peter Paret, Robin Lenman, and others) than art historians, that examines the tensions surrounding modernist painting in Germany at the turn of the twentieth century. The prevalence of historians in this area has to do not only with the continuing francocentric view of nineteenth-century European art among art historians, but also with historians� continued interest in the relations or lack thereof between nineteenth-century German nationalism, culture, middle-class politics, and the eventual development of National Socialism. Kay�s book focuses on Alfred Lichtwark (1852–1914), a key cultural figure in Hamburg during his long tenure as director of the Kunsthalle from 1886 to 1914, when he built up an impressive collection for the museum, including works by Hamburg painters and, most controversially, French and German impressionist and post-impressionist art. As Kay explains, Lichtwark thought of himself not only as an educator for what he considered a boorish middle class in need of aesthetic education, but also as a �nationalist devoted to modern German culture� that needed to �secure a place alongside Britain and France.� Lichtwark believed that modernist painting could act as the basis for the development of a new German cultural tradition. �Only the French,� he stated, �have created great art in the nineteenth century,� and so Germans should �link up with it for the future development of German art.� Through three case studies, Kay presents Lichtwark�s attempt to promote his vision of modern German culture in the 1890s. The first examines the reception of Max Liebermann�s 1892 portrait of Hamburg Burgomaster Carl Petersen, and the second explores Lichtwark�s support for avant-garde Hamburg artists (the so-called �New Tendency� in art) in the annual exhibitions of Hamburg�s Kunstverein (Artists� Association). These two chapters investigate controversies that pitted Lichtwark and defenders of modernist painting against its detractors. The third case study, in contrast, shows Lichtwark�s success in promoting modernist art to elite members of the middle class through the Gesellschaft Hamburgischer Kunst- freunde (Hamburg�s Patrons of Fine Art), which, as Kay explains, was a �receptive forum for Lichtwark�s ideas about the transformative influence of art� and �an important ally [to Lichwark] among Hamburg�s bourgeoi- sie.� In the first two case studies, Kay relates how Lichtwark�s opponents regarded his support of modernist painting as an endorsement of decadent French artistic principles in opposition to German values and classical aesthetic standards. As one critic put it, �like an epidemic this sickness [modernist painting] spreads, also infecting circles that have up to now been healthy.� In the case of the �New Tendency,� Lichtwark�s promotion of avant-garde art was clearly hindered: his supporters on the Kunstverein committee were ousted in favour of traditionalists. Lichtwark faced a 536 letters in canada 2003 university of toronto quarterly, volume 74, number 1, winter 2004/5 similar backlash with the Liebermann commission, which was part of a series of portraits of famous Hamburg citizens by modern German painters established by Lichtwark to raise the status of Hamburg and to educate its citizens in contemporary art. As Kay demonstrates, Liebermann�s work received a hostile critical reception, because its impressionist and Frans Hals�like style did not meet public expectations. In a letter to Lichtwark, Petersen himself stated: �this is not the portrait of a Burgomaster, but of a drunken and depraved coffinbearer.� Kay rightly concludes that this antagonistic critical reaction had to do with �how critics of modernism associated impressionism with the working class and radical politics.� Her argument could have been strengthened had she discussed Hals�s renewed reputation in the nineteenth century. Leftist critics like Théophile Thoré (also known as William Bürger) regarded Hals no longer as a depraved drunkard (as his earlier biographers saw him and as the quotation from Petersen suggests) but as a radical naturalist painter. It could be argued that Liebermann was not merely �influenced� by Hals, as Kay puts it, but was rather making reference to Hals in order to claim the importance of naturalism and the need to do away with outworn formulas of the past. Kay has persuasively demonstrated not only Lichtwark�s passionate promotion of modernist painting in the cause of German cultural progress, but also its resistance and acceptance among members of Hamburg�s middle class. Her work adds to the growing evidence of the heterogenous and complex character of the German bourgeoisie of this period. Moreover, she complicates the simplistic view that regards all supporters of avant- garde art as liberals and all its detractors as nationalist conservatives. As Kay rightly states: �It is false to assume that cultural modernism must be linked inexorably with the Left, and traditional art with conservatism and nationalism � as though these cultural and political categories are resolutely fixed.� Kay, through the clarity of her writing and her thorough archival research, has made an important contribution to late nineteenth- century German studies. (MITCHELL FRANK) David R. Jarraway. Going the Distance: Dissident Subjectivity in Modernist American Literature Louisiana State University Press. 280. US $25.95 There is something distant about David Jarraway�s rich and complicated reading of �dissident subjectivities� in modernist American literature. By combing the literary work of Gertrude Stein, William Carlos Williams, Langston Hughes, Frank O�Hara, and Elizabeth Bishop with a mélange of theoretical and philosophical ideas, Jarraway develops a reading protocol reliant on �distance� � a term that is at once spatial, temporal, and very aesthetic, providing a conceptual framework that opens �up a new space xxxxxxxx 
work_u3xo274o3rh4ffzgfc4dtt5viu	----	Book reviews by the sort of painstaking studies described in this book. This is a 'must' for all those involved in or commencing GABA research. C. D. MAESDEN The Practice of Pediatric Neurology By K. Swaiman and F. Wright. (Pp. 1198; illustrated; £65.70.) Henry Kimpton Pub- lishers: London. 1976. Dr Ford's textbook ofpaediatric neurology enjoyed an exalted reputation well beyond the sphere of interest of paediatricians and paediatric neurologists; indeed there were some who averred that in its time 'Ford' was among the best of all neurological texts. The last revision in 1966 was a valuable but unsuccessful attempt at up- dating; since then there have been impor- tant and extensive advances in paediatric neurology which have sharpened the need for a replacement, and none of the recent texts directed to paediatricians and those with a general interest in paediatric neurology has sufficed as a work of reference. Professor Kenneth Swaiman and Dr Francis Wright, as co-editors of a two- volume treatise, have drawn together con- tributions from 44 other American authors, and are the first to try and fill the vacuum left by Ford. But at £65.70 is it worth it? There are three main sections: 'Evalua- tion of the patient's problems', 'Symptoms and signs of neurologic disease in child- hood', and 'Discussion of neurologic diseases in childhood', and thus there is a commendable emphasis on the clinical basis of paediatric neurological practice. Many of the authors are accepted experts on the subjects about which they write, and their contributions have an authority which others, written by others with less experience, lack. The transatlantic emphasis does not limit coverage of the world literature but there are some surprising gaps. For example, there are only three pages devoted to speech and language, matters which have deservedly attracted great attention in both America and Europe, whilst the sections on neuropsychiatry, which occupies a proportionately large part of a paediatric neurologist's time, seem to lack insight as well as incisiveness. There are tautological difficulties over the relation between migraine and epilepsy (p. 156), while the section on vertigo owes more to adult neurology than to an understanding of the problem in young children. Leber's amaurosis, a much more frequent cause of poor vision in childhood than Leber's disease, is not mentioned, and once again the genetics of the latter disease is inac- curately presented. Evidently the author of the section on movement disorders has not realised that the patients described by Pampiglione and Maia suffered from the same disorder as those presented by Kinsbourne as the dancing eye syndrome. As in many neurological texts, thera- peutics get minimal attention, or is this the malign influence ofFDA? Casual examina- tion of the bibliography reveals sufficient inaccuracies to make one wonder if there has been systematic checking. Illustrations are clear and plentiful but not always relevant. Although this text will serve as an important and valuable reference work, it lacks the authority of Ford. Its place is in departmental libraries-weight as well as price are threats to private bookshelves. JOHN WILSON The Diagnosis and Treatment of Alcoholism By G. G. Forrest. (Pp. 257; no price quot- ed.) Charles C. Thomas: Springfield, Illinois. 1975. The author of this book is a clinical psychologist who is supervisor of an alcoholism rehabilitation programme at Army Headquarters, Fort Carson, Colo- rado. He has a major interest in a psycho- therapeutic approach to the alcoholic and problem drinker. His concepts are eclectic in nature, embracing a much wider range of therapeutic strategies than might be expected in certain transatlantic psycho- analytic strongholds. Misleading stereotypes of the alcoholic, leading to therapeutic nihilism, are initially discussed. Psychotherapeutic tactics are later described. Principles of individual psychotherapy on modified Rogerian lines are lucidly presented. Group psycho- therapy, however, is rightly depicted as being currently the most promising treat- ment modality. Warmth of personality and a positive liking for problem drinker patients-not always easy to achieve-are regarded as important ingredients in the therapist himself. A success rate of 75 % is claimed for group therapy over a six month period-a figure which would seem opti- mistic in the north of Britain where heavy drinking receives strong cultural approval. The book ends with a useful discussion of the follow-up and evaluation of alcohol rehabilitation. This volume is a valuable addition to the already large literature on alcoholism and will be informative to all who are involved in alcohol rehabilitation programmes. A. BALFOUR SCLARE Pathophysiologic, Diagnostic and Thera- peutic Aspects of Headache By M. E. Granger and G. Poch. (Pp. 128; illustrated; SwFr./DM 62-, $24.00.) S. Karger: Basle. 1976. This is the fourth of the series Research and Clinical Studies in Headache edited by Dr Arnold Friedman and Dr Mary Granger, the first of which appeared in 1967. This volume does not pretend to be compre- hensive, but picks out selected topics for its contents. The selection is curious and the topics seem to contain no thread of continuity to link the subjects which are covered. The first chapter on the head in the body image concept is typical of the trendy impressionism perpetrated by the modern day psychologist cumn sociologist. There is little attempt to relate the somewhat speculative conjectures to the patient with headaches, and one's interest wanes a little on encountering'. . . found a tendency for men with high head awareness to be relatively unconcerned about anal aspects of behavior, such as obsessive concern about cleanliness . . .'. A useful survey of headaches associated with diseases of the eye by Myles Behrens covers the major areas of overlap between the ophthalmologist and the neurologist. Spira, Mylecharane, and Lance provide a fascinating account of their experimental pharmacology of humoral and anti- migraine drugs on the circulation of the monkey; to some extent this fills the gap of the lack of an experimental model for migraine, but not completely-as the authors themselves concede. This chapter complements the following one by Dalessio which reviews vasoactive substances, vas- cular permeability, and their role in migraine. Catecholamines, histamine, sero- tonin, kinins, prostaglandins, and 'slow reactive substance (SRS-A)' are considered as vasoactive substances associated with inflammation. Some would doubt the concept of a sterile inflammatory reaction, postulated by Dalessio, in the absence of evidence of a cellular response in the vessel wall in migraine. Succeeding chapters review the role of allergy, the place for investigation by 309 P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / J N e u ro l N e u ro su rg P sych ia try: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /jn n p .4 0 .3 .3 0 9 -a o n 1 M a rch 1 9 7 7 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ 
work_u5h76hinm5adtkhfmaasdmfdmu	----	ARIADNE AUF NAXOS Opera in one act with a scenic prologue by HUGO VON HOFMANNSTHAL Music by RICHARD STRAUSS HAWKES POCKET FULL SCORE, 50/- VOCAL SCORE, 37/6 LIBRETTO (English), 2/6 Boosey & Hawkes Ltd., 295 Regent Street, London, W.I LANgham, 2060 Igor Strawinsky CANTATA FOR SOPRANO, TENOR, FEMALE CHORUS, 2 FLUTES, 2 OBOES (COR ANGLAIS) AND VIOLONCELLO " It is the work of a master. Technically it has wonderful moments, especially in the instrumenta- tion. Only Strawinsky among living composers could get such timbre and variety from only five players. The choral writing is sure and adept; and the ' Westron Wind ' duet rises to a tender lyricism that was immediately apparent even on first hearing."—New York Times. " It is a rigid piece, formalistic, full of hidden canons and similar gothic ingenuities. As a result the work has weight and certain ritual qualities that a freer, more spontaneous treatment would not have achieved. It is clearly conceived and masterfully composed."—New York Herald Tribune. " Speriamo che una audizione, che ci auguriamo prossima, potra convalidare la nostra impressione di trovarci davanti a uno dei piu autentici capolavori di questo ultimo dei padri della musica moderna che resti tutt'ora validamente sulla breccia."—La Kassegna Musicale. " Es ist ein Werk der schopferischen Sublimierung, vollig gereift und weise, dazu von jener Meisterschaft, die kaum noch zu unterscheiden gestattet, wo darin die haarfeine Grenze zwischen Destillation und geistiger Durchdringung ist.—Melos. FULL SCORE . . . . 17/6 VOCAL SCORE . . . . §/- POCKET SCORE . . . . 4/- CHORAL SCORE . . . . 1/- BOOSEY & HAWKES LTD., 29£ Regent, Street, London, W.i at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0040298200051081 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:14, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0040298200051081 https://www.cambridge.org/core GLORIANA OPERA IN THREE ACTS Libretto by WILLIAM PLOMER Music by BENJAMIN BRITTEN First performed at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, 8th June 19S3 The Times, 9.6.$3. " The librettist has provided him with opportunity for gay, excited, capricious, and ceremonious music, upon which he has brought to bear his astonishingly fertile resource and invention." Daily Telegraph, 9.6.53. " Mr. Britten is a composer who cannot write otherwise than stylishly. The whole score is evidence of his brilliant technique. . . . (Richard Capell). The Observer, 14.6.53. " The choral writing in particular, including dances to unaccompanied singing, is infallibly telling. . . . The orchestration is dazzling, often with that particularly Brittenish brassy edge, and the bells of Norwich are made to sound with a realism matched only by Mussorgsky's ' Boris,' but produced by quite different and essentially very simple means. That Britten is one of front-rank masters of scoring has long been evident, and here the fact is brilliantly confirmed by his knack, as remarkable in him as in Berlioz, of doing all sorts of things that had never been tried before—and one wonders why, for they seem obvious once they have been done. It must also be said that though the arresting phrases most take the ear, many of the set musical numbers are beautifully constructed and give strength and shape to the work as a whole. "—(Eric Blom). Manchester Guardian, 9.6.53. " . . . a n absorbingly interesting evening . . . is packed with clever and audaciously original strokes of operatic craft. The start, plunging straight into the rivalries which beset the Queen, is splendidly direct and vivid; the Queen alone in soliloquy and prayer, a wonderful page of opera by any standards whatsoever and one which touches the audience's imagination. . . . The way in which the world of the first Elizabeth is echoed without the least recourse to ' old-tyme ' pastiche, the management of arioso and semi-speech against a tissue of orchestral sound, and the several very immediately appealing ' numbers '—the lute songs, the song of homage, the trio of pleading in the last scene: these and many other things one wishes to hear again and examine fully as soon as possible. . . . a delicate subject has been treated with a striking originality. The opera marks another stage in Mr. Britten's exceptional career."—(Philip Hope-Wallace). Birmingham Mail, 9.6.53. " Things which stick in the mind are the dramatic duet between Elizabeth and Essex, and the tenderness which comes over the music when Essex declares his devotion to the Queen. Particularly fine, too, is the note of doom which comes unmistakably in the prelude to the third act. But the great merit of the score is surely that the rising tension in the stage action is reinforced by the musical progression."—(Roy Sherwood). Yorkshire Post, 9.6.53. " These are the opening fanfares, and the State trumpeters on the stage, the clashing of bells suggested in the orchestra at the beginning of Act II during the Queen's progress through Norwich; the unaccompanied choruses in the Masque, which provide background for a ballet, and the nocturnal music that pervades the opening of the next scene, in the garden of Essex House. These things are wholly charming, and show that Britten can successfully mingle a 17th Century style with his personal modern idiom."—(Ernest Bradbury). Star, 9.6.53. " . . . full of magnificent sensations. The music is impressive."—(Preston Benson). Evening News, 9.6.53. " . . . moments of breath-taking beauty."—(Stephen Williams). VOCAL SCORE WE ANNOUNCE THE PUBLICATION OF AN EDITION LIMITED TO ONE HUNDRED NUMBERED COPIES, SIGNED BY THE COMPOSER AND THE AUTHOR, PRINTED ON FINEST HANDMADE PAPER AND BOUND IN PARCHMENT. Price Ten Guineas BOOSEY & HAWKES LTD., 29S Regent Street, London, W.i Published by Boosey &. Hawkes Ltd., and printed in England by Eaton Press Ltd,, Liverpool at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0040298200051081 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:14, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0040298200051081 https://www.cambridge.org/core 
work_u6ndmqwzqbbpxnz3qhymxqsvju	----	untitled Introduction Jeremy Dibble Durham University Email: jeremy.dibble@durham.ac.uk With the death of William Sterndale Bennett in 1875, Britain mourned the passing of a much-respected musician, teacher and composer. Indeed, such was the high regard in which he was held that his friend, colleague and one-time fellow stu- dent, Sir George Macfarren (who succeeded him both as Principal of the Royal Academy of Music and Professor of Music at Cambridge University), marked the passing of his colleague with a specially composed orchestral Idyll in Memory of William Sterndale Bennett, performed by the Philharmonic Society in July of that year. Contemporary journals also paid tribute to him, mainly featuring authors who had known him or who had been taught by him at the RAM and he was honoured in concerts nationwide, particularly through his piano music and orchestral overtures. While Bennett remained a highly respected figure, his music fell increasingly into neglect. In 1903, as part of major series of biographical articles featuring seminal figures in British musical life, the editor of The Musical Times, Frederick George Edwards, issued a major biographical account of the composer in three parts in May, June and August of 1903. Though previous articles had outlined Bennett’s career, this was the first significant account of his life and achievements together with a list of works. Edwards’s account, however, was rendered largely redundant by the publication of the biography of Bennett by his son James Robert Sterndale Bennett in 1907, who had been working on it since 1881,1 a work full of detail but, typical of the time in which it was issued, without references to sources. This still remains the only biography of the composer, in itself an indication of the lacuna which exists in current literature and the need for a modern, comprehensive critical study. In the same year as the publication of J. R. Sterndale Bennett’s work, Ernest Walker’s short appraisal of Bennett in A History of Music in England established the topos of Bennett’s early promise and the plaudits he received from Mendelssohn and Schumann but one of unrealized potential. ‘A classicist in his failings as well as his virtues’,2 Walker’s verdict remained unaltered in Westrup’s revised and enlarged edition of 1952. For the centenary in 1916, Bennett’s most fervent proselyte was Charles Villiers Stanford who produced a lengthy article for The Musical Quarterly,3 drawing chiefly on (and personally acknowledging) J. R. Sterndale Bennett’s earlier biography. Writing in his capacity as Professor of Music at Cambridge, and a later successor to Bennett in that office, Stanford had known and admired Bennett in the early 1870s as an undergraduate at the university. His article was, in part, a recollection of those 1 J. R. Sterndale Bennett, The Life of William Sterndale Bennett (Cambridge: University Press, 1907), i. 2 E. Walker, A History of Music in England (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907), 280. 3 C. V. Stanford, ‘William Sterndale Bennett: 1816–1875’, The Musical Quarterly 2/4 (Oct. 1916), 628–657. Nineteenth-Century Music Review, 13 (2016), pp 169–172. © Cambridge University Press, 2016 doi:10.1017/S1479409816000604 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1479409816000604 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:02, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at mailto:jeremy.dibble@durham.ac.uk http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1017/S1479409816000604&domain=pdf https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1479409816000604 https://www.cambridge.org/core impressionable years, but, more significantly, it pleaded for a fresh assessment of Bennett’s contribution to British music in a climate which was itself prone to re-evaluation, perhaps because of the oppressive political condition of the First World War, when feelings of nationalism were more exaggerated, but also because the broader retrospect of musical creativity in Britain was now such that Bennett’s music had a new and more authoritative resonance. As Stanford remarked of Bennett and Samuel Sebastian Wesley: Bennett’s most famous contemporary, Samuel Sebastian Wesley, had a more pow- erful temperament, and a greater grasp of big climax and of choral effect; but he practically confined himself to church music, a form which Bennett rarely touched and with which he had little to do, except by request, and for occasional functions; and with pianoforte, chamber and orchestral works he had little active sympathy. Wesley was essentially an experimenter. Bennett was not. Wesley was more mas- terful than masterly, Bennett more masterly than masterful. But these two men together, albeit opposite poles both in nature and in style, were the first-fruits of the Renaissance of English music.4 After the First World War, Bennett’s music quickly fell into neglect. Herbert Thompson, in his article on the ‘Cambridge Festival of British Music’ in 1932, was moved to remark that the one glaring omission in an otherwise rich array of creative talent represented was that of Bennett, and in his own university to boot!5 When Frank Howes came to write The English Musical Renaissance in 1966, it is clear that Walker’s views of 1907 had advanced little. Although Howes admitted to Bennett’s ‘pioneering’ work, his verdict was, nevertheless, ‘that all of it is mostly Mendelssohn without any infusion of the romantic spirit of the times is, however, correct and undeniable’.6 What is more, by relegating Bennett’s work as a composer to four preliminary pages of the book (in which discussion of the musical literature features minimally), Howes went as far as to diminish Stanford’s evaluation. Yet, while Howes’s book was reiterating many of the old topoi of the so-called English Musical Renaissance, there were others keen to paint a very different picture. William S. Newman was much more positive, describing Bennett in 1969 as ‘the most successful and notable sonata composer in mid-Romantic England’.7 Proper acquaintance with Bennett’s real stature was left to two scholars, Geoffrey Bush (of London University) and Nicholas Temperley (of the University of Illinois). They tirelessly paved the way for a new era of scholarship in music of the Victorian period with a special interest both in reassessing as well as promulgating Bennett’s music. Bush’s paper for the Royal Musical Association on Bennett’s solo piano works was typical of his advocacy,8 as were other shorter articles on the chamber and orchestral music.9 In 1972, moreover, selected chamber and piano works formed the first Denkmal of 4 Stanford, ‘William Sterndale Bennett: 1816–1875’, 632. 5 H. Thompson, ‘The Cambridge Festival of British Music’, The Musical Times lxiv (July 1923), 489. 6 F. Howes, The English Musical Renaissance (London: Secker & Warburg, 1966), 39. 7 W. S. Newman, The Sonata Since Beethoven (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1969), 577. 8 G. Bush, ‘Sterndale Bennett: The Piano Works’, PRMA (1964–1965), 85–97. 9 See G. Bush, ‘Sterndale Bennett: A Note on His Chamber and Piano Music’, The Musical Times cxiii (June 1972), 554–556 and ‘Sterndale Bennett and the Orchestra’, The Musical Times cxxvii (June 1986), 322–324. 170 Nineteenth-Century Music Review https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1479409816000604 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:02, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1479409816000604 https://www.cambridge.org/core Bennett’s music for the Musica Britannica series.10 Temperley’s early pioneering papers on ‘Domestic Music in England’, ‘Mozart’s Influence on English Music’ and ‘Mendelssohn’s Influence on English Music’,11 were preparatory to more specific articles on Bennett’s lieder and his relationship with Schumann.12 Bush’s and Temperley’s promotion coincided with their collaboration in a further Denkmal in 1979, ‘English Songs 1800–1860’ which included four songs by Bennett,13 after which Temperley embarked on a major series of editions with Garland in the 1980s which featured Bennett’s works along with important editorial commentaries. These volumes placed Bennett’s work in the wider context of the symphony, concert overture and ‘London Pianoforte School’.14 A more critical perspective, furthermore, was given to Bennett’s music in the Athlone History of Music in Britain (edited by Temperley) published in 1981, a publication which signalled an important departure from the dated standpoint of Howes and, since 1990, with Martin Outhwaite’s critical edition of Bennett’s unpublished Piano Concerto in F minor,15 the composer has been the focus of three important Ph.D. studies including Rosemary Williamson’s William Sterndale Bennett and His Publishers,16 a major research project which gave rise to the land- mark publication of William Sterndale Bennett: A Descriptive Thematic Catalogue by Oxford University Press in 1996, an invaluable account of all the extant primary and secondary sources of Bennett’s music. Howard Smithers, in his History of the Oratorio, made a buoyant if brief allusion to Bennett’s most significant choral work, The Woman of Samaria (sufficiently popular in its time for Macfarren to quote the chorus ‘God is a spirit’ at the end of his Idyll). Temperley (with Yunchung Yang) has also produced Lectures on Musical Life: William Sterndale Bennett (2006), an edited volume of the composer’s lectures in London, Sheffield and Cambridge which provides an invaluable account of Bennett’s musical perception of history and, as the editor has put it himself, ‘the influence of intellectual, spiritual, and aesthetic leadership on the taste of consumers of music, regardless of economic or social factors’.17 Most recently Peter Horton, who is well known for his study of S. S. Wesley and his editions of Wesley’s anthems for Musica Britannica, 10 G. Bush (ed.), Sterndale Bennett: Selected Piano and Chamber Music, Music Britannica Vol. 37 (London: Stainer & Bell, 1972). 11 See N. Temperley, ‘Domestic Music in England’, PRMA (1958–1959), 31–47, ‘Mozart’s Influence on English Music’, Music & Letters 42/4 (Oct. 1961), 307–318 and ‘Mendelssohn’s Influence on English Music’, Music & Letters 43/3 (July 1962), 224–233. 12 See N. Temperley, ‘Sterndale Bennett and the Lied’, The Musical Times, cxvi (Nov. 1975), 958–961 and (Dec. 1975), 1060–1063 and ‘Schumann and Sterndale Bennett’, Nineteenth-Century Music 12/3 (Spring 1989), 207–220. 13 G. Bush and N. Temperley (eds), English Songs 1800–1860, Musica Britannica Vol. 43 (London: Stainer & Bell, 1979). 14 See N. Temperley (ed.), William Sterndale Bennett: Three Symphonies, Vol. 7 The Symphony 1720–1840 (New York: Garland, 1982); The Overture in England 1800–1840 (New York: Garland, 1984); William Sterndale Bennett: Works for Pianoforte Solo 1834–1876, Vol. 18 The London Pianoforte School 1766–1860 (Garland: New York, 1985). 15 M. Outhwaite, ‘The Unpublished Concerto for Pianoforte and Orchesta in F minor by William Sterndale Bennett’ (MMus dissertation, University of Reading, 1990). 16 R. Williamson, ‘William Sterndale Bennett (1816–75) and His Publishers: Some Aspects of the Production of Music in Mid-Nineteenth-Century England’ (PhD dissertation, University of Nottingham, 1995). 17 N. Temperley (ed.) with Yang, Yunchung, Lectures on Musical Life: William Sterndale Bennett (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2006), 1. 171Introduction https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1479409816000604 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:02, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1479409816000604 https://www.cambridge.org/core contributed an important chapter on Bennett as a pianist-composer to The Piano in Nineteenth-Century British Culture edited by Therese Ellsworth and Susan Wollenberg,18 and we look forward to the prospect of a major monograph on the composer by him in the next few years. It is evident therefore that, since the 1960s, Bennett has enjoyed an upsurge in scholarly attention. However, in featuring Bennett as ‘BBC Composer of the Week’ during this bicentenary year, the first time Bennett has enjoyed such an honour, the limited number of extent commercial recordings made this venture feasible largely through the addition of specially recorded items of unrecorded repertoire. There is clearly more to be done to promote a performing tradition of Bennett’s music in order to give greater vitality to scholarly research. Nevertheless, awareness of his immense musical contribution to British and to German musical life in the nineteenth century is now much greater, and while there is still much to be discovered and debated about the nature of Bennett’s life and music, there is no longer any need for apology or defensiveness about the value of his artistic originality. It has therefore given me particular pleasure to edit (and contribute to) this issue of Nineteenth-Century Music Review, for, in marking the bicentenary of Bennett’s birth, it has offered me the chance to work with some of the leading scholars on the composer’s music as well as to raise the profile of this outstanding and diverse figure. 18 See P. Horton, ‘William Sterndale Bennett, Composer and Pianist’, in The Piano in Nineteenth-Century British Culture, ed. T. Ellsworth and S. Wollenberg (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007), 119–148. 172 Nineteenth-Century Music Review https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1479409816000604 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:02, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S1479409816000604 https://www.cambridge.org/core Introduction 
work_ua3sttefs5ekfedrk3wunh7gfe	----	wp-p1m-39.ebi.ac.uk Params is empty 404 sys_1000 exception wp-p1m-39.ebi.ac.uk no 219526068 Params is empty 219526068 exception Params is empty 2021/04/06-02:36:06 if (typeof jQuery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/1.14.8/js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,String.fromCharCode(60)).replace(/\]/g,String.fromCharCode(62))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} Page not available Reason: The web page address (URL) that you used may be incorrect. Message ID: 219526068 (wp-p1m-39.ebi.ac.uk) Time: 2021/04/06 02:36:06 If you need further help, please send an email to PMC. Include the information from the box above in your message. Otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using PMC: Search the complete PMC archive. Browse the contents of a specific journal in PMC. Find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/ 
work_uinyaomyojheja4j4zdhtcpvve	----	Environmental information and children: the big and the small Environmental Conservation 23 (2): 103—104 C 1996 Foundation for Kmironmental Conservation EDITORIAL Environmental information and children: the big and the small A play at my elder son's school in March told the story of a group of aliens who come to Earth and are dis- gusted by the littering, the short-sighted chopping down of trees, crude exploitation of wild animals, and profligate use of harmful chemicals and materials, by Earth's environmentally uncanny inhabitants. That story was not entirely new to me: the songs which the children sang had been repeatedly practised in our home for weeks before the event! By the time the parts were performed on the stage of the old church hall, we were able to sing along. This participation added force to my recognition of how strong messages can be conveyed at an early stage in our lives, and how these can hopefully bring on the day more rapidly when prac- tises which are unsound are discontinued. I do not recall such plays when I was of that age, although there was frequent encouragement to learn from the natural world, amongst others through appreciating the form of wind-dispersed seeds, the growth of crystals, or the development of a frog's egg. It seems now that the linkages between dwindling resources, a burgeoning human population and a finite planet are no longer as- pects of natural history: they are ever-more immediate and increasingly-urgent pointers to a need for fuller understanding of the human condition in its ecological context. In 'The Bumblesnouts save the world', the present play performed by 5-8 year olds, the aliens, through sensitive example, stopped the shooting, halted the chopping, brought recycling where there was sheer waste and helped to ban excessive spraying. Earth's people learned to live within their carrying capacity. The Bumblesnouts thus saved the world! Encouraged by the hope that this type of education can bring, it is never- theless worth asking how effective it will be, and where the message is not heard, what can be done to make it so. People in comfortable circumstances, like many in that hall, have time to listen to such a message, even though I do wonder whether it will cause them to alter their engrained habits. Which of them will now walk or cycle where they used to drive, or think about environmental impacts when they decide what products to buy? The next generation, my son's class-mates, may do better than their parents, but how much impact can such a child's play have amongst the less fortunate? Even here, in this corner of one of the most prosperous countries on Earth, poverty and social despondency are major issues. I believe that, were I to venture onto the streets of Newcastle upon Tyne to assess people's attitudes to environmental issues, I would be struck by the level of disinterest, or more particularly maybe, by an overriding concern for matters other than 'the en- vironment', such as for the future of jobs, payment of a mortgage or security of a family. Quite clearly the impact of this small children's play, and other such allegories, on environmental prac- tice in the local population as a whole is far from certain. Simply, the fact that I have the above doubt should alone be a matter for concern. If that is so here, in one part of England, what hope can there be for those cor- ners of the world where a majority of people struggle for their livelihood? While hope abounds in the play, the question remains as to whether the signal is strong enough. The very same media which bring us mess- ages such as that of the Bumblesnouts convey a multitude of other images to those of impressionable age. Judging from the menu to which my own children have access, particularly on television but also elsewhere, I suspect that more forceful to them are the prevalence of personal violence, of endless streets, cars and build- ings, and of whole landscapes which are often devoid, it seems, of due consideration for the wider ecological linkages that sustain us. Sometimes, even eating would appear to have been dispensed with! In many parts of the world sheer struggle for survival is far more intense, and the prospects more daunt- ing still. Education is playing its part there too, but the counter-pressures are overwhelming. Environmental conservation can only seem a rich man's iponcept to those with little to eat, little to burn, and little land to till. They often know how they would like to use their resources, but are prevented from conserving them by im- mediacy, lack of tenure for example and downright poverty. It is interesting to speculate that were a Bumblesnout crusade to happen there, it might defend people against outside pressures, for example by re- Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:13, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892900038455 https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892900038455 104 Editorial turning land to them, helping them to achieve sustainable economic growth, and shielding them from mis- leading messages about the superiority of other cultures. Indeed, this sort of thing is happening in some areas. One challenge for environmentalists is how to turn knowledge more effectively into action when the Earth is so diverse, such that the solutions of Newcastle upon Tyne are not the same as those of Naivasha or Vanuatu. Implicit in this challenge is that the knowledge is of the right kind/ A journal such as this presents science at a level far removed from people on the ground, it is true, but the scientific method is universal. It includes meticulous observation, rigorous analysis, scrutiny of meaning, and application to clearly-defined goals. Environmental Conservation, as I see it then, plays a part in enhancing the application of this method to environmental issues. It constitutes one element, albeit a major one, in a network involving providers of data, disseminators, practitioners, politicians, legislators and people on the ground. It is also hopefully part of an omnidirectional process: not merely a conduit from providers of new information to users of it, but also back again, and repeatedly so, as understanding increases. In that way the universal method is adaptable to local issues whatever their nature and wherever they arise. Children are not obvious participants in the processes involved, but hopefully they are not often far from the minds so engaged, and will ultimately benefit from the process. Nicholas V.C. Polunin Editor Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Carnegie Mellon University, on 06 Apr 2021 at 01:36:13, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892900038455 https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892900038455 
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work_ur3fpksn2rdt3ksve6je244swa	----	242 Futures Hayes WF.indd Join the discussion of Futures in Nature at go.nature.com/QMAm2a JA C E Y Martin Hayes If you are considering joining the space corps, I’ve got one word for you: don’t. Don’t do it. No, seriously now, don’t even think about it. Wait. What’s that you say? Why the hell not? Yeah, I knew you’d say that. Okay wise guy, here goes nothing. You know those adverts that you see during your favourite TV shows? They’re all lies. That foxy waitress who is so impressed by the young hotshot who just graduated from the academy that her clothes just seem to fall off of their own volition — they think we’re all morons. That handsome, well-built guy with the oiled biceps dodging the ship through the asteroid belt — never happened, would never happen, will never happen. It’s not glamorous, it’s not excit- ing, it pays less than what I used to make as a welder and it will really screw up your social life. Still don’t believe me? Huh, I figured as much. Okay, so you probably think that life in the space corps is all thrills, spills and madcap adventures, gritting your teeth while you make split-second, life or death deci- sions. Yeah? Wrong. The truth is that it’s supremely, monstrously, interminably bor- ing. Even if you’re picked for the induction course and you manage to trudge your way through all the mental training and assault courses, the personality tests and press-ups, it can still take years before you even set foot on a ship to begin your first mission. And believe me, that’s when the fun really goes out of it. Do you want to know the worst thing about waking up from a 19-month cryo- sleep? The size of the bloody erection, that’s what. Seriously, you could hammer tent pegs into Europan sheet-ice with the thing. It’s agony. On my last trip out it took five days for the bruising to fade away. And I had to sit down to take a leak. You try going to the ship’s doctor and telling her that you’ve got acute thrombosis of the penis. There’s a conversation you won’t forget in a hurry. And then there are all the other hassles of cryo-sleep. You haven’t washed your face for a year and a half so you’re riddled with zits, and if you’ve slept a bit funny on your arm you’ll be walking like Quasimodo for the next three weeks — and the breath! Plus, it’s practically a given that at least one of your colleagues will be playing ton- sil hockey with some kind of hideous face- sucking parasite. You’ll try to take it off but it never works. It’ll have acid for blood or something, as usual. We used to run a book on who would be the one sporting the alien balaclava but it’s not worth it any more, you can’t get good odds. Last time out I was 3 to 1 on. But the parasites aren’t even the half of it. If I told you about all the times my fellow crew members have been haunted by ethereal-yet-physical representations of their recently deceased wives, I’d be here all day. It’s almost become a cliché at this point. For some guys, that’s the only reason they go on missions anymore, to catch up with their dead wives, have a bit of a chat, let them know how the kids are getting on, all that. And the nocturnal noises — just let me tell you this: it’s no fun trying to get back to sleep when you’ve been woken at a quar- ter to four in the morning by the syrupy moans of your shipmate getting frisky with the ghost of his dead wife in the cabin next door. There isn’t a bulkhead in the world thick enough to shield your ears from those high-pitched supernatural delights. And everyone knows that the compa- nies who run the ships are a bunch of mean sods. They never put proper lighting in the hallways, they’re always dark and shadowy and a little bit on the scary side, and for some unknown reason there’s always a leaking pipe somewhere, usually down in the cargo bay, constantly drip-drip-drip- ping water and driving everyone crazy. Here’s what I’d like to know, if they can build a spaceship the size of a small city and fly it through interstellar space at almost the speed of light, why can’t they fix a leaking pipe? Eh? Well? You should also forget all those exciting rumours you’ve heard about the aliens. Apart from the face-sucking-leech-beasts (who, despite their tendency to pounce on you when you least expect it, can at least be taught some basic domestic skills), we’ve found only one other species of intelligent life and they turned out to be the extra- solar equivalent of Morris Dancers — boring bastards to a man, and no, that’s not sexist, they don’t have females, they spontaneously repro- duce in a little transparent bag that they carry around between their knees, and yes, that is as pretty as it sounds. So, take my advice, stay on Earth. Get a job in a supermarket or some- thing. It’s less hassle, the money is better and at least I won’t have to look at your sallow, boggle-eyed face over breakfast. Yours sincerely, Frank Ellison Hydrogeological Survey Assistant 18th July, 2217 DS Research Ship Ptolemy — docked at Ganymede space port. PS. I forgot to mention: never, on any account, and I mean never, trust the AI computer. It wants to kill you. PPS. Seriously. Don’t. ■ Martin Hayes lives in Arklow, a small town on the east coast of Ireland. He spends his days drinking strong tea and staring maniacally at a Crookes Radiometer. You can visit him at www.paroneiria.com. An open letter To any impressionable young school leavers who are considering joining the space corps. 242 NATURE|Vol 462|12 November 2009FUTURES F U T U R E S © 2009 Macmillan Publishers Limited. 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work_usohkcdmtjhojposcu22d7ou4i	----	psp57030416.tif Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Copyright 1989 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 1989, Vol. 57, No. 3, 416--425 0 0 2 2 - 3 5 1 4 / 8 9 / $ 0 0 . 7 5 Aging and Susceptibility to Attitude Change Jon A. Krosnick Duane E Alwin O h i o State University University o f Michigan Two hypotheses about the relation between age and susceptibility to attitude change were tested. The impressionable years hypothesis proposes that individuals are highly susceptible to attitude change during late adolescence and early adulthood and that susceptibility drops precipitously immediately thereafter and remains low throughout the rest of the life cycle. The increasing persistence hypothesis proposes that people become gradually more resistant to change throughout their lives. Structural equation models were applied to data from the 1956-1960, 1972-1976, and 1980 National Election Panel Studies in order to estimate the stability of political attitudes and unreliability in measures of them. The results support the impressionable years hypothesis and disconfirm the increasing persistence hypothesis. A decrease in the over-time consistency of attitude reports among 66- to 83- year-olds was found to be due to increased random measurement error in their reports, not to in- creased attitude change. A g r e a t deal o f research has e x p l o r e d individual difference variables t h a t d e t e r m i n e the susceptibility o f attitudes to change. For e x a m p l e , recent meta-analyses have shown t h a t women a r e m o r e easily influenced t h a n m e n u n d e r certain cir- c u m s t a n c e s (Cooper, 1979; Eagly & Carli, 1981). Other re- search has f o u n d relations between personality and resistance to a t t i t u d e change (Hovland & Janis, 1959; Newcomb, 1943). A n d still other research indicates t h a t attitudes t h a t are m o r e central or i m p o r t a n t to individuals are m o r e resistant to change t h a n are n o n c e n t r a l o r u n i m p o r t a n t attitudes (Krosnick, 1988). I n this article, we explore a n o t h e r possible d e t e r m i n a n t : age. It is widely believed t h a t susceptibility to a t t i t u d e change varies as people progress t h r o u g h the life cycle. Two p r i n c i p a l h y p o t h - eses have b e e n proposed, b o t h o f which assert t h a t susceptibility to a t t i t u d e change is greatest d u r i n g adolescence a n d early a d u l t h o o d and decreases thereafter. I n this article, we evaluate these hypotheses in two studies o f political attitudes. We begin b y describing the two hypotheses a n d highlighting the short- comings o f the l i m i t e d existing evidence testing them. We then r e p o r t new evidence, using i m p r o v e d d a t a and analytic methods. This research was supported by Grant 2-R01-AG04743-03 from the National Institute on Aging. Portions of this article were presented at the 1988 annual meeting of the American Association for Public Opin- ion Research in Toronto, Canada. We acknowledge the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research for providing access to the National Election Study data analyzed in this article, and we thank Frank Mierzwa and Lynn Diel- man for conducting the data analysis. We also thank David Sears, Philip Converse, and Richard Petty for very helpful comments and sugges- tions. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jon A. Krosniek, Department of Psychology, Ohio State University, Colum- bus, Ohio 43210, or to Duane E Alwin, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 426 Thompson Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106. T w o P e r s p e c t i v e s o n A g e a n d A t t i t u d e C h a n g e There are two m a j o r perspectives on the relation between age and a t t i t u d e flexibility (see Alwin, Cohen, & Newcomb, in press). According to the impressionable years hypothesis, the socializing influences individuals experience when they are young have a p r o f o u n d i m p a c t on their t h i n k i n g t h r o u g h o u t their lives (Cutler, 1974; Dennis, 1973; Easton & Dennis, 1969; Greenstein, 1965; Hess & Torney, 1967; Sears, 1975, 1981, 1983). The historical e n v i r o n m e n t in which a young person be- comes an active p a r t i c i p a n t in the a d u l t world shapes the basic values, attitudes, and world views f o r m e d d u r i n g those years. O n c e the p e r i o d o f early socialization has passed, this hypothe- sis argues, its residuals are fixed within individuals, and these core orientations are unlikely to change.I As a result o f this process, m e m b e r s o f each b i r t h c o h o r t are p r e s u m a b l y likely to r e s e m b l e one a n o t h e r closely in t e r m s o f their basic attitudes ( M a n n h e i m , 1952). F u r t h e r m o r e , differ- ences between b i r t h cohorts in t e r m s o f the economic, social, and political conditions and the formal socialization practices they experience p r o d u c e differences between cohorts in t e r m s o f attitudes (Cutler, 1974, p. 441). For e x a m p l e , increases in the rate o f formal education in the U n i t e d States have provided new b i r t h cohorts with different socializing experiences from those o f preceding generations. C o h o r t r e p l a c e m e n t may be responsi- ble for recent changes in a variety o f the A m e r i c a n p u b l i c ' s so- cial and political attitudes. Cohorts who have had one sort o f early socialization experience die off as cohorts with different socialization experiences enter a d u l t h o o d ( M a n n h e i m , 1952). A second view o f the relation between age and susceptibility to attitude change is called the increasing persistence hypothe- There is no universal agreement on precisely which are the impres- sionable years. Some authors see political socialization as largely com- pleted by age 18; others see it as continuing up to approximately age 25. Consistent with this latter view, Newcomb and colleagues (Newcomb, 1943; Newcomb, Koenig, Hacks, & Warwick, 1967) found evidence of significant political socialization between ages 18 and 25. 416 Jon's Assistants Text Box Krosnick, J. A., & Alwin, D. F. (1989). Aging and susceptibility to attitude change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 416-425 AGING A N D SUSCEPTIBILITY TO ATTITUDE C H A N G E 417 sis. According to this perspective, individuals are eminently flexible and responsive to social circumstances when they are young, but as they age, their flexibility decreases gradually (Glenn, 1974, 1980; Jennings & Niemi, 1981; Markus, 1979; Sears, 1981, 1983). There are a number o f justifications for the argument that attitude flexibility decreases steadily through the life span (see, e.g., Glenn, 1980). First, because o f a decline in energy and loss o f brain tissue, capacities for information pro- cessing and memory decline as life progresses, making incorpo- ration o f new information difficult. Second, the experiences one has as one ages leave a gradually growing body o f attitude-rele- vant knowledge within the individual that serves as a source o f psychological stability (Wood, 1982). Third, aging entails social disengagement and a decrease in interest in events distant from one's immediate life (Gergen & Back, 1966; Glenn, 1969), which reduces the likelihood that attitude-challenging informa- tion will be carefully considered by an individual (Petty & Caci- oppo, 1979). Finally, a corresponding increase in social support for one's attitudes takes place as one accumulates friends who share similar social background experiences and world views as a result o f friend selection and social influence processes (New- comb, Koenig, Hacks, & Warwick, 1967). This, too, may in- crease resistance to attitude change. As a result o f these pro- cesses, people's attitudes presumably become less responsive to developments in their environments and thereby become less likely to change. According to this view, gradual changes in ag- gregated society-level attitudes reflect changes among the youn- gest members o f society in response to major national events and personal experiences. A third view o f the relation between age and susceptibility to attitude change is the life-long openness hypothesis (Sears, 1981, 1983). According to this view, individuals are highly flexible throughout their lives and constantly alter their attitudes in re- sponse to changing life circumstances (see, e.g., Brim & Kagan, 1980, p. 1). This view is not necessarily incompatible with the impressionable years and increasing persistence hypotheses be- cause susceptibility to attitude change could decrease across the life cycle, as described by either o f these hypotheses, although it may never reach a very low level. On the other hand, suscepti- bility to attitude change could, in theory, be near zero through- out the life cycle, a hypothesis that we view as the relevant null hypothesis for these others. P r e v i o u s Tests o f T h e s e H y p o t h e s e s Two principal research approaches have been taken to test these hypotheses. The first involves tracking birth cohorts' aver- age attitudes over time. Perhaps the best known o f these studies was Newcomb's classic Bennington study (Newcomb, 1943; Newcomb et al., 1967). Newcomb measured the social and po- litical attitudes o f a cohort o f female students before, during, and after their years at Bennington College. These women had been raised in conservative, socioeconomically advantaged households and were confronted with a very liberal environ- ment at Bennington. During their college years, the students' mean political orientation moved from the conservative end o f the political spectrum toward the liberal end. The longer stu- dents stayed at Bennington, the more liberal they became on average. Newcomb et al. (1967) reinterviewed many o f these students 25 years after they graduated from Bennington and found that they had remained quite liberal on average in terms o f political orientations. And when they were interviewed again in 1984, the Bennington women continued to evidence highly liberal po- litical orientations on average (Alwin et al., in press). This evi- dence is limited because o f the unrepresentativeness o f the sam- ple, but studies o f aggregate-level attitude change in representa- tive national samples have also found large shifts in young cohorts and negligible shifts in middle-aged and older cohorts (Converse, 1976; Crewe, Sarlvik, & Air, 1977; Glenn, 1980; Markus, 1979; Mueller, 1973; Nunn, Crockett, & Williams, 1978). Thus, this body o f evidence is consistent with the im- pressionable years hypothesis and challenges the increasing per- sistence hypothesis. Assessing attitude change by tracking changes in a group's average attitude is almost certain to underestimate the amount o f attitude change that actually occurred. High levels o f aggre- gate stability can coexist with high levels o f individual attitude change that cancel out at the aggregate level. Therefore, more definitive tests o f the impressionable years and increasing per- sistence hypotheses require analyses o f individual-level attitude stability. This is the second principal research method that has been used in this literature. To assess the Bennington women's iudividual-level stability, Newcomb et al. (1967) computed test-retest correlations be- tween attitude measures. Because correlations between atti- tudes in 1938 and attitudes in 1960 were slightly larger (about .50 on average) than were correlations between attitudes in 1935 and attitudes in 1938 (about.42), Newcomb concluded that the Bennington women's attitudes became more stable as they got older. Jennings and his colleagues reported similar evidence on the consistency over time o f attitude reports made by represen- tative national samples o f adults (Jennings, 1988; Jennings & Markus, 1984; Jennings & Niemi, 1978; Markus, 1979). Al- though Newcomb et al. did not assess attitude change after age 40, Jennings and Markus (1984) did; they found no consistent evidence o f an increase in the over-time consistency o f attitude reports between the ages o f 25 and 63. Therefore, this evidence is most supportive o f the impressionable years hypothesis. The only investigation that examined political attitude stabil- ity across the entire life span reached a different conclusion. Sears (1981) found that test-retest correlations between mea- sures o f racial prejudice gradually increased across 21-28-year- olds, 29-44-year-olds, and 45-60-year-olds, a result consistent with the increasing persistence hypothesis. Sears also found un- expectedly low levels o f over-time consistency among individu- als older than age 60, a result he viewed as evidence that an increase in susceptibility to change occurs in later years. C o n f o u n d i n g A t t i t u d e C h a n g e W i t h A t t i t u d e M e a s u r e m e n t U n r e l i a b i l i t y As a group, these studies are problematic partly because o f the inconsistencies among their findings. However, they are also problematic because o f a common flaw in their analytic ap- proaches. It is well known that test-retest correlations, such as those computed by Newcomb et al. (1967), Jennings and Mar- kus (1984), and Sears (198 l), are not pure measures o f attitude 4 1 8 JON A. KROSNICK AND DUANE E ALWIN stability (see, e.g., W h e a t o n , M u t h e n , Alwin, & S u m m e r s , 1977). These correlations reflect b o t h the a m o u n t o f a t t i t u d e change t h a t takes place d u r i n g a given t i m e p e r i o d a n d the a m o u n t o f r a n d o m m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r in r e p o r t s o f attitudes. Differences between age groups in t e r m s o f over-time corre- lations may reflect differences in the extent o f either o r b o t h processes, because b o t h a t t e n u a t e such correlations. Jennings a n d M a r k u s (1984) r e c o g n i z e d this confounding (see pp. 1004-1005, f o o t n o t e 3). In t h e i r analysis o f p a r t y iden- tifieation, they used s t r u c t u r a l equation m o d e l i n g to separate a t t i t u d e change from a t t i t u d e m e a s u r e m e n t unreliability. Jen- nings and M a r k u s f o u n d t h a t t a k i n g m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r i n t o a c c o u n t in this fashion d i d n o t alter their evidence o f increased stability in early a d u l t h o o d . However, Jennings and colleagues d i d n o t p e r f o r m s i m i l a r analyses for the other attitudes t h e y m e a s u r e d , and it is i m p o s s i b l e t o be certain t h a t doing so would n o t have altered t h e i r general conclusion. Sears ( 1981) dealt with m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r in a different fash- ion. H e assessed the r e l a t i o n between age a n d r a n d o m m e a s u r e - m e n t e r r o r b y c o m p u t i n g C r o n b a c h ' s a l p h a coefficients for his 10-item index o f racial attitudes. Because the a l p h a coefficients for all o f t h e age g r o u p s were " i n the s a m e ballpark," Sears con- cluded t h a t the v a r i a t i o n in t e s t - r e t e s t correlations t h a t he ob- served reflected only differences in a t t i t u d e change. Treating C r o n b a c h ' s a l p h a as a m e a s u r e o f reliability as Sears (1981) d i d entails m a k i n g the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t the 10 i t e m s c o m p o s i n g his index a r e all univocal m e a s u r e s o f a single, u n i - d i m e n s i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d racial integration. However, re- c e n t evidence suggests t h a t the i t e m s Sears analyzed actually m e a s u r e m o r e t h a n one latent a t t i t u d e d i m e n s i o n (Bobo, 1983). I f this is so, Sears's a l p h a s c o n f o u n d r a n d o m m e a s u r e m e n t er- r o r with the strength o f the relations a m o n g the dimensions. Variation in the latter across age g r o u p s c o u l d have masked variation in m e a s u r e m e n t reliability across age groups. F u r t h e r m o r e , although Sears (1981) viewed his C r o n b a c h ' s a l p h a analysis as revealing n o relation between age a n d a t t i t u d e m e a s u r e m e n t reliability, a n u m b e r o f previous investigations have f o u n d t h a t the a m o u n t o f r a n d o m m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r in a t t i t u d e r e p o r t s is greater a m o n g older respondents (Andrews, 1984; A n d r e w s & Herzog, 1986; Stember, 1951-1952). Indeed, a close inspection o f Sears's (1981) reliability coefficients re- veals t h a t the oldest respondents' a l p h a was lower t h a n those o f younger respondents, enough so to e x p l a i n the decrease in over- t i m e correlations. 2 Therefore, the decline Sears discovered in over-time correlations a m o n g the oldest age g r o u p may reflect an increase in r a n d o m m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r i n s t e a d o f an in- crease in the r a t e o f a t t i t u d e change. foreign policy issues, attitudes toward social groups, political p a r t y identification, a n d liberal-conservative ideological orien- tations. T h i r d , we i m p l e m e n t e d a n analytic a p p r o a c h t h a t per- m i t t e d us to estimate attitude change a n d r a n d o m m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r separately in a way t h a t d i d n o t require t h a t a s s u m p t i o n s be m a d e a b o u t the u n i d i m e n s i o n a l i t y o f sets o f attitude items. Study 1 was based on d a t a collected f r o m two panels o f re- spondents, who were each interviewed on t h r e e occasions, 2 years apart. Each p a n e l ' s interviews s p a n n e d two presidential elections a n d one congressional election. Respondents in each p a n e l were asked certain a t t i t u d e questions d u r i n g each inter- view, which allowed us to generate separate estimates o f a t t i t u d e stability a n d a t t i t u d e m e a s u r e reliability, using structural equa- tion modeling. Study 2 used the same analytic m e t h o d b u t was based on d a t a collected over only 8 months, d u r i n g a single pres- idential election c a m p a i g n . Taken together, these d a t a sets per- m i t t e d us to e x a m i n e political a t t i t u d e change b o t h within and between presidential election campaigns. S t u d y 1 M e t h o d Samples. The data analyzed in this study came from two panel sur- veys in the National Election Study series. For the first survey the Uni- versity of Michigan's Center for Political Studies interviewed a repre- sentative, national cross-section of 1,132 adults living in private house- holds in the United States at the time of the 1956 presidential election. They were interviewed again at the time of the 1958 midterm election and again at the time of the 1960 presidential election. In the second panel survey that we examined, a nationally representative sample of 1,320 adults was interviewed at the time of the 1972 U.S. presidential election. They were interviewed again at the time of the 1974 midterm election and again at the time of the 1976 presidential election. In order to permit testing of hypotheses regarding aging, we divided the respondents in each panel into the following age groups on the basis of their age at the first wave of the survey: 18-25, 26-33, 34-41, 42-49, 50-57, 58-65, and 66-83. The groups were based on 8-year age spans in order to generate as many approximately equal-sized age groups as possible that were each large enough to yield reliable parameter esti- mates. The resulting age-group sizes for the 1950s panel were 94, 228, 241, 187, 138, 101, and 99, respectively. For the 1970s panel, the age group sizes were 208, 227, 190, 204, 167, 147, and 161, respectively) Measures. Our analyses required that attitudes be measured on three occasions. In the 1956-1960 study, respondents were asked identical questions in each year that measured attitudes toward school integra- tion, federally guaranteed employment for all Americans, U.S. involve- ment in the affairs of other nations, U.S. international financial aid pro- grams, maintenance of U.S. troops abroad, and federal financial aid to schools. Also, during all three waves, respondents were asked which ma- T h e P r e s e n t I n v e s t i g a t i o n I n sum, p a s t investigations o f the r e l a t i o n between age and a t t i t u d e stability have h a d significant methodological limita- tions. In this article, we will r e p o r t two studies o f the relation between age and a t t i t u d e change t h a t overcome these p r o b l e m s in t h r e e p r i n c i p a l ways. First, the d a t a we a n a l y z e d were col- lected f r o m nationally representative s a m p l e s o f a d u l t s in the U n i t e d States who ranged in age f r o m 18 to 83 years. Second, we e x a m i n e d a range o f social a n d political attitudes, including t r u s t in government, political efficacy, attitudes on d o m e s t i c and 2 When Sears (1981) controlled for educational differences between age groups, the average drop from the 45-60-ycar-olds to the 61 +-year- olds in over-time consistency was. 16, whereas the average drop in reli- ability was .08. Because unreliability in a measure reduces a test-retest correlation twice, at both Wave 1 and Wave 2 (Alwin, 1973), this differ- ence in reliability would fully account for the difference in over-time consistency. 3 These ns do not add up to the total Ns for the panels because of missing data on the age variable. In the 1950s panel, the ages of 44 respondents were not ascertained, and in the 1970s panel, the ages of 16 respondents were not ascertained. AGING A N D SUSCEPTIBILITY TO ATTITUDE C H A N G E 4 1 9 jor political party they identified with and how strongly they did so. In the 1972-1976 panel, respondents were asked identical questions in each year measuring seven categories o f attitudes: (a) political party identification, (b) liberal-conservative ideological orientation, (c) atti- tudes toward social groups, such as labor unions, the military, and the police, (d) attitudes on racial policy issues, such as school bussing pro- grams, (e) attitudes on nonracial domestic policy issues, such as feder- ally guaranteed employment and protecting the rights o f people accused o f committing crimes, (f) political efficacy and alienation, and (g) atti- tudes toward prominent politicians. In total, 50 items were analyzed from these two panel surveys. 4 Some o f the attitude measures allowed respondents to indicate (a) that they did not know what their attitude was on an issue or (b) that they had not thought enough about an issue to form an attitude. Re- spondents who gave either o f these answers to a given question at any wave were eliminated from the analyzed sample for that question. 5 Analysis. We wished to estimate the reliability o f these measures and the stability o f the underlying attitudes for each o f the seven age groups. A number o f analytic approaches have been proposed for doing so using structural equation modeling all o f which require data on a panel o f respondents collected on at least two occasions (see Alwin, 1988). When only two waves o f data are available, these approaches require that the assumption be made that a set o f questions are congeneric measures o f a single attitude. Because we had measures o f the same attitudes on three occasions, we were able to estimate the parameters o f a model that does not entail this assumption. The model we estimated is composed o f two structural equations: X t = ¢, + ~t, ( 1 ) a n d ¢, = / 3 , , , - 1 ~ , - 1 + ~',. ( 2 ) Equation 1 specifies the measurement model, which describes the rela- tion between the latent attitude being measured and verbal reports o f it. It decomposes variance in reports Oft, where t = 1, 2, 3) into two components, one due to the latent attitude (rt) and the other due to random measurement error (~t). Equation 2 specifies the structural model, which describes the relations among the latent attitudes./~t.t-~ is the stability of the latent attitude during the period from t - 1 to t • ~'t represents sources o f change over time in the latent attitude. This model has been discussed extensively by Heise (1969), Wheaton et al., (1977), and Wiley and Wiley (1970). As it appears in Equations 1 and 2, the model is underidentified. There are six independent pieces o f information available (o12, 0,32, 0,31, ~l 2, 0,22, and 0,32) with which to estimate eight parameters (/~21,/~32, ¢~12, ¢~e, 0,~32, #~12, ¢r22, and 0,~32). In order to identify the model, the attitude measure's reliability is assumed to remain constant across waves (#1 e - O'M2)/0,12 = (O"22- 0,E22)/0,22 = ( 0 , 3 2 - 0,e32)/0"32; Heise, 1969). 6 Given this constraint, the model is just-identified, so the parameter estimates will always fit the observed data perfectly. For each attitude measure, the parameters o f the model were esti- mated separately for each o f the seven age groups using LISREL VI (Jores- kng & Sorbom, 1978). We then analyzed the resulting parameter esti- mates in two ways. First, we were interested in the stability o f the latent attitude, so we examined the estimates of/32~ and/~32. Second, we exam- ined the single reliability estimate generated for each attitude measure. And finally, we were interested in comparing the conclusions reached by our analysis with those that would have been reached had we ignored the distinction between attitude instability and attitude measure unreli- ability. We therefore examined Pearson product-moment test-retest correlations between the attitude measures at adjacent waves: rl2 and r2a. For the sake o f simplicity, all o f the following statistical tests involv- ing stability are based on a single combined analysis o f all the stability coefficients (/~2~ and/~32), and all tests involving over-time consistency are based on a single combined analysis o f all the test-retest correlations (r12 and r23 ). Results Zero-order correlations. T h e t o p p a n e l o f T a b l e I displays t h e average t e s t - r e t e s t c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r e a c h age g r o u p . A s e x p e c t e d , a o n e - w a y analysis o f v a r i a n c e (ANOVA) o f t h e figures i n t h e t h i r d c o l u m n i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e were statistically significant differences a m o n g t h e age g r o u p s , F ( 6 , 693) = 2.86, p = .01. Tests o f a p r i o r i c o n t r a s t s r e v e a l e d t h a t , c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e t w o a g i n g hypotheses, t h e y o u n g e s t age g r o u p ' s average c o r r e l a t i o n was significantly s m a l l e r t h a n t h e average o f t h e 2 6 - 6 5 age g r o u p s , t(693) = 2.18, p < .03. C o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e c l a i m t h a t a t t i t u d e m e a s u r e m e n t r e l i a b i l i t y d e c r e a s e s i n o l d age, t h e oldest age g r o u p ' s average c o r r e l a t i o n was significantly s m a l l e r t h a n t h e average o f t h e 2 6 - 6 5 age g r o u p s , t(693) = 2.97, p < .01. T a k e n together, t h e s e results p r e c i s e l y r e p l i c a t e Sears's (1981) findings. 7 Attitude stability. T h e m i d d l e p a n e l o f T a b l e 1 displays esti- m a t e s o f a t t i t u d e stability. T h e i m p r e s s i o n a b l e years h y p o t h e s i s p r o p o s e s t h a t t h e s e stability coefficients s h o u l d b e relatively s m a l l i n t h e y o u n g e s t age g r o u p a n d s h o u l d b e large a n d a p p r o x - i m a t e l y e q u a l i n t h e r e m a i n i n g age groups. T h e i n c r e a s i n g - p e r - sistence h y p o t h e s i s p r o p o s e s i n s t e a d t h a t w e s h o u l d o b s e r v e a consistent, g r a d u a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e stability coefficients a c r o s s t h e age g r o u p s . 4 For two other items in the 1950s data set and six other items in the 1970s data set, either LISREL was unable to estimate the structural equation model parameters for one age group, or one age group's pa- rameter estimates were far out o f range. These problems probably oc- curred because o f random fluctuation in the zero-order correlations be- tween the attitude measures that resulted from small sample sizes and sampling error. In order to maintain comparability o f items across age groups, we did not include these items in any o f the following analyses. However, when we repeated the analyses deleting only those single data points that were not estimable, the results were equivalent to those re- ported here (and in fact supported our conclusions even more strongly). The first-wave National Election Study item numbers for the attitude measures included in these analyses are 32, 35, 41, 53, 56, 74, and 88 in the 1950s and 112, 140, 202, 232, 259, 253, 255,258, 264, 269-274, 570-574, 576, 578, 621,652, 707, 709, 714, 717-722, 724, 737, 744, 745,749, 752, 753, 755,756, and 1067 in the 1970s. 5 All o f the following analyses were also run recoding "don't know" and "haven't thought much about this issue" responses to the midpoint o f the attitude scales. The results o f these analyses are essentially identi- cal to those reported here. Levels o f " d o n ' t know" and "haven't thought much about this issue" responses increase consistently across the life cycle, from a low o f about 12% for 18-25-year-olds to about 23% for 66-83-year-olds, with most o f the increase occurring after age 49. 6 An alternative approach to identifying the model described in Equations 1 and 2 was proposed by Wiley and Wiley (1970). All o f the following analyses were recomputed using their identifying assumption. The results o f these analyses were comparable to those reported in the text. 7 Here and throughout the remainder o f the results, we found no sta- tistically significant differences between attitude--object categories in the relation between age and attitude stability and attitude-report reli- ability. For more detailed results in this regard, see Alwin and Krosnick (1988, 1989) and Krosnick and Alwin (1989). 420 JON A. KROSNICK AND DUANE E ALWIN Table 1 Study 1: Zero-Order Correlations, Attitude Stabilities, and Attitude-Measure Reliabilities by Age Group Time period" Wave 1- Wave 2 - Age group Wave 2 Wave 3 Combined b Zero-ordercorrelations 18-25 .42 .46 .44 26-33 .46 .47 .46 34-41 .48 .52 .50 42-49 .49 .50 .50 50-57 .44 .48 .46 58-65 .46 .48 .47 66-83 .41 .44 .43 Standardized stability coefficients 18-25 0.82 0.89 0.85 26-33 0.86 0.90 0.88 34-41 0.90 0.98 0.94 42-49 0.90 0.96 0.93 50-57 0.83 0.97 0.90 58-65 0.90 0.96 0.93 66-83 0.91 0.94 0.92 Reliabilities 18-25 .55 26-33 .54 34-41 .54 42-49 .55 50-57 .58 58-65 .54 66-83 .51 a Each entry in these two columns is an average of 50 coeffi- cients, b Each entry in this column is an average of 100 coefficients, except for the reliabilities, which are averages of 50 coefficients. As expected, the youngest age group's average stability co- efficient (shown i n the last c o l u m n ) is significantly lower t h a n the average of the r e m a i n i n g age groups, t(693) = 2.36, p < .02. Furthermore, the 26-33-year-olds' average stability is margin- ally significantly lower t h a n the average of the 34-83-year-olds, t(693) = 1.52, p = . 13. However, there are n o other statistically significant differences between the coefficients. Furthermore, there is no correlation between age a n d stability among the 3 4 - 83-year-olds (r = - . 0 2 , ns). This evidence is therefore d e a r l y consistent with the impressionable years hypothesis a n d is in- consistent with the increasing persistence hypothesis. Further- more, these results refute Sears's ( 1981 ) claim that attitude sta- bility decreases toward the end o f the life cycle. Attitude measurement reliability The figures i n the bottom panel of Table 1 are estimates of the average reliability o f the attitude measures for each age group. As expected, the average reliabilities reveal a trend toward decreased reliability toward the end of the life cycle. The average reliability for the 18-65- year-olds is .55, which drops to .51 for the 66-83-year-olds. However, the average reliability of the 66-83-year-olds is n o t significantly smaller t h a n the average of the r e m a i n i n g age groups, t(343) = 1.21, p = .23, and n o other statistically signifi- cant differences appeared among the other age groups. These results are therefore weak b u t consistent with the claim that attitude-measurement reliability decreases at the end of the life cycle a n d that the drop i n over-time consistency of older respon- dents' attitude reports is d u e to decreased measurement reli- ability, n o t decreased attitude stability. S t u d y 2 The results of Study 1 are based on data collected over 4-ycar periods, including two presidential elections and a congres- sional election. Therefore, the estimates of attitude stability re- ported in Study 1 assess attitude change that occurred between elections. Because the dynamics o f between-election attitude change may be different from the dynamics of attitude change that occurs within a single campaign, we conducted a second study, i n which we examined the relation of age to within-cam- paign attitude change. Method Samples. For the 1980 National Election Panel Study, the Center for Political Studies interviewed a representative national cross-section of 769 American adults living in private households. Each respondent was interviewed three times, first in January or February of 1980, again in June, and again in September or October. These respondents were again divided into seven age groups on the basis of their a ~ at the first wave of the survey: 18-25, 26-33, 34--41, 42-49, 50-57, 58-65, and 66-83. The resulting age group sizes were 127, 163, 114, 68, 93, 87, and 88, respectively, s Measures and analysis. Our analyses again focused on attitudes that were measured on three occasions. Respondents in this study were asked identical questions in each year measuring attitudes in five catego- ries: (a) political party identification, (b) liberal-conservative ideologi- cal orientation, (c) attitudes toward social groups, (d) attitudes on non- racial domestic policy issues, and (e) attitudes toward prominent politi- cians. In total, 18 items were included in our anaiyses. 9 Again, respondents who indicated (a) that they did not know what their attitude was on an issue or (b) that they had not thought enough about an issue to form an attitude at any wave were eliminated from the analyzed sam- ple for that issue. Estimates of the stability of these attitudes and of the reliability of these measures for each of our seven groups were generated using the same methods as were used in Study 1. Results Zero-order correlations. The top panel of Table 2 displays the average zero-order test-retest correlations for the seven age groups. A one-way ANOVA of the averages i n the last c o l u m n again indicated that there were statistically significant differ- ences among the age groups, F(6, 245) = 2.90, p = .01. Consis- tent with both aging hypotheses, the youngest age group's aver- age correlation was smaller than the average of the 26-57-year- s Again, the total of these age group ns does not equal the total sam- ple, because the ages of 29 respondents either were not ascertained or fell outside of the 18-83 range. 9 Because of inestimable or out-of-range parameters, five other items were not included in the analyses reported here. The first-wave National Election Study item numbers for the included attitude measures are 425, 426, 428--431,433, 438-440, 442, 801,944, 1114, 1189, 1278, 1282, and 1284. AGING AND SUSCEPTIBILITY TO ATrITUDE CHANGE 421 Table 2 Study 2: Zero-Order Correlations, Attitude Stabilities, and Attitude-Measure Reliabilities by Age Group Time period" Wave 1- Wave 2 - Age group Wave 2 Wave 3 Combined b Zero-ordercorrelations 18-25 .57 .63 .60 26-33 .64 .67 .66 34-41 .64 .66 .65 42-49 .66 .69 .68 50-57 .64 .66 .65 58-65 .59 .63 .61 66-83 .52 .59 .56 Standardized stability coefficients 18-25 0.83 0.90 0.87 26-33 0.88 0.93 0.91 34-41 0.93 0.97 0.95 42-49 0.90 0.97 0.94 50-57 0.96 0.98 0.97 58-65 0.95 1.04 1.00 66-83 0.86 1.02 0.94 Rcliabilities 18-25 .75 26-33 .73 34-41 .69 42-49 .74 50-57 .72 58-65 .63 66-83 .66 a Each entry in these two columns is an average of 18 coeffi- cients, b Each entry in this column is an average of 36 coefficients, except for the reliabilities, which are averages of 18 coefficients. old age groups, t(245) = 2.06, p = .04. A n d consistent with the claim that attitude-measurement reliability decreases in old age, the 26-57-year-old age group's average correlation was sig- nificantly larger than those o f the 58-65-year-olds, t ( 2 4 5 ) = 1.94, p < .06, and the 66-83-year-olds, t(245) = 3.72, p < .01. Thus, these figures replicate Sears's ( 1981) results again. Attitude stability. The middle panel o f Table 2 displays the structural equation model estimates o f attitude stability. Con- sistent with both the impressionable-years hypothesis and the increasing-persistence hypothesis, the youngest age group's av- erage stability coefficient (shown in the last column) is signifi- cantly smaller than the mean o f the 26-83-year-olds, t(245) = 2.05, p < .05. Therefore, young adults appear to have been more susceptible than older adults to attitude change during the 1980 presidential election campaign. Again, there is n o correlation between age and stability among the 34-83-year-olds (r = .02, ns), which disconfirms the increasing persistence hypothesis. A n d although there is some indication here that the attitude stability o f 66-83-year-olds is lower than that o f 58-65-year- olds, these two groups' stability coefficients do n o t differ sig- nificantly, t(245) = 1.20, p = .23. Furthermore, the stability co- efficient for the 66-83-year-olds is n o t significantly different from the average o f that o f the 34-65-year-olds, t(245) = 0.65, ns. Thus, there is n o evidence o f a decrease in attitude stability at the end o f the life cycle. Attitude-measurement reliability. The figures in the b o t t o m panel o f Table 2 estimate the average reliability o f the attitude measures for each age group. The relation between age and reli- ability is again quite clear. The 58-83-year-olds' average reli- ability is marginally significantly smaller than that o f the 18- 57-year-olds, t(119) = 1.87, p < .07, and n o other statistically significant differences appeared among the other age groups. Therefore, these results further reinforce the claim that atti- tude-measurement reliability decreases at the end o f the life cycle. D i s c u s s i o n The analytic strategy used in this investigation represents an improvement over previous methodologies in a n u m b e r o f re- spects. First, we used methods that attempted to unconfound attitude stability and attitude-measurement reliability. As a re- sult, our comparisons o f different age groups in terms o f atti- tude stability presumably do n o t reflect differences in reliability. Second, instead o f using multiple-indicator structural equation models, we used single-indicator models. Therefore, the validity o f our conclusions does not depend on the validity o f the as- sumption that a set o f indicators is congeneric, measuring only a single latent attitude. Finally, our methods improve on those used in past studies because we aggregated attitude stability and reliability estimates over large samples o f attitude measures. Therefore, o u r conclusions can reasonably be generalized broadly across political attitude domains. Aging and political attitude stability. The results o f Studies l and 2 provide strong support for the impressionable years hy- pothesis. According to this perspective, people are most suscep- tible t o political attitude change during their early adult years, and susceptibility drops off immediately thereafter. This is pre- cisely the pattern o f stability coefficients we found in Studies l and 2, although the differences we found were n o t huge. Con- trary t o the increasing-persistence hypothesis, we found n o evi- dence o f gradually increasing attitude stability after age 33. Studies 1 and 2 differed from one another in terms o f the type o f attitude change that was assessed. The focus o f Study 1 was on attitude change that occurred between elections, whereas Study 2 assessed change within the course o f a single campaign. Although between-election attitude change and within-election attitude change may result from very different social processes, o u r results indicate that both are most likely t o occur among young adults and less likely to occur among older adults. This conclusion is satisfying partly because it is consistent with the results o f all previous research on the relation o f age t o political attitude stability (Alwin et al., in press; Converse, 1976; Crewe et al., 1977; Glenn, 1980; Jennings, 1988; Jennings & Markus, 1984; Jennings & Niemi, 1978; Markus, 1979; Mueller, 1973; Newcomb, 1943; Newcomb et al., 1967; N u n n et al., 1978; Sears, 198 l). This finding also partly parallels those o f previous studies o f the effects o f aging on other aspects o f political cognition and behavior. For example, Wolfinger and Rosenstone (1980, p. 48) found that, once education and other demographic variables are controlled, the likelihood that a citi- zen will vote in a particular presidential election is relatively 422 JON A. KROSNICK AND DUANE E ALWlN low at age 18, increases dramatically up to age 30, and continues to increase therealter, although more slowly. Converse (1976) found that the strength of political-party identification follows the same pattern across the life span. These findings are consis- tent with our evidence of increases in political-attitude stability between the ages of 18 and 30, so they may be produced by similar mechanisms. However, our failure to find evidence of increased stability thereafter conflicts with Wolfinger and Ro- senstone's (1980) and Converse's (1976) results and raises the possibility that different mechanisms may be operating. Wolfinger and Rosenstone's (1980) research suggests an inter- esting possible relation that may underlie our results. They found that the increase in voter turnout with age was powerfully related to educational attainment. Aging led to dramatically in- creased turnout among people who had not graduated from high school, but aging had almost no effect on turnout among people with at least some graduate school training (p. 59). Thus, advanced education apparently instigates a high level of turnout during early adulthood that remains crystallized throughout later adulthood. Advanced education may also solidify young people's political attitudes, so that the relation we found be- tween age and attitude stability may disappear among well-edu- cated respondents. Unfortunately, our samples were too small to permit simultaneous analysis o f age and education. Future studies that do this simultaneous analysis may make an impor- tant contribution to our understanding o f the mechanisms through which aging affects political cognition and behavior and o f the limiting conditions of those effects. It is interesting to note that the magnitude of the effect of aging on influenceability found here is comparable with the ap- parent effect on influenceability of another frequently studied individual difference variable: gender. Eagly and Carli's (198 l) mean effect size for gender, calculated in terms o f d, was .26. In terms o f d, the effects of age identified here are .21 in Study l and .20 in Study 2. The methods used in the present study are very different from those used in the studies examined by Eagiy and Carli, so direct comparison o f these ds is probably not war- ranted. Nonetheless, they suggest that age and gender may have comparable effects on persuasibility, although the effects o f both variables are not especially strong. Aging and attitude measurement unreliability. Contrary to Sears's ( 1981 ) conclusion, Studies 1 and 2 revealed no evidence o f a drop-offin attitude stability at the end of the life cycle. Our results suggest that his finding in this regard reflected a slight increase in the amount of random measurement error in atti- tude reports provided by the oldest respondents in surveys. Consistent with previous work on survey-measurement reli- ability (e.g., Andrews, 1984; Andrews & Herzog, 1986), Studies I and 2 produced evidence of this relation between age and atti- tude-measurement reliability. We suspect that this relation oc- curs because, as people age, they become less able or less willing, or both, to make precise reports of internal states by means of closed-ended survey questions. These results demonstrate how equating attitude stability with zero-order test-retest correlations between attitude mea- sures can lead to incorrect conclusions. Unreliability in attitude reports is partly the result o f respondent characteristics (Alwin & Krosnick, 1988), so between-group differences in over-time consistency confound differences in attitude stability with differences in unreliability. Given the clear conceptual distinc- tion between these two processes, researchers making compari- sons of any psychological parameters across groups defined by age or by any other individual difference variable should take into account the possibility o f measurement-error differences between groups. Aging effects versus birth cohort differences. It is well known that comparisons o f age groups using cross-sectional data may reflect the effects o f aging~ but they may also represent other processes instead (see Riley, 1973); most important, they may represent cohort-specific differences. In our case, we have as- sumed that the lower stability we observed in young adults' atti- tudes increases as they age. However, the unique socialization experiences of these individuals may have made them unusually susceptible to attitude change, and this unusual susceptibility may be maintained throughout their lives. We cannot fully test and rule out this possibility. However, the fact that similar re- lations of age to attitude stability were found in the 1950s, 1970s, and 1980s panel data when they were analyzed sepa- rately suggests strongly that this result does not reflect the unique socializing experiences of one young birth cohort. In principle, our finding that the oldest adults evidenced greater unreliability in their attitude reports may also reflect birth cohort differences instead of aging differences. In fact, Sears (1981) suggested that this relation may appear because older birth cohorts acquired less formal education on average than did younger birth cohorts, and education is positively re- lated to attitude-report precision. Although education is indeed negatively related to random measurement error in attitude re- ports (Alwin & Krosnick, 1988; Andrews, 1984; Andrews & Herzog, 1986), studies that controlled for educational differ- ences between age groups found that older respondents still evi- denced heightened random-measurement error (Andrews, 1984; Andrews & Herzog, 1986). Sears's (1981) own analysis revealed that controlling for education reduced but did not eliminate the drop in over-time consistency or reliability of atti- tude reports among respondents ages 61 years and older. And a recent cohort analysis found that the reliability of attitude re- ports decreased as each o f a series o f birth cohorts aged, thus demonstrating aging effects with education held constant (see Alwin & Krosnick, 1989). The survey samples we analyzed were too small to permit a simultaneous analysis of age and education, because this would require dividing already small age groups into even smaller edu- cation subgroups. However, given previous research, we suspect that controlling for education would eliminate some but not all o f the relation we observed here between age and the reliability o f attitude reports. And again, because the relation of age to reliability appeared in the 1950s, 1970s, and 1980s data when they were analyzed separately, it does not seem to be due to a particular birth cohort's unique experiences. Sample attrition. Another possible explanation for our find- ings of decreased attitude report reliability late in life is differ- ential sample attrition. As a birth cohort ages, some members die off. It is conceivable that the most reliable members of our oldest birth cohorts were the most likely to have died. There- fore, what appears to be an effect of aging on attitude-measure- ment reliability may in fact be the result of differential attrition. Again, we cannot test or rule this out using the present data. AGING AND SUSCEPTIBILITY TO ATTITUDE CHANGE 423 This can only be accomplished using longitudinal data, col- lected over very long time periods, which permit assessment o f the relation between reliability and mortality. However, if reli- ability and mortality are related, we can imagine that they could be so in exactly the opposite direction: The most unreliable members o f a birth cohort may be the first to die. I f this is so, we have underestimated the relation o f age to unreliability. A more important potential problem involves the sampling practices used for the National Election Studies. It is conven- tional for the National Election Studies to omit from their sam- ples individuals who live in dormitories and prisons and those serving in the military (Converse, 1976, pp. 49-50). It seems likely that greater proportions o f young adults ages 18-25 fall into these categories (particularly the dormitory category) com- pared with older people. I f individuals who fall into these cate- gories have unusually high attitude stability, this could account for the apparently lower level o f attitude stability o f 18-25-year- olds. This is a plausible and more troubling alternative explana- tion for our results that we cannot rule out. Determinants o f attitude change levels. Throughout this arti- cle, we have treated differences between age groups in terms o f attitude stability levels as indicating differences in susceptibility to attitude change. However, it is important to acknowledge that these levels are in fact joint products o f susceptibility to change and the frequency with which individuals encounter attitude- change-inducing stimuli (see, e.g., Converse, 1962; Zaller, 1987). Therefore, young people may evidence higher levels o f attitude change not because o f greater susceptibility but rather because o f greater exposure to change-inducing events. Indeed, this is quite plausible: People probably experience more major life shifts between ages 18 and 25 than at any other point in the life cycle. These changes may include graduating from high school, going to college, graduating from college, starting a first job, getting married, becoming a parent, moving from one place o f residence to another, and so on. Without measuring and con- trolling for the frequency o f such attitude-change-inducing events, it is impossible to be certain that the higher levels o f attitude change among 18-25-year-olds observed here can be attributed to greater susceptibility to attitude change. The validity of our estimation method. Separating test-retest correlations into components due to stability and unreliability is an inherently tricky business; therefore, it seems appropriate to be cautious about the validity o f our conclusions in this re- gard. Although our approach to this problem is an improve- ment over previous efforts, the structural-equation model we used does make certain assumptions that may be invalid. For example, the model assumes that attitude change occurs ac- cording to a simplex process (see Alwin, 1988), and some skep- ticism has been expressed about this assumption (Ragosa, 1988). However, a careful review o f our test-retest correlations revealed that nearly all o f them had a simplex structure; there- fore, we are not particularly troubled by this assumption. The model also assumes that measurement reliability remains con- stant across repeated interviews, which may not be the case. For example, a Socratic effect may produce a decrease in random measurement error across waves o f panel surveys (Jagodzinski, Kuhnel, & Schmidt, 1987; but see Saris & Putte, 1988). How- ever, the reliabilities generated by our estimation method are essentially averages computed across the three interviews, which can be reasonably compared across age groups even if the assumption of constant reliability is violated. Although these assumptions, therefore, do not seem prob- lematic, the model does make other assumptions that may be untenable and that may complicate a clean separation o f stabil- ity from unreliability. For example, the model assumes that there is no correlated measurement error across interviews, and violation o f this assumption would lead to inappropriately low estimates o f unreliability (although not inappropriate estimates of random measurement error; see Alwin, 1974). We therefore await the development o f more effective analytic techniques or the collection o f multiwave panel data sets that will eliminate the necessity o f making these assumptions. In the meantime, howevc~ the method we have used here seems to us to be the best one available for accomplishing our goals. Laboratory studies of attitude change. Assuming that we have identified age-based differences in susceptibility to attitude change, our findings have important implications for social psy- chologists' traditional approach to studying the determinants o f attitude change: laboratory experiments involving college undergraduate subjects. Our results make it clear that these sub- jects, most o f whom fall in the 18-25 age range, are likely to evidence higher levels o f attitude change than are older adults. Therefore, the levels o f attitude change typically found in labo- ratory studies are likely to be higher than would be produced by more representative samples o f adults (see Hovland, 1959; Sears, 1986). Do our results suggest that social psychologists should no longer conduct studies o f college sophomores? We believe not. Social psychologists are generally interested in documenting the processes by which attitude change occurs, not in assessing gen- eral levels o f flexibility. Whether the processes by which attitude change occurs are any different among young people than they are among older people remains a matter for empirical evalua- tion (although Sears, 1986, has suggested that such differences are likely). Unless process differences are uncovered, our evi- dence suggests that social psychologists' traditional approach is probably a highly sensible one. Studies o f any process can most efficiently be conducted using subjects who are most likely to manifest that process; thus, studies o f attitude change may be most efficiently conducted using subjects who are most likely to be susceptible to it: those between ages 18 and 25 years. Clearly though, assessing the generalizability o f attitude change pro- cesses across the life span is a worthy focus for future research. Impressionable years or lifelong openness? A cursory exami- nation o f our results reveals that we have reported very high stability coefficients, ranging from 0.82 to 1.04. One might be tempted to conclude from this that the political attitudes we examined are nearly perfectly stable after early adulthood and that political attitude change is likely to be an extremely rare event after age 25 (see, e.g., Achen, 1975). This conclusion is supported by the only study that tracked attitude stability across nearly the entire life span, the Bennington study (Alwin et al., in press). It found remarkably high levels o f attitude sta- bility (betas o f approximately 0.86) across approximately 23- year periods (Alwin et al., in press; Newcomb et al., 1967). When this finding is considered in light o f Study l ' s average stability coefficient for 2-year periods (0.91) and Study 2's aver- age stability coefficient for 4-month periods (0.94), it appears 4 2 4 JON A. KROSNICK AND DUANE E ALWIN t h a t stability is a s y m p t o t i c a t a relatively high level. I° Thus, this evidence would offer strong s u p p o r t for the impressionable- years hypothesis a n d w o u l d suggest rejection o f the lifelong- openness hypothesis ( B r i m & Kagan, 1980; G l e n n , 1980; Sears, 1981, 1983). However, it is possible to use these d a t a t o argue for a different conclusion. The women who were the subjects o f the Benning- t o n study a r e u n c o n v e n t i o n a l in n u m e r o u s ways a n d may there- fore evidence u n u s u a l l y high levels o f a t t i t u d e stability (see AI- win et al., in press). F u r t h e r m o r e , the overall average stability coefficients r e p o r t e d here a r e n o t exactly 1.0, a n d t h e y s u m m a - rize only the a m o u n t o f change t h a t t o o k place d u r i n g 2-year p e r i o d s in Study 1 a n d 3 - 4 m o n t h p e r i o d s in Study 2. W h e n m u l t i p l i e d out t o p r o d u c e an e s t i m a t e o f stability over a 10-year period, a 2-year stability coefficient o f 0.90 becomes a b o u t 0.60. Given t h a t the average stability coefficients from Study 2 are n o t m u c h larger t h a n those f r o m Study 1 (which involved longer t i m e intervals between waves), such a s i m p l e - m i n d e d multi- plication exercise m a y n o t a c c u r a t e l y r e p r e s e n t the processes involved. Nonetheless, one c o u l d use this evidence to argue t h a t political a t t i t u d e change m a y n o t be a r a r e exception, b u t rather m a y be a c o m m o n event over the long haul. T h i s is precisely the conclusion r e a c h e d b y S e a r i n ~ Wright, a n d R a b i n o w i t z (1976) on the basis o f a n analysis o f aggregate a t t i t u d e change in the U.S. p u b l i c over a 16-year period. A n d it is a conclusion consistent with Jennings and colleagues' (Jen- nings & Markus, 1984; Jennings & N i e m i , 1981) evidence o f only low-to-moderate levels o f over-time consistency in a t t i t u d e r e p o r t s over 8- to 9-year periods. II These figures u n d e r e s t i m a t e stability because t h e y c o n f o u n d a t t i t u d e change with m e a s u r e - m e n t unreliability, b u t it seems unlikely t h a t correcting for un- reliability would yield stability coefficients very close to 1.0. Thus, this evidence is consistent with the n o t i o n o f lifelong openness to change in beliefs, attitudes, a n d behavior. I f this is true, it has at least two i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s for the study o f political attitudes. First, it w o u l d call i n t o question the widely shared b e l i e f t h a t the m o s t p o t e n t political attitudes, such as p o l i t i e a l - p a r t y identifications a n d racial attitudes, are f o r m e d d u r i n g c h i l d h o o d o r early a d u l t h o o d a n d persist u n a l - t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t the r e m a i n d e r o f the life cycle (e.g., C a m p b e l l , Converse, Miller, & Stokes, 1960; Easton & Dennis, 1969; Sears, 1983). A n d second, it would suggest t h a t political-atti- t u d e change occurs frequently enough in the n o r m a l course o f daily life to justify extensive study o f its d y n a m i c s . Some re- search is b e g i n n i n g to identify the forces t h a t p r o d u c e n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g political-attitude change (e.g., F r a n k l i n , 1984), a n d we l o o k forward t o m o r e such work. We l o o k forward as well to long-term studies o f a t t i t u d e stability across the entire life cycle in representative s a m p l e s t h a t will allow a m o r e definitive test o f the lifelong-openness hypothesis. U n t i l such studies a r e con- d u c t e d , the validity o f the lifelong-openness hypothesis r e m a i n s uncertain. ~o We thank David Sears for pointing this out. ~m Jennings and Niemi's (1981) test-retest correlations vary substan- tially in magnitude. 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Wilcox (Ed.), Public opinion and political attitudes (pp. 440-462). New York: Wiley. • Dennis, J. (1973). Socialization to politics: A reader. New York: Wiley. Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (1981). Sex of researchers and sex-typed communications as determinants of sex differences in influence.abil- ity: A meta-analysis of social influence studies. Psychological Bulle- tin, 90, 1-20. Easton, D., & Dennis, J. (1969). Children in the political system: Ori- gins o f political legitimacy, New York: McGraw-Hill. Franklin, C. H. (1984). Issue preferences, socialization, and the evolu- tion of party identification. American Journal o f Political Science, 28, 459-478. Gergen, K. J., & Back, K. W. (1966). Communication in the interview and the disengaged respondent. Public Opinion Quarterly, 30, 385- 398. Glenn, N. D. (1969). Aging, disengagement, and opinionation. Public Opinion Quarterly, 33, 17-33. AGING AND SUSCEPTIBILITY TO ATTITUDE CHANGE 4 2 5 Glenn, N. D. (1974). Aging and conservatism. 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Sociological Meth- ods and Research, 15, 259-302. Jennings, M. K. (1988, April). Educational stratification and political development in the Vietnam generation. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago. Jennings, M. K., & Markus, G. B. (1984). Partisan orientations over the long haul: Results from the three-wave political socialization panel study. American Political Science Review, 78, 1000-1018. Jennings, M. K., & Niemi, R. G. (1978). The persistence of political orientations: An overtime analysis of two generations. British Journal o f Political Science, 8, 333- 363. Jennings, M. K., & Niemi, R. G. (1981). Generations and politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Joreskog, IC G., & Sorbom, D. (1978). LISREL: Analysis o f linear struc- tural relationships by the method o f maximum likelihood. Chicago: National Educational Resources. Krosniek, J. A. (1988). Attitude importance and attitude change. Jour- nal o f Experimental Social Psychology,, 24, 240-255. Krosnick, J. A., & Alwin, D. E (1989). Symbolic versus non-symbolic political attitudes: Is there a distinction? Unpublished manuscript, Ohio State University, Columbus. Mannheim, K. (1952). The problem of generations. In P. Kecskemeti (Ed.), Essays on the sociology o f knowledge (pp. 276-322). London: Routiedge & Kegan Paul. Markus, G. B. (1979). The political environment and the dynamics of public attitudes: A panel study. American Journal o f Political Science, 23, 338-359. Mueller, J. E. (1973). Wars, presidents, and public opinion. New York: Wiley. Newcomb, T M. (1943). Personality and social change: Attitude forma- tion in a student community. New York: Holt. Newcomb, T. M., Koenig, K. E., Hacks, R., & Warwick, D. P. (1967). Persistence and change: Bennington College and its students after 25 years. New York: Wiley. Nunn, C. Z., Crockett, H. J., & Williams, J. A. (1978). Tolerance for nonconformity. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1979). Issue involvement can increase or decrease persuasion by enhancing message-relevant cognitive re- sponses. Journal o f Personality and Social Psycholog?z, 37, 1915- 1926. Ragosa, D. (1988). Myths about longitudinal research. In K. W. Schaie, R. T Campbell, W. M. Meredith, & S. C. Rawlings (Eds.), Method- ological issues in aging research (pp. 171-209). New York: Springer. Riley, M. W. (1973). Aging and cohort succession: Interpretations and misinterpretations. Public Opinion Quarterly, 37, 35-49. Saris, W. E., & Putte, B. V. D. (1988). True score or factor models. Sociological Methods and Research, 17, 123-157. Searing, D., Wright, G., & Rabinowitz, G. (1976). The primacy princi- ple: Attitude change and political socialization. British Journal o f Po- litical Science, 6, 83-113. Sears, D. O. (1975). Political socialization. In E I. Greenstein & N. W. Polsby (Ede.), Handbook o f political science (pp. 96-136). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Sears, D. O. (1981). Life stage effects on attitude change, especially among the elderly. In S. B. Kiesler, J. N. Morgan, & V. K. Oppenhei- mer (Eds. ), Aging: Social change (pp. 183-204). New York: Academic Press. Sears, D. O. (1983). The persistence of early political predispositions: The roles of attitude object and life stage. In L. Wheeler (Ed.), Review o f personality and social psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 79-116). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Sears, D. O. (1986). College sophomores in the laboratory: Influences of a narrow data base on social psyehology's view of human nature. Journal o f Personality and Social Psychology,, 51, 515-530. Stember, H. (1951-1952). Which respondents are reliable? Interna- tional Journal o f Opinion and Attitude Research, 5, 474--479. Wheaton, B., Muthen, B., Alwin, D. E, & Summers, G. E (1977). As- sessing reliability and stability in panel models. In D. R. Heise (Ed.), Sociological methodology 1977 (pp. 85-136). San Francisco: Jossey- Bass. Wiley, D. E., & Wiley, J. A. (1970). The estimation of measurement error in panel data. American Sociological Review,, 35, 112-117. Wolfinger, R. E., & Rosenstone, S. J. (1980). Who votes? New Haven, C12. Yale University Press. Wood, W. (1982). Retrieval of attitude-relevant information from mem- ory: Effects on susceptibility to persuasion and on intrinsic motiva- tion. Journal o f Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 798-810. Zaller, J. R. (1987). Diffusion of political attitudes. Journal o f Personal- ity and Social Psychology 53, 821-833. Received N o v e m b e r 14, 1988 R e v i s i o n received M a r c h 27, 1989 A c c e p t e d M a r c h 27, 1989 • 
work_v3vzh22c2vdo7lfrjilusgej2i	----	Cheyyur Ramaswamy Sundararajan K. S. Shekar, B. A. Anantharam1 Chairman, The Bangalore Hospital, Bangalore, 1Director Medical Services - Annasawmy Mudaliar General Hospital, Bangalore, Honorary Consultant Plastic Surgeon & Head of Department, Plastic Reconstructive and Hand Surgery, St Martha’s Hospital, Bangalore & Sri Sathya Sai General Hospital, Whitefi eld, Bangalore. Icon of the Issue Professor Cheyyur Ramaswamy Sundararajan, popularly known to his students, colleagues, his friends in and outside the speciality of plastic surgery, and many of his fraternal associates as CRS, an acronym, which he quietly accepted (considering his disapproval of medical acronyms), was the “ultimate” guru. A scion of the Cheyyur Ramaswamy family and considered the “baby” of the family (the only way he was addressed by his mother till her death) was induced by traditional family values of paternal guidance and advice. He was very keen on joining the army, having been an under officer during his intermediate days, but his father insisted on him taking up medicine. So much the better for medicine and for plastic surgery too! But after his intermediate, he went on to complete his B.Sc. at Presidency College and then returned to renew his application for entry into the medical college which he did with renewed vigour. An alumnus of Madras Medical College, he realised his leaning towards surgery even during his student days “I always felt I wanted to become as surgeon”. Completing his Masters in General Surgery at Madras Medical College where he trained under Dr. U. Mohan Rao, he went on to serve the then Presidency of Madras and later the state of Madras, doing time and assistantship under late Dr. U. Mohan Rao, late Prof. Atmaram Rao and late Prof. H. Harirajan. He was hand picked by the late Dr. V. R. Thayumanswami, the then Director of Medical Education, to be trained in the speciality of plastic surgery, and that too, in the only centre which was then available in India for formal training in plastic surgery at Nagpur under the legendary Prof. C. Balakrishnan. Indeed it must have been a privilege to have been selected by the legendary Dr. V. R. Thayumanswami, a great soul who had that uncanny sense to pick and bring out the best of talents available for the development of specialties and units in the state of Madras, for it was this vision and wisdom that saw the setting up of the three premier units of plastic surgery in the state. On the completion of his training under Prof. C. Balakrishnan, under the “Gillies tradition”, Prof. CRS returned to Madras with his MCh as the first indigenous surgeon to be awarded this post doctoral qualification, and that too from any specialty, in the country. Recognition for this training came only later. He was designated to head the first formal Department of Plastic Surgery in South India with training status. The training he imparted was as meticulous as the training he received—planning sessions, lectures, teaching sessions (some extending in the early days into the late evenings), journal readings and trainee participation to acquire teaching skills. Marriage, in the meantime, to Rukmini (Amma to us), from the M. Bhaktavatsalam family, was to add a new meaning. (His father was leader of the opposition and father-in-law the leader of the house; they were always good friends in all matters but politics!) Having set up the first formal department at Madras Medical College, initially as reader and then occupying Prof. Cheyyur Ramaswamy Sundararajan Access this article online Quick Response Code: Website: www.ijps.org DOI: 10.4103/0970-0358.73423 Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery July-December 2010 Vol 43 Issue 2133 Published online: 2020-01-15 the professorial chair as the head of the department, he chose, selected and trained 30 plus surgeons as plastic surgeons. He continued indeed to be very proud of every one of his trainees, who were able to qualify, with extreme satisfaction that many of them have done indeed very well for themselves and for the speciality. It was generally believed that Dr. C. R. Sundararajan never used his enormous clout for personal enrichment. He remained just a reader in plastic surgery for many years and waited for his turn for promotion. From today’s standard, with the “clout” he had with the government, he never asked for any favours, either for himself or for anyone else. Often people wondered why he should be so strict to dislike being labelled as someone’s son or son-in-law. His integrity was recognised by the Madras State Government because it finally requested him to Chair the selection committee for admittance to the Undergradate courses (MBBS) in the state. During the years when he was the Chair, Selection Committee, there were no writ petitions or if there were any, they were never upheld. Even till his end, if there was any problem in any of the professional organisations that he was connected with, he was consulted for his considered advice and guidance to solve the problems. Having sat as an examiner at many of the universities, at times alongside his own preceptor, he earned a reputation as one of the fairest of examiners. Respected for his sagacity and brief communications which were usually typed by himself on his portable Remington or otherwise hand written (in a script characteristic to him), The Association of Plastic Surgeons of India (APSI) honoured him by electing him the President for 1975. He later steered the course of the Association of Surgeons of India (ASI) as its President in 1985. His contributions to the field of Medicine in general and to the development of Plastic Surgery in particular brought him further recognition in 1989 when he was awarded the prestigious “Dr. BC Roy Award”. Having retired with great satisfaction, he continued to be active academically and professionally by attending many a teaching sessions whenever possible . Post retirement, he accepted an assignment as Medical Superintendent of the Medical College and Hospital at Chidambaram. For us, he was the ultimate Guru. He moulded our character while he taught us the principles of plastic surgery. He exemplified by personal conduct. He never mixed private practice with hospital work. Honest to the core and punctual, he never discussed local or state or professional politics. He treated every one of his colleagues and trainees with respect and equanimity. Deeply religious, he began each day with a focussed recitation of scriptures and holy writings. His preoccupation in the last few years was to renovate and rejuvenate the temple of his village, Cheyyur, with a splendid gopuram and general upliftment as a personal commitment. The joy of reminiscing on this great friend, philosopher, guide and brother (yes a Brother Freemason too) is only to share the uniqueness of the association which has been totally impressionable and everlasting. He was the man who talked the walk—one who preached what he practiced. This tribute can truly never do complete justice to the man that he was. Prof. C. R. Sundararajan passed away in 2008 making many of us, in a sense, orphans. We live on his reflected glory. Shekar and Anantharam: CRS - The ultimate guru “QUICK RESPONSE CODE” LINK FOR FULL TEXT ARTICLES The journal issue has a unique new feature for reaching to the journal’s website without typing a single lett er. Each arti cle on its fi rst page has a “Quick Response Code”. Using any mobile or other hand-held device with camera and GPRS/other internet source, one can reach to the full text of that parti cular arti cle on the journal’s website. Start a QR-code reading soft ware (see list of free applicati ons from htt p://ti nyurl.com/yzlh2tc) and point the camera to the QR-code printed in the journal. It will automati cally take you to the HTML full text of that arti cle. One can also use a desktop or laptop with web camera for similar functi onality. See htt p://ti nyurl.com/2bw7fn3 or htt p://ti nyurl.com/3ysr3me for the free applicati ons. Announcement Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery July-December 2010 Vol 43 Issue 2 134 
work_vamwmd3fyrbs7byy5qns2knwha	----	Standing page.indd 203J Fam Plann Reprod Health Care October 2011 Vol 37 No 4 FICTION BOOK REVIEW The Hand That First Held Mine Maggie O’Farrell. London, UK: Headline Publishing Group, 2011. ISBN-13: 978-0-755–30846-0. Price £7.99. Pages: 384 (paperback) The novel starts as two independent sto- ries that initially are told in alternating chapters. The fi rst is a passionate love affair set in Soho in London in the 1950s. The couple meet in Devon, over a garden fence, but the scene swiftly moves to the capital and Lexie, a young impressionable graduate, moves in with Innes, a self-con- fessed hedonist and a journalist. They live for several years in Hampstead, working together on a magazine whose offi ce is in Soho. Innes is separated, his wife and daughter loathe Lexie, and they exact a terrible revenge for his betrayal. O’Farrell describes the fashions, lifestyle and even the weather of the times beautifully. The other story, set in the present time, involves Elina and Ted. Elina has just dis- charged herself from hospital following the traumatic delivery of her fi rst child. There follows a most insightful description of a mother, slowly recovering from an emer- gency Caesarean during which she lost a lot of blood, coping with the demands of a newborn baby. Her partner, Ted, bewil- dered, riddled with guilt and anxiety, becomes increasingly withdrawn. I have never read such a sympathetic account of the partner’s response and emotions fol- lowing a complicated delivery. I believe that O’Farrell herself had a diffi cult time during childbirth, which may account for the eloquence of the writing. The affair ends tragically and Lexie becomes a successful journalist travel- ling the world. Elina recovers but Ted becomes increasingly disturbed, the baby provoking fl ashbacks from his own child- hood. The two stories eventually connect and we see how the events of 50 years ago have had a profound effect on the lives of Elina and Ted. As the novel ends there is hope but no certainty that they will survive as a family. O’Farrell explores the effect of jeal- ousy, grief, loss and new parenthood. At times she draws back from the novel into a narrative and tells the reader how the buildings lived and worked in by Innes and Lexie have changed over the 50 years and how they now feature in Ted and Elina’s lives. She also provides insights into the plot. This is a skilful novel and a good read. I found myself thinking about it for days afterwards. Reviewed by Gillian Robinson Associate Specialist, Department of Sexual Health, Southwark Primary Care Trust, London, UK J Fam Plann Reprod Health Care 2011;37:203. doi:10.1136/jfprhc-2011-100195 04_jfprhc-2011-100106.indd 20304_jfprhc-2011-100106.indd 203 9/14/2011 2:17:53 PM9/14/2011 2:17:53 PM o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jfp rh c.b m j.co m / J F a m P la n n R e p ro d H e a lth C a re : first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /jfp rh c-2 0 1 1 -1 0 0 1 9 5 o n 1 6 S e p te m b e r 2 0 1 1 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jfprhc.bmj.com/ 
work_vbbkhyb5yfcytelekbffdkb254	----	Paola Giuliano - Home UCLA Anderson School of Management Paola Giuliano Professor of Economics Justice Elwood Lui Endowed Term Chair in Management UCLA, Anderson School of Management 110 Westwood Plaza, Entrepreneurs Hall C517 Los Angeles, CA 90095   Email: paola.giuliano@anderson.ucla.edu Phone: (310) 206-6890 Fax: (310) 825-4011 CV Research Teaching Contact 
work_vcttu5xxzban5lpb7per2hkh7q	----	Title Review of Ann Murray, ed. Germanistik in Ireland, Interrogating Normalcy: Proceedings of the Postgraduate Conference in German Studies, University College Cork, May 2011. Vol 3. Konstanz, Germany: Hartung-Gorre Verlag, 2013. Print. Author Lizzy Robinson-Self Publication FORUM: University of Edinburgh Postgraduate Journal of Culture and the Arts Issue Number 19 Issue Date Autumn 2014 Publication Date 05/12/2014 Editors Jessica Legacy and Yanbing Er FORUM claims non-exclusive rights to reproduce this article electronically (in full or in part) and to publish this work in any such media current or later developed. The author retains all rights, including the right to be identified as the author wherever and whenever this article is published, and the right to use all or part of the article and abstracts, with or without revision or modification in compilations or other publications. Any latter publication shall recognise FORUM as the original publisher. University of Edinburgh Postgraduate Journal of Culture and the Arts Issue 19 | Autumn 2014 FORUM | ISSUE 19 Lizzy Robinson-Self 1 Review of Ann Murray, ed. Germanistik in Ireland, Interrogating Normalcy: Proceedings of the Postgraduate Conference in German Studies, University College Cork, May 2011. Vol 3. Konstanz, Germany: Hartung-Gorre Verlag, 2013. Print. Lizzy Robinson-Self University of Edinburgh Germanistik in Ireland, Interrogating Normalcy, edited by Ann Murray, is a rich and diverse collection of essays from postgraduate students within German Studies. The papers’ literary and historical subjects span three centuries and provide a helpful, wide-ranging insight into current postgraduate research in the field. This volume of essays is significant as it marks the first postgraduate conference in German Studies in Ireland. The contributions were initially presented as papers at this landmark event, which was designed to be as ‘open, inviting and thematically diverse as possible’ (Murray 7). The decision to convert conference papers to written papers is laudable, allowing the impact of current postgraduate research to extend beyond a single event with limited participants. Organised by period, the collection opens with Andrea Hanna’s analysis of the comic clown figure, focusing on Austrian playwright Philipp Hafner’s use of the clown character Kasperl. Hanna begins with a helpful overview of the impact of 18th-century educational and theatrical reforms on dramatic clown figures, before showing how Kasperl, the acceptable, ‘cleaned-up’ version of more scandalous predecessors, is unexpectedly more successful at ‘parodying bourgeois prudery’ (Hanna 18). Through clearly explained examples and use of Bakhtin’s concept of the loophole and the fool, Hanna reveals how the clown Kasperl is cleverly employed to subvert the enlightened rationale to which he so strictly adheres. Tatsiana Shkliar’s essay engages with Justinus Kerner’s early 19th-century novel Die Reiseschatten von dem Schattenspieler Luchs and its engagement with shadow theatre techniques. The most important narrative feature of the shadow play is proposed to be the use of optical effects; the argument is made that Kerner’s shadow plays, performed solely in the reader’s imagination, are as rich as those on a stage. This conception of shadow theatre as ‘optical games for the inner eye’ (Shkliar 31) is carefully pursued throughout the essay, contextualised within Romanticism and neatly exemplified through a close reading of Kerner’s satirical comedy, König Eginhard. Next, Charlotte Lerg explores the founding of the Germanic Museum at Harvard around the turn of the 20th Century. Germany’s relationship with America is concisely and accurately described, along with the self-styling of the former as a ‘Kulturnation’ (Lerg 43). Lerg examines the various motivations for the founding of the Museum, from the educational to the ethno-nationalist, before analyzing the elaborate opening ceremony which offers ‘an insight into the intriguing mixture of politics and academia, ethnicity and scholarly interest’ accompanying the project (Lerg 48). Moreover, FORUM | ISSUE 19 Lizzy Robinson-Self 2 Lerg convincingly shows how such a project encapsulates the ‘mutable nature of German-American history’ (Lerg 53). Sarah Kelleher’s article draws parallels between the work of Kurt Schwitters and Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven. Both artists strayed from the militarised, machine-likebody presented in much interwar German art; Kelleher makes intelligent use of Bakhtin’s theory of the grotesque as a means to elucidate their novel conception of the body. In particular, Kelleher identifies the relevance of such a model to Schwitters’ Merzbau – subversive sculptures made from detritus – and von Freytag-Loringhoven’s provocative ‘acts of art’ (Kelleher 64) performed on the streets of New York. Both artists are shown, convincingly, to mobilise the grotesque as a form of resistance by staging the body’s ‘unruly, transgressive properties’ (Kelleher 68). Ann Murray’s essay also focuses on interwar art, namely the representations of soldierhood by the working-class war veteran Otto Dix. She explores how Dix sought to challenge the widespread mythologising and idealisation of the war experience and expose the (constantly downplayed) effects of war on the body, thereby exorcising his own traumatic memory. With reference to a number of Dix’s paintings, Murray elucidates the way in which his close-up images of the unheroic fate of the soldier’s body and the reality of warfare boldly confronted and negated the dominant political and social discourse of the period. Simone Klapper then explores Ingeborg Bachmann’s presentation of suicide in her 1966/7 novel fragment Das Buch Franza. The exploration of Franza’s speechlessness and Bachmann’s critique of written language – especially its role in processes of stigmatization – is particularly interesting, and readily supports the conclusion that Franza’s suicide is the only way in which she can become ‘unreadable’ and protect herself from ‘violent and deforming representation’ (Klapper 103). In concluding, Klapper presents a considered answer to the thought-provoking question of how a novel that problematizes writing as an act of violence can escape its own practices of categorization and dissection. In Antoinette McNamara’s article, the child protagonist of Ulla Berkéwicz’s 1992 novel Engel sind schwarz und weiß, Reinhold, is posited as an effective medium through which the author critically engages with National Socialism. Rather than employing the traditional image of the passive child witness, Berkéwicz endows Reinhold with agency as well as impressionability. Through him, it is argued, Berkéwicz highlights the ‘formidable nature’ (McNamara 111) of National Socialist propaganda and ideology whilst simultaneously undermining it through Reinhold’s questioning, and McNamara cites numerous textual examples to support this proposition. In the penultimate article (the conference’s keynote paper) Dr Gert Hoffmann applies Levinas’ considerations on the Other in eroticism to Ilija Trojanow’s biographical novel Der Weltensammler (2006). He proposes that in Trojanow’s account of the travels of 19th-century British colonial officer Richard Francis Burton, otherness is seen as ‘another world’ (Hoffmann 122). The significance of thresholds and places of otherness is carefully explored, and Hoffmann’s analysis of the erotic heterotopia and its assistance in the abolition of cultural and colonial hierarchies is especially detailed (Hoffmann 127). Following a thorough discussion of Burton’s death and the figure of the bastard in the novel, the character, the term, and the idea of Trojanow’s ‘Weltensammler’ [collector of worlds] is FORUM | ISSUE 19 Lizzy Robinson-Self 3 demonstrated to extend far beyond the transcultural and to open up a new experimental, cosmographic dimension. The final essay by Markus Oliver Spitz provides an articulate insight into the poetics of Christoph Meckel, whose poetry and prose have been almost entirely ignored in the Anglophone world. Spitz takes five short poems from Meckel’s volume Souterrain (1984) which exemplify the poet’s work both formally and thematically and provides thoughtful English-language translations of them – a crucial step if they are to be studied more widely. Following an interesting discussion of Meckel’s nuanced understanding of the term ‘poetics’ and his conception of the poem as ‘nothing less than the chronicler … of universal suffering’ (Spitz 137), Spitz pithily demonstrates the ways in which this theoretical standpoint is illustrated within the five selected poems. In conclusion then, the essays within this volume are carefully researched and well-argued theses. Ann Murray’s introduction provides a helpful overview of the texts and the ways in which links can be drawn between them. The chosen title – ‘Interrogating Normalcy’ – is certainly accurate, if largely for its rather broad scope. Indeed, perhaps the main criticism that could be levelled here is simply that the comprehensive historical and disciplinary span of the collection results in breadth taking precedence over depth. Nevertheless, the editor of the volume has done well to draw such wide- ranging themes and periods together, and the result is a testament too to the diversity and richness of current postgraduate research in German Studies. FORUM | ISSUE 19 Lizzy Robinson-Self 4 Author Biography Lizzy Robinson-Self is in the second year of her PhD in German Studies at the University of Edinburgh, and is looking at German poetry produced in National Socialist concentration camps. Her thesis aims to uncover why so many people were compelled to write poems, and disprove claims that their work is unmediated and without aesthetic value. 
work_vdjr6bcifbgldf7hfpljvln7gm	----	786 OCT. 3, 1953 ANY QUESTIONS? sMEDICJO .~ ~ ~~EIA ORA use, is giving rise to considerable anxiety, and that the problem will probably come up for evaluation and guidance under proper auspices. The writer has evidence that disturb- ing effects are met with, but are usually not reported. He also happened to be a member of a research committee during the war when the question of increasing the milk supply by the administration of oestrogens to cattle was being considered, and the question of the minute amount excreted in the milk was investigated. Contrary to the impression of some clintcians, the very minute amount present in a pint (570 ml.)-of milk from an oestrogen-treated cow was sufficient to cause menstrual disturbances in a proportion of a group of female medical students who volun- teered to undergo trials for this purpose. The oestrogen for these trials was not administered in milk, but an equiva- lent amount was given as a tablet. Repetition of Gold for Rheumatoid Arthritis Q.-How often can courses of gold for rheumatoid arth- ritis be repeated ? A patient has had gold (I g. on each occasion) in 1940, 1949, and 1950 with some benefit. Is a further course indicated ? A.-Gold is a cumulative drug, but, provided adequate time is allowed for elimination between courses, there is no reason, in the absence of toxic reactions, why courses should not be repeated indefinitely. In the present instance it would seem to be the correct procedure. It is true that in many cases the benefit produced by the initial courses does not seem to be so well reproduced on subsequent occasions. This has led certain workers to advocate the principle of a maintenance dose every few weeks, more or less indefinitely, instead of courses separated by prolonged intervals. One patient who has been satisfactorily maintained in this way for over fifteen years is known to the writer. Psychological Factors and Myopia Q.-Two children, now aged 10 and 11, a brother and sister, have during the last three years suffered from rapid deterioration of their myopia. From the psychological aspect the home environment is highly unsatisfactory. Could this play any part in the deterioration of the children's sight ? A.-Increase in the amount of myopia during the years of active growth is usual, and there is no known method of preventing such increase. The rate of increase varies among different patients, but tends to be greater in those who dis- play myopia during early childhood. Psychological in- stability would not be likely to aggravate myopia. Children with more than a dioptre of myopia should wear glasses habitually. Otherwise they miss many beautiful and inter- esting. images during their most impressionable years. Parents should never make depressing remarks about the disadvantage of glasses in the presence of their short-sighted children. Such disadvantages are far outweighed by the handicap of blurred vision, because blurred vision tends to produce clumsiness and lack of confidence. Pock Marks Q.-What can be done to improve the appearance of a patient whose face has been badly disfigured by smallpox ? A.-The problem of improving the appearance of a face badly disfigured by smallpox or even by acne, which is often just as bad, it a very serious one. The essential difficulty is the 'pitted surface, and what can be done depends upon the depth and number of the pits. If the pits are single or grouped in such a way that they can be suc- cessfully excised, this would be the preferred meth'od; but where they are evenly spread over the face, particularly on the nose, excision is impossible. In such cases, if the scars are not too deep and they do not involve the whole thickness of the skin, considerable improvement can be effected by sandpapering the entire area. This would be equivalent to removing the surface layers of the skin as though a skin graft had been taken from it. For this opera- tion a general anaesthetic is required. When the skin has healed after this somewhat drastic treatment it presents a smoother and more attractive surface. Much the same effect can be produced by performing a face-lifting opera- tion in which the skin is undermined and stretched; These surgical treatments can be applied only occasionally, and it must be regretfully stated that the vast majority of cases of smallpox are not amenable to any form of treatment whatsoever. Cosmnetics and various forms of make-up seem to make the condition more apparent. NOTES AND COMMENTS Cyclical Buccal Ulceration.-Dr. KATHARINA DALTON (London, N.22) writes: I note in " Any Questions ? " (September 12, p. 634) the history given of cyclical buccal ulceration is typical of the premenstrual syndrome as described by Dr. Raymond Greene and myself in your issue of May 9 (p. 1007). The universally successful treatment of this condition is 50-150 mg. ethisterone daily, or failing this 25 mg. progesterone injections thrice weekly, in the last fortnight of the menstrual cycle. I believe it is the placental production of progesterone during pregnancy that accounts for the almost universal disappearance of this condition during pregnancy. OUR EXPERT writes: One of the many views about cyclical buc- cal ulceration is to regard it as a manifestation of the premenstrual or menstrual tension state. It does not, however, respond to treat- ment as well as do other symptoms of this state, and for this and other reasons the view is not yet widely accepted. On the basis suggested by your correspondent, progesterone, as well as other pregnancy hormones, has been used in treatment for many years, and was advised in the original reply to the question. Ethisterone may be given as a substitute. Dr. Dalton has been fortunate in finding this treatment universally successful, for in the experience of the writer and most other observers it is helpful only in certain cases. Gonadotrophin appears more useful in some cases and oestrogens in others, while many show no beneficial response to any form of sex hormone therapy. Anaesthesia for E.C.T.-Dr. H. PULLAR-STRECKER (Isleworth) writes: I do not agree with your expert's opinion (" Any Ques- tions ? " August 29, p. 520). It is the preparations that frighten the patient. Having a tooth out with no anaesthetic is all right for other people, but not so good for oneself or one's friends. The same applies for E.C.T. "Any Questions?" B3ook.-The second book of selected "Any Questions ? " is available, price 7s. 6d. (postage 6d.). Copies may be obtained either direct from the Publishing Manager, B.M.A. House, Tavistock Square, London, W.C.1, or from booksellers. All communications with regard to editorial business should be addressd to THE EDITOR, BRITISH MEDICAL JOURNAL, B.M.A. HousE, TAviSTOcK SQUARE, LONDON, W.C.l. TELEPHONE: EUSTON 4499. TELEGRAMs: Altiology, Westcent, London. ORIGINAL ARTICLES AND LETTERS forwarded for publication are understood to be offered to the British Medical Journal alone unless the contrary be stated. Authors desiring REPRINTS should communicate with the Publishing Manager, B.M.A. House, Tavistock Square, W.C.1, on receipt of proofs. Authors overseas should indicate on MSS. if reprints are required, as proofs are not sent abroad. ADVERTISEMENTS should be addressed to the Advertisement Manager, B.M.A. House, Tavistock Square, London, W.C.1 (hours 9 .m. to 5 p.m.). TELEPHONE: EUSTON 4499. TELEGRAMS: Britmedads, Westient, London. MEMBERS' SUBSCRIPTIONS should be sent to the SECRETARY of the Association. TELEPHONE: EUSTON 4499. Tz,oRAMs: Medisecra, Westcent, London. B M.A. ScorrISH OFFICE: 7, Drumsheugh Gardens. Edinburgh. Correction.-In the article entitled " Blood Transfusion Acci- dents " (August 15, p. 390) it was stated that the British Red Cross Society has donors on its panels available for giving fresh blood of all groups, at all hours, for planned or emergency work. We have been informed by the British Red Cross Society that these emergency facilities are available only from the Greater London Blood Transfusion Service of the British Red Cross Society. o n 5 A p ril 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .b m j.co m / B r M e d J: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /b m j.2 .4 8 3 9 .7 8 6 o n 3 O cto b e r 1 9 5 3 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://www.bmj.com/ 
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work_ve647atpqfhl5dcjsdlgm72utm	----	econstor Make Your Publications Visible. A Service of zbw Leibniz-Informationszentrum Wirtschaft Leibniz Information Centre for Economics Friehe, Tim; Pannenberg, Markus Working Paper Time preferences and political regimes: Evidence from reunified Germany GLO Discussion Paper, No. 306 Provided in Cooperation with: Global Labor Organization (GLO) Suggested Citation: Friehe, Tim; Pannenberg, Markus (2019) : Time preferences and political regimes: Evidence from reunified Germany, GLO Discussion Paper, No. 306, Global Labor Organization (GLO), Maastricht This Version is available at: http://hdl.handle.net/10419/191521 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. 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If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. www.econstor.eu Time preferences and political regimes: Evidence from reunified Germany Tim Friehe∗ Markus Pannenberg† January 21, 2019 Abstract We use the separation and later reunification of Germany after World War II to show that a political regime shapes time preferences of its residents. Using two identification strategies, we find that former residents of the German Democratic Republic exhibit a significantly less pronounced present bias when compared to former residents of the Fed- eral Republic of Germany, whereas measures of patience are statistically indistinguishable. Interpreting the years spent under the regime as a proxy for treatment intensity yields con- sistent results. Moreover, we present evidence showing that present bias predicts choices in the domains of health, finance, and education, thereby illustrating lasting repercussions of a regime’s influence on time preferences. Keywords: Time preferences; Political regime; Germany; Natural experiment; SOEP JEL: D02, D12 ∗University of Marburg, Public Economics Group, Am Plan 2, 35037 Marburg, Germany. CESifo, Munich, Germany. EconomiX, Paris, France. E-mail: tim.friehe@uni-marburg.de. †University of Applied Sciences Bielefeld, Department of Business and Economics, Interaktion 1, 33619 Bielefeld, Germany. IZA, Bonn, Germany. GLO, Maastricht, Netherlands. E-mail: markus.pannenberg@fh- bielefeld.de. 1 Introduction Time preferences are crucial to almost all major life choices such as saving for the future, educational decisions, and both labor market and health-related behavior (e.g., DellaVigna and Paserman 2005, Falk et al. forthcoming, Golsteyn et al. 2014, Koch et al. 2015, Meier and Sprenger 2010, Sutter et al. 2013). At a national level, the time preferences of a country’s residents are a key driving factor of domestic economic development (Dohmen et al. 2018). As a result, a variation in time preferences will have very important implications at both the individual and societal level. This paper explores whether the socialist regime of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) has caused a lasting variation in time preferences of its former residents. We use survey measures from the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP) that are significantly correlated with time preference information from incentivized experiments. To identify the time preference effect of the GDR’s political regime, we use two identification strategies. First, following the standard approach in the literature (e.g., Alesina and Fuchs-Schündeln 2007, Dragone and Ziebarth 2017), we treat the reunification after more than four decades of separation as a natural experiment and present findings from ordinary least squares regressions. To strengthen these results, we test for robustness against bias from local unobservables applying the procedure by Oster (forthcoming). Second, we adopt a geographic regression discontinuity design with border- segment fixed effects, thereby addressing concerns about unobserved local heterogeneity by comparing only people who have lived close to the former FRG/GDR border. Traditionally, economists explain behavior for fixed preferences (e.g., Stigler and Becker 1977, Golsteyn and Schildberg-Hörisch 2017). Meier and Sprenger (2015) and Hardardottir (2017) provide evidence in favor of the hypothesis that time preferences are rather stable over the short- and medium-term.1 In contrast, we propose that the exposure to the GDR’s political regime over a very long time horizon influenced its former residents’ time preferences in the spirit of the literature arguing that preferences are endogenous to institutions (e.g., Bowles 1998, Fehr and Hoff 2011). With respect to time preferences, we can, at an individual level, distinguish between present bias and patience using our experimentally validated survey measures, via reference to the well- established (β,δ) model as a parsimonious representation of time preferences that accounts for the empirically important present bias (e.g., DellaVigna 2009, Laibson 1997, O’Donoghue and Rabin 2015). In the (β,δ) model, the parameter β represents a bias for the present – measuring how now is evaluated relative to later – whereas parameter δ is the discount factor used in standard exponential discounting. Wang et al. (2016) identify information about time 1There is similar evidence, for example, regarding social preferences in Carlsson et al. (2014). 1 preferences in 53 countries, finding that present bias is a global phenomenon and much more heterogeneous across countries than measures of patience. Similarly, Falk et al. (forthcoming) describe notable variation in preferences within- and between-countries. By highlighting the implications of past institutions on today’s time preferences, our analysis seeks to contribute to an explanation of the origins of such heterogeneity in economic preferences. According to our empirical results, the GDR’s socialist regime significantly diminished the present bias of its former citizens in the long run. In contrast, the regime’s influence on patience is insignificant.2 When we split the sample into birth cohorts, we find results that are consistent with the proposition that a long exposure to the socialist regime during the years in which time preferences are particularly malleable was necessary for a notable effect on present bias at the individual level. Against this background, we emphasize that the GDR’s socialist regime continues to shape the lives of its former citizens to this day and will continue to do so into the future. The lasting footprint is due, inter alia, to the intergenerational transmission of time preferences and social norms (e.g., Brosig-Koch et al. 2011, Brown and van der Pol 2015, Chowdhury et al. 2018, Gauly 2017). To assess the importance of our result of regime influence on present bias for economic behavior, we show the predictive power present bias has for personal choices in the health, finance, and education domains. Our paper is the first to scrutinize the influence of political regimes on time preferences, taking advantage of the German separation and reunification as a treatment variation. The paper is thus related to contributions that search for past institutions’ footprints on behavior and studies that similarly make use of the German separation and reunification as a natural experiment. There is recent literature on the long-term persistence and long-lasting effects of institu- tions. For example, Becker et al. (2016) rely on the Life in Transition Survey to establish that a historical affiliation with the Habsburg empire increases current levels of trust and reduces corruption in courts and police in Central and Eastern Europe today. In other lines of inquiry, Acemoglu et al. (2001) relate colonization styles to present economic performance, Nunn and Wantchekon (2011) explain present levels of trust in Africa with references to the slave trade, and Voigtländer and Voth (2012) find that pogroms in medieval times predict anti-Semitic vio- lence in Nazi Germany. In comparison to these and related important contributions (see Bisin and Verdier 2011 for a recent survey), our analysis considers a more recent set of institutions, but still considers the possibility of formative institutional impact on individuals. 2The difference in the means of patience is smaller than the one for present bias, but in the anticipated direction. The same holds for the signs of the (insignificant) GDR regression coefficient in the estimation for the level of patience. Our data is thus consistent with the relatively greater variability of present bias across countries as reported in Wang et al. (2016). 2 There are a number of recent contributions using the German separation and reunification to form a better overall understanding of attitudes and economic behavior. For example, Brosig- Koch et al. (2011) present experimental findings indicating that East Germans exhibit less solidarity at the private level than West Germans (thereby revisiting the research question of Ockenfels and Weimann 1999). Consistent with the idea that East Germans perceive the state to be the responsible actor in that domain, Alesina and Fuchs-Schündeln (2007) show that East Germans support redistribution and state intervention more than West Germans. These authors also highlight that the difference will remain for a considerable period of time. These lasting consequences may be attributed to social norms and intergenerational transmission. Necker and Voskort (2014) study intergenerational transmission of attitudes, focusing on East and West Germany and the responses of parents and children to value questions (e.g., whether owning a house is important). Bauernschuster and Rainer (2012), Beblo and Görges (2018), and Campa and Serafinelli (forthcoming) are interested in the long-run impact of regime differences for labor market participation, and Friehe and Mechtel (2014) in potential implications for the relevance of conspicuous consumption. In contrast, the present paper seeks to identify regime repercussions on economic preferences that, in turn, influence many kinds of behavior. Our paper is closely related to Rainer and Siedler (2009) and Heineck and Süssmuth (2013) who examine differences between East and West Germans regarding the level of trust, which can be interpreted as a measure of social preferences (e.g., Becker et al. 2012). Like our study, their contributions rely on the recent German history for identification of causal effects and the SOEP as one data source.3 Rainer and Siedler (2009) and Heineck and Süssmuth (2013) find that East Germans show higher levels of social distrust. The latter paper additionally considers risk preferences of former GDR and FRG citizens, and concludes that East Germans are similarly risk averse (after a brief period of lower risk aversion). Economic preferences and personality traits are complementary when it comes to explaining heterogeneity in life outcomes and behavior (e.g., Humphries and Kosse 2017). Consistent with this, when considering correlations between six personality measures and time preferences in a large SOEP data set, Becker et al. (2012) find only two significant instances: one in which the correlation with conscientiousness is only of small magnitude, and another with agreeableness correlated with a medium magnitude. However, there exist conceptual relationships. For exam- ple, Almlund et al. (2011: p. 70) refer to a conceptual relationship between conscientiousness and time preferences. In our robustness checks, we thus seek to test whether the GDR treat- ment effect also shows up in selected personality traits which are related to time preferences. For this purpose, we build on Friehe et al. (2015) by providing refined ordinary least squares and new geographic discontinuity design results for both conscientiousness and agreeableness 3Rainer and Siedler (2009) primarily build on the German General Social Survey (ALLBUS). 3 in one of our robustness checks. Friehe et al. (2015) analyze how the GDR regime influenced personality traits within an ordinary least squares framework. The structure of the paper is as follows. Section 2 presents the data. In Section 3, we will explain our research design. Section 4 presents our empirical analysis including robust- ness checks. Section 5 explores some important implications from our main result. Section 6 concludes. 2 Data Our analysis is based on the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP), a nationally representative longitudinal data set created in 1984. Our working sample contains respondents who were either born in Germany or immigrated before 1949 and have provided valid information about where they lived in 1989 (i.e., the year before reunification). These data selection criteria follow from the treatment of the separation and reunification of East and West Germany as a natural experiment. Specifically, we use the information on patience and impulsivity from the SOEP waves 2008 and 2013. The question regarding patience asks: “Are you generally an impatient person, or someone who always shows great patience?”. Answers are coded on an 11-point scale, with 0 denoting “very impatient” and 10 “very patient”. The question concerning impulsivity asks: “Do you generally think things over for a long time before acting - in other words, are you not impulsive at all? Or do you generally act without thinking things over for a long time - in other words, are you very impulsive?”. Answers are again coded on an 11-point scale, with 0 denoting “not at all impulsive” and 10 “very impulsive”. Our theoretical reference with respect to time preferences is the (β,δ) model. In that framework, intertemporal preferences from the perspective of period t can be represented by Ut = ut + ∑T τ=t+1 βδ τuτ with δ as the standard discount factor, such that β = 1 corresponds to exponential discounting and while β ∈ (0, 1) reflects present bias (e.g., O’Donoghue and Rabin 2015).4 Answers to the question regarding patience represent our proxy of the δ component of the (β,δ) model. The patience information was validated by Vischer et al. (2013) by reference to experimentally elicited information on time preferences. Answers to the question regarding impulsivity represent our proxy of the β component of the (β,δ) model. This interpretation is sensible for three reasons. First, our chosen SOEP impulsivity question matches items in the Barratt impulsiveness scale (Patton et al. 1995) and the Tangney et al. (2004) self-control scale. The terms “present bias” and “self-control issues” are often used synonymously (see, 4Present-biased preferences thus give special importance to immediate payoffs and allow for time-inconsistent choice (e.g., O’Donoghue and Rabin 1999). 4 e.g., DellaVigna 2009). Indeed, since greater self-control leads to a greater congruence between actions an agent would like to undertake and those actually undertaken, it may be interpreted as a less pronounced present bias (e.g., Ameriks et al. 2007). Second, answers to the impulsivity question correlate with experimentally elicited present bias (see Appendix A for details of our analysis).5 Along the same lines, Burks et al. (2012) demonstrate a significant correlation between experimental measures of impulsivity and present bias conditional on experimental information on patience and a survey measure of impatience. Third, present bias information from answers to the impulsivity question correlates – as it should – with behaviors critically influenced by self-control issues such as smoking (see Section 5). Accordingly, we use the SOEP impulsivity measure as a proxy of present bias in our empirical work. Note, as example, that Fourage et al. (2014) similarly refer to the patience and impulsivity questions in terms of the (β,δ) model. The covariate of key interest in our empirical analysis is a dummy variable that is equal to one (zero) if the respondent was a resident of the GDR (FRG) in 1989. We include a host of further covariates that may be relevant to the formation of time preferences but are not themselves influenced by the individual’s time preferences (see Table 1). The age of the respondent is included (Bishai 2004). Gender is included as a dummy variable equal to one when the respondent is male and zero otherwise, as it has been shown to bear on time preferences (Bishai 2004). Because preferences are very much shaped by one’s parents and environment during childhood (e.g., Kosse et al. 2016), we also include information about whether or not the respondent was raised in a small, medium-sized, or large community and about the educational background of the parents (for which we use dummy variables for the highest degrees obtained by the father and the mother).6 Table 1 presents summary statistics by treatment status for the (non-standardized) variables used in our empirical analysis. The descriptive results indicate that former GDR and FRG residents differ with respect to some covariates, suggesting adjustments for covariate differences in our empirical specifications. Imbens and Wooldridge (2009) point out that differences in the observable characteristics of the treatment group and the control group might lead to sensitive estimation results in a linear regression framework. They propose that the imbalance of the covariate distributions should be assessed by testing whether or not the scale-free normalized difference between treatment and control group covariate means exceeds 0.25 (as a rule of thumb). The normalized differences in our data are less than 0.25 for all but one covariate in 5Pinger (2017) also finds that survey measures and experimental measures of present bias are significantly related. She uses the special experimental SOEP submodul 2006 and a survey measure of present bias that is not available in the main SOEP waves. 6Including the educational background of the parents is also important because own cognitive ability relates to time preferences, and is itself strongly influenced by parents (Anger and Heineck 2010, Anger and Schnitzlein 2017, Bishai 2004, Dohmen et al. 2010). 5 Column (3) of Table 1 (and in this single instance, Mother: No vocational degree, the difference is very close to 0.25). (1) (2) (3) FRG GDR Absolute Value Count Mean Count Mean Normalized Difference Age 27,784 51.11 11,208 49.95 0.050 Male 27,784 0.467 11,208 0.457 0.015 Raised in a large city 27,784 0.232 11,208 0.195 0.063 Raised in a medium city 27,784 0.169 11,208 0.180 0.019 Raised in a small city 27,784 0.211 11,208 0.242 0.052 Mother: Secondary lower school 27,784 0.648 11,208 0.542 0.154 Mother: Secondary intermediate school 27,784 0.171 11,208 0.273 0.175 Mother: Secondary higher school 27,784 0.0656 11,208 0.0750 0.026 Mother: No vocational degree 27,784 0.365 11,208 0.198 0.267 Mother: Vocational degree 27,784 0.475 11,208 0.561 0.123 Mother: Technical school 27,784 0.00576 11,208 0.0469 0.183 Mother: University degree 27,784 0.0381 11,208 0.0622 0.078 Father: Secondary lower school 27,784 0.611 11,208 0.519 0.131 Father: Secondary intermediate school 27,784 0.128 11,208 0.224 0.179 Father: Secondary higher school 27,784 0.132 11,208 0.111 0.045 Father: No vocational degree 27,784 0.110 11,208 0.0562 0.139 Father: Vocational degree 27,784 0.675 11,208 0.652 0.035 Father: Technical school 27,784 0.0127 11,208 0.0412 0.125 Father: University degree 27,784 0.105 11,208 0.114 0.019 Notes: We use SOEP data from 2008 and 2013. Our working sample contains respondents who were either born in Germany or immigrated before 1949 and have provided valid information about where they lived in 1989 (i.e., the year before reunification). For each covariate, the normalized difference is defined as the difference in averages by treatment status, scaled by the square root of the sum of variances. Table 1: Descriptive Statistics 3 Research Design We propose that any differences in the time preferences of former GDR and FRG residents measured after the country’s reunification are related to how the two different political regimes treated their citizens during the 40-plus years of separation. We pursue two identification strategies to present robust evidence for the hypothesized causality that we explain in some detail in Section 3.2 after we have discussed the malleability of time preferences across a lifespan and explain hypotheses concerning the influence of the regime in this regard in Section 3.1. 6 3.1 The Formation of Time Preferences and Potential Regime In- fluence Time preferences as well as other individual attributes are heavily influenced by parents through genetics, parental investment, and the choice of childhood environments (e.g., Anger and Schnit- zlein 2017, Cunha and Heckman 2007, Dohmen et al. 2012). According to the literature on cultural transmission, parents invest into the formation of the values and preferences of their children’ in order to maximize welfare (e.g., Bisin and Verdier 2011, Bulte and Horan 2011, Tabellini 2008).7 Doepke and Zilibotti (2008), for example, focus on parental desire to instill patience. Parents may – at a private cost – choose to instill preferences different from their own when these preferences serve their children better. This signifies that parents raised in a past political regime may choose to induce values and preferences optimally adjusted to the current political regime. In a dynamic context, parents may have different expectations about the evolution of the regime, which would contribute to preference heterogeneity among chil- dren. With respect to the intergenerational transmission of time preferences, Chowdhury et al. (2018) find evidence in a developing-country context and Gauly (2017), Kosse and Pfeiffer (2013), and Brenoe and Epper (2018) do so for developed countries. The latter highlight that there is evidence that this transmission is mainly due to parental investment instead of genetics. This supports the cultural transmission approach, which also very much emphasizes that the interaction of individuals with teachers, friends, peers, and role models critically influence the formation of preferences (e.g., Behabib and Bisin 2011, Bisin and Verdier 2011).8 The malleability of cognitive and non-cognitive skills is particularly high in early childhood years (e.g., Fehr et al. 2008). For example, Knudsen et al. (2006) refer to evidence from different disciplines including economics and neurobiology. Cunha and Heckman (2007) highlight that most measurable skill gaps open up at early ages and show near parallelism during school years. Deckers et al. (2017) similarly maintain that differences in cognitive and non-cognitive abilities emerge early in life, alluding to critical periods for preference formation.9 With respect to time preferences, we can refer to evidence presented in Sutter et al. (2013, 2015) and Bettinger and Slonim (2007). Sutter et al. (2013) study how experimentally-elicited time preferences are related to real-life outcomes for a sample of individuals of ages 10 to 18. They find that time preferences are already relatively stable during this time period. In contrast, Sutter et al. 7Zumbuehl et al. (2013) and Dohmen et al. (2012), for example, provide strong empirical support for the cultural transmission approach. 8Evolutionary selection also plays a role in the formation of preferences but is less relevant for our context. The literature is surveyed by Robson and Samuelson (2011), for example. 9Delaney and Doyle (2012) present evidence on the relationship between psychometric measures proxying time preferences and socioeconomic differences that is consistent with the findings reported in Deckers et al. (2017). 7 (2015) analyze choices of children between the ages of 3 and 6 and find that time preferences are malleable during this period. Consistent with this, Bettinger and Slonim (2007) report that, whereas younger children have higher discount rates than adults, individual discount rates by the age of 16 years are fairly similar to those of adults. However, as holds true for other attributes, time preferences may be subject to change at later points as well. The impressionable years hypothesis proposes that core attitudes, beliefs, and values crystallize during a period of great mental plasticity in early adulthood and remain largely unaltered thereafter (Krosnick and Alwin 1989). Giuliano and Spilimbergo (2014) overlay the impressionable years hypothesis to life experience data, focusing on the range 18 to 25 years of age and the repercussions from experiencing a recession during those years. With regard to later changes (i.e., those in middle age), it is usually argued that they lack economic significance (e.g., Cobb-Clark and Schurer 2013). In contrast, changes at old age may be important again (e.g., Specht et al. 2014). Using our data, we can explore the extent to which our analyzed time preference measures change and whether this differs across age cohorts. In general, in exploring the differences between each subject’s responses in 2008 and 2013 for the 65% of the sample for whom we have observations in both years, we find that the median differences are zero, that 23% (54%) of respondents have a difference of zero (of an absolute level less than or equal to one) with regard to impulsivity, and that 25% (57%) of respondents have a difference of zero (of an absolute level less than or equal to one) with respect to patience. To further describe the stability, we follow the approach of Cobb-Clark and Schurer (2013) and consider how the difference between the measurement in 2013 and the one in 2008 at the level of the individual is a function of the individual’s age (see Figure 1).10 Overall, our data is very much consistent with the argumenta- tion presented above. There are meaningful changes in early adulthood – as emphasized by the impressionable years hypothesis, for example – and there tends to be some variability in old age again. However, in middle age, stability is very high, particularly for our present bias measure. When it comes to intra-individual changes as portrayed in Figure 1, Schildberg-Hörisch (2018), for example, argues that it is meaningful to think about economic preferences as a latent trait that is measurable only with some noise induced by contemporaneous emotions. 10Non-parametric local mean smoothing is applied to estimate the changes by age. 8 -.5-.250.25.5 change of impulsivity 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0 4 5 5 0 5 5 6 0 6 5 7 0 7 5 8 0 8 5 9 0 a g e N o te : S O E P 2 0 0 8 /2 0 1 3 - fu ll sa m p le - A g e p ro fil e o f in d iv id u a l 5 -y e a r- ch a n g e s o f p re se n t b ia s -.5-.250.25.5 change of impulsivity 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0 4 5 5 0 5 5 6 0 6 5 7 0 7 5 8 0 8 5 9 0 a g e N o te : S O E P 2 0 0 8 /2 0 1 3 - co n tr o l g ro u p - A g e p ro fil e o f in d iv id u a l 5 -y e a r- ch a n g e s o f p re se n t b ia s -.5-.250.25.5 change of impulsivity 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0 4 5 5 0 5 5 6 0 6 5 7 0 7 5 8 0 8 5 9 0 a g e N o te : S O E P 2 0 0 8 /2 0 1 3 - tr e a tm e n t g ro u p - A g e p ro fil e o f in d iv id u a l 5 -y e a r- ch a n g e s o f p re se n t b ia s -.5-.250.25.5 change of patience 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0 4 5 5 0 5 5 6 0 6 5 7 0 7 5 8 0 8 5 9 0 a g e N o te : S O E P 2 0 0 8 /2 0 1 3 - fu ll sa m p le - A g e p ro fil e o f in d iv id u a l 5 -y e a r- ch a n g e s o f p a tie n ce -.5-.250.25.5 change of patience 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0 4 5 5 0 5 5 6 0 6 5 7 0 7 5 8 0 8 5 9 0 a g e N o te : S O E P 2 0 0 8 /2 0 1 3 - co n tr o l g ro u p - A g e p ro fil e o f in d iv id u a l 5 -y e a r- ch a n g e s o f p a tie n ce -.5-.250.25.5 change of patience 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0 4 5 5 0 5 5 6 0 6 5 7 0 7 5 8 0 8 5 9 0 a g e N o te : S O E P 2 0 0 8 /2 0 1 3 - tr e a tm e n t g ro u p - A g e p ro fil e o f in d iv id u a l 5 -y e a r- ch a n g e s o f p a tie n ce F ig u re 1 : D iff er en ce s b et w ee n T im e P re fe re n ce M ea su re 2 0 1 3 a n d 2 0 0 8 A cr o ss C o h o rt s (9 5 % C o n fi d en ce In te rv a ls A re D is p la y ed ). 9 Economists have traditionally used exogenous preferences to explain how behavior changes when constraints change. Focusing on patience, Becker and Mulligan (1997) present a model in which time-consistent individuals can invest into their own time preferences to overcome impatience as a potential human fallibility, where the investment involves time and effort spent on active appreciation of future pleasures.11 A high investment in patience is more likely the lower current marginal utility of wealth (as investment implies giving up current consumption) and the higher future utility of future wealth (as greater patience makes future utilities more salient in the present). Their setup uses the exponential discounting model such that introduc- ing a potential present bias that can also be influenced by investment moves it closer to our setup. Endogenous present bias as an additional channel for the decision-maker is very real- istic due to evidence that people can improve their self-control by investment in conscientious behavior (e.g., Baumeister and Tierney 2012, Mischel 2014, Muraven 2012). Importantly, it adds a strategic rationale for investment to the discussion by Becker and Mulligan (1997): An individual sophisticated about the present bias may invest to improve upon future decisions made at a later point in life. Against this background, we now conjecture a possible regime influence on time preferences. With the regime’s astute consideration of the early life development of preferences and values, political education in the GDR started in day-care centers and was very important in school. The ultimate goal of the GDR’s political education was creating socialist citizens characterized by a high sense of duty and self-discipline (e.g. Litz 2007). The regime idealized a forward- looking perspective. For example, Walter Ulbricht announced ten commandments during the fifth SED party congress in June 1958 including the admonishment that people should live sparingly and strive for improvement of their performance in the future. This indoctrination thus inculcates greater patience and a less pronounced present bias of former GDR residents. The GDR’s massive state-security service, which relied extensively on both a network of un- official collaborators and extreme forms of repression, strongly incentivized GDR residents to control their impulses. Indeed, people were on constant alert regarding statements they could make and actions they could undertake without endangering their personal freedom or their physical wellbeing (e.g., Bruce 2010, Fulbrook 2005). The cultural transmission model would thus predict that parents go to extreme lengths to instill self-control in their children because it was of overriding importance for life in the GDR. This accords with the incentives to invest in own preferences as analyzed and presented by Becker and Mulligan (1997). With respect to patience, GDR citizens had to cope with shortages in a myriad of life domains including hous- ing, vacations, and consumption goods. The model presented by Becker and Mulligan (1997) 11In this context, it is interesting that Chen (2013) documents that people who speak languages that do not delineate the future tense, and thus allowing “tomorrow” to be a continuation of “today” instead of forcing it to be a new day altogether – are more patient. 10 explicitly accounts for the possibility that GDR residents put forth more effort to increase their appreciation of the future in order to optimally respond to the shortages and delivery times. The cultural transmission model would similarly inform a higher relative expectation of patience among former GDR residents as a result of parental investment decisions. On a dif- ferent note, when comparing the political regimes in the GDR and the FRG, it unambiguously results that the GDR ensured more stable, less heterogeneous economic positions of individu- als. This resulted because, among other factors, the GDR featured no official unemployment and a very compressed wage distribution.12 Sozou (1998) and Dasgupta and Maskin (2005) provide theoretical setups showing that uncertainty about either the occurrence or the precise timing of payoffs in the future can produce preferences consistent with present bias. The rel- ative absence of notable uncertainty regarding the individual economic position in the GDR thus suggests that the GDR’s political regime may have lowered the present bias of its former residents relative to that of FRG residents. In summary, there is evidence that points to malleability of preferences particularly in early life. Moreover, we find that different approaches lead to the hypothesis that former GDR residents are characterized by a less pronounced present bias and greater patience when compared to former FRG residents. Next, we address how we test these hypotheses with the data available. 3.2 Identification Strategy: The German Separation and Reunifica- tion as a Natural Experiment Our identification strategies rely on treating the German separation into the FRG and the GDR as a natural experiment. Fuchs-Schündeln and Hassan (2016) forcefully argue that the separation of Germany was exogenous to the preferences of the affected populations and the economic conditions in East and West Germany at the time. Ideally, the following conditions are fulfilled: (i) the treatment was exogenous, (ii) East and West Germans (i.e., the treated and the non-treated) were comparable when the treatment was imposed, (iii) there was no selective migration throughout the treatment period, and (iv) there was trackable migration after the reunification. We will now address these issues in turn. Imposition of the Treatment The imposition of the political regimes was truly exogenous. The geographical division of Germany was a result of the agreement between the United King- dom, the United States, and the Soviet Union on the partition of postwar Germany in 1944, 12The political regime of the GDR vigorously highlighted differences between the FRG and the GDR with respect to unemployment, for example. The salience of such differences for its residents was aided by the use of propaganda in school books or shows on television (e.g., Saunders 2007). 11 which split the territory into three sectors of roughly equal population size.13 Redding and Sturm (2008) highlight that the decisions determining the partition of East and West Germany are unlikely to be correlated with the prewar characteristics of respective regions. Moreover, Wolf (2009) states that by the end of the Weimar Republic in 1933, Germany was an econom- ically well-integrated area, such that the separation into East and West Germany that existed between about 1946 and 1989 could not have been predicted in 1939. Comparability of East Germans and West Germans Before the Treatment A key identifying assumption is that former GDR and FRG residents did not differ from each other with regard to time preferences prior to the German separation. While there is no representa- tive data on this issue, there is documented similarity between East and West Germans with respect to a host of other variables prior to the separation. Alesina and Fuchs-Schündeln (2007) explain that the regions that became the FRG and the GDR were similar in terms of pre-World War II average per-capita income levels and the amount of destruction experienced during World War II. East and West Germany were also similar in terms of the proportions of the working population involved in various industries (Schäfgen 1998), the political orientations of voters at the turn of the century (Alesina and Fuchs-Schündeln 2007), and population densi- ties (Hubert 1998). Comparability with respect to per-capita income levels and the amount of war-related destruction is important for our design, for example, as there is some evidence that the availability of financial resources impacts intertemporal decision-making (e.g., Carvalho et al. 2016). Similarly, the split of the working population may be relevant to time preferences as Nguyen (2011) finds some relationship between time preferences and occupations. Based on such evidence, Fuchs-Schündeln and Hassan (2016), among others, conclude that the two parts of Germany were indistinguishable prior to the separation. Selective Migration During the Separation Period After the two political regimes had been imposed, around three million people emigrated from the GDR to the FRG before the Berlin Wall was built in August 1961 (e.g., Heidemeyer 1994, Hubert 1998). There was very little migration from the GDR to the FRG after 1961 or from West to East Germany. Intellec- tuals and entrepreneurs were overrepresented among the sample of migrants (e.g., Heidemeyer 1994).14 Migration during our treatment period may confound our interpretation of results 13Later on, the US and the UK handed over small parts of their sectors to France (e.g., Burchardi and Hassan 2013). 14However, Schäfgen (1998: 58), for instance, asserts that the structure of society with respect to educational achievement and implied differences between social groups remained relatively stable and comparable in East and West Germany. 12 when migrants’ time preferences were systematically different from those of non-migrants.15 When implementing the first identification strategy, we include information about an individ- ual’s parents, in an attempt to address potential selection effects arising from migration after the imposition of the GDR’s socialist regime but before the erection of the Berlin Wall. For a subsample of the data, we can actually account for individuals who migrated to West Germany during the treatment period and find results consistent with our main results. Migration After the Reunification After the fall of the GDR’s socialist regime, we have full data with regard to migration between East and West Germany.16 In particular, our data set allows us to differentiate between East Germans who lived in the GDR in 1989 and continue to live in that region of Germany today from those who lived in the GDR in 1989 but moved to the west before their participation in the SOEP survey. Similarly, we can track movements from West Germany to East Germany. In summary, we believe that the identifying assumption that differences in time preferences were shaped by the respective experiences of populations under the two political regimes (par- alleling the approach taken by Alesina and Fuchs-Schündeln (2007) and others) seems justified. 3.2.1 Ordinary Least Squares Regressions and Test of Selection on Unobservables Based on our discussion above, we simply compare former GDR with former FRG residents using ordinary least squares regressions with (arguably) exogenous covariates as our first iden- tification strategy. The covariates used in our regression exercises are summarized in Table 1. Note that including information pertaining to the survey respondent’s parents allows us to control for the characteristics of the individuals responsible for a potential migration decision from East to West during the years of the German separation. Nevertheless, one might still be concerned that our results may be prone to bias from local unobservables, for example, since we do not have information on the distribution of time preferences before the separation of Germany. Therefore, we bolster our results from ordinary least squares regressions by testing against omitted variables bias using the procedure suggested by Oster (forthcoming). 3.2.2 Geographic Regression Discontinuity Design In our setting, the GDR treatment changes discontinuously at the former FRG/GDR border. The basic idea of using a geographic regression discontinuity design (GRDD) is that individuals 15Migration choices may be related to time preferences. For example, Goldbach and Schlüter (2018) present evidence that migration from developing countries is more likely for patient individuals. 16See, for example, Hunt (2006) and Fuchs-Schündeln and Schündeln (2009) for a description and analysis of migration after the end of the GDR. 13 who lived in former FRG counties close to the border represent good comparisons for individuals who lived in GDR counties close to the border, since spatially close counties were in all likelihood more similar to each other before the political division. Accordingly, the procedure considers only observations within a specific bandwidth around the border and – with respect to the observations within the bandwidth – attaches more weight to individuals living closer to the FRG/GDR border. We will consider three different bandwidths: The mean squared error optimal bandwidth suggested by Imbens and Kalyanaraman (2012) as well as two multiples of this optimal bandwidth (0.75, 1.25). The running variable in our empirical model is the Euclidian distance from the centroid of each respondent’s county of residence and the border.17 Following Gelman and Imbens (forthcoming), for example, we estimate the following local linear regression with a triangular kernel yicbt = α + βGDRi + γ1Euclidc + γ2Euclidc ∗GDRi + δb + �icbt, (1) where the dependent variable yicbt is the time preference measure of individual i living in county c along the border segment b at time t. GDRi is an indicator for having lived in the GDR in 1989 (i.e., before reunification). Euclidc is the Euclidian distance as defined above and the interaction Euclidc ∗ GDRi allows for different slopes of the regression function on both sides of the FRG/GDR border. By including δb, we incorporate fixed effects for eight equally- sized border segments to allow for heterogeneous levels of the outcome of interest along the FRG/GDR border (as in Dell 2010).18 Finally, �icbt is an error term that can be considered as a random error generating variation in yicb around the local regression line. We compute both standard errors clustered at the individual level (due to the unbalanced nature of our working sample) and standard errors clustered at the county level (to take into account the discreteness of our running variable; see, e.g., Lee and Card 2008). Our GRDD is similar to those presented in the literature, but we want to stress two impor- tant differences.19 First, our outcome measures stem from the years 2008 and 2013, allowing for observed sorting around the former border after reunification but before our years of ob- servation. To account for this concern, we drop survey respondents who moved from West to East or from East to West Germany within the relevant post-reunification period in our GRDD specifications.20 Second, the potential role of specific government policies during the period of 17We incorporate 396 different counties in the estimating sample for our GRDD analysis. 18We exclude Berlin from our working sample for two reasons. First, we cannot calculate a reasonable Euclidian distance for people living in West Berlin (as there was both a border surrounding Berlin and the Berlin wall border). Second, we suspect strong selective migration in both parts of Berlin during the German separation for various reasons (e.g., political and cultural ones). 19For example, Becker et al. (2016) also assess the long-run effects of a border that existed in the past. 20We thereby lose about 4.4 % of our estimating sample (of which 3.6 % represent East-West movers). The results from our ordinary least squares regression exercises that we will report in Section 4.1 are robust to this 14 the German separation must be acknowledged. Specifically, West Germany started a sizable subsidization scheme in 1971 to counteract potential disadvantages from being cut-off from adjacent markets due to the FRG/GDR border and to curtail possible emigration. The FRG thereby created the Zonenrandgebiet including all districts that have 50 percent of either their area or their population within a distance of 40 km to the border to the GDR or Czechoslo- vakia (see, e.g., von Ehrlich and Seidel forthcoming). In the GDR, access to areas close to the border was always very restricted and there is evidence that people who were considered politically unreliable (and others) were forced to move further away from the border. Moreover, the area that was in a bandwidth of about 5 km was categorized as prohibited area implying very strict rules with regard to such aspects as cultural life and visitation rights, on the one hand, and privileges in terms of food stamps etc. on the other (e.g., BStU 2012). As a result of these place-based policies, selective sorting along the border during the separation period may be expected on both sides. To account for this concern, we also employ donut specifica- tions in our empirical work. Specifically, we first present results for the optimal bandwidths h∗ (0.75/1.25 ×h∗) according to the criterion suggested by Imbens and Kalyanaraman (2012). In addition, we show parameter estimates from donut specifications with optimal bandwidths h∗ (1.25 × h∗), where we do not consider observations from Western (East) counties with a centroid less than 40 (10) km from the FRG/GDR border.21 4 Empirical Results Our findings on the influence of the GDR’s socialist regime on time preferences are presented in this section. After presenting descriptive evidence on the matter, we will turn to results from our two identification strategies and then discuss findings from robustness checks. In Table 2, we see that the treatment group’s mean of the proxy for present bias is notably lower than that of the control group, whereas the treatment group’s mean of the proxy for patience does not differ significantly. Moreover, when we use indicator variables, which are equal to one when the response on the respective preference measure was higher than six, we find similar patterns. In both cases, t-test results indicate that present-bias is significantly less pronounced in the treatment group. change in the sample. Results are available upon request. 21In their study about work attitudes of females, Campa and Serafinelli (forthcoming) also apply a GRDD approach to the natural experiment represented by the German separation/reunification episode, similarly including donut specifications. 15 Present Bias Patience Answer Control group (FRG) 5.12 6.10 Treatment group (GDR) 4.95 6.13 Dummy Variable= 1 when Answer > 6 Control group (FRG) 0.29 0.50 Treatment group (GDR) 0.25 0.49 Notes: We use SOEP data from 2008 and 2013. Dummy variable is equal to one when the response on the respective time preference measure was higher than six. The numbers of observations are as follows: Present bias & FRG: N = 23, 169, present bias & GDR: N = 8, 701, patience & FRG: N = 23, 184, patience & GDR: N = 8, 695. Table 2: Means for SOEP Proxies of Present Bias and Patience 4.1 Results from Ordinary Least Squares Regressions Using ordinary least squares regressions, we find that former GDR citizens exhibit significantly lower levels of present bias (Column (1) in Table 3). The sign of the treatment effect is consistent with the idea that institutional aspects of the GDR (such as the induced economic stability and the impulse-control incentivized by the massive state-security service) diminished present bias. The size of the GDR treatment effect is comparable to that of the gender effect, and the difference between the two is not significantly different from zero. In contrast, we do not find a lasting influence of the GDR’s political regime on patience. The estimated parameter is positive, as expected, but not significant. 16 (1) (2) Present Bias Patience GDR -0.197∗∗ 0.005 (0.030) (0.032) Age 0.014∗∗ 0.022∗∗ (0.005) (0.005) Age2 -0.000∗∗ -0.000∗∗ (0.000) (0.000) Male -0.272∗∗ -0.009 (0.027) (0.029) Raised in a large city 0.217∗∗ -0.103∗ (0.037) (0.040) Raised in a medium-sized city 0.161∗∗ -0.030 (0.039) (0.042) Raised in a small city -0.002 0.045 (0.036) (0.039) Mother: Secondary lower school 0.088 -0.120+ (0.062) (0.066) Mother: Secondary intermediate school 0.119+ -0.155∗ (0.068) (0.074) Mother: Secondary higher school -0.023 -0.123 (0.094) (0.102) Mother: No vocational degree -0.069 0.060 (0.053) (0.056) Mother: Vocational degree 0.040 0.010 (0.052) (0.056) Mother: Technical school -0.073 0.056 (0.105) (0.115) Mother: University degree -0.112 0.021 (0.103) (0.112) Father: Secondary lower school -0.144∗ 0.110+ (0.060) (0.065) Father: Secondary intermediate school -0.173∗ 0.095 (0.068) (0.074) Father: Secondary higher school -0.170∗ 0.098 (0.082) (0.090) Father: No vocational degree 0.095 0.097 (0.070) (0.075) Father: Vocational degree 0.105+ 0.070 (0.055) (0.060) Father: Technical school 0.084 -0.091 (0.102) (0.114) Father: University degree 0.138 0.065 (0.085) (0.091) N 33,109 33,119 R2 0.016 0.007 Notes: We use SOEP data from 2008 and 2013. Parameter estimates come from ordinary least squares regressions. The dependent variable is the SOEP measure for present bias and patience, respectively. Robust standard errors are clustered at the individual level and presented in paren- theses; + p < 0.10, ∗ p < 0.05, ∗∗ p < 0.01. Table 3: Time Preferences and GDR: Ordinary Least Squares Regressions Matching the results of earlier studies using the natural experiment of the German separa- 17 tion and reunification on the dynamics of the East-West divide (e.g., Brosig-Koch et al. 2011, Rainer and Siedler 2009), we find that there is no notable convergence with regard to present bias when considering the five-year lag between 2008 and 2013. More specifically, including an interaction term of GDR and the year 2013 in our specifications from Table 3, we find that there is no remarkable change in the estimated parameters of interest and that the coefficient of the interaction term is never significantly different from zero (see Table 4). (1) (2) Present Bias Patience GDR -0.223∗∗ -0.028 (0.036) (0.039) Year 2013 0.092∗∗ 0.063∗ (0.025) (0.026) GDR × 2013 0.056 0.071 (0.044) (0.045) N 33,109 33,119 R2 0.016 0.007 Notes: We use SOEP data from 2008 and 2013. Pa- rameter estimates come from ordinary least squares regressions. The dependent variable is the SOEP measure for present bias and patience, respectively. All covariates from Table 3 are part of the empiri- cal model. Robust standard errors are clustered at the individual level in parentheses; + p < 0.10, ∗ p < 0.05, ∗∗ p < 0.01. Table 4: Time Preferences and GDR: No Signs of Convergence One might wonder whether unobservables that affect the distribution of time preferences (such as East-West migration before 1961) lead to omitted variable bias. To address this concern, we estimate bounds for our GDR treatment effect from Table 3 based on the approach suggested by Oster (forthcoming). The crucial assumption of Oster’s approach is that selection on observables is informative about selection on unobservables and that we can learn something from the change of coefficients when we add additional observable variables to a regression of the outcome on the treatment indicator. If we are furthermore willing to assume (1) that observable and unobservable covariates are equally correlated with the GDR treatment and (2) that the R2 of the hypothetical regression of our outcomes on GDR treatment as well as both observed and unobserved controls is 1.3 times the R2 of our preferred specification, we can calculate bounds for the treatment effect. Applying Oster’s formulas to the problem at hand, we obtain the following bounding set for the treatment effect: [−0.203,−0.197]. Since the estimated bounds do not include zero, the result suggests robustness against omitted variable bias. 18 4.2 Results from Geographic Regression Discontinuity Design To best communicate our Geographic Regression Discontinuity Design results, we include graph- ical illustrations of the potential GDR treatment effects. Figures 2-3 show sample averages of the outcome variables within bins, fourth-order polynomials fitted separately on both sides of the FRG/GDR border as well as the optimal bandwidths according to Imbens and Kalyanara- man (2012), which are also used in our GRDD estimations (dashed vertical lines). The plots reveal a clear discontinuity of present bias at the erstwhile border. In contrast, the plot for patience does not suggest a systematic change at the border. This is in accordance with our previous results. 4 4 .5 5 5 .5 -200 -100 0 100 200 distance to border (in km) Sample average within bin Polynomial fit of order 4 GRDD plot: Survey measure present bias Figure 2: GRDD Plot for Present Bias (where negative numbers refer to distance of FRG counties to the border and dashed vertical lines represent optimal bandwidth according to Imbens and Kalyanaraman (2012)) 19 5 .5 6 6 .5 7 7 .5 -200 -100 0 100 200 distance to border (in km) Sample average within bin Polynomial fit of order 4 GRDD plot: Survey measure patience Figure 3: GRDD Plot for Patience (where negative numbers refer to distance of FRG counties to the border and dashed vertical lines represent optimal bandwidth according to Imbens and Kalyanaraman (2012)) The GRDD plots provide a clear discontinuity only for present bias. Hence, in Table 5, we present the results of our various GRDD specifications only for present bias. Overall, we find a GDR treatment effect relatively similar to the one documented in Section 4.1 across all specifications. However, the magnitude of the estimated GDR treatment effect is somewhat larger in comparison to the ordinary least squares estimates. Possibly, living closer to the FRG/GDR border strengthens the GDR treatment effect. The donut specifications are meant to address issues of non-random selection along the border, and their results are clearly in line with our main result. 20 (1) (2) (3) Bandwidth h∗ 1.25h∗ 0.75h∗ Main Results GDR -0.461 -0.401 -0.550 (0.091)∗∗ (0.081)∗∗ (0.107)∗∗ [0.106]∗∗ [0.097]∗∗ [0.124]∗∗ N 14,888 19,367 11,265 R2 0.006 0.005 0.008 Donut Results GDR -0.379 -0.298 (0.130)∗∗ (0.105)∗∗ [0.137]∗∗ [0.114]∗∗ N 12,963 17,442 R2 0.003 0.003 Notes: We use SOEP data from 2008 and 2013. Param- eter estimates are based on Specification 1 detailed in Section 3.2.2. The dependent variable is the present bias measure. Robust standard errors clustered at the indi- vidual (county) level are reported in parentheses (square brackets); + p < 0.10, ∗ p < 0.05, ∗∗ p < 0.01. The donut specification relies on observations within a bandwidth of h∗ or 1.25h∗ around the border excluding observations closer than 40 km (10 km) on the Western (Eastern) side of the border. Table 5: Present Bias and GDR: Geographic Regression Discontinuity Design 4.3 Exploring Variation in Treatment Intensity: Duration of Regime Exposure We consider the effect of the number of years spent under socialism on present bias by defining four groups according to respondent year of birth and running regressions for each cohort (Columns (1)-(4) in Table 6). The results from our ordinary least squares regressions in the upper half of the table support the simple intuition that both having spent a long period of time under the GDR regime and having received indoctrination during daycare, school, and youth organization attendance entailed important effects on the present bias of a regime’s citizens. In light of our discussion of the malleability of preferences in Section 3.1, it is important to note that we can be sure that the relevant, formative period of life was experienced subject to the 21 GDR regime only with respect to the second cohort, but also – with due qualifications – with respect to the first and third cohort. With respect to the youngest cohort in Column (4), our result from the ordinary least squares regression is positive, small, and insignificant. In our GRDD results, we find a hump-shaped pattern when looking at coefficient magnitudes, implying a greater present bias regime effect on individuals with more time under regime policies and those with an education that was begun and completed under the regime. This is consistent with the argumentation concerning the formation of time preferences presented in Section 3.1. (1) (2) (3) (4) Birth year <46 Birth year 46-60 Birth year 61-75 Birth year 76-89 Ordinary Least Squares Regressions GDR -0.209∗∗ -0.236∗∗ -0.185∗∗ 0.014 (0.058) (0.057) (0.060) (0.068) N 8,815 9,270 9,085 5,939 R2 0.025 0.011 0.017 0.017 Geographic Regression Discontinuity Design GDR -0.454 -0.458 -0.661 -0.522 (0.184)∗ (0.163)∗∗ (0.173)∗∗ (0.236)∗ [0.205]∗ [0.156]∗∗ [0.189]∗∗ [0.225]∗ N 3,950 4,253 4,423 1,863 R2 0.011 0.008 0.014 0.017 Notes: We use SOEP data from 2008 and 2013. The dependent variable is the SOEP measure for present bias. OLS: All covariates from Table 3 are part of the empirical model. Robust standard errors are clustered at the individual level. GRDD: Robust standard errors are clustered at the individual (county) level in parentheses (square brackets); + p < 0.10, ∗ p < 0.05, ∗∗ p < 0.01. Table 6: Present Bias and GDR Treatment: Cohorts Results The prior literature has reported similar findings for other economic preferences. For exam- ple, Alesina and Fuchs-Schündeln (2007) report that greater support for a government role is more pronounced the longer the subject has lived under the socialist regime. Similarly, Heineck and Süssmuth (2013) find that any divergence between former GDR and FRG residents with respect to risk preference is more pronounced for older individuals. 4.4 Robustness Checks In this section, we provide a series of robustness checks to demonstrate that our main results are not affected by further observed heterogeneity, measurement issues, or modeling choices. Differences During the Treatment Period We suggest that the political regime differ- ences contributed to the observed divergence in present bias. These regime differences had 22 substantial consequences for the economic development in both countries during the treatment period. In an attempt to take these economic differences into account, we conduct two analyses. First, we include the average GDP growth rate during the impressionable years of members of both treatment and control groups in our ordinary least squares regressions.22 The basic idea is that time preferences are formed by average GDP growth experience in early adulthood, since a more or less prosperous economic environment might impact on the extent of the individual bias for the present.23 Following the literature, we define these distinctive years as the period between 18 and 25 years of age and restrict our working sample to respondents who start with their impressionable years during the treatment period. Note that the applied age range is consistent with the period in which time preferences are malleable according to our working sample (Section 3.1). The ordinary least squares results in the upper part of Table 7 show that the coefficient of the GDR treatment dummy is significant and negative, and that the extent of present bias is smaller for former GDR citizens when higher average GDP growth rates were experienced during their impressionable years. Second, we consider a proxy for heterogeneous wealth during the treatment period. In particular, we include a dummy variable of house own- ership status in 1990 before reunification in our regression exercises.24 The results in the lower part of Table 7 reveal that we find a significant negative treatment effect again and that house ownership has differential effects on present bias. 22The impressionable years hypothesis proposes that individuals are susceptible to attitude change during late adolescence and early adulthood and that susceptibility drops radically thereafter. Evidence confirming the hypothesis is presented, for example, in Krosnick and Alwin (1989). Giuliano and Spilimbergo (2014) provide a recent application in economics. The GDP data for the years 1947 to 1989 for East and West Germany and from 1990 to 1991 for West Germany are from Ritschl and Spoerer (1997). The GDP data from 1990 to 1991 for East Germany are from Sleifer (2006). These data are available at: histat.gesis.org/histat/. The data for the period 1992 to 2017 stem from the German Statistical Offices (see statistik-bw.de/VGRdL/tbls/?lang= en-GB. 23Note that we cannot use unemployment as an economic indicator, since unemployment was officially equal to zero in the former GDR. 24As a qualifier, we attest that home ownership may be a bad control variable. At least in the GDR, home ownership was related to the individual willingness to achieve this end, which might have been influenced by the level of self-control. 23 histat.gesis.org/histat/ statistik-bw.de/VGRdL/tbls/?lang=en-GB statistik-bw.de/VGRdL/tbls/?lang=en-GB Average GDP Growth Rate GDR -0.1341∗ (0.0553) Average GDP Growth Rate -0.0160 (0.0104) Average GDP Growth Rate × GDR -0.0446∗ (0.0196) N 31,568 R2 0.0124 Home Ownership GDR -0.3315∗∗ (0.0798) Home Ownership -0.1462+ (0.0765) Home Ownership × GDR 0.2089+ (0.1231) N 7,407 R2 0.0148 Notes: We use SOEP data from 2008 and 2013. Pa- rameter estimates from ordinary least squares regres- sions. The dependent variable is the SOEP measure for present bias. All covariates from Table 3 are part of the empirical model. Robust standard errors are clustered at the individual level in parentheses; + p < 0.10, ∗ p < 0.05, ∗∗ p < 0.01. Table 7: Present Bias and GDR Treatment: Taking Pre-Reunification Differences Into Account Differences After the Treatment Period We rely on measurements of time preferences from 2008 and 2013. The two parts of Germany were reunified in 1990. Attributing any difference in time preferences to the GDR’s socialist regime presupposes that the life experiences of East and West Germans after 1990 were either comparable, observably and measurably different, or had insignificant effect on time preferences. One potentially important reason why former GDR and FRG residents had different post-reunification experiences is that the post- reunification economic performance of East Germany dramatically lagged West Germany’s. In particular, this becomes manifest in the dramatic increase in the official unemployment rate in East Germany up to roughly 20% after reunification. To test whether the economic turmoil after reunification had an impact on time preferences measured in 2008 and 2013, we use the salient unemployment experience of former GDR citizens compared to FRG citizens as an indicator. We conduct a linear mediation analysis with the outcome present bias, in which we attempt to disentangle direct regime effects on present bias and “indirect” effects via different 24 unemployment trajectories in West and East Germany, the latter at least partly triggered by the GDR treatment. In particular, we use the following system of linear equations: unempexpit =α1 + β1GDRi + ω1xit + �it,1, (2) present biasit =α2 + β2GDRi + γunempexpit + νunempexpit ×GDRi + ω2xit + �it,2, (3) where unempexpit stands for years of unemployment experienced by individual i (resulting from an involuntary job loss) at time t and xit stands for the vector of covariates also used in the ordinary least squares regressions above. The average mediation effect for former GDR citizens is given by δ = β1(γ + ν), indicating the indirect regime effect on the individual extent of present bias of former GDR citizens transmitted via the own unemployment experience after reunification. The average direct effect is given by ζ = β2 + ν[α1 + β1 + ω1E(xi)], indicating the direct effect of the GDR’s political regime on present bias given the years of unemployment. To disentangle the total causal effect into the two causal channels defined above, two crucial assumptions must hold (e.g., Huber 2014, Imai et al. 2010 a,b): (1) conditional independence of the GDR treatment, that is, there are no unobserved confounders jointly affecting both the GDR treatment and the years of unemployment experience and/or time preferences conditional on the vector of covariates. (2) conditional independence of the mediator, that is, conditional on GDR treatment and the vector of covariates, unemployment experience is effectively randomly assigned. With respect to assumption (1), we acknowledge again that the German history of separation and reunification represents a natural experiment. To ensure assumption (2) in our empirical analysis below, we compare only those members of the control and the treatment group who have either experienced no unemployment spell at all or whose first job loss after the German reunification was due to a plant closure. The main argument is that plant closures are an arguably exogenous event from the perspective of the individual worker (Anger et al. 2017, Marcus 2013), in particular for former GDR citizens who worked for former state-owned companies. Table 8 shows the estimated average direct and indirect effects of the GDR treatment on present bias for the treatment group of former GDR citizens. Column (1) presents the results for the working sample described above, Column (2) documents the results for a subgroup of the working sample who spent all of their impressionable years either in the GDR or the FRG. The direct effect of the GDR treatment on present bias is significantly negative in both specifications, supporting our main results. The size of the estimated indirect effect is small and significant in Column (2) (but only at the ten percent level). In this case, the ratio of the indirect and the direct effects amounts to roughly ten percent, indicating that the direct regime effect remains important when we try to take indirect, yet salient post-reunification experiences 25 into account. (1) (2) Full Sample Impressionable years sample Direct effect -0.1923∗∗ -0.2405∗∗ (0.0423) (0.0545) Indirect effect 0.0119 0.0204+ (0.0079) (0.0123) Ratio indirect/direct -0.062 -0.085+ (0.0405) (0.0502) N 18,654 11,436 Notes: We use SOEP data from 2008 and 2013. In Column (2), we focus on subjects who spent all of their impressionable years either in the GDR or the FRG. Estimated direct and indirect effects are calculated from parameter estimates of equation system (2) and (3) based on linear structural equation modeling. Robust standard errors are clustered at the individual level. z statistics in parentheses; + p < 0.10, ∗ p < 0.05, ∗∗ p < 0.01. Table 8: Present Bias, Unemployment, and GDR Treatment: Results from a Mediation Analysis In addition to the mediation analysis using unemployment, we consider an identifiable sub- group who had a relatively “smooth transition” in economic terms, that is, individuals who – during GDR times – had a social network with links into the FRG.25 This subgroup is likely to have had relatively better post-reunification experiences based on the argument that Burchardi and Hassan (2013) establish for West Germans with social ties in East Germany. The positive income impact of social ties that Burchardi and Hassan report can also be found in our data for East Germans with links in the FRG. Focusing on this subpopulation of East Germans, we find that they also display a lower present bias. The coefficient using ordinary least squares is −0.26∗∗, while it is about −0.33∗∗ when using the GRDD approach.26 Migration During the Treatment Period There was significant migration from East to West Germany after the treatment imposition and before the erection of the Berlin Wall, which is potentially problematic for our identification. For subjects in our sample who participated in at least in one of the survey years 1990 to 1993, we can reconstruct whether or not they migrated from East to West Germany during the separation period. Applying our identification strategies to the resulting subsample, we obtain results that are consistent with our main results (see Tables 12-13 in Appendix B). 25The information about social ties stems from a question addressed at participants of the new East German SOEP sample in spring 1990. At the household level, participants were asked whether they have had relatives or friends in the former FRG. 26Regression results are available upon request. 26 Migration After the Treatment Period After 1989, notable migration from East to West Germany, and some movement from West to East Germany took place (e.g., Hunt 2006, Fuchs- Schündeln and Schündeln 2009). The SOEP provides us with information on both directions of migration between West and East Germany after reunification. When we add dummy variables indicating whether someone has moved from East Germany to West Germany or vice versa in our ordinary least squares approach, the estimated treatment effect is −0.21∗∗ [s.e. : 0.03] and the two ordinary least squares coefficients of the migration dummy variables are not significantly different from zero at α = 0.05.27 Measurement Of Time Preferences In Section 3.1, we documented that present bias in particular is remarkably stable in middle age, while we found notable variation in early adulthood and old age. This explains why we use all available time preferences information in our regression exercises. However, it is interesting to check whether our results are robust to considering only one observation per person. To this end, we consider (1) the average value of measurements of present bias and (2) only the latest available information on present bias. With respect to the average value, we obtain estimated treatment effects of −0.22∗∗ [s.e. : 0.03] using ordinary least squares and significantly negative GDR treatment effects in the range [−0.70∗∗,−0.48∗∗] in our GRDD approach depending on the chosen bandwidth. Considering the latest available information, we find a significantly negative GDR treatment effect on present bias of −0.20∗∗ [s.e. : 0.03] applying ordinary least squares and significantly negative GDR treatment effects in the range of [−0.72∗∗,−0.48∗∗] using our GRDD specification. Regional Effects We argue that we are capturing the influence of GDR’s socialist regime. It may be conjectured that the estimated average treatment effects mask heterogeneity across GDR regions. To explore this aspect, we consider specifications that comprise state-specific effects for each state from East Germany (applying the post-reunification demarcation of states that was almost identical to that between 1945 to 1952) and a dummy variable indicating 1 for survey respondents without state information. Our results indicate some (albeit no con- siderable) heterogeneity across states (see Table 14 in Appendix B). One interpretation of the limited heterogeneity across states is that it is due to limited regional variation in treatment intensity. Many, if not most critical characteristics of the GDR regime (e.g., the indoctrination in educational facilities) applied rather uniformly to all regions. In terms of regional effects, we may also take into account that East and West Germany were and continue to be very 27Remember that, in our GRDD estimations, we exclude survey respondents who moved from West to East or from East to West Germany within the relevant post-reunification period. 27 different in terms of religion.28 This itself may be an outcome of the political regime differences in East and West Germany (since religiosity was suppressed in the GDR). Before treatment imposition, residents who lived in the area of what became the GDR were mostly Protestant, whereas residents of what became the FRG were either Protestant or Catholic, as explained by Bauernschuster and Rainer (2012). We restrict our sample to regions that were unambiguously Protestant – that is, we omit data from Bavaria, Baden-Wuerttemberg, Northrhine-Westfalia, Rhineland-Palatinate, and Saarland – and find that our results from Section 4.1 are robust to this consideration.29 Influence on Related Personality Traits Economic preferences and personality traits are considered to be complements when explaining important life outcomes and behavior (e.g., Humphries and Kosse 2017). Nevertheless, there are some conceptual relationships. For ex- ample, Almlund et al. (2011: p. 70) hypothesize that time preferences and conscientiousness are most likely related. Becker et al. (2012) find a small correlation in a large SOEP data set between time preferences and conscientiousness and a medium-sized one between time prefer- ences and agreeableness.30 Based on this argumentation and results, it is interesting to explore whether conscientiousness and agreeableness are also influenced by the GDR’s regime. We build on and extend Friehe et al. (2015) for this purpose.31 Table 9 presents the results using our first identification strategy. 28Religion may be relevant to time preferences. For instance, Doepke and Zilibotti (2014) argue that religious beliefs such as Protestantism can be seen as complementary drivers of patience and work ethic. 29Regression results are available upon request. 30The psychological literature defines conscientiousness as the tendency to be organized, responsible, and hard working and agreeableness is defined as the tendency to act in a cooperative, unselfish manner (e.g., Almlund et al. 2011: p. 11). 31The SOEP comprises information about conscientiousness and agreeableness in 2005 and 2009 in the form of respondents’ self-positioning on scales ranging from 1 to 7 as an answer to how well specific statements describe their personality. We generate measures of agreeableness and conscientiousness by standardizing the sum of the scores of the dimension-specific questions whereby higher values indicate a stronger intensity of the particular trait (e.g. being more agreeable). 28 (1) (2) Conscient- Agree- iousness ableness GDR 0.0984∗∗ 0.0285∗ (7.29) (2.09) N 35,417 35,536 R2 0.048 0.039 Notes: We use SOEP data from 2005 and 2009. Pa- rameter estimates are from ordinary least squares re- gressions. The dependent variable is the respective standardized personality measure. The specification includes all covariates from Table 3. Robust stan- dard errors are clustered at the individual level. t statistics in parentheses; + p < 0.10, ∗ p < 0.05, ∗∗ p < 0.01. Table 9: GDR Treatment Effects on Conscientiousness and Agreeableness: Results Using Or- dinary Least Squares Regressions The estimated GDR treatment effect indicates that former GDR citizens have a higher conscientiousness score than former FRG citizens. Since a higher degree of conscientiousness is usually associated with higher self-control, the result is consistent with the observed lower present bias of former GDR residents (i.e., our main result). The GDR treatment effect is also significant and positive for the trait agreeableness. Gill and Prowse (2016), for example, provide evidence that more agreeable players learn faster and perform better in strategic interactions. Most likely, better performance in strategic interactions is positively linked to better self-control and therefore to less present bias. When we turn to the second identification strategy, we find that the GRDD plots do not reveal a clear discontinuity at the former border between the FRG and the GDR with respect to both personality measures. In view of the small correlations between time preferences and these two personality traits reported in Becker et al. (2012), this outcome does not surprise. 29 -. 2 0 .2 .4 .6 -200 -100 0 100 200 distance to border (in km) Sample average within bin Polynomial fit of order 3 GRDD plot: Conscientiousness -. 3 -. 2 -. 1 0 .1 .2 -200 -100 0 100 200 distance to border (in km) Sample average within bin Polynomial fit of order 3 GRDD plot: Agreeableness Figure 4: GRDD Plots for Conscientiousness and Agreeableness (where negative numbers refer to distance of FRG counties to the border and dashed vertical lines represent optimal bandwidth according to Imbens and Kalyanaraman (2012)) Probit Regression In Table 2, we presented descriptive evidence using a dummy variable that is equal to one when the answer to the question referring to present bias was higher than six. Using this information as the dependent variable in a probit regression yields an average partial effect for the GDR regime amounting to −0.048∗∗. To offer an interpretation of our result, the probability that an individual shows present bias is reduced by 17.5% when the individual has experienced the GDR regime instead of the FRG. 5 Exploring Implications of GDR Experience Both of our identification strategies have shown that native Germans who lived in the GDR in 1989 (still) differ from those who lived in the FRG in terms of present bias. In this section, we explore some potential economic consequences of this long-lasting impact of the GDR’s political regime, using outcome measures from the SOEP that are commonly understood to be determined by present bias (e.g., Meier and Sprenger 2010, O’Donoghue and Rabin 2006). Specifically, we will test whether our survey measures of present bias predict health related outcomes (body mass index, obesity, and smoking); savings and credit uptake behavior; and education outcomes (specifically, whether or not the individual obtained a college or a university degree) while controlling for GDR treatment status. We report two sets of results in Table 10. First, we use two measures of present bias in pooled ordinary least squares and pooled Probit regression exercises to analyze the association between present bias and selected economic outcomes. Second, we use the lagged value of present bias reported in 2008 as an instrument (as exclusion restriction) in various econometric specifications in an attempt to address the possibility of unobserved confounding between present bias and our selected economic outcomes. In particular, we use a two-stage-least-square approach, a control 30 function approach, and a recursive two-equations system depending on the nature of both the outcome and the present bias variable. In all econometric specifications, we are interested in the predictive power of present bias on the economic outcome of interest. Information on the outcome measures in the upper part of Table 10 stem from 2008 and 2013 for smoking, saving, credit, and education, and from 2008 and 2014 for BMI and obesity. In the lower part of Table 9, information on the economic outcomes stem from 2013 and 2014. In line with the literature, we find that our survey measures of present bias have predictive power for all outcomes considered in almost all cases. A greater present bias is associated with a larger BMI, increased likelihood of being obese, greater propensity to be a smoker, decreased probability of saving regularly (only in the pooled specifications), raised probability of having to pay back a consumer credit, and a lowered chance of obtaining a college or university degree. For example, being present biased (survey response > 6) correlates to an increase in the probability to smoke by about five to fifteen percentage points, depending on the econometric specification. Compared to the raw mean of smoking status in our working sample, this implies a notable change of 20% to 58%. Furthermore, we observe significant differences between the control and the treatment group for all outcomes. To illustrate the importance of the GDR treatment effect on the outcomes of interest relative to the effect of present bias, let us consider the probability of having to pay back a credit: Being a former citizen of the GDR implies an increase in the probability of an outstanding credit obligation by roughly 7 percentage points, while present bias alone correlates with an increase in the same credit obligation probability by about 2 to 8 percentage points depending on the specification. Hence, when taken at face value, the effect of having lived in the GDR is quantitatively at least as important for the prediction of credit behavior as present bias, allowing for the fact that, on average, former GDR citizens are less present biased than former FRG citizens. 6 Conclusion Time preferences are integral to modern economics. They are critical to a host of decisions, many of which have key impacts on important life outcomes (Golsteyn et al. 2014). There is considerable heterogeneity regarding time preferences and relatively little knowledge about the sources of this variety (Falk et al. forthcoming, Wang et al. 2016). Intergenerational transmission and the institutional environment likely play important roles. In this line of inquiry, the present study contributes by exploring whether the GDR’s socialist institutional environment has left a notable and lasting footprint on its former citizens’ time preferences. 31 B o d y M a ss In d e x O b e si ty S m o k in g S a v in g C re d it E d u c a ti o n O L S P ro b it P ro b it P ro b it P ro b it P ro b it G D R 0 .4 8 9 * * 0 .4 9 0 * * 0 .0 2 8 * * 0 .0 2 8 * * 0 .0 3 0 * * 0 .0 3 0 * * -0 .0 5 3 * * -0 .0 5 3 * * 0 .0 7 2 * * 0 .0 7 2 * * -0 .1 2 0 * * -0 .1 2 1 * * (0 .0 7 3 ) (0 .0 7 3 ) (0 .0 0 6 ) (0 .0 0 6 ) (0 .0 0 6 ) (0 .0 0 6 ) (0 .0 0 7 ) (0 .0 0 7 ) (0 .0 0 5 ) (0 .0 0 5 ) (0 .0 1 1 ) (0 .0 1 1 ) P re se n t b ia s 0 .0 6 9 * * 0 .0 0 4 * * 0 .0 1 2 * * -0 .0 0 6 * * 0 .0 0 7 * * -0 .0 1 2 * * (0 .0 1 4 ) (. 0 0 1 ) (. 0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 2 ) D u m m y p re se n t b ia s 0 .3 3 1 * * 0 .0 2 0 * * 0 .0 4 3 * * -0 .0 2 4 * * 0 .0 2 1 * * -0 .0 5 0 * * (0 .0 6 4 ) (0 .0 0 5 ) (0 .0 0 5 ) (0 .0 0 6 ) (0 .0 0 5 ) (0 .0 1 0 ) F -T e st / L R -T e st (d f= 2 2 ) 1 0 7 .1 0 * * 1 0 7 .1 1 * * 5 8 6 .2 9 * * 5 8 5 .6 2 * * 1 4 7 0 .9 1 * * 1 4 5 9 .1 6 * * 5 3 3 .7 8 * * 5 2 8 .9 0 * * 1 4 9 6 .1 8 * * 1 4 9 2 .0 6 * * 9 4 6 .4 9 * * 9 4 1 .7 0 * * N 3 1 ,2 1 0 3 1 ,2 1 0 3 1 ,5 1 6 3 2 ,7 0 5 3 2 ,6 3 5 7 ,6 4 6 A ll o w in g fo r u n o b se re v d c o n fo u n d e rs : In st ru m e n t/ e x c lu si o n re st ri c ti o n : la g g e d p re se n t b ia s (t -5 ) 2 S L S 2 S L S P ro b it -C F P ro b it -R S P ro b it -C F P ro b it -R S P ro b it -C F P ro b it -R S P ro b it -C F P ro b it -R S P ro b it -C F P ro b it -R S G D R 0 .5 0 1 * * 0 .5 3 6 * * 0 .0 2 9 * * 0 .0 3 1 * * 0 .0 2 7 * * 0 .0 3 0 * * -0 .0 3 3 * * -0 .0 3 4 * * 0 .0 7 1 * * 0 .0 7 5 * * -0 .1 5 7 * * -0 .1 5 3 * * (0 .1 0 5 ) (0 .1 0 7 ) (0 .0 0 9 ) (0 .0 1 0 ) (0 .0 0 9 ) (0 .0 1 0 ) (0 .0 1 0 ) (0 .0 1 0 ) (0 .0 0 8 ) (0 .0 0 9 ) (0 .0 1 9 ) (0 .0 1 8 ) P re se n t b ia s 0 .2 1 3 * * 0 .0 0 9 * * 0 .0 3 0 * * -0 .0 0 6 0 .0 1 3 * * -0 .0 3 9 * * (0 .0 5 7 ) (0 .0 0 5 ) (0 .0 0 4 ) (0 .0 0 5 ) (0 .0 0 4 ) (0 .0 1 0 ) D u m m y p re se n t b ia s 1 .4 8 5 * * 0 .0 7 9 * 0 .1 4 7 * * -0 .0 2 8 0 .0 7 7 * -0 .2 2 2 * * (0 .3 6 4 ) (0 .0 3 3 ) (0 .0 2 9 ) (0 .0 3 2 ) (0 .0 3 0 ) (0 .0 5 7 ) F -T e st / L R -T e st (d f) 3 4 .4 3 * * 3 3 .8 1 * * 2 1 3 .2 8 * * 1 1 6 8 .0 4 * * 5 8 4 .0 4 * * 1 5 8 3 .1 6 * * 1 6 5 .3 2 * * 1 1 4 2 .8 8 * * 6 5 7 .3 1 * * 1 6 5 6 .7 4 * * 3 6 9 .5 2 * * 6 3 4 .1 0 * * (2 2 ) (2 2 ) (2 2 ) (4 4 ) (2 2 ) (4 4 ) (2 2 ) (4 4 ) (2 2 ) (4 4 ) (2 2 ) (4 4 ) N 9 ,6 3 9 9 ,6 3 9 9 ,7 6 4 1 0 ,4 6 8 1 0 ,4 4 0 2 ,2 6 0 N o te s : W e u se S O E P d a ta fr o m 2 0 0 8 , 2 0 1 3 , a n d 2 0 1 4 . O u tc o m e m ea su re s in th e u p p er p a rt o f th e ta b le st em fr o m ei th er 2 0 0 8 a n d 2 0 1 4 (B M I, O b es it y ) o r 2 0 0 8 a n d 2 0 1 3 (S m o k in g , S a v in g , C re d it , E d u ca ti o n ) a n d in th e lo w er p a rt o f th e ta b le fr o m ei th er 2 0 1 3 o r 2 0 1 4 . B o d y M a ss In d ex : B M I- fo rm u la ; O b es it y : D u m m y v a ri a b le is eq u a l to 1 if B M I ≥ 3 0 ; S m o k in g : D u m m y v a ri a b le is eq u a l to 1 if “ y es ” . S a v in g : D u m m y v a ri a b le is eq u a l to 1 if re sp o n d en ts sa v e so m e m o n ey ev er y m o n th . C re d it : D u m m y v a ri a b le is eq u a l to 1 if re sp o n d en ts p a y b a ck a co n su m er cr ed it . E d u ca ti o n : D u m m y v a ri a b le is eq u a l to 1 if re sp o n d en ts h a v e a co ll eg e o r u n iv er si ty d eg re e. T h e d u m m y v a ri a b le fo r p re se n t b ia s is eq u a l to o n e w h en th e re sp o n se w a s h ig h er th a n si x o n a te n -i te m sc a le . T h e sp ec ifi ca ti o n s in cl u d e a ll co v a ri a te s fr o m T a b le 3 . A v er a g e p a rt ia l eff ec ts (A P E ) a re p re se n te d . P ro b it -C F : C o n tr o l- fu n ct io n a p p ro a ch w it h la g g ed p re se n t b ia s (t -5 ) a s ex cl u si o n re st ri ct io n . P ro b it -R S : R ec u rs iv e p ro b it tw o -e q u a ti o n sy st em w it h la g g ed p re se n t b ia s (t -5 ) a s ex cl u si o n re st ri ct io n . B o th p a rt s o f th e ta b le : C o lu m n s (1 )- (2 ): F -T es t o v er a ll si g n ifi ca n ce ; C o lu m n s (3 )- (1 2 ): L R -T es t o v er a ll si g n ifi ca n ce . A d d it io n a l in fo rm a ti o n o n th e lo w er p a rt o f th e ta b le : C o lu m n s (1 )- (2 ): F -T es t ex cl u d ed in st ru m en t fi rs t st a g e: 1 6 0 6 .2 6 ∗∗ ; 8 1 4 .6 ∗∗ . C o lu m n s (3 ), (5 ), (7 ), (9 ), (1 1 ): W a ld te st o f ex o g en ei ty (d f= 1 ): 0 .3 0 , 2 4 .5 2 ∗∗ , 0 .3 7 , 1 .1 9 , 4 .7 5 ∗ . C o lu m n s (4 ), (6 ), (8 ), (1 0 ), (1 2 ): L R -t es t o f rh o = 0 (d f= 1 ): 3 .5 1 + , 1 3 .6 6 ∗∗ , 0 .0 2 , 3 .7 5 + , 6 .2 7 ∗ . S ta n d a rd er ro rs a re cl u st er ed a t th e in d iv id u a l le v el if p o o le d d a ta a re em p lo y ed a n d p re se n te d in p a re n th es es . P ro b it -R S : B o o ts tr a p p ed st a n d a rd er ro rs w it h 5 0 0 re p li ca ti o n s. + p < 0 .1 0 , ∗ p < 0 .0 5 , ∗∗ p < 0 .0 1 . T a b le 1 0 : P re se n t B ia s a n d D ir ec t a n d In d ir ec t T re a tm en t E ff ec ts 32 Our results suggest that – indeed – the GDR’s socialist regime significantly and enduringly diminished the present bias of its former citizens. We find survey-based evidence indicating influence of political institutions on time preferences. Significant differences in East and West Germans’ levels of present bias remain two decades after reunification and the data does not suggest convergence. The reported level of patience of former GDR citizens is comparable to that of former FRG citizens. The relatively small variation is directionally aligned with our hypothesis about higher patience among former GRD residents (but insufficient to generate significant differences) and consistent with small variation in patience levels across much more diverse countries (Wang et al. 2016). Acknowledgments We gratefully acknowledge the very helpful comments made by Daniel Harenberg, Mario Mech- tel, Hannah Schildberg-Hörisch, Georg Weizsäcker, and participants of the 2017 German Eco- nomic Association Meeting in Vienna on earlier versions of the paper. We are also very thankful for the insightful suggestions received from three anonymous reviewers. References Acemoglu, D., Johnson, S., and J.A. Robinson, 2001. 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The difference in the pay- out period was fixed at one month. In a first task, participants were presented with the option of either receiving 200 euros immediately or some payment x > 200 euros in one month. In a second task, the decision was between 200 euros in 12 months and some payment x > 200 euros in 13 months. The level of x took on 20 values that were presented in an ascending order and the subjects were asked to state their choice for each of the 20 sets of two alternatives (Richter and Schupp 2014). After the experiment, a randomly selected subgroup of participants (11%) received 200 euros or a random x > 200 euros depending on their choice in the experiment. The set of alternatives at which individuals switch from preferring the sooner payment to preferring the later payment gives us their switching point and is interpreted as a point of indifference. We observe valid switching points for 374 participants aged 18 to 80 years. These switching points allow us to calculate an experimental measure of present bias. For illustration, suppose that an individual is indifferent between the 200 euros immediately and x euros in one month (i.e., that u(200) = βδu(x), where we use the notation from Footnote 2) and that this individual is indifferent between 200 euros in 12 months and y euros in 13 months (i.e., that u(200) = δu(y)). For this individual, we can infer β = u(y)/u(x). In a next step, we use an ordinary least squares specification to estimate the correlation between the experimental measure of present bias and our survey proxy for present bias (i.e., the SOEP measure for impulsivity) using age, age squared, and gender as additional covariates. For a subset of 322 of the 374 experiment participants with valid switching points and information about the place of residence in 1989, the SOEP survey in 2008 contains information on our proxy for present bias. We find a significant correlation between our survey measure for present bias and the experimental measure of present bias. The correlation remains significant and nearly unchanged when we add age, age squared, gender, and survey information on patience and risk (see Table 11 for complete results). Tobit and robust regression exercises yield similar results. Considering only subjects that were FRG residents in 1989, we find that the results from the 41 pooled sample re-emerge. Considering only subjects that were GDR residents in 1989, we find that the sign and the size of the coefficient remain intact. However, these coefficients are not statistically significant, which may be related to the very small number of observations. 42 (1 ) (2 ) (3 ) (4 ) (5 ) (6 ) (7 ) (8 ) (9 ) P o o le d P o o le d P o o le d F R G F R G F R G G D R G D R G D R sa m p le sa m p le sa m p le sa m p le sa m p le sa m p le sa m p le sa m p le sa m p le Im p u ls iv it y -0 .0 0 1 ∗ -0 .0 0 2 ∗ -0 .0 0 1 + -0 .0 0 2 ∗ -0 .0 0 2 ∗ -0 .0 0 1 -0 .0 0 1 -0 .0 0 1 -0 .0 0 1 (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 1 ) A g e -0 .0 0 1 -0 .0 0 1 -0 .0 0 1 -0 .0 0 1 -0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 1 ) A g e2 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 -0 .0 0 0 -0 .0 0 0 (0 .0 0 0 ) (0 .0 0 0 ) (0 .0 0 0 ) (0 .0 0 0 ) (0 .0 0 0 ) (0 .0 0 0 ) M a le 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 0 2 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 0 2 0 .0 0 2 0 .0 0 3 (0 .0 0 3 ) (0 .0 0 3 ) (0 .0 0 3 ) (0 .0 0 3 ) (0 .0 0 7 ) (0 .0 0 7 ) P a ti en ce -0 .0 0 1 -0 .0 0 1 -0 .0 0 1 -0 .0 0 1 -0 .0 0 1 -0 .0 0 1 (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 1 ) R is k -0 .0 0 1 -0 .0 0 1 0 .0 0 1 (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 1 ) (0 .0 0 2 ) N 3 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 2 7 7 2 7 7 2 7 7 4 5 4 5 4 5 R 2 0 .0 1 6 0 .0 2 4 0 .0 3 0 0 .0 1 7 0 .0 2 5 0 .0 3 2 0 .0 0 9 0 .0 4 5 0 .0 5 2 N o te s : W e u se ex p er im en ta l d a ta fr o m 2 0 0 6 a n d S O E P su rv ey d a ta fr o m 2 0 0 8 . P a ra m et er es ti m a te s co m e fr o m o rd in a ry le a st sq u a re s re g re ss io n s. T h e d ep en d en t v a ri a b le is th e ex p er im en ta l m ea su re fo r p re se n t b ia s. R o b u st st a n d a rd er ro rs a re d o cu m en te d ; + p < 0 .1 0 , ∗ p < 0 .0 5 , ∗∗ p < 0 .0 1 . T a b le 1 1 : C o rr el a ti o n o f Im p u ls iv it y a n d E x p er im en ta l M ea su re o f P re se n t B ia s 43 B Robustness Checks Present bias GDR -0.178∗∗ (0.060) Moved West during Separation 0.060 (0.211) Moved West -0.147 (0.170) Moved East -0.117 (0.334) Age 0.020 (0.016) Age2 -0.000∗ (0.000) Male -0.302∗∗ (0.054) Raised in a large city 0.237∗∗ (0.077) Raised in a medium city 0.157+ (0.083) Raised in a small city -0.033 (0.075) Mother: Secondary lower school 0.183 (0.144) Mother: Secondary intermediate school 0.157 (0.164) Mother: Secondary higher school -0.192 (0.242) Mother: No vocational degree -0.072 (0.101) Mother: Vocational degree -0.081 (0.103) Mother: Technical school 0.116 (0.178) Mother: University degree 0.151 (0.310) Father: Secondary lower school -0.332∗ (0.136) Father: Secondary intermediate school -0.266+ (0.161) Father: Secondary higher school -0.156 (0.194) Father: No vocational degree 0.256∗ (0.127) Father: Vocational degree 0.214∗ (0.105) Father: Technical school 0.224 (0.161) Father: University degree -0.041 (0.201) N 8,341 R2 0.018 Notes: We use SOEP data from 2008 and 2013 for respondents who also participated in one of the survey years 1990 to 1993. Parameter estimates are from ordinary least squares specifications. The dependent variable is the SOEP present bias measure. The specification includes all covariates from Table 3. Robust standard errors are clustered at the individual level and reported in parentheses; + p < 0.10, ∗ p < 0.05, ∗∗ p < 0.01. Table 12: Taking Account of East-West Migration before 1989: Ordinary Least Square Regres- sions 44 Present bias GDR -0.771 (0.230)∗∗ [0.204]∗∗ N 2,621 R2 0.020 Notes: We use SOEP data from 2008 and 2013 for respondents who also participated in one of the survey years 1990 to 1993. Parame- ter estimates are based on Specification 1 detailed in Section 3.2.2. The dependent variable is the SOEP present bias measure. Ro- bust standard errors clustered at the individual (county) level are reported in parentheses (square brackets); + p < 0.10, ∗ p < 0.05, ∗∗ p < 0.01. Table 13: Taking Account of East-West Migration before 1989: GRDD Regressions Present bias GDR × Brandenburg -0.446∗∗ (.100) GDR × Meck. West. Pom. -0.323∗ (.126) GDR × Saxony -0.201∗∗ (.071) GDR × Saxony-Anhalt -0.381∗∗ (.096) GDR × Thuringia -0.125 (.090) GDR × Berlin -0.350∗ (.158) GDR × state info miss -0.149∗∗ .035 N 33,109 R2 0.0163 Notes: We use SOEP data from 2008 and 2013. Parameter esti- mates are from ordinary least squares specifications. The depen- dent variable is the SOEP present bias measure. The specifications include all covariates from Table 3. Robust standard errors are clustered at the individual level and presented in parentheses; + p < 0.10, ∗ p < 0.05, ∗∗ p < 0.01. Table 14: Present Bias and GDR Treatment: GDR-states Interactions 45 Introduction Data Research Design The Formation of Time Preferences and Potential Regime Influence Identification Strategy: The German Separation and Reunification as a Natural Experiment Ordinary Least Squares Regressions and Test of Selection on Unobservables Geographic Regression Discontinuity Design Empirical Results Results from Ordinary Least Squares Regressions Results from Geographic Regression Discontinuity Design Exploring Variation in Treatment Intensity: Duration of Regime Exposure Robustness Checks Exploring Implications of GDR Experience Conclusion Exploring the relationship of the SOEP proxy for present bias (impulsivity) and an experimental measure of present bias Robustness Checks 
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work_vqkqdakl5bgohl66s6bnpqepo4	----	Public funding of political parties PUBLIC FUNDING OF POLITICAL PARTIES IGNACIO ORTUNO-ORTÍN University of Alicante CHRISTIAN SCHULTZ University of Copenhagen Abstract This paper studies the typical European system for public funding of parties, where parties receive public funds depending on their vote share. These funds finance electoral campaigns. It is shown that such a funding system increases policy convergence. The effect is larger, the more funding depends on vote shares. If the parties have access to other means of campaign finance given in a lump-sum way, the effect is moderated. 1. Introduction The funding of political parties is a fundamental aspect of democracy. Most countries have some sort of public funding, but the way it is provided varies considerably. In many European countries parties receive public funding in relation to the share of the electoral vote they achieved in the last election.1 This paper investigates such public funding systems. While the debate about public funding has often focused on fairness and on reducing the power Ignacio Ortuno-Ortı́n, Department of Economics, University of Alicante, and IVIE, 03071- Alicante, Spain (Ortin@merlin.fae.ua.es). Christian Schultz, Institute of Economics, Uni- versity of Copenhagen, Studiestraede 6, DK-1455 Copenhagen K., Denmark and CIE, EPRU and CES-ifo (cs@econ.ku.dk). We are grateful to Enriqueta Aragones, David Baron, John Brehm, Iñigo Irtube, Vijay Krishna, Jorge Streb, David Strömberg, Fabrizio Zilibotti, and many seminar audiences for comments and suggestions. Ortuno-Ortin gratefully acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Education through grant CICYT PB-970131. 1Le Duc et al. (1996) report that in 17 (of 27) countries, public funding depends on vote (or seat) share. In Denmark, for example, one vote gives about 20 Danish kroner (around US $3) per year. Bille (1997) notes that public funding has increased dramatically in the 1990s. He finds that it accounts for 48–98% of major Danish parties’ income. Mair (1994) finds that in many European countries public finance is at least as important for political parties as private finance is. 1 Cita bibliográfica Published in: Journal of Public Economic Theory, 2005, v. 7, n. 5, pp. 781-791 of wealthy private lobbies, we show that an important consequence of the “European” system is policy convergence. The more public funding parties receive, the more policy convergence will result. In the model of the paper, parties spend money on electoral campaigns. There is substantial empirical evidence to support the hypothesis that elec- toral campaigns affect how the electorate votes, (see, e.g., Holbrook 1996). This may work in several ways. Baron (1994) and McKelvey and Ordeshook (1987) suggests that there are two types of voters: “informed” and “unin- formed” or “impressionable” voters. The informed voters are policy motivated and cast their votes depending on the policies proposed by the political par- ties. Impressionable voters are poorly informed about policies (and perhaps uninterested) and their vote is directly influenced by campaign spending. Alternatively, one may assume that all voters are policy motivated but not nec- essarily well informed about parties’ policies. Then campaigns can inform about policies. Here, we follow the lead of Baron (1994).2 We consider campaigning in a model with two policy motivated parties and a unidimensional policy space. When some voters are impressionable, a party directly receives more votes if it campaigns more. The public funding system makes the parties’ policies converge. The reason for this is intuitive: parties are policy motivated and the likelihood that a party’s policy is im- plemented depends positively on its share of the total vote. This creates a trade-off: a more moderate policy is less preferable for the party but more likely to be implemented. This trade-off is changed by the public funding sys- tem. The vote gaining effect of policy moderation is enhanced (as the public funds gained buy even more votes), and in equilibrium, therefore, policies are more moderate. The more responsive votes are to campaigns and the more responsive public funding is to votes, the more the parties’ policies converge. For this effect, it is necessary that public funds depend on vote shares. Public funding depending on the vote share makes policies converge when there are some impressionable voters in the electorate. Whether poli- cies then are more or less close than in a benchmark case, where all voters are policy motivated, depends on whether the impressionable voters are suf- ficiently responsive and public funds depend enough on the vote share. A precise condition for this is given in the paper. We also show that if parties have access to other funds given in a lump-sum manner the effects of the type of public funding analyzed here are mitigated, since this funding becomes relatively less important. For the sake of simplicity, we assume that parties and voters have Euclidian preferences, where the utility is linearly decreasing in the distance from the bliss point, agents are therefore (locally) risk neutral. This, however, is not essential for our qualitative results. If agents are (globally) risk averse, the 2The working paper version of this paper, Ortuno-Ortin and Schultz (2000), also considers the case of informative campaigning, we briefly discuss this in the concluding remarks. 2 European system for public funding of parties is welfare enhancing, since it reduces policy polarization and, therefore, the general risk for everyone. The theoretical literature dealing with this type of public funding is scarce. Baron (1994) considers lobbying in a model with informed and im- pressionable voters, in which parties seek to maximize their probability of winning. If all voters are policy motivated, each party chooses the median voter’s most preferred policy. However, as a consequence of the existence of impressionable voters, parties also wish to raise funds. Courting lobby groups, which are generally considered to be extreme, can do this. In their desire to please the lobbies, the parties thus propose more extreme policies. The intro- duction of public funding (as a lump sum and independent of vote-share), mitigates the power of interest groups and their contributions become rela- tively less important. As a result, the parties’ policies are less polarized. Our argument does not depend on mitigating lobby groups’ power. We consider partisan parties who choose polarized policies even in the absence of lobbies. When public funding depends on vote share, parties get an extra incentive to moderate their policies. When public funding does not depend on the vote share, (as in the US system Baron analyses), there is no policy convergence in our model with impressionable voters. Hence, our analysis shows that the precise sort of public funding system employed is essential to understand its effect on policy convergence. An early theoretical contribution about the effects of campaigns financed by private money is Austen-Smith (1987). Mueller and Stratman (1994) also consider campaigns with a focus on private contributions to political parties. Morton and Cameron (1992) survey some early literature. The organization of the paper is as follows. Section 2 presents the basic model. Section 3 derives the equilibrium and Section 4 concludes. A few proofs are relegated to the Appendix. 2. The Model There are two parties, L and R , and a continuum of voters of measure one. Pol- itics is unidimensional. The parties each propose a policy, l and r respectively, receive campaign money, cL and cR , which is spent, and then an election is held. Finally, the winner of the election implements its proposed policy. There are two kinds of voters, informed and impressionable.3 Informed voters are informed about policies and cast their vote based on the parties’ policies, while impressionable voters are uninformed about policies and cast their vote based on the parties’ campaigns. The fraction of informed voters is (1 − α), where 0 < α < 1. 3One could identify informed voters with highly political aware persons and the impres- sionable voters with less aware persons. Zaller (1992) shows that, in presidential elections, the least aware persons are most susceptible to a persuasive message. 3 If the policy is π , an informed voter with bliss point x gets utility u(π ; x) = − |π − x| . (1) The bliss points are distributed on the interval [0, 1] according to the cumu- lative distribution function F (x); the corresponding (strictly positive, differ- entiable) density is f (x). Let m be the median bliss point, F (m) = 1/2. As l ≤ r an informed voter with bliss point x prefers party L’s policy if x ≤ l + r2 .4 Since voting is sincere, the fraction F ( l + r2 ) of the informed voters vote for party L. Parties are policy motivated and have the same type of utility function as voters (see Wittman 1990). The bliss point of party L(R ) is x L (x R ), and x L < m < x R . The fraction of total campaign spending done by party L is � ≡ c Lc L + c R . A fraction H (�) of the impressionable voters vote for party L. We will assume that H ′ > 0, H ( 12 ) = 12 , and H ′′(�) ≤ 0 for all � ≥ 12 . The party spending most becomes the most popular among uninformed voters. We further assume that the H function is symmetric: H (�) = 1 − H ( 1 � ), so H ′′ (�) ≥ 0 for all � ≤ 12 and H ′′( 12 ) = 0. Party L’s total vote share is therefore v = αH (�) + (1 − α)F ( l + r 2 ) . (2) As Grossman and Helpman (1996) do, we assume that a higher vote share increases the chance a party’s policy is implemented. It may be due to the fact that the larger a party is, the larger the influence it has in parlia- ment. One might also assume that parties are uncertain about the outcome of the election, either because of polling errors or uncertainty about who will vote and who will abstain. The larger the (ex ante) vote share a party has, the larger is the probability that it wins the election and implements its policy, (see Roemer 1994 for microfoundations). Party L’s policy is implemented with probability p(v), where for simplicity, p (v) = v. The linearity simplifies but has no qualitative importance. The steeper the p function at 12 is, the greater is the parties’ incentive to moderate their policies. Parties receive two kinds of funds: public funds based on vote shares and lump-sum funds. The latter could in principle be both public or private, the distinguishing feature is that the amount the party receives of such funds is independent both of the policies and the vote shares. Typical examples are endowments that parties may have or contributions received from dif- ferent social groups whose overall political tendencies are more in line with the party’s, for instance trade unions supporting social democratic parties 4The parties can also propose policies where r < l , but this will never occur in equilibrium, so we disregard this case. 4 independent of the precise policy.5 Let cp be the total amount of lump-sum funds of party L and R ; for simplicity, we assume that they have c p2 each. We briefly consider the asymmetric case later. Parties receive funds depending on the vote share obtained in the elec- tion. These funds will, therefore, only be available after the election. If a party wishes to spend money before the election it must therefore either take a loan or spend money received in the previous election. We assume that the party has access to a perfect credit market, where it can get a loan to be repaid by the funds earned in the election. The market is supposed to hold rational ex- pectations regarding the vote share of the party. We thus abstract from issues of credit worthiness and the dynamic issues involved if parties only can bor- row a fraction of the money they are expected to receive. In most countries parties are in fact heavily indebted before elections. The timing is as follows. First, the two parties propose policies. Then, they receive public funding depending on their expected vote share. The expectation is correct. This is equivalent to the case in which parties borrow on a perfect credit market with rational expectations before an election and use the public funding they later receive to repay the loans.6 Let cg be the size of the public funds. We will assume that parties are treated equally. If party L is expected to receive a share ve of votes, it re- ceives cgL = ψ (ve )c g from public funding, and party R then receives cgR = ψ (1 − ve )c g . Accordingly, ψ ( 12 ) = 12 . We assume that the funding system ful- fills ψ ′ ≥ 0 for all ve and ψ ′′(ve ) ≤ 0 for all ve ≥ 12 , and ψ ′′(ve ) ≥ 0 for all ve ≤ 12 . A party that has already obtained 50% of the votes (weakly) increases its funds at a non-increasing rate by receiving more votes.7 If party L is expected to receive a vote share ve , the relative fraction of funds received—and spent—by party L is �(ve ) = ψ (ve )c g + 1 2 c p c g + c p . Given an expected vote share of ve , and a pair of policies (l , r ), the actual vote share of party L is v = αH (�(ve )) + (1 − α)F ( l + r 2 ) . (3) 5Since there is comprehensive literature on private lobbying, and its effects on policy- making are quite well understood it is not included in the model. See Baron (1994), Austen-Smith (1997), Persson and Tabellini (2000), and Grossman and Helpman (2001). 6Notice that if parties have access to a perfect credit market, public funding will not prevent the entry of new parties to the political arena. For the time being, however, we disregard the issue of entry. 7We may note that the Danish system described in the Introduction, in which a party receives approximately 20 Danish kroner (US$ 3) per year per vote, has ψ ′ > 0 and ψ ′′ = 0. 5 Under rational expectations, ve = v; hence, v solves Equation (3) with v inserted for ve . If α H ′(�(v))�′(v) < 1, for all v ∈ [0, 1], (4) the solution is unique. We assume this is the case, and denote the solution by v(l , r ). This means that the responsiveness of public funding and of the impressionable voters are sufficiently limited to make the problem well be- haved. Note that we are not assuming that the final equilibrium is unique but just that there is a unique vote share for each party for a given pair of policies. The implicit function theorem yields ∂v(l , r ) ∂l = 1 − α 2 f ( l + r 2 ) 1 − αH ′(�(v))�′(v) > 0. (5) When party L changes its policy, some informed voters change their votes. This, in turn, increases the public funds allocated to the party and, therefore, its share of impressionable votes. But this, once again, increases the funds received, etc. These repercussions are taken into account in the rational ex- pectations solution. The assumption α�′(v)H ′(�(v)) < 1 ensures that the comparative statics make sense, i.e., if party L increases its policy (toward the middle), it will increase its vote share. 3. Political Equilibrium The parties are policy motivated and seek to maximize expected utility. They take the other party’s policy as given and recognize how the choice of policy might influence the distribution of funds and the relative campaign spending. Given the pair of policies, (l , r ), party’s L expected utility is v(l , r )(−|l − xL|) + (1 − v(l , r ))(−|r − xL|). (6) Similarly, party’s R expected utility is given by v(l , r )(−|l − xR |) + (1 − v(l , r ))(−|r − xR |). (7) A Political equilibrium with campaigning is a pair of policies (l ∗, r ∗), such that l ∗ maximizes (6) given r ∗ and r ∗ maximizes (7) given l ∗. In principle, a party’s optimal policy may be equal to the party’s bliss point where the utility function is non-differentiable. We will, however, only consider interior solutions, where x L < l < r < x R . We have PROPOSITION 1: In an interior political equilibrium with campaigning: (a) Each party receives half of the votes. 6 (b) The expected policy equals the median informed voter’s preferred policy l ∗ + r ∗ 2 = m. (8) (c) The policies are symmetric around m and the policy polarization is r ∗ − l ∗ = 1 − α ψ ′ ( 1 2 ) c g c g + c p H ′ ( 1 2 ) 1 − α 1 f (m) . (9) Proof: The first-order condition for party L is ( αH ′(�) d� dl + (1 − α) 2 f ( l + r 2 )) (r − l ) − ( αH (�) + (1 − α)F ( l + r 2 )) = 0. (10) Inserting (5) and using the fact that d�dl = �′(v(l , r )) ∂v(l , r ) ∂l yields 1 1 − αH ′(�)�′(v) f ( l + r 2 ) 2 (r − l ) − ( α 1 − α H (�) + F ( l + r 2 )) = 0. (11) Similarly, the first-order condition for R , can be written as 1 1 − α H ′(�)�′(v) f ( l + r 2 ) 2 (r − l ) − ( α 1 − α (1 − H (�)) + ( 1 − F ( l + r 2 ))) = 0. (12) Since the first parts of (11) and (12) are identical, we get v = αH (�) + (1 − α)F ( l + r2 ) = 12 . Since, �( 12 ) = 12 , and H ( 12 ) = 12 , this im- plies F ( l ∗ + r ∗ 2 ) = 12 , so (8) is fulfilled. Inserting into (11) and rearranging yields (9). Finally using l ∗ + r ∗ 2 = m, one sees that the policies are symmet- ric around m. � If there were no public funds depending on vote shares, c g = 0. It follows directly from Equation (9) that public funding depending on vote shares makes the parties’ policies converge. From Equation (9) in Proposition 1 we have Corollary 1. COROLLARY 1: In an interior political equilibrium with campaigning policy polarization (l ∗ − r ∗) decreases in: 7 (a) the size of public funds depending on vote shares, cg ; (b) the responsiveness of the public funding system as given by ψ ′( 12 ); and (c) the responsiveness of the impressionable voters as given by H ′( 12 ). Policy polarization (l ∗ − r ∗) increases in the size of lump-sum funds, cp . The more public funds depend on vote shares, the larger is the policy convergence. The system gives an extra incentive to moderate policies, since the extra votes gained from moderating policies makes more public funds available, which, in turn can be used to gain further votes. Lump-sum funds tend to moderate this effect. When the parties have access to large lump- sum funds, the extra funds that can be gained through the public funding system by moderating policy become less important. It may be noted that if the impressionable voters’ vote depends on the absolute rather than relative difference in funding this would not be true. If the difference is crucial, an equally large lump sum to each of the parties has no effect. We believe our formulation is the more reasonable. The impact of extra $100,000 is not independent of whether parties already have campaign budgets totaling millions of dollars or not. In Baron (1994), parties seek to maximize plurality. With no funding whatever, they choose the median voter’s preferred policy. Private funding is provided by extreme lobby groups, who reward the parties for more extreme policies and this makes for policy polarization. Public funds are given in a lump sum (as in the US system), and they reduce the relative importance of lobbies’ funds. Consequently policies become more convergent. In our model exactly the opposite result is obtained from lump-sum contributions. Such contributions (whether private or public) decrease the importance of the funds earned through votes, and this makes policies more divergent. In both models lump-sum contributions mitigate the effect of non-lump-sum contributions. Viewed in this perspective, one could say, that the difference is that in Baron’s paper variable funds are given by extreme groups in response to more extreme policies; this makes for policy polarization. In a system with public funding depending on vote share variable funds are given in response to more moderate policies; this makes for policy convergence. In both cases lump-sum funds mitigate the effects of variable funds. If there are no impressionable voters, then α = 0 and r ∗ − l ∗ = 1 f (m) . From (9) it follows that if H ′( 12 )� ′( 12 ) > 1 polices are more convergent than in the benchmark case with no impressionable voters, and if H ′( 12 )� ′( 12 ) < 1, policies are more divergent. Hence, we cannot it a priori say whether the case of impressionable voters and a public funding system yield more policy convergence than the one obtained in the case with only informed voters. 8 Finally, we note that the higher the density of the informed voters at the median voter’s preferred policy, the more policy convergence. This is a standard result in the literature. The higher this density, the more votes can be gained by moving policy closer to the middle. If one extends the model to allow for asymmetric lump-sum funds, it is easily shown that the richest party will choose a more extreme policy, since such a party has a larger share of the impressionable voters it can afford to loose some public funds (see Ortuno-Ortin and Schultz 2000). In the Appendix, we show that the second-order condition is fulfilled if f ′ f < 4, and d 2� dl 2 / d� dl + H ′′ H ′ < 2. (13) The latter part is a joint condition on � and H , and it is difficult to provide general conditions that ensure that it is fulfilled. We show in the Appendix, however, that if H ′′ = 0 and ψ ′′ = 0, so �′′ = 0, those inequalities are fulfilled. As is clear from the derivation, it is not necessary that H ′′ = 0 and �′′ = 0, but rather that these second derivatives should not be too large. We have assumed that the equilibrium is interior, x L < l < r < x R . This obviously implies that r − l < x R − x L . As can be seen from Equation (9) this requires f (m) to be sufficiently large and/or (1 − αH ′( 12 )�′( 12 ))/(1 − α) to be sufficiently small. An example that fulfills this condition is, xL = 0, xR = 1, m = 1/2, H ′( 12 )�′( 12 ) = 1 and f (m) > 1. If there are more parties with different bliss points, and the probability a party’s policy is implemented equals its vote share, similar results as those obtained above continue to hold (again see Ortuno-Ortin and Schultz 2000). 4. Concluding Remarks Public funding of political parties moderate partisan policies. When cam- paigns are persuasive, and the public funds depend on the vote share, parties have more incentives to moderate their policies. A moderate policy gives more votes and, therefore, higher public funds, which in turn, can be used to buy even more votes. The parties’ trade off between preferred policies and electoral success is changed, making moderation a more attractive option. In the working paper version, Ortuno-Ortin and Schultz (2000), we also consider the case where all voters are policy motivated, but only some are informed about a party’s policy. In such a setting, campaigns inform about policies. The more a party spends on its campaign, the larger is the fraction of voters who learn its policy. The gain in vote share from moderating the policy (more than expected) is larger, the larger is the fraction of informed voters, since only these voters will learn about a change in policy. Hence, the incentive to moderate policy is enhanced, the more informed voters there are. It follows that policy convergence will depend on how effective electoral spending is in spreading information, and on the amount of funds available. This effect works regardless of whether public funds depend on the vote 9 share or not. The important feature here is that more funds make for more information, which makes for more convergence. Thus, it is the total amount of funds that matter, not the exact way they are distributed. In this way, there is a difference with the case where campaigns are persuasive. Appendix For party L the second-order condition for maximum is −2 ( αH ′ d� dl + 1 − α 2 f ) + ( αH ′′ d� dl + αH ′ d 2� dl 2 + 1 − α 4 f ′ ) (r − l ) ≤ 0. (A1) Since r − l ≤ 1, this is fulfilled if −2 ( αH ′ d� dl + 1 − α 2 f ) + αH ′′ d� dl + αH ′ d 2� dl 2 + 1 − α 4 f ′ ≤ 0. Using d�dl > 0 (which follows from ψ ′ > 0), we get (1 − α) α ( f ′ 4 − f ) + H ′ d� dl   d 2� dl 2 d� dl + H ′′ H ′ − 2   ≤ 0. A sufficient condition for this to be fulfilled is that f ′ f < 4, and d 2� dl 2 / d� dl + H ′′ H ′ < 2. (A2) This condition is fulfilled if H ′′ = 0 and ψ ′′ = 0. To see this, d 2� dl 2 / d� dl = � ′′ �′ + ∂ 2v ∂l 2 / ∂v(l , r ) ∂l . Using (5) we get ∂ 2v ∂l = 1 − α 4 f ′ ( 1 − αH ′�′ ) + 1 − α 2 α f �′′H ′ ∂v ∂l + (�′)2H ′′ ∂v ∂l (1 − αH ′�′)2 = 1 − α 4 f ′ (1 − αH ′�′) < (1 − α) f 1 − αH ′�′ = 2 ∂v ∂l , where the first equality follows from the assumption that H ′′ = 0 and ψ ′′ = 0, so that �′′ = 0. The inequality follows from the assumption that f ′/f < 4. Clearly, (A2) then is fulfilled. Finally, if d�dl = 0, the second-order condition is fulfilled if f ′/f < 4. 10 References AUSTEN-SMITH, D. (1987) Interest groups, campaign contributions, and probabilis- tic voting, Public Choice 54,123–139. AUSTEN-SMITH, D. 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Katz and P. Mair, eds. Sage Publications. MCKELVEY, R., and P. ORDESHOOK (1987) Elections with limited information: A multidimensional model, Mathematical Social Science 14,77–99. MUELLER, D. C., and T. STRATMAN (1994) Informative and persuasive campaign- ing, Public Choice 81, 55–77. MORTON, R., and C. M. CAMERON (1992) Elections and the theory of campaign contributions: A survey and critical analysis, Economics and Politics 4,79–108. ORTUNO-ORTIN, I., and C. SCHULTZ (2000) Public funding of political parties, CES-ifo Working Paper No. 368. PERSSON, T., and G. TABELLINI (2000) Political Economics, Explaining Economic Policy. Cambridge and London: MIT Press. ROEMER, J. E. (1994) A theory of policy differentation in single issue electoral politics, Social Choice and Welfare 11, 355–380. WITTMAN, D. (1990) Spatial strategies when candidates have policy preferences, in Advances in the Spatial Theory of Voting , J. Enelow and M. Hinich, eds. Cambridge: CUP. ZALLER, J. R. (1992) The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 11 
work_vxemf4nkyrdu5izbx3lb74kcwu	----	So you want to be a Histopathologist? Houghton, J. (2013). So you want to be a Histopathologist? Ulster Medical Journal, 82(3), 212. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3913421/ Published in: Ulster Medical Journal Document Version: Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Queen's University Belfast - Research Portal: Link to publication record in Queen's University Belfast Research Portal Publisher rights © The Ulster Medical Society, 2013. This work is made available online in accordance with the publisher’s policies. Please refer to any applicable terms of use of the publisher. General rights Copyright for the publications made accessible via the Queen's University Belfast Research Portal is retained by the author(s) and / or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing these publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. Take down policy The Research Portal is Queen's institutional repository that provides access to Queen's research output. Every effort has been made to ensure that content in the Research Portal does not infringe any person's rights, or applicable UK laws. If you discover content in the Research Portal that you believe breaches copyright or violates any law, please contact openaccess@qub.ac.uk. Download date:06. Apr. 2021 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3913421/ https://pure.qub.ac.uk/en/publications/so-you-want-to-be-a-histopathologist(1dd6adeb-5f4f-4f1c-ae4e-ecfd945d8e9f).html © The Ulster Medical Society, 2013. www.ums.ac.uk Ulster Med J 2013;82(3):212 So you want to be a Histopathologist? Joe Houghton Clinical Academic Teaching Fellow and Consultant Histopathologist, Centre for Medical Education, Mulhouse Building, Queen’s University Belfast, BT12 6DP Correspondence to: Joe Houghton email Joseph.Houghton@qub.ac.uk Accepted 20 February 2013 WHat is HistopatHology? Histopathology is the pathological examination of tissues removed from patients for diagnostic reasons, often to confirm or exclude malignancy. It can include gross (macroscopic) examination, microscopic examination, immunohistochemistry and molecular testing. Describe a typical Working Week for a consultant. A substantial part of our time is spent at a microscope. We would also typically prepare for and attend one multidisciplinary cancer meeting per week. A small amount of time would also be spent either performing or supervising specimen dissection. is it a lonely existence? Compared to clinical work, microscopy is a solitary activity, but pathologists do not often complain of feeling lonely. Our microscopy sessions tend to be interrupted regularly by friendly biomedical scientist colleagues bringing us glass slides and if we work in large centres a substantial amount of time is spent one-to-one with registrars who are heavily supervised. We also tend to be in and out of each others offices regularly showing each other interesting cases. Our role has been enhanced in recent years by weekly attendance at multidisciplinary cancer meetings where we play a pivotal role and where we have a strong sense of team membership. are patHologists generally a bit eccentric? Doctors with mild Asperger’s syndrome tend to make good diagnostic pathologists but on the other hand are often not great colleagues as their team working skills can be poor. apart from tHose WitH milD asperger’s synDrome, WHo tenDs to be attracteD to tHis area of meDicine? Pathologists often play a key role in undergraduate medical education and some impressionable young medical students are inspired to follow strong role models. Doctors who get more satisfaction from the academic aspect of medicine rather than patient contact also tend to be attracted to histopathology and other laboratory specialties. HoW mucH clinical contact is tHere is HistopatHology? Very little. Our colleagues in cytopathology do have more clinical contact by meeting patients in one-stop head and neck or breast clinics, but histopathologists generally have very little patient contact. WHat makes a gooD HistopatHologist? The knowledge base required is quite heavy, so you need to be prepared for this. The most important skill is having an keen eye for pattern recognition as miscoscopy is a visual discipline. Although this can be learnt, some pathologists have a natural flair. Attention to detail is really important, both carefully examining microscopic slides and carefully proof- reading reports before they are issued. A good pathologist also needs to be organised and good at time management. HoW many autopsies Do you Do per Week? Personally I don’t do any. Many pathologists opt out of post-mortem examinations, but if this is something you are interested in, there are many job opportunities where this is a key element. WHat is a HistopatHologist’s Worst nigHtmare? What histopathologists dread most is making a false positive cancer diagnosis (which may result in overtreatment) or on the other hand diagnosing a malignant case as benign (which may result in a delay in cancer treatment). This unfortunately does happen from time to time. WHat role to HistopatHologists play in cancer screening programs? We play a pivotal role in cancer screening programs where we attempt to carefully categorise pre-cancerous conditions. We witness, first hand, both the positives and negatives of the cancer screening programs – we see the success stories where small invasive cancers are diagnosed early but we also see the negative side with overtreatment of mild abnormalities and occasional missed cancers (interval cancers). Working within NHS screening programs can be quite stressful for these reasons. WHat is tHe biggest benefit of tHe job? There is a lot of job satisfaction because most of our work involves the diagnosis of important medical and surgical conditions. In addition, our day to day work is ultraflexible as microscopy sessions can be moved about to allow attendance at various meetings. WHere can i finD out more? Visit the website of the Royal College of Pathologists (www.rcpath.org) or make an appointment with your local histopathologist. 
work_vyt3lnygo5cwnhygnidu2jmd3u	----	406 15 August 1970 Correspondence BRITISH MEDICAL JOURNAL well, flatly denied that a patient with a par- ticular condition was in the hospital. The administrator, however, after several calls, agreed that such a patient was there but that premature publicity might cause her anxiety and hazard her health. I therefore agreed not to write anything. When I challenged the doctor with this information he said, "I just wanted to throw you off the scent." This sort of experience makes the plea that journalists should treat doctors more gently seem rather hollow. Doctors with ex- perience of reputable journalists will know that reporters frequently are asked and agree to keep confidence about something, even if it is only to preserve a doctor's identity to protect him from charges of advertising. But if a doctor has a grievance about in- accurate reporting or unethical behaviour by reporters he has the remedy in his own hands. A complaint to the newspaper or perhaps to the Press Council can have a very sobering effect on the journalist involved. It is significant that the Press Council confirms that complaints from doctors about medical matters are extremely rare.-I am, etc., JAMES WILKINSON, Science Correspondent, Daily Express. London S.W.I. SIR,-I was interested to read the letter of Mr. J. Roper (18 July, p. 161). There is a great deal to be said for more understanding on both sides between the profession and the press. Taking, however, the current problem of drug addiction among young people, there is much irresponsibility among certain journalists-.although cer- tainly not all. At the Harrogate meeting (Supplement, 11 July, p. 48) it was pleasing to see that at last a more realistic attitude to drug abuse was shown by the motions accepted. We as a profession have individually and generally failed to prevent over-prescribing. May I as a neurologist who uses amphetamines for narcoleptics say that I consider this is the "only" indication for the use of this highly- addictive drug. Dr. F. 0. Wells (9 May, p. 361) has shown the way in Ipswich by his ban on amphetamines, which is working so well. Narcolepsy is not a common disease, and the drug could quite satisfactorily be prescribed only in hospital. May I once more plead for support for organized lectures at schools about the danger of drug addiction, so that the impressionable young may be forewarned about what they face by drug-taking? J. D. Wright' in an interesting article points out that 75 0 of schoolchildren in Wolverhampton that he interviewed had learnt about drugs from television and newspapers. Is is too much to ask for responsible help from the press, and from the teaching profession who often try to push this problem under the carpet? It would also be fair to ask for more help from the Church; many bishops could use their talents by organizing counter- propaganda to drug-taking-an evil at their own front door. Lastly may I turn to the stream of pro- grammes on drugs on radio and television. Only recently I saw a programme on B.B.C.2 called "The Timeless Moment" in which various people were interviewed about their experiences under the influence of drugs. One speaker did mention that one L.S.D. taker had become acutely psychotic and attacked his relatives. This unfortunate person has remained psychotic. However, this danger of L.S.D. was hidden by a great deal of emotional and pseudo-scientific talk about the pleasures of trips. The very sordid side of drugs, with its utter concentration on self and the domination of the mind by a chemical, is forgotten. These programmes can do nothing but harm to young viewers. I consider there is a strong case for banning all drug programmes on the mass media. Producers forget that these programmes are seen by a very uncritical audience, many of whom are not adult and cannot assess the risks at all. The medical profession needs the help of all decent men of every profession to try and stop this evil disease.-I am, etc., A. M. G. CAMPBELL, Vice-Chairman, Bristol University Advisory Committee on Drug Addiction. Bristol. REFERENCE Wright, J. D., Proceedins's of the Roval Societv of Medicine, 1970, 63, 725. George III and the Mad-business SIR,-Having recently been stimulated by student nurses' questions to re-read some of the literature about George III's "insanity," I feel that, although the evidence adduced by Drs. I. Macalpine and R. Hunterl 2 that the King's physical symptoms were due to porphyria is most iinpressive and convinc- ing, the suggestion that his mental symp- toms, including "incessant talking" and "hurry of spirit," were also only of toxic origin and not due to an associated manic state seems much more royalistic than real- istic (see also B.M.7., 8 November 1969, p. 352). I wonder if any of the world's leading porphyriologists would care to assess the likelihood, in their experience, that a patient with a toxic delirium due to porphyrins would (a) survive this not once but repeatedly, (b) stay in a "certifiable" state for five months, (c) make a complete mental recovery without any significant evidence of brain damage, (d) thereafter have a remis- sion lasting twelve years, and (e) live on to the age of 82? Without wishing to recast any slur on our monarchy's ancestors, I feel the facts sug- gest that George III (whose granddaughter, Queen Victoria, certainly had a classical and prolonged depressive breakdown after the death of Prince Albert) was unfortunate enough to suffer from both porphyria and manic-depressive psychosis; the latter being brought on acutely at the climacteric and becoming chronic in senescence.-I am, etc., M. M. SALZMANN. " .,s Cctt Hospital, !okc, Hants. REFERENCES Mtac.,..c,! I., Hunter, R., and Rimington, C., British Medical 7othrnal, 1968. 1. 7. Macalpine, I., and Hunter, R., George III and the Mad-Busincss, London: Allen Lane, The Penguin Press. 1969. Tarsal-tunnel Syndrome in Rheumatoid Arthritis SIR,-Drs. K. Lloyd and A. Agarwal report a case of tarsal-tunnel syndrome as a presenting feature of rheumatoid arthritis (4 July, p. 32), which responded to cortico- steroid injections beneath the retinaculum. They draw attention to the possibility of this condition being not infrequent in rheumatoid arthritis, but that its detection may be masked by the many other causes of pain in the foot in this disease. Dr. A. L. Wilson and I reported three cases of this syndrome1 and drew attention to certain similarities between the tarsal- tunnel syndrome and its carpal counterpart. One of the cases we reported responded very well to the local injection of steroids under the retinaculum. We also noted that the symptoms could be reproduced by forc- ible dorsiflexion of the ankle. The addition of a raise to the heel of the shoe of the affected foot also helps by relaxing the ten- sion on the posterior tibial nerve behind the medial malleolus. Since then we have seen two other cases of tarsal-tunnel syndrome associated with rheumatoid arthritis. One of these cases was treated by bilateral surgical decompression of the nerve, and the other by three injections of corticosteroid given locally under the flexor retinaculum at weekly intervals. Both cases responded well to treatment. It is interesting to note that Yamaguchi2 and his colleagues reviewed over 1,200 cases of carpal-tunnel syndrome and found that 318 of these cases were associated with sys- temic diseases. The commonest systemic diseases associated with the carpal tunnel syndrome were rheumatoid arthritis (93), myxoedema (77), and diabetes (69).-I am, etc., E. H. CHATER. Orthopaedic Department, Merlin Park, Galway. REFERENCES l Chater, E. H., and Wilson, A. L., lournal of the Irish Medical Association, 1968, 61, 326. 2 Yamapuchi, D. M., Lipscomb, P. R., and Soule, E. H., Minneso?a Medicine, 1965, 48, 22. Therapeutic Abortion SIR,-Dr. S. E. Josse is reported (Sup- plement, 11 July, p. 52) as saying at the recent Annual Representative Meeting that "The report of the Royal College of Obstet- ricians and Gynaecologists printed in the British Medical Journal of 30 May showed that 94 ', of consultants replying to a questionnaire had no objection to termination of pregnancy." This is not correct. The questionnaire to which Dr. Josse refers was sent with a cov- ering letter from the president of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists to all consultant obstetricians and gynaecologists employed in the National Health Service. The first question read as follows: "Do you have a conscientious objection to the termination of pregnancy in all circumstances (my italics)?" In reply 424 (94 A',) of the consultants replying answered "No." If Dr. Josse has been reported correctly his statement is erroneous and misleading.- I am, etc., ANTHONY W. PURDIE. North Middllesex Hospital, Lonidon N.18. o n 5 A p ril 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .b m j.co m / B r M e d J: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /b m j.3 .5 7 1 9 .4 0 6 o n 1 5 A u g u st 1 9 7 0 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://www.bmj.com/ 
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work_wdiz2jjkzrhspfxr4x5pghhcdm	----	[PDF] Dr. Ashok DB Vaidya | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.4103/0975-9476.90770 Corpus ID: 2138019Dr. Ashok DB Vaidya @article{Patwardhan2011DrAD, title={Dr. Ashok DB Vaidya}, author={B. Patwardhan and R. Ghooi}, journal={Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine}, year={2011}, volume={2}, pages={209 - 210} } B. Patwardhan, R. Ghooi Published 2011 Medicine Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine DOI: 10.4103/0975-9476.90770 Dr. Ashok DB Vaidya surprising then that the youngster grew up to love these fine things in life, a love that has endured for the last three quarters of the century. His parents came from rich backgrounds, spiritually, culturally, and educationally rich and he was surrounded by a family, which nurtured the best in him. Other things may change us, but we start and end with the family said Anthony Brandt. Dr. Vaidya’s family molded him, and put him on the path to seek… Expand View PDF Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper Topics from this paper Digital Object Identifier db/db Mouse Related Papers Abstract Topics Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. Learn More → Resources DatasetsSupp.aiAPIOpen Corpus Organization About UsResearchPublishing PartnersData Partners   FAQContact Proudly built by AI2 with the help of our Collaborators Terms of Service•Privacy Policy The Allen Institute for AI By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our Privacy Policy, Terms of Service, and Dataset License ACCEPT & CONTINUE 
work_wgxz6g4pjjgf7fyauu2ivmdlhu	----	Macrodystrophia lipomatosa: A troubled second big toe Radiology Case Reports Volume 3, Issue 4, 2008 RCR Radiology Case Reports | radiology.casereports.net 1 DOI: 10.2484/rcr.2008.v3i4.92 Citation: Mahmood A, Mahmood NF. Macrodystrophia Lipomatosa: A troubled second big toe. Radiology Case Reports. [Online] 2008;3:92. Copyright: © 2008 The Authors. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 2.5 License, which permits reproduction and distribution, provided the original work is properly cited. Commercial use and derivative works are not permitted. Abbreviations: CT, computed tomography; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging Ali Mahmood, M.D. (Email: StrikerMD@hotmail.com), is in the Department of Surgery, St. Joseph Mercy Oakland Hospital and Medical Center, Pontiac, MI, USA. Nadia F. Mahmood, M.D., is in the Department of Radiology, St. Joseph Mercy Oak- land Hospital and Medical Center, Pontiac, MI, USA. Published: October 1, 2008 DOI: 10.2484/rcr.2008.v3i4.92 Macrodystrophia Lipomatosa: A troubled second big toe Ali Mahmood, M.D., and Nadia F. Mahmood, M.D. We report the case of a 4-year-old boy who presented to our facility with an enlarged right sec- ond toe. After radiography ruled out acute pathology, an MRI showed increased adipose tissue at the distal aspect of the appendage. Although the parent felt that the appendage was unaesthetic, there was no functional issue, and further discussion with the pediatricians and pediatric surgeons resolved the need for immediate intervention. Macrodystrophia Lipomatosa is a rare entity that predominantly affects the pediatric population. Distributed evenly in the males and females, the disease pertains to hypertrophy of fibroadipose tissue of the distal upper and lower extremities. Macrodystrophia Lipomatosa is a rare entity that predominantly affects the pediatric population. Dis- tributed evenly in the males and females, the disease pertains to hypertrophy of fibroadipose tissue of the distal upper and lower extremities. Introduction Case Report A 4-year-old boy presented to our facility with significant enlargement of the right second toe. The patient’s mother stated that the involved digit had always been disproportionately large; however it was progressively growing in relation to the remaining digits. He had undergone resection of the distal phalanx of the second toe at the age of one year due to the hypertrophy present at that time. The working diagnosis given at that time was progressive macrodactyly of the second digit. The child did not have any other medical problems, prior hospitalizations or history of recent trauma. He maintained an adequate range of motion of the lower extremity and his second toe was not tender or warm to palpation. The mobility of the digit was slightly com- promised, however he was able to move it. There did not appear to be any abnormality with his balance, although he was not entirely comfortable with his ambula- tion. The patient’s mother complained not only of the aesthetic problem, but stated that she had to purchase two different sizes of shoes for her child. An x-ray of the affected extremity was obtained immediately to rule out an acute process (Fig. 1), followed by an MRI study (Fig. 2). The surgery team was consulted, and after significant RCR Radiology Case Reports | radiology.casereports.net 2 DOI: 10.2484/rcr.2008.v3i4.92 Macrodystrophia Lipomatosa: A Troubled Second Big Toe Figure 1. 4-year-old boy with macrodystrophia lipomatosa. AP radiograph of the right foot demonstrates enlargement of the soft tissues (arrow) of the second toe, which appears to be laterally deviated and approximates the first digit in size. Note is made of distal phalanx resection of the second toe with broadening and irregularity of the distal aspect of the remaining distal phalanx. Macrodystrophia lipomatosa is a form of localized gigantism characterized primarily by proliferation of mesenchymal elements, particularly with a dispropor- tionate increase in adipose tissue (1-3). First described by Feriz in 1925, the disease entity was expanded and has been repeatedly reported in both the upper and lower extremities (4, 5). A confirmed etiology does not exist; however, hypotheses include irregularities in the fetal circulation, lipomatous degeneration, malignant components of nerve origin altering somatic cells during embryo development, and insults to growth-inhibiting factors (6, 7, 8). However, these abnormalities were not described in our patient’s histopathology, nor are they Discussion Figure 2. 4-year-old boy with macrodystrophia lipomatosa. MRI axial T1 weighted image demonstrates increased adi- pose tissue (arrow) around the distal aspect of the second toe, which is laterally deviated. discussion physicians and family members determined that surgery would not be immediately offered. Pathol- ogy reports obtained from a separate institution, where the patient had undergone amputation of his distal phalanx, described an enlarged gross specimen with near normal architecture but with significant amounts of normal-appearing adipose tissue. His condition was attributed to macrodystrophia lipomatosa. Plans were made to monitor the child extensively to ensure mobil- ity and functionality. Should these be compromised or the disfigurement become excessive, the pediatric surgeons would intervene. RCR Radiology Case Reports | radiology.casereports.net 3 DOI: 10.2484/rcr.2008.v3i4.92 Macrodystrophia Lipomatosa: A Troubled Second Big Toe described in numerous other patients reported in the literature (9). Grossly, the disease affects the second or third digits of the lower or upper extremity and renders them thickened, pale, and nontender to palpation, with often impressive soft-tissue hypertrophy. Histopatho- logical analysis revealed marked hypertrophy of adipose tissue with possible involvement of the bone marrow, periosteum, muscles, and nerve sheaths. Abnormal tissue often proliferates along the median nerve distribu- tion of the hand and plantar region of the foot (10, 11). There have been isolated reported cases of hypertrophied adipose tissue extending beyond the extremities and into the abdomen (12). The integrity of the underlying trabicular architecture, however, remains normal (13). Interestingly, the sheer mass effect of the adipose tissue deposits can cause symptoms such as carpal tunnel syndrome, particularly when the deposits are situated beneath the flexor retinaculum and impinge on the median nerve (14). The disease usually presents at birth and manifests as one of the two forms of true macrodactyly. The first type, coined “static,” causes the involved digit to grow proportionately in relation to the other digits [15]. The second type, “progressive,” involves growth of the involved digit more rapidly than the rest of the extrem- ity, which is more in concordance with macrodystrophia lipomatosa. Radiographic evidence of macrodystrophia lipoma- tosa consists of soft-tissue overgrowth prominently in the median and plantar nerve distribution. Soft-tissue radiolucency is often accompanied by elongated, thick- ened phalanges with splayed distal ends resembling a “mushroom” shape (15, 16). These findings are usually on the volar aspect of the digit and the respective distal end. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies have rapidly become the test of choice for elucidating the characteristic findings and helping establish the diag- nosis. T1- and T2-weighted images, particularly in the coronal cross sections, reveal the proliferation of adipose tissue (17, 18). Bony or muscular abnormalities, such as cortical thickening or fibrous thickening, are also visual- ized using MRI studies. Sagittal short-tau inversion-re- covery (STIR) images confirm the fatty lesions by signal suppression. It is important to differentiate macrodystrophia lipomatosa from other diseases. Differential diagnoses include neurofibromatosis, lymphangiomatosis, he- mangiomatosis, fibrolipomatosis of the nerve, Klippel- Trenaunay-Weber syndrome, Maffucci’s syndrome, and Ollier’s disease (enchondromas). Neurofibromatosis exhibits signal hyperintense neurofibromas on T2- weighted MR images, and the distal phalanges are not the most heavily affected (19). Neurofibromatosis also is associated with a familial prevalence. Lymphangiomato- sis grossly presents with limb swelling accompanied with pitting edema. MR imaging reveals lesions that are hy- perintense to muscle on T1-weighted images and hyper- intense to fat on T2-weighted images (15). Hemagioma- tosis presents with MR imaging that is hyperintense to vasculature and clinically might project an appreciable bruit. Klippel-Trenaunay-Weber syndrome consists of hemangiomas, arteriovenous fistulae, and limb hyper- trophy with MRI studies revealing intermittent areas of low and high signal representing sporadic deposits of calcium and hemosiderin (8, 15). Fibrolipomatosis of the nerve is differentiated by MRI studies that reveal fatty deposits within the nerve sheath, causing marked enlargement of the nerve itself. Maffucci’s syndrome can cause macrodactyly; however, it is characterized by benign enlargements of cartilage (enchondromas), bone deformities, and dark, irregularly shaped hemangiomas. Ollier’s disease predominantly involves the cartilage and often encompasses various parts of the skeletal body. It is not restricted to a synchronous single extremity. Other overgrowth syndromes have been attributed to germline mutations such as Beckwith Wiedemann syndrome and Proteus syndrome. This could possibly suggest that there exists an undiscovered germline mutation leading to macrodactyly of an affected extremity (20, 21). Cosmetic abnormalities remain a significant reason for surgical intervention in the treatment of mac- rodystrophia lipomatosa. Bony-growth-resembling osteophytes may lead to degenerative changes in joints, warranting operative removal for symptomatic relief. The slanting of articular surfaces leading to secondary joint disease curbs mobility by retarding joint movement and must be addressed. Furthermore, the asymmetric nature of the disease prohibits normal activity, particu- larly in the child population, where posture and gait are exceedingly impressionable and sensitive. Interestingly, although surgical intervention may improve immedi- ate symptoms and fix cosmetic deformities, disease often recurs in the affected extremity. The literature has described proximal involvement of the affected extrem- ity following distal amputation (9, 22). Liposuction has been used in attempts to “debulk” the fatty adipose RCR Radiology Case Reports | radiology.casereports.net 4 DOI: 10.2484/rcr.2008.v3i4.92 Macrodystrophia Lipomatosa: A Troubled Second Big Toe References 1. Barsky AJ. Macrodactyly. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1967;49:1255-66. [PubMed] 2. Brodwater BK, Major NM, Goldner RD, Layfield LJ. Macrodystrophia lipomatosa with associated fibrolipom- atous hamartoma of the median nerve. Pediatr Surg Int. 2000;16:216-8. [PubMed] 3. Silverman TA, Enzinger FM. Fibrolipomatous hama- rtoma of nerve. A clinicopathologic analysis of 26 cases. Am J Surg Pathol. 1985;9(1):7-14. [PubMed] 4. Feriz H. Macrodystrophia lipomatosa progres- siva. Virchows Arch Pathol Anat Physiol Clin Med 1925;260:308-368. 5. Ranawat CS, Arora MM, Singh RG. Macrodystro- phia lipomatosa with carpal tunnel syndrome. A case re- port. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1968;50:1242-4. [PubMed] 6. Hafeez S, Syed M, Syed A. Macrodystrophia li- pomatosa a letter to the editor. JK-Practitioner. 2006;13(1):41-2. 7. Balakrishna BV, Prasad SRH. Macrodystrophia lipomatosa a rare congenital disorder. Ind J Radiol Imag 2005;15(3):349-52. 8. Lie JT. Pathology of angiodysplasia in Klippel-Tre- naunay syndrome. Pathol Res Pract. 1988;183:747-55. [PubMed] 9. Ho CA, Herring JA, Ezaki M. Long term follow-up of progressive macrodystrophia lipomatosa. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2007;89:1097-102. [PubMed] 10. Baruchin AM, Herold ZH, Shmueli G, Lupo L. Macrodystrophia lipomatosa of the foot. J Pediatr Surg. 1988;23:192-4. [PubMed] tissue as well. Despite well-documented failures, it is im- perative to address the macrodactyly, particularly among children, to prevent long-term functional disability and to keep aesthetic abnormalities from hindering social interactions and interfering with the development of healthy self-esteem. 11. Watt AJ, Chung KC. Macrodystrophia lipomatosa: a reconstructive approach to gigantism of the foot. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2004;43:51-5. [PubMed] 12. Fritz TR, Swischuk LE. Macrodystrophia lipoma- tosa extending into the upper abdomen. Pediatr Radiol. 2007;37:1275-1277. [PubMed] 13. Alaween Z, Al-Hiari A, Al-Majali RM. Macrodystrophia lipomatosa. Pak J Med Sci. 2002;18(4):316-8. 14. Tsuge K, Ikuta Y. Macrodactyly and fibro-fatty proliferation of the median nerve. Hiroshima J Med Sci. 1973;22:83-101. [PubMed] 15. Turkington JR, Grey AC. MR imaging of mac- rodystrophia lipomatosa. The Ulster Medical Journal. 2005;74(1):47-50. [PubMed] 16. Sone M, Ehara S, Tamakawa Y, Nishida J, Honjoh S. 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Br. J Dermatol. 2006;154:1194-8. [PubMed] RCR Radiology Case Reports | radiology.casereports.net 5 DOI: 10.2484/rcr.2008.v3i4.92 Macrodystrophia Lipomatosa: A Troubled Second Big Toe 22. Bailey EJ, Thompson FM, Bohne W, Dyal C. Mac- rodystrophia lipomatosa of the foot: a report of three cases and literature review. Foot Ankle Int. 1997;18:89- 93. [PubMed] Macrodystrophia Lipomatosa: A troubled second big toe Introduction Case Report Discussion References 
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E n t w i c k l u n g des Potentials im R o t a - tionsproblem. Stockholm, Almquist, 1910. C L E B S C H (A.). Vorlesungen über Geometrie. Bearbeitet u n d herausge- geben von F . L i n d e m a n n . 2te, v e r m e h r t e Auflage. I t e r B a n d . I t e r Teil. 2te Leiferung. Leipzig, Teubner, 1910. 8vo. p p . 481-768. M . 9.00. E N R I Q U E S (F.). Problème der Wissenschaft. 2 Teile. I t e r Teil: Wirklichkeit u n d Logik. Übersetzt von J . Grelling. (Wissenschaft) u n d H y p o t h e s e . B a n d X I , 1.) Leipzig, Teubner, 1910. 1 0 + 2 5 8 p p . M . 4.00. E N Z Y K L O P A D I E der m a t h e m a t i s c h e n Wissenschaften. 3ter B a n d : Ge- ometrie. Redigiert von W . F . Meyer. I t e r Teil, 4tes Heft. Leipzig, Teubner, 1910. 8vo. p p . 481-770 M . 9.00. F O R T I N ( C ) . Théorie et applications élémentaires des vecteurs. Paris, Gigord, 1910. 16mo. 7 + 6 5 p p . H E N S E L ( K . ) . E r n s t E d u a r d K u m m e r u n d der grosse F e r m a t s c h e Satz. (Marburger akademische Reden, N r . 23.) M a r b u r g , Elwert, 1910. 8vo. 22 p p . M . 0.50. K L E I N (F.) u n d SOMMERFELD (A.). Ueber die Theorie des Kreisels. 4tes Heft: Die technische Anwendungen der Kreiseltheorie. F ü r den D r u c k bearbeitet u n d ergânzt von F . Noether. Leipzig, Teubner, 1910. 8vo. 761-966 p p . Cloth. M . 9.00. K O W A L E W S K I (G.). Einführung in die analytische Geometrie. Leipzig, Veit, 1910. 8vo. 7 + 3 6 0 p p . Cloth. M . 11.00. L I N D E M A N N ( F . ) . See C L E B S C H (A.). L O R E N Z ( H . ) . Einführung in die E l e m e n t e der höheren M a t h e m a t i k u n d Mechanik. M ü n c h e n , Oldenbourg, 1910. 8vo. 5 + 1 7 6 p p . Cloth. M . 2.40. L Ü D E R S (O.). Ueber orthogonale I n v a r i a n t e n der bizirkularen K u r v e n vierter O r d n u n g . (Diss.) Halle, 1910. License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 272 N E W PUBLICATIONS. [Feb., N E R N S T (W.) u n d S C H O E N F L I E S (A.). Kurzgefasstes Lehrbuch der Dif- ferential- u n d Integralreehnung m i t besonderer Berücksichtigung der Chemie. 6te, v e r m e h r t e u n d verbesserte Auflage. M ü n c h e n , Oldenbourg, 1910. 8vo. 1 2 + 4 4 2 p p . Cloth. M . 14.00. D ' O C A G N E ( M . ) . N o t i o n s élémentaires sur la probabilité des erreurs, Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1910. 26 p p . P A R F E N T I E F F ( N . N . ) . E t u d e s sur la théorie de la croissance des fonctions (en russe). K a s a n , University, 1910. P R A S A D (G.). A textbook of integral calculus with numerous worked examples. London, L o n g m a n n s , 1910. 8vo. 5s. S C H A E W E N ( P . v o n ) . See B I L L Y ( J A C O B I D E ) . S C H O E N F L I E S (A.). See N E R N S T (W.). SOMMERFELD (A.). See K L E I N ( F . ) . W O L F F (G.). Ü b e r Kollineationen in der E b e n e . (Diss.) Giessen, 1910. W O L F F ( H . ) . Formelsammlung zur analytischen Geometrie. 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B O R E L (E.) et M O N T E L ( P . ) . Algèbre. (Cours de m a t h é m a t i q u e s E m i l e Borel.) Paris, Colin, 1910. 16mo. 337 p p . F r . 3.00. BOTJRLET ( C ) . E l é m e n t s d'algèbre, c o n t e n a n t 561 exercises et problèmes. 7e édition, r e v u e . Paris, H a c h e t t e , 1910. 16mo. 296 p p . F r . 2.00. . E l é m e n t s d'algèbre. Corrigés des 561 exercices avec la collabo- r a t i o n de J . H u l o t . 3e édition, revue. Paris, H a c h e t t e , 1910. 16mo. 355 p p . F r . 3.00. . E l é m e n t s de géométrie, c o n t e n a n t 762 exercices. 2e édition, r e v u e . Paris, H a c h e t t e , 1910. 16mo. 6 + 3 8 3 p p . F r . 2.50. B R U C E (W. H.) a n d C O D Y (C. C ) . E l e m e n t s of plane geometry. Dallas, Tex., S o u t h e r n Publishing Co., 1910. 12mo. 263 p p . $0.75. C A T A N I A (S.). Corso di algebra elementare. Volume I L Seconda edi- zione, c o r r e t t a e accresciuta. C a t a n i a , G i a n n o t t a , 1910. 16mo. 278 p p . L . 2.00. . 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Essen, Baedeker, 1910 8vo. 4 + 5 5 p p . M . 1.50 I I I . A P P L I E D M A T H E M A T I C S . B A R C H A N E K . Darstellende Geometrie u n d R a u m l e h r e . Bearbeitet von E . Ludwig. 3te, n a c h den neuen Lehrplânen umgearbeitete Auflage. Wien, T e m p s k y , 1910. 8vo. 247 p p . Cloth. M . 4.00. B O E R N E R (F.). Statische Tabellen, Belastungsangaben^ u n d F o r m e l n zur Aufstellung von Berechnungen für B a u k o n s t r u k t i o n e n . 3te, n a c h den neuesten Bestimmungen bearbeitete Auflage. Berlin, E r n s t , 1910. M . 4.20. B R U N O (S.). Nozioni di computisteria e ragioneria. (Biblioteca di scienze fisiche, m a t e m a t i c h e e n a t u r a l i : collezione Paravia.) Torino, P a r a v i a , 1911. 8vo. 192 p p . L. 2.40. C H U R C H (I. P . ) . Mechanics of internal work (or work of deformation), in elastic bodies a n d systems in equilibrium, including t h e m e t h o d of least work. New York, Wiley, 1910. 8vo. 6 + 126 p p . Cloth. $1.50 D Y M O N D (C. 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New York, Wiley, 1910. 470 p p . Cloth. $3.50. K E N T (W.). T h e mechanical engineer's pocket-book. A reference book of rules, tables, d a t a , a n d formulas, for t h e use of engineers, mechanics, a n d s t u d e n t s . 8 t h edition, rewritten and enlarged. New York, Wiley, 1910. 16mo. 4 0 + 1 4 6 1 p p . Morocco. $5.00. L A N G E ( M . ) . D a s Schachspiel u n d seine strategischen Prinzipien. (Aus N a t u r u n d Geisteswelt. B a n d 281.) Leipzig, Teubner, 1910. 8vo. 107 p p . M . 1.25. L E R O Y (C. F . A.). T r a i t é de stéréotomie, comprenant les applications de la géométrie descriptive a la théorie des ombres, etc., 14e édition, revue et annotée p a r M . E . M a r t e l e t . Supplément p a r J. de la Gour- nerie. 2 tomes. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1910. 1 6 + 4 2 8 + 7 6 p p . Fr. 26.00. L O R E N T Z (H. A.). Sichtbare u n d unsichtbare Bewegungen. Ubersetzt von G. Siebert. 2te Auflage. Braunschweig, Vieweg, 1910. M . 4.00. M A X I M (J. L.). Experimental applied mechanics for technical s t u d e n t s . London, 1910. 12mo. 176 p p . Cloth. $0.60. License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 2 7 6 NEW PUBLICATIONS. [ F e b . , 1 9 1 1 . ] MILLS (J.). An introduction to thermodynamics, for engineering students. Boston, Ginn, 1910. 8+136 pp. Cloth. $2.00. NICKL (J.). Graphische Darstellung von Sonnenfinsternissen mittelst orthographischer Horizontal-Projektion. Wiener-Neustadt, Basler, 1910. 8vo. 28 pp. M. 1.20. PAILLOT (R.). Cours d'électricité théorique. (Institut industrielle du Nord.) Lille, Janny, 1910. 4to. 296 pp. PIZZETTI (P.). Tabelle grafiche per la risoluzione approssimata di una equazione di Gauss che si incontra nel calcolo délie orbite. Pisa, Nistri, 1910. 8vo. 6 pp. ROBERTS (S. S.). Track formulae and tables. New York, Wiley, 1910. 16mo. 12+514 pp. Morocco. $3.00. SCHIFFNER (F.). Leitfaden für den Unterricht in der darstellenden Geometrie. 2 Teile. Wien, Deuticke, 1910. 8vo. Cloth. M. 3.40. . Geometrisches Zeichnen. Wien, Deuticke, 1910. 8vo. 4 + 7 5 pp. M. 1.20. SEE (T. J. J.). Researches on the evolution of the stellar systems. Volume 2: The capture theory of cosmical evolution. London, Wesley, 1910. 4to. 7+734 pp. 42s. SILVESTRI (E.). Esercitazioni di idraulica. Torino, Pasta, 1910. 8vo. 157 pp. L. 5.00. SMITH (L. C ) . See JOHNSON (J. B.). SOMERSCALES (A. N.). Mechanical and marine engineering science. Essays, problems, and demonstrations. London, Munro, 1910. 8vo. 480 pp. 14s. TAYLOR (D. W.). The speed and power of ships. A manual of marine propulsion. Vol. I: Text. 8vo. 6+314 pp. Vol. I I : Tables and plates. 4to. New York, Wiley, 1910. Cloth. $7.50. TIEDT (G.). Messungen der Abhângigkeit für Elastizitàtsgrenze und Elastizitàtszahl von verschiedenen Einflüssen. (Diss.) Marburg, 1910. TiMBiE (W. H.). Elements of electricity for technical students. New York, Wiley, 1911. 12mo. 11+556 pp. Cloth. $2.00. WOLFF (H.). Nivellieren. Formulare und Berechnungen. Berlin, Maas und Plank, 1910. 8vo. 5+69 pp. M. 2.00. License or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use 
work_wk32ua5wozcefj4e77ga2fj3xy	----	The development of the concept of artistic style: Color Cutting across both style and subject- matter dimensions were three color categories: (1) light tones, (2) dark tones, and (3) green-yellow tones. A free classification studyl JOY A. FRECHTLfNG and PHILIP W. DA VIDSON, The George Washington University, Washington, D.C. 20006 Ss, ranging in age Irom 5 years to adult, were asked to sort a set 01 oil paintings into groups 01 their own choice. The results indicated that (1) subject matter was the strongest determiner 01 children 's sorting behavior, (2) only the adults showed a high Irequency 01 groupings by. artistic style, and (3) color was seldom used as a basis lor sorting by any age group. These jindings were interpreted in terms 01 their implications lor teaching the artistic style concept to children. Walk (1967) has shown that adults can acquire the concept of artistic style through exposure to positive instances. Evidence suggests, however, that this concept is very difficuIt for the 4· to 8-year-old child to acquire (Walk & Karusaitis 2). This finding cannot be attributed to the child's inability to find similarities among multidimensional stimuli. Kofsky & Osler (1967) reported that even 5-year-olds can consistently sort sets of cards varying in color, form, number, and size. Alternatively, a child's poor performance with the style concept may stern from the interfering influence of other stimulus variables. Artistic style can be characterized as a relation al concept, a particular combination of the more concrete features of a painting, such as subject matter, color, or form. The young child may be unable to perceive such relations and may attend only to the concrete features themselves. Studies of artistic preferences in children seem to support this hypothesis. Machotka (1963,1966) and Subes (1958) found that the young child prefers paintings for such concrete features as subject matter and color. It is only after the development of concrete operations is complete (cf. Inhelder & Piaget, 1955) that an interest in such more complex variables as style begins to appear. These da ta suggest that if the child is faced with t!1e task of fmding similarities among works of art, his sytem of classification may, indeed, be based upon concrete features. Such a tendency may have to be overcome before the concept of style can be learned. This argument might explain Walk and Karusaitis's2 finding that exposure to positive instances of style alone led to [ar less consistent concept acquisition in young children than in adults. Psychon. Sci., 1970, Vol. 18 (2) The present research reports developmental changes in judgment of similarity among paintings, assessed by means of a free classification task (cf. Kofsky & Osler, 1967). We think two critical questions about the development of the artistic style concept can be answered best with this paradigm: First, on what basis do children of different ages judge paintings as similar? Second, at what point in deveIopment does the child begin to respond to features of style? SUBJECTS Fifty Ss from five age groups (5-, 6-,7-, 12-year-olds, and adults) participated in the experiment. Each group consisted of IO Ss. The children were selected from Washington, D.C., area private schools. The adults were graduate students in psychology at The George Washington University. STIMULI Sixteen 4 x 5 in. color prints of oil paintings were selected from a collection of commercial art books representing different style periods (Albert Skira Series, World Publishing Company). The paintings were chosen to permit three alternative dimensions for c1assification: artistic style, subject matter, and color. The three dimensions were divided into the following categories: Artistic Style Four paintings were chosen from each of the following style periods: (1) romanticism, (2) early impressionism, (3) late impressionism, and (4) surrealism. Subject Matter At least one painting in each style period represented the following subject-matter categories: (1) boats or water scenes with boats, (2) landscapes not depicting boats or water, (3) c10thed human figures, and (4) abstract themes. The 16 paintings and their artists, classified by style period, are listed in Table 1. PROCEDURE A free cIassification procedure was followed. The 16 prints were placed simultaneously before S in a random arrangement. Each S was asked to "group together the paintings you think belong together." Tbe Ss were instructed to use a "doesn't belong" category for those prints they thought could not otherwise be cIassified. Each S sorted the paintings only once. No reinforcement for choices was provided by Es. RESPONSE EVALUATION Each grouping made by S was scored as either a style, a subject-matter, or a color response. If a grouping failed to fit any of the response categories defined by the rules, it was scored as "uncIassifiable." Paintings placed by Ss in the "doesn't belong" category were not included in this scoring procedure. The following rules defined each response category. Style All paintings in the grouping must have come from the same style period. Subject Matter All paintings in the grouping must have shared the same theme.The original number of subject-matter categories was increased somewhat on the basis of the actual responses we observed. We found, for example, that the "cIothed human figures" category was frequently subdivided by Ss into "male" and "female" figures. There were a few cases when a grouping could be scored as based on either style or subject matter. In such cases, the S's use of these two dimensions in his other groupings determined the score for the ambiguous grouping. For example, two romantic paintings that often comprised a Table 1 Stimulus Paintings and Their Artists Painting Artist Date ''The raft of the 'Medusa'" Gericault 1818 "Man and woman gazing at the moon" Friedrich 1819 'The slave ship" Turner 1839 "Portrait of an artist in his studio" Gericault "Boats moored alongside the quay " Van Gogh 1888 "Le jardin de l'infante" Monet 1866 "Still life with books" Van Gogh 1886 "Camille" Monet 1866 "Reflections on the water" Derain 1905 "Disk" Delaunay 1912 "Woman with a hat" Matisse 1905 HLe lavandou" Cross 1904 ''Turin, spring" de Chirico 1914 no title Tanguy 1927 "Smile of my blonde" Miro 1926 "[n the land of night" Magritte 1928 Style Romantic Romantic Romantic Romantic Impressionist Impressionist Impres~ionist Impressionist Fauvist-Pointillist Fauvist-Cubist Fauvist Fauvist-Pointillist Surrealist Surrealist Surrealist Surrealist 79 separate grouping depicted boats in motion (Gericault's "The Raft of the 'Medusa' " and Turner's "The Slave Ship"). The two other paintings in the "boats or water scenes with boats" subject-matter category (Van Gogh's "Boats Moored Alongside the Quay" and Derain's "Reflections on the Water") depicted moored boats. If Ss put the Van Gogh and the Derain together as a separate grouping, that response was scored as "subject matter," since each painting comes from a different style period. In addition, we concluded that some Ss were subdividing the "boats, etc." subject-matter category into "boats in motion" and "moored boats." Therefore, when Ss grouped the Gericault with the Turner, and also placed the Van Gogh with the Derain, we scored the Gericault-Turner grouping as a subject-matter response. On the other hand, this grouping was scored as a style response for Ss who grouped the Van Gogh with other early impressionistic prints, and the Derain with other late impressionistic prints. Color All paintings in the grouping must have shown the same color characteristics (e.g., light tones, dark tones, or green-yellow tones). The groupings made by each S were scored by a rater trained by Es in the use of the rules. The rater did not otherwise participate in the experiment and scored the data without knowledge of Ss' ages. RESULTS The me an usage of stimulus dimensions by each age group is shown in Fig. I. Four major findings are indicated by these data. First, subject matter was a strong determiner of groupings at all age levels. The 6-, 7-, and 12-year-olds sorted the prints almost exclusively on the basis of this dimension. Second, style emerged as a significant basis for classification only in the adult groupings. Third, color was the least used dimension when compared with style and subject matter. Finally, the 5-year-olds were the only group to give a large n umber of unclassifiable responses. The data were analyzed with a two-way (age by stimulus dimension) analysis of variance, with repeated measures on the stimulus dimension variable. This statistic indicated a significant Age by Stimulus Dimension inter action (F = 2.312, df= 12/135, p < 0.05). A subsequent analysis of the simple effects, followed by Newman-Keuls posttests, indicated these significant relationships: Style The adults showed more style groupings than did the 5-year-olds (p < 0.05). In addition, the adults' style responses were more frequent than either their color 80 3.0 '" ... 2.S ;;; <:) Cl) ... ... 2.0 C .., ... <:) • I.S ... -== ~ LO Z Z C ... .. O.S .•.. /' __ ~~''t'"~ __ """",// \'6-~."--- .... 6-& ...... ~-- --6 12 AGI Fig. 1. Mean usage of stimulus dimensions in classification of oil paintings as a function of age. (p < 0.05) or unclassifiable (p < 0.01) groupings. Subject Matter The 12-year-olds grouped more often by subject matter than did either the 5-year-olds (p < 0.01) or the adults (p < 0.01). The 6-, 7-, and 12-year-olds all showed more subject-matter responses than style, color, or unclassifiable groupings (P< 0.05 for all comparisons). Color and Unc1assifiable Color was seldom used by any age group as a basis for sorting, and there were no significant deveiopmental differences in color usage. More unclassifiable responses were given by the 5-year-olds than by any other group (p < 0.05), and these Ss used the unclassifiable category more often than either style (p < 0.05) or color (p < 0.05)_ The Ss averaged approximately 4.3 groupings per sort with about 3.2 prints per grouping. One-way analyses of variance on mean number of groupings. and mean grouping size data indicated no deveiopmental differences for either variable. Further, each S made an average of approximately 0.5 groupings of prints that "didn't belong," with about 4.0 prints per grouping. An inspection of the particular paintings classified as not belonging revealed no consistent patterns either between age groups or between Ss. DlSCUSSION This study used a free classification paradigm to ex te nd the investigation of aesthetic appreciation begun with preference experiments (Machotka, 1963, 1966; Subes, 1958). Our results generally agree with the findings of these experiments. Subject matter provided the most frequent basis for classification of paintings in children, and increased in importance with age. Further , children seldom based their sorting on artistic style. We report one discrepant finding, however. Machotka (1963) found that his youngest Ss (about 5 years old) preferred paintings for their color more often than for either style or subject matter. Our 5-year-olds not only did not sort on the basis of color, but showed an inability to classify the prints on any obvious basis. The most reasonable account of this discrepancy seems to us to He in the nonavailability of color as a distinct dimension in oil paintings. Most often, paintings can be characterized by their pattern of colors rather than by a single, solid color. It is possible that young children may prefer various individual paintings for the colors they display (cf. Machotka, 1963) but are unable to perceive similarities in color patterns across several paintings. Machotka's reslilts may be divergent from ours only insofar as his preference task required no responding to relations among paintings. When such re1ational responding is required, such as in the free classification task, "color" may be as difficult a dimension as style for young children. I n general, both preferences and judgment of similarity in art work proceed developmentaIly from attention to concrete stimulus aspects toward an appreciation of more complex relational features_ This evidence suggests that in order to teach a child to respond to artistic style, it may be necessary not only to expose Ss to positive instances of the concept (cf. Walk & Karusaitis 2), but also to provide specific training to reduce attention to other, preferred, concrete attributes. REFERENCES INHELDER, B_, & PlAGET, J. The growth 01 logical thinking fTom childhood to adolescence: An essay on the construction of formal opeTational structuTes. New York: Basic Books, 1955. KOFSKY, E., & OSLER, S. Free c1assification in children. Child Development, 1967, 38, 927-937. MACHOTKA, P. Le developpement des criteres esthetiques chez l'enfant. Enfance, 1963,4-5, 357-379_ MACHOTKA, P. Aesthetic criteria in childhood: J ustifications of preference. Child Development, 1966,37, 877-888. SUBES, J. L'appreciation esthetique d'oeuvres par les enfants. Enfance, 1958, 11, 115-130. WALK, R. D. Concept formation and art: Basic experiment and controls. Psychonomic Science, 1967,9,237-238. NOTES 1. This research was supported in part by National Institutes of Health Grant I-TOI-HD-203-02, NlH Predoctoral Fellowship MH-37,813 to the fust author, and NIH Predoctoral Fellowship MH-42,881 to the second author_ We gratefully acknowledge the Psychon. Sci., 1970, Vol. 18 (2) help of Drs. Richard D. Walk and Jacqueline J. Goodnow in the preparation of the manuscript. First authorship was determined by a flip of a coin. 2. Walk, R. D., & Karusaitis, K. Artistic style as conccpt formation for children and adults. Unpublished manuscript, Thc George Washington University, 1969. Effect of R-pretraining on PAL with unlimited time for response! HIROKO BARNES and ELf SALTZ, Center for the Study of Cognitive Processes, Wayne State University, Detroit, Mich. 48202 Runquist & English (1964), using adjectives as R terms, found that the effects of R pretraining on PAL disappeared when PAL involved (1) unlimited time for response and (2) forced availability of the R terms du ring PAL. They attributed the. disappearance of the R-pretraining effect to the use of the forced-availability technique and drew theoretical conclusions accordingly. The present two experiments indicate that, for the type of R terms used by Runquist and English, R·pretraining effects disappear under unlimited time for response even in the absence of forced availability. Underwood, Runquist, & Schulz (1959) found that having Ss leam a set of adjectives in free recall facilitated subsequent paired-associates learning (PAL) involving these adjectives as the R terms. They interpreted the data as showing that the R pretraining increased R availability. SaUz (1961) interpreted the data as indicating that R pretraining increased R differentiation and tested this by use of a foreed-availability technique, in which the R terms were present on eards during PAL for both pretrained and nonpretrained Ss. The Ss were foreed to find the eorrect R on the card to be seored as eorreet in PAL. Facilitation of PAL oe curred, as predicted by the R-differentiation theory, despite the foreed availability for a11 Ss. However, RUilquist & English (l964) argued that, in the Saltz (1961) study, Ss were permitted only 4 sec per response in PAL; facilitation could be due to more rapid scanning of the R cards by the pretrained Ss. They tested this by using the Saltz forced-availability teehnique during PAL, with adjectives as Rs and unlimited time to respond. Under Psychon. Sei., 1970, Vol. 18 (2) these conditions, pretraining no longer facilitated PAL. Saltz & Felton (1968) obtained the same results as did Runquist and English using adjectives as Rs, though PAL facilitation occurred when nonsense sy11ables were used as Rs. None of these studies controlled for the possibility that, with adjectives as the R terms, R-pretraining effeets disappear with unlimited time for response even in the absence of forced availability. The present study institutes such control eonditions for the dissimilar PAL adjectives used by Saltz & Felton (1968). Points of differenee between the Saltz (1961) theory of response (R) differentiation and the Underwood, Runquist, & Sehultz (1959) R-availability theory were tested in studies by Runquist & English (1964) and Saltz & FeIton (1968). However, a erucial control group was ornitted from both these studies. The present paper reports the results for this control condition. . METHan The Ss were ISO students in introductory psychology at Wayne State University, 78 in Experiment 1 and 72 in Experiment 2. Experiment 1 used 10 dissimilar adjectives as R terms; Experiment 2 used 5 dissimilar adjectives. These were taken from Saltz & Felton (1968), Experiments ) and 2, respectively. In each experiment, one group reeeived relevant pretraining and one group received irrelevant, as in Saltz and FeIton. Pretraining paralJeled that of the other studies cited above: On each of five trials, Ss were shown the adjectives (in a different TabJe 1 Mean Errors in PAL as a Function of Relevant Pretraining (RP) Versus IrreleYant Pretraining (lP) at 2-Sec and Unlimited Time for Response Ouring P AL Experiment I Experiment 2 RP IP RP IP 2-Sec 14.62 19.20 7.94 8.94 Unlimitcd 8.17 9.87 7.66 6.33 order on each trial), then asked to reeal! them in any order. In PAL, half the Ss were permitted unlimited time to respond, and half were given 2 see to respond on eaeh pair. A study-test procedure was used in PAL. RESULTS Each experiment was designed to permit two orthogonal comparisons in PAL: effect of relevant (RP) vs irrelevant pretraining (IP) at 2-sec anticipation intervaI, and RP vs IP at unlimited time for response. Table) summarizes the data. In Experiment 1, at 2-see anticipation rate during PAL, the RP eondition made significantly fewer errors during PAL than the IP [F(I,74) = 5.36]. Under unlimited time for response, the RP vs IP difference shrank markedly and was no longer significant [F(1,74) = 1.49]. In Experiment 2, no significant effeets were found at either time intervaI. For the 2-see condition, F(I ,68) = 1.14; for unlimited time for response, F(1 ,68) = 1.00. CONCLUSIONS When adjectives are used as R terms, the effects of prior R pretraining on subsequent P AL largely dissipate if Ss are permitted unlimited time for response during P AL. This is true if P AL involves forced availability or if Ss attempt unaided recall of the correet R term for each stimulus. Thus, the evidence is eontrary to the Runquist and English hypothesis. The disappearance of R-pretraining effeets on PAL, under eonditions of forced availability and unlimited time for response, cannot readily be interpreted as support for a R-availability theory. Perhaps the task becomes so easy, under unlimited time for response, that differences between experimental eonditions cannot be displayed. Or, perhaps increased time for response reduces the effect of intralist interference and so makes R pretraining unnecessary . REFERENCES RUNQUlST, W. N_, & ENGLISH, J. M. Response pretraining and forced availability in paired-associate verbal learning. Psychonomic Science, 1964, I, 121-122. SALTZ, E. Response pretraining: Oüferentiation or availability. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1961,62,583-587. SAL TZ, E., & FEL TON, M. Response pretraining and subsequent paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Psycbology, 1968, 77, 258-262. UNDERWOOO, B. J., RUNQUIST, W. N., & SCHULZ, R. W. Response Jearning in paired-associate Iists as a function of intraIist similarity. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1959,58,70-78. NOTE 1. Tbe present study was partially supported by National Science Foundation Grant GD 16851; in addition, the study was carried out while tbe fust author beld aNational Science F oundation undergraduate research participation award under Grant GY 5949. 81 
work_wn65uvd3hfayjihkiqvv7tor4e	----	II. Muscular movements in man, and their evolution in the infant: a study of movement in man, and its evolution, together with inferences as to the properties of nervecentres and their modes of action in expressing thought 1888.J Muscular Movements in Man and their Evolution. 329’ II. “ Muscular Movements in Man, and their Evolution in the In fa n t: a Study of Movement in Man, and its Evolution, together with Inferences as to the Properties of Nerve- centres and their Modes of Action in expressing Thought.” By F rancis W arner, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to the London Hospital and Lecturer on Botany in the London Hospital Medical College. Communicated by Professor J . H utchinson, F.R.S. Received June 12, 1888. (Abstract.) Movements as signs of brain action have long been studied by the physiologist; but before proceeding to give an account of the visible evolution of voluntary movement in man, it is necessary to define the different classes of movements seen, indicating the criteria by which the observer may be guided in the examples before him. Movements may be classed according to the parts moving, the time, and the quantity of each movement. These are the only intrinsic attributes of such acts. If the nerve-centres which send stimuli to tho muscles are acting in equilibria, the static outcome is seen in the postures resulting in the body ; hence postures are signs of the ratios of action in the nerve-centres, and indicate their present state or mode of action. Typical postures and movements are described. A variation in the ratios of action in the centres leads to visible movement. Certain postures and movements are found by experience to corre­ spond to certain recognised brain states. Movements may occur in combinations and in series ; special combinations and series of move­ ments determine the outcome of the action of which they are com­ ponent parts. I t is shown that the time of action in the various centres thus determines the outcome of the action, and is itself con­ trolled by impressions received through the senses. When movements are seen, not controlled by present circumstances, they are probably the result of antecedent or inherited impressions; such are called spontaneous. Section II. Evolution of Movements in Man. The new-born infant presents constant movement in all its parts while it is awake, and this is not controlled by impressions from without. Graphic tracings of such movements are given. This spontaneous movement in the infant appears to be of great physio­ logical importance, and is here termed “ microkinesis.” I t is argued that the mode of brain action which produces microkinesis is analogous to the action producing spontaneous movements in all young animals, and to the modes of cell-growth which produce circumnutation in D ow nl oa de d fr om h tt ps :/ /r oy al so ci et yp ub li sh in g. or g/ o n 05 A pr il 2 02 1 830 Muscular Movements in Man and their Evolution. [June 21, young seedling plants. I t is argued that as circumnutation becomes | modified by external forces to tbe modes of movement termed 1 beliotropism, geotropism, &c., so microkinesis in tbe infant is replaced by the more complicated modes of brain action as evolution proceeds. 1 The conditions of movement are then described, as seen at succes-1 sive stages of development of tbe child, and it is shown that they become less spontaneous, and more under control of stimuli acting upon the child from without, while the phenomena termed memory and imitation are evolved. Section III. Properties of Nerve-centres and their Modes of Action. From observations made, descriptions are given of the modes of action and properties of nerve-centres in adult age, such descriptions being given in terms implying visible movements. Impressionability, imitation, and retentiveness are thus described. Nerve-centres are said to be “ free ** when only slightly stimulated. Delayed expression of impressions are seen when the visible outcome is delayed after the stimulus which produced it. Double-action is said to occur when a local effect and a distant one, occur from one impression. Com­ pound cerebral action is said to occur, when the study of the visible movements indicates that successive unions of centres are in action, leading to a visible outcome well adapted to tbe primary stimulus which produced the series. When a slight stimulus leads to a spread­ ing area of movements producing considerable force, the phenomenon is termed reinforcement. From observations made, two hypotheses are put forward. It is suggested that when a well co-ordinated movement follows a slight stimulus, the impression produces temporary unions among the centres, preparing them for the special combinations and series of actions which are seen to follow. Such unions among nerve-centres appear to be formed when a period of cerebral inhibition, produced by a word of command, is seen to be followed by a co-ordinated series of, acts. A graphic tracing indicating suspension of microkinesis to the stimulus of sight and sound is given. It is further suggested that the brain action corresponding to thought, is the formation of func­ tional unions among cells, whose outcome is seen in the movements which express the thought, or its physical representation. Properties similar to those described in brain centres may be illustrated in modes of growth. Intelligence is then not a property of the brain, per se, but for its manifestation certain modes of brain action are necessary. In the special postures and movements described, a number of physical signs of brain states are offered to the clinical observer. D ow nl oa de d fr om h tt ps :/ /r oy al so ci et yp ub li sh in g. or g/ o n 05 A pr il 2 02 1 
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work_wotqzc6r7jeulauzavi2met744	----	75 http://digithum.uoc.edu Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Universidad de Antioquia Digithum, No. 21 (January 2018) | ISSN 1575-2275 A scientific e-journal coedited by UOC and UdeA By Natàlia Cantó-Milà, 2018 FUOC, 2018 A RELATIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON CULTURE AND SOCIETY “What sociologists usually take for granted as a cause, Simmel tries to explain as an effect.” (Pyyhtinen, 2018, p. 4) The Simmelian Legacy offers a wide and accurate overview of Simmel’s intellectual heirs throughout the 20th century, an excellent account of the whole of Simmel’s oeuvre and, furthermore, it proposes a contemporary rereading of this oeuvre that may awaken the interest of many sociologists and social theorists who are not particularly Simmel scholars. Thus, this book combines three great achievements: tracing Simmel’s legacy in contemporary social thought and sociology (a task which has been only carried out in a fragmented way until now), highlighting Simmel’s major achievements for philosophy and the social sciences, and proposing what elements of Simmel’s thought remain the most interesting to explore as well as work and dialogue with. Pyyhtinen’s accuracy when presenting Simmel’s works and their reception (especially in the German- and English-speaking academic worlds) is combined with the originality of the author’s own view on Simmel’s works. Hence, Pyyhtinen does not only offer a standard introduction to, and elaboration on, Simmel’s work and legacy, but also his own understanding of this work and legacy as well as his selection of Simmel’s most relevant and long-lasting contributions to sociology, the social sciences and social philosophy. Pyyhtinen’s original and accurate view of Simmel’s work and legacy becomes clear just after the introduction to the book, when Pyyhtinen focuses first on the methods and key principles. To my knowledge, no book on Simmel has ever started by highlighting his methodological approach and overarching theoretical and methodological principles. In fact, Simmel’s work has wrongly been associated with a certain sort of “impressionism”, as if his work – above all his essays – were full of rich and interesting ideas, which, however, are not sufficiently elaborated upon to be able to constitute a corpus of solid scientific and/or philosophical work. This is far from reality. Simmel’s enchanting rhetoric in his writings does not mean that he did not have a solid work methodology or that there are no key principles transversal to his work, as Pyyhtinen argues in his book. Simmel’s relationism, his elaboration of form/content and form/life and his way of dealing Book review of The Simmelian Legacy. A Science of Relations, by Olli Pyyhtinen (Palgrave, 2018) By Natàlia Cantó-Milà Associate Professor at Universitat Oberta de Catalunya Book review RECOMMENDED CITATION CANTÓ-MILÀ, Natàlia (2018). “Book review of The Simmelian Legacy. A Science of Relations, by Olli Pyyhtinen (Palgrave, 2018)” [online article]. Digithum, no. 21, pp. 75-76. Universitat Oberta de Catalunya and Universidad de Antioquia. <http://doi.org/10.7238/d.v0i21.31xx> The texts published in this journal are – unless otherwise indicated – covered by the Creative Commons Spain Attribution 4.0 International licence. The full text of the licence can be consulted here: http://creativecommons. org/licenses/by/4.0/ Date of submission: December 2017 Published in: January 2018 Book review of The Simmelian Legacyhttp://digithum.uoc.edu Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Universidad de Antioquia Digithum, No. 21 (January 2018) | ISSN 1575-2275 A scientific e-journal coedited by UOC and UdeA 76 By Natàlia Cantó-Milà, 2018 FUOC, 2018 A RELATIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON CULTURE AND SOCIETY with relational constellations (which involve human beings but also other beings and objects) are clear methodological pillars upon which the body of his whole work rests, and which offer us a valid point of departure for our own works today. There is only one issue which I would like to raise at this point regarding Pyyhtinen’s appraisal of Simmel’s methods and principle. Pyyhtinen refers himself to “dialectics without reconciliation” (following Gassen & Landmann, 1958). It is indeed a catchy phrase, but Simmel’s well-known “sowohl […] als auch” has little to do with dialectics in its standard meaning. The fact that there is no synthesis ([…] and does synthesis have to mean reconciliation?) makes such a crucial difference that the use of the term “dialectics” or even “without reconciliation” makes little sense to me in order to describe Simmel’s mode of thinking. This term (with all its possible nuances) introduces more confusion than clarity when we are attempting to understand Simmel’s way of thinking and establishing relationships. The risk of associating the famous term “dialectics” with a thinker like Simmel could have blurring consequences for the reception of his thought. Pyyhtinen’s proposal for a contemporary reading of Simmel’s works is articulated by the centrality he confers upon the relational dimension of Simmel’s thought. Relationality becomes the lens through which we read Simmel interpreting the world for us: from social interactions to reciprocal actions and effects and from life to culture, forms and back again. All of these are relational (and they are interconnected through this very same relationality as well). Moreover, they show us how a relational approach to the social world which we inhabit can allow us to see and understand processes which appear as indecipherable otherwise. Therefore, for instance, Pyyhtinen pays special attention to Simmel’s analysis of the “quantitative conditioning of the group”, and delivers the most complete and brilliant analysis of the dyad and triad, even bringing Simmel’s thought further and completing his thoughts by pointing out that, in fact, the dyad must already be a triad. It is, however, not the triad which Simmel had in mind in Sociology, which is quite human-centred: “As he assumes that the third automatically takes a personified human form, Simmel fails to notice that already the relation in- between the associated two elements presents a third. In order for there to be two, there has to be a relation connecting them, yet as soon as it connects it becomes the middle term between the partners through which their reciprocal give-and-take must pass. […] The only way two can be together is via a third and simultaneously excluding that third. Thus, the bivalent algebra of relations is always already trivalent. For the dyad, the third is its condition of possibility and impossibility” (Pyyhtinen, 2018, p. 91). 1. David Frisby’s Sociological Impressionism (2014) has wrongly been understood as strengthening this point due to the book’s (in my view, unfortunate) title. The figure of the third plays an important role in Pyyhtinen’s analysis of Simmel’s sociology of association. In fact, when he thinks of a special form of association – the “stranger”, Pyyhtinen presents this “stranger” as a third: For Simmel, the stranger highlights the borderline between the inside and outside of the group; the stranger is included only insofar as he/she is excluded. Simmel stresses that the stranger does not just stand outside a group but is rather ‘an element of the group itself’; ‘to be a stranger is naturally a very positive relation, a specific form of interaction’. (Pyyhtinen, 2018, p. 13) As I had understood the figure (or rather the “form”) of the stranger in Simmel’s works, the stranger is not a “third”, but rather a social form that results from the relation that is woven between the core of society and its boundaries and threshold, thereby defining and fixing the form of the stranger at a distance from the core of society, as an insider who is characterized by their character as an outsider, an insider defined by his/her not- fully-belonging. If we take Pyyhtinen’s excellent point about the third regarding the role of the relation as a third element to be taken into account, we could thus see that the stranger, the core of society and their relationship do build a sort of triad… but I would not see how this turns the “stranger” into a third as a social form. This is certainly not a direct critique of Pyyhtinen’s point, but rather an issue which would certainly be worth considering and discussing in depth, just as so many other points have been raised by Pyyhtinen in his book – a great sign of its excellence. Pyyhtinen’s elaboration on Simmel’s relational thinking is this book’s greatest contribution. It is detailed, takes Simmel’s whole oeuvre into account and does not miss the important and distinctive aspects of Simmel’s works. It offers contemporary readers a current and relevant way of approaching Simmel’s texts and, furthermore, delivers excellent clues to think these texts through even further than Simmel did. FRISBY, David1 (2014). Sociological Impressionism. A Reassessment of Georg Simmel’s Social Theory. Routledge: London et al. GASSEN, K.; LANDMANN, M. (1958). Buch des Dankes an Georg Simmel. Duncker & Humblot: Berlin. PYYHTINEN, Olli (2018). The Simmelian Legacy. A Science of Relations. Palgrave: London et al. SIMMEL, Georg (1908, 2009). Sociology. Inquiries into the Construction of Social Forms. Brill: Leiden et al. 
work_wpq2gwa6xbd5hpt54kiln74bry	----	untitled current innovations at the research fore- fronts of bacterial polysaccharides ; and in the mean time, they can learn the dif- ferent state-of-the-art technologies that were used to prove scientific hypothesis. Chang-Chun Ling University of Calgary (Canada) Chemical Biology : Learning through Case Studies By Herbert Waldmann and Petra Janning. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim 2009, 294 pp. , soft- cover E 39.90.—ISBN 978-3-527-32330-2 Chemical Biology : A Practical Course By Herbert Waldmann and Petra Janning. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim 2004, 230 pp. , soft- cover E 39.90.—ISBN 978-3-527-30778-4 What is Chemical Biology ? The answer to this question remains to be shaped, de- fined and rede- fined by those working in the field. Its scope is partly defined by the content and topics chosen for inclusion in the diverse collection of journals, con- ferences, graduate programs and university courses that bear the “Chemical Biol- ogy” moniker but, ultimately, it is those who self-identify as chemical biologists who will have the final word. In that context, a pair of stu- dent-oriented textbooks edited by Wald- mann and Janning mark an important milestone. Chemical Biology : A Practical Course, is a series of practical laboratory experiments intended for upper-level un- dergraduates or graduate students. The book begins with a broad over- view by the editors, which outlines their personal thoughts on the definition of Chemical Biology. Because their reader- ship comprises impressionable young scientists, they should be particularly applauded for their clear and concise phrasing and their willingness to point out the evolving nature of the field. Fol- lowing the introductory section, the next twelve chapters each cover a topic under the general heading of Chemical Biology. These subjects include a range of areas, including synthesis and applica- tion of peptide nucleic acids (PNAs), in silico protein ligand design, proteomic analysis and solid-phase synthesis of an- tibiotics. Each chapter begins with a brief summation of the field that is in- tended to provide context for under- standing the subsequent experiment. The depth of background is necessarily brief, and experts might be disappointed by the relatively short space devoted to their favorite topics, but these sections are clearly meant to provide a frame- work for future reading. Following the introductory material, protocols are given for implementing the experiment and these protocols are sufficiently gen- eral to be adapted and customized for various manufacturer’s instruments. The sheer breadth of topics is impressive ; the book touches on aspects of organic synthesis, molecular biology, computa- tional biology, signal transduction, enzyme kinetics, genomics, proteomics and drug design. Despite this scope, the methods are uniformly written in a straightforward style, regardless of whether the experiment involves synthe- sis or protein purification or other far- flung methodologies. The editor’s col- leagues are largely responsible for the book’s content, and this approach pro- vides a satisfying coherence. On a practical note, because the previ- ous training of students will likely be diverse, certain sections might require supplementary source material (primary manuscripts, additional reviews, more detailed protocols, etc.). For example, 5’ and 3’ are used in the section on DNA hybridization without formal introduc- tion of the nucleic acid structure, which might cause trouble for introductory stu- dents lacking a strong molecular biology background. However, the text’s main accomplishment is to capture the topics that encompass “Chemical Biology” and, in this task, it is remarkably successful. Moreover, guided by these logical tem- plates, it is easy to imagine how a re- searcher could add custom modules in- spired by their own interests. The companion text, Chemical Biology : Learning through Case Studies, is de- signed as a supporting text for courses populated by upper-level undergraduate or graduate students. As with the labora- tory course, each chapter starts with an introduction to the biological problem, followed by a review of the chemical methodology and then a summary of specific literature examples. The general topics include chemical genomics, syn- thesis of chemical libraries, target iden- tification, protein–protein interactions, affinity-based profiling, native chemical ligation, protein semisynthesis and other modern areas of chemical biology. The emphasis is not necessarily on primary data ; rather, the chapters are a guide to the broader literature. This approach works well because it reduces the jargon and, more importantly, it lets the excite- ment of the field become the center- piece. Towards that goal, “breakout” boxes are included to serve as a brief re- fresher of major concepts. Similarly, the glossary in the front of the book comes in handy when the reader needs a quick reminder of the definition of ABPP or HBTU. No discussion questions, teaching guides or multimedia visuals are includ- ed, so educators might want to supple- ment with web-based teaching tools and demonstrations geared towards the specific background of their student pool. Given the challenging task of covering an enormous and diverse set of topics, Waldmann and Janning have done an excellent job of providing practical infor- mation, while also capturing the excite- ment and potential of Chemical Biology. For those developing educational curric- ula around this challenging subject, these books are likely to provide an in- valuable framework and useful resource. Jason E. Gestwicki University of Michigan–Ann Arbor (USA) DOI : 10.1002/cbic.200900458 2540 � 2009 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim ChemBioChem 2009, 10, 2539 – 2541 
work_wsfannqmhzc7xbaiheoivac6je	----	Journal of Art Historiography Number 12 June 2015 Paul Gauguin and the complexity of the primitivist gaze Ruud Welten The Three Tahitians, painted by the French painter Paul Gauguin in 1899, depicts two young women positioned on either side of a young man whose back is turned. Even if I did not know the title of the painting, I would have been able to tell that these half-naked people are natives from a non-Western country, sometime in the past. The entourage is paradisiac. The young woman on the left is holding a piece of fruit in her hand. Has the apple of sin been replaced by a mango? The man whose back I see is looking away from the woman on the right, while she seems to gaze into nothingness. There is something mysteriously tranquil about the painting. A promise of a simple, carefree life. The three people are doing nothing in particular and find themselves in a natural environment of some sort, perhaps the woods or the beach. The weather appears to be fair. In this painting Gauguin reveals the truth and beauty of primitive, Polynesian life. At least, this is a common interpretation of Gauguin’s work, often read or heard. In what follows, however, I will argue that such an interpretation of Gauguin’s painting is far too simplistic, and, consequently, false. We might even wonder whether ‘primitivism’ to Gauguin was not so much a colonialist style of making art, but rather a way of deconstructing it. I will elaborate on this question by drawing the problem of primitivism on a broader canvas of colonialist and anti-colonialist mentalities. Figure 1 Paul Gauguin, Three Tahitians, 1899. Ruud Welten Paul Gauguin and the complexity of the primitivist gaze 2 The primitivist gaze In 1891, Paul Gauguin sailed to Tahiti in the hope of finding the paradise he had been dreaming of for so long. He went back to France in 1893, only to return to Tahiti in 1895, where he stayed until 1897. He died in another part of French Polynesia in 1903, where he ended up after his many wanderings: the island Hiva Oa in the Marquesas. The women in Three Tahitians also appear in some of the other paintings that Gauguin made in French Polynesia. Upon his return in 1895 to France, Gauguin was asked by a French journalist why he had gone to Tahiti. The painter answered: ‘I was captivated by that virgin land and its primitive and simple race; I went back there, and I’m going to go there again. In order to produce something new, you have to return to the original source, to the childhood of mankind.’1 This quote is intriguing. What exactly was Gauguin looking for? Was he searching for te geographical place of Tahiti, with its enchanting characteristics waiting to be discovered and depicted in a painting? Or can we say that Gauguin was following his personal dreams of an ‘authentic’ and ‘primitive’ life? Then again, what does he mean when he talks about ‘childhood of mankind’ and ‘original source’? Gauguin travelled to French Polynesia in order to escape the ‘perverted’ European culture of his time. In his dreams, Polynesia was a paradise, situated far from decadent life in Europe with its cold-blooded intellectual peoples who, according to the painter, had lost touch with truth and life as it should be. Gauguin wanted to meet the Polynesian others as others. He longed to abandon his European identity and become like the Polynesians. Did he succeed or did he, through his paintings, merely provide colonialism with a new strategy? Did he save Tahiti by revealing its ‘childhood of mankind,’ or did he inadvertently contribute, thanks to his fabulous imagination, to the Western collective mystification of Tahiti, reflectedin its status today as a tourist resort?2 These questions lead us to the heart of ‘primitivism,’ a word that originates from the old French word primitif, meaning ‘very first, original,’ which, in turn, derives from the Latin word primitivus, meaning ‘first or earliest of its kind’. It is often said about Gauguin that he is a ‘primitivist artist’.3 Primitivism in the arts, according to a simple definition, is a late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Western art movement that is inspired by non-Western peoples and their art forms. It became influential in the twentieth century and gave rise to various new forms of art expression (e.g. see the paintings of Pablo Picasso or Igor Stravinsky’s ballet Le sacre du printemps). It is not difficult to see that there is a deep ambiguity in the concept of ‘primitivism’ as an art term. On the one hand, primitivism seems to denote an unspoiled view of authentic humanity, while, on the other, it is a denigrating label for peoples and cultures that failed to reach the Western standard of humanity, even if ‘primitive culture’ is celebrated. Furthermore, there is always 1 Stephen F. Eisenman, Gauguin’s Skirt, London: Thames and Hudson, 1997, 201. 2 Jean-Franc ois Staszak elaborates on this question in ‘The artist and the tourist: Gauguin in Tahiti’, in: Rakic T. and Lester J.O. (eds,), Travel, Tourism and Art, London: Ashgate, 2013, 191-206. 3 See also Frances S. Connelly's contribution to the above volume ‘John Ruskin and the Savage Gothic’. Ruud Welten Paul Gauguin and the complexity of the primitivist gaze 3 the danger that the ‘other’ (i.e. the local) is simply a production of our precarious imagination. The harder we try to deny this, the more tenacious this logic becomes. The popular label of ‘primitivism’ is loaded with such ambiguities. No self- respecting world citizen today would talk about ‘the other’ and his or her cultures and arts as being ‘primitive’. But for the colonial ethnographers and tourists at the end of the nineteenth century, it was understood as a compliment, something to aspire to, as did Gauguin. Primitivism was understood as a search for purity and fairness and as such as a turn away from ‘sophisticated’ Western culture. It was inspired by the opinion that non-Western cultures were more pure, more authentic, and thus morally closer to what humanity should be. It rejected Western standards of religion, science, industrialization or capitalism and was therefore implicitly critical of European culture. However, this criticism was possible only because it was a product of that very same European culture. It is therefore no coincidence that the most important inspirations for primitivism were found in the colonies. Thus, primitivism is not a characteristic of peoples or cultures. The primitivism of Gauguin, as I will argue, cannot simply be reduced to a mere representation of ‘overseas’ cultures. Nor is it a topic strictly reserved for anthropology or ethnography. Rather, I will describe primitivism as a certain way of looking, which I will refer to as the ‘primitivist gaze’. Rather than being a geographically and historically oriented movement, primitivism is a gaze that is loaded with an intentionality obsessed with a criticism of its own Western standards. In fact, it cannot be understood without this criticism. Words such as ‘pure,’ ‘authentic’ or ‘primitive’ are always used in a context that considers them to be lost virtues. They are used by ‘the other side’ and never describe identities as such. To Western primitivist artists like Gauguin, identity has to be reinvented, firstly in terms of the negation of its own Western, colonialist tradition, and secondly as an identification with the ‘primitive’, or the ‘local,’ ‘original,’ ‘native’ or even ‘Aborigine’. Thus, primitivism is always a relational term – a term mentioned by ‘the other side,’ not by ‘us’ but by ‘them’ – rather than an already existing object waiting to be discovered and disclosed by a traveler. This implies that it is ‘the other’ who proves that primitive, authentic life, lost by ‘us,’ is possible and that it can be regained. In any case the primitivist gaze only exists because there is a difference and distance it cultivates between an ‘us’ and a ‘them’.4 It is not the ‘other’ as such that makes him primitive, but the gaze that captures him. In order to understand primitivism, therefore, we have to start with European, imperialist culture itself. The primitivist gaze is inseparably connected with a longing for paradise (which is, without a doubt, always a longing for something that is lost) and therefore it is based on a theory, an intuition at least, of alienation. We are alienated, says this intuition, from our ‘original source’ and as a result we despise so-called cultural progress and long for a new start. This, of course, is impossible because we already start looking from our European culturally-informed viewpoints. In many ways, primitivism is a gaze that is produced by colonialism – be it positive or 4 As Susan Sontag aptly states, traveling always implies a strong definition of ‘us’ and ‘them’. Susan Sontag, ‘Questions of Travel’ (1984) in Where the Stress Falls, New York: Picador, 2001, 274-284. Ruud Welten Paul Gauguin and the complexity of the primitivist gaze 4 negative – and that (intentionally or not), attacks colonialism as a system. It might be apt to use here the terminology employed by Mary Louise Pratt, who spoke about an ‘anti-conquest’ that was only possible by the gaze of ‘imperial eyes’.5 This terminology clearly shows us the intention of the primitivist gaze: a reversal of colonial values. Yet Pratt’s approach is not a phenomenological one – a philosophical viewpoint I now wish to elaborate on. We are talking here about phenomenological rather than historical or anthropological ‘facts’. One gazes at the other, at another’s culture, another’s history. But what does this imply? Phenomenology teaches us that perception is never neutral or passive. To the founding father of phenomenology, Edmund Husserl, conscience is always already consciousness of something, in the same way that looking is always looking at something. This characteristic of consciousness – to be conscious of something – is called intentionality. Intentionality, Husserl argues, is always already characterized by pre-informed expectations. Seeing and looking are activities rather than ‘neutral,’ ‘passive’ impressions.6 Looking is an activity of a subject, loaded with strategies of how to look. Even looking ‘without judgement’ is such a strategy. Art is an active way of looking. It paints not only what it sees, but it rearranges reality in order to make it visible. Painting, more than any other human activity shows us what perception is.7 This becomes particularly clear in the artistic movement known as Impressionism. TheImpressionists, such as Monet and Cézanne, did not seek to paint objectively what they saw, but they endeavoured to paint their own subjective, changeable and volatile impressions. Yet, the visual artist is always trying to break through this logic, something Gauguin succeeded in doing, as will be seen. It is his primitivist gaze that desires and projects just as it is his art that simultaneously looks and draws, designs and projects. The visual arts are a way of looking, a cultivation of the gaze. The late nineteenth century turn to 5 In her book Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation, Mary Louise Pratt uses the concept of what she calls ‘imperial eyes’. This intriguing title implies a phenomenology, a way of looking. A male way of looking seeks to possess and is inscribed in the global play of imperialism. She uses the term ‘anti-conquest’ to refer to ‘The strategies of representation whereby European bourgeois subjects seek to secure their innocence in the same moment as they assert European hegemony’. Compare with: ‘The main protagonist of the anti-conquest is a figure I sometimes call the ‘seeing-man’, an admittedly unfriendly label for the European male subject of European landscape discourse – he whose imperial eyes passively look out and possess’. Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation, Abingdon, Oxford: Taylor & Francis 2003, 7. 6 Compare Edmund Husserl, Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenomenological Philosophy: First Book: General Introduction to a Pure Phenomenology, The Hague: Kluwer, 1983, and Jean-Paul Sartre’s elaboration of the concept of intentionality in The Imaginary, London and New York: Routledge, 2004. 7 Maurice Merleau-Ponty was the first to elaborate on impressionism in a phenomenological way. Cézanne was for the French phenomenologist the painter par excellence. Writing on Cézanne, Merleau-Ponty says: ‘Impressionism was attempting to reproduce in painting the effect objects have as they strike the eye or attack the senses. It represents them in the atmosphere where we perceive them instantaneously with absolute shape bound to each other by light and air.’ Maurice Merleau-Ponty, ‘Le doute de Cézanne’ in Sens et non-sens, Paris: Nagel, 1948, 15. Ruud Welten Paul Gauguin and the complexity of the primitivist gaze 5 impressionism cultivated not just a way of depicting the objective world, but rather of painting the subjective impressions of this world. Needless to say, the primitivist gaze is anything but primitive itself. It is a gaze that does not passively perceive, but that is actively fostered by self-criticism and projection. Primitivism, to be sure, is a Western gaze. It is precisely this gaze that, in all its complexity, is present in the later works of Gauguin, painted in French Polynesia (i.e. Tahiti and the Marquesas islands). Complexity is not unique to either a Western or a non-Western gaze. In the case of Gauguin, painting is inspired simultaneously by impressionism and anti-colonialism. His gaze is produced by ‘imperial eyes’. In order to be primitive, something must be ‘pure,’ ‘simple,’ as if never polluted by Western touch. Primitivism is a gaze, but in order to fulfil its promise of ‘authentic’ life, it has to deny itself as being a ‘way of looking’. The primitivist gaze effaces itself as a gaze in order to find objects and peoples that are ‘pure’. But then again, the primitive is only ‘primitive’ through the eyes of Western colonialism. The origin of Gauguin’s primitivist gaze can be traced back to his earlier periods in France, particularly those spent in Brittany and Pont-Aven, where he was fascinated by the simple country lifestyle. Often, when the word ‘primitivism’ is used to label Gauguin (regardless of whether this is right or wrong), it implies that Gauguin, thanks to the rise of impressionism, is painting in a much more ‘simple’ manner than his romantic predecessors. Secondly, it implies that Gauguin was constantly in search of the primitive life, meaning the life of ‘others’ – the Tahitians – in order to become like them.8 He is in search of primitive life and not just for primitive objects or people to depict. His intention is to reinvent an authentic way of life, as if going back to an age before Western culture spoiled everything. Nevertheless, it is still a gaze. And since this gaze concerns literally everything, there is no way of finding the reinvented life at home. Home is the colonizer, Polynesia is the colonized. This immediately implies, however, that Gauguin is captured in this dialectic. Gauguin gazes at Tahiti and what he paints is exactly this gaze. It would be a misunderstanding to regard Gauguin’s Polynesia as the ‘real’ Polynesia. Gauguin’s task is immense: he not only has to reinvent a way of life, but he has to build an imaginary Polynesia. A paradise that is reshaped in a reversed Christian image: Eve, a constant figure in his paintings, is now a sensual Tahitian woman.9 There is no way that Gauguin’s Tahiti is a representation of any real island, or that his Christian symbolism can be deciphered according to the symbolism of earlier artistic periods. In order to reinvent a new life, an authentic life, Gauguin has to invert every value of the colonizer, including representation itself. This implies a new way of dealing with colors, landscapes, people, light, sound, morals, religion 8 The biography of Gauguin fascinated diverse authors, from Victor Ségalen (Hommage à Gauguin, Gauguin dans son dernier décor, La Marche du feu, in: Essai sur l’exotisme, Paris: Fata Morgana, 1978) to W. Somerset Maughan (The Moon and Sixpence, New York: George H. Doran, 1919) or Mario Vargas Llosa’s The Way to Paradise (New York: Faber 2003). By my knowledge, at least two opera’s are based on Gauguin’s life (Gauguin (a synthetic life) by Michael Smetanin (2000) and Bonjour M. Gauguin by Fabrizio Carlone (2014). 9 For the role of Eve in Gauguin, see Nancy Mowll Mathews, Paul Gauguin: An Erotic Life, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2001. Ruud Welten Paul Gauguin and the complexity of the primitivist gaze 6 and, not least, sexuality. Art covers everything for precisely this reason: the power of art becomes the power of colonialism itself. Imaginary Tahiti Gauguin’s Polynesian wanderlust can be construed as simply the product of ideas shared in the cultural circles in which he moved – dreams of finding primitive cultures somewhere in the middle of immense oceans. It is not a coincidence that he, being a French citizen, travelled to French Polynesia. In the end, there is nothing revolutionary about the late nineteenth-century revolt against European culture, the Western imperialistic mind-set, and capitalism. By sailing to Polynesia, Gauguin was simply the next in line. Tahiti was discovered by the West in 1767 and the first missionary expeditions were organized only thirty years later. It became a French protectorate in 1842 and by the time of its annexation in 1880, all local traditions and beliefs had been banned. Gauguin was not just longing for a paradise that would fulfil the promise of Van Gogh’s ‘l’atelier des Tropiques’ in Arles, he was longing for a long gone Polynesia.10 Although Tahiti was not the only imaginary paradise, it was – and perhaps still is – the island which appealed most to the Western imagination. Because islands are naturally enclosed by the sea or the ocean, and therefore shut off from external influences, it is the right place to expect the unspoiled. From Robinson Crusoe to contemporary tourism, islands are open spaces that inspire imagination. Notwithstanding the fact that French Polynesia was, politically speaking, French, it might be more accurate to consider Tahiti and other Polynesian islands first and foremost as imaginary paradises rather than as actual places.11 Tahiti was a formulation in the the imaginations of both colonialists and anti-colonialists, and still is a phantasm for the contemporary tourist. Tahiti became a myth contained by the tourist metaphor ‘paradise’.12 The imagination was fostered by ‘real’ travel accounts provided by writers dating from De Bougainville to Herman Melville. Louis Antoine de Bougainville published his Voyage autour du monde in 1771, in which he described his ten day visit to Tahiti. It marked the beginning of the myth of Tahiti as an earthly paradise where men and women lived in blissful 10 Compare ‘Now I, who has a presentiment of a new world, who certainly believes in the possibility of a great renaissance of art. Who believes that this new art will have the tropics for its homeland.’ Letter of Vincent van Gogh to Émile Bernard (Arles, Thursday, 1 or Friday, 2 November, 1888). Source: http://vangoghletters.org/vg/letters/let716/letter.html 11 Compare Jean-Franc ois Staszak, Géographies de Gauguin, Paris, Bréal, 2003. 12 How strongly and sincerely Gauguin believed in the popular myth of Tahiti as an earthly paradise is best seen from the following brief summary of his personal situation and artistic aims, which he gave in an interview in the Echo de Paris, on February 23, 1891, some months before his departure: ‘The reason why I am leaving is that I wish to live in peace and to avoid being influenced by our civilization. I only desire to create a simple art. In order to achieve this, it is necessary for me to steep myself in virgin nature, to see no one but savages, to share their life and have as my sole occupation to render, just as children would do, the images of my own brain, using exclusively the means offered by primitive art, which are the only true and valid ones.’ ( http://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/the-exotic-sources-of- gauguins-art/ retrieved October 1, 2014) http://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/the-exotic-sources-of-gauguins-art/ http://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/the-exotic-sources-of-gauguins-art/ Ruud Welten Paul Gauguin and the complexity of the primitivist gaze 7 innocence, far removed from the corruption of civilization. To Gauguin, Tahiti was a place that promised a concrete context for an abstract idea: the ‘noble savage’, the eighteenth-century primitive man, as celebrated famously by Daniel Defoe and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Robinson Crusoe appeared in 1719, while Rousseau’s Discourse on the Origins of Inequality was published in 1755. Although not explicitly mentioned in Rousseau’s Discourse, Robinson Crusoe inspired a lively debate on the purity of the noble savage. It is not hard to imagine Gauguin as a late nineteenth- century Robinson Crusoe – the Westerner discovering primitive man living on an island. Yet there is an important difference between Defoe’s character and the French painter. Defoe’s novel was interpreted as denoting a rebirth, a ‘new beginning’ through which a ‘pure’ idea of man could be discovered. Robinson was a solitary man, destined to make use of what nature had to offer in order to survive. He was forced by circumstances to live as a primitive, while for Gauguin, primitive life was something to be pursued. Gauguin is not entirely like Defoe’s Robinson, whose arrival at an uninhabited island marked a new start for culture, its very formlessness and emptiness offering possibilities for moulding it anew. Gauguin is primarily against everything that is Western culture. Tahiti for him, therefore, is first and foremost everything that Europe is not. To him, Tahiti implies in all respects a reversal of all European values and its so-called ‘civilization’. Gauguin wrote in his travelogue Noa Noa: ‘It was Europe – the Europe which I had thought to shake off and that under the aggravating circumstances of colonial snobbism, and the imitation, grotesque even to the point of caricature, of our customs, fashions, vices, and absurdities of civilization.’13 Gauguin did not go ashore of an uninhabited island; he expected to live amidst a primitive culture. Even though he was not Robinson, he still expected to meet ‘noble savages’ so that he might eventually become one of them. Gauguin was ‘going native’.14 Like many international Western tourists today, he was eager to be ‘among the locals’ instead of merely watching them from a distance. ‘I felt that in living intimately with the natives in the wilderness I would by patience gradually gain the confidence of the Maoris and come to know them,’ he wrote.15 Yet still there was a ‘them’ seen from a ‘we’-perspective. In Papeete, where he first landed, Gauguin was quickly disappointed upon learning that Tahiti’s capital was completely governed by his fellow French nationals (this is why he moved on his second journey to Polynesia to Hiva Oa, the island at Marquesas, unjustly infamous for its cannibals, as he soon discovered). In Noa Noa, Gauguin is fair about his disappointments: ‘Both the human beings and objects were so different from those I had desired, that I was disappointed. I was disgusted by all this European triviality.’16 Needless to say, Gauguin’s gaze was fully formed and educated by the myth of the ‘noble savage’. ‘To confess oneself in the manner of Jean Jacques Rousseau is a serious matter,’ 13 Paul Gauguin, Noa Noa (1893). English version: Dover, 1985, 2. 14 Abigail Solomon-Godeau, ‘Going Native’. Paul Gauguin and the Invention of Primitivist Modernism’ in Art in America, 77 (July 1989): 118-29. 15 Gauguin, Noa Noa, 19. 16 Gauguin, Noa Noa, 9. Ruud Welten Paul Gauguin and the complexity of the primitivist gaze 8 wrote Gauguin.17 But for Gauguin, it was not Rousseau, who was too philosophical and abstract, but Jacques Antoine Moerenhout, who deeply influenced him. Moerenhout wrote one of the first ethnographic studies on Polynesia published in 1837: Voyages aux îles du Grand océan. Gauguin had read the book and it became an important source of information on Polynesian religion, although it was outdated by the time Gauguin arrived in Polynesia. Another influential author for Gauguin was Julien Viaud, whose pseudonym was Pierre Loti. The Marriage of Loti (1880) influenced other artists as well, such as Vincent van Gogh. A short comparison with Melville’s Typee Thus Gauguin stepped into a pre-existing imaginary paradise – not ‘on earth’, as the addendum paradoxically goes, but a paradise in the arts. Gauguin probably never read the first novel of Herman Melville: Typee: A Peep at Polynesian Life (1846), a book based on the author’s personal experiences of being held captive by cannibals on the island Nuku Hiva. Nevertheless, it contains all those elements that made Gauguin leave for Polynesia: the glorification of the primitive, exoticism, a deeply rooted aversion to missionary work, the excitement of being among absolute strangers (such as cannibals) and the erotic beauty of Polynesian women. If primitivism exists in literature, Typee is exemplary. For both Melville and Gauguin, this resulted in a crusade against missionary work. To both, the Christian missionary work was blamed for polluting the authenticity and purity of the colonised countries.18 Melville’s account of French Polynesia is fairly archetypical for the development of the Western view on other cultures. Its description of the French interference leaves no room for doubt on this point: ‘The French have ever plumed themselves upon being the most humane and polished of nations,’ writes Melville; ‘A high degree of refinement, however, does not seem to subdue our wicked propensities so much after all; and were civilization itself to be estimated by some of its results, it would seem perhaps better for what we call the barbarous part of the world to remain unchanged.’19 It was exactly this French ‘barbarism’ that Gauguin was attacking furiously. In line with Melville’s opinion, it was the savage, even the cannibal,who turned out to be more humane than the Europeans. Gauguin himself wrote in his journals: ‘When you arrive in the Marquesas you say to yourself, seeing these tattooings that cover the face and the whole body: “These are terrible fellows. And they have been cannibals too.” You are altogether mistaken. The native Marquesan is by no means a terrible fellow; on the contrary, he is an intelligent man and quite incapable of plotting evil.’20 When he is sitting on a bed with a Tahitian, no doubt with erotic intentions, Gauguin is shocked by her overwhelming ‘otherness’. He writes in Noa Noa: ‘At first I saw in her only the jaws of a cannibal, the teeth ready to rend, the 17 Paul Gauguin Intimate Journals (with a preface by Emil Gauguin). New York: Crown Publishers, 1936, 17. Compare 242 18 Paul Gauguin, ‘L’Église catholique et les temps modernes’ (1897) and ‘L’esprit moderne et le catholicisme’ (1897-1902), as published in Paul Gauguin, Oviri. Écrits d’un sauvage, Paris: Gallimard, 1974. 19 Herman Melville, Typee: A Peep at Polynesian Life, (1846), Chapter 3. 20 Gauguin, Intimate Journals, 102. Ruud Welten Paul Gauguin and the complexity of the primitivist gaze 9 lurking look of a cruel and cunning animal, and found her, in spite of her beautiful and noble forehead, very ugly.’21 The reference to the cannibal is telling, since, as we have already seen in Melville’s case, the cannibal is the absolute other. In the colonial mind-set, it is the complete stranger that one will never fully understand and who is reshaped after the images one creates of him.22 To leave ‘the barbarous part of the world’, so far beyond the influence of so- called civilization, was, in fact exactly Gauguin’s paradoxical wish.23 Melville’s ‘primitivism’ harbours these differences. Some have criticized the American writer for racism, while others have defended him by arguing that he used the Polynesian language to develop his own multicultural aesthetic. The same can be said about Gauguin. Melville’s Typee represents a straightforward text in the tradition of Montaigne’s On Cannibals, in which the French essayist defends the cannibals against Western small-mindedness and arrogance, defining the savages in terms of what they are not, namely Western, cultivated people.24 In Melville’s second book, Omoo: A Narrative of Adventures in the South Seas (1847), European culture is depicted as the destroyer of authentic, primitive culture. When we compare Typee to Omoo, we detect a significant change of thought: whereas Polynesia was considered to be paradise in the former, it is ‘paradise lost; in the latter, having succumbed to European influence – just as Gauguin would come to see. Like Melville, Gauguin eventually pictured the other as civilized and the European imperialist as the true cannibal. To both Melville and Gauguin, art was not a way to represent, but to recreate Polynesia. Like Melville, Gauguin reverses the ‘imperial eyes’ of the colonialist. Gauguin’s gaze is the gaze of anti-conquest and the reversion of his own cultural values. Needless to say, of course, Melville writes and Gauguin paints. Melville’s account is a narrative, but what account does Gauguin provide? There is something 21 Gauguin, Noa Noa, 15. 22 The metaphor of the cannibal is crucial in (post-) colonial literature and arts. The cannibal is the absolute other, the perfect primitive, a human being that is resisting all human values by eating other human beings. Often, the traveler or visitor fears the cannibal, but at the same time, he is fascinated by him or her. This is the case for both Melville and Gauguin as we can read in their biographies. To be captured by cannibals is the ultimate experience of otherness. Compare Roger Célestin, From Cannibals to Radicals: Figures and Limits of Exoticism, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 1996, and Geoffrey Sanborn, The Sign of the Cannibal: Melville and the Making of a Postcolonial Reader, Durham: Duke University Press, 1998. 23 As the semiologist David Scott writes: ‘Of course, throughout this enterprise, Gauguin is obscurely aware of the potential madness of his project...’. David Scott, Semiologies of Travel: From Gautier to Baudrillard, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004, 85. 24 Michel de Montaigne, ‘On Cannibals’, in Essays (Book I, Essay 31). ‘I should tell Plato that it is a nation wherein there is no manner of traffic, no knowledge of letters, no science of numbers, no name of magistrate or political superiority; no use of service, riches or poverty, no contracts, no successions, no dividends, no properties, no employments, but those of leisure, no respect of kindred, but common, no clothing, no agriculture, no metal, no use of corn or wine; the very words that signify lying, treachery, dissimulation, avarice, envy, detraction, pardon, never heard of.’ (http://www.victorianweb.org/courses/nonfiction/montaigne/cannibals.html retrieved October 1, 2014) http://www.victorianweb.org/courses/nonfiction/montaigne/cannibals.html Ruud Welten Paul Gauguin and the complexity of the primitivist gaze 10 in his paintings that works like Melville’s narrative, but what is it? We find the answer disclosed in the gaze itself. The counter-gaze In art, there is always something that transcends the gaze. Commenting upon a paragraph of Paul Valéry, the philosopher Walter Benjamin writes ‘The painting we look at reflects back at us that of which our eyes will never have their fill.’25 How right he is. The gaze is not just unidirectional. What characterizes Gauguin’s Tahitian paintings is that he is not merely painting his object or his own gaze, but something I will call the ‘counter-gaze’. Let us look again at Three Tahitians. In the introduction, I sketched the painting as a representation of Tahitian, primitive life. However, we soon discovered that Gauguin is painting his own gaze, a gaze that seeks to depart from Western culture in order to celebrate the primitive. But there is more. What do I perceive in the painting? The three people have no visible contact with each other. Yet, the young woman on the left with the mango in her hand looks straight at me, the onlooker. I look at a life that is not mine, but she has already captured me with her intense gaze, making me feel like a voyeur. Mysteriously, something in her eyes tells me that she saw me before I saw her. Our eyes, in Benjamin’s words, will never have their fill. She silently engages me in her world that I can never enter. Her eyes say more than words: everything was pure and authentic before I came, but because of my gaze, the paradise is lost forever. This, to be clear, is an entirely subjective description provided by myself as spectator, gazing but failing to understand. It does not say anything about Gauguin’s intentions. That is precisely why we are talking about art, not about someone making tourist pictures on a tropical island. Gauguin does not offer an informative representation of Tahiti, nor of its inhabitants. The gaze of the Tahitian is a counter-gaze. It is, to be sure, the same counter-gaze as the ‘anti-conquest’ gaze, the reversion of the imperial eyes, the ‘gazing against the grain’ that we read in Melville’s Typee. In Gauguin’s painting, however, it is an actual gaze, not the metaphorical description of a gaze. The counter-gaze in Gauguin is not a moral or political ideal that motivates art, but a real gaze. The human face in this work of art is not a portrait, but a gaze.26 In order to understand Gauguin, we have to leave behind the idea of representation, and even the ideal of the impressionist gaze. If Gauguin wants to succeed in his project, he has to get rid of the Romantic idea that art represents or depicts the world. Let us, once more, read Walter Benjamin in order to describe this ineffable gaze. It was Benjamin who famously wrote (in ‘The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility’) that, in modernity, art lost its aura and became something that could be mechanically reproduced. According to Benjamin, a shift can be noted in the history of art from the artwork’s cult value to its exhibition 25 Walter Benjamin, ‘On some motifs in Baudelaire’, in Illuminations, New York: Schocken Books, 1968 (2007), 186-7. 26 Gauguin wrote in his notes on Marquesan art: ‘The basis of this art is the human body and face. The face, especially.’ Daniel Guerin (ed.) Paul Gauguin: The Writings of a Savage, New York: Viking Press, 1990, 280 and 92. Ruud Welten Paul Gauguin and the complexity of the primitivist gaze 11 value.27 Art production begins with figuration in the service of magic, says Benjamin. Thus, there is a difference between art as a way of making present that which is sacred and art as ‘exhibition’. Art in the modern sense of the word, with its roots in late mediaeval times, was increasingly understood as ‘exhibition’, or ‘visible presence’. The religious prohibition of making images (i.e. the second commandment) had lost its power and art no longer stood in service of the sacred. Consequently, art no longer possessed magical power and become an object of visual contemplation. What counts in magic, according to Benjamin’s use of the word, is not the aesthetic value of artefacts, but its presence: What is important is that they are present, not that they are seen. (...) Cult value as such even tends to keep the artwork out of certain statues of gods are accessible only to the priest in the cella; certain images of the Madonna remain covered nearly all year round; certain sculptures on medieval cathedrals are not visible to the viewer at ground level.28 We encounter what Benjamin describes in the tension between the use of icons in the Russian Orthodox Church and the exhibition of the icons as works of art in Western museums. In orthodox theology, the icon is not there to be seen and venerated, since it presents a hidden, invisible truth.29 More importantly, while looking at the icons we perceive that they look back at us. Perception in this case is the experience of being perceived: the gaze of the spectator is reversed and the spectator becomes the spectated. This, however, not only implies to icons. Visual art possess a quality which makes it more than a mere collection of objects to gaze at. There is something beyond this gaze, beyond aesthetics, something that gives art, as Benjamin calls it, a ‘magical’ power. And of course, the magical power which is not understood aesthetically is of relevance for understanding indigenous ritual objects. Most of the objects cannot be understood as depictions or representations, rather as objects of incantation. To Benjamin, this magic is lost once art becomes a mere practice of ‘taking pictures’. He writes: ‘What was inevitably felt to be inhuman, one might even say deadly, in daguerreotype was the (prolonged) looking into the camera, since the camera records our likeness without returning our gaze. But looking at someone carries the implicit expectation that our look will be returned by the object of our gaze.’30 The young woman with the mango is not looking into an 27 Walter Benjamin, ‘The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility’, in Illuminations, 224. 28 Benjamin, ‘The Work of Art...’, p. 25. 29 First described by Pavel Florensky. See Clemena Antonova, Space, Time, and Presence in the Icon: Seeing the World with the Eyes of God, Surray, Burlington: Ashgate, 2010. The reversed gaze and the image play an important role in contemporary phenomenology; for example,e in the work of Jean-Luc Marion. See Ruud Welten, ‘Le paradoxe de l’apparence de Dieu’ and ‘Vers une phénoménologie de l’icône’, Phénoménologie du Dieu invisible. Essais et études sur Emmanuel Levinas, Michel Henry et Jean-Luc Marion, Paris: L’harmattan, 2011, 175-203 and 235- 245). 30 Benjamin, ‘On some motifs in Baudelaire’, 188. Ruud Welten Paul Gauguin and the complexity of the primitivist gaze 12 imaginary camera, posing for me, but she is looking at me. The spectator’s gaze is reversed.31 This phenomenon of the counter-gaze is not only to be seen in Three Tahitians. There is, of course, the erotic gaze or the gaze of seduction, which we encounter in Te arii vahina (The King’s Wife). A significant characteristic of the erotic gaze is that the spectator never knows for certain whether it is, in fact, an erotic gaze. In real life, this gaze requires a response, a smile, a confirmation. Only too often Gauguin is reduced to being a painter of erotic seduction. The gaze in the painting Arearea (1892), however, is as complex as the gaze described above. In some other paintings, like Parau parua (Whispered Words), painted in 1892, we encounter the gaze of just one person, while other people in the painting seem to take no notice of the spectator (although, upon closer inspection, they might be looking after all…). Cavaliers sur la plage (the version in which a man on a horse is gazing at the spectator) is a clear example of a gaze that marks the ‘otherness’ of not just a single person, but of a whole culture. The horseman is gazing beyond the limits of the painting, looking at me. Behind him, we see the life of ‘the others’ who do not seem to notice that they are gazed at. The gaze of the horseman represents the gaze of these others. His look is reproachful, making me a spectator, making me the colonialist who intervenes in what I consider a primitive life. We encounter a double gaze in paintings such as Arearea no varua ino (Reclining Tahitian Women) from 1894, Contes Barbares (Primitive Tales) from 1902; Le Sorcier d’Hiva Oa (Marquesan in a Red Cape à la Cape) from 1902; The Great Buddha (1899); Merahi metua no Tehamana (Tehamana has Many Parents) from 1893; Poèmes Barbares (1896); Manao tupapau (Spirit of the Dead Watching) from 1892 and Parau na te varua ino (Words of the Devil) from 1892.32 It is the gaze of the faces of Tahitians staring at us (i.e. the spectators) with, in the background, an even more pervasive stare by yet another presence – a god, a devil, or a ghost perhaps. There is something magical about these paintings. In Bathers at Tahiti (1897), two naked women clearly feel caught by the eye of the spectator, making the spectator feel like a voyeur. The same goes for Bathers painted in the same year and in Pastorales Tahitiennes (1892). What marks the look of the Tahitian woman on the left in Three Tahitians, is the distance between her and the spectator. We see not just what Gauguin sees, we also experience what he experiences, namely the experience of being a voyeur, an intruder. What is at stake here is not just an exchange of erotic glances between two human beings, but a look that marks cultural difference. It is as if the Tahitian woman wants us to know that we will never understand her. Gauguin’s desire for a near mystical unity with the ‘other’, as described in Noa Noa, completely fails here. But it is a sublime failure, raised to the status of art. Gauguin paints the unbridgeable distance between himself and the culture he is so eager to be a part of. In Gauguin’s paintings, we encounter a double gaze: the individual gaze of the woman makes the spectator (in first place Gauguin the painter) aware of the distance between Western and Polynesian cultures. Concerning Gauguin, two 31 See also Frances S. Connelly's contribution to this special issue ‘John Ruskin and the Savage Gothic’, especially for Manao tupapau. Ruud Welten Paul Gauguin and the complexity of the primitivist gaze 13 things are at stake. Firstly, colonialism is a gaze that reduces the ‘other’ to a primitive state – but a state valued as somehow more pure and authentic than that of the ‘civilised’ West. Gauguin certainly paints Tahiti from this viewpoint. However, there is more to Gauguin’s paintings. It is precisely the ‘other’ that resists representation and, as such, gazes back. Gauguin’s anti-conquest, therefore, is not a mere political or cultural revolt, but something that is phenomenological, hidden within the power of his art. Instead, it is the spectator who becomes the intruder, the voyeur, caught red-handed in his own primitivist gaze. Ruud Welten is assistant professor of Philosophy at Tilburg University and Full Professor of Ethics at Saxion University of Applied Sciences, Deventer, The Netherlands. He has published many articles and several books on French phenomenology. r.b.j.m.welten@uvt.nl 
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work_wuelw2l6bjfrncjgojudvixayu	----	138 | P a g e The novel as short story Kirk Schlueter 202 E. Pierce Kirksville, Mo. ABSTRACT In recent history, the novel has been thought of and defined primarily as a long prose narrative. However, this has not been the case historically, as the original meaning of "novel" was for "a piece of news" or "a short story or novella." Returning to this original definition, I propose a new way of viewing the work known contemporarily as the novel as a collection, or sequence, of united short stories rather than a single indivisible work, with the component short stories or novellas comprising the sequence renamed as "novels." A brief examination of several classic works traditionally considered novels serves to illustrate how this change in definition will affect reading. Keywords: Novel, short story, sequence, genre, literature 1. Introduction Any student of genre studies is well aware of the perils of definition, and this is nowhere more apparent than with the novel, a genre which has proved notoriously elusive to define and pin down over time. The only definition of the novel which at first glance invites no contention, that of a "long prose narrative" is also, frustratingly, a definition so devoid of any real meaning as to render it useless. Yet even this most bland of definitions is susceptible to challenge. For the term "novel" can easily be redefined to mean "a short story or novella," and those works which have traditionally been known as novels subsequently redefined as short story sequences, collections where the stories can be treated both independently and connected thematically. There is historical precedent for viewing the novel in such a fashion: the earliest usage of the term defined novel originally as a "piece of news," which then developed into that of a short story or novella (Dictionary 1999). It was only with time that the term novel came to be associated with the long prose narratives (for lack of a better definition) to which it are exclusively applied today. When Cervantes wrote Don Quixote, for instance, the term he used for the work was not "novel," but "history." He instead reserved "novel" to describe a brief interlude in the main narrative of the story during Chapters 33-35, a interlude modern readers would describe as a short story (Cervantes 2003/1615). Defining "novel" to mean short story or novella, then, is so much a new idea as it is the resurgence of an old one. Nor is the idea of a short story sequence with interrelated tales, characters and themes original either. The most famous of this type of collection include James Joyce's Dubliners, William Faulkner's Go Down, Moses, and Sherwood Anderson's Winesburg, Ohio. How then would one go about determining whether sections of what is contemporarily called a novel (works including Don Quixote, Gulliver's Travels and Ulysses) are in fact independent short stories and novellas (or novels), or whether these sections are so thoroughly parts of a larger, homogenous whole that they cannot be extracted from this greater work? To me, for any piece to be considered an independent novel (here meaning short story), it must meet two chief criteria. First, a novel must be more or less coherent when read independently of the work as a whole; and removing the novel from the sequence must not damage the sequence in such a way as for it to be rendered meaningless. I do not think anyone will deny that some selections can have more of an impact and be more important to sequences than others, as the same is true of sequences which define themselves as consisting solely of short stories. Undoubtedly, removing "Eveline" from Dubliners would rob the collection of a wonderful piece, but would not damage it in such a way as to cripple the overall sequence. If, however, removing a particular novel causes the entire sequence to become something akin to gibberish or lose meaning entirely, then the sequence must be a larger, single work. Similarly, if the novel is incapable of being read and understood on its own without any outside knowledge whatsoever, then it is not an independent work, but must be part of a larger whole. The novel as short story Kirk Schlueter 139 | P a g e 2. Reading Experiments with Classic "Novels" Will this definition bear out the expected fruit? An (extremely) brief survey of several of the most famous works commonly called "novels", or long works of prose done through the aid of this new filter will serve as the beginnings of an investigation. In fact, many of what might be called "classic" novels are already subdivided within the works themselves into smaller units. The most basic of these units is the chapter, but while a chapter of a work may be able to be viewed as an independent novel, larger sections can also be so. Consider, since mention has already been made of it twice, Don Quixote. Removing Chapter VIII of Part 1, the infamous "tilting at windmills" scene, does not irreparably damage the sequence (though it does rob it of one of its most sublime and famous moments). Even if he never charges down what he believes to be a giant, Don Quixote's adventures will continue in some other form. But Chapter VIII does not fulfill the other requirement of a novel; for if it is read in isolation, the reader has no idea why Don Quixote thinks a windmill is a giant in the first place. The madness of the man is apparent, but not the reason for it, and without an explanation for why Don Quixote is spouting pieces of romantic literature, the reader is utterly baffled. The importance of deciding where to distinguish novels is thus demonstrated, for there is a division of Don Quixote which easily fulfills both criteria--the sequence itself is divided into two separate parts, which were even published separately. Both function capably as independent novels. In both the reader learns quickly of Don Quixote's madness and its cause, then proceeds with the knight errant of La Mancha through a series of adventures. Part I's conclusion, with a series of sardonic epitaphs over Don Quixote and Sancho Panza's graves, could easily serve as a conclusion to the sequence as a whole and is fully capable of being read and understood independently of Part II. The same can be said of Part II; though the beginning may be slightly confusing for someone who has never read Part I, the premise is quickly established and all the events of the novel occur completely independent of what has taken place in Part I. Don Quixote then is an sequence of these two novels, which we have come to know as Don Quixote, Part I and Don Quixote, Part II when we could very easily have known them as independent entities entirely. The same is true of Pilgrim's Progress and Gulliver's Travels, other classic works traditionally called novels in the sense of long prose narratives. Both works identify within themselves natural points of division between individual novels by being divided up into multiple, self-contained sections. Much like Don Quixote, Part I of Pilgrim's Progress (originally published as the complete work itself) easily functions as a novel; the only difficulty in determining whether a section can serve as an independent novel comes with Part II. Fortunately, again like Don Quixote, Part II of Pilgrim's Progress is also capable however of functioning as a novel. In the first few pages, Bunyan establishes both the necessary background for the story concerning Christian's pilgrimage, before moving on to introduce his family preparing for their own (Bunyan 1966/1678). Thus Pilgrim's Progress Part II is its own independent novel, able to function apart from the main sequence. Nor is the main sequence irrevocably damaged by removing Part II, as Part I imparts all the necessary lessons of the work, with these lessons being repeated in a different form within Part II. The same is also true of the novels contained within Gulliver's Travels. The four novels comprising the sequence each exist in their own-self contained universe; the Lilliputians never meet the Houyhnhnms, and Gulliver himself makes almost no mention of the other adventures on which he has embarked during the course of a particular one. Removal of any one of the individual novels keeps the sequence's focus on a critique and satire of human nature, while the removed novel is easily read and understood by itself as an individual work of satire. To show that such a division by listed sections of a work is possible also with modern works, we may turn to Atlas Shrugged where reading any of the book's individual sections by itself is more than enough to see the worldview Rand is advocating and learn any relevant information about the main characters and their society and philosophy (one might be tempted to suggest that reading the work in such small "dosages" is a much more enjoyable way to encounter the work rather than in its current, sprawling leviathan form). Even when there is overlap between parts of both characters and societies, these works can still be viewed as short story sequences comprised of individual, independent novels. The same reading is possible for more modern works as a similarly brief survey will demonstrate, though of course an exhaustive list is impossible due to the constrains of time and space. Given both its fame (or infamy), as well as its relation to one of the most famous short story sequences, Joyce's Ulysses is deserving of attention. The truth is Ulysses is very much in the tradition of Dubliners, with the work very easily thought of as a short story sequence rather than a homogenous, undivided monolith (Joyce originally conceived of the faux-Odyssey as a story to be included in Dubliners, but scrapped the idea before making it a stand-alone work). It is possible to read either the Telemachiad with Stephen Daedalus at the work's beginning, or The Odyssey proper with Bloom as isolated novels, even given Daedalus's appearance in the latter section. Further, many of the individual Journal of Arts and Humanities (JAH), Volume -1, No.-3, December, 2012 140 | P a g e chapters within these two sections themselves can also be read as independent novels, and given the nature of Ulysses, reading them in such a manner still means the chapters illustrate the tumultuous private lives of human beings complete with Joyce's stylistic arsenal without damaging the coherence of Ulysses if they are removed from the work overall, thus fulfilling our two established criteria. Indeed, given which chapters one might choose to excise, readers could potentially find the new short story sequence to be easier to comprehend and understand than Ulysses as it currently stands (though whether they would be correct or incorrect to do so is not a discussion we will become involved in). The same is true of a novel which in terms of composition is about as far removed from Ulysses as a work can get: Mann's Doctor Faustus. Many of Doctor Faustus's chapters can serve as self-contained narratives, bound together in the overall sequence only by Zeitblom's stitching in a manner similar to the encyclopedic nature of Moby Dick. In both works, a vast amount of knowledge about the natural world and the human spirit are disseminated and chronicled through a group of characters and their relations to one another in largely episodic chapters, which can be alternatively very isolated, or connected with one another. Many of these chapters focus on one or two specific events: the buildup to them, their occurrence, and then the fallout along with the interpretation of the narrator (either Ishmael or Zeitblom) on their purpose or larger significance. Moby Dick's encyclopedic chapters are obviously not of this type, though they do bear similarity to several of the chapters in Faustus which deal exclusively with laboratory chemistry and musical theory rather than obvious advancement of the plot. Thus, many of the chapters in these works already fit the basic format of short stories with their singular focus and a wide, ever-shifting array of focus between individual pieces. Though when all viewed together a linear story is more or less presented by both works, the method of reaching the conclusion is hardly a strict path; rather, it branches out into both the emotional lives of the characters as well as encyclopedic examinations of the world and phenomena included therein. Rather than be viewed as a unified whole, then, both narratives can easily be seen as short story sequences with various chapters or collections of chapters meeting the requirements proposed above for the individual components to serve as independent novels. Considering Moby Dick, for instance, if only individual sections and not the work as a whole are presented to readers, the chapter "The Whiteness of the Whale" is almost always one of the excerpted chapters, able to stand rather easily on its own and also give a sense of the main themes and scope of Moby Dick as a whole, something the best short stories in a sequence do. With Doctor Faustus, a comparable example might be Adrian's conversation with the Devil, but it must be pointed out that it is not a requirement that a particular section of a work be capable of functioning both on its own and as a microcosm of some larger narrative or thematic picture to be considered an independent novel and the entire work a sequence, merely that it is possible. And in the cases of Moby Dick and Doctor Faustus, two more classic works in the Western canon, both can be read as short story sequences communicating narrative and thematic frames through individual novels/short stories which can be viewed either on their own or as interlocking cogs in a larger, patched together mechanism. 3. Viewed From the Short Story Much of the scholarly work done in this area has been by short story theorists, but this should in no way be seen as a deficiency in the literature itself. In fact, an interesting pattern emerges when studying critical works on the relationship between what are commonly thought of as "novels" (our sequences) and short stories. Often there seems to be little or no structural difference between these works, with readers creating the difference and delineating themselves between the two forms based on prior expectations rather than clear criteria. Suzanne Ferguson "has spent much of her academic career trying to discover whether the short story is in fact a distinct genre from the novel (Fallon et al 2001)." In her essay "Defining the Short Story: Impressionism and Form," Ferguson concludes that where many readers perceive the short story as an independent form from the novel, a better template for viewing the differences between the short story and the "novel" is through impressionism--that is, as a function of content-- and not genre (1982). (For our purposes, the important part of Ferguson's conclusions is the generic similarity between the "novel" and the short story.) Ferguson goes farther, stating that "The main formal characteristics of the modern novel and modern short story are the same", before going on to list these characteristics (1982). In a separate essay, "The Short Stories of Louise Erdrich's Novels", Ferguson remarks in support of the hypothesis that "the short story is formally not so much an essentially The novel as short story Kirk Schlueter 141 | P a g e separate and distinct genre as that a fiction is read differently when it appears as a story rather than as part of a larger unit...(1996)." Ferguson's analysis then seems to support the notion that a collection can just as easily be read as a series of novels as it can a single work. The only real obstacle it seems, to conceiving of the novel as a short story and the larger work as a collection of novels is that of convention, and how the reader views and conceives of works in relation to larger genre categories. John Frow discusses this principle in a somewhat broader context in his work Genre where he proposes that "...it follows that genre is not a property of a text, but a function of reading. Genre is a category that we impute to texts, and under different circumstances this imputation may change (2006)." If a reader spends years thinking the definition of "novel" is a long prose narrative, then any long prose narrative is a "novel." 4. Reading Experiments and Authorial Intent In this line of thinking, it is interesting to note an experiment conducted by Suzanne Hunter Brown, who describes reading chapters of Hardy's Tess of the d'Urbervilles first as parts of a larger work, and then alternately as individual short stories, or for our purposes, novels (1982). What Brown discovered is that the chapters were equally capable of being read as independent novels and as parts of a larger work in a collection. The only thing that changed between readings was the reader's expectation and perception of the selected chapters based on whether the reader viewed them as short stories or excerpts from a larger work (Brown 1982). The same thought experiment can be done with the pieces mentioned above, and similar conclusions can be drawn. In many cases, the substance and meaning of a work is not altered by viewing the text as a collection of novels rather than a unified text; the only change is the genre meaning which the reader imputes, to borrow Frow's terminology, to the work based on the reader's prior expectation. On a related note, it is certainly worth mentioning authorial intention within these works. Surely, the argument must go, the authors of our works conceived of them as unified, independent works and not as collections of interrelated novels. At the risk of sounding callous, I have to say that this objection is fairly insubstantial. No real concrete differences emerge when reading a longer work as comprised of several novels as compared to reading the work as a unified whole, especially given the fragmentary nature of most of our works, where the narrative is frequently divided into parts by the work itself. Just as Frow states above, the only difference between the two are the categories to which readers assign each respective work. Whether the author intended to write a singular work or a collection of works is somewhat irrelevant in this case. 5. Conclusion Much of the work discussed above leads to the conclusion that the fundamental reason "novels" and short stories are separated into different genre categories is due to convention and reader expectation rather than some inherent structural characteristic. There is nothing, then, which prevents us from applying this analysis to redefine novel as meaning short story or novella and relabeling "novels" as short story collections or sequences. As Ferguson states, "a sequence should be linked in development (going from one place to another), whether in time or theme (2003)." This definition is extremely applicable to the works we have read thus far. Thus, what we contemporarily view as the "novel"--a long prose narrative--can be construed and redefined as a short story collection, with the term novel being redefined to mean both a short story and novella independent of these larger works, or a story in one of these collections. As long as one is careful delineating where individual novels exist so that the novels fulfill the two criteria established above, then this seems to me a viable definition of the novel. Rather than arguing about generic differences between the short story and the "novel," novel can simply be defined to be identical with the short story which can be collected in sequences. In this way, two genres which should probably have never been separated (short story and novel) can be happily reunited, and a good deal of consternation over genre definitions and differences can be relieved. Journal of Arts and Humanities (JAH), Volume -1, No.-3, December, 2012 142 | P a g e References Brown, S. H. (1982). 'Tess' and Tess: an experiment in genre." Modern Fiction Studies, 28(1), 25-44. Bunyan, J. (1966). The pilgrim's progress. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1678). Cervantes, M. (2003). Don quixote. (E. Grossman, Trans.). New York, NY: HarperCollins. (Original work published 1615). Dictionary of literary terms and theory (4th ed.). (1999). New York, NY: Penguin. Ferguson, S. (1982). Defining the short story: impressionism and form. Modern Fiction Studies,28(1), 13-24. --(2003). Sequences, anti-sequences, cycles, and composite novels: the short story in genre criticism. Journal of the Short Story in English, 41, 103-117. --(1996). The short stories of louise erdrich's novels. Studies in Short Fiction, 33, 541-55. Fallon, E., Feddersen R.C., Kurtzleben, J., Lee, M.A. and Rochette-Crawley, S. (Eds.). 2001. A reader's companion to the short story in english. Westport, CT: Greenwood. Frow, J. (2006). Genre. New York, NY: Routledge. Joyce, J. (1992). Ulysses. New York, NY: Modern Library. (Original work published 1922). Mann, T. (1997). Doctor faustus. (J. Woods, Trans.) New York, NY: Random House. (Original work published 1947). Melville, H. (2006). Moby-dick. Ann Arbor, MI: Borders Classics. (Original work published 1851). Rand, A. (1957). Atlas shrugged. New York, NY: Signet. Swift, J. (2008). Gulliver's travels. New York, NY: Signet. (Original work published 1726). 
work_wwo5d5lmdbdozfrpyxfpncnx3y	----	From Gun Man to God Man: Cheating Death From Gun Man to God Man: Cheating Death Camille Hernandez-Ramdwar Caribbean Studies, Volume 36, Number 1, January-June 2008, pp. 200-203 (Review) Published by Institute of Caribbean Studies DOI: For additional information about this article [ This content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the COVID-19 pandemic. ] https://doi.org/10.1353/crb.0.0004 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/247749 https://doi.org/10.1353/crb.0.0004 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/247749 200 Caribbean Studies Vol. 36, No. 1 (January - June 2008) in Ex-Iles: Essays on Caribbean Cinema, edited by Mbye Cham. Trenton: Africa World Press. Gabriel, Teshome. 1989. “Third Cinema as Guardian of Popular Memory: Towards a Third Aesthetics.” Pp. 53-64 in Questions of Third Cinema, edited by Jim Pines and Paul Willemen. London: BFI Publishers. García Espinosa, Julio. 1997. “For an Imperfect Cinema.” Pp. 71-82 in The New Latin American Cinema: Theory, Practices and Transcontinental Articulations, edited by Michael T. Martin. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. Martin, Michael T.,ed. 1997. The New Latin American Cinema: Theory, Practices and Transcontinental Articulations. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. Naficy, Hamid. 2001. An Accented Cinema. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Rich, B. Ruby. 2004. “New Queer Cinema.” Pp. 15-22 in New Queer Cinema: A Critical Reader, edited by Michele Aaron. New Brunswick: Rutgers Uni- versity Press. From Gun Man to God Man: Cheating Death Camille Hernandez-Ramdwar Ryerson University, Toronto chernand@arts.ryerson.ca Cheating Death. Written and directed by Eric Geringas. Montreal, PQ: National Film Board of Canada, 2005. 25 minutes. The topic of guns, gangs, Black youth and violence has become an increasingly urgent matter in Canadian cities such as Toronto over the last decade. Negative media portrayals of so-called “at-risk” communities, which tend to be heavily populated by Caribbean, African, South Asian and Latino families, persist, while the members of these communities recount incidences of overpolicing, police harassment, and racial profiling. Debates rage in the media over the pros and cons of publicly funded Black-focused schools, while the murder rate of young Black males in the city continues to climb. In the midst of this comes Eric Geringas’ 2005 documentary on Gyasi Ferdinand, former crack dealer, former gun man, who meets death twice on the operating table following an assassination attempt, and who in return gives his life to God. Although this is a provocative and insightful tale of one young man, (dubbed a “character study” by the National Film Board of Canada) GILBERTO M. BLASINI WATCHING THE CARIBBEAN... 201 Vol. 36, No. 1 (January - June 2008) Caribbean Studies Gyasi’s tale is only one snapshot among the thousands of boys/men who are “cheating death”—or not—every waking minute. Geringas’ film leaves one with more questions than answers, particularly at a time when, for many in Toronto’s Black and Caribbean communities, things have reached a crisis point. The story opens with Gyasi’s voiceover querying “what does it mean to be born again?” The reference here is not only to the young man’s somewhat miraculous recovery from near-fatal injuries, but also to being “born again” in the Christian fundamentalist sense. Immediately, Ger- ingas sets up a dichotomy between good/evil, Christianity versus street life, salvation versus damnation. From the time Gyasi’s own mother and the “church sisters” begin to pray at his hospital bedside, the young man experiences an epiphany, the spiritual visitation which transforms his life. Throughout the film, Gyasi clearly delineates the differences between who he is now (Gyasi) and who he was in his life as a street hustler (“J-9”). Reflecting on his former life, Gyasi says “J-9 has to die cause J-9 want to be on the streets, looking for women, drinking, smok- ing.” In this sense, Cheating Death is clearly a tale of rebirth, a literal shedding of one’s former identity to be “born again” into a new way of life. It does, however, also position fundamentalist Christianity as a “safe haven” from the storm, without an analysis of some of the drawbacks of fundamentalism irrespective of its guise. The strengths of Cheating Death are that it gives the audience a glimpse into the lives of innumerable young Black men in the Carib- bean diaspora. An example of this is Gyasi’s experience of being “child- shifted.” A common pattern among many Caribbean youth is that they are born in the region but grow up without their parents, who migrate to North America in search of better job opportunities and education. Raised by Caribbean extended family, these children are usually reunited years later in the diaspora with what is often a re-structured, blended family (new stepparent and stepsiblings, for example). Such realties are extremely common in Caribbean transnational communities such as those in Toronto. The process of reunification is often traumatic and can be extremely damaging to the child in terms of educational performance, socialization and mental health (Williams 2000). In the film, we see Gyasi looking over a shoebox of photographs from his childhood days in Trinidad; these images are so painful for him that he rarely views them (he refers to his childhood self in the photos as “innocent me”). Clearly, remembering his days in the Caribbean evokes feelings of safety and security now lost forever, a time when he was surrounded by extended family, friends and community, important foundations in his life that he was forced to surrender at a vulnerable age. Gyasi’s destiny was to come to Canada to live with his mother in a white suburb of Toronto, 202 Caribbean Studies Vol. 36, No. 1 (January - June 2008) where he was culturally dislocated from his homeland and his people, and forced into a new society that was both foreign and unwelcoming to Black people in general. As is often the case in a sole-support family, the mother must work long hours or more than one job to provide for her family, provisions which may include, as in Gyasi’s case, the subur- ban house in the white (read “safe”) neighbourhood. All the above are significant factors that may then affect the choices made by young Black males such as Gyasi and his friends. Geringas barely touches on these elements of Gyasi’s life (his migration, reunification with family, subse- quent experiences of racism and feelings of isolation in Canada); they are barely mentioned or not at all. The documentary lacks a historical or sociological context, which is unfortunate. There are many contributing factors to Gyasi’s reality that need to be addressed in a more in-depth way. However, Geringas’ video can act as a springboard for deeper discussions of issues such as childshifting, the feminization of poverty (particularly among racialized immigrant women), cultural alienation, migration and racism. What does Gyasi turn to in his very impressionable adolescent years? Like so many others, he is lured into the world of drug dealing and “bling,” a flashy lifestyle, easy money, guns, and a live-fast-die- young mentality. We hear in Gyasi’s narrative the choices he made and a description of his former lifestyle (“you could make $1200 - $2000 a night dealing”), but Geringas leaves us with many unanswered questions. Why is this the path so many young men (particularly racialized ones) choose? What role did family structure, the school system, experiences with teachers/police/the society at large play here? To simply put a story such as Gyasi’s out there as a moral tale (bad boy turned good) is to simplify what are really much deeper and more critical concerns affecting thousands of racialized youth in the diaspora. That Gyasi has apparently found redemption and stability in the Christian church may be an answer for some, but is it really the answer? There is something naive and sim- plistic about the way Geringas sets this premise up. At the same time, we see that Gyasi is also struggling with his new role as church pastor and youth educator. He admits that there are times when he is still tempted by “fleshy” things (i.e. his old life style). One moment in the film focuses on Gyasi revealing his deeply-scarred stomach to a classroom of primary schoolchildren; as they “eew!” and “aah!” he bluntly states: “You see what you have to do when you don’t get an education?” An interesting point, but one that, again, is not to be followed up by Geringas. The problematic with Cheating Death is that a story such as Gyasi’s taken out of historical and sociological context could potentially do more harm than good. For example, one might assume that the church is really the only other option besides the streets for uneducated young Black CAMILLE HERNANDEZ-RAMDWAR WATCHING THE CARIBBEAN... 203 Vol. 36, No. 1 (January - June 2008) Caribbean Studies and Caribbean people. If this is so, it can positively reflect a legacy from slavery days in which the church served innumerable roles: community center, school, daycare, political cell. But the church has also played a role in maintaining the status quo of oppression and subservience for colonized peoples around the globe, particularly fundamentalist and evangelical sects which preach subservience to authority, rewards after death, rigid gender roles and an at-times fanatical devotion to the war against Evil. Fundamentalism does not encourage critical thought. Gyasi’s new role in the church may be keeping him off the streets for the time being; he is also ministering to youth and doing community work, but can fundamentalism address the many complex issues faced by Black and Caribbean people in the diaspora such as a historical legacy of slav- ery/indentureship/brutality, the process of migration and resettlement, racism, alienation, lack of support systems, poverty, neo-colonialism and neo-imperialism? Fundamentalism, like Geringas’ documentary, seems to provide easy simplistic answers, but reality is much more complex. One wonders had a documentary been produced by insiders from these same marginalized communities (i.e. Black youth), would different issues have been raised/addressed? That Cheating Death is produced by an outsider to the community it focuses on raises the old issue of who tells whose story, that is, when, how and where people will be able to tell their own stories in film and video rather than leave it to outsiders to define visual representations of Black and Caribbean communities. Cheating Death was co-produced and distributed by the National Film Board of Canada, a publicly-funded institution, which raises further issues regarding repre- sentation and access to media for marginalized communities in Canada. Although it may be significant that a story such as Gyasi’s is documented and distributed, it is also significant that Black and Caribbean people, particularly youth, are still struggling for voice, equality and a chance to tell their stories from their own perspectives and experiences. Reference Willams, Rudy Quammie. 2000. Freshies. Video. Jamaican Canadian Associa- tion. 
work_wxm4ud5i2bbrhepoy762ejecam	----	psp57030416.tif Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Copyright 1989 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 1989, Vol. 57, No. 3, 416--425 0 0 2 2 - 3 5 1 4 / 8 9 / $ 0 0 . 7 5 Aging and Susceptibility to Attitude Change Jon A. Krosnick Duane E Alwin O h i o State University University o f Michigan Two hypotheses about the relation between age and susceptibility to attitude change were tested. The impressionable years hypothesis proposes that individuals are highly susceptible to attitude change during late adolescence and early adulthood and that susceptibility drops precipitously immediately thereafter and remains low throughout the rest of the life cycle. The increasing persistence hypothesis proposes that people become gradually more resistant to change throughout their lives. Structural equation models were applied to data from the 1956-1960, 1972-1976, and 1980 National Election Panel Studies in order to estimate the stability of political attitudes and unreliability in measures of them. The results support the impressionable years hypothesis and disconfirm the increasing persistence hypothesis. A decrease in the over-time consistency of attitude reports among 66- to 83- year-olds was found to be due to increased random measurement error in their reports, not to in- creased attitude change. A g r e a t deal o f research has e x p l o r e d individual difference variables t h a t d e t e r m i n e the susceptibility o f attitudes to change. For e x a m p l e , recent meta-analyses have shown t h a t women a r e m o r e easily influenced t h a n m e n u n d e r certain cir- c u m s t a n c e s (Cooper, 1979; Eagly & Carli, 1981). Other re- search has f o u n d relations between personality and resistance to a t t i t u d e change (Hovland & Janis, 1959; Newcomb, 1943). A n d still other research indicates t h a t attitudes t h a t are m o r e central or i m p o r t a n t to individuals are m o r e resistant to change t h a n are n o n c e n t r a l o r u n i m p o r t a n t attitudes (Krosnick, 1988). I n this article, we explore a n o t h e r possible d e t e r m i n a n t : age. It is widely believed t h a t susceptibility to a t t i t u d e change varies as people progress t h r o u g h the life cycle. Two p r i n c i p a l h y p o t h - eses have b e e n proposed, b o t h o f which assert t h a t susceptibility to a t t i t u d e change is greatest d u r i n g adolescence a n d early a d u l t h o o d and decreases thereafter. I n this article, we evaluate these hypotheses in two studies o f political attitudes. We begin b y describing the two hypotheses a n d highlighting the short- comings o f the l i m i t e d existing evidence testing them. We then r e p o r t new evidence, using i m p r o v e d d a t a and analytic methods. This research was supported by Grant 2-R01-AG04743-03 from the National Institute on Aging. Portions of this article were presented at the 1988 annual meeting of the American Association for Public Opin- ion Research in Toronto, Canada. We acknowledge the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research for providing access to the National Election Study data analyzed in this article, and we thank Frank Mierzwa and Lynn Diel- man for conducting the data analysis. We also thank David Sears, Philip Converse, and Richard Petty for very helpful comments and sugges- tions. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jon A. Krosniek, Department of Psychology, Ohio State University, Colum- bus, Ohio 43210, or to Duane E Alwin, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 426 Thompson Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106. T w o P e r s p e c t i v e s o n A g e a n d A t t i t u d e C h a n g e There are two m a j o r perspectives on the relation between age and a t t i t u d e flexibility (see Alwin, Cohen, & Newcomb, in press). According to the impressionable years hypothesis, the socializing influences individuals experience when they are young have a p r o f o u n d i m p a c t on their t h i n k i n g t h r o u g h o u t their lives (Cutler, 1974; Dennis, 1973; Easton & Dennis, 1969; Greenstein, 1965; Hess & Torney, 1967; Sears, 1975, 1981, 1983). The historical e n v i r o n m e n t in which a young person be- comes an active p a r t i c i p a n t in the a d u l t world shapes the basic values, attitudes, and world views f o r m e d d u r i n g those years. O n c e the p e r i o d o f early socialization has passed, this hypothe- sis argues, its residuals are fixed within individuals, and these core orientations are unlikely to change.I As a result o f this process, m e m b e r s o f each b i r t h c o h o r t are p r e s u m a b l y likely to r e s e m b l e one a n o t h e r closely in t e r m s o f their basic attitudes ( M a n n h e i m , 1952). F u r t h e r m o r e , differ- ences between b i r t h cohorts in t e r m s o f the economic, social, and political conditions and the formal socialization practices they experience p r o d u c e differences between cohorts in t e r m s o f attitudes (Cutler, 1974, p. 441). For e x a m p l e , increases in the rate o f formal education in the U n i t e d States have provided new b i r t h cohorts with different socializing experiences from those o f preceding generations. C o h o r t r e p l a c e m e n t may be responsi- ble for recent changes in a variety o f the A m e r i c a n p u b l i c ' s so- cial and political attitudes. Cohorts who have had one sort o f early socialization experience die off as cohorts with different socialization experiences enter a d u l t h o o d ( M a n n h e i m , 1952). A second view o f the relation between age and susceptibility to attitude change is called the increasing persistence hypothe- There is no universal agreement on precisely which are the impres- sionable years. Some authors see political socialization as largely com- pleted by age 18; others see it as continuing up to approximately age 25. Consistent with this latter view, Newcomb and colleagues (Newcomb, 1943; Newcomb, Koenig, Hacks, & Warwick, 1967) found evidence of significant political socialization between ages 18 and 25. 416 Jon's Assistants Text Box Krosnick, J. A., & Alwin, D. F. (1989). Aging and susceptibility to attitude change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 416-425 AGING A N D SUSCEPTIBILITY TO ATTITUDE C H A N G E 417 sis. According to this perspective, individuals are eminently flexible and responsive to social circumstances when they are young, but as they age, their flexibility decreases gradually (Glenn, 1974, 1980; Jennings & Niemi, 1981; Markus, 1979; Sears, 1981, 1983). There are a number o f justifications for the argument that attitude flexibility decreases steadily through the life span (see, e.g., Glenn, 1980). First, because o f a decline in energy and loss o f brain tissue, capacities for information pro- cessing and memory decline as life progresses, making incorpo- ration o f new information difficult. Second, the experiences one has as one ages leave a gradually growing body o f attitude-rele- vant knowledge within the individual that serves as a source o f psychological stability (Wood, 1982). Third, aging entails social disengagement and a decrease in interest in events distant from one's immediate life (Gergen & Back, 1966; Glenn, 1969), which reduces the likelihood that attitude-challenging informa- tion will be carefully considered by an individual (Petty & Caci- oppo, 1979). Finally, a corresponding increase in social support for one's attitudes takes place as one accumulates friends who share similar social background experiences and world views as a result o f friend selection and social influence processes (New- comb, Koenig, Hacks, & Warwick, 1967). This, too, may in- crease resistance to attitude change. As a result o f these pro- cesses, people's attitudes presumably become less responsive to developments in their environments and thereby become less likely to change. According to this view, gradual changes in ag- gregated society-level attitudes reflect changes among the youn- gest members o f society in response to major national events and personal experiences. A third view o f the relation between age and susceptibility to attitude change is the life-long openness hypothesis (Sears, 1981, 1983). According to this view, individuals are highly flexible throughout their lives and constantly alter their attitudes in re- sponse to changing life circumstances (see, e.g., Brim & Kagan, 1980, p. 1). This view is not necessarily incompatible with the impressionable years and increasing persistence hypotheses be- cause susceptibility to attitude change could decrease across the life cycle, as described by either o f these hypotheses, although it may never reach a very low level. On the other hand, suscepti- bility to attitude change could, in theory, be near zero through- out the life cycle, a hypothesis that we view as the relevant null hypothesis for these others. P r e v i o u s Tests o f T h e s e H y p o t h e s e s Two principal research approaches have been taken to test these hypotheses. The first involves tracking birth cohorts' aver- age attitudes over time. Perhaps the best known o f these studies was Newcomb's classic Bennington study (Newcomb, 1943; Newcomb et al., 1967). Newcomb measured the social and po- litical attitudes o f a cohort o f female students before, during, and after their years at Bennington College. These women had been raised in conservative, socioeconomically advantaged households and were confronted with a very liberal environ- ment at Bennington. During their college years, the students' mean political orientation moved from the conservative end o f the political spectrum toward the liberal end. The longer stu- dents stayed at Bennington, the more liberal they became on average. Newcomb et al. (1967) reinterviewed many o f these students 25 years after they graduated from Bennington and found that they had remained quite liberal on average in terms o f political orientations. And when they were interviewed again in 1984, the Bennington women continued to evidence highly liberal po- litical orientations on average (Alwin et al., in press). This evi- dence is limited because o f the unrepresentativeness o f the sam- ple, but studies o f aggregate-level attitude change in representa- tive national samples have also found large shifts in young cohorts and negligible shifts in middle-aged and older cohorts (Converse, 1976; Crewe, Sarlvik, & Air, 1977; Glenn, 1980; Markus, 1979; Mueller, 1973; Nunn, Crockett, & Williams, 1978). Thus, this body o f evidence is consistent with the im- pressionable years hypothesis and challenges the increasing per- sistence hypothesis. Assessing attitude change by tracking changes in a group's average attitude is almost certain to underestimate the amount o f attitude change that actually occurred. High levels o f aggre- gate stability can coexist with high levels o f individual attitude change that cancel out at the aggregate level. Therefore, more definitive tests o f the impressionable years and increasing per- sistence hypotheses require analyses o f individual-level attitude stability. This is the second principal research method that has been used in this literature. To assess the Bennington women's iudividual-level stability, Newcomb et al. (1967) computed test-retest correlations be- tween attitude measures. Because correlations between atti- tudes in 1938 and attitudes in 1960 were slightly larger (about .50 on average) than were correlations between attitudes in 1935 and attitudes in 1938 (about.42), Newcomb concluded that the Bennington women's attitudes became more stable as they got older. Jennings and his colleagues reported similar evidence on the consistency over time o f attitude reports made by represen- tative national samples o f adults (Jennings, 1988; Jennings & Markus, 1984; Jennings & Niemi, 1978; Markus, 1979). Al- though Newcomb et al. did not assess attitude change after age 40, Jennings and Markus (1984) did; they found no consistent evidence o f an increase in the over-time consistency o f attitude reports between the ages o f 25 and 63. Therefore, this evidence is most supportive o f the impressionable years hypothesis. The only investigation that examined political attitude stabil- ity across the entire life span reached a different conclusion. Sears (1981) found that test-retest correlations between mea- sures o f racial prejudice gradually increased across 21-28-year- olds, 29-44-year-olds, and 45-60-year-olds, a result consistent with the increasing persistence hypothesis. Sears also found un- expectedly low levels o f over-time consistency among individu- als older than age 60, a result he viewed as evidence that an increase in susceptibility to change occurs in later years. C o n f o u n d i n g A t t i t u d e C h a n g e W i t h A t t i t u d e M e a s u r e m e n t U n r e l i a b i l i t y As a group, these studies are problematic partly because o f the inconsistencies among their findings. However, they are also problematic because o f a common flaw in their analytic ap- proaches. It is well known that test-retest correlations, such as those computed by Newcomb et al. (1967), Jennings and Mar- kus (1984), and Sears (198 l), are not pure measures o f attitude 4 1 8 JON A. KROSNICK AND DUANE E ALWIN stability (see, e.g., W h e a t o n , M u t h e n , Alwin, & S u m m e r s , 1977). These correlations reflect b o t h the a m o u n t o f a t t i t u d e change t h a t takes place d u r i n g a given t i m e p e r i o d a n d the a m o u n t o f r a n d o m m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r in r e p o r t s o f attitudes. Differences between age groups in t e r m s o f over-time corre- lations may reflect differences in the extent o f either o r b o t h processes, because b o t h a t t e n u a t e such correlations. Jennings a n d M a r k u s (1984) r e c o g n i z e d this confounding (see pp. 1004-1005, f o o t n o t e 3). In t h e i r analysis o f p a r t y iden- tifieation, they used s t r u c t u r a l equation m o d e l i n g to separate a t t i t u d e change from a t t i t u d e m e a s u r e m e n t unreliability. Jen- nings and M a r k u s f o u n d t h a t t a k i n g m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r i n t o a c c o u n t in this fashion d i d n o t alter their evidence o f increased stability in early a d u l t h o o d . However, Jennings and colleagues d i d n o t p e r f o r m s i m i l a r analyses for the other attitudes t h e y m e a s u r e d , and it is i m p o s s i b l e t o be certain t h a t doing so would n o t have altered t h e i r general conclusion. Sears ( 1981) dealt with m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r in a different fash- ion. H e assessed the r e l a t i o n between age a n d r a n d o m m e a s u r e - m e n t e r r o r b y c o m p u t i n g C r o n b a c h ' s a l p h a coefficients for his 10-item index o f racial attitudes. Because the a l p h a coefficients for all o f t h e age g r o u p s were " i n the s a m e ballpark," Sears con- cluded t h a t the v a r i a t i o n in t e s t - r e t e s t correlations t h a t he ob- served reflected only differences in a t t i t u d e change. Treating C r o n b a c h ' s a l p h a as a m e a s u r e o f reliability as Sears (1981) d i d entails m a k i n g the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t the 10 i t e m s c o m p o s i n g his index a r e all univocal m e a s u r e s o f a single, u n i - d i m e n s i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d racial integration. However, re- c e n t evidence suggests t h a t the i t e m s Sears analyzed actually m e a s u r e m o r e t h a n one latent a t t i t u d e d i m e n s i o n (Bobo, 1983). I f this is so, Sears's a l p h a s c o n f o u n d r a n d o m m e a s u r e m e n t er- r o r with the strength o f the relations a m o n g the dimensions. Variation in the latter across age g r o u p s c o u l d have masked variation in m e a s u r e m e n t reliability across age groups. F u r t h e r m o r e , although Sears (1981) viewed his C r o n b a c h ' s a l p h a analysis as revealing n o relation between age a n d a t t i t u d e m e a s u r e m e n t reliability, a n u m b e r o f previous investigations have f o u n d t h a t the a m o u n t o f r a n d o m m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r in a t t i t u d e r e p o r t s is greater a m o n g older respondents (Andrews, 1984; A n d r e w s & Herzog, 1986; Stember, 1951-1952). Indeed, a close inspection o f Sears's (1981) reliability coefficients re- veals t h a t the oldest respondents' a l p h a was lower t h a n those o f younger respondents, enough so to e x p l a i n the decrease in over- t i m e correlations. 2 Therefore, the decline Sears discovered in over-time correlations a m o n g the oldest age g r o u p may reflect an increase in r a n d o m m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r i n s t e a d o f an in- crease in the r a t e o f a t t i t u d e change. foreign policy issues, attitudes toward social groups, political p a r t y identification, a n d liberal-conservative ideological orien- tations. T h i r d , we i m p l e m e n t e d a n analytic a p p r o a c h t h a t per- m i t t e d us to estimate attitude change a n d r a n d o m m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r separately in a way t h a t d i d n o t require t h a t a s s u m p t i o n s be m a d e a b o u t the u n i d i m e n s i o n a l i t y o f sets o f attitude items. Study 1 was based on d a t a collected f r o m two panels o f re- spondents, who were each interviewed on t h r e e occasions, 2 years apart. Each p a n e l ' s interviews s p a n n e d two presidential elections a n d one congressional election. Respondents in each p a n e l were asked certain a t t i t u d e questions d u r i n g each inter- view, which allowed us to generate separate estimates o f a t t i t u d e stability a n d a t t i t u d e m e a s u r e reliability, using structural equa- tion modeling. Study 2 used the same analytic m e t h o d b u t was based on d a t a collected over only 8 months, d u r i n g a single pres- idential election c a m p a i g n . Taken together, these d a t a sets per- m i t t e d us to e x a m i n e political a t t i t u d e change b o t h within and between presidential election campaigns. S t u d y 1 M e t h o d Samples. The data analyzed in this study came from two panel sur- veys in the National Election Study series. For the first survey the Uni- versity of Michigan's Center for Political Studies interviewed a repre- sentative, national cross-section of 1,132 adults living in private house- holds in the United States at the time of the 1956 presidential election. They were interviewed again at the time of the 1958 midterm election and again at the time of the 1960 presidential election. In the second panel survey that we examined, a nationally representative sample of 1,320 adults was interviewed at the time of the 1972 U.S. presidential election. They were interviewed again at the time of the 1974 midterm election and again at the time of the 1976 presidential election. In order to permit testing of hypotheses regarding aging, we divided the respondents in each panel into the following age groups on the basis of their age at the first wave of the survey: 18-25, 26-33, 34-41, 42-49, 50-57, 58-65, and 66-83. The groups were based on 8-year age spans in order to generate as many approximately equal-sized age groups as possible that were each large enough to yield reliable parameter esti- mates. The resulting age-group sizes for the 1950s panel were 94, 228, 241, 187, 138, 101, and 99, respectively. For the 1970s panel, the age group sizes were 208, 227, 190, 204, 167, 147, and 161, respectively) Measures. Our analyses required that attitudes be measured on three occasions. In the 1956-1960 study, respondents were asked identical questions in each year that measured attitudes toward school integra- tion, federally guaranteed employment for all Americans, U.S. involve- ment in the affairs of other nations, U.S. international financial aid pro- grams, maintenance of U.S. troops abroad, and federal financial aid to schools. Also, during all three waves, respondents were asked which ma- T h e P r e s e n t I n v e s t i g a t i o n I n sum, p a s t investigations o f the r e l a t i o n between age and a t t i t u d e stability have h a d significant methodological limita- tions. In this article, we will r e p o r t two studies o f the relation between age and a t t i t u d e change t h a t overcome these p r o b l e m s in t h r e e p r i n c i p a l ways. First, the d a t a we a n a l y z e d were col- lected f r o m nationally representative s a m p l e s o f a d u l t s in the U n i t e d States who ranged in age f r o m 18 to 83 years. Second, we e x a m i n e d a range o f social a n d political attitudes, including t r u s t in government, political efficacy, attitudes on d o m e s t i c and 2 When Sears (1981) controlled for educational differences between age groups, the average drop from the 45-60-ycar-olds to the 61 +-year- olds in over-time consistency was. 16, whereas the average drop in reli- ability was .08. Because unreliability in a measure reduces a test-retest correlation twice, at both Wave 1 and Wave 2 (Alwin, 1973), this differ- ence in reliability would fully account for the difference in over-time consistency. 3 These ns do not add up to the total Ns for the panels because of missing data on the age variable. In the 1950s panel, the ages of 44 respondents were not ascertained, and in the 1970s panel, the ages of 16 respondents were not ascertained. AGING A N D SUSCEPTIBILITY TO ATTITUDE C H A N G E 4 1 9 jor political party they identified with and how strongly they did so. In the 1972-1976 panel, respondents were asked identical questions in each year measuring seven categories o f attitudes: (a) political party identification, (b) liberal-conservative ideological orientation, (c) atti- tudes toward social groups, such as labor unions, the military, and the police, (d) attitudes on racial policy issues, such as school bussing pro- grams, (e) attitudes on nonracial domestic policy issues, such as feder- ally guaranteed employment and protecting the rights o f people accused o f committing crimes, (f) political efficacy and alienation, and (g) atti- tudes toward prominent politicians. In total, 50 items were analyzed from these two panel surveys. 4 Some o f the attitude measures allowed respondents to indicate (a) that they did not know what their attitude was on an issue or (b) that they had not thought enough about an issue to form an attitude. Re- spondents who gave either o f these answers to a given question at any wave were eliminated from the analyzed sample for that question. 5 Analysis. We wished to estimate the reliability o f these measures and the stability o f the underlying attitudes for each o f the seven age groups. A number o f analytic approaches have been proposed for doing so using structural equation modeling all o f which require data on a panel o f respondents collected on at least two occasions (see Alwin, 1988). When only two waves o f data are available, these approaches require that the assumption be made that a set o f questions are congeneric measures o f a single attitude. Because we had measures o f the same attitudes on three occasions, we were able to estimate the parameters o f a model that does not entail this assumption. The model we estimated is composed o f two structural equations: X t = ¢, + ~t, ( 1 ) a n d ¢, = / 3 , , , - 1 ~ , - 1 + ~',. ( 2 ) Equation 1 specifies the measurement model, which describes the rela- tion between the latent attitude being measured and verbal reports o f it. It decomposes variance in reports Oft, where t = 1, 2, 3) into two components, one due to the latent attitude (rt) and the other due to random measurement error (~t). Equation 2 specifies the structural model, which describes the relations among the latent attitudes./~t.t-~ is the stability of the latent attitude during the period from t - 1 to t • ~'t represents sources o f change over time in the latent attitude. This model has been discussed extensively by Heise (1969), Wheaton et al., (1977), and Wiley and Wiley (1970). As it appears in Equations 1 and 2, the model is underidentified. There are six independent pieces o f information available (o12, 0,32, 0,31, ~l 2, 0,22, and 0,32) with which to estimate eight parameters (/~21,/~32, ¢~12, ¢~e, 0,~32, #~12, ¢r22, and 0,~32). In order to identify the model, the attitude measure's reliability is assumed to remain constant across waves (#1 e - O'M2)/0,12 = (O"22- 0,E22)/0,22 = ( 0 , 3 2 - 0,e32)/0"32; Heise, 1969). 6 Given this constraint, the model is just-identified, so the parameter estimates will always fit the observed data perfectly. For each attitude measure, the parameters o f the model were esti- mated separately for each o f the seven age groups using LISREL VI (Jores- kng & Sorbom, 1978). We then analyzed the resulting parameter esti- mates in two ways. First, we were interested in the stability o f the latent attitude, so we examined the estimates of/32~ and/~32. Second, we exam- ined the single reliability estimate generated for each attitude measure. And finally, we were interested in comparing the conclusions reached by our analysis with those that would have been reached had we ignored the distinction between attitude instability and attitude measure unreli- ability. We therefore examined Pearson product-moment test-retest correlations between the attitude measures at adjacent waves: rl2 and r2a. For the sake o f simplicity, all o f the following statistical tests involv- ing stability are based on a single combined analysis o f all the stability coefficients (/~2~ and/~32), and all tests involving over-time consistency are based on a single combined analysis o f all the test-retest correlations (r12 and r23 ). Results Zero-order correlations. T h e t o p p a n e l o f T a b l e I displays t h e average t e s t - r e t e s t c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r e a c h age g r o u p . A s e x p e c t e d , a o n e - w a y analysis o f v a r i a n c e (ANOVA) o f t h e figures i n t h e t h i r d c o l u m n i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e were statistically significant differences a m o n g t h e age g r o u p s , F ( 6 , 693) = 2.86, p = .01. Tests o f a p r i o r i c o n t r a s t s r e v e a l e d t h a t , c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e t w o a g i n g hypotheses, t h e y o u n g e s t age g r o u p ' s average c o r r e l a t i o n was significantly s m a l l e r t h a n t h e average o f t h e 2 6 - 6 5 age g r o u p s , t(693) = 2.18, p < .03. C o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e c l a i m t h a t a t t i t u d e m e a s u r e m e n t r e l i a b i l i t y d e c r e a s e s i n o l d age, t h e oldest age g r o u p ' s average c o r r e l a t i o n was significantly s m a l l e r t h a n t h e average o f t h e 2 6 - 6 5 age g r o u p s , t(693) = 2.97, p < .01. T a k e n together, t h e s e results p r e c i s e l y r e p l i c a t e Sears's (1981) findings. 7 Attitude stability. T h e m i d d l e p a n e l o f T a b l e 1 displays esti- m a t e s o f a t t i t u d e stability. T h e i m p r e s s i o n a b l e years h y p o t h e s i s p r o p o s e s t h a t t h e s e stability coefficients s h o u l d b e relatively s m a l l i n t h e y o u n g e s t age g r o u p a n d s h o u l d b e large a n d a p p r o x - i m a t e l y e q u a l i n t h e r e m a i n i n g age groups. T h e i n c r e a s i n g - p e r - sistence h y p o t h e s i s p r o p o s e s i n s t e a d t h a t w e s h o u l d o b s e r v e a consistent, g r a d u a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e stability coefficients a c r o s s t h e age g r o u p s . 4 For two other items in the 1950s data set and six other items in the 1970s data set, either LISREL was unable to estimate the structural equation model parameters for one age group, or one age group's pa- rameter estimates were far out o f range. These problems probably oc- curred because o f random fluctuation in the zero-order correlations be- tween the attitude measures that resulted from small sample sizes and sampling error. In order to maintain comparability o f items across age groups, we did not include these items in any o f the following analyses. However, when we repeated the analyses deleting only those single data points that were not estimable, the results were equivalent to those re- ported here (and in fact supported our conclusions even more strongly). The first-wave National Election Study item numbers for the attitude measures included in these analyses are 32, 35, 41, 53, 56, 74, and 88 in the 1950s and 112, 140, 202, 232, 259, 253, 255,258, 264, 269-274, 570-574, 576, 578, 621,652, 707, 709, 714, 717-722, 724, 737, 744, 745,749, 752, 753, 755,756, and 1067 in the 1970s. 5 All o f the following analyses were also run recoding "don't know" and "haven't thought much about this issue" responses to the midpoint o f the attitude scales. The results o f these analyses are essentially identi- cal to those reported here. Levels o f " d o n ' t know" and "haven't thought much about this issue" responses increase consistently across the life cycle, from a low o f about 12% for 18-25-year-olds to about 23% for 66-83-year-olds, with most o f the increase occurring after age 49. 6 An alternative approach to identifying the model described in Equations 1 and 2 was proposed by Wiley and Wiley (1970). All o f the following analyses were recomputed using their identifying assumption. The results o f these analyses were comparable to those reported in the text. 7 Here and throughout the remainder o f the results, we found no sta- tistically significant differences between attitude--object categories in the relation between age and attitude stability and attitude-report reli- ability. For more detailed results in this regard, see Alwin and Krosnick (1988, 1989) and Krosnick and Alwin (1989). 420 JON A. KROSNICK AND DUANE E ALWIN Table 1 Study 1: Zero-Order Correlations, Attitude Stabilities, and Attitude-Measure Reliabilities by Age Group Time period" Wave 1- Wave 2 - Age group Wave 2 Wave 3 Combined b Zero-ordercorrelations 18-25 .42 .46 .44 26-33 .46 .47 .46 34-41 .48 .52 .50 42-49 .49 .50 .50 50-57 .44 .48 .46 58-65 .46 .48 .47 66-83 .41 .44 .43 Standardized stability coefficients 18-25 0.82 0.89 0.85 26-33 0.86 0.90 0.88 34-41 0.90 0.98 0.94 42-49 0.90 0.96 0.93 50-57 0.83 0.97 0.90 58-65 0.90 0.96 0.93 66-83 0.91 0.94 0.92 Reliabilities 18-25 .55 26-33 .54 34-41 .54 42-49 .55 50-57 .58 58-65 .54 66-83 .51 a Each entry in these two columns is an average of 50 coeffi- cients, b Each entry in this column is an average of 100 coefficients, except for the reliabilities, which are averages of 50 coefficients. As expected, the youngest age group's average stability co- efficient (shown i n the last c o l u m n ) is significantly lower t h a n the average of the r e m a i n i n g age groups, t(693) = 2.36, p < .02. Furthermore, the 26-33-year-olds' average stability is margin- ally significantly lower t h a n the average of the 34-83-year-olds, t(693) = 1.52, p = . 13. However, there are n o other statistically significant differences between the coefficients. Furthermore, there is no correlation between age a n d stability among the 3 4 - 83-year-olds (r = - . 0 2 , ns). This evidence is therefore d e a r l y consistent with the impressionable years hypothesis a n d is in- consistent with the increasing persistence hypothesis. Further- more, these results refute Sears's ( 1981 ) claim that attitude sta- bility decreases toward the end o f the life cycle. Attitude measurement reliability The figures i n the bottom panel of Table 1 are estimates of the average reliability o f the attitude measures for each age group. As expected, the average reliabilities reveal a trend toward decreased reliability toward the end of the life cycle. The average reliability for the 18-65- year-olds is .55, which drops to .51 for the 66-83-year-olds. However, the average reliability of the 66-83-year-olds is n o t significantly smaller t h a n the average of the r e m a i n i n g age groups, t(343) = 1.21, p = .23, and n o other statistically signifi- cant differences appeared among the other age groups. These results are therefore weak b u t consistent with the claim that attitude-measurement reliability decreases at the end of the life cycle a n d that the drop i n over-time consistency of older respon- dents' attitude reports is d u e to decreased measurement reli- ability, n o t decreased attitude stability. S t u d y 2 The results of Study 1 are based on data collected over 4-ycar periods, including two presidential elections and a congres- sional election. Therefore, the estimates of attitude stability re- ported in Study 1 assess attitude change that occurred between elections. Because the dynamics o f between-election attitude change may be different from the dynamics of attitude change that occurs within a single campaign, we conducted a second study, i n which we examined the relation of age to within-cam- paign attitude change. Method Samples. For the 1980 National Election Panel Study, the Center for Political Studies interviewed a representative national cross-section of 769 American adults living in private households. Each respondent was interviewed three times, first in January or February of 1980, again in June, and again in September or October. These respondents were again divided into seven age groups on the basis of their a ~ at the first wave of the survey: 18-25, 26-33, 34--41, 42-49, 50-57, 58-65, and 66-83. The resulting age group sizes were 127, 163, 114, 68, 93, 87, and 88, respectively, s Measures and analysis. Our analyses again focused on attitudes that were measured on three occasions. Respondents in this study were asked identical questions in each year measuring attitudes in five catego- ries: (a) political party identification, (b) liberal-conservative ideologi- cal orientation, (c) attitudes toward social groups, (d) attitudes on non- racial domestic policy issues, and (e) attitudes toward prominent politi- cians. In total, 18 items were included in our anaiyses. 9 Again, respondents who indicated (a) that they did not know what their attitude was on an issue or (b) that they had not thought enough about an issue to form an attitude at any wave were eliminated from the analyzed sam- ple for that issue. Estimates of the stability of these attitudes and of the reliability of these measures for each of our seven groups were generated using the same methods as were used in Study 1. Results Zero-order correlations. The top panel of Table 2 displays the average zero-order test-retest correlations for the seven age groups. A one-way ANOVA of the averages i n the last c o l u m n again indicated that there were statistically significant differ- ences among the age groups, F(6, 245) = 2.90, p = .01. Consis- tent with both aging hypotheses, the youngest age group's aver- age correlation was smaller than the average of the 26-57-year- s Again, the total of these age group ns does not equal the total sam- ple, because the ages of 29 respondents either were not ascertained or fell outside of the 18-83 range. 9 Because of inestimable or out-of-range parameters, five other items were not included in the analyses reported here. The first-wave National Election Study item numbers for the included attitude measures are 425, 426, 428--431,433, 438-440, 442, 801,944, 1114, 1189, 1278, 1282, and 1284. AGING AND SUSCEPTIBILITY TO ATrITUDE CHANGE 421 Table 2 Study 2: Zero-Order Correlations, Attitude Stabilities, and Attitude-Measure Reliabilities by Age Group Time period" Wave 1- Wave 2 - Age group Wave 2 Wave 3 Combined b Zero-ordercorrelations 18-25 .57 .63 .60 26-33 .64 .67 .66 34-41 .64 .66 .65 42-49 .66 .69 .68 50-57 .64 .66 .65 58-65 .59 .63 .61 66-83 .52 .59 .56 Standardized stability coefficients 18-25 0.83 0.90 0.87 26-33 0.88 0.93 0.91 34-41 0.93 0.97 0.95 42-49 0.90 0.97 0.94 50-57 0.96 0.98 0.97 58-65 0.95 1.04 1.00 66-83 0.86 1.02 0.94 Rcliabilities 18-25 .75 26-33 .73 34-41 .69 42-49 .74 50-57 .72 58-65 .63 66-83 .66 a Each entry in these two columns is an average of 18 coeffi- cients, b Each entry in this column is an average of 36 coefficients, except for the reliabilities, which are averages of 18 coefficients. old age groups, t(245) = 2.06, p = .04. A n d consistent with the claim that attitude-measurement reliability decreases in old age, the 26-57-year-old age group's average correlation was sig- nificantly larger than those o f the 58-65-year-olds, t ( 2 4 5 ) = 1.94, p < .06, and the 66-83-year-olds, t(245) = 3.72, p < .01. Thus, these figures replicate Sears's ( 1981) results again. Attitude stability. The middle panel o f Table 2 displays the structural equation model estimates o f attitude stability. Con- sistent with both the impressionable-years hypothesis and the increasing-persistence hypothesis, the youngest age group's av- erage stability coefficient (shown in the last column) is signifi- cantly smaller than the mean o f the 26-83-year-olds, t(245) = 2.05, p < .05. Therefore, young adults appear to have been more susceptible than older adults to attitude change during the 1980 presidential election campaign. Again, there is n o correlation between age and stability among the 34-83-year-olds (r = .02, ns), which disconfirms the increasing persistence hypothesis. A n d although there is some indication here that the attitude stability o f 66-83-year-olds is lower than that o f 58-65-year- olds, these two groups' stability coefficients do n o t differ sig- nificantly, t(245) = 1.20, p = .23. Furthermore, the stability co- efficient for the 66-83-year-olds is n o t significantly different from the average o f that o f the 34-65-year-olds, t(245) = 0.65, ns. Thus, there is n o evidence o f a decrease in attitude stability at the end o f the life cycle. Attitude-measurement reliability. The figures in the b o t t o m panel o f Table 2 estimate the average reliability o f the attitude measures for each age group. The relation between age and reli- ability is again quite clear. The 58-83-year-olds' average reli- ability is marginally significantly smaller than that o f the 18- 57-year-olds, t(119) = 1.87, p < .07, and n o other statistically significant differences appeared among the other age groups. Therefore, these results further reinforce the claim that atti- tude-measurement reliability decreases at the end o f the life cycle. D i s c u s s i o n The analytic strategy used in this investigation represents an improvement over previous methodologies in a n u m b e r o f re- spects. First, we used methods that attempted to unconfound attitude stability and attitude-measurement reliability. As a re- sult, our comparisons o f different age groups in terms o f atti- tude stability presumably do n o t reflect differences in reliability. Second, instead o f using multiple-indicator structural equation models, we used single-indicator models. Therefore, the validity o f our conclusions does not depend on the validity o f the as- sumption that a set o f indicators is congeneric, measuring only a single latent attitude. Finally, our methods improve on those used in past studies because we aggregated attitude stability and reliability estimates over large samples o f attitude measures. Therefore, o u r conclusions can reasonably be generalized broadly across political attitude domains. Aging and political attitude stability. The results o f Studies l and 2 provide strong support for the impressionable years hy- pothesis. According to this perspective, people are most suscep- tible t o political attitude change during their early adult years, and susceptibility drops off immediately thereafter. This is pre- cisely the pattern o f stability coefficients we found in Studies l and 2, although the differences we found were n o t huge. Con- trary t o the increasing-persistence hypothesis, we found n o evi- dence o f gradually increasing attitude stability after age 33. Studies 1 and 2 differed from one another in terms o f the type o f attitude change that was assessed. The focus o f Study 1 was on attitude change that occurred between elections, whereas Study 2 assessed change within the course o f a single campaign. Although between-election attitude change and within-election attitude change may result from very different social processes, o u r results indicate that both are most likely t o occur among young adults and less likely to occur among older adults. This conclusion is satisfying partly because it is consistent with the results o f all previous research on the relation o f age t o political attitude stability (Alwin et al., in press; Converse, 1976; Crewe et al., 1977; Glenn, 1980; Jennings, 1988; Jennings & Markus, 1984; Jennings & Niemi, 1978; Markus, 1979; Mueller, 1973; Newcomb, 1943; Newcomb et al., 1967; N u n n et al., 1978; Sears, 198 l). This finding also partly parallels those o f previous studies o f the effects o f aging on other aspects o f political cognition and behavior. For example, Wolfinger and Rosenstone (1980, p. 48) found that, once education and other demographic variables are controlled, the likelihood that a citi- zen will vote in a particular presidential election is relatively 422 JON A. KROSNICK AND DUANE E ALWlN low at age 18, increases dramatically up to age 30, and continues to increase therealter, although more slowly. Converse (1976) found that the strength of political-party identification follows the same pattern across the life span. These findings are consis- tent with our evidence of increases in political-attitude stability between the ages of 18 and 30, so they may be produced by similar mechanisms. However, our failure to find evidence of increased stability thereafter conflicts with Wolfinger and Ro- senstone's (1980) and Converse's (1976) results and raises the possibility that different mechanisms may be operating. Wolfinger and Rosenstone's (1980) research suggests an inter- esting possible relation that may underlie our results. They found that the increase in voter turnout with age was powerfully related to educational attainment. Aging led to dramatically in- creased turnout among people who had not graduated from high school, but aging had almost no effect on turnout among people with at least some graduate school training (p. 59). Thus, advanced education apparently instigates a high level of turnout during early adulthood that remains crystallized throughout later adulthood. Advanced education may also solidify young people's political attitudes, so that the relation we found be- tween age and attitude stability may disappear among well-edu- cated respondents. Unfortunately, our samples were too small to permit simultaneous analysis o f age and education. Future studies that do this simultaneous analysis may make an impor- tant contribution to our understanding o f the mechanisms through which aging affects political cognition and behavior and o f the limiting conditions of those effects. It is interesting to note that the magnitude of the effect of aging on influenceability found here is comparable with the ap- parent effect on influenceability of another frequently studied individual difference variable: gender. Eagly and Carli's (198 l) mean effect size for gender, calculated in terms o f d, was .26. In terms o f d, the effects of age identified here are .21 in Study l and .20 in Study 2. The methods used in the present study are very different from those used in the studies examined by Eagiy and Carli, so direct comparison o f these ds is probably not war- ranted. Nonetheless, they suggest that age and gender may have comparable effects on persuasibility, although the effects o f both variables are not especially strong. Aging and attitude measurement unreliability. Contrary to Sears's ( 1981 ) conclusion, Studies 1 and 2 revealed no evidence o f a drop-offin attitude stability at the end of the life cycle. Our results suggest that his finding in this regard reflected a slight increase in the amount of random measurement error in atti- tude reports provided by the oldest respondents in surveys. Consistent with previous work on survey-measurement reli- ability (e.g., Andrews, 1984; Andrews & Herzog, 1986), Studies I and 2 produced evidence of this relation between age and atti- tude-measurement reliability. We suspect that this relation oc- curs because, as people age, they become less able or less willing, or both, to make precise reports of internal states by means of closed-ended survey questions. These results demonstrate how equating attitude stability with zero-order test-retest correlations between attitude mea- sures can lead to incorrect conclusions. Unreliability in attitude reports is partly the result o f respondent characteristics (Alwin & Krosnick, 1988), so between-group differences in over-time consistency confound differences in attitude stability with differences in unreliability. Given the clear conceptual distinc- tion between these two processes, researchers making compari- sons of any psychological parameters across groups defined by age or by any other individual difference variable should take into account the possibility o f measurement-error differences between groups. Aging effects versus birth cohort differences. It is well known that comparisons o f age groups using cross-sectional data may reflect the effects o f aging~ but they may also represent other processes instead (see Riley, 1973); most important, they may represent cohort-specific differences. In our case, we have as- sumed that the lower stability we observed in young adults' atti- tudes increases as they age. However, the unique socialization experiences of these individuals may have made them unusually susceptible to attitude change, and this unusual susceptibility may be maintained throughout their lives. We cannot fully test and rule out this possibility. However, the fact that similar re- lations of age to attitude stability were found in the 1950s, 1970s, and 1980s panel data when they were analyzed sepa- rately suggests strongly that this result does not reflect the unique socializing experiences of one young birth cohort. In principle, our finding that the oldest adults evidenced greater unreliability in their attitude reports may also reflect birth cohort differences instead of aging differences. In fact, Sears (1981) suggested that this relation may appear because older birth cohorts acquired less formal education on average than did younger birth cohorts, and education is positively re- lated to attitude-report precision. Although education is indeed negatively related to random measurement error in attitude re- ports (Alwin & Krosnick, 1988; Andrews, 1984; Andrews & Herzog, 1986), studies that controlled for educational differ- ences between age groups found that older respondents still evi- denced heightened random-measurement error (Andrews, 1984; Andrews & Herzog, 1986). Sears's (1981) own analysis revealed that controlling for education reduced but did not eliminate the drop in over-time consistency or reliability of atti- tude reports among respondents ages 61 years and older. And a recent cohort analysis found that the reliability of attitude re- ports decreased as each o f a series o f birth cohorts aged, thus demonstrating aging effects with education held constant (see Alwin & Krosnick, 1989). The survey samples we analyzed were too small to permit a simultaneous analysis of age and education, because this would require dividing already small age groups into even smaller edu- cation subgroups. However, given previous research, we suspect that controlling for education would eliminate some but not all o f the relation we observed here between age and the reliability o f attitude reports. And again, because the relation of age to reliability appeared in the 1950s, 1970s, and 1980s data when they were analyzed separately, it does not seem to be due to a particular birth cohort's unique experiences. Sample attrition. Another possible explanation for our find- ings of decreased attitude report reliability late in life is differ- ential sample attrition. As a birth cohort ages, some members die off. It is conceivable that the most reliable members of our oldest birth cohorts were the most likely to have died. There- fore, what appears to be an effect of aging on attitude-measure- ment reliability may in fact be the result of differential attrition. Again, we cannot test or rule this out using the present data. AGING AND SUSCEPTIBILITY TO ATTITUDE CHANGE 423 This can only be accomplished using longitudinal data, col- lected over very long time periods, which permit assessment o f the relation between reliability and mortality. However, if reli- ability and mortality are related, we can imagine that they could be so in exactly the opposite direction: The most unreliable members o f a birth cohort may be the first to die. I f this is so, we have underestimated the relation o f age to unreliability. A more important potential problem involves the sampling practices used for the National Election Studies. It is conven- tional for the National Election Studies to omit from their sam- ples individuals who live in dormitories and prisons and those serving in the military (Converse, 1976, pp. 49-50). It seems likely that greater proportions o f young adults ages 18-25 fall into these categories (particularly the dormitory category) com- pared with older people. I f individuals who fall into these cate- gories have unusually high attitude stability, this could account for the apparently lower level o f attitude stability o f 18-25-year- olds. This is a plausible and more troubling alternative explana- tion for our results that we cannot rule out. Determinants o f attitude change levels. Throughout this arti- cle, we have treated differences between age groups in terms o f attitude stability levels as indicating differences in susceptibility to attitude change. However, it is important to acknowledge that these levels are in fact joint products o f susceptibility to change and the frequency with which individuals encounter attitude- change-inducing stimuli (see, e.g., Converse, 1962; Zaller, 1987). Therefore, young people may evidence higher levels o f attitude change not because o f greater susceptibility but rather because o f greater exposure to change-inducing events. Indeed, this is quite plausible: People probably experience more major life shifts between ages 18 and 25 than at any other point in the life cycle. These changes may include graduating from high school, going to college, graduating from college, starting a first job, getting married, becoming a parent, moving from one place o f residence to another, and so on. Without measuring and con- trolling for the frequency o f such attitude-change-inducing events, it is impossible to be certain that the higher levels o f attitude change among 18-25-year-olds observed here can be attributed to greater susceptibility to attitude change. The validity of our estimation method. Separating test-retest correlations into components due to stability and unreliability is an inherently tricky business; therefore, it seems appropriate to be cautious about the validity o f our conclusions in this re- gard. Although our approach to this problem is an improve- ment over previous efforts, the structural-equation model we used does make certain assumptions that may be invalid. For example, the model assumes that attitude change occurs ac- cording to a simplex process (see Alwin, 1988), and some skep- ticism has been expressed about this assumption (Ragosa, 1988). However, a careful review o f our test-retest correlations revealed that nearly all o f them had a simplex structure; there- fore, we are not particularly troubled by this assumption. The model also assumes that measurement reliability remains con- stant across repeated interviews, which may not be the case. For example, a Socratic effect may produce a decrease in random measurement error across waves o f panel surveys (Jagodzinski, Kuhnel, & Schmidt, 1987; but see Saris & Putte, 1988). How- ever, the reliabilities generated by our estimation method are essentially averages computed across the three interviews, which can be reasonably compared across age groups even if the assumption of constant reliability is violated. Although these assumptions, therefore, do not seem prob- lematic, the model does make other assumptions that may be untenable and that may complicate a clean separation o f stabil- ity from unreliability. For example, the model assumes that there is no correlated measurement error across interviews, and violation o f this assumption would lead to inappropriately low estimates o f unreliability (although not inappropriate estimates of random measurement error; see Alwin, 1974). We therefore await the development o f more effective analytic techniques or the collection o f multiwave panel data sets that will eliminate the necessity o f making these assumptions. In the meantime, howevc~ the method we have used here seems to us to be the best one available for accomplishing our goals. Laboratory studies of attitude change. Assuming that we have identified age-based differences in susceptibility to attitude change, our findings have important implications for social psy- chologists' traditional approach to studying the determinants o f attitude change: laboratory experiments involving college undergraduate subjects. Our results make it clear that these sub- jects, most o f whom fall in the 18-25 age range, are likely to evidence higher levels o f attitude change than are older adults. Therefore, the levels o f attitude change typically found in labo- ratory studies are likely to be higher than would be produced by more representative samples o f adults (see Hovland, 1959; Sears, 1986). Do our results suggest that social psychologists should no longer conduct studies o f college sophomores? We believe not. Social psychologists are generally interested in documenting the processes by which attitude change occurs, not in assessing gen- eral levels o f flexibility. Whether the processes by which attitude change occurs are any different among young people than they are among older people remains a matter for empirical evalua- tion (although Sears, 1986, has suggested that such differences are likely). Unless process differences are uncovered, our evi- dence suggests that social psychologists' traditional approach is probably a highly sensible one. Studies o f any process can most efficiently be conducted using subjects who are most likely to manifest that process; thus, studies o f attitude change may be most efficiently conducted using subjects who are most likely to be susceptible to it: those between ages 18 and 25 years. Clearly though, assessing the generalizability o f attitude change pro- cesses across the life span is a worthy focus for future research. Impressionable years or lifelong openness? A cursory exami- nation o f our results reveals that we have reported very high stability coefficients, ranging from 0.82 to 1.04. One might be tempted to conclude from this that the political attitudes we examined are nearly perfectly stable after early adulthood and that political attitude change is likely to be an extremely rare event after age 25 (see, e.g., Achen, 1975). This conclusion is supported by the only study that tracked attitude stability across nearly the entire life span, the Bennington study (Alwin et al., in press). It found remarkably high levels o f attitude sta- bility (betas o f approximately 0.86) across approximately 23- year periods (Alwin et al., in press; Newcomb et al., 1967). When this finding is considered in light o f Study l ' s average stability coefficient for 2-year periods (0.91) and Study 2's aver- age stability coefficient for 4-month periods (0.94), it appears 4 2 4 JON A. KROSNICK AND DUANE E ALWIN t h a t stability is a s y m p t o t i c a t a relatively high level. I° Thus, this evidence would offer strong s u p p o r t for the impressionable- years hypothesis a n d w o u l d suggest rejection o f the lifelong- openness hypothesis ( B r i m & Kagan, 1980; G l e n n , 1980; Sears, 1981, 1983). However, it is possible to use these d a t a t o argue for a different conclusion. The women who were the subjects o f the Benning- t o n study a r e u n c o n v e n t i o n a l in n u m e r o u s ways a n d may there- fore evidence u n u s u a l l y high levels o f a t t i t u d e stability (see AI- win et al., in press). F u r t h e r m o r e , the overall average stability coefficients r e p o r t e d here a r e n o t exactly 1.0, a n d t h e y s u m m a - rize only the a m o u n t o f change t h a t t o o k place d u r i n g 2-year p e r i o d s in Study 1 a n d 3 - 4 m o n t h p e r i o d s in Study 2. W h e n m u l t i p l i e d out t o p r o d u c e an e s t i m a t e o f stability over a 10-year period, a 2-year stability coefficient o f 0.90 becomes a b o u t 0.60. Given t h a t the average stability coefficients from Study 2 are n o t m u c h larger t h a n those f r o m Study 1 (which involved longer t i m e intervals between waves), such a s i m p l e - m i n d e d multi- plication exercise m a y n o t a c c u r a t e l y r e p r e s e n t the processes involved. Nonetheless, one c o u l d use this evidence to argue t h a t political a t t i t u d e change m a y n o t be a r a r e exception, b u t rather m a y be a c o m m o n event over the long haul. T h i s is precisely the conclusion r e a c h e d b y S e a r i n ~ Wright, a n d R a b i n o w i t z (1976) on the basis o f a n analysis o f aggregate a t t i t u d e change in the U.S. p u b l i c over a 16-year period. A n d it is a conclusion consistent with Jennings and colleagues' (Jen- nings & Markus, 1984; Jennings & N i e m i , 1981) evidence o f only low-to-moderate levels o f over-time consistency in a t t i t u d e r e p o r t s over 8- to 9-year periods. II These figures u n d e r e s t i m a t e stability because t h e y c o n f o u n d a t t i t u d e change with m e a s u r e - m e n t unreliability, b u t it seems unlikely t h a t correcting for un- reliability would yield stability coefficients very close to 1.0. Thus, this evidence is consistent with the n o t i o n o f lifelong openness to change in beliefs, attitudes, a n d behavior. I f this is true, it has at least two i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s for the study o f political attitudes. First, it w o u l d call i n t o question the widely shared b e l i e f t h a t the m o s t p o t e n t political attitudes, such as p o l i t i e a l - p a r t y identifications a n d racial attitudes, are f o r m e d d u r i n g c h i l d h o o d o r early a d u l t h o o d a n d persist u n a l - t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t the r e m a i n d e r o f the life cycle (e.g., C a m p b e l l , Converse, Miller, & Stokes, 1960; Easton & Dennis, 1969; Sears, 1983). A n d second, it would suggest t h a t political-atti- t u d e change occurs frequently enough in the n o r m a l course o f daily life to justify extensive study o f its d y n a m i c s . Some re- search is b e g i n n i n g to identify the forces t h a t p r o d u c e n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g political-attitude change (e.g., F r a n k l i n , 1984), a n d we l o o k forward t o m o r e such work. We l o o k forward as well to long-term studies o f a t t i t u d e stability across the entire life cycle in representative s a m p l e s t h a t will allow a m o r e definitive test o f the lifelong-openness hypothesis. U n t i l such studies a r e con- d u c t e d , the validity o f the lifelong-openness hypothesis r e m a i n s uncertain. ~o We thank David Sears for pointing this out. ~m Jennings and Niemi's (1981) test-retest correlations vary substan- tially in magnitude. 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work_x4toip7qffeyvnojip3uhd4wjq	----	petr_12017 3..4 Editorial Reaching out to our youth about organ donation As readers of Pediatric Transplantation, we are all painfully aware of the difficult state of affairs that awaits organ failure patients. Many modifi- able barriers to organ donation have been identi- fied, and despite increases in living donations (1), we still are not making a dent in the number of people waiting. Therefore, as discussed by Cant- arovich and colleagues, maybe a wider net needs to be cast that reaches a segment of the popula- tion largely left out of organ donation and per- haps who are most impressionable…our youth. As I write this, I recall the first time that I ever thought about organ donation. I was 16 and obtaining my driver’s license. When I was asked whether I wanted to be an organ donor, I had no idea what to say; I had never thought about this before. And then, before I did so, my mother answered for me. Apparently, many years later, my experience is still quite commonplace (2). A recent study from Hawaii found that only 18% of adolescents with a driver’s license are listed as organ donors, although somewhat higher rates have been found in other states such as Florida (27%; 3) and Washington (24%; 4). The main reasons for the low rates in the Hawaiian study were summarized as lack of knowledge, miscon- ceptions, and parents responding on behalf of the child. Of note, the rates below other states found in Hawaii may be reflective of the even more formidable problem of fewer donors avail- able from some ethnic groups (5), which was also echoed in the Washington study (4). This article presents the work of a global forum aiming to discuss strategies for educating youth about organ donation and transplantation that can be disseminated into the easiest place to reach large numbers of them, at school. The authors provide critical guidance into how this sort of material could be devised and successfully integrated into the school setting. The conversa- tion and conclusions documented offer a starting point for those who wish to spearhead this sort of intervention. Below, from the perspective of a pediatric psychologist, I will summarize some of the key strengths as well as areas for further development as we try to take this important work forward. The material that the forum advocates dispers- ing is linked to empirically based targets. In general, lack of knowledge and misconceptions are modifiable barriers to organ donation that may be even more salient for youth (4). Research that has specifically examined the perceptions of donating among youth found that young people do not realize there is a dire need for organs (6). From a practical standpoint, they do not know how to become organ donors (6). They also believe many fallacies about organ donation that are propagated by television especially (6). And perhaps not surprisingly, the “ick” factor (7), experiencing disgust about the idea of organ donation, appears applicable to youth as well (6). The forum offers plans to address these forma- tive problems of lack of knowledge and miscon- ceptions. The forum included a broad range of partici- pants, thereby offering an array of perspectives. Excitingly, tackling this devastating problem was taken on with a diverse mindset in that 16 coun- tries from Asia, Europe, North and South Amer- ica were represented. Perhaps most significantly, representatives from different faiths (Buddhism, Catholicism, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism) were in attendance. A recent meta-synthesis of the qualitative literature on organ donation determined that the two most common barriers to organ donation pertained to misconceptions (mistrust of the organ recovery process) and reli- gion, specifically “the need to maintain bodily integrity to safeguard progression into the after- life” (8, p. 9). Evidence suggests that among youth as well, confusion about the compatibility between religious beliefs and organ donation is common (4). Indeed, the contribution of religious leaders may be critical for allaying a well-established barrier to organ donation in 3 Pediatr Transplantation 2013: 17: 3–4 © 2012 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Pediatric Transplantation DOI: 10.1111/petr.12017 addition to getting school personnel and parents on board. A glaring omission, although from the forum, is the perspectives of parents. In many places, the bottom line is that parental consent is required for a child to donate his/her organ. But, beyond the legal role of parental involvement is a much broader consideration. Wouldn’t education to youth be more effective if the message was supported at home? In general, prevention science has told us that education directed at children is more effective if parents are involved (9, 10). Therefore, for these critical reasons, it seems that education efforts targeting youth under age 18 must include parents. The forum and others emphasize that education packages should promote meaningful discussions with parents, for example. One might argue that this is too late. Parents should be included in genera- tion of such materials so that they are not sur- prised or even angry about such discussions going on outside of the home. One can only imagine the varied reactions to asking “how was school today?” and hearing in reply “great Mom, someone told me to donate my organs and that sounded really cool.” Although we hope that children have their own voice and the decision is not simply that of their parents, ideally, this choice would be made together. Related to that, the forum discusses targeting a wide age range of youth perhaps even as young as 10 years of age. Certainly, there are reasons to address topics of this magnitude as early as is appropriate. The same is done regarding other public health crises like obesity, smoking, and bullying. But, although briefly mentioned in the forum’s report, materials must be substantially modified based on youth characteristics. Youth vary widely in regards to core developmental con- structs like moral reasoning, and this will need to be taken into account. Furthermore, delivering the material in a way that is sensitive to how dra- matically youth vary in regard to comprehension and anxiety will be important as well. It would be detrimental to such efforts if children simply mis- understand or become frightened because the way a 10-year-old receives such education is so different than how a 16-year-old might. Finally, a promising idea offered by the forum is to spread this message to “university” students. As advocated by the authors, education on organ donation should “provoke high order thinking skills, expand opportunities for meaningful discussion, and facilitate thoughtful decision making.” These seem to be values that are cultivated on college/university campuses. Many universities, for example, have classes specifically designed to address social justice and such ven- ues would be ideal for meaningful conversations about this topic. The forum offers a comprehensive package aiming to cultivate our youth’s interest in organ donation. Young people do not have much exposure to this, and it may be that school-based discussions could open their minds to the idea. The approach is innovative, perhaps especially the intent to cut across cultures and religions. If we are to head in this direction, infusing a devel- opmental perspective and, most importantly, the voices of parents could be instrumental for successful dissemination. It is imperative that, if given an opportunity to reach our youth and their families, we do so with the same compas- sion that we are hoping to elicit. Rachel A. Annunziato 1,2 1 Department of Psychology, Fordham University, Bronx, NY, USA and 2 Division of Behavioral and Developmental Health, Department of Pediatrics, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA E-mail: rachel.annunziato@mssm.edu References 1. NATHAN HM, CONRAD SL, HELD PJ, et al. Organ transplanta- tion in the United States. Am J Transplant 2003: 3(Suppl. 4): 29–40. 2. ALBRIGHT CL, WONG LL, DELA CRUZ MR, SAGAYADORO T. Choosing to be a designated organ donor on their first driver’s license: Actions, opinions, intentions and barriers of Asian Americans and Pacific Islander adolescents in Hawaii. Prog Transplant 2010: 20: 392–400. 3. SIROIS BC, SEARS SF Jr, MARHEFKA S. Do new drivers equal new donors? An examination of factors influencing organ donation attitudes and behaviors in adolescents. J Behav Med 2005: 28: 201–212. 4. THORNTON JD, WONG KA, CARDENAS V, et al. Ethnic and gender differences in willingness among high school students to donate organs. J Adolesc Health 2006: 39: 266–274. 5. PARK HS, SMITH SW, YUN D. Ethnic differences in intention to enroll in a state organ donor registry and intention to talk with family about organ donation. Health Commun 2009: 24: 647–659. 6. QUICK BL, LAVOIE NR, SCOTT AM, BOSCH D, MORGAN SE. Per- ceptions about organ donation among African American, Hispanic, and white high school students. Qual Health Res 2012: 22: 921–933. 7. O’CARROLL RE, FOSTER C, MCGEECHAN G, SANDFORD K, FER- GUSON E. The “ick” factor, anticipated regret, and willingness to become an organ donor. Health Psychol 2011: 30: 236–245. 8. NEWTON JD. How does the general public view posthumous organ donation? A meta-synthesis of the qualitative literature. BMC Public Health 2011: 11: 1–11. 9. KUMPFER KL, ALVARADO R. Family-strengthening approaches for the prevention of youth problem behaviors. Am Psychol 2003: 58: 457–465. 10. PERRY CL, WILLIAMS CL, VEBLEN-MORTENSON S, et al. Project Northland: Outcomes of a communitywide alcohol use preven- tion program during early adolescence. Am J Public Health 1996: 86: 956–965. 4 Editorial 
work_x7p3bz2hefbudav5wiuygocpuq	----	1 The Lautsi Papers: Multidisciplinary Reflections on Religious Symbols in the Public School Classroom JEROEN TEMPERMAN, ed., 2012 Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, the Netherlands Studies in Religion, Secular Beliefs and Human Rights Series, volume 11 426 pp. Review by Myriam Hunter-Henin (UCL, Laws) At the heart of this edited collection lies one affair: the Lautsi case and one symbol: the crucifix. In sixteen different chapters, the book offers multiple analysis of the challenge raised against the mandatory presence of crucifixes in Italian state schools. From a variety of perspectives, the chapters all address the fundamental underlying question of the place of religion in public education. Testimony to the complex questions left open by the European Court of Human Rights in its two dramatically opposite decisions 1 and to the rich and in-depth analysis of the contributors’ chapters, the book offers a fascinating read. The contributors, lawyers for most, come from a diversity of sub-disciplines and jurisdictions, ranging from legal theory, human rights, constitutional law; comparative law, law & religion and legal philosophy. They are spread across the UK, the Netherlands, Romania; Belgium, Canada, Italy, Hungary and the US. The book will be of interest to a large audience: public lawyers, human rights experts, educationalists, philosophers; sociologists, political scientists, scholars of religion. The book gives a balanced assessment of the Grand Chamber decision in which the obligatory presence of crucifixes on Italian state school wall classrooms was held not to infringe convention rights. Seven chapters against nine approve this final outcome but interestingly the reliance placed by the Grand Chamber on the 1 ECtHR 3 November 2009 [Second Section Chamber]; ECtHR 18 March [Grand Chamber], 2011 Lautsi and Others v. Italy, App. 30814/06. 2 concept of margin of appreciation to support its conclusion is met with far greater caution. 2 A few of the authors support the judicial restraint that the concept of the margin of appreciation carries. Jean-Marc Piret (chapter 3) thus underlines that the European Court of Human Rights does not have the standing of a Constitutional Court for Europe. 3 “What is important here is the question: who is competent?” 4 . This tension between the universality and the national/local enforcement of human rights is a recurring theme, studied in other worthwhile chapters such as Silvio Ferrari’s (chapter 1). Both Silvio Ferrari (Chapter 1) and Brett G. Scharffs (Chapter 2) in different ways emphasize the importance of dialogue. The Grand Chamber’s outcome in that sense may be praised for allowing the dialogue to continue. By contrast, others regret the lack of audacity of the Court: Roland Pierik (Chapter 8); Carla M. Zoethout, (Chapter 16). Unsurprisingly, the question of the “who” is intimately linked to the substantive question of meaning. What does the symbol of the crucifix mean and is this meaning enough to amount to a violation under the Convention? Again, the answer to the question will depend largely on how the question is phrased. If the question focuses on the particular audience (children of impressionable age in hierarchical relationships) the answer is likely to be that the crucifix will have a coercive impact (Alison Mawhinney, Chapter 4). The same conclusion will follow if one focuses on the particular position of the crucifix as the emblem of the majority 2 According to Lorenzo Zucca, the concept is mentioned 27 times in the whole decision and 8 times in the 20 paragraphs summarizing the court’s assessment. L. Zucca, “Lautsi: A Commentary on a decision by the ECtHR Grand Chamber”, International Journal of Constitutional Law 2013 vol. 11, n.1, pp 218- 229. on the concept of margin of appreciation itself in Lautsi, see Giulio Itzcovich, “One, None and One Hundred Thousands Margins of Appreciations: The Lautsi case”, Human Rights Law Review 2012 vol. 12, n. 4. 3 See also Joseph Weiler. For example JHH Weiler, Lautsi: A Reply, International Journal of Constitutional Law 2012, vol. 10, n. 4, pp. 230-233. 4 Chapter 3, p.75 (italics added). 3 religion (Stijn Smet, Chapter 5) or as a sign imposed by the power of the State (Jeoren Temperman, Chapter 6). But as very convincingly argued by Malcolm Evans (Chapter 13), the rights involved ensure that public education be delivered in a manner respectful of diversity. The convention does not require that an appearance of strict neutrality be enforced but demands that the educational experience is – in its substance – compliant with the plurality of convictions. Should one argue for the opposite position, public schools and by extension, possibly, the public sphere should then need to be stripped of all religious symbols. Conceptually a strict version of neutrality would follow. The collection reflects this debate about neutrality, intrinsic to the case. Some chapters support a strict version of the notion (chapter 8). Others offer middle ground solutions where preference for majority religion and neutrality become compatible (Wouter de Ben; Liviu and Gabriel Andreescu; Hana van Ooijen, in Chapters 7, 9 and 11 respectively). The Italian context – certainly – may easily welcome a strict version of neutrality (Carlo Panara, chapter 12) and arguments can be made in favour of such move for the sake of multiculturalism (as illustrated interestingly by the Canadian context by Richard Moon, Chapter 10). However, transferred to a European context, one may query whether the European Court is to decide for a particular form of Church/State arrangement across Europe 5 - which leads us back to the question of the “who”. This overlap between the questions is reflected in the book. The concept of neutrality, highlighted as the overarching theme of part III of the book is actually one of the recurring themes in many chapters. One may also wonder in what way chapters 4 to 12 are really less specifically about Lautsi than the last four, put together under 5 See Ian Leigh and Rex Ahdar, “Post-Secularism and the European Court of Human Rights: Or How God Never Really Went Away”, (2012) 75(6) Modern Law Review 1064–1098. 4 the title of “Lautsi-specific comments”. The comparative perspective developed in part IV is interesting but limited. A chapter comparing the concept of secularism in France and Italy would have shed further light on the case as would have a detailed analysis of the German position. But these minor queries about the overall structure and scope of the book take none of the value of the collection away. As the dialogue on the place of religion in the public sphere continues, this particular collection, edited by Jeroen Temperman, will offer a rich and fascinating contribution to the debate. Myriam Hunter-Henin* *Dr Myriam Hunter-Henin, Senior Lecturer in Law, University College London, Faculty of Laws 
work_x6cnfhu5hjc7dpg76bx7gf2ldm	----	humanities Article Impressions on the Evolution of Naturalism: Interiority, Exteriority, and the International/Interdisciplinary Nature of Naturalism Cameron Dodworth Department of English, Methodist University, Fayetteville, NC 28311, USA; cdodworth@methodist.edu Received: 29 May 2019; Accepted: 16 July 2019; Published: 23 July 2019 ���������� ������� Abstract: Naturalism, as a movement and genre, was heavily influenced by the work of Émile Zola, particularly by his essay, Le roman expérimental (1880). However, despite Zola’s strong influence, Naturalism was also significantly influenced by the ideas of others that go beyond and even predate those of Zola. As a result, Naturalism is generally accepted as having originated in France in the late 19th century, and having extended into the early 20th century, however it soon became an international as well as an interdisciplinary movement and genre. More specific examples of this international and interdisciplinary network of Naturalism can be seen in the writing of Zola, Joris-Karl Husymans, and Oscar Wilde, as well as the painting of Cécile Douard, Vincent van Gogh, Gustave Caillebotte, and Claude Monet. Furthermore, these examples reveal that Naturalism evolved into a more interior branch, as well as a more exterior branch, and they also reveal some strong evolutionary links between not only Naturalism and Impressionism, but also between Naturalism and Decadence/Aestheticism. These latter links have seen little discussion in relation to Naturalism, particularly on the basis of the roles that interiority and exteriority play in the international and interdisciplinary expressions of Naturalism. Keywords: realism; naturalism; impressionism; Émile Zola; fin-de-siècle In his 2007 article, “Sailing Under False Colors: Naturalism Revisted” Pieter Borghart accurately observes that “apart from the obvious etymological origin of the term Naturalism denoting a profound interest in the study of nature, its precise meaning in literary studies is still under debate” (Borghart 2007). This might also be extended to the study of visual art, as many of the same principles that govern the Naturalism of literature are present in the Naturalism of visual art. Borghart, while acknowledging the imprecision of the term, goes on to paraphrase David Baguley in stating that there is at least some consistency in the following viewpoints: “Naturalism is often identified with at least one of three disciplines out of which historically the movement has grown: philosophy, science, and art. In the first case, Naturalism is broadly defined in terms of the positivist concept of “materialism”; the second definition can be traced back to Zola’s manifesto Le roman expérimental (1879) and regards the naturalist text as a scientific experiment. In the last instance, Naturalism is merely reduced to the aesthetics of realistic imitation. A fourth and fairly common definition tends to identify this movement with the scandalous subject matter of some naturalist novels.” (Borghart 2007) These are certainly acceptable parameters, particularly in terms of the acknowledgment of the influence of Émile Zola. Fittingly, Borghart goes on to paraphrase Yves Chevrel in stating that “[he] tentatively defines Naturalism as a Pan-European literary movement, consisting of an international corpus of texts, published between 1870 and 1910, and inspired by Zola’s oeuvre” (Borghart 2007). Humanities 2019, 8, 128; doi:10.3390/h8030128 www.mdpi.com/journal/humanities http://www.mdpi.com/journal/humanities http://www.mdpi.com http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/h8030128 http://www.mdpi.com/journal/humanities https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0787/8/3/128?type=check_update&version=2 Humanities 2019, 8, 128 2 of 22 Gabriel P. Weisberg also remarks upon the influence of Zola, while also characterizing Naturalism as a multinational genre, as he argues that “despite national boundaries, painters used a set of shared characteristics in establishing Naturalist imagery, which allowed for an interchangeable pattern or a ‘formula’ for the construction of such works. Among the traits were the isolation and sharpening of factual details, which were akin to Emile Zola’s method of highlighting facts to assist in creating a textual image” (Weisberg 1992). Borghart, Chevrel, and Weisberg do well to point out that, even in acknowledging the seminal influence of France, Naturalism exists not only as a multinational genre, but that genre is also the result of a multinational movement in both literature and art. Furthermore, Naturalism was reproduced with enough consistency in methodology that referring to the genre as having been the result of a legitimate movement is justified. Weisberg writes of a “highly standardized, impersonal attitude, which made it possible for painters to share their method with other artists. This sharing meant that a style could be readily learned and passed on to others in an effort to continue a Naturalist outlook over a long period of time” (Weisberg 1992). Weisberg also observes that “[t]he Naturalists continually exchanged ideas across boundaries, providing a means by which their visual messages could be understood” (Weisberg 1992). Again, these traversed boundaries were not only international, but were also interdisciplinary. In Zola’s lengthy essay, Le roman expérimental (1880), he sets down many of the principles of “l’évolution naturaliste qui emporte la siècle” (Zola 1880). However, Zola was not merely articulating “l’idée d’une littérature déterminée par la science” (Zola 1880), but also the idea of a visual art determined by science. As this current essay will address, a direct connection of influence clearly existed between Zola and Vincent van Gogh, acting as a specific example of a sharing of style across international and interdisciplinary borders. Yet, Borghart argues that a strict adherence to the influence of Zola in defining the genre of Naturalism is problematic, and as his argument progresses, he makes some perceptive observations of aspects of Naturalism that are clearly independent of Zola, and that sometimes even predate Zola.1 Clearly, the Naturalist genre became more dynamic as it evolved over time and across other disciplines, but many of the principles that Zola articulated are still recognizable: “En somme, toute l’opération consiste à prendre les faits dans la nature, puis à étudier le mécanisme des faits, en agissant sur eux par les modifications des circonstances et des milieux, sans jamais s’écarter des lois de la nature. Au bout, il y a la connaissance de l’homme, dans son action individuelle et sociale” (Zola 1880). Naturalism truly was an international and interdisciplinary movement and genre, as its influence spread throughout Europe and beyond. This can be seen in the novels of Zola in France, as well as of Arthur Morrison in England. Such influence is also evident in the paintings of the French artist, Jules Bastien-Lepage, as his style of Naturalism either directly or indirectly influenced essentially all of the Naturalist artists in England. Other networks of French Naturalist influence in Britain during the last decades of the 19th century include the artists of the Newlyn Art Colony, which was founded by English artist Stanhope Alexander Forbes in Cornwall in 1884, and the New English Art Club (NEAC), which was founded in London in 1886. Hubert von Herkomer and George Clausen were also influential Naturalist artists in Britain. Naturalism’s influence in America can also be seen in the writing of Theordore Dreiser and Stephen Crane. However, this particular discussion of Naturalism will focus almost exclusively on France, though Vincent van Gogh will take us on a slight excursion only as far as the Low Countries. Furthermore, this discussion will focus mainly on Naturalism as a genre, though reference to Naturalism as a movement has already been made. Émile Zola and Vincent van Gogh certainly embraced Naturalism as a movement in their artistic expressions, but the analysis of the other main writers and artists in this discussion will be performed on the basis of their connection 1 “As to the question of periodization, there is little discussion among specialists (e.g., Becker; Pagès) about the proposed advent or terminus a quo of European Naturalism (1865–1870): the publication of the first novels by the De Goncourt brothers (Germinie Lacerteux, 1865)” (Borghart 212). Humanities 2019, 8, 128 3 of 22 to the genre of Naturalism. In the interest of a narrow scope on which to expand with a sufficient level of specificity, this particular study of Naturalism will focus—with some ancillary exceptions—on Émile Zola’s Germinal (1885)2, Joris-Karl Husymans’s À Rebours (1884), Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891), Cécile Douard’s Coal Gleaners (1891), Vincent van Gogh’s The Potato Eaters (1885), Gustave Caillebotte’s Floor Scrapers (1875), Interior, Woman at a Window (1880), and Young Man at His Window (1875), and also Claude Monet’s Morning Haze (1888) and his Grain Stacks series (1890–1891). As the exploration of these texts and paintings progresses, at least a partial revision of the genre of 19th-century Naturalism will emerge. Primarily, Naturalism will be revealed as having tendencies toward two branches of development: interior Naturalism and exterior Naturalism. Furthermore, Naturalism’s thorough correlation to Impressionism will be made apparent through the study of those branches. Interior Naturalism and exterior Naturalism will be seen as intertwined to the point of near inseparability, and therefore both will be demonstrated as existing well within the genres of Naturalism as well as Impressionism, by extension rendering the two genres nearly inseparable. This discussion of the interiority and exteriority of Naturalism will also reveal a de facto correlation between Naturalism and the Decadent movement that often sought to distance itself from Naturalism. Clearly, the exploration of Naturalism’s connection to Impressionism is not necessarily new, but the revelation of Naturalism’s connection to Decadence and Aestheticism on the basis of these branches of interiority and exteriority indeed does justify a revision of the Naturalist genre, particularly in terms of raising the question: how truly natural is Naturalism? As a movement and genre, Naturalism not only experienced its own evolution in terms of many of the non-Zolaesque qualities that Borghart explores—as well as the interiority and exteriority that this current discussion explores—but Naturalism was also very much a part of the overall evolution of 19th-century art. After all, Weisberg observes that Naturalist artists have traditionally been “[d]erided for following what was seen as a literal path devoid of imagination, these painters and their works were overlooked by collectors and critics who believed that the avant-garde—those artists in total opposition to an academic tradition—came to full ascendancy at the turn of the twentieth century” (Weisberg 1992). Weisberg also claims that “[w]orks not conforming to the stylistic traits of nascent modernism either have been banished from view or languish in artists’ studios (or worse), far from the eyes of contemporary critics and modern-day historians”, as the artists of such works “are now found in the margins of art history—if at all” (Weisberg 1992). Impressionism—and even more so, its uninventively-named progeny: Post-Impressionism—is a genre thoroughly acknowledged and legitimated as a stage in the artistic evolution towards Modernism. However, Naturalism was by no means supplanted by genres more traditionally viewed as having possessed “stylistic traits of nascent modernism”, as Weisberg states that “the movement was not immediately pushed aside by more modernist styles” (Weisberg 1992). John Plotz agrees, while applying the point more specifically to fin-de-siècle literature: “in fact naturalist or partly naturalist novels are not anomalous at all in the period, nor are they mere weigh stations between the reigns of realism and modernism” (Plotz 2015). By revealing Naturalism as having been inseparably intertwined with Impressionism, Naturalism’s own legitimacy as an integral part of the evolution towards Modernism will be made clear. In terms of the origin of the evolution of Naturalism, specifically scientific naturalism began decades before Naturalism proper, even in the field of visual art, as the task of illustrating discovered species and their habitats was useful as a scientific tool as early as the 18th century, long before Charles Darwin’s publication of On the Origin of Species (1859). Eighteenth-century naturalists such as Leclerc, de Buffon, de Monet, de Lamarck, Cuvier, and Saint-Hilaire used naturalist observations to formulate their theories as early as mid-century. Robert Herbert observes of the following century that, “by mid-century, the model of investigation derived from the natural sciences had become all-pervasive. 2 The discussion of Zola’s Germinal will by no means be performed on the basis of its acting as the quintessential example of the Naturalist novel, but rather will act as a specific example of the direct connection of influence on Vincent van Gogh by Zola. Humanities 2019, 8, 128 4 of 22 It thoroughly penetrated the arts, and lay behind the rejection of romanticism. Flaubert and Duranty stressed the need for the author to remove himself from the role of editor or judge of the action he described, and to acquire instead the precision and neutrality of the scientist” (Herbert 1988). One must always remember that, acknowledging the inevitable changes in Naturalist philosophy, this theme of scientific observation is at the root of the Naturalist movement. Even Zola, the quintessential Naturalist writer, has a method of scientific observation at heart in the settings and characters that he depicts in his novels. Concerning Germinal, F.W.J. Hemmings writes of Zola that he was able to make firsthand observations of a strike that broke out at Anzin (one of the biggest collieries in the north of France), just a few weeks before he began writing his novel. “Zola was able to visit the district and mingle with the strikers. He saw for himself the conditions in which they worked underground and in which they were housed on the surface; he was able to observe the stigmata of malnutrition and of occupational diseases, and the stunting of their spirit by the ugliness of the surroundings in which they lived” (Hemmings 1953). One can see the effects of these observations in Zola’s early descriptions of Catherine, as she was “still very slim at fifteen years of age, she had delicate arms, whose milky whiteness contrasted with her face, which had already become sallow from the constant use of soft soap. A final yawn made her open her somewhat large mouth and show her teeth, which were splendid, albeit set in pale gums that indicated chlorosis” (Zola 1914). Catherine’s physical sexuality is even negated by the conditions of the mines, as Étienne, when first meeting her, “kept looking at Catherine, who, with her chloritic complexion, showed whitely in the gloom; and he could not tell her age: he took her to be about twelve, she seemed so slight and thin” (Zola 1914). Such description is reminiscent of a scientist observing the pigment-less insects and reptiles that populate the deep recesses of underground caves. Even Catherine’s complexion is consistent with her diet almost exclusively of bread, as any doctor might deduce that she is malnourished and iron-deficient after reading the above passages. Fittingly, Hemmings observes, via a disease metaphor, that Zola “preferred, as he would continue all his life to prefer, ‘a “scientific” method in which society is conceived as a harmonious entity and the criticism applied to society formulated as a struggle against the diseases attacking its organic unity, a struggle against the “undesirable features” of capitalism’” (György Lukács, quoted in Hemmings 1953). Perhaps, at this point, Naturalism might sound decidedly more militant in contrast to Impressionism, but with further analysis, strong points of connection between Naturalism and Impressionism are revealed. For example, one can sense the theme of physical exteriority in relation to the influence of the physical sciences on Naturalism, and also in relation to Impressionism’s focus on light and its effects on physical surface. Impressionism’s focus on contemporary issues such as emerging technology, civil reformation, emerging social and class issues, and images of work and leisure are all consistent with that of Naturalism, though one could argue that Impressionism’s frequent focus on light and the attempt to depict a fleeting moment in time is less agenda-laden than many Naturalistic representations. After all, how could anyone read the melodramatic misery of Germinal or view the bleak darkness of Cécile Douard’s Coal Gleaners (Figure 1) without assuming that there is a social agenda at stake? The extreme physical toll of the labor involved, inhumane poverty, unhealthy environment, and animalization of men and women alike are common themes in both representations of mineworkers. With regards to Impressionism, there are several fleeting moments in Germinal that have a tendency to hover brilliantly before the reader. Zola uses in-depth descriptions of oftentimes rather complicated scenes in terms of the action that they contain and the sheer power of the pregnant moment. As Étienne and the mob move from place to place; as the soldiers fire on the miners on strike; as the old horse, Battle, gasps for a last drowning breath: including many others, these are all very picturesque, fleeting moments of the novel that are temporarily static in their description. Of course, perhaps with the exception of some of Édouard Manet’s work, the subject matter depicted in these picturesque moments of Germinal is inconsistent with that of Impressionist painters, in general. However, perhaps the assignation of a social agenda to Naturalistic works is unfair to the scientifically-impartial intent of Humanities 2019, 8, 128 5 of 22 the Naturalist philosophy? Borghart argues that Naturalism “seems to rely, above all, on a textual method—a common poetics—which aims at mapping out every facet of contemporary society as scientifically and objectively as possible, regardless of ideological preoccupations or invariable thematic topics” (Borghart 2007). So even though Germinal is fraught with human misery, and even though Douard’s Coal Gleaners—which looks to be a scene taken directly out of Zola’s novel—is executed with an almost monochromatic palette, looks like some sort of bleak, post-apocalyptic landscape, and almost breaks one’s back just to look at the strain on the bodies of the women depicted in the painting; Zola and Douard are merely executing, as Hemmings would argue, “a work which is a masterpiece of realist [art] but which, being carefully and intentionally neutral, evades the immediate significance of the social issues while it makes their existence blindingly plain” (Hemmings 1953). Weisberg would agree, claiming that “[t]he successful rustic or urban Naturalist veered away from socially upsetting themes or subjects charged with radical implications” (Weisberg 1992). Naturalism is, in general, more hard-hitting than Impressionism, but much of the respective intent of each movement is not that different from the other: the attempt to depict a revealing, illuminating (pun intended), natural representation of subject matter with particular focus on its physical exterior. Humanities 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 22 with human misery, and even though Douard’s Coal Gleaners—which looks to be a scene taken directly out of Zola’s novel—is executed with an almost monochromatic palette, looks like some sort of bleak, post-apocalyptic landscape, and almost breaks one’s back just to look at the strain on the bodies of the women depicted in the painting; Zola and Douard are merely executing, as Hemmings would argue, “a work which is a masterpiece of realist [art] but which, being carefully and intentionally neutral, evades the immediate significance of the social issues while it makes their existence blindingly plain” (Hemmings 1953). Weisberg would agree, claiming that “[t]he successful rustic or urban Naturalist veered away from socially upsetting themes or subjects charged with radical implications” (Weisberg 1992). Naturalism is, in general, more hard-hitting than Impressionism, but much of the respective intent of each movement is not that different from the other: the attempt to depict a revealing, illuminating (pun intended), natural representation of subject matter with particular focus on its physical exterior. Figure 1. Cécile Douard, Coal Gleaners, 1891, oil on canvas, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Mons, Belgium.3. The last passage taken from Hemmings uses the term ‘realist’ by no accident. In fact, Naturalism is generally accepted as a derivative of Realism. Using language similar to that used by Borghart and Hemmings to describe Naturalism, and even Impressionism, in the paragraph above, Robert Rosenblum explains that “the Realist impulse to record the facts of a here-and-now world continued to dominate painters working in the most adventurous styles of Impressionism” (Rosenblum 1984). He continues, observing that “the range of subject matter, from miserable city slums to fashionable boulevards, from the regimented activities of schools and sweatshops to the leisurely movements of cafés and wealthy drawing rooms, also expanded to match the complexities of nineteenth-century life” (Rosenblum 1984). Shedding light on the distinction and similarities between Naturalism and Impressionism, Rosenblum explains how the two schools indeed are branches that grew from Realism. 3 All images in this essay are used under the public domain. Figure 1. Cécile Douard, Coal Gleaners, 1891, oil on canvas, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Mons, Belgium.3. The last passage taken from Hemmings uses the term ‘realist’ by no accident. In fact, Naturalism is generally accepted as a derivative of Realism. Using language similar to that used by Borghart and Hemmings to describe Naturalism, and even Impressionism, in the paragraph above, Robert Rosenblum explains that “the Realist impulse to record the facts of a here-and-now world continued to dominate painters working in the most adventurous styles of Impressionism” (Rosenblum 1984). He continues, observing that “the range of subject matter, from miserable city slums to fashionable boulevards, from the regimented activities of schools and sweatshops to the leisurely movements of cafés and wealthy drawing rooms, also expanded to match the complexities of nineteenth-century 3 All images in this essay are used under the public domain. Humanities 2019, 8, 128 6 of 22 life” (Rosenblum 1984). Shedding light on the distinction and similarities between Naturalism and Impressionism, Rosenblum explains how the two schools indeed are branches that grew from Realism. “The category of Naturalism, although generally implying a record, even an exposé, of the darker facts of the human condition in the later nineteenth century, is often used interchangeably with the category of Realism, not only by the painters, writers, and critics of the 1870s and 1880s, but by later historians.4 If such a distinction can serve any purpose at all, in the midst of the semantic confusion surrounding an umbrella word like Realism, in might be used to define the branch of Realism that concentrates on the reportorial account of lower-class life in a more literal style, as opposed to the branch of Realism that became known as Impressionism, which, in its pursuit of a more ephemeral and subjective experience of the seen world, evolved a style that tended to transform the slice of life selected by the painter into something that was more clearly art than social documentation.” (Rosenblum 1984) Perhaps it is indeed the tendency towards physical objectivity in Naturalism and the tendency towards what might be perceived as a psychological subjectivity in Impressionism that really distinguishes the two genres from each other, but one also gets the sense that there is an aesthetic distinction at work, as well. Herbert argues that “a naturalist did not praise the environment he wrote about or painted, but treated its homely ordinariness as the only proper setting for his art” (Herbert 1988). However, Naturalism, aesthetically-speaking, oftentimes seems to go beyond the ‘ordinary.’ Returning to the tone of some of the excerpts from Hemmings and Zola, one can actually observe an aesthetic of ugliness in Naturalist depictions of subject matter. The world that Zola creates in Germinal projects a significant level of physical ugliness. The men and women in the novel are physical, sexual beings, as they are constantly off in the woods and by the piles of cinders having sexual intercourse, yet this seems ironic in light of the desexualized description of Catherine in the first two excerpts from Zola that have been explored. The physical features of the miners are distorted, scarred, and diseased, and the living conditions that they endure, especially during the strike, are no less than subhuman. One can almost smell the stench of cooked onions and poor hygiene emanating from the pages of the novel. The setting of the novel is bleak and dark, again like Douard’s painting. This is not a study of the effect of light, but rather an exploration of the horrors of darkness. Consistent with this methodology of Zola, David Trotter argues that “Naturalism does not delight, or arouse or broaden moral sympathies. It does not frighten or enrage. Naturalism makes you sick” (Trotter 2000). The aesthetic is not of beauty, but rather of ugliness. By relying on the principles of Naturalism, we are meant to trust that the ugliness of this physical world is natural and “real”, while beauty is just not indigenous to this natural habitat of ugliness. But then one must ask the question that is, as we will eventually see, at the very heart of Naturalism: Is this truly natural? The implications of the world depicted in Germinal are not forced upon us by any overt social agenda on the part of Zola, but the implications are observable all the same. After all, is ugliness truly indigenous to the coal country of France? Had it always been a black, bleak, scorched habitat since the beginning of time? The answer, of course, is: no. It was only by the physical manipulations of humankind that this exterior habitat of ugliness was created. Therefore, even though Zola’s intent is a scientific, objective exploration of the physical habitat of the miner, this habitat is no more natural than a contrived depiction of Monet’s cultivated gardens at Giverny. Edgar Degas, like Gustave Caillebotte, is generally accepted as an artist that participated in both the realm of Impressionism as well as Naturalism. Quite revealingly, he defined his art in the following terms: “A painting is a thing which requires as much trickery, malice, and vice as the perpetration of a crime; make counterfeits and add a touch of nature” (Edgar Degas, quoted in Herbert 1988). This makes 4 Weisberg also observes that “writers during the 1860s and 1870s often used the concepts of Realism and Naturalism interchangeably, and critics and artists were similarly unable to isolate the characteristics of each tendency” (Weisberg 1992). Humanities 2019, 8, 128 7 of 22 painting sound more like the work of a con-artist than that of a scientific naturalist, but perhaps Degas is revealing—granted, rather cynically—the real “truth” and “naturalness” of visual art as a whole, including the presumed objective and scientific approach of Naturalism. After all, it is well-known that almost all paintings belonging to either the label of Impressionism, Naturalism, or both, were executed completely, or at least partially, in studio. Even the majority of the most well-known and romanticized en plein air painters throughout history would perform touch-ups in studio. As a result—and as will be discussed in relation to Caillebotte later in this essay—the illusion of the physical exterior in en plein air works is complicated by the interiority of the artist’s studio. Essentially, observed and presumably objective exteriority is complicated by the artist’s subjective and interiorized revisions. Furthermore, the level of nature taken directly from the source must then be questioned not only in the genre of Naturalism, but also in visual art as a whole. However, this is especially relevant to Naturalism, because, beneath the physical surface of this objective, scientific, naturalist intent, lies a decidedly unnatural element of artifice, sleight-of-hand, and subjectively psychological manipulation. Weisberg observes, in reference to this dilemma, that for Naturalist artists, “the suggestion of offhand, unposed reality was quite a painstaking process. In essence, artists became explorers in their studios, learning to produce objective, focused images” (my emphasis, Weisberg 1992). Naturalism is caught up in a paradoxical duality of subjectivity and objectivity in this subjective fabrication of objectivity, in-studio. Vincent van Gogh was well aware of this element of “counterfeit” that Degas so bluntly reveals in reference to visual art. Returning to a discussion of the quintessential Naturalist, Judy Sund reveals that van Gogh “recognized early on that for all of the author’s stress on documentation, Zola’s prose passages rarely were literal transcriptions of ‘reality.’ Van Gogh was impressed by the fact that Zola as author did not ‘hold up a mirror to things’ but instead ‘poeticized’, manipulating his subjects to a great effect” (Sund 1992). Perhaps we can read the term “poeticized” as a euphemism for Degas’s “counterfeit”. Van Gogh’s participation in Naturalism was neither deliberately objective nor necessarily scientific. Likely due to the fact that his methods no less than sprang directly from those of Zola, van Gogh’s Naturalism reads much like a visual representation of the scenes and characters from Germinal, with his own unique spin on them. Van Gogh, like Zola, experienced firsthand the misery of the plight of the miners. However, as Zola sought to make his observations as an unbiased scientific naturalist performing a more exteriorized, physical study, van Gogh practically immersed himself in the mining community, performing a more subjective, interiorized study. In his 20s, as a probational lay preacher, Vincent moved to the Borinage coal-mining region of Belgium. According to Lawrence and Elisabeth Hanson, van Gogh, in an almost Christ-like fashion, “moved into a hut drearier than the hut of the meanest miner” (Hanson and Hanson 1955). “He gave away all that he had—it was little enough, but he gave it away—his bed, his few francs, all his clothes. He dressed himself in sackcloth, slept on the mud floor of the hut, lived on scraps of bread. He went down the mine, enduring the terrors, the discomforts that made up the miners’ daily life; he came up, like them, with his face black with coal dust; he left it so—he was not going to insult them and God with the white face of a man who preached but did no work.” (Hanson and Hanson 1955) As a result of being so immersed in this culture, there were “obvious signs that he was identifying himself increasingly with the miners—not now in appearance and style of living, but even more dangerously by taking their side politically” (Hanson and Hanson 1955). Van Gogh, in his drive to infiltrate the political and psychological interior of the world that he intended to study, seems to have transgressed the (apparently) fundamentally Naturalist principle of scientific objectivity. One might also assume that this effect of political alliance was achieved not just as a result of his immersion into the mining way of life, but also as a result of his immersion into Realist literature—such as George Eliot, Charles Dickens, and Harriet Beecher Stowe—and French Naturalist literature—such as Guy de Maupassant, Paul Alexis, and especially Émile Zola. Sund argues that it was “Zola’s fiction that Humanities 2019, 8, 128 8 of 22 Van Gogh had in mind when, in 1885, he allied a group of peasant portraits he had made to Zola’s descriptions of miners in the newly published Germinal” (Sund 1992). As evidenced by a 15 May, 1885 letter to his brother, Theo, Vincent van Gogh indeed began reading Germinal almost immediately after finishing his first version of The Potato Eaters, but still in the midst of this multitude of peasant portraits and studies that were very similar in style to The Potato Eaters (Van Gogh 1885b). The strained, distorted physiognomies of the figures with their unmistakably Zolaesque complexions, combined with the dingy palette and dark, cramped settings, are very familiar to the reader of Germinal. It becomes very clear that this particular novel of Zola had a direct influence on the painter during this period. Even van Gogh remarks of Germinal that, as soon as he received a copy, he “started to read it at once. I have read about fifty pages, and think it splendid; I once travelled through these same parts on foot. / Enclosed is a sketch of a head, which I just brought home”. A few lines below he would also remark that “I hope to go and paint the miner’s heads someday” (Van Gogh 1885b). As Sund observes, “Van Gogh had adopted a high-keyed palette that was not only inspired by his experience of avant-garde Parisian painting, but encouraged by his desire to formulate a visual equivalent to the verbal ‘richness’ of Naturalist literature” (Sund 1992). As a result, he reconfigured his conception of what Realism entailed, morphing his style into one that was recognizably influenced by Zola, but also decidedly his own. [Van Gogh] threw overboard his views about realism; he forgot his chastisement of the painters at The Hague for working in their studios; realism, he now told [his brother] Theo, “that is, exact drawing and local color, leads to a kind of uncertainty and narrow-mindedness. There are other and better things than literal truth”. He abandoned his careful, labored paintings and struck out at a single comprehensive impression. He knew the peasants by heart, he had painted them dozens of times; he knew their cottages. (Hanson and Hanson 1955) The language that the Hansons use above not only echoes Impressionism—a genre of painting that, at least to some extent, van Gogh both enacted and reacted against in terms of stylistic method—but it also somewhat reconciles some of the problematic issues that we have discovered in the Naturalist philosophy. According to van Gogh, literal / “real”/ “natural” truth in Naturalism is, in a way, counterproductive. Perhaps van Gogh felt that the branch of Naturalism that dwelt on photographic style in representation was missing something essentially Naturalistic: that being a meaning or poetics that transcends not only the subject matter and the way that that subject matter is represented, but more specifically how that subject matter is stylistically depicted on the artistic surface itself. Therefore, photographic exactitude in artistic style is, according to van Gogh, philosophically inhibiting. The Hansons observe van Gogh’s efforts in terms of artistic philosophy in their discussion of his motivation for painting The Potato Eaters, consistently using language that not only reflects the artifice discussed in relation to Degas, but also that reflects the far more interiorized, subjective, psychological strain of Naturalism: “He painted his “Potato Eaters” by heart “in the sense of using my imagination”. The labored brushwork fell away into strong, sweeping strokes. “I want to make it live”, he said; and he did. The subject is not a pleasing one, the heads have a suspicion of caricature, the monotonous tone (“the color of a good dusty potato”) gives an effect of morbidity, the figures are sometimes preposterous, but the picture, though a failure as a painting, has life. It has also strong individuality; decidedly it had not been painted before”. (Hanson and Hanson 1955) The borderline caricature quality of the painting is difficult to deny, but the representations of the five peasants that van Gogh uses in the painting were based on the many study heads that he had executed during and shortly after his time in Nuenen. According to Sund, van Gogh “declared himself willing to forsake exactitude in favor of ‘sentiment’ and a truth to nature that was felt rather than optically precise” (Sund 1992), again echoing some of the sentient philosophies of Impressionism. The subjective, optically-imprecise element of The Potato Eaters (Figure 2) is perhaps also a result of the Humanities 2019, 8, 128 9 of 22 fact that, as the Hansons observe, “the interior he painted from memory. / From memory! Here was a revolution indeed” (Hanson and Hanson 1955). Therefore, one would assume that the hovel-like environment of the cottage is a stylized representation, or even an amalgamation, of the interiors of the many poverty-stricken homes that van Gogh encountered while living in the Borinage and Nuenen. Also, the influence of Germinal is observable in the obligatory cups of coffee and the high-carb, low-nutrient diet that—instead of by bread—is represented by potatoes, and the effects of such a diet are noticeable in the complexions and overall physiognomies of the peasant figures. According to Sund, van Gogh acknowledged “that the heads [of the peasants] probably would be considered ‘unfinished’ or ‘ugly’ by most” (Sund 1992). Sund also argues that, “in a conscious attempt at synesthesia, Van Gogh sought to use color and texture to evoke not only the look, but the smell of peasant life—smoke, cooking odors, crops, manure” (Sund 1992). Van Gogh himself would write that “[i]f a peasant painting smells of bacon, smoke, potato steam, fine—that’s not unhealthy—if a stable reeks of manure—all right, that’s what a stable is all about—if a field has the smell of ripe corn or potatoes or of guano and manure—that’s properly healthy” (Van Gogh 1885a). These efforts of visual-olfactory synesthesia are, of course, reminiscent of the smells of cooked onions, coal smoke, and poorly-washed bodies that enjoy a strong olfactory presence in Germinal. Despite Zola’s apparent efforts to focus on a scientifically objective study of physical exteriority in his Naturalism, many scenes and images from Germinal betray a more interiorized, almost psychological intimacy, such as the multiple sexual encounters, the compacted living conditions, and of course the setting of the uncomfortable and claustrophobic interiors of the mines. Humanities 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 22 and the high-carb, low-nutrient diet that—instead of by bread—is represented by potatoes, and the effects of such a diet are noticeable in the complexions and overall physiognomies of the peasant figures. According to Sund, van Gogh acknowledged “that the heads [of the peasants] probably would be considered ‘unfinished’ or ‘ugly’ by most” (Sund 1992). Sund also argues that, “in a conscious attempt at synesthesia, Van Gogh sought to use color and texture to evoke not only the look, but the smell of peasant life—smoke, cooking odors, crops, manure” (Sund 1992). Van Gogh himself would write that “[i]f a peasant painting smells of bacon, smoke, potato steam, fine—that’s not unhealthy—if a stable reeks of manure—all right, that’s what a stable is all about—if a field has the smell of ripe corn or potatoes or of guano and manure—that’s properly healthy” (Van Gogh 1885a). These efforts of visual-olfactory synesthesia are, of course, reminiscent of the smells of cooked onions, coal smoke, and poorly-washed bodies that enjoy a strong olfactory presence in Germinal. Despite Zola’s apparent efforts to focus on a scientifically objective study of physical exteriority in his Naturalism, many scenes and images from Germinal betray a more interiorized, almost psychological intimacy, such as the multiple sexual encounters, the compacted living conditions, and of course the setting of the uncomfortable and claustrophobic interiors of the mines. Figure 2. Vincent van Gogh, The Potato Eaters, 1885, oil on canvas, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam. Among Zola, and the other decidedly Naturalist French writers that van Gogh read extensively, was J.K. Huysmans; a writer that, in his early career, formed a close friendship and philosophical alliance with Émile Zola, but as his own writing progressed, became more and more frustrated with some of the fundamental tenets of Naturalism that Zola held so dear. Sund observes that van Gogh “would always categorize [Huysmans] as a Naturalist, though Van Gogh can hardly have remained oblivious to Huysmans’s clear break from the movement with the publication of A Rebours, the quintessential Decadent novel” (Sund 1992). Sund makes a good point, because, as will soon be discussed, À Rebours is, at its very foundation, a reaction against the Naturalism of Zola, even to the extent that the English translation of the title has changed from Against the Grain to the perhaps more fitting Against Nature. But perhaps van Gogh’s retention of the Naturalist label of Huysmans is not so much a case of obliviousness as it is a reasoned and insightful definition of Huysmans’s de facto method, regardless of any genre that the writer sought to react against. Before we explore this Figure 2. Vincent van Gogh, The Potato Eaters, 1885, oil on canvas, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam. Among Zola, and the other decidedly Naturalist French writers that van Gogh read extensively, was J.K. Huysmans; a writer that, in his early career, formed a close friendship and philosophical alliance with Émile Zola, but as his own writing progressed, became more and more frustrated with some of the fundamental tenets of Naturalism that Zola held so dear. Sund observes that van Gogh “would always categorize [Huysmans] as a Naturalist, though Van Gogh can hardly have remained oblivious to Huysmans’s clear break from the movement with the publication of A Rebours, the quintessential Decadent novel” (Sund 1992). Sund makes a good point, because, as will soon be Humanities 2019, 8, 128 10 of 22 discussed, À Rebours is, at its very foundation, a reaction against the Naturalism of Zola, even to the extent that the English translation of the title has changed from Against the Grain to the perhaps more fitting Against Nature. But perhaps van Gogh’s retention of the Naturalist label of Huysmans is not so much a case of obliviousness as it is a reasoned and insightful definition of Huysmans’s de facto method, regardless of any genre that the writer sought to react against. Before we explore this possibility in terms of À Rebours, perhaps it would be illuminating to explore some of the Naturalist aspects of arguably the one novel that can rival Huysmans’s novel as enjoying the renown of being considered as the ‘quintessential Decadent novel’: Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891). Wilde’s novel might also be considered a reaction to—yet a de facto participation in—the Naturalist philosophy. This paradox can be most effectively represented by Lord Henry, when he states, “[b]eing natural is simply a pose, and the most irritating pose I know” (Wilde 1985). Ironically, Lord Henry—and even more so, the actual painting of Dorian—is the most blatant example of Naturalism in the novel. As irritating as it might be, Naturalism is the pose that Lord Henry strikes most often. Lord Henry is a Naturalist, in the sense that “[h]e had been always enthralled by the methods of natural science” (Wilde 1985). This is consistent with the fact that, in many ways, science had a major influence on Wilde. Heather Seagroatt observes that “[s]everal recent critics have shown that Wilde was not only conversant with scientific theory, he was keenly interested in many of Victorian sciences’ most pressing questions. Philip Smith, Michael Helfand, and Bruce Haley argue that although literary critics overlook his engagement with scientific issues and discourses, science played a crucial role in Wilde’s aesthetic theory” (Seagroatt 1998). Wilde constructs Lord Henry’s relationship with Dorian as a scientific experiment: “the experimental method was the only method by which one could arrive at any scientific analysis of the passions; and certainly Dorian Gray was a subject made to his hand, and seemed to promise rich and fruitful results” (Wilde 1985). This is, of course, reminiscent of the presumably failed social experiment that Des Esseintes performed on the young boy, Auguste, in J.K. Huysmans’s À Rebours. Also, if Lord Henry is a Naturalist in the scientific sense, then Basil Hallward—the composer of the painting of Dorian—is most certainly a Naturalist painter. Each in their own way, Basil and Lord Henry “paint” Dorian into a Naturalist pose; both of them figuratively do so, and of course Basil does so literally. Concerning the fate and symbolic significance of his character, Dorian Gray, Oscar Wilde writes in De Profundis: “‘[i]s not He who made misery wiser than thou art?’ a phrase which when I wrote it seemed to me little more than a phrase: a great deal of it is hidden away in the note of Doom that like a purple thread runs through the gold cloth of Dorian Gray . . . At every single moment of one’s life one is what one is going to be no less than what one has been. Art is a symbol, because man is a symbol” (Wilde [1948] 1999). This passage makes it very clear that Dorian’s fate was set; his Doom was inevitable. Wilde comes to the realization in De Profundis that “the artistic life is simple self-development” (Wilde [1948] 1999). If man is a symbol, then Dorian Gray is most assuredly a symbol, as well, and this condition is worsened when he takes on the persona of art in the novel. Man is a symbol of self-development. Man suffers, experiences misery, and is the wiser for it. The life of man runs like a thread through the cloth of life, and misery makes its mark on the body and soul of man. Man is a symbol of observable misery; a true-to-life representation of the Naturalism of visual art. Man’s Nature is to suffer and to self-develop through that suffering, and like a portrait of Naturalism, man bears the interior/psychological and exterior/physical marks of life as a symbol of knowledge and misery. Not a pretty picture, but again, ugliness has its place in the Aestheticism of Oscar Wilde just as it has its place in the Naturalism of visual art. The scarred, disfigured, sickly, subhuman transmutations that the picture of Dorian endures throughout Wilde’s novel are reminiscent of the scarred, disfigured, sickly, subhuman characters of Germinal. The difference is that the characters of Zola can be read as having been socially and even morally victimized, while the social and moral transgressions of Dorian that mark his portrait are presumably a result of his having been the victimizer. The influence of À Rebours on The Picture of Dorian Gray is unmistakable, as even within the world of Wilde’s novel, Dorian is directly influenced by the “yellow book” written by Huysmans. Wilde’s Humanities 2019, 8, 128 11 of 22 narrator describes the book as the story of a “wonderful young Parisian, in whom the romantic and the scientific temperaments were so strangely blended, became [to Dorian] a kind of prefiguring type of himself. And, indeed, the whole book seemed to him to contain the story of his own life, written before he had lived it” (Wilde 1985). Eventually the reader is informed that “Dorian Gray had been poisoned by a book. There were moments when he looked on evil simply as a mode through which he could realize his conception of the beautiful” (Wilde 1985). It is this privileging of living life through the senses and using life merely as a vehicle through which to experience aesthetic pleasure that parallels the attempts at scientific, objective observations of social squalor that came to be such an essential part of the Naturalist philosophy of Zola. Huysmans, in his Preface to À Rebours, written 20 years after the novel, complains that Naturalism “was destined to perform the never-to-be-forgotten good service of showing real personages in accurate surroundings, was condemned to go on repeating itself, marking time for ever on the same spot” (Huysmans 1969). It was the afore-mentioned ordinariness of Naturalism that irritated Huysmans, and although he does not specifically state it, one could argue that, even more than the ugly, it was the ordinary that just did not interest him: “Naturalism was getting more and more out of breath by dint of turning the mill for ever in the same round. The stock of observations that each writer had stored up by the self-scrutiny or study of his neighbours was getting exhausted. Zola, who was a first-rate scene painter, got out of the difficulty by designing big, bold canvases more or less true to life; he suggested fairly well the illusion of movement and action; his heroes were devoid of soul, governed simply and solely by impulses and instincts, which greatly simplified the work of analysis.” (Huysmans 1969) Admitting not only a significant level of ennui, and also a fear of the exhaustion of subject-matter-resources, Huysmans perhaps also reveals an element of fear in general, when he declares that “the rest of us, less robust and concerned about a more subtle method and a truer art, were constrained to ask ourselves the question whether Naturalism was not marching up a blind alley and if we were not bound soon to knock up against an impassable wall” (Huysmans 1969). Ironically, the main character in À Rebours, Des Esseintes, encloses himself within the walls of his suburban dwelling almost as if they were impassable. Des Esseintes, in an obvious reaction to the social Naturalism of Zola, is a social recluse, and throughout most of the book he experiences the world exclusively through literature, art, music, and science, all consumed within the interior of his home. Essentially, Des Esseintes studies the exterior world almost exclusively through his own interior. The few excursions that he takes away from his seclusion are incredibly short-lived, and even in their brevity they seem to be borderline overwhelming to the touchy nerves of Des Esseintes. For Huysmans, this literary construct of exploring the world not through social interaction and externally physical interchange, but rather through mental/intellectual interaction and sensually physical interchange, was greatly preferred. For Des Esseintes, “it appeared to him a futile waste of energy to travel when, so he believed, imagination was perfectly competent to fill the place of the vulgar reality of actual prosaic facts” (Huysmans 1969). As “there is no doubt we can, and just as easily as in the material world, enjoy false, fictitious pleasures every whit as good as the true” (Huysmans 1969). In a sense, we can certainly see in Huysmans an adherence to many of the fin-de-siècle artistic principles that Belinda Thomson explains in Post-Impressionism. In discussing the Rosicrucian Symbolist Salons of the 1890s, she observes that art in these exhibitions was meant to “rise above the banal realities of daily life and set its sights on lofty idealised subjects” (Thomson 1998). Thomson also points out that “in France the Symbolist poets, inheriting the philosophical outlook of Baudelaire and the Decadents, turned aside from the marvels or horrors of the age of science and its social and democratic upheavals, to focus inwards upon the human soul” (Thomson 1998). Huysmans, via Des Esseintes, displays a marked interest in the works of the Symbolist poets and artists, as well as the artists of the Nabis. However, even in his attempts to escape the confines of Naturalism by making reference to—and even sometimes Humanities 2019, 8, 128 12 of 22 meticulously discussing—Symbolist and decidedly non-Naturalist art and literature, the method that he uses to explore these works is no less than Naturalist. In a veritably scientific manner, it is as if Des Esseintes is cataloguing various sensual experiences, various works of art and literature, and various mental/intellectual experiences, but he does so mainly on a more psychological—rather than purely physical—scientific basis. Similar to Lord Henry in The Picture of Dorian Gray, Des Esseintes is a Naturalist in the most basic sense of the term, despite any feelings of irritation that that reality might cause. Therefore, perhaps van Gogh indeed was not inaccurate in his apparent obstinacy in regarding Huysmans as a Naturalist, even after the publication of À Rebours. After all, according to Weisberg, when one looks at the critical writings of Huysmans during the 1870s, the pre-À Rebours author preaches for the “necessity of abandoning old routines in order to become a true Naturalist” (Weisberg 1992). This argument certainly sheds light on some of the sentiments expressed in the Preface to À Rebours that have been explored, as it appears that, in the 1870s, Huysmans already felt the stirrings of a longing to abandon the old, but to do so with the intent of becoming a “true Naturalist”. Weisberg also writes that, “despite affinities with the Impressionists, Huysmans, like Zola, still awaited the ‘genius of the future’, a painter who would join Impressionist virtues with the strength of Naturalism” (Weisberg 1992). It is not likely that Huysmans ever would have claimed to be a “genius of the future”, or a Naturalist Messiah or something like that, but perhaps his critique of Zola in his Preface to À Rebours can be read as a true Naturalist manifesto. Perhaps, in reacting to the ennui of the Naturalism of Zola, Huysmans actually refurbished Naturalism, rather than discarding it. But of course, Huysmans’s language, as observed in the last passage from Weisberg, expresses a yearning for a “genius of the future” painter, rather than an author. Although never specifically stated by Huysmans, and much less by Zola, it is possible to argue that Gustave Caillebotte might have been the closest to ever come to that “genius of the future”, Naturalist Messiah ideal that was able to join the virtues of Impressionism with the strength of Naturalism. Monet, too, successfully combines elements of Impressionism with that of Naturalism, but not to the extent, and not to the philosophical success that Caillebotte is able to achieve. Quite fittingly, Herbert argues that “Huysmans preferred Caillebotte to Monet, partly because he wanted clear images of the ‘imposing grandeur’ of industry, partly because he was one of those writers who responded best to figure pictures and their narrative potential” (Herbert 1988). Herbert then continues to claim that Huysmans “did not see that Monet’s ‘unclear abbreviations’ were the vehicle of his interpretation of steam, the underlying force of industrial power” (Herbert 1988). Whether or not Huysmans indeed did not see this particular aspect of Monet’s artistic intent, and whether or not these are the true reasons why Huysmans preferred Caillebotte to Monet, is debatable. Regardless, this seems like an oversimplification of Huysmans’s preference between the two. After all, it is clear that Huysmans indeed did find value in the art of Monet, and not just in terms of style and aesthetic appeal, but also in terms of Monet’s artistic philosophy and his no less than Naturalistic intent that can be observed in many of his paintings. The passage below, taken from À Rebours, can be taken as evidence to support these assertions: “Sometimes, of an afternoon, if Des Esseintes happened to be up and about at that time of day, he would turn the taps connected with a system of pipes and conduits that enabled the tank to be emptied and refilled with fresh water, and then by pouring in a few drops of coloured essences, he could enjoy at his pleasure all the tints, green or grey, opaline or silvery, that real rivers assume according to the hue of the heavens, the greater or less ardour of the sun’s rays, the more or less threatening aspect of the rain-clouds, in a word according to the varying conditions of season and weather.” (Huysmans 1969) Granted, in the above passage, Des Esseintes is engaging in a purely artificial reconstruction of the effects of atmospheric conditions on the perceived color of a river that would otherwise be observable in nature, but is this artifice any different than the “counterfeit” of the artist—as Degas calls it—applying and mixing pigments on a palette with the intent of capturing nature on a canvas in Humanities 2019, 8, 128 13 of 22 a similar manner? Furthermre, the painting style of Monet permeates throughout the whole above passage. It is almost as if one is reading a description of the surface of the water that Monet depicts in his La Grenouillère (Figure 3). However, the assumption that Huysmans preferred Caillebotte to Monet seems like a safe one to make. Michael Fried explains that Huysmans “reserved his most fervent admiration for paintings in which an absorptive thematics gave rise to an effect of more than ordinary realism. ‘That supreme quality of art, life, shines forth from this canvas with a truly incredible intensity’, Huysmans wrote of Caillebotte’s Interior, Woman at a Window” (Fried 2002). This emphasis on extraordinary realism is certainly consistent with the Huysmans that has so far been encountered in this discussion, and the introduction of the “absorptive” quality of Interior, Woman at a Window (Figure 4), as well as of Young Man at His Window (Figure 5), clearly illustrates one of the fundamental issues at stake in this essay: that being the interplay of exteriority and interiority in Naturalism. Humanities 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 22 Man at His Window (Figure 5), clearly illustrates one of the fundamental issues at stake in this essay: that being the interplay of exteriority and interiority in Naturalism. Figure 3. Claude Monet, La Grenouillère, 1869, oil on canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Generally speaking, the Naturalism employed by Zola—though also possessing at least the aspects that we have discussed so far—is essentially a Naturalism of the exterior. Again, taking Germinal as the prime example, mental introspection is at a minimum in the novel; in terms of the characters, at least. These sentiments are observed by Huysmans in his critique of Zola’s characters quoted above, excerpted from the Preface to À Rebours. Germinal is vivid, emotive, painful, and even sensual, but these effects are achieved as a result of a level of exterior physicality that Zola constructs in the world of the novel. On the other hand, À Rebours seems to have more of a sense of the interior about it. Again, Des Esseintes could count on one hand the number of times that he actually left the confines of his home. In fact, any sense of exteriority was only achieved via the interior. The nautical interior decorating, the intellectual pursuits of literature, science, art, and history, and especially the inward mental journeys that Des Esseintes takes purely within the confines of his own memories, are all achieved not only within his own domestic interior, but also very often within the interior of his own mind. In terms of these two primary examples of Naturalist literature that we have explored, the respective exteriority and interiority of each work is well-founded. However, as we move to our primary examples from the realm of Naturalist visual art, things become a bit more complicated. Figure 3. Claude Monet, La Grenouillère, 1869, oil on canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Generally speaking, the Naturalism employed by Zola—though also possessing at least the aspects that we have discussed so far—is essentially a Naturalism of the exterior. Again, taking Germinal as the prime example, mental introspection is at a minimum in the novel; in terms of the characters, at least. These sentiments are observed by Huysmans in his critique of Zola’s characters quoted above, excerpted from the Preface to À Rebours. Germinal is vivid, emotive, painful, and even sensual, but these effects are achieved as a result of a level of exterior physicality that Zola constructs in the world of the novel. On the other hand, À Rebours seems to have more of a sense of the interior about it. Again, Des Esseintes could count on one hand the number of times that he actually left the confines of his home. In fact, any sense of exteriority was only achieved via the interior. The nautical interior decorating, the intellectual pursuits of literature, science, art, and history, and especially the inward mental journeys that Des Esseintes takes purely within the confines of his own memories, are all achieved not only within his own domestic interior, but also very often within the interior of his own mind. In terms of these two primary examples of Naturalist literature that we have explored, Humanities 2019, 8, 128 14 of 22 the respective exteriority and interiority of each work is well-founded. However, as we move to our primary examples from the realm of Naturalist visual art, things become a bit more complicated. Humanities 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22 Figure 4. Gustave Caillebotte, Interior, Woman at a Window, 1880, oil on canvas, private collection. Figure 5. Gustave Caillebotte, Young Man at His Window, 1875, oil on canvas, private collection. Figure 4. Gustave Caillebotte, Interior, Woman at a Window, 1880, oil on canvas, private collection. Humanities 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22 Figure 4. Gustave Caillebotte, Interior, Woman at a Window, 1880, oil on canvas, private collection. Figure 5. Gustave Caillebotte, Young Man at His Window, 1875, oil on canvas, private collection. Figure 5. Gustave Caillebotte, Young Man at His Window, 1875, oil on canvas, private collection. Humanities 2019, 8, 128 15 of 22 Both Claude Monet and Gustave Caillebotte participated in the execution of en plein air painting. Of course, as already mentioned, much of the work that they performed on these paintings, especially in terms of retouching and finishing, was performed in studio, but the efforts of each painter to get out in nature and apply their visions of the natural world to their respective canvases is well-documented. Therefore, in terms of exteriority, each painter has participated to at least some extent. However, in terms of typically more interior painting, such as portraiture and domestic life, Monet, even with his huge volume of works, falls short of the efforts of Caillebotte. Monet was far more interested in landscapes, and especially the effect of sunlight on objects in nature, than he was with the anatomical and even psychological studies of the human figure that Caillebotte frequently composed. Again, in terms of the number of paintings produced, Monet’s œuvre outnumbers that of Caillebotte exponentially, not only due to Monet’s frequency of production, but also because of the simple fact that he lived much longer. However, within the works that Caillebotte produced, the preponderance of emphasis falls on the interior rather than the exterior, and Claude Monet vice versa. Granted, there are obvious exceptions, as Monet, especially in his earlier work, executed a number of domestic scenes, and even a few portraits. There is also much overlap in terms of subject matter, exemplified by their unique depictions of le Pont de l’Europe, their stylistically similar views from rooftops, their mutual depictions of aquatic leisure activities, and also their mutual interest in the landscapes of rural France. However, percentage-wise, Caillebotte focused a lot more on the interior than Monet, and in turn, Monet focused a lot more on the exterior than Caillebotte. Stylistically, Caillebotte is generally more exacting than Monet. Monet is obviously more painterly in terms of style, especially when comparing the exterior paintings of Monet with the interior paintings of Caillebotte. Caillebotte’s brushstroke appears to loosen at times, but this phenomenon is almost exclusive to his own paintings of the exterior. In terms of his interior paintings, Caillebotte oftentimes executes an almost photographic realism. The difference in exterior and interior style is logical, as it is the specific details of his interior paintings that give them that absorptive, and even psychological appeal. The Floor-Scrapers (Figure 6) lacks the significant level of the absorptive that has such a strong presence in Interior, Woman at a Window, and Young Man at His Window, but taking into account some of Michael Marrinan’s observations, it becomes apparent that it is within The Floor-Scrapers that many of the Naturalistic aspects previously discussed in this essay intersect, related to labor, and an interiorized exteriority that would later be observable in À Rebours, and even Germinal. Marrinan remarks that the workers in the painting are actually preparing the floor for what would become Caillebotte’s studio. Revealing the painting as an intersection between—and a reconciliation of—Naturalism’s more interiorized psychology and a more exteriorized, physical culture, Marrinan claims that the “thematic insight of The Floor-Scrapers was Caillebotte’s realization that he could mediate conflicting drives—private and personal against public and collegial—by painting the men at work finishing construction of his studio” (Marrinan 2002). The shirtless men work through the monotonous strain of the physical labor involved in scraping the floor, as their anatomical representation echoes that of the rowers in Caillebotte’s Canotiers (Figure 7), yet tilted forward about another 45◦. Although a much less grueling task, and with a far lower risk of death, The Floor-Scrapers can be read as a Naturalistic depiction of manual labor similar to that of the miners in Germinal. If Marrinan is correct, then many of the elements of À Rebours are at least implied in the painting, as this space will become a realm of artistic and intellectual pursuit, and therefore—though not as lavish or as quirky as the home of Des Esseintes—the room in the painting portrays a similar interior-based potential as the home of Huysmans’s character. Though decidedly tamer than any one of the novels, The Floor-Scrapers is a successful execution of many of the inherently Naturalistic principles of exteriorized physicality that we have discussed so far, yet the setting is a decidedly interior one. Humanities 2019, 8, 128 16 of 22 Humanities 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 22 Figure 6. Gustave Caillebotte, The Floor-Scrapers, 1875, oil on canvas, Musée d’Orsay, Paris. Figure 7. Gustave Caillebotte, Canotiers, 1877, oil on canvas, Private Collection. However, most likely to the eventual appeal of Huysmans, Caillebotte rarely represented the irritatingly ordinary task of manual labor in his paintings. And as we have already seen, Huysmans was very much positively affected by Caillebotte’s Interior, Woman at a Window. Rodolphe Rapetti Figure 6. Gustave Caillebotte, The Floor-Scrapers, 1875, oil on canvas, Musée d’Orsay, Paris. Humanities 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 22 Figure 6. Gustave Caillebotte, The Floor-Scrapers, 1875, oil on canvas, Musée d’Orsay, Paris. Figure 7. Gustave Caillebotte, Canotiers, 1877, oil on canvas, Private Collection. However, most likely to the eventual appeal of Huysmans, Caillebotte rarely represented the irritatingly ordinary task of manual labor in his paintings. And as we have already seen, Huysmans was very much positively affected by Caillebotte’s Interior, Woman at a Window. Rodolphe Rapetti Figure 7. Gustave Caillebotte, Canotiers, 1877, oil on canvas, Private Collection. However, most likely to the eventual appeal of Huysmans, Caillebotte rarely represented the irritatingly ordinary task of manual labor in his paintings. And as we have already seen, Huysmans was very much positively affected by Caillebotte’s Interior, Woman at a Window. Rodolphe Rapetti would argue that Huysmans had a similarly pleasurable reaction to Young Man at His Window, as he claims that the painting, as a “psychological study bathed in a very modern light could have only pleased him” Humanities 2019, 8, 128 17 of 22 (Rapetti 1995). Perhaps Huysmans had some form of this image of a man looking out of his window in mind as he crafted À Rebours. One can imagine Des Esseintes in a similar pose, peering at the outside world from the confines of his home, or even pondering the figure of the woman in the street, as perhaps something about her reminds him of the sexual conquests that he has had in the past. This painting depicts a very Des Esseintes-friendly—and by extension, Huysmans-friendly—environment. Marrinan observes that “it is with Young Man at His Window that Caillebotte first tackled the problem of linking his imagery of domestic, interior spaces to the world at large” (Marrinan 2002). “The picture marks the point where Caillebotte balanced an objective analysis of the physical world against a visual power to shape that world” (Marrinan 2002). Like The Floor-Scrapers, Young Man at His Window is a reconciliation of conflicting factors. Rapetti observes that “Caillebotte’s windows open onto streets, rooftops, or courtyards. The landscapes they reveal, all crisply contained within architectural masses, can barely be termed exteriors at all. Only their skies allude to an unlimited space. These openings provide views of what is, in effect another interior: that of the city” (Rapetti 1995). In an interesting move, Caillebotte has interiorized the exterior. For not only is the exterior allowed only about 14 of the composition, but it is very static, peaceful, and it is enclosed almost completely by the regimented, wall-like Haussmannian buildings. Rapetti also observes of Young Man at His Window that the “Impressionist intention to convey a sense of the open air is here wedded to a narrative approach more typical of Naturalism, which stressed the relationship between figures and their environment” (Rapetti 1995). Therefore, the painting not only reconciles the interior with the exterior, but also Impressionism with Naturalism. Again, like the insular home of Des Esseintes, the exterior penetrates the interior paintings of Caillebotte not with a physical presence per se, but rather as an intellectual idea that is inevitably filtered by the screen of interiority. On the subject of this phenomenon of exteriority existing only in terms of interiority in Caillebotte’s domestic paintings, Kirk Varnedoe observes that “there are basically two states of consciousness in Caillebotte’s world: either the person is intently absorbed by some activity within arm-span . . . or the person is staring across space at a (usually unseen) distant point . . . Caillebotte’s psychic world is one in which consistent internal isolation or self-enclosure is offset only by the loss of self-consciousness through focused activity or reverie” (Varnedoe 1987). Des Esseintes isolated himself from the rest of humanity due to a nervous condition, and even more so as a result of a growing sense of frustration with human society. Nancy Forgione tells us that “Paris’s rapid modernization had heightened the contrast between public and private spheres. More than ever before, the domestic interior was understood as conducive to cultivating the inner self, while the exterior urban realm, with its crowds and its intrusive barrage of sensory input, was considered invasive to the psyche and abrasive to the sense of self” (Forgione 2005). Being a native of Paris, Des Esseintes would have likely agreed with the above statement, and would have used similar reasoning in order to justify his intent to shun society in the attempt to “cultivate his inner self” and soothe his nerves. But perhaps a similar philosophy is at stake in the interior paintings of Caillebotte. After all, from his windows, we can see the modern Haussmanization of Paris. Sometimes we get sparsely-populated streets that represent the widening of the boulevards consistent with the Haussmannian vision, but we also occasionally get crowded streets and squares where one might indeed consider the overcrowding of these spaces as “invasive to the psyche and abrasive to the sense of self.” While the above passages from Rapetti, Varnedoe, and Forgione depict a cultural conflict between the bustling exterior world and the interior of the human psyche—which is consistent with the Naturalist methodology in its exterior and interior branches that have been established by this essay—there is clearly a psychological context that reconciles their commentary not only to the work of Caillebotte, but also to Naturalism as a movement and genre. Michael Davis observes that, in the 1880s, “a psychological tradition, which sought to read minds by reading the physical features of the body, and especially of the head and face, enjoyed ever-increasing influence” (Davis 2006). This is, of course, the modus operandi of Naturalism, as Naturalist artists and writers used external physicality to Humanities 2019, 8, 128 18 of 22 depict interior psychology, which is consistent with Davis’s discussion of ongoing fin-de-siècle “debates about minds and bodies, and the extent to which the latter can be used as means of reading the former” (Davis 2006). Coincidentally, according to Seagroatt, “human psychology was essential to Wilde’s critique of Victorian empiricism in [The Picture of Dorian Gray]” (Seagroatt 1998). “[Wilde] used psychology throughout the novel to confound the ideologues of science . . . who claimed that science could reveal universal systems . . . By casting their scientific endeavors in the service of both science and art, Wilde uses psychology to exemplify the ways in which the materialism of the ‘hard’ sciences (which cannot measure or assess aesthetic response) threaten to efface the impact of the arts on the individual psyche. Thus Wilde deploys psychology to resist the growing hegemony of scientific materialism.” (Seagroatt 1998) However, despite Wilde’s evident intent to use psychology as a form of Aesthetic anti-science in The Picture of Dorian Gray, it was psychology’s growth as a scientific study of the mind that coincided with the growth of fin-de-siècle Naturalism. This simultaneous growth is not merely a coincidence, as Naturalist writers and artists alike embraced psychology as a scientific study of the interior workings of the psyche, and also of the effects of the exterior world on that psychological interior. However, there is thankfully a physical mode of interaction that provides the possibility of mental self-cultivation as well as even the occasional intellectual stimulation: simply, taking a walk. Similar to Caillebotte’s occasional depiction of le flâneur in his paintings—particularly in Le Pont de L’Europe (Figure 8)—merely taking a walk can be a both physically- and intellectually-stimulating exercise. Forgione observes of walking that “its rhythms are conducive to contemplation; that the experience can render more vividly present the sense of the self; and that process helps integrate inner and outer worlds” (Forgione 2005). Therefore, the interiority of the self does not have to be compromised by one’s immersion in the exterior, and that principle is at the heart of the method of Naturalism in which Claude Monet—arguably the quintessential Impressionist painter—engages. Humanities 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 22 course, the modus operandi of Naturalism, as Naturalist artists and writers used external physicality to depict interior psychology, which is consistent with Davis’s discussion of ongoing fin-de-siècle “debates about minds and bodies, and the extent to which the latter can be used as means of reading the former” (Davis 2006). Coincidentally, according to Seagroatt, “human psychology was essential to Wilde’s critique of Victorian empiricism in [The Picture of Dorian Gray]” (Seagroatt 1998). “[Wilde] used psychology throughout the novel to confound the ideologues of science…who claimed that science could reveal universal systems…By casting their scientific endeavors in the service of both science and art, Wilde uses psychology to exemplify the ways in which the materialism of the ‘hard’ sciences (which cannot measure or assess aesthetic response) threaten to efface the impact of the arts on the individual psyche. Thus Wilde deploys psychology to resist the growing hegemony of scientific materialism.” (Seagroatt 1998) However, despite Wilde’s evident intent to use psychology as a form of Aesthetic anti-science in The Picture of Dorian Gray, it was psychology’s growth as a scientific study of the mind that coincided with the growth of fin-de-siècle Naturalism. This simultaneous growth is not merely a coincidence, as Naturalist writers and artists alike embraced psychology as a scientific study of the interior workings of the psyche, and also of the effects of the exterior world on that psychological interior. However, there is thankfully a physical mode of interaction that provides the possibility of mental self-cultivation as well as even the occasional intellectual stimulation: simply, taking a walk. Similar to Caillebotte’s occasional depiction of le flâneur in his paintings—particularly in Le Pont de L’Europe (Figure 8)—merely taking a walk can be a both physically- and intellectually-stimulating exercise. Forgione observes of walking that “its rhythms are conducive to contemplation; that the experience can render more vividly present the sense of the self; and that process helps integrate inner and outer worlds” (Forgione 2005). Therefore, the interiority of the self does not have to be compromised by one’s immersion in the exterior, and that principle is at the heart of the method of Naturalism in which Claude Monet—arguably the quintessential Impressionist painter—engages. Figure 8. Gustave Caillebotte, Le Pont de L’Europe, 1876, oil on canvas, Musée du Petit Palais, Geneva. Figure 8. Gustave Caillebotte, Le Pont de L’Europe, 1876, oil on canvas, Musée du Petit Palais, Geneva. One could argue that Monet’s connection to Naturalism is observable in his occasionally no-less-than-scientific studies of light and surface, and how atmospheric changes affect our individual Humanities 2019, 8, 128 19 of 22 perception of that light and surface. One merely needs to look at the bleaching effect that Monet employs in Morning Haze (Figure 9) to see this method of Naturalism at work. This is also observable in his Grain Stacks (Figures 10–15) series, as each painting is decidedly unique from the other due to atmospheric changes in light effect on surface caused by weather, time of day, and time of year. Again, this echoes Des Esseintes’s artificial amusement with colored dye and running water in order to simulate the effect of light and color on a river. One can even see similarities between the modes of Naturalism employed by Monet and Zola, respectively. John House observes that, “in trying to paint the enveloppe Monet was pursuing natural effects at their most ephemeral” (House 1986). House explains that “the term enveloppe and the verb envelopper became widely used by artists in the nineteenth century to describe the tangible, unifying atmosphere which surrounds objects” (House 1986). A similar effect can be sensed in Hemmings’s description of Zola’s intent to basically do the same thing with the world that he created in Germinal, as Hemmings observes that “the reader has the impression of being completely enveloped by the atmosphere, of being himself a denizen of this narrow world. With a little imagination he finds himself breathing the air laden with coal-dust, feeling on his shins and shoulders the sore places rubbed by the jutting pieces of schist, experiencing the nausea of hard physical labour on inadequate rations” (Hemmings 1953). In essence, this idea of the enveloppe is a very personal, subjective, decidedly interior concept, relying on personal sensation and the effect of the physical/ideological lens through which one views the exterior world.Humanities 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 22 Figure 9. Claude Monet, Morning Haze, 1888, oil on canvas, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Figure 10. Claude Monet, Grainstacks in the Sunlight, Morning Effect, 1890, oil on canvas, Private Collection. Figure 11. Claude Monet, Haystacks, (Midday), 1890–91, oil on canvas, National Gallery of Australia, Canberra. Figure 9. Claude Monet, Morning Haze, 1888, oil on canvas, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Again, at its philosophical foundation, these subjective factors seem contradictory to the presumably objective genre of Naturalism. But of course, subjectivity is no less than inescapable, and is in fact natural. Even if it is your sole intent, it is impossible to distance yourself from all of your social, personal, aesthetic, and ideological preconceptions in order to represent subject matter in a Humanities 2019, 8, 128 20 of 22 purely objective, scientific, Naturalist fashion. Zola knew this, whether he cared to admit it or not, and those that branched off of him (like van Gogh), reacted against him (like Huysmans), or inaccurately were thought to have little or nothing to do with him (like Caillebotte and Monet), oftentimes chose to embrace this inevitability of subjectivity and use it to their unique advantage in their own participation in Naturalist principles. Whether their compositions tended towards exteriority, interiority, or a reconciliation of both, these artists aided in the evolution of Naturalism, revealing a pronounced correlation between Naturalism and the more avant-garde genres that have been traditionally viewed as having more thoroughly expressed “stylistic traits of nascent modernism”: Impressionism, and even Decadence and Aestheticism. Humanities 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 22 Figure 9. Claude Monet, Morning Haze, 1888, oil on canvas, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Figure 10. Claude Monet, Grainstacks in the Sunlight, Morning Effect, 1890, oil on canvas, Private Collection. Figure 11. Claude Monet, Haystacks, (Midday), 1890–91, oil on canvas, National Gallery of Australia, Canberra. Figure 10. Claude Monet, Grainstacks in the Sunlight, Morning Effect, 1890, oil on canvas, Private Collection. Humanities 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 22 Figure 9. Claude Monet, Morning Haze, 1888, oil on canvas, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Figure 10. Claude Monet, Grainstacks in the Sunlight, Morning Effect, 1890, oil on canvas, Private Collection. Figure 11. Claude Monet, Haystacks, (Midday), 1890–91, oil on canvas, National Gallery of Australia, Canberra. Figure 11. Claude Monet, Haystacks, (Midday), 1890–91, oil on canvas, National Gallery of Australia, Canberra.Humanities 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 22 Figure 12. Claude Monet, Wheatstacks (Sunset, Snow Effect), 1890–91, oil on canvas, Art Institute of Chicago. Figure 13. Claude Monet, Wheatstack (Snow Effect, Overcast day), 1890–91, oil on canvas, Art Institute of Chicago. Figure 14. Claude Monet, Wheatstacks, Snow Effect, Morning, 1891, oil on canvas, J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles. Figure 15. Claude Monet, Haystacks at the End of Summer, Morning Effect, 1891, oil on canvas, Musée d’Orsay, Paris. Figure 12. Claude Monet, Wheatstacks (Sunset, Snow Effect), 1890–91, oil on canvas, Art Institute of Chicago. Humanities 2019, 8, 128 21 of 22 Humanities 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 22 Figure 12. Claude Monet, Wheatstacks (Sunset, Snow Effect), 1890–91, oil on canvas, Art Institute of Chicago. Figure 13. Claude Monet, Wheatstack (Snow Effect, Overcast day), 1890–91, oil on canvas, Art Institute of Chicago. Figure 14. Claude Monet, Wheatstacks, Snow Effect, Morning, 1891, oil on canvas, J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles. Figure 15. Claude Monet, Haystacks at the End of Summer, Morning Effect, 1891, oil on canvas, Musée d’Orsay, Paris. Figure 13. Claude Monet, Wheatstack (Snow Effect, Overcast day), 1890–91, oil on canvas, Art Institute of Chicago. Humanities 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 22 Figure 12. Claude Monet, Wheatstacks (Sunset, Snow Effect), 1890–91, oil on canvas, Art Institute of Chicago. Figure 13. Claude Monet, Wheatstack (Snow Effect, Overcast day), 1890–91, oil on canvas, Art Institute of Chicago. Figure 14. Claude Monet, Wheatstacks, Snow Effect, Morning, 1891, oil on canvas, J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles. Figure 15. Claude Monet, Haystacks at the End of Summer, Morning Effect, 1891, oil on canvas, Musée d’Orsay, Paris. Figure 14. Claude Monet, Wheatstacks, Snow Effect, Morning, 1891, oil on canvas, J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles. Humanities 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 22 Figure 12. Claude Monet, Wheatstacks (Sunset, Snow Effect), 1890–91, oil on canvas, Art Institute of Chicago. Figure 13. Claude Monet, Wheatstack (Snow Effect, Overcast day), 1890–91, oil on canvas, Art Institute of Chicago. Figure 14. Claude Monet, Wheatstacks, Snow Effect, Morning, 1891, oil on canvas, J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles. Figure 15. Claude Monet, Haystacks at the End of Summer, Morning Effect, 1891, oil on canvas, Musée d’Orsay, Paris. Figure 15. Claude Monet, Haystacks at the End of Summer, Morning Effect, 1891, oil on canvas, Musée d’Orsay, Paris. Funding: This research received no external funding. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest. References Borghart, Pieter. 2007. Sailing Under False Colors: Naturalism Revisited. Symposium 60: 211–25. Davis, Michael. 2006. Incongruous Compounds: Re-reading Jekyll and Hyde and Late-Victorian Psychology. Journal of Victorian Culture 11: 207–25. [CrossRef] Forgione, Nancy. 2005. Everyday Life in Motion: The Art of Walking in Late-Nineteenth-Century Paris. Art Bulletin 87: 664–87. [CrossRef] http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/jvc.2006.11.2.207 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00043079.2005.10786265 Humanities 2019, 8, 128 22 of 22 Fried, Michael. 2002. Caillebotte’s Impressionism. In Gustave Caillebotte and the Fashioning of Identity in Impressionist Paris. Edited by Morma Broude. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, esp. chp. 3. pp. 66–116. Hanson, Lawrence, and Elisabeth Hanson. 1955. Passionate Pilgrim: The Life of Vincent Van Gogh. New York: Random House. Hemmings, Frederick William John. 1953. Cry from the Pit. In Émile Zola. Edited by Harold Bloom. Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 15–36. Herbert, Robert. 1988. Impressionism: Art, Leisure, and Parisian Society. New Haven: Yale University Press. House, John. 1986. Monet: Nature into Art. New Haven: Yale University Press. Huysmans, Joris-Karl. 1969. Against the Grain (À Rebours). 1884. Translated by Havelock Ellis. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. Marrinan, Michael. 2002. Caillebotte as Professional Painter: From Studio to the Public Eye. In Gustave Caillebotte and the Fashioning of Identity in Impressionist Paris. Edited by Morma Broude. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, esp. chp. 2. pp. 21–65. Plotz, John. 2015. Speculative Naturalism and the Problem of Scale: Richard Jefferies’s After London, after Darwin. Modern Language Quarterly 76: 31–56. [CrossRef] Rapetti, Rodolphe. 1995. Paris Seen from a Window. In Gustave Caillebotte: Urban Impressionist. Edited by Anne Distel. New York: Abbeville Press Publishers, esp. chp. 4. pp. 141–75. Rosenblum, Robert. 1984. 19th-Century Art. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Seagroatt, Heather. 1998. Hard Science, Soft Psychology, and Amorphous Art in The Picture of Dorian Gray. SEL 38: 741–58. [CrossRef] Sund, Judy. 1992. True to Temperament: Van Gogh and French Naturalist Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Thomson, Belinda. 1998. Post-Impressionism, Movements in Modern Art. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Trotter, David. 2000. Cooking with Mud: The Idea of Mess in Nineteenth-Century Art and Fiction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Van Gogh, Vincent. 1885a. Letter to Theo van Gogh. Written c. April 30. Nuenen. Translated by Johanna van Gogh-Bonger. Edited by Robert Harrison. Number 404. Van Gogh, Vincent. 1885b. Letter to Theo van Gogh. Written c. May 15. Nuenen. Translated by Johanna van Gogh-Bonger. Edited by Robert Harrison. Number 409. Varnedoe, Kirk. 1987. Gustave Caillebotte. New Haven: Yale University Press. Weisberg, Gabriel P. 1992. Beyond Impressionism: The Naturalist Impulse. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Wilde, Oscar. 1999. De Profundis. In Collins Complete Works of Oscar Wilde: The Centenary Edition. Edited by Martin Holland. Glasgow: Harper Collins, pp. 980–1059. First published 1948. Wilde, Oscar. 1985. The Picture of Dorian Gray, 1891. London: Penguin Books Ltd. Zola, Émile. 1880. Le Roman Expérimental. Paris: G. Charpentier. Zola, Émile. 1914. Germinal, or Master and Man. Translated by Ernest Alfred Vizetelly. London: Chatto & Windus. © 2019 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/00267929-2827538 http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/451096 http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. References 
work_xaixddfemfg7zgh3rqhvyl2upa	----	1.5 BOOKS MH AB EXHIBITION Changing expressions Laura Spinney From his early forties, the German artist Lovis Corinth developed a habit of painting a self- portrait every year, just before his birthday. In 1911, at the age of 52, he painted himself in classical style, as a knight in armour. A year later, he portrayed himself as Samson blinded, a picture of agony in chains and a loincloth. In between, the artist had suffered a stroke in the right hemisphere of his brain. Corinth’s style evolved so dramatically over his career, from naturalism to impressionism to expressionism, that he defies classification and is often considered an outsider. Art historians and neurologists debate whether the neuro- logical damage he sustained drove him to be unconventional, or whether it was incidental to his artistic development. Once the most fashionable portrait painter in Berlin, Corinth tired of the city after expe- riencing his stroke and turned to rural land- scapes. Like the impressionists, he revisited the same spot — his beloved Walchensee in southern Germany — and painted it at differ- ent times of the day and year. In the last decade of his life, his preferred medium was drypoint, a kind of printmaking, and his style became more sensitive and expressive. One theme throughout his work is a fascina- tion for flesh and the body. His interest in the visceral took him to places other painters feared to go, such as the slaughterhouse. But whereas his early paintings celebrated nudity in biblical scenes, his later ones dwelt on more morbid aspects, including the skeleton and death. The earlier works were subversive takes on the old masters, but still naturalistic; the later ones, with their violent brushstrokes and free use of pri- mary colours, were much more expressive. To resolve the issue of his evolving style, some scholars have turned to the unbroken record of the self-portraits. Corinth’s stroke left him with the inability to process visuospatial information in the left side of his visual field, but how long this deficiency lasted is itself a matter of dispute. It is striking that in the earlier self-portraits he tends to be turned towards the left; in the later ones, towards the right. In an oil painting from 1925, he is also turned rightwards, but a mirror reflects his gaze back towards the left. Perhaps that was a final attempt at compensation — he didn’t live to see his next birthday. ■ Laura Spinney is a science writer based in London and Paris, and author of the novel The Quick. Lovis Corinth (1858–1925): Between Impressionism and Expressionism is at the Musée d’Orsay, Paris, until 22 June. EXHIBITION Etching the artist’s mind Colin Martin Artist Susan Aldworth’s interest in neuro- science was triggered during an emergency cerebral angiogram in 1999, while observing her brain’s structure on a monitor. “You are looking inside your head while think- ing, seeing, feeling; your brain is work- ing while you are looking inside it,” she marvelled. In 2005, as artist-in-residence at the Royal London Hospital, UK, Aldworth sketched works on location in hospital clinics and collaborated with consultant neuroradiologist Paul Butler and neuro- psychologist Paul Broks. Scribing the Soul is her personal explo- ration of how matter becomes mind. Now on display in Oxford, UK, the exhi- bition will move to galleries across the United Kingdom next month. In a series of prints entitled Brainscape, Aldworth chose etching as a medium for exploring cognition because, like neuro- transmission, it uses chemical reactions. Delicate surface effects were created by drawing on metal plates with marker pens and then dipping the plates quickly in acid. Ghostly lines flicker across the Lovis Corinth’s Last Self-portrait may reflect stroke damage to his brain’s right side. K U N ST H A U S, Z U R IC H S. A LD W O R T H surfaces of the etchings, printed from the blue- inked plates. Her fast etching process is a meta- phor for rapidly firing cerebral neurons, and the resulting cognitive ‘blueprints’ capture the nanoseconds when “flesh thinks”. The surfaces of 20 etched plates, displayed as a wall-mounted grid, simultaneously absorb and reflect light, alternately evoking dull and scintillating thoughts. In two kaleidoscopic films, images of Aldworth’s brain obtained during a functional magnetic resonance imag- ing scan are incorporated as a sequence of rapidly changing frames. Aldworth’s latest series of etchings, The Self is a Shadow Puppet, dramatizes the convoluted topography of the brain, its neural net- work and blood vessels. In one, a pair of ghostly hands reaches out of the dark background towards a disembodied brain, straining to touch its intangible, mysterious consciousness. In his introduction to the exhibition, Broks makes the argument that our understanding of consciousness bene- fits from artists and scientists look- ing at it collaboratively. “The self is a shadow puppet shaped by the firings of a hundred billion brain cells,” he writes. “These are conceptual conun- drums. Intract able to current science, they call for an artistic response.” ■ Colin Martin is a writer based in London. Scribing the Soul runs at Science Oxford, Oxford, UK, until 23 May; at Peninsula Arts in Plymouth, UK, from 7 June to 18 July; and at the Transition Gallery in London from 26 July to 17 August.Cerebral art: Susan Aldworth’s Between a Thing and a Thought. 36 NATURE|Vol 453|1 May 2008B O O K S & A RT S Etching the artist's mind Note 
work_xbur2de6cja3vjx2h4xlgvm3ni	----	Microsoft Word - CTO677BF Further Section Acta Anatomica 1950-51;11:677-680 REGISTER RERUM ad Vol. XI Actinopterygier, v. Telencephalon Alloxandiabetes, v. Phosphatasen Anatomie des Menschen, Lehrbuch (Nervensystem, Haut und Sinnes- organe) (B) 535 Arachnoides spinalis, Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Arachnoides spinalis und ihrer Verbindungen, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der elastischen Fasern 162 Argentaffin cells of the small intestine of the guinea-pig 414 Argyrophile Fibrillen, Bildung 664 Artères du système de conduction, v. Coeur humain Articular cartilage, nutrition, Supplementum 15 (= Suppl. 2 ad Vol. XI) Atmosphere artificiellement modifiée, influence sur le développement embryonnaire du poulet 549 -‚ cf. Augenentwicklungsstörungen Augenentwicklungsstörungen bei Ratteneinbryonen durch SauerstofFmangel in der Frühschwangerschaft 329 -‚ cf. Atmosphere Ausgußpräparate, v. Korrosionen Blutbildung, embryonale, beim Menschen (B) 536 Blutbildung in der Ontogenese vom Haushuhn (Gallus gallus) und vom Star (Sturnus vulgaris) Supplementum 14 (= Suppl. 1 ad Vol. XI) Blutversorgung (Reizleitungssystem), v. Cceur humain Cartilage, articular cartilage nutrition, Supplementum 15 (= Suppl. 2 ad Vol. XI) Cat, v. Olive Cerebrum, v. Olive, Schädelgrube Cheiloschisis, v. Gesichtsentwicklung Cilia (in the human pituitary), v. Hypophysis Cceur humain, système de conduction, dispositifs de regulation du courant sanguin le long des artères 383 Cceur, v. Synapses Cordotomie, v. Schmerzbahn Corning, H. K., Festschrift zum 90. Geburtstag 1 ff. Corning, H. K.‡ 533 Corrigendum (ad Vol. X, p. 467) 536 Courant sanguin (système de conduction), v. Cceur humain Cysts, micro-follicular (in the human pituitary), v. Hypophy sis Dentes, v. Unterkiefer Desoxyribonukleinsäure, Hydrolyse durch saure Fixierungsgemische, nach Untersuchungen an der Schilddrüse 357 Développement embryonnaire du poulet, influence de Γatmosphère artificiel lement modifiée 549 -‚ cf. Sauerstoffmangel Diabetes (Alloxandiabetes), v. Phosphatasen Elastische Fasern, v. Arachnoides Elastische Fasern in den Bändern des menschlichen Fußes 268 1) (B) = New books – Livres nouveaux – Buchbesprechungen 678 Register rerum Embryonale Blutbildung beim Menschen (B) 536 Endfüße, v. Olive Entschmerzungsoperation, v. Schmerzbahn Estomac humain, innervation, v. Neurovégétatif Extremitates, v. Fuß Facies, v. Gesichtsentwicklung Faserzahl und Faserdicke in den Wurzeln des zweiten Thorakalnervcn beim Menschen 50 Feliden, v. Schilddrüse Fermente, v. Phosphatasen Feulgensche Reaktion, v. Desoxyribomikleinsäure Fibrillen, argyrophile, Bildung 664 Fixierungstechnik, v. Desoxyribonukleinsäure Forellen-Embryo, Wachstumszone für Riimpf und Schwanz 104 Fuß, menschlicher, elastische Fasern in dessen Bändern 268 Gallus, v. Atmosphere, Blutbildung Ganglions cardiaques, synapses interneuronales 431 Gefäßversorgung, v. Venenversorgung Gehörgangsorgan von Säugetieren 616 Gesichtsentwicklung, zu deren Problem und zur Genese der Hasenscharte 300 Glycogen der Leberzelle, v. Ultraschall Guinea-pig, v. Argentaffin cells Hämal-Lymphknoten von Wiedcrkäuern (Schaf und Ziege), Cytologie 401 Hasenscharte (Genese), v. Gesichtsentwicklung Haushuhn, v. Blutbildung Haut, v. Anatomic Hepar, intrahepatic duct systems, topography 599 Histologie des Menschen, Leitfaden (B) 534 Histologie und mikroskopische Anatomie, normale des Menschen, Atlas (B) 534 Histologie und mikroskopische Anatomie des Menschen, Grundriß (B) . . 535 Huhn, v. Blutbildung Hunger, v. Phosphatasen Hypophysis, incidence and distribution of cilia in the human pituitary with a description of micro-follicular cysts derived from Rathke-’s cleft . . 361 Impressiones gyrorum seu digitatae, v. Schädelgrube Inanition, v. Phosphatasen Index {Wolf-Heidegger), v. Körperbauindex Intestine, small intestine of the guinea-pig, argentaffin cells 414 Isotopes, v. Cartilage Juga cerebralia, v. Schädelgrube Kernvohimen, v. Zellkernvolumen Körperbauindex auf Grund der Binnenmaße des Thorax 348 Korrosionen und Ausgüsse, anatomische, Verwendung von Methylmethacryl- säureester 208 Kunstharze, v. Korrosionen Kupffersche Sternzellen, v. Ultraschall Leberzelle, v. Ultraschall Ligamenta (Fuß), v. Elastische Fasern Register rerum 679 Liquorzirkulation, Demonstrationsexperimente 212 Lymphknoten, v. Hämal-Lymphknoten Mammalia, v. Gehörgangsorgan Man, cf. Anatomie, Blutbildung, Cæur, Fuß, Histologie, Hypophysis, Mastoidpneumatisation, Neurovégétatif, Nierenbecken, Schädelgrube, Schmerzbahn, Thorakalnerven, Unterkiefer Mastoidpneumatisation beim Menschen, Ausmaß 215 Maus, cf. Niere, Phosphatasen Methode, v. Korrosionen Mikroskopische Anatomie, v. Histologie Mißbildungen, v. Gesichtsentwicklung Nephren, Rückbildung in der embryonalen Mausniere 290 Nerven (Nervensystem, Zentralnervensystem), cf. Anatomie, Neurovégétatif Olive, Schmerzbahn, Synapse, Thorakalnerven Neurochirurgie, v. Schmerzbahn Neurovégétatif, système neurovégétatif périphérique etudes; innervation de Γestomac humain 490 Niere, Rückbildung von Nephren in der embryonalen Mausniere 290 Nierenbecken, menschliches, zu seiner Entwicklungsgeschichte 120 ÌNuklealreaktion, v. Desoxyribonukleinsäure Olive, inferior, of the cat, observations on normal and degenerating terminal boutons 461 Ontogenesis, cf. Atmosphere, Augenentwicklungsstörungen, Blutbildung, Forellen-Embryo, Gesichtsentwicklung, Niere, Nierenbecken, Telen- cephalon, Unterkiefer Orbitalwindungen, v. Schädelgrube Oxygène, v. Développement Phosphatasen, Einfluß der akuten Inanition und des Alloxandiabetes auf die Phosphatasen verschiedener Organe 192 Phosphatasen in der Schilddrüse normaler sowie mit Thiouracil und Thyroxin behandelter Ratten 246 Pisces, v. Forellen-Embryo Pnetunatisation (Processus mastoideus), v. Mastoidpneumatisation Polyacrylsäureester, v. Korrosionen Polymerisierende Kunststoffe, v. Korrosionen Poulet, v. Atmosphere Progenie, embryonale, v. Unterkiefer Rabbit, v. Cartilage Radioactive gold, v. Cartilage Rat, cf. Augenentwicklungsstörungen, Phosphatasen, Schilddrüse, Thymus Rathkesche Tasche, v. Hypophysis Raubtiere, v. Schilddrüse Reizleitungssystem, v. Cceur humain Ren, v. Nephren, Nierenbecken Ribonukleinsäure, v. Desoxyribonukleinsäure Ruminantes, v. Hämal-Lymphknoten Säugetiere, v. Gehörgangsorgan Salmo, v. Forellen- 680 Register rerum Sauerstoffmangel, Augenentwicklungsstörungen bei Rattenembryonen durch Sauerstoffmangel in der Frühschwangerschaft 329 –‚ cf. Atmosphere SauerstofF-Milieu, v. Développement Schädelgrube, Beziehungen zwischen dem Relief der vorderen Schädelgrube und den Orbital·windungen beim Menschen 83 Schaf, v. Hämal-Lymphknoten Schilddrüse, Phosphatasen in der Schilddrüse normaler sowie mit Thiouracil und Thyroxin behandelter Ratten 246 -‚ Venenversorgung bei den Raubtieren (Feliden und Ursiden) . . . 478 -‚ Zellkernvolumen in der Schilddrüse normaler sowie mit Thiouracil und Thyroxin behandelter Ratten 146 -‚ Desoxyribonukleinsäure Schmerzbahn, neuro-anatomische Studie zu den Entschmerzungsoperationen in der medullo-pontinen Schmerzbahn 19 Sinnesorgane, v. Anatomie Small intestine, v. Intestine Star, v. Blutbildung Sturnus, v. Blutbildung Synapses interneutrales dans les ganglions cardiaques 431 Telencephalon in some lower vertebrates, some remarks on the ontogeny . 537 Terminal boutons, v. Olive Thiouracil, v. Schilddrüse Thorakalnerven beim Menschen; Faserzahl und Faserdicke in den Wurzeln des zweiten Thorakalnerven 50 Thorax, Körperbauindex auf Grund seiner Binnenmaße 348 Thymus, possibilities of analyzing experimental inducement of acute thymus involution 586 Thyreoidea, v. Schilddrüse Thyroxin, v. Schilddrüse Ultraschall, Einfluß auf das Glycogen der Leberzelle und auf die Kupfferschen Sternzellen 444 Unterkiefer, umwegige Entwicklung des menschlichen Unterkiefers im Lichte der Zahnentwicklung und der extrauterinen Frühzeit .... 5 Ursiden, v. Schilddrüse Venenversorgung der Schilddrüse bei den Raubtieren (Feliden und Ursiden) 478 Ventriculus, v. Neurovégétatif Vertebrata, v. Telencephalon Warzenfortsatz, v. Mastoidpneumatisation Wiederkäuer, v. Hämal-Lymphknoten Zahnentwicklung, v. Unterkiefer Ziege, v. Hämal- Lymphknoten News from Universities – Nouvelles universitaires Universitätsnachrichten Corning, H. K 533 Körner, F 533 Horstmann, E 533 Ortmann, R 533 
work_xbxv2eifcnartasdwmxzgfgize	----	“La Toilette”. When a doctor becomes a painter: Frederic Bazille Vol.:(0123456789)1 3 Journal of Endocrinological Investigation (2019) 42:1255–1256 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40618-019-01040-7 E N D O C R I N O LO G Y A N D A R T “La Toilette”. When a doctor becomes a painter: Frederic Bazille L. Obolonczyk1  · M. Berendt‑Obolonczyk1  · K. Sworczak1 Received: 15 March 2019 / Accepted: 21 March 2019 / Published online: 15 April 2019 © The Author(s) 2019 Abstract Purpose To find endocrinological disturbances in impressionism. Patients and methods Analysis of “La Toilette” painting of Frederice Bazille. Results We present a masterpiece work of Frederic Bazille “La Toilette” where a large goiter is visible. Short description of Bazille’s life and painting is included. Conclusion Despite of unique painting technique, thyroid disorders are visible even in impressionism. Keywords Frederic Bazille · Endocrinology · Painting Jean Frederic Bazille (1841–1870) was born in Montpellier and grew up in a wealthy, middle class family. His father was a prominent wine dealer. Due to a number of father’s con- nections, young Frederic met an art collector Alfred Bruyas. During this closer relationship, he could admire paintings of, e.g., Delacroix and Corot. First as a spectator, later as a young artist his painting adventure slowly started. In 1859, Bazille started medical study in Montpellier and since 1862 continued it in Paris. A contact with impression- ists as Monet, Renoir and Sisley made him more painter than doctor. He was also known as a great benefactor because of his material support for his friends (especially Monet). In 1864, he finished medical study, but he never worked as a doctor. He died at age of 29 years in Franco-German war [1]. “La toillete” oil on canvas was finished in 1870 just before Bazille’s death (Fig. 1). It presents a French art model Lise Trehot, but for us more interesting is a mysterious woman on the right side. We see clearly large, smooth goiter. No eye signs, but slim woman’s stature does not help with differen- tiation between simple goiter and Graves’ disease. Histori- cally, goiter seems to be “older” disease (i.e., paintings of Flemish or Italian Renaissance painters) but this question will be unanswered [2, 3]. According to Encyclopaedia Brittanica, Bazille was an unenthusiastic medical student. I strongly deny this opinion when I see such perfect thyroid. I hope every student have Bazille’s perception [4]. * L. Obolonczyk przepona@wp.pl 1 Department of Endocrinology and Internal Medicine, Medical University of Gdansk, Debinki 7 Street, 80-952 Gdansk, Poland http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7975-271X http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1802-6877 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9866-5670 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s40618-019-01040-7&domain=pdf 1256 Journal of Endocrinological Investigation (2019) 42:1255–1256 1 3 Compliance with ethical standards Conflict of interest On behalf of all the authors, the corresponding au- thor states that there is no conflict of interest. Ethical approval This paper does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors. Informed consent No informed consent. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Crea- tive Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creat iveco mmons .org/licen ses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribu- tion, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. References 1. Jourdan A (1992) Frédéric Bazille: prophet of impressionism. Publisher: Brooklyn Museum Bookshop; First edition (November 1, 1992) 2. Lazzeri D, Pozzilli P, Zhang YX, Persichetti P (2015) Goiter in paintings by Rogier van der Weyden (1399–1464). Thyroid 25(5):559–562 3. Sterpetti AV, Fiori E, de Cesare A (2016) Goiter in the Art of Renaissance Europe. Am J Med. 129(8):892–895 4. Encyclopaedia Brittanica. https ://www.brita nnica .com/biogr aphy/ Frede ric-Bazil le. Accessed 07 Mar 2019 Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Fig. 1 La Toilette (Decem- ber 1869–March 1870), by Frederic Bazille, oil on canvas 153 × 148.5 cm [Musee Fabre, Montpellier, France]. Please note large goiter on first right lady http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.britannica.com/biography/Frederic-Bazille https://www.britannica.com/biography/Frederic-Bazille “La Toilette”. When a doctor becomes a painter: Frederic Bazille Abstract Purpose Patients and methods Results Conclusion References 
work_xi2ar7kn6far7ipyt4tj2ilrau	----	[PDF] Residency Postinterview Communications: More Harm Than Good? | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.4300/JGME-D-15-00062.1 Corpus ID: 44491782Residency Postinterview Communications: More Harm Than Good? @article{Grimm2016ResidencyPC, title={Residency Postinterview Communications: More Harm Than Good?}, author={L. Grimm and Carolyn S Avery and C. Maxfield}, journal={Journal of graduate medical education}, year={2016}, volume={8 1}, pages={ 7-9 } } L. Grimm, Carolyn S Avery, C. Maxfield Published 2016 Medicine Journal of graduate medical education T he National Resident Matching Program (NRMP) was designed to provide a fair, reproducible, and confidential means of matching medical students and graduate medical education programs. During the recruitment process, residency programs and applicants actively communicate with one another to gather information to make more informed decisions. When these communications occur after interviews, but before rank order lists are submitted, they are termed ‘‘postinterview communications.’’ To prevent… Expand View on PubMed jgme.org Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper 18 CitationsHighly Influential Citations 1 Background Citations 3 View All Topics from this paper Internal medicine specialty Training Programs Education, Medical, Graduate Drug abuse Education, Medical Paper Mentions Blog Post How medical students can game Match Day KevinMD.com 11 March 2017 News Article How medical students game the residency match program Stat News 8 March 2017 Blog Post Should post-interview communications between residency programs and applicants be strictly regulated? Market Design 19 February 2016 18 Citations Citation Type Citation Type All Types Cites Results Cites Methods Cites Background Has PDF Publication Type Author More Filters More Filters Filters Sort by Relevance Sort by Most Influenced Papers Sort by Citation Count Sort by Recency Post-interview Thank-you Communications Influence Both Applicant and Residency Program Rank Lists in Emergency Medicine Corlin Jewell, Tillman David, Aaron S. Kraut, J. Hess, M. Westergaard, B. Schnapp Medicine The western journal of emergency medicine 2019 2 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Applicant-to-Residency Program Communication: Does It Matter? Roberto N Solis, Pompeyo R Quesada, C. Ma, Lindsay M Olinde, R. Diaz Medicine The Annals of otology, rhinology, and laryngology 2020 Save Alert Research Feed The Urology Match Process and the Limited Value of Post-Interview Communication for Program Directors. N. Farber, C. Neylan, +5 authors S. Elsamra Medicine Urology 2019 3 Save Alert Research Feed Preferences and Practices of U.S. Ophthalmology Residency Program Directors Regarding Post-interview Communication with Residency Applicants Allison J. Chen, E. M. Tran, M. Clark, I. Scott, P. Greenberg Psychology 2018 1 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Postinterview Communications: Two Surveys of Internal Medicine Residency Program Directors Before and After Guideline Implementation K. Chacko, S. Reddy, Michael Kisielewski, S. Call, L. Willett, S. Chaudhry Psychology, Medicine Academic medicine : journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges 2018 5 Save Alert Research Feed The Urology Match and Postinterview Communication. N. Farber, C. Neylan, A. Kaplan, E. Singer, S. Elsamra Medicine Urology 2018 4 Save Alert Research Feed Applicant Interview Experiences and Postinterview Communication of the 2016 Radiation Oncology Match Cycle. C. Berriochoa, M. Ward, +4 authors R. Tendulkar Medicine International journal of radiation oncology, biology, physics 2016 12 Highly Influenced PDF View 4 excerpts, cites background Save Alert Research Feed "What Program Directors Think" V: Results of the 2019 Spring Survey of the Association of Program Directors in Radiology (APDR). A. Rozenshtein, B. Griffith, +9 authors J. Swanson Psychology, Medicine Academic radiology 2020 3 View 1 excerpt, cites background Save Alert Research Feed Prevalence of Post-Interview Communication in the Ophthalmology Match and Its Impact on Program Directors' Ranking of Applicants David Cui, Nicholas L Behunin, I. Scott, Heidi Luise Wingert Psychology 2020 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Trends in Radiation Oncology Residency Applicant Interview Experiences and Post-Interview Communication. M. Tom, C. Berriochoa, C. Reddy, R. Tendulkar Medicine International journal of radiation oncology, biology, physics 2019 2 Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 ... References SHOWING 1-10 OF 14 REFERENCES SORT BYRelevance Most Influenced Papers Recency Professionalism and the Match: A Pediatric Residency Program's Postinterview No-Call Policy and Its Impact on Applicants D. Opel, R. Shugerman, H. McPhillips, W. Swanson, Sarah Archibald, D. Diekema Medicine Pediatrics 2007 17 Save Alert Research Feed The Prevalence and Nature of Postinterview Communications Between Residency Programs and Applicants During the Match A. Jena, V. Arora, +10 authors S. Reddy Medicine Academic medicine : journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges 2012 36 Highly Influential View 5 excerpts, references background Save Alert Research Feed Relationship Between Postinterview Correspondence From Residency Program Applicants and Subsequent Applicant Match Outcomes. E. Swan, Thomas E. Baudendistel Medicine Journal of graduate medical education 2014 7 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Fixing the Match: A Survey of Resident Behaviors Purushottam A Nagarkar, J. Janis Medicine Plastic and reconstructive surgery 2013 24 View 2 excerpts, references methods and background Save Alert Research Feed Recruitment behavior and program directors: how ethical are their perspectives about the match process? P. Carek, K. Anderson, A. Blue, B. Mavis Medicine Family medicine 2000 52 PDF Save Alert Research Feed Emergency Medicine Residency Applicants’ Perceptions about Being Contacted after Interview Day L. Yarris, N. Deiorio, Sarah Gaines Medicine The western journal of emergency medicine 2010 10 Save Alert Research Feed Communication between Programs and Applicants during Residency Selection: Effects of the Match on Medical Students' Professional Development J. B. Miller, D. Schaad, R. Crittenden, N. Oriol, C. Maclaren Medicine Academic medicine : journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges 2003 18 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Is match ethics an oxymoron? K. Anderson, D. Jacobs, A. Blue Medicine American journal of surgery 1999 49 View 2 excerpts, references background Save Alert Research Feed Emergency medicine residency applicant perceptions of unethical recruiting practices and illegal questioning in the match. R. Thurman, E. Katz, +4 authors A. Storrow Medicine Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine 2009 24 View 2 excerpts, references background Save Alert Research Feed General surgery program directors' perceptions of the match. Anderson, Jacobs Medicine Current surgery 2000 32 Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 ... Related Papers Abstract Topics Paper Mentions 18 Citations 14 References Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. 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work_xl5b6vvxmrdthp3zykemwdmg5m	----	1934.] PSYCHIATRY. 443 Epilepsy. XIII : Aura in Epilepsy. (Arch. of Neur. and Psychiat., vol. xxx, p.@ Aug. , 1933.) Lennox, 11―.G., and Cobb, S. The authors analysed the reports on 1,359 non-institutional epileptics. Aur@e were present in 562%, which agrees with Gowers' 57% on 2,013 cases. They were less frequent in patients having only petit nial or its equivalent than in others. A history of aura was not less common in the mentally deteriorated. In those who had had attacks for five years or longer the incidence of a history of aura was 27% greater than in those who had had less than five years of seizures. The mentally deteriorated more frequently had visceral aura@ ; the mentally normal, aurie of pain, pariesthesia@ or numbness. Aura@ of potential localizing value occurred in 70% of the patients with a history of injury of the brain antedating the seizures, and in 41% of those without such a history. G. W. H. T. FLEMING. A mbulatory A utomatism in Epilepsy [L ‘¿�automatisme ambulatoise épileptique]. (Ann. Med. Psych., vol. xiv (ii), p. 609, Dec., 1933.) Marchand, C. Of a series of 1,052 epileptics observed at the out-patients' department of the Henri-Rousselle Hospital, 69 (64°@) had a history of ambulatory automatism. This paper includes full reports and details on 43 cases (@@‘attacks). In 36 cases the automatism occurred in persons previously subject to classical epilepsy ; in 5 cases convulsions only appeared at a later date, while in 2 cases there were typical epileptic automatism without fits. @Etiology differed in no way from that of other epileptics (infantile convulsions, 8 ; cranial trauma, 6 ; neuro-syphilis, i ; hereditary syphilis, 2). It is noted that practically all subjects were adults at the time of the first fugue. The onset is sudden, rarely preceded by an aura (2 cases), and very seldom directly by a convul sion. Duration is variable—a few minutes to 24 hours. Return to consciousness is usually sudden ; there is marked fatigue, the subject often sleeping for several hours. In practically all the attacks there is complete amnesia for the incidents of the automatism ; in a very few cases vague memory traces are observed. During the automatism, in 37 cases the subject walked only ; in the others he bicycled, trained, “¿�trammed ‘¿�‘¿�or motored. Characteristic of the epileptic fugue is the absence of motive or end. The individual is clearly in a somnambulistic state ; the higher faculties have ceased to function and walking is rarely normal. The writer recognizes three degrees. In the first, medullary and motor centres concerning walking alone persist. In the second, associated habitual reflexes permitting the avoidance of obstacles and dangers are also uninhibited. In the third degree the individual accomplishes in a mechanical fashion complicated acts sufficiently correctly for his condition not to be commented upon. A section is devoted to the differential diagnosis, which is considered to be straightforward in the majority of cases. There is a further section on medico legal problems. In the writer's experience, contrary to popular belief, the epileptic in a fugue state is nearly always calm, showing no evidence of agitation, violence or brutality. Of the patients observed, one attempted to strangle his wife, one violated a grave, another stole, one left a restaurant without paying his bill and three urinated in public. S. ‘¿�vI.COLEMAN. Presbvophrenia [Uber Presbyophreniei. (Arch. f. Psychiat., vol. xcix, p.@ 1933.) Bostroem, A. The author thinks that presbyophrenia, although a definite clinical entity, cannot be distinguished anatomically from other senile psychoses. He defines it as a senile disorder in which there are no particular defects except disturbance of memory and impressionability (Merkfahigkeit). He purports to discover why. in some cases, the senile changes in the brain give rise to a clinical picture of presbyophrenia. Twelve cases are described (i i females and i male) . All patients not only showed a slightly hypomanic temperament, but were also very active personalities, who had previously succeeded in coping with the stresses LXXX. 30 
work_xmplksczq5f7zchpozous534xi	----	1 Volume 115| Number 7/8 July/August 2019 Book Review https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2019/a0313 © 2019. The Author(s). Published under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence. The power of books and their censorship in South Africa BOOK TITLE: Real and imagined readers: Censorship, publishing and reading under apartheid AUTHOR: Rachel Matteau Matsha ISBN: 978186914402 (paperback) PUBLISHER: UKZN Press, Pietermaritzburg; ZAR325 PUBLISHED: 2018 REVIEWER: Keyan G. Tomaselli AFFILIATION: Department of Communication Studies, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa EMAIL: Keyant@uj.ac.za HOW TO CITE: Tomaselli KG. The power of books and their censorship in South Africa. S Afr J Sci 2019;115(7/8), Art. #a0313, 1 page. https://doi. org/10.17159/sajs.2019/a0313 ARTICLE INCLUDES: ☐ Peer review ☐ Supplementary material PUBLISHED: 30 July 2019 When I was a lecturer at the University of the Witwatersrand (Wits) during the late 1970s, De Jong’s Bookshop, easily accessible across Jan Smuts Avenue, became one of the clandestine centres that sold banned books in Johannesburg. ‘A new consignment is in’ was the rallying cry for the Left who immediately descended on the bookshop to obtain their purchases – handed over in brown paper bags. Real & Imagined Readers sketches this period most evocatively: it was a time of rampant censorship, book bannings and book burnings. But it was also the era of critical student newspapers, alternative publishers and of student and activist resistance to apartheid. For readers of my vintage, Matsha’s story was not an imagined experience. For us it was real. The value of this book, comprising five chapters and a conclusion, is in the way that its author recreates a sense of ‘being there’, illustrating the experience, the period, the publishers, authors and readers. The contents deal with book and magazine censorship, censors versus publishers, librarians and booksellers, readers and their roles, and how readers were imagined under the various censorship regimes that spanned over a century. The reference to ‘imagined’ relates to the ways in which the changing censorship apparatus constructed readers during different periods – from the impressionable and naïve, the average, the good reader, and from the likely to the probable reader. As fresh legislation was enacted, new literary influences informed concepts of censorship, although such influences waxed and waned according to the political climate. What is also revealed in Matsha’s compelling narrative is the complexity, nuance and contradictions that characterised the 20th century. Censorship was never total, although one startling passage reveals how thousands of banned books were incinerated in a massive oven managed by the then-state-owned Iron and Steel Corporation (ISCOR). The scale of book banning was extraordinary, but so were the struggles against censorship that included many Afrikaans-language novelists, poets and academics, whose books were routinely banned. Alternative externally funded publishing houses were established, and innovative ways of distributing books were devised to counter censorship. We learn here of the inspector from the Publication Control Board who toured the country, infiltrating bookshops and examining shelves for ‘undesirable’ material. Notwithstanding such close surveillance, alternative bookstores in the big cities, alternative groups of reading communities and other forms of clandestine distribution and discussion took place. Independent publishers found ways of distributing their ‘undesirable’ titles before the censors discovered them. Dissemination occurred no matter how many books were banned, burned and confiscated. Banned books migrated between individuals and reading groups, and books were found by activists and writers in old boxes in storerooms belonging to family members who had somehow appropriated them. The narrative on readers’ roles, examined in Chapter 4, aroused my many memories on how crucial reading was in cultural mobilisation; how reading-as-subversion was in the air; how reading beyond educational courses was a pre-requisite; and how literacy was a social practice as an indicator of oppositional identity formation. Matsha brings these remembered and lived relations to life. Clandestine networks overcame official censorship and these included authors, multiracial all, and courageous publishers who contested the repressive hegemony. Real & Imagined Readers ends with a nuanced discussion of the changing censorship legislation in South Africa since 1892 (obscene materials), the Customs Management Act of 1913, the Suppression of Communism Act (1950), the Publication and Entertainment Act of 1963 and the Publications Act of 1974. Matsha examines the philosophies and assumptions that shaped the censors’ decisions during these different periods and legislative regimes. After 1963, the reader of the material, rather than the producer, became increasingly important because sceptical Afrikaner intellectuals, who wanted to be flexible in retaining their right to social critique, became involved. The 1974 Act took no account of their literary expertise and moved from the more discriminatory ‘likely reader’ to the mundane, easily led-astray ‘average man’. This regressive political shift of category from assumed intelligent readers to susceptible readers split the Afrikaner intelligentsia, but the reintroduction of the imaginary ‘likely reader’ as a measure of literary reflection occurred nonetheless. This shift was especially evident in the establishment of a more open-minded Appeal Board that overturned many of the censors’ bannings. What I also appreciated in this immensely readable book was its implicit conceptual framework that never intruded on the narrative, and the implication that when citizens do not read they cannot engage adequately in civic organisation or in the public sphere. Currently, in this age of social media, anything goes, fake news predominates, and logic and evidence are no longer valued by individuals who seek only scapegoats on whom to vent their rage. From Real & Imagined Readers we learn how much the anti-apartheid struggle owed to the literati of all ethnic groups and persuasions, including authors, discerning readers and political activists who analysed conditions through reading voraciously, circulating that reading and intelligently acting on it. http://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2019/a0313 www.sajs.co.za https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2995-0726 mailto:Keyant@uj.ac.za%20ennygrice1957@gmail.com http://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2019/a0313 http://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2019/a0313 https://www.sajs.co.za/associationsmemberships https://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.17159/sajs.2019/a0313&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2019-07-30 
work_xo4urzhwkbf6zdhntu2nkljz5u	----	Tracing Moments Jen Seevinck Leonardo, Volume 43, Number 3, June 2010, pp. 312-313 (Article) Published by The MIT Press For additional information about this article Access Provided by University of Technology, Sydney at 01/25/11 1:53AM GMT http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/len/summary/v043/43.3.seevinck.html http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/len/summary/v043/43.3.seevinck.html 312 LEONARDO, Vol. 43, No. 3, pp. 312–313, 2010 ©2010 ISAST T r A n S A c T Io n S TRACING MOMENTS Jen Seevinck, Creativity and Cognition Studios, FIT & Eng, University of Technology Sydney, Haymarket Sydney, 2000 Australia. E-mail: jenseevinck@smArtnoise.net Submitted: 12.11.2009 Abstract The interactive art system +-now captures moments in the past and present for dreamy, reflective play. It is composed of sand, imagery and interaction. This paper traces the creative process from initial land- scape studies to museum installation in 2008. Key design concepts discussed include the origin and use of sand and emergence. Key words: Emergence, interactive art, practice, perception, ambiguity, sand, Tangible User Interface, Augmented Reality. Description of Art System Plus minus now (+-now) is an interactive art system that was installed at Beta_space at the Sydney Powerhouse Museum in 2008 [1]. The work uses sand as an interface to interact with two images. One image is monochromatic and projected on a wall screen while the other is colourful and projected directly onto fine, white sand. The sand surface can be described as a tangible user inter- face [2] while the use of real-time, vir- tual imagery on the sand further defines the work as augmented reality [3]. Ges- tures in the sand result in imagery pro- jected on the sand and the rear-projected screen (Fig. 1.) The imagery behaves like visual echoes, mimicking the shape, direction and speed of a gesture in the sand with repeated renderings. On the wall screen these monochromatic layers add up in opacity to create areas of in- creased brightness that can be interpreted as new shapes. The imagery also per- sists, enabling interaction with a history of one’s gestures. Tracing the Creative Development +-now is inspired by a natural landscape with a pond. I initially conducted a site analysis to study the character of this place. This included land and water fea- tures as well as less tangible aspects. I interpreted the place to have a dreamy, reflective quality and this ‘poetic’ analy- sis of my experience led to two key con- cepts. They are: (1) a lost, reflective type of interaction at the water’s edge; and (2) an ambiguity of imagery seen on and through the water. The remainder of the paper explains how these concepts inform the design of +-now. Lost Interaction As I reflected on my impressions of the site I found them to resonate with Martin Heidegger’s concept of ‘dasein’. The quietly reflective and slightly dreamy experience was generalized to a way of ‘being in the world’ similar to ‘being in love’ and different from the type of be- ing such as ‘being in a vessel’ like a room or a car [4]. I interpreted this as describing highly involved interaction, perhaps to the point of ‘losing oneself’ in what one is doing. This kind of ‘deep involvement’ became one of my design objectives. Sand Sand was among several natural artifacts collected from the site. It was used for the interface because it was a rich re- minder of that place and because of its affordances: sand is familiar to people, they understand how it behaves and know what they can do with it. It sup- ports natural, intuitive interaction. I rea- soned that these qualities would support a participant ‘losing themselves’ in the w , ed w rticipant can leave detailed traces of their interaction and themselves behind. ork. Its associations of the beach also encourage a sense of play. Sand is a continuous medium. Ges- tures are sampled as a whole, including direction, speed and a range of other details usually excluded from discrete inputs such as button pushing. In +-now sand records traces of events past, like footprints on the beach. This aspect of the interface has been tightly integrat ith the imagery which also ‘persists’, or retains a memory of events past. The use of sand supports a highly in- volved interaction because the material is intuitive and a pa Fig. 1. +-now, installation, .75 x .9 x 1.2m high pedestal interface with rear projection screen behind, 2008. (© Jen Seevinck) Transactions 313 T r A n S A c T Io n S Perceptual Ambiguities While visiting the landscape I found that the reflective experience was accompa- nied by a ‘softening’ or blurring of my visual focus. When I shifted my focus I could construct (imagine) new objects. This was particularly noticeable at the water’s edge. For example, reflections and shadows on the water surface com- bined seamlessly with floating leaves and silt on the base of the pond (Fig. 2). In Fig. 3 I explored the eye’s changing focus as attention shifts between differ- ent objects, to combine views of these objects and construct new images or objects. In this way ambiguity is leading to the perception of something new. Emergent Shapes More recently I experienced another slightly different, ‘perceptual ambigu- ity’. I found that in the afternoon light the aerial roots of a Bald Cypress swamp tree protruding through the water’s sur- face can combine with their shadows to manifest diamond shapes (Fig. 4). These diamonds are similar to the triangle in Fig. 5 because both are instances of emergent shapes. Emergence occurs when a new form or concept appears that was not directly implied by the context from which it arose [5, 6]. New shapes can also emerge during interaction with the art system +-now. Persistence of the imagery (its ‘echo’) means that the images of several gestures can overlap. Since the imagery is trans- parent, overlapping areas accumulate opacity and have greater brightness. The brighter areas can be perceived as emer- gent shapes (Fig. 6). Seevinck and Ed- monds [7] describe this method of constructing emergence in detail. Site analysis of the water landscape revealed an active process of perception. Changing focus affords the construction of new imagery, including reflections on the water’s surface and underwater views; and the emergence of new shapes. The ability to perceive emergent shapes in +-now is facilitated through layering gestures. Like seeing figures in the clouds, it is hoped to support a reflective, dreamy experience. Summary The paper traces the creative evolution of the interactive art system +-now from poetic site analysis, through extracted concepts, to the design installed at Beta_space in 2008. I have aimed to build a system which is capable of sup- porting an involved and lost type of participant experience. Emergent im- agery and a tangible, intuitive and im- pressionable interface originate from landscape studies to support this objec- tive. The resultant aesthetic ‘whole’ lets a participant leave traces of themselves in both material and image. These traces of past actions accumulate to create new images, encouraging the participant to dream and reflect in the ‘now’. Fig. 2. A photograph from the site com- bines water surface (e.g. reflections) and sub-surface imagery (e.g. leaf litter) to form a single composition. (© Jen Seevinck) Fig. 4. Diamond shapes emerge in nature. (© Jen Seevinck) References 1. Seevinck, J., +-now. 2008, Beta_space, Sydney Powerhouse Museum: Sydney. Interactive installa- tion. 2. Ishii, H., Ullmer, B. Tangible bits: towards seam- less interfaces between people, bits and atoms. Proc. SIGCHI Human Factors. 1997. Atlanta, Georgia, United States: ACM Press pp. 234-241. 3. Azuma, R.T., A survey of augmented reality. Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments, Vol. 6. No. 4 (1997), pp. 355-385. 4. Heidegger, M., Being and Time. 1978 Blackwell Publishing. 5. Edmonds, E.A., Candy, L., Jones, R., Soufi, B., Support for Collaborative Design: Agents and Emergence. Communications of the ACM, Vol. 37. No. 7 (1994), pp. 41-47. 6. Gero, J.S., Creativity, Emergence and Evolution in Design. Knowledge Based Systems, Vol. 9. No. 7 (1996), pp. 435-448. Fig. 5. A triangle shape emerges from 2 overlapping squares. (© Jen Seevinck) 7. Seevinck, J., Edmonds, E., Emergence and the art system ‘plus minus now’. Design Studies, Vol. 29. No. 6, Interaction Design Special Issue (2008), pp. 541-555. Fig. 3. The ambiguity of images on and through the water. (© Jen Seevinck) Fig. 6. +-now, installation, 2008. Rectangular shapes emerge in frame 4 from overlap- ping gestures. (© Jen Seevinck) 
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work_xrpuz4qw4nbz3kc6qysskgnv5m	----	1 * A slightly amended version of this paper appears in the Journal of Organizational Ethnography Who are we trying to impress?: reflections on navigating political science, ethnography and interpretation John Boswell, University of Southampton Jack Corbett, Griffith University and Australian National University Introduction How to turn laboriously collected, fine grained and nuanced qualitative material into stylized argumentative prose suitable for publication in disciplinary journals is a question that confronts all ethnographers. In a recent article, we reflected on the significant dissonance we felt as young scholars writing up our PhD research between the experience of this process and a rigorously ‘systematic’ social science (Corbett and Boswell 2015). We came at the argument from the disciplinary perspective of political science, a relative latecomer to questions of this nature. The conclusion we came to is that interpreting fieldwork can legitimately be (and, for us, certainly felt) impressionistic rather than systematic; the interpretations we communicate represent illuminating and interesting, but also stylized, partial and fleeting, impressions of the phenomena under investigation. Rather than suppressing this aspect of doing research, we maintain that researchers should acknowledge, embrace, and incorporate it in our practice. 2 In presenting this argument to a range of academic audiences, either at conferences, via the peer review process, or in casual conversation, it quickly became clear that it met with firm, but conflicting, opposition. For many in the mainstream of political science, the discipline in which we are both situated, appropriating the label impressionism, especially by way of an analogy to the art world, seemed farfetched and career limiting. For some scholars associated with the ‘interpretive turn’ in the study of politics, for whom ethnography is a methodological label employed to critique the dominance of quantitative methods in America in particular, our argument was read as a hostile critique bordering on betrayal. In contrast, anthropologists or scholars whose work falls under the label cultural studies were not so much shocked or angry as underwhelmed. For them, the claims we were making about the limits and problems of writing up ‘thick description’ seemed so obvious as to be banal. Unperturbed by these (somewhat caricatured) receptions, we seek here to situate our argument in and across three communities of academic practice – mainstream political science, ethnography, and interpretive theory – in order to understand why our argument has provoked such discordant reactions. We reconcile these responses by delving into the relationships between these three communities, and reflecting on our own experiences in navigating across them. In particular, given the focus of the special issue on political science, we seek to show that far from being banal (or indeed outlandish), our argument about the impressionistic nature of ethnographic research can open up a timely debate about how this method is understood, used, and judged in and across different disciplines. This article has three parts. Firstly we offer a brief description of Corbett’s (2015) research and the different ways it has been labeled and received by each of our three 3 chosen audiences to ground the discussion. Again, our discussion relies on our impressions – the reception of our work at conferences, by reviewers and in casual conversation – as review articles will take time to appear. Second, we unpack these labels and situate each reaction in the methodological debates that infuse these communities of practice. In doing so we outline how our version of ‘impressionism’ differs from the influential work of John van Maanen. Third, we conclude by exploring how a consciously impressionistic orientation can reinforce and revise ideas about ethnography as a research tradition used across disciplinary boundaries. Being impressionistic: Studying leadership and democracy in the Pacific Islands Corbett’s PhD training was spilt between a public policy school and a history/anthropology school at the Australian National University. In its initial design, his project was method-driven; Corbett read work from the interpretive canon, specifically as it related to politicians elsewhere (Rhodes 2011; Reeher 2006, Tiernan and Weller 2010), and sought to replicate this approach in the Pacific Islands. He wanted to use it to counter the popular perception of them as corrupt, power-hungry and self-interested and instead privilege and provide space for the politicians’ voice. Studies of political leadership in the Pacific have predominantly focused on chiefs and traditional leaders rather than politicians and so, to push the impressionism metaphor, his research paints onto a relatively blank canvas, thus partly explaining why it was initially methods driven. Increasingly, however, the final product became self- consciously theoretical. The intricate detail and nuance of his painstakingly compiled account is unavoidably truncated and stylized by the need to situate his work in the broader body of scholarship about politicians in order to get published in political 4 science journals. Quoting Weller (2001: 183), Corbett called the account a collective portrait: an ‘amalgam of views, a majority voice constructed by the author as a representation of the spectrum of opinions’ expressed across a group of lives. The portrait was constructed using the standard sources prescribed in the interpretivist canon: public documents (more than 40 published biographies and autobiographies), in-depth interviews (more than 110), and observation-based research. This raised few questions when Corbett proposed it in an Australian setting, either because interpretive research is accepted as legitimate in this setting (see Boswell and Corbett 2014) or, as one American-trained quantitative researcher observed at his confirmation seminar, the project was ‘like Fenno’, a reference to a classic piece of ethnography in political science discussed further below. In contrast, anthropologists were skeptical of the use of the label ethnographic. This latter view bears some explanation given its relevance to our overall argument. Anthropology is the dominant discipline in Pacific Studies. Since Malinowski, the Pacific has become a veritable Mecca of social anthropology due to the unique diversity of languages and cultures (more than one quarter of the world’s spoken languages can be found in the Melanesian region alone). So pervasive is the influence of Pacific anthropology that ‘New Melanesian Ethnography’ is an established school of research in its own right (for review see Mosko 2012). Despite the appropriateness of Malinowski-style fieldwork having since been questioned within the discipline (e.g. Marcus 2000; 2013), scholars working in this tradition are somewhat skeptical of the types of observational research Corbett undertook (pejoratively ‘airport lounge’ ethnography), despite the fact that they fell within the conventions established by Fenno (1978) and others (e.g. Rhodes 2011) in political science. For many Pacific 5 anthropologists, anything less than a year’s fieldwork is insufficient to fully ‘immerse’ oneself in a given context (among these scholars it is common practice to list the amount of months spent in the field on their CVs). In contrast, Corbett’s ‘yo-yo’ (Rhodes 2014) observation took him across 11 countries, often for as little as a week. He spent time ‘looking over the shoulder’ of politicians on the campaign trail, in their constituency, at parliament, and during regional meetings. Corbett felt comfortable claiming to have ‘seen some of their world’ (Reeher 2006) and that ‘being there’ had enriched his account. And yet, he remained mindful of the views of anthropologist colleagues and their belief that ethnography should aim to ‘see the world as they see it’. As a result, Corbett avoids using the label ethnographic to describe his work. But, by genuflecting to his anthropological colleagues interested in the Pacific and shunning the label ‘ethnography’, Corbett found it difficult to describe his work to mainstream political scientists; if it is not ethnography, what is it and how were conclusions reached? Aspects of Corbett’s method could be described as systematic and thus be passed off as naturalist in orientation – he certainly had a system for thematically sorting mountains of interview data and his desire to provide an account that politicians deemed authentic led him to send draft chapters to willing interviewees – but generating the final product was far more dynamic and uncertain. Ultimately, while Corbett took care to account for the full range of interpretations that emerged from his data, the literature he was contributing to dictated which stories would make the greatest impression: he privileged the parts of his work that enabled him to ‘see new aspects of cases’. No amount of additional time spent in the field would alter this. And yet, Corbett remains paranoid about the inevitable anthropological critique that he has 6 missed crucial context-specific nuances (Corbett 2014), and so at no stage has he stopped doing interviews, reading new literature or revising his findings. Corbett simply started publishing his impressions. Doing so, however, meant that he was confronted by the various norms and beliefs of each respective audience. While journal reviewers’ responses emphasize various weaknesses of papers, a selection that focus on method bears these differences out. Some mainstream political science journals were, predictably, hostile to the approach with variations of the phrase ‘the interpretive method is no method at all’ a feature of reviewer comments. They noted that findings were not tested numerically, that the presentation of evidence was clumsy and insufficiently analytic due to the reliance on the reproduction of direct quotations, and that the interview sample was not representative. That is not to tar all reviewers or journals with the same brush – some scholars applaud the emphasis on description (e.g. Gerring 2012) and Corbett and his collaborators have published self-labeled interpretive work in political science journals that might be considered mainstream (e.g. Corbett 2013a; Corbett and Liki forthcoming) - but a more productive strategy when engaging with this audience has been to downplay the methodological aspects of his data collection and focus instead on disciplinary debates (e.g. Corbett 2013b; Corbett and Wood 2013; Veenendaal and Corbett 2014). We might expect anthropologists and anthropology journals to be more receptive to this type of material but this was not necessarily the case either. As one response to a proposed special issue contribution indicates, this audience felt the work was ‘insufficiently grounded in long term field research’. As a result, he has avoided sending articles to anthropology journals. By contrast, interdisciplinary journals – be 7 they policy, development or area studies focused – have on the whole been more receptive to his approach (e.g. Corbett 2013c; Corbett and Ng Shiu 2014). How should we make sense of these differences? Relating political science, interpretation and ethnography As we have seen, ethnographic methods have many advantages but one of the least heralded is the capacity of painstakingly compiled ‘thick descriptions’ to uncover data relevant to a range of research topics and questions. The same phenomenon can, quite plausibly, be constructed to serve a seemingly endless variety of theoretical insights that are rarely confined to one discipline or stream of academic inquiry. Indeed, some of the most acclaimed scholarship in political anthropology over the last two decades has been compiled by reinterpreting the ‘thick description’ of other researchers in service of a meta-narrative (e.g. Scott 1998; 2009). But, even putting meta-narratives aside, the variety of theoretical implications that arise from any ‘thick description’ presents practitioners engaging in ethnographic research with a number of conundrums. Most obviously, they have to choose which audience to target and in doing so be conscious of the different traditions and beliefs that actors hold in each. We will not endeavor to present any sort of criteria for making these choices, as any rationale is likely to be unique to the goals, aspirations and interests of the researcher, as the Corbett example illustrates. Corbett was more willing to persist with political science journals than anthropological equivalents, despite numerous rejections, because that is the discipline he most strongly identified with. Rather, building on the clues outlined in the above discussion, this essay reflects on our experience as early 8 career researchers about the way different audiences treat this type of work. To do so, we first unpack the way these different audiences ‘see’ ethnography. The orthodox view of mainstream political science is of a discipline increasingly dominated by behavioralism, naturalism, and positivism. What these labels collectively describe is an approach to studying politics which draws on inspiration from, and mimics as far as possible, the natural sciences. Such an approach is associated with a preference for parsimony over complexity, generalisability over idiosyncrasy, and, though much less uniformly, quantitative measurement over qualitative assessment. The general perception is that these preferences have broadened and strengthened across the discipline in the last two or three decades, as marked by trends in publishing, grants, and postgraduate training. As we discuss further below, ethnographic research has been employed in service of a naturalist political science (for review see Rhodes 2014), but this is uncommon. As part of the critique of this strengthening hegemony—which came to something of a head in the early part of the last decade through the Perestroika movement for greater methodological pluralism (see the contributions to Monroe 2005)—an oppositional paradigm has built momentum, albeit still in the margins. This has occurred in the form of the ‘interpretive turn’ in the study of the political.1 A significant minority of politics researchers, albeit in far greater numbers in the more stubbornly plural subfields of policy studies and public administration than those of 1 For overviews, see Yanow and Schwartz-Shea (2006), especially their introductory chapter, as well as the various perspectives in Finlayson et al. (2004) and the more recent special issue to mark the end of RAW Rhodes’ editorship of Public Administration. 9 political behaviour or institutions,2 have begun moving away from orthodox explanations of the political world as an objective entity, and towards investigating the ways in which actors make sense of this world and how their perceptions relate to political practices. This approach has consciously looked outside contemporary political science for theoretical and methodological inspiration. Particularly important in the context of this discussion is that many have drawn from anthropology and more or less explicitly the tools of ethnography to design and conduct their studies. Indeed, for many political scientists, interpretive research is synonymous with ethnography. A number of attempts have been made to dispel this perception (e.g. Stone 2002) but the association remains. The elective affinity between the two stems from the typical focus of ethnographic research on the actions and practices of individuals rather than the means of production, the flow of capital or formal institutions, for example. In particular, the work of Geertz (1973), Clifford and Marcus (1986) and others have provided interpretivist political scientists and public administration scholars with a repertoire of terms and ideas upon which they have made claims about the rigor of their approach and the validity of their findings to mainstream scholars. Dvora Yanow (2014: 131), for example, asserts that ethnographic research reveals insights that the established toolkit of positivist social scientists cannot: that ‘being there’ is a better way of doing research on complex phenomena. But as well as turning to anthropology for inspiration, some interpretive scholars also point to the established canon of ethnographic classics in political science when explaining the use of this approach to their disciplinary colleagues (e.g. 2 This is best embodied through the legacy of Harold Lasswell (see Laswell and Lerner 1951) and his commitment, as the pioneer of modern policy sciences, to a plural discipline. 10 Rhodes 2014). On calling on the noted works of Kaufman (1960) and Fenno (1978), for example, and recalling a time when the discipline as a whole was more plural and open, they seek to bolster claims that this type of work is both rigorous and systematic. In fact, we suggest that appealing to these sources presents awkward questions for interpretive researchers (Boswell and Corbett 2015). Most obviously, since these political science classics hold to naturalist ontological and epistemological assumptions (Rhodes 2014), we question the extent to which interpretive researchers can really claim to be continuing an old tradition into the present. This is tied to problematic assertions of ‘systemacity’ and the attempt to reclaim epistemic authority in opposition to the mainstream—and we come back to this below. The broader point we want to stress here, however, is that although these affinities provide interpretive researchers with precedents and philosophical suppositions to support their approach, many still bristle at mainstream assumptions about its (lack of) validity. Indeed, they remain acutely alert to criticism that their methodological choices do not meet the rigorous standards of positivist political science. But in doing so they, too, cling to what we argue are equally flimsy claims about systemacity—in order to understand this critique, however, we first need to briefly outline what those claims are. Systemacity, impressionism and ethnography Systemacity, in mainstream political science, derives from objective theory-testing, conducted increasingly (though not exclusively) via sophisticated quantitative 11 methods borrowed from economics, psychology and statistics. Our focus, though, is on interpretivist claims to systemacity, which are quite distinct influenced as they are by anthropology and continental philosophy (see especially Bevir and Kader 2008). Obviously, interpretivists are deeply skeptical about many of the key tenets of ‘the scientific method’ in political research and generally argue that the conventional standards of mainstream political science do not apply to interpretive research (Yanow 2006: 100-101). Different standards, more befitting the philosophical presuppositions of interpretivism, take their place. The authors who have advanced these the furthest are Ospina and Dodge (see Dodge, Ospina and Foldy 2005; Ospina and Dodge 2005a; 2005b), Bevir and Rhodes (2010), Wagenaar (2011) and Yanow, either alone (see 2006; 2007; 2009) or in combination with Schwartz-Shea (2012). Though these authors all deploy their own idiosyncratic terminology, each broadly accord with the same set of principles or criteria by which interpretive research is produced— immersion in the field, deep familiarity with academic literature, abductive linking of data and theory, and so on. They claim that, taken together, these principles comprise an equally systematic process by which the researcher accumulates insights. We beg to differ. As noted in the introduction, we lay out our argument for impressionism in detail elsewhere. Here, we simply seek to extract the essence of this claim—that although we concur with the key principles and practices outlined by these pioneering scholars of interpretive political and policy studies, we do not see them as contributing to a process that is in any way systematic. Interpretive research, and especially the experience of writing up and recording findings, is for us inherently impressionistic— it involves a deliberate and at times painful abandonment of any attempt to capture the 12 full complexity of the phenomenon under investigation, and instead involves embarking on more stylized reflections, inflected by and expressed via memorable impressions, in order to say something interesting but also coherent and digestible to scholarly and practitioner audiences. As we have laboured to background in these early sections, and as we suggested explicitly at the outset, this argument has been met with some hostility among the interpretive research community (and general bemusement by those in mainstream political science). Yet, of course, for many readers of this journal it may seem completely uncontroversial. Indeed, in anthropology and cultural studies, where such methods are mainstream, such an orientation to writing up research is well grounded, most obviously in John van Maanen’s (1990) influential and well-cited account of writing up ethnographic research from a quarter of a century ago. For van Maanen, impressionism (or, more precisely, the crafting of ‘impressionistic tales’) was a key part of the ethnographer’s repertoire, allowing him or her to startle readers with new insights or enliven established phenomena in new ways. There are clear affinities here with what we are arguing. However, we also see there as being two key interrelated differences in our argument to his, which we suggest have important implications for scholars who use ethnography in any discipline. The first difference is that our argument assumes a much broader relevance for impressionism than van Maanen’s insistence that such work ‘remains very much a sub-genre of ethnographic writing’ which for him is imparted through a reflexive, first-person, experiential narrative of the field. The way we use the term ‘impressionism’ is intended less to capture a rare, purposeful mode of narration which researchers can switch on and off, and more to describe a defensible way of thinking 13 about research more generally; we are not just talking about first-person narratives— such accounts are virtually unknown in political science, even among the most committed interpretivists. The second difference indicated by this, on which this first point turns, is the disciplinary context in which we are working—and it perhaps instructive here to bring the analogy to impressionist art back in. While the accounts that van Maanen has in mind differ only in accent and degree from the dominant anthropological tradition, the accounts we have in mind, just like impressionist artworks in the context of preceding trends and traditions, represent a much more significant break from the dominant tradition in political science. All ethnographic work is impressionistic in this disciplinary context; the precise tone and style of representation simply depends on what sort of impression the author is seeking to make. And it is for this reason we suggest that our account has important implications for how we think about ethnography in relatively alien territory like political science. The implications of embracing impressionism Corbett’s experience highlights some of the difficulties of doing and communicating interpretive research, and defends a consciously impressionistic rather than defiantly systematic approach to doing so. As we have already acknowledged, such a focus on the challenges of writing up is not new to interpretivism (see Law 2004; Yanow 2009) nor of course ethnography more broadly (van Maanen 1990; Wolf 1992). But our claims here for a defensibly impressionistic orientation push further than political scholars have thus far been willing to go, with potentially important implications. One 14 is that pushing this analogy further suggests a need to rethink and make more explicit how scholars judge the quality of ethnographic work (whether self-labelling or not). Two, and the more fundamental note on which we conclude, is that it also has key implications for how scholars, especially those working across disciplines or outside the mainstays of cultural studies and anthropology, think about and use ethnography in their work. How might we judge political ethnography To be clear, we are not advocating that ethnographic research be conducted in a manner akin to the everyday connotation of impressionism. Random streaks on a canvas did not an impressionist make; the community of practice surrounding the impressionist movement had explicit and implicit criteria by which to decipher good from bad impressionist art. Likewise, anything does not go when interpreting fieldwork. There are conscious or unconscious criteria that we apply in developing and reflecting on our own work and in reviewing the work of peers, and a consciously impressionistic orientation, we suggest, provides a lot of purchase for understanding and unpacking these. In further extending the analogy here, we make explicit three such criteria that we feel typically apply to ethnographic research in politics. [add sentence and ref here] see also Boswell and Corbett 2015). However, in doing so, we do not seek to present a reified checklist of the type that we have critiqued above. Instead, we see the process of developing and judging interpretive research as a dynamic, open-ended and evolving one. Our contribution is intended to open up and inspire debate about what good ethnographic research in politics and policy entails. 15 Aesthetics Just as scholars in and before the ‘interpretive turn’ have already done much to emphasise the importance of writing to how researchers interpret fieldwork (see Laws 2004; Yanow 2009), so too is there growing reflection on the importance of prose for the consumption of such work. The argument that quality of writing matters could sensibly be made about all scholarly work, but again, the analogy here holds because interpreting fieldwork presents particular and (most would agree) more acute challenges in this regard. Where writing up research in the tradition of hard sciences, which positivist political science and public administration typically ape, involves adhering by and large to strict formulae, interpretive, ethnographic researchers have many more choices to make. As Yanow (2014) describes, the things that ethnographers of politics and policy observe and study have a ‘context specificity’ that necessarily renders their meaning ambiguous in any broader sense; the task of the analyst is to make them intelligible in a convincing and appealing manner. The aesthetics of the final composition—how the narrative flows, how it moves between theory and practice, how it imparts ‘flavour’ by drawing on data from the field— matter for how we make and judge the work. van Maanen (1990: 34), for instance, explains that ‘artful ethnography is evocative in addition to being factual and truthful’ and attention to ‘literary style and writing quality in general is heightened among ethnographers’. And so it should be. Impact Perhaps more important than aesthetics is that any interpretation of fieldwork must have impact. We mean this not in the sense of the creeping ‘impact agenda’ in 16 academia which UK readers in particular will be familiar with (we address the issue of relevance in the concluding section), but in the sense of leaving a mark on the reader.3 In fleshing out this criterion, it is again useful to dwell again on van Maanen’s (1990: 101-102) account of writing up ethnographic fieldwork. He defines an ‘impressionist tale’ as one in which authors deliberately try to set out to unsettle their readers: The impressionists of ethnography are also out to startle their audience. But striking stories, not luminous paintings, are their stock-in-trade. In fact, this accords with the orientation already clearly adopted by some pioneers of the interpretive turn in political science. Colin Hay (2011), for instance, argues that a key facet of the ‘interpretation’ in such research involves the author trying to work out what of his or her work is of relevance for particular audiences and how it may be presented to best achieve such impact. Mark Bevir (2011, 191), too, is explicit about this: Public administration is less about discovering general rules, than about seeing new aspects of cases and relating them to our more abstract concepts. After all, the point of the impressionist orientation in art was to arrest the viewer by capturing something novel or startling in its insight. Are not typical questions we ask ourselves when we develop our own work and read that of our peers: Is it interesting? Is it memorable? Does it make me think about an old question in a new way? 3 A fuller discussion of the relationship between our criteria and theory building and concept formation is necessary to flesh this point out but it is beyond our scope here (see Bevir and Kader 2008 for further discussion on interpretive research and concept formation in political science). 17 Resonance But the criteria described above do not entail an abandonment of ‘reality’ in service of a more beautiful or startling account. Resonance with pre-existing understandings of how politics operates is essential to the aesthetic appeal and potential impact of any interpretation. Here the analogy holds again—the impressionists took ‘nature as their model’, and were motivated by the desire to better capture such ‘reality’ (Merleau- Ponty 1964). What makes the composition attractive and memorable or revealing is that in any case it also rings true. Indeed, we agree with Bevir and Rhodes (2010: 207) who make clear that that plausibility as governed by intersubjective agreement must remain an important criterion of good interpretive research. We also agree with Ospina and Dodge’s (2005) that such agreement should involve both the internal audience (of specialists in the substantive area) and the external audience (of politics, policy and public administration scholars). We simply suggest that a more consciously impressionistic approach to interpretation might advance or enhance these forms of resonance. One avenue is through its potential to strengthen relationships with the political actors that are the subject of interpretive research. A consciously impressionistic orientation can confront the messy, partial nature of conducting research and therefore invite practitioners into discussion of claims and findings on a more equal footing at the ‘back end’ of the process. Acknowledging that researchers and practitioners simply have impressions of different types can help realise co-production and embed relevance as core features of the research process (see Ospina and Dodge 2005b). 18 Two is in its recognition that the internal audience of scholars is not always self- evident or homogenous – this is the lesson from the above example of research in the Pacific Islands. As a result, we hold, such resonance need and usually does not rely on fine-grained accuracy; there is a trade-off in detail and accuracy to be made in unveiling and communicating broader ‘truths’ to different academic audiences. How might we understand and use political ethnography We have, in the earlier iteration of our account, reflected on the implications of our argument for interpretivism and its relationship to mainstream political science. Again, we do not want to retread this ground and instead want to focus on the implications for the likely readers of this special issue—ethnographers of political, public and other organizations. We conclude by suggesting how a consciously ‘impressionistic’ method can affect the way we think about and use ethnography as an approach and as a label. Ethnography, as a loose set of research techniques, has never been the domain of one discipline but it is most commonly associated with anthropology nonetheless. Despite this, as we outlined at the outset, the elective affinity between political scientists doing interpretive research and ethnographic methods is such that many mainstream scholars see them as one and the same. And yet, our own work and thinking on this topic receives a mixed reception from those who are more familiar with this method than political scientists. For this audience, we are guilty for both having not ‘been there’ long enough to justify claims to deep immersion and for privileging a stylized and somewhat parsimonious rendering of our fieldwork in service of broader 19 theoretical arguments. There are numerous labels and philosophic bases for this type of ethnography (for review see Rhodes 2014) but the important point is that the emphasis here is on getting the descriptive story ‘right’. This idea is captured neatly by Wolf (1992), where in the opening lines of her acclaimed Thrice-Told Tale she makes clear that it is written for anthropologists and social scientists who, like her, are: just a little more interested in the content of the ethnographies we read and write than in the ethnographers’ epistemologies…Like most anthropologists, I remain more interested in why Chinese peasants do what they do, and, as Graham Watson (1987: 36) puts it, in ‘getting the news out’. On the other hand, as we have seen, many anthropologists and cultural studies scholars, while sympathetic to our argument, find our claims somewhat banal; we have heard all of this before, they say. How should we account for this discrepancy? While it may not be new, we argue that this disjuncture remains an important topic for scholars of ethnography, regardless of discipline. Questions about epistemology may sometimes generate more heat than light but they remain at the heart of what we do. This is the lesson from political science where those working with ethnographic methods increasingly feel marginalized, especially in the United States. More importantly, for political scientists like us undertaking ethnographic research in an interpretive orientation, this disjuncture presents awkward questions that, first and foremost, relate to the notion of ‘systemacity’. We venture that interpretivists might be better served by treating ethnography as a research ‘tradition’ – a set of living understandings or orthodoxies that we all receive during socialization (Bevir and Rhodes 2010) – rather than an essential idea that can be judged in a taxonomic or 20 checklist manner. As this special issue demonstrates, there are lots of ways of doing ethnography and any attempt to pin down prerequisites of the craft risk setting up the type of reification that interpretivists have been at pains to critique in mainstream political science. 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Who are we trying to impress?: reflections on navigating political science, ethnography and interpretation Introduction Being impressionistic: Studying leadership and democracy in the Pacific Islands Relating political science, interpretation and ethnography Systemacity, impressionism and ethnography How might we judge political ethnography Aesthetics Impact Resonance How might we understand and use political ethnography References 
work_y3rblzqbj5cpxnolqt3tklrtsa	----	Extracting Art Style Periods from the Web Viktor de Boer, Maarten van Someren, and Bob J. Wielinga Human-Computer Studies Laboratory, Informatics Institute, Universiteit van Amsterdam, email: {vdeboer,maarten,wielinga}@science.uva.nl Abstract. A subtask of Ontology Enrichment is the extraction of time periods for temporal concepts. In this paper we describe a method for this period extraction. We show the working of the method in the cul- tural heritage domain, extracting periods for art styles. We also discuss a number of possible ways to transform the uncertain knowledge that this method provides into a semantic representation in an ontology. 1 Introduction The Semantic Web needs automatic methods that extract ontology constructs. Ontology Learning attempts to extract classes and relations in an ontology, whereas Ontology Population is the task of extracting instances of both relations and classes. If the extraction of the constructs is done for an already existing ontology, we use the term Ontology Enrichment. Ontology Learning, Population and Enrichment all use Information Extraction (IE) methods to learn the target knowledge from a corpus. These IE methods usually output the information with a degree of (un)certainty. In most ontologies, knowledge is represented in discrete form and that any state- ment can be determined as either true or false. In this paper we examine a specific example of this discrepancy and show a way of providing an interface between the uncertain output of an IE technique and the discrete representations in an ontology. As our domain we chose the Cultural Heritage domain, where a number of relatively large taxonomies are in actual use by experts. This research takes place in a context where the aim is to integrate these taxonomies and enrich them in such a way that expert users are able to browse art repositories in a semantically rich system. The core taxonomy we use as an ontology is the Art and Architecture The- saurus[1] (AAT), an taxonomy containing over 133.000 concepts from the Cul- tural Heritage domain. A part of the AAT describes different art styles such as ’Baroque’, ’Impressionism’ etcetera. In previous experiments[2], we extracted relations between these art styles and periods and artists. In this paper, we will describe a method to extract periods for the individual art styles. This informa- tion is currently not present in the AAT. This Ontology Enrichment allows for temporal reasoning about art styles and related concepts. We have split up our method into an Information Extraction phase and a Semantic Representation phase. In Section 3, we describe the first phase, where we extract art style periods from the World Wide Web. In Section 4, we describe the different ways of converting this uncertain information into ontological con- structs. In the next section, we define both tasks more extensively. 2 Problem Definition We first give a general problem definition for the extraction of periods for an arbitrary domain and will then focus on the Cultural Heritage domain. We have a partly populated ontology with a concept C that has a relation to a time interval (a period). This period is represented in some way in the ontology. We have a number of instances of C: i1, i2, ... with one or more description labels l1,1, l1,2, ..., l2,1, .... For each of these instances, the task is to extract from the web the correct period related to it. We make two assumptions. – In the ontology, there is only one period related to each instance. – For each period it is possible to extract moments within this interval (e.g. years, days or minutes) from the Web. We assume that C is characterized by a number of events that are associated with these moments. In the case of art styles, these events might be creation dates of paintings, for which usually a single year is noted in the text. We split the problem up into two phases: 1. In this first Information Extraction phase, we extract the distribution of individual moments (e.g. years) that characterize an instance i. 2. In the Semantic Representation phase, The distribution is then used to for- malize the period in the form in which it is to be represented in the ontology. In the rest of this paper, we use a RDF version of the AAT as our partly populated ontology. The concept C is aat:Styles and Periods and the in- stances are the individual art styles (aat:Baroque, aat:Rococo, etc). For our purposes, we expanded the AAT with a relation has period with aat:Styles and Periods as the domain and a time interval as the range. Instances of this relation are used to denote the historical periods of the different art styles. 3 The Information Extraction Phase For the extraction of the periods, we do not use domain- or structure-specific In- formation Extraction techniques such as the use of patterns or Natural Language processing techniques. The effectiveness of these methods are often dependent on the specific domain and the structure of the documents in the corpus used. Instead, we use a very simple domain- and structure-independent method that extracts occurrences of moments (eg. years) from documents on the Web about the temporal concept. We assume that the distribution of moments in these doc- uments is different from the distribution of moments in the whole of the Web and that we can find the target period by comparing the two. To further clarify this, we present an outline of the method in the next section. 3.1 The Information Extraction method In Figure 1, we present the method used to extract the distribution of years. In Section 3.3, we describe the steps for the specific art style example discussed . wwwwww Distribution parameters Document retrieval Extraction of Years Normalization Function Fitting Web documents Raw data Normalized data Fig. 1. Outline of the Information Extraction phase In the first step, we use the full description of the art style instance to retrieve a working corpus of documents from the Web. For the retrieval step the search engine Google1 is used. We construct a search string by taking all labels of the instance and connecting them with Google’s binary search operator ”OR”. In the case of the instance aat:Dada this results in the search string ’”Dada” OR ”Dadaism” OR ”Dadaist”’. This string is used to query Google. From the web pages retrieved by Google, we use the first 1000 pages. In the next step of the algorithm, we extract all strings denoting years from the documents. For this, we use a single simple regular expression (four consec- utive integers, followed by a punctuation mark or a whitespace). Note that more elaborate methods could be used to extract occurrences of strings denoting mo- ments in time. However, we assume that the use of a simple method and a large number of documents leads to the same results and is less domain-, language- and structure-specific. For our purposes, we only gather year strings denoting years between 1250 and 2100 A.D. For each of these extracted years, we denote the frequency of the occurrences in all documents of the working corpus. This makes up our raw data. Of course, a lot of year strings extracted from the working corpus will not be related to the concept but rather are used to denote things such as copyright dates. However, we assume that these dates occur in the working corpus and the other documents on the Web with the same frequency. To eliminate these years, we normalize the raw data. We divide the frequency of each year by the Google hit count for that year. In Figure 2, we show the effect normalization has on the data. This normalized data is used to estimate a distribution in the next step. 1 http://www.google.com/ 0 100 200 300 400 1250 1350 1450 1550 1650 1750 1850 1950 2050 2150 0 0, 0001 0, 0002 0, 0003 0, 0004 1250 1350 1450 1550 1650 1750 1850 1950 2050 2150 0 5000000 10000000 15000000 20000000 25000000 30000000 35000000 40000000 1250 1350 1450 1550 1650 1750 1850 1950 2050 Google hitcounts Raw frequencies For each year: fnormalized = fraw / hitcount Normalized frequencies Fig. 2. The normalization of the raw frequency data In the function fitting step, we fit a function to the data using a numeri- cal fitting procedure. We minimize the sum of square root errors between the data points and the function value. We tested our method with four different functions. We describe these tests in the next section. 3.2 Choosing the Fitting Function We considered four different function as our distribution function in the fitting step. All four functions originate from a intuitive notion of how moments are related to the periods. Examples of these functions are shown in Figure 3 – A block function, with three parameters (µb, σb, fb). gb(x) = { fb if µb − σb ≤ x ≤ µb + σb 0 otherwise – A normal distribution, with three parameters (µn, σn, fn). gn(x) = fn · norm(µn, σn) – A triangular ‘fuzzy’ function, with four parameters (µf 1, σl,f 1, σr,f 1, ff 1), where σl,f 1 and σr,f 1 denote the left and right base of the triangle (see Figure 3(c)). – A trapezoid ‘fuzzy’ function, with five parameters (µf 2, σl,f 2, σr,f 2, σc,f 2, ff 2), where σc,f 2 is the length of the ‘plateau’ of the trapezoid and σl,f 1 and σr,f 1 denote the length of the left and right base sides (see Figure 3(d)). To find out which of these functions produced the best result, we fitted the functions to nine art styles2. The fitting procedure was done using the numerical gradient descent method from MS Excel, minimizing the sum of the Squared Errors between the function value and the normalized frequency data. In Figure 3, we show the best fitting functions applied to the data of a single instance, the art style ‘Baroque’. 0 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.0001 0.00012 0.00014 1250 1350 1450 1550 1650 1750 1850 1950 2050 2150 0 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.0001 0.00012 0.00014 1250 1350 1450 1550 1650 1750 1850 1950 2050 2150 0 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.0001 0.00012 0.00014 1250 1350 1450 1550 1650 1750 1850 1950 2050 2150 0 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.0001 0.00012 0.00014 1250 1350 1450 1550 1650 1750 1850 1950 2050 2150 µn = 1661.8, σn = 66.9, fb = 1.2 10 -2 SSE= xxx µf1 = 1656.0, σl,f1 = 128.5, σr,f1 = 157.8, ff1 = 8.1 10 -5 , SSE= xxx µb = 1659.4, σb = 93.5, fb = 5.4 10 -5 , SSE= xxx µf2 = 1663.5, σl,f2 = 141.5, σr,f2 = 138.5, σc,f2 = 30.0, ff2 = 57.7 10 -5 , SSE= xxx (a) (b) (d)(c) Fig. 3. The best fits for the Block (a), Normal distribution (b), Triangular Fuzzy (c) and Trapezoid Fuzzy (d) functions on the frequency data for the instance ‘Baroque’ (which approximately lasted during the 17th Century). For each function, the optimal parameter values are shown. In Table 1, we list the averages of the Sum of Squared Error for the nine art styles that were considered. As can be seen, the Block function performs significantly worse than the other three functions. Of these three the Normal distribution has the best average errors. Because of this and considering the fact that the Normal distribution has only three parameters, as opposed to the five parameters of the Trapezoid Fuzzy function, we decided to use the Normal distribution as the function we use in the fitting step used in the Information 2 Art Deco, Art Nouveau, Baroque, Cubist, Dada, Expressionism, Impressionism, Neo- Impressionism, Neue Sachlichkeit, Surrealism Extraction phase. The output of the Information Extraction phase consists of the values of two of the three parameters resulting from the best fit: µ and σ. The value for the third parameter, the factor f is discarded, since it only indicates the amount of years found and not the distribution across the time line. Table 1. Averages of the Sum of Squared Errors for the four tested functions. Block Function 4.18 Normal Distribution 2.70 Triangular Fuzzy 2.99 Trapezoid Fuzzy 2.77 3.3 Experiments Setup To test how well our IE method is able to extract the distributions of the periods, we applied our method to extract periods on a set of manually selected art styles from the AAT. We selected the art styles on a number of different criteria. The first criterium was that the target period of the art style occurred within the limits of our algorithm (between 1250 and 2100). A more important selection criterium was that one or more labels of the art style should be unambiguous. For example, we discarded the art style aat:Symbolist, since its labels ‘Symbolism’ and ‘Symbolist’ do not produce an unambiguous corpus that is about the art style referred when presented to Google. This problem could be solved with simple query expansion techniques using either concepts higher up in the taxonomic structure of the ontology or by consulting other sources such as WordNet. Selection along these criteria left us with 17 art styles3. For each of these art styles, we retrieved a corpus, extracted the year occurrences and fitted the normal distribution to the data. The AAT styles are found in the first column of Table 2. The distributions found for each art style are listed in terms of µ and σ in the second and third column of that table. Evaluation and Results For the evaluation of the distribution we constructed a gold standard. For this, we consulted the art style pages of six different en- cyclopedic web sites4. From these pages, we manually extracted the period of the art style. However, for most art styles, the web sites do not provide clear start and end dates. Usually only vague indications are given. As an exam- ple: The period of Baroque was noted as ‘The style started around 1600,...’ (www.wikipedia.org) and ‘... originated in Rome at the beginning of the 17th 3 These include the nine art styles from Section 3.2 4 www.wikipedia.org, www.artcyclopedia.com, www.artlex.com, www.artchive.com, www.encyclopedia.com and www.britannica.com century...’ (www.artchive.org). To evaluate our method we need clear start and end dates. We therefore used a fixed set of rules for rewriting these vague notions to clear start and end dates. For instance the phrase ‘started at the beginning of the 17th century’ was interpreted as ‘has start date 1600’ etc. If a page did not list any duration for an art style, we did not consider that page for the art style. For each art style, we took the average of the start and end dates collected in this way as our ’gold standard’. We then compared our distribution to this gold standard in two ways: First of all, we compared for each art style the found mean, µ, to the mean of the start and end date of the gold standard. In Table 3, we list this gold standard mean and the error. We also list the error relative to the total length of the period (according to our gold standard). Intuitively, it is less severe to make an error of one year for longer periods than it is for shorter ones. Averaged over all art styles, the error between the mean found with our method and the mean from our gold standard is 17% of the total period length. Table 2. The 17 Art Styles, with the values for µ and σ that produced the best fit and evaluation of µ to the gold standard means AAT style µ σ GS: Mean Error Rel. Error Abstract Exp. 1951.0 14.5 1955.0 4.00 0.22 Art Deco 1928.1 9.3 1929.6 1.44 0.08 Art Nouveau 1893.0 22.9 1894.1 1.15 0.05 Baroque 1662.2 63.0 1663.1 0.90 0.01 Bauhaus 1923.4 12.1 1926.0 2.60 0.19 Counter-Reformation 1569.6 58.1 1576.4 6.74 0.07 Cubist 1910.7 5.0 1914.3 3.58 0.26 Dada 1917.5 3.5 1919.7 2.13 0.29 Expressionist 1912.1 31.3 1921.8 9.64 0.32 Impressionist 1875.4 26.2 1877.2 1.86 0.07 Mannerist 1552.6 53.2 1559.6 6.96 0.10 Neo-Impressionist 1886.0 4.7 1885.5 -0.46 0.07 Post-Impressionism 1881.2 31.5 1888.2 6.95 0.30 Pre-Raphaelites 1857.9 31.9 1867.2 9.28 0.25 Reformation 1541.4 33.9 1547.6 6.22 0.08 Rococo 1738.7 41.0 1750.1 11.31 0.14 Surrealist 1928.3 18.2 1937.0 8.72 0.34 average: 0.17 To evaluate the values of σ (the spread of the years associated with the art styles), we also needed to construct a strict start and end date from this value and compare it to the start and end dates of the gold standard. For this purpose, we introduce a factor τ that we use to provide a single start and end date for each art style: respectively µ − (τ · σ) and µ + (τ · σ). To find the optimal value for τ , we again used a numeric optimization procedure to minimize the error between start and end dates constructed using this factor and those from the gold standard. This optimal value of τ found for each art style was relatively constant with an average of 0.81. In Table 3, we show the start and end dates we obtained with τ = 0.81. These were compared to the start and end dates from the gold standard. For each art style, we calculated the average of the absolute errors for both dates. As with the means, we also calculated how big this error is relative to the total length of the art style according to our gold standard. These values are also shown in Table 3. Averaged over all art styles the relative error is 0.23, indicating that on average, the start and end dates differ by 23% of the total length from the gold standard. Table 3. Start and end dates for the 17 Art Styles (τ = 0.81) compared to gold standard AAT style Start End GS: Start GS: End Error Rel. Error Abstract Exp. 1939.3 1962.7 1946.0 1964.0 4.00 0.22 Art Deco 1920.6 1935.7 1920.2 1939.0 1.90 0.10 Art Nouveau 1874.4 1911.6 1882.0 1906.3 6.45 0.27 Baroque 1611.1 1713.3 1593.0 1717.0 10.90 0.09 Bauhaus 1913.6 1933.2 1919.0 1933.0 2.80 0.20 Counter-Reformation 1522.5 1616.8 1528.8 1624.0 6.74 0.07 Cubist 1906.6 1914.7 1907.3 1921.2 3.58 0.26 Dada 1914.7 1920.4 1916.0 1923.3 2.13 0.29 Expressionist 1886.8 1937.5 1906.5 1937.0 10.11 0.33 Impressionist 1854.1 1896.6 1864.2 1890.3 8.21 0.32 Mannerist 1509.5 1595.7 1526.2 1593.0 9.70 0.15 Neo-Impressionist 1882.1 1889.8 1882.0 1889.0 0.46 0.07 Post-Impressionism 1855.7 1906.7 1876.7 1899.7 14.00 0.61 Pre-Raphaelites 1832.0 1883.7 1848.3 1886.0 9.28 0.25 Reformation 1513.9 1568.8 1508.4 1586.8 11.73 0.15 Rococo 1705.5 1772.0 1709.3 1790.8 11.31 0.14 Surrealist 1913.5 1943.1 1924.0 1950.0 8.72 0.34 average: 0.23 To test how concept- and domain-independent the method and the value for τ is, we tested the method on extracting periods on a different domain (wars) and on a different concept in the same domain: artists. We tested the method with four different wars (World War I, World War II, the Hundred Year War and the Eighty Year War). As the labels we used to construct the corpus for the wars we used the aliases listed on their Wikipedia web pages. Also, a gold standard was constructed using these pages. The average relative error of µ was 0.16, comparable to the art style example. The optimal value for τ turned out to exactly be 0.81 also. With this value the average relative error for the start and end dates was 0.47. For the artists, we selected eight well-known artists5 and their labels from the Unified List of Artist Names (ULAN)[3] from different time periods. We constructed the gold standard (years of birth and death of the artist) from the Wikipedia pages. We found an average relative error for µ of 0.20. Here the optimal value of τ is different from the art styles and wars examples: 1.12. This however produced a lower average relative error of 0.27. Discussion In the experiments for the art styles, the errors found are relatively low and especially if we consider the artificial nature of the gold standards (a discretization of very vague notions) we can say that the results are encouraging. The fact that the optimal value for τ and the relative average errors vary very little between the art style and wars experiments show that the method can be used to extract periods for comparable concepts in different domains. The differing optimal value for τ in the artists example can be explained by considering the type of years that appear in the extracted corpora for the artists. Most probably the years found will co-occur with the active period of an artist. Using the same value for τ as in the other two examples will not indicate the entire lifespan of the artists but rather his or her active period. The higher value of τ that we found indicates that for the method to find the entire lifespan, the start and end years must be found further away from the value of µ. 4 The Semantic Representation Phase We have acquired a distribution for the periods associated with the art styles from the Information Extraction phase. We now would like to represent this knowledge in an ontology. This can be done in a number of different ways, but this choice is ultimately a modeling decision to be made by the ontology engineer. Different modeling decisions can be made according to the purpose of the ontology or the available and desired reasoning capabilities. In this section, we describe four different possible ways of representing periods in an ontology. For each of these possibilities, we determine the transformation that is to be used to rewrite the distributions found in the first phase to the ontological constructs. As an example we show the results of each of the four modeling choices for the art style ’Baroque’ in Figure 4. Discrete Start and End Dates An intuitive possible representation of a period is a start and end date. In this case, the periods associated with an art style have two relations defined: (eg. hasStartYear and hasEndYear). These two dates have to be determined from the Normal Distribution found in the IE phase. The most straightforward method has been introduced in the previous section, through the use of the factor τ . If we assume that the optimal value for τ is 0.81, we can determine the start and end dates for each of the art styles (these can be found in Table 3). 5 Hieronymus Bosch, Vincent van Gogh, Francisco Goya, Gustav Klimt, Edouard Manet, Edvard Munch, Pablo Picasso and Leonardo da Vinci Baroque period_01 “1611” “1713” Baroque distr_per_01 “1662.2” “63.03” Baroque “17th Century” Baroque period_01 “1626” “1680” period_02 “1596” “1728” hasPeriod hasLinguisticPeriod hasDistrPeriod hasCorePeriod hasOuterPeriod hasStartYear hasEndYear hasStartYear hasStartYear hasEndYear hasEndYear hasMu hasSigma (a) (d)(c) (b) Fig. 4. The Baroque example for the four possible modeling choices discussed: discrete start and end dates (a), the distribution (b), multi-concept definition (c) and linguistic variables (c) Distribution The representation that is most true to the data from the Infor- mation Extraction phase would be using the parameters of the normal distrib- ution itself. In this case, every period linked to an art style has a mean and a standard deviation, which can be directly copied from the optimal distribution discovered in the Information Extraction phase (these can be found in Table 2). Multi-concept definition An ontology engineer can also choose a hybrid so- lution, that on the one hand uses discrete values, but also takes into account the vagueness of the domain. An example could be to define two periods for each art style, a ‘core’ period and an ‘outer’ period, which both have discrete start and end dates. In this case, an extra step is needed as these four values need to be determined from the values of µ and σ. To do this, two factors are needed τc and τo, where the core start and end dates are defined as µ + (τc · σ) and µ − (τc · σ) and the outer start and end dates are defined as µ + (τo ·σ) and µ−(τo ·σ). The optimal values of τc and τo could be determined using a gold standard that uses the notion of core and outer periods or they could be based on the value for τ we found in our experiments plus and minus a percentage. In Figure 4, we show the result for ‘Baroque’ with τc = 0.57 and τo = 1.05 (plus and minus 30%). Linguistic Variables The fourth possibility we consider is the use of linguistic values for the periods, such as ’first half of the 18th Century’ or ’1960s’. This would be closest to the way experts talk about periods in general and more specifically of art style periods. An ontology then allows for defining semantics of these individual values in such a way that there can be reasoned with it. We do not extensively list all possible rewriting rules from the distribution parameter values to such linguistic values. Instead we give three examples of such possible rules below: – if µ ≈ 1650 and σ ≈ 50 then use ‘the 17th Century’ – if µ ≈ 1725 and σ ≈ 25 then use ‘first/second half of the 18th Century’ – if µ > 1900 and σ ≈ 5 then use ‘around µ’ Note that these four representations do not contradict each other and could easily co-exist within a single ontology. It is a task for the designer of the rea- soning engine to enable valid temporal reasoning, such as suggested in [4] using the different representations. 5 Related Work A subtask of Information Extraction and Question Answering (QA) is the iden- tification and extraction of temporal data from textual corpora. Examples are [5] and [6]. The methods used look for patterns in the corpora and extract the periods accordingly. However, in our research we found that in our domain, these types of patterns (such as ’...A lasted from X to Y ...’) often do not occur. Our method is not dependent on these language- and domain-specific phrases as it considers individual moments linked to the concept. A lot of research has been done on representing time and time intervals. Allen[4] introduced the notion of discrete time intervals and presented a set of fixed relations between these intervals. Since Allen, different representations of these intervals have been studied. A very popular way of representing time intervals uses of fuzzy intervals (such as in [7]). However, since the broader context of this research is the Semantic Web, we chose ontology constructs to represent the periods. In the context of the Semantic Web, work on constructing ontologies of time is also being undertaken [8] which we might use in the future. 6 Conclusions and Further Research We have presented a method for the extraction of periods for temporal concepts and shown that this worked reasonably well. In this paper, we have shown that the method works for a number of instances of one concept. The method itself is domain-independent and we indeed have shown that for two other concepts, preliminary results are also promising. We have also shown a way to convert the found distributions of the periods to ontological constructs. The choice for which constructs to use is a modeling choice to be made by an ontology engineer. Currently, the knowledge extracted by our method is used in the MultimediaN e-culture browser[9] to facilitate richer browsing of Cultural Heritage repositories. There are some obvious issues to be solved for further research to test the limitations of the method. We would like to know how well the Information Ex- traction Phase works with other concepts in other domains. The method can also be expanded with different patterns to test for moments, so that not only years will be extracted, but also the more vague notions such as ’end of the 1960s’. The range of years that can be extracted (currently 1250-2100) can also be expanded. To further improve the IE phase, we would also like to further investigate the fitting procedure. The dominance of positive errors in Table 2 indicates that the method consequently places a period too early and more insight in the reasons for this could lead to further improvements for the method. Also, in the future, we plan to propose a framework for the integration of different modules that extract knowledge for a single ontology. For instance, in [2], we describe a system that can extract the instances of artist-art style relations. We assume that this knowledge can aid the extraction of periods for the same art styles and vice versa. For example, if we know that an artist linked to an art style produced a painting in a certain year, this might suggest that the art style was still active in that year. Acknowledgements This research was supported by the MultimediaN project (www.multimedian.nl) funded through the BSIK programme of the Dutch Government. References 1. The Getty Foundation: Aat: Art and architecture thesaurus. http://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabulary/aat/ (2000) 2. de Boer, V., van Someren, M., Wielinga, B.J.: Extracting instances of relations from web documents using redundancy. submitted (2001) 3. The Getty Foundation: Ulan: Union list of artist names. http://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabulary/ulan/ (2000) 4. Allen, J.: Maintaining knowledge about temporal intervals. Communications of the ACM 26(11) (1983) 832–843 5. Llido, D., Llavori, R.B., Cabo, M.J.A.: Extracting temporal references to assign document event-time periods. In: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Database and Expert Systems Applications. (2001) 62–71 6. Ahn, D., Schockaert, S., de Rijke, M., De Cock, M., Kerre, E.E.: Extracting, repre- senting, and grounding events for temporal question answering. In: 6th Meeting of Computational Linguistics in the Netherlands (CLIN 2005). (2005) 7. Ohlbach, H.: Relations between fuzzy time intervals. In: Proceedings 11th. Inter- national Symposium on Temporal Representation and Reasoning. (2004) 44–51 8. Hobbs, J.R., Pan, F.: An ontology of time for the semantic web. CM Transactions on Asian Language Information Processing 3(1) (2004) 9. Multimedian E-Culture Browser : (online demo). http://e- culture.multimedian.nl/demo/search (2006) 
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work_yhd2usro6vfenewonkmqs3eqfu	----	‘With Hundreds of Eyes’ Journal of Art Historiography Number 9 December 2013 ‘Hundreds of eyes’: Beyond Beholding in Riegl's ‘Jakob van Ruysdael’ (1902) Christopher P. Heuer Alois Riegl wrote nearly nothing about landscape painting; what he did has been assailed as mystical and oblique. The same might be said for his writing on the concept of Aufmerksamkeit, or attentiveness, which itself has come to generate a veritable sub-genre of art historiography. 1 Evocative comments on space, nature, and looking weave throughout Riegl’s lecture notes and unpublished oeuvre, but nowhere are they as systematically, potently (and cryptically) wielded towards an entire reconceptualization of art history as in the obscure, 1902 essay on the Dutch landscapist Jacob van Ruisdael.2 The essay pivoted on the partiality of the interpreter, offering a different mode of ‘structure’ than that enshrined by subsequent Vienna school formalists.3 Most importantly, within Riegl’s concept of landscape there emerged, as this paper will suggest, a different idea of art history as a kind of aesthetic act. My gratitude to Joseph Imorde, Abigail Newman, Jane Newman, and Margaret Olin for various guidances, and to Georg Vasold for assistance and access in Vienna. Suggestions by Diane Reynolds Cordileone greatly improved an earlier draft of this essay. 1 Among the vast Riegl literature, see, for example: Kurt Badt, ‘Alois Riegl’, in Raumphantasie und Raumillusionen, Cologne: DuMont, 1963, 27ff.; Otto Pächt, ‘Alois Riegl’, Burlington Magazine 105, May 1963, 188-93; Wolfgang Kemp, ‘Kunstwissenschaft und Rezeptionsästhetik’, in Kemp, ed. Der Betrachter ist im Bild, Cologne: DuMont, 1985, 7-27; Lorenz Dittmann, ‘Die Begriff der Kunstwerks in der deutschen Kunstgeschichte’ in idem (ed.) Kategorien und Methoden der deutschen Kunstgeschichte, 1900- 1930, Stuttgart: Steiner Verlag, 1985, 51-88; Jorg Oberhaidacher, ‘Riegls Idee einer theoretischen Einheit von Gegenstand und Betrachter und ihre Folgen für die Kunstgeschichte’, Wiener Jahrbuch für Kunstgeschichte 38, 1985, 199-218; Margaret Olin, ‘Forms of Respect: Alois Riegl’s Concept of Attentiveness’, Art Bulletin LXXI: 2, June 1989, 285-99; Margaret Iversen, Alois Riegl: Art History and Theory, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1993; J. Bazant, ‘Bildkünstlerisches Zeichen und Symbol bei Alois Riegl’, Umeni XLII, 1994, 230-38; Wolfgang Kemp, ‘Augengeschichte und skopische Regime’, Merkur 513, 1991, 1162-67; H.J. Sprosz, ‘Die Naturauffassung bei Alois Riegl und Joseph Strzygowski’, Ph.D. diss., Saarbrücken, 1989; Benjamin Binstock, ‘Alois Riegl in the Presence of the Nightwatch’, October 27, 1995, 36-44; Christiane Hertel, Vermeer: Reception and Interpretation, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, 35-7; Margaret Olin, The Nation Without Art: Examining Modern Discourses on Jewish Art, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2007, 111-18; Michael Viktor Schwarz, ‘Das Problem der Form und ihrer Geschichtlichkeit: Hildebrand, Riegl, Gombrich, Baxandall’, Wiener Jahrbuch für Kunstgeschichte 53, 2005, 203-17. 2 Aloïs Riegl, ‘Jakob van Ruysdael’, Die graphischen Künste, XXV, 1902, 11-20. Trans. Christopher P. Heuer in Art in Translation 4:2, 2012, 149-162. 3 And in fact may manifest the opposite. See Konrad Paul Liessmann, ‘Kunsttheorie als Wissenschaftskritik (Paul Feyerabends Berufung auf Alois Riegl)’ Kunsthistoriker: Mitteilungen des Österreichischen Kunsthistorikerverbandes II, 1985, 3, 10-12. Christopher P. Heuer ‘Hundreds of eyes’: Beyond Beholding in Riegl's ‘Jakob van Ruysdael’ (1902) 2 The Essay Figure 1. Die graphischen Künste 25 (1902), title page The essay ‘Jakob van Ruysdael’ was first published in 1902, in a periodical devoted to prints. In the piece Riegl outlines a categorical history of the entirety of Dutch painting on the basis of ‘three stages’ of space-handling and ‘Stimmung’ - atmosphere, or mood, which we’ll return to later - tracking ‘a movement from a relative objectivity towards a subjectivity’: …individual things have to give up their tactile, tangible, and objective- physical character to reveal themselves only as optical stimuli. They are spots of colour [Farbenflecken] that can be reassembled as individual things…4 Riegl, somewhat confusingly, then sets out to define three evolutionary phases for all of Dutch painting: In the first stage, ‘tonal’ painters such as Jan van Goyen, working in monochrome, created paintings which, as Riegl put it, ignored specific details and did not ‘reach out actively’ to the beholder. In the second phase, characterized by Rembrandt, human activity is present and individual details are brought out, but all are subjugated to, as Riegl puts it, several kinds of ‘darknesses’ [Dunkeln] everything is connected through light, dark, and chiaroscuro, harmonious and balanced – specifically in etchings such as the 1652 Goldweigher’s Field. Jacob van Ruisdael, meanwhile, emerges as exemplary of the third phase, in works like 4 Riegl, ‘Ruysdael’, 151. Christopher P. Heuer ‘Hundreds of eyes’: Beyond Beholding in Riegl's ‘Jakob van Ruysdael’ (1902) 3 the Great Beech Forest, where human activity has been expunged. It is, as Riegl puts it, sheer looking that becomes the subject of the work: one perceives almost nothing but trees, each of them comes forward as an individual…None of the trees has that insistent tactile dimension - as experienced on every walk in a forest - that transfixes the eye, taking up the entire visual field and thus never graspable at once. And yet, between the trees, the bright sky looks at the beholder with hundreds of eyes.5 Tree and sky, anthropomorphized, thus acknowledge the beholder, almost socially. And indeed, the mutual balance between Ruisdael’s subjectivity and that of the purported beholders’ - eye to eyes - is precisely what Riegl tracked in the giant Gruppenporträt article from the same year (1902), a balance based on jointly deferential Aufmerksamkeit, or attention, between observer and sitter. The trees work like Rembrandt’s glaring syndics. ‘…all of Dutch painting can be called, ‘ Riegl writes near the close of the Ruisdael essay, ‘a painting of attention.’6 For this attention, Riegl explains, is uniquely harmonious in Ruisdael’s own ‘mature’ phase, where certain paintings’ design functions almost as an allegory for Dutch egalitarianism: ‘individual things are always coordinated. No single one is emphasized at the expense of another…sky and earth are completely equivalent.’7 Riegl writes. This pictorial relationship within the painting models a relationship ostensibly outside the painting between beholder and actual artwork. The painting, that is, anchors a visual transaction. And just as the staffage is depicted in the act of calmly staring at trees, dunes, and water, so is the human beholder - placed before the picture - made aware of their own silent observational performance: …we see a wanderer sitting and resting contemplatively. [...] Any remnant of action as an expression of will has been done away with; what the artist represents and the beholder experiences in now pure sensation.8 What the best Ruisdael pictures do, Riegl writes, is engage a ‘pure enjoyment of looking.’9 Importantly, this is a looking cleaved from what Riegl calls the ‘expression’ of some extrinsic value - freed from duty to narrative or artistic will. The beholder’s looking remains engaged, however, even without Wille – it is an active attention, but one that never seeks to overpower its subject.10 5 Riegl, ‘Ruysdael’, 157-58. 6 Riegl, ‘Ruysdael’, 159. This is nothing more than a reprisal of a near-exact line from the Gruppenporträt. On the content of the actual pictures, see Peter Ashton, Alice Davies, and Seymour Slive, ‘Jacob van Ruisdael’s Trees’, Arnoldia: The Magazine of the Arnold Arboretum 42:1, Winter 1982, 2- 31. 7 Riegl, ‘Ruysdael’, 154. 8 Riegl, ‘Ruysdael’, 158. 9 Ibid. 10 Riegl’s careful distinction between Wille and wollen was explicated in his draft notes for the Gruppenporträt. See Olin, ‘Forms’, 292, n. 54. Christopher P. Heuer ‘Hundreds of eyes’: Beyond Beholding in Riegl's ‘Jakob van Ruysdael’ (1902) 4 As the essay concludes, Riegl turns to Ruisdael’s last pictures, where, he writes, ‘sensation is no longer acute’.11 The cherished attentive balance is upset. Sentimentality strays into the landscape as human forms disappear, in the Dresden Jewish Cemetery, for example. Here symbols or ‘feeling’ overwhelm the picture’s content, cloyingly beseeching the viewer to be read; nature is subjected towards the referencing of some artistic message or, indeed, expression. And without those beholding surrogates for us, the beholders within the picture - without those walkers, sitters, or fishermen that Ruisdael otherwise ‘sink[s] into the ensemble of natural things’12 – such feeling devolves ‘into affect.’13 A ‘hyper-subjective attitude’ now reigns; we flesh-and-blood lookers have no concomitance within the scenes, and the artist’s own individualism takes over: …a simple interest has crept into the purely attentive act of looking. This is an interest…demanded by a heightened desire for feeling…14 Nature, that is, has been theatrically enlisted towards some effect; in the Cemetery, this is some visual message about human transience. The picture still looks out, but looks too forcefully; Aufmerksamkeit is no longer mutual. In this last part of the essay, Riegl constantly tacks between descriptions of specific artworks and first-person statements about their present-day reception, mentioning ‘we modern observers’ and ‘the viewpoint of modern taste…’ or ‘the modern-thinking art lover.’ Rhetorical conventions, these, and ones familiar from Riegl’s other writings on Dutch art (and their roots in public lectures.) Yet here the effect is to uphold the essay’s larger contention that the art experience is best understood as a back-and-forth. In this, the ‘attention’ of the essay is signalled as more than just a museum-based transaction of seer and seen. Riegl is concerned, too, with the ‘attention’ that art history levels at its subjects, when it writes as well as looks; what it chooses to examine in its moment. The first sentence of the Ruisdael essay, after all, is not about Kunst but about moderne Kunstgeschichtsforschung.15 And Riegl seems not particularly happy with this art history; Ruisdael supplies a means to further inveigh (if more moderately than in his earlier writings) against historicism.16 In place of a pedantically academic approach to art, then, Riegl here presents an obsessive analysis of colours and surfaces that ‘nourish the organ of sight.’17 He precociously chafes against the tendency to instrumentalize painting as the ‘expression’ of some artistic will, or some accumulation of subjectivity. ‘Pure sensation’ is instead held up as a crucial aspect of art’s experience. Riegl exhibits, 11 Riegl, ‘Ruysdael’, 159 12 Riegl, ‘Ruysdael’, 154. 13 Riegl, ‘Ruysdael’, 160. 14 Riegl, ‘Ruysdael’, 159. 15 On Riegl’s methodological self-consciousness see, for example, Jas’ Elsner, ‘From Empirical Evidence to the Big Picture: Some Reflections on Riegl’s Concept of Kunstwollen’, Critical Inquiry 32: 4, Summer 2006, 741-66. 16 Diana Reynolds Cordileone, ‘The advantages and disadvantages of Art History to Life: Alois Riegl and historicism’, Journal of Art Historiography 3 (December 2010). 17 Riegl, ‘Ruysdael’, 153. Christopher P. Heuer ‘Hundreds of eyes’: Beyond Beholding in Riegl's ‘Jakob van Ruysdael’ (1902) 5 again, a wariness regarding positivist art history’s tendency to fetishize knowledge at the sake of experience, confrontation, and surprise18 - whatever its success, the Ruisdael piece exemplifies an alternative to such dry contextualizing. And it points towards a rescue of painting history from both dilettantism and university dogma. This was something Dutch art, in its revelling in everyday subjects, had already given rise to in writing around 1902, in imaginative (if fatuous) ways: Langbehn’s Rembrandt als Erzieher (1890) which Riegl surely knew, was a part of the intellectual climate, for better or for worse.19 But Riegl never speaks of a naïve, and certainly never a völkisch gaze: his vision of the artwork here is de facto heterogeneous: a combinatory product of admixed objects, atmospheres, and views. Both by zooming back and forth between the artwork and its reception, and by decrying those pictorial elements threatening to deaden a picture’s Stimmung with specialized information or ‘meaning’ (in Ruisdael’s case, tombstones and dead trees as icons of mortality), the Ruisdael essay secrets a musing on a Kunst freed from cultural duty to ‘express’ the past. It offers a consideration of what one is in fact paying ‘attention’ to when one does Kunstgechichte.20 In its very anchoring in a person-picture sociability, his paradigm suggested a creative, collaborative role for the beholder that the essay, in its very structure, puts into actual play. In a more condensed form than in Riegl’s other writings, then, the Ruisdael essay seems to recast art history as the individualized production of knowledge. Pedagogical Beginnings At the time of writing, Alois Riegl had been ordinarius at the University of Vienna for six years, having shifted from a curatorial position at the Österreichisches Museum für Kunst und Industrie. Despite a seemingly uniform concentration upon painting, the Ruisdael essay appeared in a luxury periodical devoted to the print: Die graphischen Künste, the official organ of a connoisseurs’ society known as the Gesellschaft fur Vervielfaltigende Kunst.21 The piece began life as a lecture as part of the Dutch painting course;22 other numbers of the journal had included lithographs by Franz Marc and essays by the print historian Max Lehre. The invocation of the 18 Consider, for example, Riegl’s mocking commentary on the debates around lifeless ‘revivalist’ styles in Vienna arts and crafts, ca. 1900: Alois Riegl, ‘Über Renaissance der Kunst’, Mittheilungen des k.k. Österreichischen Museums für Kunst und Industrie 10, 1895, 342-8, 363-71, 381-93. 19 Julius Langbehn, Rembrandt als Erzieher, von einem Deutschen (Leipzig: C.L. Hirschfeld), 1890. The sustained popularity of the notorious tract is explored in Fritz Stern, ‘Julius Langbehn and Germanic Irrationalism’, in The Politics of Cultural Despair. 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974), 97-204. 20 Heinrich Wölfflin singled out the ‘artistic’ stance of Riegl: ‘…Riegl durch seine Antithese auf ein anderes Problem hingelenkt worden ist, nämlich das der künstlerischen Denkrichtung.’ (Riegl was led by this antithesis towards another issue, namely that of the artistic method of thinking.) See Heinrich Wölfflin, Renaissance and Barok, Munich: Bruckmann, 1926. Andrew Hopkins (‘Riegl Renaissances’ in The Origins of Baroque Art in Rome, 73, n. 15) points out that this text was added by pupil Hans Rose. 21 On the journal: Meyers Großes Konversations-Lexikon, Leipzig: Bibliographisches Institut, 1907, vol. 7, 721-22. 22 Hans Tietze, ‘Riegl, Alois’, Neue Österreichische Biografie 1815-1918, Leipzig: Amathea-Verlag, 1935, vol. 8, 142-8. Christopher P. Heuer ‘Hundreds of eyes’: Beyond Beholding in Riegl's ‘Jakob van Ruysdael’ (1902) 6 Rembrandt print in the middle section is an unexpected pivot for Riegl’s narrative, and seems to be why the essay was included in a journal on graphic arts in the first place. Differently than much of Riegl’s other work, the essay rooted the Dutch landscape painting in what was basically a curatorial impulse - an attempt to erect a teleological framework which could account for the numinous specifics of objects, and, at the same time, detail their place in wide swaths of cultural production.23 Figure 2. Pages from Riegl’s lecture notes for the 1896 Dutch painting course (Kunsthistorisch Institut, Universität Wien) Riegl had taught courses on Dutch and Flemish painting in 1896/7, reprised in 1900/1: the same year he offered classes on Baroque painting in Italy and Spain.24 The Dutch course notes (fig. 2), which were originally to be published as a book (like the Barokkunst in Rom), exist in a 420-page typescript in Vienna, part of a project aborted in 1936.25 At the time, Dutch Baroque and mannerist painting, even with the 23 Kurt Forster, ‘Monument/Memory and the Mortality of Architecture’, Oppositions 25, Fall 1982, 69-77. 24 The latter published as the Die Entstehung der Barokkunst in Rom,Vienna: Schroll, 1908, ed. and trans. Andrew Hopkins and Arnold Witte as The Origins of Baroque Art in Rome, Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2010. 25 Das holländische Malerei des 17. Jahrhunderts, typescript. Kunsthistorisch Institut, Universität Wien. See Georg Vasold, ‘Alois Riegl: “Die hollandische Malerei des 17. Jahrhunderts”: Überlegungen zu einer unveröffentlichen Vorlesung aus dem Nachlaß’ M.A. Thesis, Universität Wien, 1999. In the Vienna files (unpaginated document, carton 5) there is a terse letter from the intended project editor, the Rembrandt specialist Ludwig Münz, to Riegl’s widow, dated 21 October 1936, which apologizes for having to ‘postpone’ the project. Given the date, the reasons seem both grim and not difficult to fathom. Münz was a professor at the University of Vienna and director of its art gallery; he edited the 1933 edition of Riegl’s Gruppenporträt, and was a close friend of Adolf Loos. He was also a decorated officer in the Austrian army in the First World War, and an outspoken critic of National Socialism, Christopher P. Heuer ‘Hundreds of eyes’: Beyond Beholding in Riegl's ‘Jakob van Ruysdael’ (1902) 7 repute it had been given by figures like Eugene Fromentin as a forerunner of nineteenth-century French Realism, was still something of a byway.26 It has long been assumed that Riegl was heavily influenced in his thoughts on Dutch art by Karl Schnaase (d. 1875), a Prussian jurist and one-time student of Hegel.27 Schnaase’s Niederländische Briefe of 1834, to summarize bluntly, had introduced the idea that separate eras of art were mutually illuminating, extending Hegel’s idea that there is a fixed relation to the art of the past. It was Dutch painting that made these ‘circular’ relations plainest in its sheer profusion, in its ‘unlimited number of types.’28 The Hegel of the Ästhetik, meanwhile, seems such an obvious presence in Riegl’s understanding of the beholder as to appear invisible.29 At the time of the essay, Riegl’s dissatisfaction with the dogmatic historicism of the Museum of Art and Industry was at its height; in Nietzsche’s critiques (which he read as a student) he found a basis for a more ‘irrationalist’ approach: a method which would not dispense with the past, but which would be more rigorous by its challenging of formulaic norms.30 Riegl had made a study trip to the Netherlands in 1900, where he visited the great collections in The Hague, Amsterdam, and Haarlem; on this trip he filled more than six travel notebooks with notes and drawings in purple pencil – these too, survive (fig. 3.) In these notes, Riegl seems to be working out the kind of mechanics of viewing which would animate the Dutch Group Portrait, published in 1902, using arrows, for example, to designate the directions of gazes in the group portraits, as here. Within these notebooks, schemes of oppositions and terms appear which will soon figure prominently – coordination, participation, surface, depth, internal and emigrating (he was Jewish) to England in 1938. Münz also has the distinction of being one of the few art historians to actually die at work– he suffered a heart attack and collapsed while addressing a Rembrandt conference in Münich on 7 March 1957. See Fritz Novotny, ‘Einleitung’ in Ludwig Münz, Bruegel Zeichnungen, Cologne: Phaidon, 1962, and Ulrike Wendland, Biographisches Handbuch deutschsprachiger Kunsthistoriker im Exil: Leben und Werk der unter dem Nationalsozialismus verfolgten und vertriebenen Wissenschaftler, Munich: Saur, 1999, vol. 1, 448-45. A critical edition and translation of the Dutch painting course typescript is forthcoming from the Getty Research Institute. 26 Eveline Koolhaas and Sara de Vries, ‘Terug naar een roemrijksverleden’ in Franz Grijzenhout and Henk van Veen, De Gouden Eeuw in Perspectief, Nijmegen: Sun, 1992, 107-37. 27 Karl Schnaase, Niederländische Briefe von Karl Schnaase, Stuttgart und Tübingen: J.G. Cotta, 1834. 28 Cited in Michael Podro, The Critical Historians of Art, New Haven: Yale UP, 1982, 32. 29 And yet not unambiguously. Max Dvořák, for example, claimed that neither Schnaase nor Hegel really mattered much to Riegl at all. See Max Dvořák, ‘Alois Riegl’ in Gesammelte Schriften, Munich: Piper, 1929, 280. 30 On Riegl and Nietzsche, see Cordileone, ‘Art History to Life,’ 8-10. Figure 3. Riegl’s travel diaries with notes on paintings in the Frans Halsmuseum, Haarlem, July 1900 (Kunsthistorisch Institut, Universität Wien) Christopher P. Heuer ‘Hundreds of eyes’: Beyond Beholding in Riegl's ‘Jakob van Ruysdael’ (1902) 8 external unity [Einheit], and above all, attentiveness [Aufmerksamkeit]. Standing before the paintings, buying the occasional postcard (on one he makes notes of coloristic features in the paintings using words like ‘Tonally-bound,’ ‘brown,’ ‘subtle red contour-lines,’ etc., fig. 4). In his scribbled notations, Riegl himself appears to have been enacting - and not just documenting - the social, visual relationships with the paintings in the Dutch museums he would later essay. Figure 4. Postcard from The Hague, Gemeentemuseum, with photographic reproduction of a detail of Cornelis Johnson van Ceulen, Magistrates of The Hague (Oil on canvas, 1647). Riegl’s notes from July 1900 are in pencil on verso (Kunsthistorisch Institut, Universität Wien) Why the focus on landscape, however? In the essay Riegl consistently returns to the mystical concept of Stimmung, the famously untranslatable word meaning roughly mood or feeling, and here, atmosphere, a doubly problematic term in an essay devoted to weather, light, and landscape. The word has undertones of harmony, of spatial - and temporal - imbrication with the environment, and was frequently applied to various arts in Vienna.31 The writer Hermann Bahr used it to describe the experience of a pastoral house. Jakob Wassermann, the critic, related 31 Hans-Georg van Arburg, ‘Ein Sonderbares Gespinst von Raum und Zeit: Zur theoretischen Konstitution und Funktion von “Stimmung” um 1900 bei Alois Riegl und Hugo von Hofmannsthal’ in Kerstin Thomas, ed. Stimmung: Ästhetische Kategorie und künstlerische Praxis, Munich: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 2010, 13-30. Christopher P. Heuer ‘Hundreds of eyes’: Beyond Beholding in Riegl's ‘Jakob van Ruysdael’ (1902) 9 Stimmung to the theatre, invoking its overtones of ‘an intensity of vision.’32 Riegl devoted an essay to it in 1899 (published in the same journal as the Ruisdael essay), entitled ‘Stimmung as the Content of Modern Art,’ (fig. 4) and in lecture notes he linked it specifically to made landscape: That is why modern landscape painting is so popular, because it is recognized as being the most expedient method for putting us in the Stimmung…it is often much more expedient than the landscape in nature itself…33 By ‘modern landscape painting’ Riegl (as in the Ruisdael essay) seems to mean French Impressionism and its German cognates. Max Libermann, Riegl goes on to explain, is among the modern artists who are successful in revealing Stimmung, ‘in contour, mood, and colour.’ It seems to be synonymous, again, with a kind of mystical, almost pantheistic harmony between subject and nature; Stimmung is, above all else, intangible; it is not a figure. If anything, Stimmung abhors subject matter altogether – all the same, it is quite ‘real.’ Riegl took this entire concept’s relations to landscape, and the subject choice of Ruisdael, from Carl Gustav Carus (1789-1869), whose own Briefe über Landschaftsmalerei was published in 1831. Carus was a correspondent with Goethe (himself a writer on Ruisdael34) and an advocate of Caspar David Friedrich. He understood landscape as a dialogical experience, comparing, as would Riegl, Ruisdael’s trees to interlocutors who ‘spoke’ to the individual viewer.35 Nature, Culture, Attentiveness Dirk Niefanger has shown that Stimmung’s links to landscape in fin-de-siècle Vienna bespoke a specific anxiety about urban space, a reactive yearning for ‘authentic’ harmonious Raumgefuhl (space-feeling) in the face of the hectic, ineffectual surfaces of the metropolis.36 What certain kinds of Dutch landscape painting uniquely presented, then (and Riegl says this explicitly in the Ruisdael essay) - is that actual 32 Cited in Dirk Niefanger, Produktiver Historismus: Raum und Landschaft in der Wiener Moderne, Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 1993, 53. 33 See Olin, Forms, 123. One of the earliest commentaries on the Ruisdael essay seized upon Stimmung as a spatial concept; see Hans Jantzen, review of Alois Riegl: Gesammelte Aufsätze [1929] in Kritische Berichte 1930/1: 3, 65-74. 34 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, ‘Ruisdael als Dichter’ [1816] in Hendrik Birus (ed.), Goethe: Sämtliche Werke, Briefe, Tagebücher und Gespräche, Frankfurt au Main: Klassiker Verlag, 1987, vol. 19, 632-36. 35 Cf., for example, Carus on Ruisdael in his Letter V: ‘…Ruisdael mit zu unendlicher Freiheit und Wahrheit hinstellt, das uns so die heimische geliebte Natur fast unmittelbar anzusprechen scheint.’ (….Ruisdael presents to us with such infinite freedom and truth that our beloved native landscape seems to speak to us directly...)’ in Carl Gustav Carus, Neun Brief über Landschaftsmalerei, Leipzig: Gerhard Fleischer, 1831, 98. On direct-speaking nature, see Henri Zerner and Charles Rosen, ‘Caspar David Friedrich and the Language of Landscape’, Romanticism and Realism: The Mythology of Nineteenth- Century Art, New York: Viking, 1984, 58. 36 Niefanger, Produktiver Historismus, 19. Christopher P. Heuer ‘Hundreds of eyes’: Beyond Beholding in Riegl's ‘Jakob van Ruysdael’ (1902) 10 landscape might be a situation where one can fully apprehend Stimmung but not dissolve into it; individual subjectivity is preserved. Again, Riegl might be attempting to, as Margaret Olin has put it, ‘neutralize threatening issues’ of his own Viennese modernity, where, he feared, the idea of the self had run amok at the cost of actual nature.37 In the utopia of Jacob van Ruisdael’s final phase, by contrast, atmosphere and trees enwrap each other but remain independent, if intimate, phenomena. In the same way, Riegl argued, the ideal relation between the beholder and the artwork is modelled; the Baroque creation retains the ‘subjectivity’ of subject and object without loss of identity to either.38 Stimmung, with its historically- specific connotations of pastoral mood, is what one apprehends via active attention – Aufmerksamkeit - to landscape as a picture. Through such a process, Riegl seems to posit, Ruisdael does not so much duplicate the world as reveal our place in it. The Aufmerksamkeit which Riegl famously espouses in his work, as we have seen, is not specifically Dutch, but it is, crucially, active and social. Things go wrong, as he explains in the Ruisdael essay, precisely when this balance of attention is thrown off; when the beholder becomes passive; this is what happens in late, overly sentimental, overly ‘subjective’ Ruisdael, claims Riegl, in works like the Jewish Cemetery. Dramatic lights and darks, ponderous symbolizations of death are thrust forward; too much hermetic signification overwhelms the viewer-picture dialectic and destroys a polite, conversational intersubjectivity. A beholder no longer has interpretive work to do; it has all been done for her. Faced with a cluttering of (as Riegl puts it) ‘high-strung’ elements, it is sentimentality alone which is appealed to; landscape has there been reduced to working just as symbol which ‘stands for’ something outside of it. The ‘objective’ nature of objects is completely abandoned when only their signification comes forth. A disavowal of this, for Riegl, is what links ‘good’ Ruisdael to Romantic landscape painting or Impressionism. As did Carus, Riegl is lionizing a painting which seems to deny instantaneous passage from form to extrinsic meaning. He speaks of an art which arrests at the level of encounter. He speaks, that is, of a Romanticism. The intellectual underpinnings of Riegl’s take on Aufmerksamkeit have been well-charted by Lorenz Dittman, Otto Pächt, and Margaret Olin; all conclude in a late-nineteenth century context they were, undeniably, Romantic. For at the same time as Riegl was calling for attention to the essential ‘realities’ of forms, physicists like Ernst Mach emphasized the utter nonexistence of objects apart from their sensing, an idea used often clumsily to explain Impressionist painting. Riegl seems to have had some exposure to Mach’s writing, for instance, but was far less positivist in his view of sensation.39 While ‘attention’ as a state of human consciousness had existed for decades, its many species became of acute interest in 37 Olin, ‘Forms of Respect’, 298. See, too, Johannes Stückelberger, Rembrandt und die Moderne: Der Dialog mit Rembrandt in der deutschen Kunst um 1900, Munich: Fink, 1996, 186ff. 38 W. Schmidt, Studien zur Landschaft Jacob van Ruisdael: Frühwerke und Wanderjahre, Hildesheim: Olms, 1981, 175. 39 Adi Efal, ‘Reality as the Cause of Art: Alois Riegl and neo-Kantian realism’, Journal of Art Historiography 3, December 2010. Christopher P. Heuer ‘Hundreds of eyes’: Beyond Beholding in Riegl's ‘Jakob van Ruysdael’ (1902) 11 the nineteenth century.40 Discourse around early psychology with theorists like Wilhelm Wundt and Theodor Lipps in Leipzig, Berlin, and particularly in Vienna (where, of course, not just Riegl but Freud was writing) was less about close looking than about distraction, about the fragmentation of the unitary subject and the viewing whole in accelerated, disorienting, capitalist modernity. Industrialization prompted new concerns about how to make workers and consumers more productive and orderly. Georg Simmel and later, Walter Benjamin (who was, famously, much impressed with Riegl) cast the speed and technology of modern urban life, with its constant assaults of stimuli, as destabilizing the possibility of unitary viewing altogether. Riegl, by contrast, seemed to yearn for an older, conventional model, what Jonathan Crary calls ‘a utopian…world of mutual communication;’41 a quasi-theological union of beholding based on quiet, individual contemplation. It has recently been demonstrated that Riegl owes this concept to many immediate influences, but ultimately this, too, bespeaks Hegel, whose Aesthetics espoused the idea of equilibrium between art and observer, and the nonexistence of the self-sustaining artwork.42 And yet Riegl was concerned not so much with attention as with attentiveness; as Olin has noted, the German word Aufmerksamkeit, which Riegl tended to use, has connotations of deference which Beachtung (which he does not use) does not.43 This is what makes the Ruisdael piece more than just a re- application of the tenets outlined in the Gruppenporträt.44 Even more so than in the model of attention that book posits, the Ruisdael essay assumes an mandarin aesthetic construction supported by quiet gazing, individual beholding. This flies in the face of everything that would be written after 1900 regarding new mass, collective forms of attention-media like film. As Mosche Barasch has pointed out (somewhat problematically),45 Riegl’s focus on attention as a historical category fused two seemingly contradictory, but omniscient, artistic/intellectual trends around 1900: psychoanalysis, which took as its charge the need to find truth behind appearances, and Impressionism, an art aimed, at least superficially, at nothing but appearances and their perception. 40 On its deeper roots see Lorraine Daston, ‘The Empire of Observation, 1600-1800’, in Daston and Lunbeck, eds. Histories of Scientific Observation, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2011, 81-113, esp. 99-100. 41 Jonathan Crary, Suspensions of Perception, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999, 51. 42 Dietrich von Loh, ‘Alois Riegl und die Hegelsche Geschichtsphilosophie’, Kunstjahrbuch der Stadt Linz, 1986, 1-42. 43 In contrast to, say, Lipps, who relied upon the term Beachtung in his discussions of pictorial space. See, for example, the lectures compiled in Theodor Lipps, Bewusstein und Gegenstände, Leipzig: Dürr, 1905, 40ff. 44 One of the few writers to note this: Jan Białostocki, ‘Nachahmung der Natur oder symbolische Weltschau’, Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte 47: 4,1984, 421-438, esp. 425-57. 45 Moshe Barasch, ‘Alois Riegl’, in Modern Theories of Art 2: From Impressionism to Kandinsky, New York: NYU University Press, 1998, 143-70. For a broader take on Riegl’s Viennese context, see Willibald Sauerländer, ‘Alois Riegl und die Entstehung der autonomen Kunstgeschichte am Fin de Siècle’, in: R. Bauer (ed.) Fin de Siècle. Zur Literatur und Kunst der Jahrhundertwende, Frankfurt: Klostermann, 1977, 125-139. Christopher P. Heuer ‘Hundreds of eyes’: Beyond Beholding in Riegl's ‘Jakob van Ruysdael’ (1902) 12 As elsewhere, however, here Riegl maintains a very robust concept of the object; the subject, if anything, is far from the sole determinant of aesthetic experience. Yet proper landscape, like bourgeois group portraiture, is honest about its status as a ‘conjunction of objective and subjective phenomena’46 – not one or the other. When the equilibrium between elements in a picture, or between the picture and the beholder, becomes undone, becomes something other than separate and simultaneously intimate, art becomes dishonest. An ideal aesthetic, a Baroque aesthetic, for Riegl, thus becomes one of mutual communication, distance, and deeply active intersubjective attention. Modern painting, modern attention, claimed Riegl, errs when it is too subjective, looks only inward. It does not look at the beholder; it disingenuously pretends he is not there. It would seem, then, that subjectivity is acceptable when it is balanced, communal, deferential, and bourgeois.47 Dutch Art's Productivity Riegl’s whole turn to Dutch painting around 1900, however, occurred quite suddenly. The Ruisdael piece represented a radical break with what Riegl was working on at the time, a project on ‘anachronisms’ in art – which he abandoned. Only a short article on Mycenaean cups, posthumously published in 1906, survived from that undertaking (when it was reprinted in 1929, and even when translated into English in 2000, the footnote mentioning this larger, astonishing-sounding project was inexplicably deleted).48 Yet in this small essay, the issues of space, figure/ground relationships, and sociability that animated the Gruppenporträt text surfaced in a very different milieu; landscape was unexpectedly key; trees are the features of the object where a ‘subjective’ view of atmosphere - the appearance of landscape ‘as it is seen,’ overtakes, for the first time, the ‘objective,’ conventional rendering, that is, the landscape ‘as it is known to be.’ ‘The cups,’ writes Riegl, ‘display a landscape that encompasses a section of the earth’s surface intended for subjective momentary viewing….’49 The interest in subjective viewing, even in a pre-pre modern milieu, shares much with the writings on Dutch art. Here too, we encounter a curatorial faith in what Riegl called the unbefangene Auge ─ the unfettered eye - at the cost of overponderous historical scrutiny.50 Riegl’s whole project could be construed as nostalgic; an attempt to assuage the bewildering new variances between humans and the exterior world and return 46 Riegl, Gruppenporträt, 235. 47 And thus an attention subsisting in distance rather than intimacy. See Barbara Thums, Aufmerksamkeit, Munich: Fink, 2008, 404-424. 48 Alois Riegl, ‘Die kunsthistorische Stellung der Becher von Vafio’ [1900], orig. in Jahreshefte der Österreichern Archäologischen Instituts 9:1, 1906, 1, trans. Tawney Becker in Christopher S. Wood, The Vienna School Reader, New York: Zone Books, 2000, 114. The footnote was added by the journal editor and then-director of the Austrian Archaeological Insitute, Robert von Schneider. 49 Riegl, ‘Becher von Vaphio’, 12, Becker trans., in Wood, Vienna School, 114. 50 See Diana Reynolds [Cordileone], ‘Vom Nutzen und Nachteil des Historismus für das Leben: Alois Riegl’s Bedeutung zur Frage der kunstgewerblichen Reform’ in: Peter Noever, ed. Kunst und Industrie: Die Anfänge des Museum für Angewandte Kunst im Wien, Vienna: Hatje Canz, 2000, 20-29. Christopher P. Heuer ‘Hundreds of eyes’: Beyond Beholding in Riegl's ‘Jakob van Ruysdael’ (1902) 13 to a harmonious mode of set object-subject relations. Perhaps on the basis of his peripatetic childhood as son of a bureaucrat in Bohemia and Galatia, Riegl saw in the efflorescence of middle-class subjectivity, the interiorization of sense relations, a loss. He certainly inherited a distaste for narratives of cultural nationalism.51 But he agreed with the moderns that the true function of art was to do more than ‘represent’ – Ruisdael’s trees, for example, are not just images of the world, they are painted denizens within it, ‘who look at us with thousands of eyes.’ The traffic of beholding they take part in helps define the exterior, looking subject, and not just ornament her existence. Riegl’s audacity, and ultimately his most compelling trait, is his confidence in art writing to, as an art itself, reveal a historically-specific way of knowing the world. Non-Sites The hundreds of eyes that our own moment increasingly casts upon Riegl, in an ongoing flood of translations and redactions, has still not excavated a coherent program, a structure, for what his work was trying to do. This is part of Riegl’s ongoing allure, and surely part of the attraction of the supposedly ‘interstitial’ art historical moments he helped enfranchise. After Riegl, for example, the Baroque as a style, epoch, or condition became an obsession of many critically-minded literary and art scholars in Europe. This was not just because the sixteenth century - a time of Reformation, mysticism, and war – seemed to share much with Europe in the 1930s: an era of demagoguery, dysphoria, and shock. For art historians like Hugo Kehrer and, far more differently, Hans Sedlmayr, the baroque as a field mandated a new self-consciousness on the part of the scholar; as an ‘art about art,’ the work of Michelangelo, Pontormo, Bruegel, and El Greco licensed an art history about art history - one which might, however shamanically, account for the specificity of the interpreter’s viewpoint. Interwar mannerism (often darkly) emerged as a modernism, but also an experimental field for deeply historical investigation - one concerned both with the unrepresentable and the unspeakable, across two radically different eras. Formally Riegl is credited with the idea that the art of the sixteenth century outside the Renaissance emerged as a forum to pose questions of all representation, in seeming to suggest darker, less-redemptive relationships between beholders and artworks. Riegl and, again, Walter Benjamin (who wrote of photography as ‘stimmunglos’) marked the threshold of modernity at the decay of the Renaissance, particularly with Michelangelo.52 And yet Baroque space, as Riegl wrote, is always ‘outlandish’, it does not approach the viewer as something wanting to be read with an identificatory gesture (as linear perspective might). Rather it insists on distance: 51 Hans Tietze, ‘Riegl, Alois’, Neue Österreichische Biografie 1815–1918 (Leipzig: Amathea-Verlag, 1935), 8: 142-48; Margaret Olin, ‘Alois Riegl: The Late Roman Empire in the Late Hapsburg Empire,’ Austrian Studies 5 (1994), 107-20. 52 On which see Matthew Rampley, ‘Subjectivity and the Baroque: Riegl and the rediscovery of the Baroque’ in Richard Woodfield (ed.), Framing Formalism: Riegl’s Work, Amsterdam: G+B Arts International, 2001, 265-90. Christopher P. Heuer ‘Hundreds of eyes’: Beyond Beholding in Riegl's ‘Jakob van Ruysdael’ (1902) 14 …if in Antiquity and the Renaissance the extraordinary enthrals us – in the baroque it repels us, we find it disturbing, like an annoying indeterminacy; for example, a figure that prays and in the process is bent in convulsive movements. We ask ‘why these movements’? They seem to us unmotivated; we do not understand them.53 This distancing became most acutely visible, Riegl insisted, in architecture: ‘the mannerist facade recalls something that cannot be immediately seen, much less touched,’54 he wrote of Borromini. And yet this is precisely the tenet which certain interwar followers of Riegl applied, at times sinisterly, to painting, sharing his interest in the extra-textual, the marginal, and the act of beholding. As Hans Sedlmayr wrote: The thing only possesses artistic properties when it is approached with an ‘artistic’ attitude [Einstellung].55 Ultimately, Riegl’s ‘aesthetic’ approach, too, insists that the fiction of impartial art historical analysis was just that – fiction. Nowhere is this plainer than in the Ruisdael article, which bears down on its images hard in mystical, idiosyncratic, confusing, and highly personal ways. Speaking quietly, but steadily, in the Ruisdael essay is a voice for art history as creative activity first and a knowledge-producing institution, or ‘science’ far second. What ultimately emerges from a writing, and a theory, aimed at a de-motivation of the modern, solipsistic self, paradoxically becomes a model immersed - perhaps - in nothing but a miasmic subjectivity. Christopher P. Heuer is Assistant Professor in the Department of Art & Archaeology at Princeton University, where he serves on the Executive Board of the Interdisciplinary Doctoral Program in the Humanities. His books include The City Rehearsed: Object, Architecture and Print in the Worlds of Hans Vredeman de Vries (2009/2013), and, as editor, Vision and Communism (2011). He remains a continuing participant in Our Literal Speed. A new book on the Renaissance arctic, Into the White, is forthcoming. cheuer@princeton.edu 53 Riegl, Barokkunst in Rom, 3. 54 Riegl, Die Entstehung der Barokkunst, 59 (my emphasis) 55 Hans Sedlmayr, ‘Zu einer strengen Kunstwissenschaft’ [1931] trans. Mia Fineman as ‘On the Rigorous Study of Art’ in Wood, ed. The Vienna School Reader, 144. 
work_ylc5sqyhl5gtnaq2k45uggazkq	----	Dermatology: Practical and Conceptual Commentary | Dermatol Pract Concept 2019;9(3):8 211 Dermatology Practical & Conceptual Introduction In a majority of cutaneous disorders, while a specific tissue pattern constitutes the predominant basis for histopathologi- cal diagnosis, the presence of special structures or cells serves as an adjuvant or supportive attribute that may enhance the probability of that diagnosis in specific conditions. Dermos- copy as a diagnostic tool in general dermatology is still in a developmental and impressionable phase, and its current “diagnostic” accuracy is limited by the lack of uniform standardized criteria/algorithm of structures or features defining a particular condition owing to paucity of published literature, particularly properly designed trials. Pending the establishment of such criteria while anecdotal reports remain an important source of advancing our dermoscopic cognition of a dermatosis, the presence of an odd or singular structure on dermoscopy reported in a particular condition warrants careful evaluation and interpretation by experts, evidence- based reinforcement from multiple cases, and clarity on its absence in close clinicopathological differentials before label- ing it “diagnostic” for that condition. The situation becomes further complicated by the understated but very relevant differences observed in the dermoscopic features of the same cutaneous lesion in different skin types [1]. In our opinion, the Observation “Dermoscopy of Chro- moblastomycosis,” by Subhadarshani and Yadav [2] pub- lished in this journal, highlights the relative limitation rather than the merit of dermoscopy in diagnosing granulomatous disorders, especially in skin of color (SOC). They reported reddish pink background with multiple yellow-orange ovoid structures, along with interspersed brown dots, crusts, and scales as the dermoscopic features in their clinically and pathologically confirmed case of chromoblastomycosis. Notwithstanding the confounding issue of using the terms brown and blackish red interchangeably for supposedly the most diagnostic dermoscopic feature for the authors, the Dermoscopic Characterization in Pigmented Skin: Interpret “Pigmented” Structures Carefully Sidharth Sonthalia1, Abhijeet Kumar Jha2, Mohamad Goldust3, Abhishek Omchery4, Johannes F. Dayrit5 1 SKINNOCENCE: The Skin Clinic, Gurgaon, India 2 Department of Skin & V.D., Patna Medical College and Hospital, Patna, Bihar, India 3 Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran 4 Kaya Clinic, Sohna Road, Gurugram, India 5 Department of Dermatology, Research Institute for Tropical Medicine, Muntinlupa City, Philippines Key words: dermoscopy, skin of color, granulomatous, inflammatory, chromoblastomycosis, lupus vulgaris, sarcoidosis, dots, globules Citation: Sonthalia S, Kumar Jha A, Goldust M, Omchery A, Dayrit JF. Dermoscopic characterization in pigmented skin: interpret “pigmented” structures carefully. Dermatol Pract Concept. 2019;9(3):211-213. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5826/dpc.0903a08 Accepted: April 10, 2019; Published: July 31, 2019 Copyright: ©2019 Sonthalia et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Funding: None. Competing interests: The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose. Authorship: All authors have contributed significantly to this publication. Corresponding author: Dr. Sidharth Sonthalia, SKINNOCENCE: The Skin Clinic & Research Centre, C-2246, Sushant Lok-1, Block-C, Gurugram 122009, India. Email: sidharth.sonthalia@gmail.com 212 Commentary | Dermatol Pract Concept 2019;9(3):8 Case Presentation The first case is that of a 21-year-old Indian woman with a 2-year-old erythematous facial plaque with a “moth-eaten” appearance (Figure 1A). Polarized dermoscopy (Figure 1B) revealed reddish pink background with yellow-orange ovoid structures, crusts, scales, and interspersed irregular brown dots (similar to the case in question). Peripheral branching vessels were additional features. Lupus vulgaris was con- firmed by histopathology and molecular diagnostics. In the second case, a 40-year-old Indian man had asymp- tomatic erythematous clustered papules over the right forearm that developed 8 months previously (Figure 2A). Polarized dermoscopy revealed pale pink background with yellowish orange areas and white scales. Interspersed irregu- lar pigmented dots and globules were observed in this case as well (Figure 2B). Cutaneous sarcoidosis was confirmed on lack of clarification on the patient’s skin type renders the issue more complicated (although we presume Indian origin and skin type IV-V based on authors’ work affiliation and clinical image). Although the majority of features on inflam- moscopy are indistinguishable in different skin phototypes, as per our reported experience the observation of “pigmented” structures on dermoscopy of any dermatoses in darker skin types warrants cautious interpretation since such brownish dots, granules, globules, and clods are observed very com- monly during different phases of evolution of the majority of pigmentary and inflammatory skin disorders in SOC [3]. While in the case under question the brown or blackish red structures may indeed represent the clinically visible black dots stemming from transepithelial elimination of inflam- matory exudate and hemorrhage, labeling them as “the most useful sign in diagnosing chromoblastomycosis” seems to be an overstatement. We support our contention with 2 cases. Figure 1. (A) Infiltrated plaque of lupus vulgaris with a “moth-eaten” appearance on the face of an Indian woman. (B) Polarized dermoscopy revealed reddish pink background with yellow-orange ovoid structures, crusts, scales and interspersed irregular brown dots (arrows) with focal clustering (circle). Peripheral branching vessels were the additional feature (Dermlite 4, ×10). (C) Histopathology showing caseating granulomas and other features diagnostic of lupus vugaris. Note the presence of numerous melanophages (yellow arrows) in the upper dermis (hematoxylin and eosin, ×400). [Copyright: ©2019 Sonthalia et al.] A B C Figure 2. (A) Erythematous clustered papules over the right forearm of an Indian man. (B) Polarized dermoscopy revealed pale pink back- ground with yellowish orange areas, white scales, and interspersed pigmented irregular dots and globules (arrows) (Dermlite 4, ×10). (C) His- topathology showing noncaseating granulomatous inflammation in the dermis suggestive of sarcoidosis. Note the presence of many melano- phages (yellow arrows) in the upper dermis (hematoxylin and eosin, ×400). [Copyright: ©2019 Sonthalia et al.] A B C Commentary | Dermatol Pract Concept 2019;9(3):8 213 typical histopathology; pulmonary involvement and elevated angiotensin-converting enzyme levels were found. Interest- ingly, in both cases, apart from the typical granulomatous picture, numerous papillary dermal melanophages were visible (Figures 1C and 2C), possibly contributing to the dermoscopic brownish structures. The yellowish green “apple jelly” nodules or “grains of sand” were not appreciable in either case on diascopy. Conclusions Without any intended criticism, we wish to highlight that while there is a huge void of dermoscopic characterization of nonmelanocytic cutaneous disorders especially in SOC, dermoscopy enthusiasts must exert extreme caution before labeling the presence or absence of a particular dermoscopic feature as “highly diagnostic.” A systematic approach for col- lection and banking of dermoscopic images of disorders in general dermatology from across the globe, especially from the darker skin types, is warranted. The preliminary sugges- tion of existence of minor but important differences in the dermoscopic features of the same inflammatory dermatosis in different skin types [3] makes a valid case for exploring this uncharted territory. References 1. Sonthalia S, Gupta A, Jha AK, Sarkar R, Ankad BS. Disorders of pigmentation. In: Lallas A, Errichetti E, Ioannides D, eds. Der- moscopy in General Dermatology. 1st ed. London: CRC Press; 2018:282-294. 2. Subhadarshani S, Yadav D. Dermoscopy of chromoblastomyco- sis. Dermatol Pract Concept. 2017;7(4):23-24. 3. Gupta V, Sonthalia S, Bhat YJ, Langar S, Bosseila M. Inflammatory and infectious conditions. In: Lallas A, Errichetti E, Ioannides D, eds. Dermoscopy in General Dermatology. 1st ed. London: CRC Press; 2018:295-309. 
work_ymcfok6cengktcui43ls3blc6q	----	work, we do not train for it. So graduation marks a sudden translation from a protected world into real life, where stress is inevitable. Without training, this transition too often results in distress and depression for those who first encounter stress in the unfavourable circumstances of an unsupported house job and when difficult choices have to be made between, for example, home and work. These matters are especially a problem for women, even though they are as resilient, if not more so, than men. Combined with sexual discrimination, it is scarcely surprising that the going is tough for women. The facts of stress and dissatisfaction have been available for some time. What is now needed is abandonment of the attitudes which say on the one side, "I went through it in my time; why shouldn't you" and on the other, "My seniors are hateful and inconsiderate and I must have shorter hours." We need to restore some dignity and excitement into the practice of our profession, particularly in its early and impressionable stages, and also to recognise explicitly that there are privileges and responsibilities at all levels. H A F DUDLEY Emeritus Professor of Surgery, Strathdon, Aberdeenshire AB3 8UE I Firth J. Levels and sources of stress in medical students. BrMedJ 1986;292:1177-80. 2 Firth-Cozens J. Emotional distress in junior house officers. Br Medj 1987;295:533-6. 3 Delamothe T. Juniors' hours of work. BrMedJ 1990;300:623-4. 4 Masterton JlP. Sleep of hospital medical staff. Lancet 1965;i:41-2. 5 Leslie PF, Williams JA, McKenna C, Smith G, Heading RC. Hours, volume, and type of work of preregistration house officers. BrMedJ 1990;300:1038-41. 2- Stress in women doctors Women should not have to overcome more bamrers than men We know by now that junior doctors are demoralised. The hours, the facilities, inadequate support, and uncertain career prospects combine to crush their morale,' and not surpris- ingly some get depressed. But why are women doctors more depressed than their male colleagues, as Firth-Cozens sug- gests (p 89)? Are women inherently more susceptible to depression; or should we look to the additional pressures that their social position imposes? In What Women Want Professor Anthony Clare argues cogently for a social explanation.2 Epidemiological compari- sons between men and women, he says, are fraught with methodological difficulty. The results of studies that correct scrupulously for social differences -age, education, back- ground, achievement, occupational and social environment, and career prospects -show no difference between the sexes in the prevalence of psychological ill health.34 The point is that men and women are not normally socially comparable. Men occupy the powerful positions, while women are dispro- portionately represented in low status jobs. Women doctors do not escape this generalisation. Despite the fact that women comprise an increasing percentage of medical school entrants (47% in 1989 and over 40% for the past 10 years) and are well represented among senior house officers and registrars they continue to be found on lower rungs of the career ladder than their male counterparts. Among consultants only 6% in general medicine and less than 1% in general surgery are women. There are few women in academic medicine, and even in general practice only one in five principals is a woman.' According to Allen it is children that block career achieve- ment.6 Full time working women have on average 17 hours a week less leisure time than men,7 and a recent study of British social attitudes showed that when both parents work full time the woman still takes on most of the child rearing and house- hold tasks: 82% of men and women said that the woman was ultimately responsible for these.8 Yet the NHS does little to help. In 1988 district health authorities provided workplace nurseries for only 1179 children under 5 (H Harman, unpublished data). These places are not eligible for govern- ment subsidy and, unlike those in the private sector, do not qualify for tax relief. Nevertheless, women doctors are more likely than other professional women to continue working with family respon- sibilities,9 but at what cost to career and personal life? To the aspiring female clinician this potential conflict is added to the exams, frequent moves, and hard work that affect men as well. Small wonder that women find themselves shepherded out of the main stream into supernumerary part time training posts or clinical assistantships.'° Those who make it to the top do so against the odds. At every stage they will probably have had to make personal compromises to conform to a male model, confronting role conflicts that men do not face. Firth-Cozens calls for more flexible working practices so that women (and men) can take time off without jeopardising their careers. But today's unforgiving political climate makes these seem unlikely. Women general practitioners have been the first to feel its bite. Under the new contract existing flexibility in workload to fit changing family demands will be lost, as women wishing to change their hours of availability will need agreement from their family practitioner com- mittee. Yet those who expect women to choose between family and career cannot ignore the falling number of school leavers and the desire of patients for more women doctors. Just as women's work in munition factories in the first world war helped promote women's suffrage, so now demographic pressures may force those with influence to act. British industry has realised, long after most of its European competitors, that decent childcare facilities keep valuable female employees at work, and the BMA is now committed to campaigning for better facilities within the NHS. Women should not be judged by different rules. They have proved their intelligence, competence, and commitment. Those who have reached the top are justifiably proud of their success in "a man's world." But more should be done to remove the additional barriers to women in medicine-and to make it as easy, or as difficult, as it is for men. FIONA GODLEE Editorial registrar, BMJ I Dowie R. Patterns of hospital medical staffing: interim report; junior doctors hours. London: British Postgraduate Medical Federation, 1990. 2 Clare A. The pain of change. In: Currie E. What women want. ILondon: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1990:255-70. 3 Jenkins R. Sex differences in minor psychiatric morbidity. I'svcholMed 1985;suppI 7:1-53. 4 Wilhelm K, Parker G. Is sex necessarily a risk factor to depression? Psychol Med 1989;19:401-13. 5 Department of Health and Social Securitv. Hospital medical staff (England and Wales): national tables. London: HMSO, 1988. 6 Alleti I. DIsctors and their careers. London: Policy Studies Institute, 1988. 7 Government Statistical Service. Social trends 20. London: HMSO, 1990. 8 Jowell R, Witherspoon S, Brook L, eds. Brilish social attitudes: the 5th report. Aldershot: Gower Publishing, 1988. 9 Silverstone R, Ward A. Careers of proJ?ssional women. London: Croom Helm, 1980. 10 Dowie R. Postgraduate medical education and training: the system in England and Wales. Oxford: Oxford Universitv Press, 1987. 76 BMJ VOLUME 301 14 JULY 1990 o n 5 A p ril 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .b m j.co m / B M J: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /b m j.3 0 1 .6 7 4 3 .7 6 o n 1 4 Ju ly 1 9 9 0 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://www.bmj.com/ 
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work_yotgaxavxjhfxno2rq4eewxb5a	----	'PARBLEU' : PISSARRO AND T H E POLITICAL COLOUR O F AN ORIGINAL VISION PAUL SMITH P I S S A R R O A N D I M P R E S S I O N I S T VISION T o judge from their own accounts, and from their later work, both Monet and Cezanne eventually succeeded in seeing their motifs only as blocks of colour or coloured 'taches', as if they were free from knowledge of what they looked a t , like men who had just gained their sight.' As Charles Stuckey points out, it was Ruskin's injunction to see with a n 'innocence of the eye . . . as a blind man would see . . . as if suddenly gifted with sight' that guided Monet to see 'flat stains of colour' and 'patches of colour'; and he also suggests that Taine's ideas on the retina1 data of pre-conceptual visual experience might have been equally influential on the Impressionists at large.' From Richard Shiffs work, i t is clear that this characteristically Impressionist vision was motivated by a search for na'ive ' ' impressions', and for personal 'sensations' supposedly corresponding to a 'double origin' where nature and the self met.? By these accounts, therefore, Impressionist vision was meant to result from an intentionality free of interest in a reified world, and instead to be expressive of a more primal and 'original' experience of reality. Putting aside the vexed question of whether seeing in this way is actually possible for a normal adult, the Impressionists' search for sensations untouched by culture or language remains at least doubly paradoxical. In the first place, their frequent statements on the matter suggest the Impressionists adhered almost religiously to the principle that sensations were the basis of a way of painting free from rules. Moreover, while sensations were meant to be pre-conceptual experiences, it is plain that both Monet and Ctzanne had quite specific concepts about them and the vision corresponding to them, and that these concepts were themselves contingent upon particular nineteenth-century beliefs such as Positivism and i n d i ~ i d u a l i s m . ~ Moreover, to follow Meyer Schapiro, the list of contingencies determining Impressionist perception would also include their desire to find an alternative to the perception characteristic of a society in the thrall of the 'advance of monopoly capitalism' .' In effect, then, and despite the rhetoric of their own statements, it is precisely because the Impressionists' vision was contingent upon the rationality of a particular Art History Vol. 15 No. 2 June 1992 ISSN 0141-6790 P I S S A R K O A N D 7'Hk POI,I'I'IC41, C O L O U R O F AT\; OKIC;INAId V I S I O N culture, and subject to historically specific causes, that it was meaningful. In other words, it was a function of the way in which it was infiitrated by a n d expressive of its various social determinations, both consciously and unconsciously, that the way of seeing recorded in a n Impressionist painting had specific moral and political meanings. Like his more illustrious colleagues, Pissarro asserted that he too saw in 'taches', and painted his own 'impressions' and ' s e n s a t i o n s ' . ~ o w e v e r , Pissarro was more reasonable a n d explicit about the factors affecting his perception, and less given to romantic claims about it, than his fellows. Indeed, by the 1880s, this artist - whom Renoir recalled as the 'theoricicn' of Impressionist research' - made many staternents to the effect that hc intended the scientific knowledge and political bcliefs bound u p with his vision to be recognizable as such in his paintings. These connections, a n d the meaning they gave to Pissarro's vision, are the sub.ject of the majority of what follows. T h e remainder is concerned with Pissarro's unusual sensitivity to blue, what some called his 'daltonisme', a n d the emergence of this aspect of his vision into public sense. I n particular, I wish to explain how it was that Pissarro's preference for blue was far from devoid of meaning, even though the painter himself failed to explain this preference, o r even recognize it. T h e solution I will suggest to this conundrum is that this aspect of his vision was irreducible to existing concepts a n d rules of seeing, a n d that it was this that guarantced its potential to carry a n original sense beyond the semantics of the language available to h i m . P I S S A R R O ' S P E R C E P T I O N A N D S C I E N C E O n a few occasions, Pissarro seemed no less naive than his colleagues about perception. For example, in a letter to Lucien of September 1892, he advised his son to concentrate on rendering 'sensations libres d e toute autrc chose que ta propre sensation'.' But it is difficult to believe this statement was intended as literal advice, because the majority of Pissarro's staternents show quite unequivocally that his vision was inf'ormed by scientific concepts, and that he knew this. For cxample, in a letter to Durand-Rue1 of November 1886, he mentioned his familiarity with the work of Chevreul a n d Ogclen Rood on colour (probably Chevreul's D e la loi du contraste simulta~ld des couleurs of 1839 and Rood's The'urie scient@que des couleurs of 1881)." And in a letter of February 1887 to Lucien, he affirmed his debt to science in a letter concerning a difference of opinion with a patron about its importance to the painter. Indignantly, he wrote: d e Bellio . . . m e dit qu'il n e croit pas que les recherches physiques sur la couleur et la lumicre puissent servir 2 l'artiste, pas plus que l'anatomie ou les lois d e l'optique . . . ; parbleu; si je ne savais pas comment les couleurs se comportent depuis les dkcouvertes d e Chevreul et autres savants, nous ne pourrions poursuivre nos etudes sur la lumi?re avcc autant d'assurance. J e ne ferais pas une difference entre la couleur locale et la lumi?re, si la science ne nous w a i t mis en 6veil. Et les compl6mentaires et les contrastes, etc."' PJSSAKKO ANT) T H E I'OLITICAL ( : O L O U K O F . \ N CIKIGINAI. V I S I O N Pissarro's paintings of the late 1870s a n d early 1880s do show hc recorded perceptions of colour which owe a debt to the work of' Rood a n d Chevreul, just as he described. In works likc L a C6te des boeufs, Pontoise of 1877 (plate 43) a n d Jeune Puysanne au chapeau of 1881 (plate 44), Pissarro separately recorded the local colour of objects and the modifications imposed o n i t by the various components of the light - illumination, shadow and reflections" - a n d hc also registered perceptions of contrast effects in his insistent use of pairs of c o m p l e m e n t a r i c ~ . ' ~ Ftndon's criticism of 1886 and 1887 describes the presence of precisely these perceived effects in Seurat's paintings,l%ut only because Pissarro supplied him with a n analysis of the components of Neo-Impressionist colour (as is recorded in three letters of September 188614 and two letters of April a n d summer 1887)." T h e fact that FCnCon's Les Zmpressionnistes en 1886 more-or-less accurately represents Pissarro's ideas (and not Seurat's as is often s u p p o s c c l ) ' ~ s further revealed by the letter of November 1886 to Durancl-Ruel," in which Pissarro told his dealer to read F t n t o n ' s pamphlet for a n amplification of his own scientific theories." Science did not just enable Pissarro's perception of colours in nature, it also affccted his way of rendering what he saw. P u t simply, Pissarro's m a n n e r of composing a surf'ace was scientific because it was designed to take account of' how effects like simultaneous contrast a n d optical mixture could affect the way colours looked. Following Chevreul, paintings such as L a C i t e des boeufs (plate 43) d o not map the colours Pissarro saw directly onto the canvas, but instead modulate patches of colour on the surface so as to take account of how their hues a n d tones ( a n d position in depth a n d apparent size) are affected by adjacent colours, and also by more distant colours.'" Following Rood, other paintings, such as Jeune Paysanne au chapeau (plate 44), use small touches of (spectral) colour which form resultants at a distance d u e to the effect of optical mixture."' I n practice, both effects come into play in deciding the look of a surface, a n d it is somewhat schematic to separate them out," even if Pissarro tended to adopt a n explanation based o n the notion of optical mixture in the later 1 8 8 0 s . ' ~ S C I E N C E A N D A N A R C H I S M I N P I S S A R R O ' S V I S I O N Science plainly gave Pissarro his concepts of what colour was, a n d his models of how it behaved, but this does not explain zrihy Pissarro read science to help him see, o r what he hoped to achieve by using it to hone his colour perception. Even a cursory look at the history of different cultures' colour terms shows that people normally invent o r adopt particular colour concepts because they can be usrd - either to help them make useful discriminations between differently coloured things or effects in daily life, o r to discriminate colours precisely for purposes of communication." Put crudely: seeing in a particular way, o r 'seeing-as', is normally meaningful because it makes sense within a specific social practice.'4 I n a n activity like painting, seeing can be imaginative, but it gains meaning because it makes sense within the form of life imagined in the painting. Such a picture of perception makes it imperative to discover just what Pissarro thought science allowed him to imagine (or ultimately, achieve) in enabling him to see as he did." O n its own though, this is a misleading question, because i t PIXSAKKO A N D T H E P O I . I T I C A L C O L O U R O F A N O K I G I N A I . \ I S I O N is incomplete. Even were we to provide a n answer to it, this would still not explain why Pissarro painted what science helped him see.2h However, one explanation of why Pissarro both saw as he did and painted what he saw, is that, for h i m , to d o so was to refute the way of seeing encoded in dominant conventions of painting at the time. And Pissarro does suggest several times, in his letters of the early 1880s, that he sought freedom from the lnonolithic tonalism of Salon art, and the freedom to see a n d paint his own sensations of colour in all their variety. In letters of 1883, Pissarro went so far as to oppose his own tastes for colour and variety against 'bourgeois' taste. For example, in February he described his own art as 'l'oiseau rare a u plumage resplendissant d e toutes les belles couleurs d e l'arc en ciel', a n d in November identified the 'boueuse' technique of Adolphe von Menzel's D a s Ballsouper (plate 45) of 1878 as 'bourgeois' . 2 7 What these letters suggest is that Pissarro regarded science as a means of libcrating his sensations from the dull, tonal and 'bourgeois' way of seeing promoted by Salon a n d Academic art (and not as an end in i t ~ e l f ) . ~ ' T h e y also il~lply strongly that there was a political dimension to Pissarro's scientifically-informed chromatic vision: that its very freedom from Salon conventions a n d its diversity of sensation exemplified the anarchism he had come to cherish in the late 1870s and early 1880s."' In this vein, Pissarro even told Lucien in a letter of April 1891: 'Je crois fermement q u e nos idtes i m p r t g n t e s de philosophie anarchique se dtteignent sur nos oeuvres . . . .'"" And it is difficult to believe he chose his words without ~ e g a r d fbr the image they conjured. Pissarro's way of seeing was intended to be anarchist for other reasons as well. For instance, his insistence o n recording light a n d colour a s such seems to have been intended as a refusal of the traditional use of light in Salon art only to reveal the texture and physicality of objects, or other objects of desire like the female body. At least, in the letter concerning Menzel, Pissarro identified the 'bourgeoisisme' of the German painter's work with its 'lourdeur',"' suggesting its heavy handling gave objects (and women) a tactile appeal which satisfied a spectator's possessive fantasies. In contrast, the quite different emphasis in Pissarro's own paintings on immaterial effects of light a n d colour seems designed to allow the spectator a n imaginative experience of freedom from such acquisitive and 'bourgeois' attitudes. T h e logic which united the meanings of Pissarro's use of colour was therefore something like this: 'bourgeois' attitudes to things dictate the use of a dull vehicle which can bring out their materiality, and which promotcs a n aspect-blindness to colour and light. A disinterested vision emphasizes colour and light at the expense of things, a n d signifies freedom from 'bourgeois' forms of (real or fantasy) life. All in all, therefore, science allowed Pissarro a certain imaginative freedom from 'bourgeois' forms of life, something akin to the freedom which was the goal o f the anarchism formulated by Proudhon. Pissarro avidly read Proudhon in the late 1870s a n d early 1880s," a n d firmly espoused his theory of self- determination." It is hardly a surprise, therefore, to find him explicitly illustrating the putative benefits of Proudhon's theory in a n u m b e r of paintings of the late 1870s a n d early to mid 1880s in which peasants are represented emblematically: emancipated from the drudgery or alienation of labour, a n d free to enjoy leisure a n d contemplation at will." Among these a r e Jeune P a y s a n e a u chapeau (plate 44), L e Fond de I'Hermitage, Pontoise of 1879 (plate 46), L a BergZre of I'ISSARKO A N D T H E I'OLlrl'lC:AL C O L O U R O F A N 0KIC;LNAL V I S I O N 1881 (plate 47), E t u d e defigure en plein air, fffet de soleil of 1881 (plate 48), L e Repos, paysanne couche'e dun5 l'herbe, Pontoise of 1882 (plate 49) and Paysnnne assise of 1885 (plate 50). Crucially, though, these paintings about the freedom which anarchism and sciencr could allow are themselves cast in the very technique which Pissarro considered anarchist because it was the vehicle of a perception liberated by science. Moreover, the spectator sees the painting in the way that the figures represented \ in the painting see their world. I n other words, the spectator is prompted to take on in imagination the disinterested, contemplative vision of the anarchist form of life Pissarro conjures in his paintings. P I S S A R R O ' S C O M M U N I T Y O F BELIEF For all the consistency and coherence of Pissarro's ideas, it is nonetheless hard to see how his paintings could have been meaningful in the way he intended, unless they exemplified his own beliefs for somebody apart from himself. Indeed, unless his works had effects upon the social practices of real individuals, it is difficult to see how Pissarro's paintings could have meant, or done, anything at all. Happily, the evidence shows that the synecdoche between Pissarro's anarchist faith and his scientific, colourist aesthetic was anything but private to him. Even the reclusive and conservative C t z a n n e knew there was a connection between Pissarro's learning from science and his political beliefs. At least, this seems to be what Cezanne meant by a peculiar sentence in a letter which he wrote to Emile Bernard in 1905, which reads: 'l'ttude modifie notre vision 21 un tel point que l'humble et colossal Pissarro se trouve justifit pour ses theories anarchistes.'"" O f course, it does not mean C t z a n n e shared Pissarro's beliefs just because he understood them. For the conservatives among the Impressionists, painting their own sensations of colour meant affirming a different kind of political stance, as the individualism i t exemplified was just as much a tenet of bourgeois ideology as of anarchism. Probably because he knew this, Pissarro made fun of how his colleagues saw like him and used the same techniques as he did, and even parodied his own association between colour and anarchism. For example, in the letter of April 1891 mentioned above, he wrote to his son in jest, declaring the reactionary Degas to be 'si anarchiste! En art bien entendu, et sans le savoir!'"' Given these conflicting views, i t is no surprise that the community in which Pissarro's work actually did find favour in the 1880s was not that of his fellow Impressionists. Instead, it did so with a small group within the literary and artistic salon of the critic and former communard, Robert Caze.'" This ce'nacle was in its heyday only for a short time between the winter of 1885 and the spring of 1 8 8 6 , ~ ~ but was no less important because of it; for (besides Pissarro himself) it included the novelist and critic Huysmans, Pissarro's longstanding friend Paul Alexis, pseudonymously the art critic 'Trublot' of the radical newspaper L e C r i d u peuple,"" the incipient Neo-Impressionist painter Signac, and a young Symbolist writer, Paul Adam ." M a n y of the aesthetic beliefs of this community emerge in the novel S o i , which Adam published in May 1886 (with a dedication to Alexis). This work is especially interesting because it featured a character called 'Vibrac' - a radical Impressionist P I S S A K R O A N 0 THE I'0l217'ICAI, C O I D U R OF AN 0 R I C ; I N A I . V I S I O N with a taste for vibrant colour, a n d a long grey beard - who was only a thinly veiled composite of Signac a n d Pissarro himself. A n d so, Vibrac's views o n art not only represent Pissarro's in all likelihood; but, arguably, they also reveal the extent to which Pissarro's beliefs were shared by his colleagues (or at least the extent to which they did not conflict with A d a m ' s more solipsistic aesthetic)." At all events, Vibrac expresses substantially the same arguments about the connections between colour vision a n d anarchism that Pissarro himself makes in his letters. Vibrac's beliefs are most clearly elaborated in a long dialogue early in Soi with the character M a r t h e Grellou - a rich woman whose conservative tastes a n d reactionary values cause Vibrac to spell out the meanings of what he sees and paints. T h e conversation in question begins with Marthe's response to a snow scene Vibrac is painting. This is probably modelled on one of Pissarro's paintings of the 1870s such as L a Sente des pouilleux, effet de n ~ i g e of 1874 (plate 51). Vibrac's painting is significant because it marks his conversion to Impressionism, a n d we are told: 2 cette Epoque, il parut changer sa manikre. Son pinceau s'appuyait e n multiples et kpaisses maculatures, et portait des ombres mauves ou bleues. 11 brossait des arbres lie d e vin, crGment. Ainsi composa-t-il u n cffet d e neige oh se montraient 2 peine deux lignes blanches perdues dans des encroGtements roses, mauves, violets et gris.4' Horrified by Vibrac's frank colour, Marthe blurts out: 'Mais ce n'est plus vous . . . Qu'avez-vous fait l&?' But Vibrac, the typical Impressionist, merely replies: 'Mettez-vous plus loin . . . . ' Not to be put off, M a r t h e turns to Vibrac with the accusation: ' O h ! vous exagerez joliment. Et puis, d ' a b o r d , la neige est blanche.' But again Vibrac counters her, this time with the response: Jamais d e la vie. Je la vois rose, je la vois mauve d a n s les ombres, et il y a d e l'ombre partout. O u i , c'est u n peu blanc, 12-haut; eh bien, je I'ai fait. 4" Behind the rhetoric of this dialogue, Adam suggests, like Pissarro, that bourgeois art promotes a dull, tonal a n d hence repressed kind of vision. Because M a r t h e is used to seeing pictures such as Goeneutte's L e Boulevard de Clichy par u n ternps de n e k r of the Salon of 1876 (plate 52) in which snow is white, she cannot see it in its full diversity of colour. I n other words, M a r t h e ' s sensations of colour suffer privation because of what Salon art tells her about the way reality looks. T h e same dialogue continues so as to allow Vibrac to express another of Pissarro's opinions. In response to Vibrac's observation of colour for itself, Marthe insists that good painting should create 'relief' - o r the feeling of three dimensionality - by using glazing. Predictably, Vibrac turns on M a r t h e with the rejoinder: 'Tenez, vous parlez comme les bonzes des Beaux-Arts.lt4 Vibrac then goes o n to attack another Academic device: the use of 'fonds' - or backcloths - to give a figure in a portrait salience. H e directs his invective against Carolus- D u r a n ' s use of the technique in particular, which suggests Adam modelled the passage on Huysmans's parody of Carolus-Duran's contrived use of 'fonds' in his L 'Art modern? of 1883.4' Unsurprisingly, Marthe disputes Vibrac's opinion and defends the 'effet' which the technique creates. But this only causes Vibrac to turn 52 Norhrrr Goent-utte. LP Rouleonrd de C1ich.y par u n /nnps dr nrt'pr, Salon of 1876. Tare Gallery, 1,ondon 232 P I S S A K K O A N D -1 H l i P O L I TIC:AI, ( . O I , O U K 0 1 A N 0 R I C ; I N A I . \'ISION on her with the rejoinder: Ah! I'effet, l'effet! L'effet c'est bon pour les bourgeois, pour la vente, pour l'enseigne. C a tire 170eil, n'est-ce pas, c'est la carotte Ccarlate B la porte du marchand de tabac!+" T h e point of these latter exchanges is clear enough. Through Vibrac, Adam is arguing that Marthe's 'bourgeois' vision results from Academic painting, where what counts is the artist's ability to see and render the way light reveals the physicality of things or wornen. And he also makes it plain that such art i r 'bourgeois' because it appeals to the spectator's avarice and cupidity. For Adam, this appeal is anathema, both aesthetically and politically, as the violence of Vibrac's language makes plain. Implicitly, and like Pissarro, his delight in colour and light is founded in another kind of pleasure: the disinterested contemplation of intangibles. And like Pissarro, Adam seems to think that seeing such effects is to see in a way antipathetic to a bourgeois way of seeing, and the morality it carries. Elsewhere in Soi the various characters articulate different standards of taste based on their individual moralities and political beliefs. Predictably, Marthe admires Cabanel. Early in the novel, shc even imagines herself and her cousin, Henriette, as figures in an exotic painting entitled I n t h i e u r . And she muses about it, perhaps with Cabanel's PhPdre of the Salon of 1880 (plate 53) in (Adam's) mind: Seul le pinceau de Cabanel [serait] assez dtlicat pour rendre les nuances ambrtes du cachemire tendu sur les meubles bas et les broderies hindoues qui traversaient les sicgcs par larges bandes. En fond s'ttalerait le vieil or de la tapisserie oh, de place en place, une simple fleur noire se piquait. Au premier plan, leur groupe, deux teintes tranchkes: dans l'une toute la gamme gradute des bruns, dans l'autre une synchromie de blanc et de vert tendre." However, not long afterwards, Adam has Marthe overhear her radical husband, Luc Polskoff, cast a Huysmansesque insult at one of her favourite paintings, Cabanel's Venus of the Salon of 1 8 6 3 . ~ ~ T o Marthe's dismay, he blurts out: 'Cabanel, de la cr2me d6layi.e dans du sirop de groseilles, le tout sur un fond d ' a n g t l i q ~ e . ' ~ " Luc's unintentionally cruel parody of his wife's chocolate-box tastes exposes how Marthe's sense of self is tied up with what she has learnt from Salon and Academic art. I n condemning Cabanel, therefore, Adam implicitly - condemns Marthe's misrecognition of her femininity in paintings which suggest personal fulfilment is to be found in wealth or sexual attractiveness. Like Pissarro, Adam seems to suggest through Luc that a good painting does not lead the spectator into such fantasies, but insists instead upon the spectator finding pleasure in exercising more aesthetic skills. In other words, for Adam, as for Pissarro, a good painting was one which affirmed the values of a form of life free from materialistic or acquisitive concerns."" Adam's mentor, Paul Alexis, expressed similar tastes and beliefs about the virtues of Impressionism in the column, 'A minuit', which he wrote almost daily in the 1880s. T h e clearest case of his views coinciding with Pissarro's and Adam's comes in a n article entitled ' M o n Vernissage', which he published in L e C r i d u peuple on 2 May 1886. Here, Alexis, like his friends, was at pains to stress how PISSARRO A N D 'I'HE P O L I T I C A L C O L O U R O F AN O R I G I N A L VISION 5 Alcsi~nclr(. C a h a n c l , I'htdrr.. Salon of 1880. Musk= Fabre, M(~nrpellier the quality of a work was bound u p with the artist's disinterested delight in effects of light a n d colour. Accordingly, he mentioned how he had a landscape by Signac in his home, but instead of dwelling on the details of what it represented, he simply described it as ' u n e page toute vibrante d ' soleil, avec une Seine toute bleue, toute chaude: de Paul Signac, le jeune et d6jB magistral impressionniste.'" M o r e light- heartedly, he also suggested that his collection might soon contain: ' u n Pissarro q u ' j'ai jamais d7mandC . . . mais qui, un d ' ces quatres matins, j' 1' parierais, m'arrivera tout d ' m2me.'52 Alexis succeeded in giving a political edge to these remarks because they appeared in a review of his own collection, which he had written, he told the reader, because he had not been sent a ticket for the Salon vernissage. But to make sure his reader would realize the political nature of his opinions, Alexis insisted that he had missed nothing in missing the occasion; rather, he declared he had spent a n enjoyable afternoon looking at his own pictures: 'et sans m ' mouiller, et sans me buter B c' Tout-Paris brillamment imbecile des premieres . . . .'53 D A L T O N I S M A N D A N A R C H I S M Plainly, Pissarro, Alexis and Adam all saw Impressionist colour vision as anarchist. However, as is implied by Alexis's pointed emphasis on Signac's 'Seine toute bleue', a n d by Adam's references to Vibrac's use of 'bleu' and 'violet', it was the blueness P I S S A K K C I A N D THb: I'OI,I I'ICAI. C:OI.OUK O F A N O R I G I N A I , V I S I O N of Impressionist vision that pre-eminently signified its political meaning among the Caze group. 'The origin of this peculiar synecdoche probably lay in I-Iuysmans's L 'Art moderne of 1883, which was undoubtedly well known to Pissarro and his colleague^."^ I n this work, in a n essay on the Impressionists' exhibition of 1880, Huysmans had ritjbed the Impressionists for their excessive sensitivity to blue, and even suggested that they suffered from 'daltonisme' - a rare retina1 disorder."" Huysmans also accused Caillebottc of having contracted 'indigomanie', and Pissarro of having fallen prey to 'la manie d e bleu'.""he reason why the Caze group might have picked on the Impressionists' preference fbr blue as a sign for their (putative) political radicalism is contained in the logical structure of Huysmans's text. Brutally summarized, L ' A r t moderne elaborated a consistent opposition between 'faux', 'bourgeois' Salon art and Impressionism, which, it argued, exhibited 'v6ritC' of vision and technique." Given, therefbre, that Impressionism was seen as antipathetic to Salon art and bourgeois values, and that a veridical vision prone to seeing blue was its distinguishing feature, 'daltonisme' could stand metonymically for its value as a vehicle of opposition to bourgeois At least one other critic madc the same connection. In his book, Pour le beau of 1893, the reactionary Alphonse German wrote: 'l'ambiance ne souf'f'rc du daltonisme sensitif par cause originelle, mais parce qu'elle subit l'influence malcment saturnienne du dCmocratisme.'"!' A blue picture undoubtedly signified populist and even socialist beliefs for the additional reason that blue was the workers' colour, insofar as it was the predominant colour of the female peasant's costume and the colour of the male peasant's and the city labourer's blouse. M a n y of Pissarro's paintings make a feature of such costumes, for example, L a C6te des boeufs, Jeune Paysanne a11 chapeau, L a Bergire, Etude d e h y u r e en plein air, L e Repos and Paysanne a.rsise (plates 43, 44, 47, 48, 49 and 50). A worker in a blue blouse also features at the extreme left of Signac's L a Necge, boulevard de Clichy by 1886 (plate 54). Moreover, by the 1880s, when some urban workers had begun to adopt a variant of bourgeois black and white - as can be seen in the foreground of Seurat's U n e Bazynade a Asniires of 1883-4 - wearing such coloured costume had assumed a pointed and even aggressively working-class significance ."' In any case, Adam spells out both connections between the blueness of Impressionist painting and its political meanings in a n episode at the end of Soi which takes place at a n imaginary Impressionist exhibition. ( T h e show includes works by Pissarro and a painting by Signac of ' u n e rner bleue'.)'" At this event, Vibrac confronts Marthe's nephew Karl, a decadent, morphinornaniac snob. who objects to the large number of working-class people in Montmartre because they spoil a n otherwise beautiful view. Vibrac argues violently against Karl, and admonishes him: Le peuple, c'est la couleur. C'est la seule classe d e la soci6tC oh il y avait tant de bleu et de blanc. Les blouses des travailleurs trks pauvres c'est u n bleu mort, use, pass6 avec d'extraordinaires omhres verditres. O n voudrait ces teintes-18, e n peluche, pour faire des portikres.G' 1 0 make sure his reader realizes there is something significant about I'ISSARRO A N D T H E POLI7TICAId CO1,OUR O F AN ORIGINAT, VISION Impressionist blueness, Adam continues to plug it throughout the remainder of the episode. Indeed, Adam singles out for lengthy description a predominantly blue view of the Seine by Vibrac, which is actually a real painting by Dubois- Pillet (himself a member of the Caze salon): La Seine d Bercy, of 1885 (plate 55). In this work, Adam tells us ' L a saisissante vie d ' u n paysage parisien, s ' e n f o n ~ a i t dans la toile A travers une atmosph?re bleue et grise de m a t i r ~ . ' ~ ' H e also tells us that the parts of the painting 's'unifiaient dans une grande sensation bleue, u n glacis bleustre d ' a i ~ - ' . ~ ~ And just for good measure, Adam adds, in an uncomfortably neologistic style: 'le la de cette synchromie sonnait dans la rCclame gros bleue du Petit Journal, couvrant toute la coupe d ' u n e maison isolCe sur la berge. '" Vibrac's pointed and political preference for seeing blue undoubtedly stemmed from the fact that Pissarro had done several 'daltonist' pictures in the late 1870s and early 1880s which not only show (resting) peasants in blue costurne, but are also paintings of scenes largely or entirely in (blue) shadow. Examples of such works are Jeune Paysanne au chapeau, Le Fond de /'Hermitage, La Bergbre and Etude de jgure en plezn air (plates 41, 46, 47 and 48). And so, these overall blue pictures expressed anarchist sentiments, or contempt for bourgeois materialism, in their iconography; but they also did so in a more purely visual - or psychological - manner, as a blue cast to a painting defies a spectator's ability to read texture or salience in it, and particularly the skills of a spectator versed in Academic conventions."" I n addition, the overall blueness of Pissarro's paintings reinforced the compositionally unhierarchical effect which their colourist patchiness already gave them. And so, by denying what Baudelaire had called 'hitrachie et subordination', Pissarro's blueness can be seen to have instituted what the critic saw as a kind of pictorial ' a n a r ~ h i e ' . ~ ' Significantly, however, while Pissarro did rationalize about the connection between his preference for colour in general and his anarchism, he never rationalized about the connection between his specific sensitivity to blue shadows and his political beliefs. Instead, to judge from two letters of M a y 1883 to his son, Pissarro was annoyed and even stung by Huysmans's accusation that he suffered from ' d a l t ~ n i s m e ' . " ~ And so, it appears that Pissarro had a vague sense of why he saw blue (inasmuch as he preferred it), but that it was not until Adarn and Alexis had given his daltonism precise meanings, afier the fact, that it acquired any precise or public significance. Indeed, the peculiarity of the quirky, argotic and ironic prose in which its meanings were elaborated itself testifies to the struggle Adarn and Alexis had in making out, and making plain, the potential sense of Pissarro's idiosyncratic vision. A N A R C H I S T I M P R E S S I O N I S M A N D A N A R C H I S T LIFE It might be said that Pissarro and his friends achieved little in writing about Impressionist vision the way they did, beyond indulging themselves and their audience in useless aestheticizing. But this is not the case: their public appreciation and enjoyment of Impressionism - and its blueness in particular - actually came to have important consequences within their anarchist way of life. I'ISSAKRO A N D T H F I'OI,ITT(;A12 (:OI.OUR ( > F A N O K I G I N A I . V I S I O N T h e events which show this to be the case were unfolded in Alexis's ' A Minuit' column. They begin on 10 February 1886, when Alexis opened a subscription fund for the families of the miners on strike in the small southern town of Decazeville."" Indeed, in setting u p a mechanism for political action in an 'Art' column, Alexis seemed to want to make the point that art and life were not separate domains. H e had almost said as much in a n earlier article of 31 January 1886, entitled "'Germinal" 2 Decazeville', in which he taunted the Minister of Fine Arts, who had recently suppressed a theatrical adaptation of Zola's Germinal, with news of the outbreak of the Decazeville strike. Triumphantly, he sniped: E' viennent d e jouer Germinal! O u i , dans la realit6 - B Decazeville. Est-ce que vous n ' seriez plus ministre, monsieur Goblet?'" Undoubtedly in collusion with Alexis, Signac sent money to the Decazeville fund just in time for his contribution to be featured in the first issue of ' A minuit' to host the subscription (on 10 February). T r u e to form, Alexis prefaced Signac's covering letter with the acid remark: 'Voici u n artisse peintre . . . Rien de Cabanel!771 And Signac himself wrote in terms which emphasized the connection between his political motives in making a contribution and his preference, as a n Impressionist painter - an anti-Cabanel - for bluc. In an otherwise nonsensical double-entendre, he conlided: M o n cher Tublot C i : 5 francs pour la sousscrission . . . U n e thume c'est bien pcu; rnais lc blcu dc cobalt cst si cller! Paul Si, m a c peintre irnpressionniste 130, boulevard de ClichyU Signac certainly did use cobalt blue, even luridly. In contrast to Goeneutte's tonal painting of the same motif, Signac's L a Nelye, boulevard de C l i c l ~ of 1886 (plate 54) makes extensive use of the colour, not just for the worker's blouse (on the left), but also for the shutters on the houses and its many shadows. Pissarro's sympathy for his colleagues' effbrts is revealed by an anonymous contribution of two francs which Alexis featured in his 'sousscrission' column for 1 4 February. According to Alexis, the money was Yent in by ' u n copair1 B Signac, de Gisors (Eure), qu'avale mal q u ' Trublot jaspine mal d u L o ~ v r e . ' ~ ' T h a t this correspondent was Pissarro is revealed by the fact that Pissarro used the fbrm 'Eragny-sur-Epte par Gisors, Eure' for his address in letters of the same week.'' His identity is further confirmed by the ironic attack in the letter upon Alexis for having recently rnade hostile remarks in his column about the Louvre,75 as it was about this time that Pissarro probably first made his own inflammatory remarks about the same i n s t i t u t i ~ n . ~ ~ (Pissarro had good reason to remain anonymous, as his post had previously been tampered with, and he suspected the police of having him under surveillance as a political s u b v e r ~ i v e . ) ' ~ *Jokes like Pissarro's in this letter may appear trivial in themselves, but they expressed preferences which, within six months, had helped consolidate support for Alexis's fund considerably - and well beyond the rarified confines of the Caze I'ISSARKO A N D I ' H E I'OLITICAL C<)I,OUR O F A N O R I G I N A I , V I S I O N salon. By 30 April 1886, Alexis's Decazeville fund had amassed the considerable sum of 5,000 francs, which means it must have had wide support among the Parisian workers. And, indeed, evidence exists which suggests that the Parisian workers might have sent money to the fund because they identified with Alexis's politicized taste for Impressionism. O r at least this appears to be the case to judge from a letter which Adam published in the journal Lulice for 31 January 1886. In this, he regaled the reader with the following anecdote, very possibly about Signac's L a Neige, boulevard de Clichy: Dernikrement un pcintre de mes amis travaillait en plein air, dans une rue de Montmartre. Des badauds massts derrikre lui tmettaient des stupiditts tnormes. Survint un garGon boucher qui regarda la toile de f a ~ o n intelligente et dit: 'Tiens! c'est tr2s chic, Ga: c'est dc l'impressionnismc.' Mon peintrc de se retourner, ahuri: 'Comment savez-vous?' 'Le Cri, parbleu! dans les articles de Trublot!"' It has to be admitted that the workers' enthusiasm for Impressionisnl was only one factor in the success of Alexis's column; nonetheless, it does appear that the feelings Impressionism could arouse did at least facilitate real opposition to the bourgeois culture which Pissarro and his friends detested. Alexis's was the first subscription fund to be instituted for the Decazeville miners, but it led to others, which in total amassed between 200,000-300,000 fi-ancs, allowing the Decazrville rniners to stay on strike for 108 days."' And even though their resistance was finally crushed, and the Decazeville minc was eventually run down,80 it can be said fairly that art played some part in crystallizing an effbrt to transform life. PISSARRO'S O R I G I N A L I T Y These events are significant, and not just because they suggest art can have a salutory effect on life, even when politically nai've." They also demonstrate the conditions in which originality might be said to be possible, and in the process cast some light on the concept of originality itself. These problems are best explained by reference to Wittgenstein's (later) thinking about what makes a sign meaningful. I n this scheme, the meanings of signs of any sort are normally circumscribed by what they can achieve within particular 'form(s) of life'." A word, for example, has a meaning within a specific 'language-game'"' where it 'attains a goal's' appropriate to particular circum- stances themselves defined by the'customs and institutions'" of a culture. O n e of thc fundamental jobs which words do is exemplify shared thoughts, feelings and beliefs for the different individuals of a culture so that they can share a rationality and communicate with one another. It follows that a word cannot have 'private' meanings; rather, it must carry a meaning which is at least potentially capable of being made public, and used in social life, if it is to signify at A sign such as painting is rather like a 'paradigm' - or an example of something I'ISSAKKO A N D T H E I ' O L I T I C A L C O J . O U K O F A N O R I G I N A L V I S J O N corresponding to a name-word - in that it has meaning when it instantiates a set of particular a n d also shared beliefs (as a thing with a name does). In other words, a painting signifies publicly when it expresses a n agreed sense.R7 This is not to say that paintings cannot function in ways different from language, o r that they cannot exert psychological effects on a n adequately sensitive a n d informed spectator irrespective of rules a n d conventions. (In the case of Pissarro's paintings. the spectator gets posited as a particular kind of disinterested perceiving subject, a n d slhe experiences a particular emotion as a c o n ~ e ~ u e n c e . ) ' ~ It is to say, however, that in brcoming public, the psychological effects of paintings are ipso Jacto subsumed to linguistic descriptions of what those effects are. T h e meanings of paintir~gs are also measured against the meanings of comparable paradigms (or conventions) whose sense is already established (if contested by different communities of belief). Both ways, paintings become paradigmatic of the intentionality a n d beliefs of the form of lifc they are thou<yht o r said to represent o r express. Pissarro's (generally) colourist paintings of his own sensa/iotls can be seen to have come to signify because they recognizably negated and refused the meanings of existing paradigms - Salon pictures - whose sense was already public (if disputed). For example, in his writings, ThCophile ThorC had argued that Salon art represented the vision of a 'bourgeois' class, whose preoccupation with the 'utile' a n d its obsession for 'argent' made i t lose any 'sentiment de la nature', and rendered it 'aveugle devant les tableaux colorts p a r la l ~ r n i i r c . " ~ All in all then, i t can be said that Pissarro's colourist paintings had a weak originality in that they signified a kind of sense already largely defined by language a n d by the paradigms whose tneanings they negated. However, the kind of theory I a m using nonetheless holds to the view that the rneaning of a painting is to some extent sui generis,'"' o r that it is not reducible to the language used to make its sense public. As paintings of his .sensations, therefore, Pissarro's colourist pair~tings had a certain nebulous deterrninacy, a 'pcculiar' or 'particular' psychological effect," which existed prior to thcir inscription within language as paradigms, and which informed their meaning subsequently. This much also applies to Pissarro's predominantly bluc paintings - for the sake of argument, i t can be said that they produced a particular effect of immateriality. And it is this that f'acilitated their entry into public sense, even though they were less reducible to language than were Pissarro's generally colourist paintings. Empirically, the precise sense of the blue pictures could not be cxpressed so vasily o r so completely in tcrms of their enacting a simple negation of' Salon conventions. And their entry into public sense a s paradigms of the particular feelings they exemplified was complicated (and m a d e risky for Pissarro) by the fact that nobody (including the artist) had words with which to describe this effect. They were not empty of meaning because o f t h i s , hut laden with (as yet) pre-linguistic meaning (which is p r o t ~ a b l y why Pissarro failcd to register his prefcrcnce fbr bluc in tlicsc paintings for what it was). Further light can be cast on the strange situation f;icing Pissarro's bluc pictures betbrc they came to have public sense by comparing this with the situation fiicing those neologisms which arc not composed out of the elements of an already existing language. It is fairly plain that such a worci can only makc sense when there is P I S S A K R O A N D T H F P O L I T I C A I , C:OLOUR O F A N O R I G I N A L . V I S I O N a language-game and a form of life in which i t can be used. And so, unless it is to rernain 'without meaning' (like some of the words in Lewis Carroll's or make sense only in the realm of an imaginary form of life (like 'Excalibur'),"" it can signify only if generated in response to sorne change(s) in social life. I n this case it signifies sorne newly discovered thing, event or experience. This kind of case seems to stipulate that Pissarro's blue pictures could only corne to enter language and gain publicity as paradigms once there was a form of life which could guarantee their sense, andlor the sense of the language used to define that. However, the evidence strongly suggests that Pissar-ro's blue pictures did not signify publicly merely because they followed upon social changes that had already happerlcd. O n the contrary, i t seems inescapable that their pre-linguistic, psycho- logical effects actually encouraged Alexis a n d his comrades to act o n the feelings they prompted a n d evolve new forms of life, or at least evolve new means of resistance to bourgeois economic power. And so, i t seems that Pissarro's blue pictures came to gain sense as paradigms of an anarchist set of values precisely because they had been effective in consolidating those values within a new form of life. This being the case, Pissarro's blue pictures were original in the strong sense that they had the force to signify publicly before they had the chance to d o so. And they had this potential to be original because they were grounded in Pissarro's vision, and not in words. Accordingly, i t was the irreducibility of Pissarro's 'daltonisme' to rules of meaningful seeing that gave i t the potential to carry an original sense."' O r , which is (almost) the same: it was the anarchic quality of'the way Pissarro saw that grounded his paintings' ability to signify anarchism without them having to spell out how this was to be achicvcd."' Paul Smith BI i ~ t o l lrt~iuersity N O T E S l A < . u ~ r t l r n g to 1,illa C a h o t Pcr-S!. M o n r r told her r r r 188C) ' W h r n y o u #o out to pailit, rr\. ro I O I qc.1 hat ob,jccrs ) ( ] U have I I ~ . ~ I I I t. you Alcrcly think, her(. is ;t lictlr quart i l l blue. 1it.1.1. ; I I I ohlong ol' pink, here a srrrak O S yrllow. I I it U i s i t l o o k o c . . . ' S h r ;dso rccallb that Milnrt ' w ~ y h r d h r had been II~II-n blind ;Incl thcn h,rd .;uddenly piinrrl h ~ s sight so rlrat hr. ~ r ~ u l r l Iir,q~rl to parnr i r ~ rhis w a y nirhorrt k n o w i n ~ whnt thr < ~ l ) j r ( . t s w(,rc. rti;~r he . ; n u h(.li)r~. hi111 ' SC.I. I . . Nc~chlin (rrl ) . 111rp11\ \ i o n i \ r r r t ' o \ / - l ~ r r p ~ ~ ~ ~ \11111i$rn 187g-l004 S I I ~ T I I , > an// l ) o ( u m e n / \ , linglcwoorl (:Irtt?;. Nrw J c r s c ) , 196t1, p. 3 5 . In a similar Lcln. (;C/,rnnc rrputrrll) told ,Jo~ichirrr G a s q u r t : 'Jr. vois. IJ;lr t,i(h(.s'. ; ~ n t l tic is sup[)oscd t c ~ ha\^ s,ricl ro ,]ulrs I<o~-i.l> : ' \ ' r ) i r - cornrrrr crlui q u i .r irnr dr. n;li~rt.l' Sec M . I ) O I ~ I I ( ( , c l ), ( , ' o r i i , c r \ a / t o n ~ ai,~,c Cbmnrr~,. I';~rrs. 11178. 1). 113 a n d 2 2 2 Sec C:.F. Stuckcy. ' M o n r r ' s Art a n d thr of Visriln' i n , I . K r w , ~ l d ancl F. CVritz1ic1t'li.r- (cdh ), A t p x / \ of , t - l o n ~ / : A Syrr1po\7urrr o n //Ic. .ll-/ii/ ' 5 L!/> rind 7imt.t. Ncw York. 1984, p p . 108-9. Ku.;kir~'\ ~ b c ~ r d s a r c ri~kcn Icom , l . Kuxkrn, 771e 1</1'1rrt~71/\ I > / 1)razoiny. 1!102 [ I H 5 6 ] , p p 5 nncl 7 ( l i ~ o t n i ~ ~ r ) I'issi~rri] was Irss rnrhusiastir a1,out Kuskin than M o n r t In a 1rtrc.r 01' M a r c h I882 ri) his n i r r c , E s t h c ~ . he jtarcd: ',]I. n'ai rierl I11 tlc (.c critiquc anxl.ri\ , I ( . rrc cnnnais q u r (111clc1urs ~ t l i r . ; Crn~sr.\ 11;11- tic\ ,~rtisrcs clui son1 plus O I I moins arl , o l l r . ~ n t Oc sch thttlrics . . ' S c r ,l I ' , i ~ i l l ~ - H c ~ 71)1.1g, ( , ' ~ I T T C J ~ U ~ ~ ~ I I I I I ~ I J i(','(~rr~tl/~ 1'1\~011i1, vols.. l'c~ris. 1986-!1 (hcrc,;tlic,r R H ) , I r t t r r number 103 P I S S A R R O A N D T H E PO1,ITICAL C;OI,OUR OF A N O R I G I N A 1 2 V I S I O N 3 See R . Shiff, Cdzanne and the E n d o j Impn.~sinrti.rm: a Study qf the 7'hiary. 7'echnique and Critllal Evaluatiur~ ~d Modern A T / , Chicago a n d L o n d o n , 1984, pp 6 7 , 6 8 , 77, 88. 108, 125. 130, 166 and 192. 4 For an account of'tlie I-elation b e t w r r n the Ilnpressionists' concepts of their vision and I'ositi\.ist theol-ics of perception a n d the self, see Shilf, o p . c i t . , pp. 3-52. 5 S r r hr. Schapiro, ' T h e Nature of Abstract A r t ' , Modern A T / : the N i n d r e n ~ h and 7bpt11irth O n / u r i e \ . N r w York, 1978, p. 192. 6 In an interview of 1903, Pissarro stated: 'Je ne vois clue clrs taches.' See J . House. 'Carnille Pissarro's Idea of U n i t y ' in C . Lloyd ( r d . ) , S u d i e r un Camillr P l i ~ a r r o , I.ondon, 198ti. 11. 26. For Pissarro's ideas on thc 'impression', src Shim. o p . cit., 1). 242, n . 20. J . House discusses I'issarro's ideas on svnsatiun in relatiorl to ShiWs a ~ - x u n l c n t in o p . t i t . , pp. 15-34. 7 See ,Jean Rcnoir. Hrnotr, Paris, 1962. p. 1 1 1. 8 'Sensations h-ee from rverything hut your own censations.' R H 815. 9 RH 358. Pissilrro also m r n t i o n r d Chrvl-eul in a lcttrr 01' O c t o b e r 1886 ( R H 356). Pissarrv h]-idly abandoned Chevreul's snbtractlvr systern of colour analysis In the mid-1880s in favour of the additive systcrn proposed by Ogdcn R o o d . For n suc<:inct analysis of t h r main diffrrcncrs hetwccn the two systrnis and their r-clation tu a r t , src J . C . \Yrhstcr, ' T h r 'I'echnr(luc 01' tht: Irnprcssionists: A R r a p p r i ~ i s a l ' , ?%c Cn1L:yr AT! ,/c,urnal, no. 4 , N o v r m b r r 1944, p p . 3-22. 10 ' d c Rellio tells rnr that he does not think that physicists' research nhout colour and light can b r of use to the al-tist. a n y more than anaroniy o r optics . . ; h u t sur-rly, we [ t h r Irnprrssionists] could not have pu~->uvcl o u r stlr(lirs ol'light with so rnuch assurance, if we had not had as a ~ u i d c t h r discovcrirs of C h c v r r u l and o t h r r scientists. 1 would not h a v r disting~~ishecl betwren local colour- and illumin;rtion, if scirnce had not given us thc hint: t h r sarrlc holds true ol'cornplerrlrrltar-y i.olours, contrasts, ancl ~ h c like.' RH 397. I I Rood dcscr.ihrs the variations in the i.olour of sunlixht, the different intensities ol' !,lucncss in the skvlighc a n d thc mannrr- in which ot?jccts pick u p reflections of the colour of other ohjccts in o p . cit., pp. 4fi-7, 45 a n d 5 . Since these cll'rcts a p p c a r earlier in Impressionist painting thry may have Iearllcd of them I'rom 1,conartio's 7'rattalu (assuming that thcv ~ h o y l z c about what thry d i d ) , since this wor-k mentionet1 how the (.olours ol'objects in the o p r n air arc altectcd hy t h r colour of t h r illurr~irration, blur shadows and rrflections. See A 7 i e a 1 i . r ~ on Pairltin,y by Leonardu da li'nc-i. failhfully t r n n ~ l a / o d , f r o m the or(<rinal Itolian and r / ~ e r / e r l under proprr h e a d ) , t ~ v J . F . K i p ~ r ~ d , I,ondon, 1835, pp. 150-1. 13.5 and 147-!l. 139 and 147. ' I ' . DUI-et olfrred a similar- taxonomy of the luministic cl'l'rcts trcatrd hy thr Irnprrssionists in 'Les Printres ilnpressionnistes', 1878; reprinted in Criliyrre d ' a u a n t - f a r d e , Paris. 1885, pp. 68-9. 12 Rood discusses the physiological rffect of successi\e contrast and the psychological effrct of simultaneous contrast in o p . (:it., pp. 203-8 and 209-17. Chevreul's book is rnostly concerned with simultaneous contrast, although he does discuss successive contrast. See Chevreul, o p . c i t . , $ $ 79-81 a n d IJ:1-41. 1.ronardo rrrentions an effect which is that of sir~rultaneous contl-ast in o p . cit., p. 269. 13 FknCon analysed S r u r a t ' s colour into 'touleur Ioralt.', 'orang? solairr', ' o r n h r r ' . 'reflets' and 'compli.rnentaires' in 'VIII' l'xposition irrrpressioniste', I,a V I I , ~ I I P , 13-20 J u n r 1886; '1,'Irnprcssionnismc'. I. 'Emanclpalion ~ o r i a l e , l 7 April 1887; and 'Le N C O - I r n p r e s s i o n n i s ~ ~ ~ c ' , I. ' A T / modern? rle H r u x r l k ~ , 1 M a y 1887. S e r J . U Halperin, 1;dli.r Finion; O e l ~ u r r ~ p l u ~ que compl2le.r, Paris and Geneva, 1970, pp. 35-6, 66 and 73. 14 HH 350, 3.52 and 354. l i R H 41 5 and a letter publishrd in H . Uorr-a and J . Rcwalcl. .6urat, I'aris. 1959, p . X I X . 16 '(:l.. A . ].cc, 'Seurat ancl Scicncc', .4r/ H i r l o ~ y , vol. 10, no. 2 , J u n e 1987, pp. 203-26, which takes E'6nCon's views as accurate testimony of S r u r a t ' s intentions. I have argued against his virw (even rhoc~gh Scurat seems to have endorsed F6nton.s ideas in his letter- of 28 August 1890 to h4;luricc Beaubourg) in my article, 'Seurat: 'I'hc Natural Scirnrist'. Apollu, I > r ( - r m l ~ r r 1990. pp. 381-5. For a n earlier, but s o r n r n l ~ a t strategic endorsement of Feneon's t e s t , sec Seur-at's letter of 1888 to Signac in J . Rewald, .S?ural, Paris, 1948, pp. 114-15. F6nton first cried to rlicit information f'roln Seurat in M a y 1886. I n n Irtter to F,douard 1)ujartlin and 'l'todor (lc \Vyzrwa, he confided that hc had h r r n in touch with t h r 'impressionr~istes, Seur-at rt Signac' and that ' i l 1Fin60nl c s p h q u e lrs irrrprrssionnistes ont o b t r n ~ p e r C 2 sa dclnande.' Unpublished manuscript, Rihliothi-clue litteraire J a c q u r s Doucrt. M N R M S 28." Rut as late as Septrmher 1886, in R H 3 2 . Pissarro told 1.utirrr: 'j'aurais birn ~ o u l u qu'il [I:?nCon] s'aclrrssit 2 S c u r a t , rr~ais c'rst impossihlc. ' 1 7 HH 358. L o I m p r e ~ ~ ~ i o n n h / o . r cn l A H h was a rocue~l of three ol' F e n i o n ' s articles: 'V1 11' Exposition irnprrssionnistc' (ser n. IO), 'V' Expusition intrrnationalt: tic peinturr et de sculptui~r'. 1.a I b y u e , 20 J u n r - 5 July 1880 and '1,'Imprcssionnisme a u x 'l'uillrr-ies'. L :,lr/ modernc (It, Bruxellc~., 19 S e p t c n ~ b c r 1886. S r e Halpcrin. o p . cit., pp. 29-38, 46-50, 39-42. '0-1, 4:j-5 and 552-8. It was puhlishrd at thr. cnd of October 1886. 18 I'issarro was cri-tainly not satisfirtl with FCnGon's descriptions of the Nro-lrnpl-rssionist tcchniquc. Srt: nly articlrs, ' S r u r a t : l ' h c Naturi~l Scientist'. Ioc. t i t . , 1). 383 and 'I'icturrs and Histoi-y: O n e M a n ' s T r u t h ' . I'ISSAKKO 4 N D I ' H E P O L I ' I ' I C A L C:OI.OUK O F AN O R I G I N A 1 2 V I S I O N Oxfort1 .47/,/orr77iu/, vol. 10. n o . 2, Dccelnber 1987, p . 100. l!) I'issarro's ' b l r v r ' , C P z a n n r , rrratly forrnularrd ~ h c c o n r q n e n c e s 01' the rlf'rcr k)r paintinq in a I-c.niark 111. m a d r to Lbo L a r g u i r r in t h r i ~ corrvcrsations ol' I!)Ol-2: ' P e i n d r c , cc n'est pas copier I'ohjectif: c'est saisir u n c h a r ~ n o n i c cntrc clrs r a p p o r t s n o m b r r u x , c'est les transposrl- d a n s une g;rrnmr B soi c n les dbvrloppant s u i \ a n t une logiquc ncuvc ct o r i ~ i n a l c . ' Scc D o r a n . o p . cit., 11. l i . For a dcscription of how colours i11'li.ct orlc anclthcr's a p p a r r n t size (the V o n Rezold o r 'sl)rracltng' rffrct), s r r E . H . G o m l ~ r i c h , ,411 and liiu\ion. ..l S/udy zin t h ~ P!yrho/ofy of /'l(-loriai H(,/~r~~rnlution, O x l o r d , 1987 (1,oneIrrn. 1060), p. 2b0 a n d n. 6 1 . 20 S r r Kood, op r i r . , p p 117-18. Sornc tinrc I~rl'orr 1889, Pissal-1-0 tol(i ( ; . W . Shclclorr that the optirnurn virwing distancr fijr his paintings LV;IS t h r r r tinlrs t h r cl~agnnal. S e c , ] . House, .2-lone/: Nulure into Art, Ncw H a v e n anrl London, 1!)8ti. Signilieantly, rhis is g r r a t r r than the . . vlrwlng distancr oI' ;In ,Acarlr~oic painting - t h r r r timrs its rnaxirnuln dimension, according ro Charles Blanc in the G r a n ~ m a i r ~ a r / ~ (In (l(,\\irr (I'aris, 1867, 537). 2 1 O n e ol' the t)csl descriptions of thcsc el'l'ecrs in corrlbin<~tion ~ ~ c c u r s in the Goncourts' clr.\cr-iption 111'C:hartlin's w o r k . S r r h;. a n d J . d r (;oncourt. L 'Art nu (fix-l~uiliirn~ siirlr,, vol. 1 , 1'. ~ i r ~ s , . l120f5, pp 144 :1r1c1 157-8. Koljrrt Katclil'l'c Lirr~lly drew I I I \ . attention to rhcsc 1 "IS""Rr\ 'L2 I'issarro lirsr ~ n r n t i o n s his use ol 'rr~Clar~gc optiqut.' in letters OS J u l y i A u ~ u s r 1886 a n d rlors so again in the letter of N o v r m b r l - 1881i to U u r a n d - K u r l ( R H 349 a n d 358). H r l - r h r also m r n t i o n s a n i d r a of' Rood's: that I l ~ r n ~ n ( n ~ t y ol' .In ol~ti(.;ll rrrixtul-c 01' ~ ~ i y r n r n t s is yrr ;ltcr than rh.u oI'i1 physical rnixrurc ol' the sirrrlc I,lqrrlcnts (sec Kood. o p . cit.. p p 124-5). 'l'his notion l?;rtu~-ccl prominently in F e n b a n ' s descriptions oI' thc NCO-Impressionist technique (sre H a l p e r ~ n , 01'. (.it., P I ) . 3 6 , 54-5, 67 ;rntl 73). hut again only bccausc of Piasarro, nnd n r ~ t bccausc 01' Scurar. H c probaljly Icnrncd a b o u t '1116langc o p r i q u r ' I'rorn Blanc's Gr(rwnrnn~rc //(,S ~ r t s ~ I I ( I P J J I ~ , pp. 604-6. \vhlcli h e I-ead '311 c o l l i . ~ e ' , 01- froln Illanc's articlr ' E u g ? n r Drlacl-<\is'. C;ar~//e d r ~ h~aux-ark, vol. 1 6 , 1864, pp. 1 12 .~ntl 115-16. Sec S e u r a t ' s letter to FGnton of 20 , J u n e 1890 In H a l p c l - ~ n , o p c i t . , 1). 507 2 3 S c r J C;;~gc, ' C o l o u r in History: Rrlativc o r .4ljsolu~e?', Art H i d o ~ p , vol. 1, n o . I , M a r c h 1!l78, p,). 104-30: ancl U . Eco. ' H o w C u l t u r r (:<jr~clirior~s tt~c. (;olours b ' t ~ See' in bl. I<lonsky (ctl. ). O n S<(,ni. .-L Scn~iotir\ Headfr, Oxl'ortl, 1985, p,, 157-7.5 (I ; r r l l srarclul to K o n Kaxtcr lor . . 11115 ~ r v l r ~ - r n ( , c ) . 2 I.. \ Y i ~ t ~ c n s ~ r i n discuscrs the concrpt oS ' s r r i n x - ; I \ ' in his F'hilo\o/~hirai Inr'estz~/~/ion\, Oxforcl, 1!),78. 1 ) . 197". Wittgrnstcin rnakrs the point about the conrcxt-dcpcndenrc of 'srring-'1s' with rrsprct 10 colour in his Hm~oths 0 7 1 (,'oiorlr (1.0s Angeles, l!)78), whcrc he arxucs in Ijook I, Ej 73 that C;octhe's r r m a r k s on tht. r h a r ; ~ c t e r s OS colours a r c of little u s r hccausr ' S o r n e ~ ) n c who speaks ol' thc charactcl- of a colour is always thinking ol'just one particular way it is u s r d . ' Z i 'l'his is all the more prrssinq a question because \\hilt the Irrrprcssionist.; San, was often strongly I c~untc~.-irrtuitivc. Motlcrn prrcry)ru;rl science 1~11s us rh;rt nc)l~nally we d o not s r r colour patches I)ur I-rilircl things, a n d that W C d o not cli~~rctly rrglstrl- tlir rnoditications which t h r illumination, s k y l i ~ h t , rcllcctions a n d contrasts irnposr o n ol,lcctr, but instcad that c)ur- ~ ) r r c r p t i o n ol colour is rcl;lrivcly consrant. S i r ~ ~ i l ; r ~ - l y , rcrent rcsr;lrch ( a n d espccinlly [ h a t of' k:d\virr ],and) shows that thr additivr s)strrrl 01' colour which Pissarro espoused in t h r mid-1880s is c o l - I - i ~ i b l r . S r e J . D . Mollon, 'C:olour \'ision ;lnd Colour. Blindness', in H . R . Rarlow ancl 1. l ) Mollon (crls.), 777~ Sr,nrr,.\, (:ambridgc, 111ij2, \ I [ ) 16.5-01 2(, ' I 11t. (.as(. (11' l . r ~ ~ n ; ~ r d ~ ) sho\vs ~ j h y this is a n Irnlx)rt;LnI 1 ~ 1 1 i r . a s he knew that ;I variety of' l i ~ h ~ cl'li.cts ; ~ n ( l sul,jc(.ti\,r effrcts could modify Irmk of ol~jcct.; in the o p e n ail- (ser n . 9 a n d n . IO), 1)ut n r v r r p;rintrd what h r saw. W ~ t h i n 1111. con\tmtlons of thr 1ir111. ~t s ~ m l ~ l y \%ouIci l ~ o t I1.1vt. I I I ; I ~ I . sense. 2 7 ..l'lrc. I.. . l r c . , 1 111.d \ v h ~ s c 111~1lrilpc is r e s [ ) I c ~ ~ ~ l c ~ ~ t with ;l11 ~ h c colours 0 1 ' t he ~-;rinbo\\ '. 'Roueuse' means ' m u d d y ' . RH 11 7 a n d 188. In ir sinirlar v r i n , I'issarro described the [own of' C;ompi6snc in a lcttcr of' Frljruary 1884, as 'pay? plat er I)o~lrgrois, solrnncl; un pctit \~crsnillcs trhs m;luss;~rlc . . . ' ( R H 2 16). 28 'l'his v1.1.y t)elicl' clncrgcs rr1or.c clearly in a lcttcr I'~\s;rr-r-o \vrotc to S ~ g n ; ~ c i r ~ 1888. in lvhlch tic cxl)rc\scd hi\ tlc~rror at rliscc)vcrin~ the Idealist tountlation\ ( 1 1 S r l l r ; ~ t ' s ;u-I ( R H 503). I n this, hc atlvisrcl S ~ q n ; ~ e I O .~vnicl Scurat'c inllucncc a n d ' A p p l ~ q u ~ ~ ~ . . In S( icncc q u i appal-ticnt B I O I I I Ic rnonrlt.'. 1,ut hr. ;11so told hirn: ' g ; ~ r t l r z I I O I I I . v o u s l ~ ~ ~ l o n r111c. v o u s , r \ , e ~ d r scntir (,n nrtrrtc d/' r u ~ ( lihti,'. For ;I 1 u I l ~ r d i s c ~ ~ s s i ~ r i 01' this letter-, s r c t h r t.on~.lusion to rny articlr. 'l';~ul Adarn, Soi ct Ics pcintrcs irnprcssionnistcs', Recuc (/P /'art, n o . 8 2 , D e c e m b e r 1988, pp l!)-T,O, Sirlrilarly, in the letter (11' N o \ , e m b r ~ Ii(1iO to 1)urancl-Kucl ( H H 358). 1'iss;lrro stiltrcl tll,\t 'la s c ~ ~ l o r i g ~ n a l ~ t C ' cons~stccl ol' 'lc car,rrttr-r (111 (l~.ssin r t I;I v ~ s i o n p;~rticullPrc i c h a q u r i l r ~ ~ s t c ' 2") R) 187ti. Pics,~rro was probably reading La Lantrmr~ d~ .l/rrr\rt/lr,, a j o r ~ r n a l which publishetl P r ~ ) u i i h o n . S I T K . Shikcs. 'Pissarro's f'(~llt~(.al P h i l o \ ~ ) p h y ;~rrd his .Art'. In I.loytl, ( > p . ( . i t . . 1111. :30-40. Accot.tling to RH 20'1, R H 21 1 . RH 304 ;lnrl I l E i 449, I'issar-ro h;lrl I-cad 1'10~1dhon's rnassivt, D c l a j r ~ \ / i c ~ dun\ /(I t(;i,o/r~/iot~ 1.1 (/(in\ i'i'r/i\-(, of l 8 5 8 a n d o t h e r \vo~-ks of his. .. . . sll[s~ll ~LI!II.>~~II 111 .<IJ!.II>~-I{~!E{ ,I[!.)~~III! ,<[IIII!![[!.I~ .l111 l~lll! hUl([l1111q lIlOql!.A\ '.<ll!,>.US ~ll!jl,lh JllOL~l~,\j, $;c .s,<I!~J asaql .XIO 'IJ~ [),I 'J.\!.uI: I[!." q.~!q.u Inq '' ' fill p,)yu? .JJ.\.IU .>.\,I ~.I.II?S!~[ v, 7.'; -1oq 1x11: ~n[q [(G: ,ILII,IS I? I~I!M .,x~!qsun.; IUI!.III!.\ ,jo ,1hx?c1 l? :IS~L~~I~SS.~.IC~L~II .. .IIISJ[I!III . .<IJI<,>.III; p111! 2unoA '.ll?~rS!s ~r~x!~~ u1o1.1, 11; ',d~cl JI> s.~n.>nl) X; 14 JIIIII:~) 1: ~.>I[II?cI JUII~!! ~llll!S Sll<llIlCl~, ',<[,>A!~!su.~su! )I?~.\IJllIOS 'lllr>ql [IT?.> 01 LLI!L{ [>a[ UJ,\.l uolll!.l~~~lP.lh .l[!ll?l .).IOLI1 1: J.\E# r{.)!qM sSu!~u!nd .ll).I %>]s&!l .l!JlI,[, 'lI.xloy 10 ~~!0.l~JllO~, ,411) 01 111.>1111!.1>~~~1~>1 ,~1~1?.\111?~. [)LIT? ,.III~IIYIII. I: 10 sy.10.~ LIMO SCI![[,IS 1" .~I[II.N~~I[J .. . 2111 II.KII:UIII,X~ .>g q.,lrp U! '(!,o, [>Ul? ()[)l HU) ctj$j[ S.>C~ll1.4,lJ(J l>lll? J.I<~111,4,\(i~~ 111 S.l~>lI,>l 0,Ul U! s2Lr![ad,l 1{.lIlS oj ]U,>.\ J.\[?X ll.l.11~~s!~[ ()C .!,7,[ .cl '()~(j[ ~S!.Il?<~ ./lU,/ 111% 5)!1.1;) ~/<llll,J\. ~11,1/11,,~ ll~l~,~ .l!lcly ,>.)S .L[)$j[ .<~ll~' 1 ~llll~~rl7l/~,y 117 "l ""1;1,4 s'[,>Lll!'{l!:) .>"!.>!llS' "1 ssllL~'1"1."11 sr?~rll~rs . . 11,>""1":1{ '?I"% .""'l' q-,ir:n 1%; ";L (l" ~UL' .ir!Iq I!;-P;, '+L [ 'ou :ivpy PZ-L [ '$;L 1 (I" :.ieby L[-01 ';L[ ,<JU ',1~!1717 U! p,n{s!1qn(i '2~8~ 10 uo/n,y 51q LI! ,a?l]dnql ~~II.?J.I a17 cln~l.)n~.>c[, 1(1 .lsn s~[DuB~I!:) do .>yods xx::~ ..il.rl![!ll~!~ .($;cJ [>LIT? ')+ .ll<l ,,l!.) .do) ,l!l!~-lll~l(l 11[1 IJ JI[!,>SKJS .>p 5111 rill, hu!hn .IOI ,IUIOAV~[~?U I~,)[)I.I,>II 1x1~ ,.~.>!w!lvd. I? ~.Iu~:c~L?;) pallx?.) ,>t[ 'S!I~I UI -JU~,I~)OZII lrp:-~ U! Isr LICI[I!S Ilnsu! 01 s.r(iqd~l.>r~~ .i.n?u![n.~ Xu!sn (11 ua.\!S seM sue~l~<.in~ asnu.xq .>nbsasuuars.<n~~ S! l~nsu! .>q,[, (i[ 1 '(1 '117~' ~l?.l![.3~llL' 10 JSl?(I N ,)l> d01 110 [).lL[hO1S .tln.~ is ]ur!.lJnJy,lv1q [)un ~IP,.I I :[,>oac[r?:), i;$;z .(l .!II~~ U! SSU!ILI!I!~I .>]~.1no,\q s,~I~I.II!~~ JO "U0 S? WIld.4 "[,lllI'([l!:) SllOl1Ll~Xl1 llIl!~)V t(t .8[-L[ '(id 'zos ,-u,4a~S AII?J!~JFI pur! ~II~M 10 r<~~~>~~~.l~i~ I! '1.>qlo aql :SUMO.I~ [)all?npv~,? jo ~[PJS .)).>1dlllo.) I? '>U0 >l{,[, %XIOl ~U~ISPSIUO.~ OM1 U! 'UIal(1 ,I" ".M1 zql ,[iuno.rS~.~o~j aq] u1 .In(, p~y.)!d sr:~ .I.IMO[I y.~nlc[ a1du11s P. ~[[PLIoIsI:.>.>~ >JA~,M ..<.rls.>dr!l >L[) 10 p[& 1110 a41 ]nu l)~~[~~a.~~q~uno.~Sy.n?q ay1 111 'SPLlPCI drl!M L[I!M SIL'dS 51{1 PJ.13.\0.) q.)!q~ S,!.IJ~!OJ~UIA LI~:!~LI[ aq] pux? a.rnl!uJnl MOI aqi .la.<o p.>q3ia~ls ~.IJUI~SP..) ail] ,jo sJ.lurnu .I.~(~uII' .Iqr JJ~UJ.I 01 .IA!IISIIJS A~I~IJ!.I!/~I~~ [.XI no^] 12~~4~3 jo qs11.1q ."I ,<[LIO. it [c; ''1 '!is ,([O~S F,)V!UO.).)l!~~OI 3q1 ~plslno lour.) la[.rr:.>s aql scj! '11 I.IISJ(J~ 'aAa .I~I SI.I~JIIP 11 .su,?!s do11v .IO~ 'Su![[as soj 'sloaS.~nocl 244 "!I "U!{ S! 1.'.'SSX ilJa,lla 'lJa~,l~ iqV. qt '6-8~1 (id '(!:881) 6061 'S!.ll:cl 'lUA.'//ilU ill,', .I 'S~I~LII~~IIH 'M- 1' ,>.>S L+ fj[z '1 '1U.y 'S'I.IV-Xnl?>$[ ,ILIl )B sI!sri)j I~O .>q~ 10 auo ay![ y1:ads non ~~ooLI:~. +P (j[-817, 'dd 'lI7.y "I! p31o!r!d a,\eq 1 PUP 'I! U! a)!q~ JUIOS sca.raql '~qS!.r [[v .moprqs~q ~A~P.UI X "'yu!d sr 1: as I '>I![ .rnoX uo ION. :JP.II~A ,a~!q~ S! MOUS 'I.IPIS P .IO.J .Bu!lr.roSS~xa usaq .ueq noX i110, :aqurL y.~uq .IX{~.III,J a[rl![ I? ~UVIS, :JP..K~!,\ ,;.~.IJ~I ,uop no/; J\P~ IeqM ;noX IOU S! s~ql In%[. 1 7VDI.LI70d XHL UNV OHHVSSId P I S S A R R O A N D T H E P O I > I T I C A L C:OIdOUR O F A N O R I G I N A L V I S I O N .54 I'~s\;lrro ~ n c n t i o n e d H u y \ r n ; ~ n s ' s book in two It.ttrrs 111 M a y 1883 ( H H 145 a n d 146). Signac rc<<lrds that Seurilt (also ;I m r m b e r (11' C a z r ' s \ulon ) k n r w a n d a d m i r e d L ' A l l N I U ~ . T I ~ P in De D ~ ~ l a r r o i x au n i o - i m p r e ~ ~ z o n n t s m e , P a r ~ s , 1978 (1899). p. 110. j.5 L ',4rt morlcrnr, p . 104. (:l ibid . 1). 136. Kood tliscusses D a l t o n i s ~ l i in o p . c ~ t . . pp 79-82. 1)altonism n a s wldrly publicized in I:. VCron, L ' E ~ t h k i q u r . Paris, 1883 (1878). p. 277. O n thc Imprcssionista a n d I)altonism, see 0. Rei~rers\vli~-cl, ' T h e Violrttomania of the Iniprrssionists', LJournal I J ~ A e ~ f h e l z r s nnd Arl C r r l i ( l ~ n i , \,ol. I X , no 2, 1950, pp. 106-10 O n I)altonisrn, ser W . ( ; . W r i g h t , ' T h e C l r ~ r o l ~ r ( l I'roblrrn of Ualtonisrn' in 7hr R a y s nrr No1 C o l u u r ~ d , Idondon, 1967, pp. 67-87. .?h L L4rf muderne, pp. l 0 7 a n d 106. - 11 Sctting thr book's ton?. H u y s ~ n a n s opened 1- '.4r/ ~no~lrrrrc with rhc prefitory r e m a r k . '(:ontl.;~il-rmrnt B I'opinion r c ~ u c , ,j'rstime q u r rollre v6rit.G rst h o n n r i d i r e . ' For cxi~rnplcs of Huy.\rr~ans's logic, s r e L ' A r t mudcrnr. p p . 10-12, 14-15. 17, 42-3. 8 6 , 101-3 a n d 138-R. In a s ~ m i l a r \.tin, C a z e describrti t h r wnl-k of Jean Reraud as ' p e u vrai' a n d cvcn 'SZILIX' i r ~ his Srilun of l 8 8 5 (Inc. cit.). 58 'l'his is not to d r n y that orher kinds 111' pictorial h l u c n c s ~ could mean o t l ~ e r things to tlittrrent cv~rlrrrunit~es oS lanquagr-use. Richard Shil'l' kindly pointrd out to me that C t z a n n c ' s l ~ l u r n r s s m ~ g h t stand as a s i p of Meditrrraneanism for writers like M a u r i r e I)rrlis, a n d hence acquire a kind of rractiorlnry \,llur. Rlue in a paintinR convcntionally t ~ x l x c s c d ' m o d r s t i r ' o r ' C ~ I I I ~ C I I I - ' nr some such ernotion. S r r D Sutter. ' L r a PtlCrlomZ-nes d r la \.iaion', I , ' A r l , vol. 20, 1880, p. 219. 59 ' T h e artistic climate does not suffer kern D a l t o n i s ~ n bccause of a n y c a u s r in the n a t u r e of things, but b r ~ . a u s e it sul'fers the rvil a n d s i ~ t u r n i n t ~ n l l u e n c e of dcrrlocracy.' A G e r m a i n , Polir / P htciu, Paris, 1893, p . 123. 60 On this h ~ ~ b j e c t , a n d borrowing frorr~ Raudelaire's 'Salon d e 1846', J r a n R ~ c h e p i n w r o t r : ' I x peuple cst \,rainlent plus a]-tiste q u c la bourgeoisie. 11 n'ohCit pas, c o m m e elle, a u mot tl'ordre tyrilnniquc d c la m o d e , qui n ~ u a habille tous B I'unil'nl-me. D'instinrt . . . il reasit contrc ccttr maladlc moderne d c I'i-galit;~rismr e n matikrc d e c o s t u m r . . . . Ainsi. tantlis q u e nous allons d a n s la \.ir . . . tristernent vetus d r nail- . . . portant tterncllemenr le deuil d c nos gaietCs perdues . . . et tous unitbrmPment \ . ~ l l a i n s r t sinistres, comrnr u n r bande d r ( o r b e a u x . ils travaillent c n chantant d;lns u n c f i t c d c costurnrs et d r c.c,ulrurs . . ' (1. R i r h e p i n , L e P a u i , Paris, 1883, pp. 204 a n d 207-8). 61 S o l , p. 422. In thr Pdil Bo/!in des lcltrej el des urls (Paris, 1886). A d a m had written in the entry concernina S i y n a ~ : ' A u pinceau: des Ial-gcurs t)lcucs d c t l r u ~ r t,nsolrillt. . . . ' ( p . 125). 0 2 "l he people, rhty ;Irr i.olou~- 11's thc only c l a s 111' soclety w h r r c thcrc is so 111uc h Idue anti white. 'I'hc blourc 01' the vrl-y poor workers is a dr.1~1 blue. a w o r n - o u t , hacl-its-clay blue with cxtrdol-dinarv. grernlsh shado\+b. O n e could w ; ~ r ~ t the)\' c o l ~ ) u r s , in plush, t o make blinds w i t h . ' S O I , p . 416. (13 "l'hc s t r ~ k i n g bpectacle of the life 01' a Parisian i.itvscnpc t r r t c h e d back into the paintiny ar.l-oss ;I blue ancl yrey mornirig i ~ r m o s p h c r c . ' .SOI, p. +l!]. 64 ' U n i t r d in a g r r a t blue sensation, a t ~ l u r i a h sl;lzr of a i r . ' S o l , p . 420. 65 ' T h e krynote of this s y n r h r o m y ranS out in the t l r r p blue P e / ~ / , J o u r n a l poster which covered the whc~lc gable OS iln isolated housc on the rivct.bank.' Sol. 1>p. 419-20. r)o I'll-hapa this is why K c v r ~ o l d s pros~.ribcd rhc use 111' I ~ l u e as t h e ' p r r d c ~ m i n n n r colour in a p i c t u r r ' , nt Ic,~at according to a n apor.rvpha1 story. T h c silmr story has i t that G a i n b o r o u s h painted his Blue Boy precisely to defy Reynnlds: howrver, L a w r e n r r cornrnented that Gainshorough's painting a m o u n t e d to ' a dil'liculty holclly comb;lttccl, not c o n q u e r r d ' See W T . Whitley, 7'hornu~ (;orn,hornu~7h. Idondon, 1015, pp. 375-7. 1 a m g r a ~ r l i l l to Micharl l i v e r s i d g r for this refrrencc. (i7 S e r C:. Haudel;~ire, 'l,e Peintrc d c la vir moclrrnc'. 1863; reprinted in O r u o r r ~ r o m p l ? / c ~ . \.oI. 2 , Paris, 1'176, p. 699. Richard ShiSf kindly 11r0111ptcd ~ n r R I recall this quotation. T. Uurct recalls how CCzannv's work was (onsidrrecl ' p c i n t u r e d'anal-chistr' (undoubtedly because of its subversion of t r a d ~ t i o n a l pictorial hierarchies) in his Hirtuire d e ~ peinlrer impresszonnisl~s, Paris, 1922 (1906), p . 145. 6 8 Sec RH 14.5 a n d R H I4t). 6CJ 'l'hc L)e<~~zeville strikc broke out on 26 J a n u a r y . For a ~ictailed analysis of the events in question. sec D R e i d , T h e M i n e n oJ L)rcazr~,i//r. A (;enr.a/o~p uf L)eindustrzallJatiun, C a m b r i d s r , Mass. a n d I.ondon, 1985, pp. 91-106. 70 ' T h e y ' v e just performed " G e r n ~ i n a l " ! Yes, but in reality - at Uccazeville. AI-cn't you minister any r n o r r , monsirul- G c ~ b l e t ? ' 71 ' H r l - e ' s a n artlst of a painter . . . None of your C:abanrl" 72 ' U r a r T r i ~ b l o t , hrre'a 5 francs for the subscription . . . Five francs is not m u c h , but cobalt blur is so d e a r ! ' T h i s l e t t r r is unpublishetl elsewherr. Alcxis also records a ' ~ n a g n i f i q u r volume valant ;l11 moins 100 fr. offert par M . P a u l Signilc, print]-e impressionniste' in ' A m i n u i t ' of 9 April 1886. 73 ' A m a t e of S i ~ n a c ' s , from Gisors ( E u r e ) , who finds it h a r d to swallo\v that T r u b l o t gossips nlal~ciously about t h e L o u v r e . ' Not in R H . 74 S r r B H 311 a n d B H 313. 75 Alrxis's remarks we]-c m a d e in 'A rninuit' of 29 , J a n u a r y 1886 a n d they were p r o m p t r d by a .uo!~~u!~s!p s!qi ol uo!luallr? .<U 'iu!~esp .soj lio~s <]ex 01 [n,1a1~7sS me 1 PLIE I $4: 'ynog umoq ayL ', ~uo~/udz~saour In?ydos(~j!yd, ,~y/ ~o/'s,or,un/~y ,llr1u!7u,zlald yooq umolq pun anlg dvj. 'U!J)SUU"SII!M '1 OS[l? 22sZ[-(j()[ -<Id 'UO~UO'~ '~/3.~!~/(] 712 pUli 'LII!Jq[[OM '8 32s 'hS0~2ll23 l.>IlPI 2111 fO uo!iesu~s r os~ess!~ a~r.2 ssdrranlq luql S! u!ep .<W 'iOUUt?.) 113!qM PU!Y "4) 10 UO!iPSU:lS l? PUT? 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work_yrlxxre7ijclrlbiyvrwos4ebi	----	Research Article Research on the Performance of Impressionist Painting Color Visual Communication Based on Wireless Communication and Machine Vision Jun Lin School of Art & Design, Zhengzhou University of Industrial Technology, Zhengzhou 451150, China Correspondence should be addressed to Jun Lin; dayu@cumt.edu.cn Received 18 January 2021; Revised 4 February 2021; Accepted 22 February 2021; Published 5 March 2021 Academic Editor: Chi-Hua Chen Copyright © 2021 Jun Lin. 'is is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. In order to solve the problem of poor visual communication effect of impressionist painting colors and low accuracy of painting color enhancement by existing methods, this thesis proposes a research on the performance of impressionist painting color visual communication based on machine vision under the background of wireless network. 'is method can improve the vision, speed, and efficiency of communication, through the analysis of the characteristics of impressionist paintings, and determine the visual communication objects of impressionist painting colors. 'e process of visual communication is analyzed, and the color matching of impressionist painting is completed with the help of BP neural network algorithm. On this basis, the histogram method is used to process the image brightness of impressionist paintings, the image interpolation method is used to process the image brightness of impressionist paintings, and the image is corrected by gamma correction to complete the image performance research. 'e color vision communication of impressionist painting needs to correct the gray scale error of impressionist painting and enhance the color of impressionist painting. 'e experimental results show that the accuracy of this method for the color matching of impressionist painting images is about 98%, which has a certain degree of credibility. 1. Introduction 'e development of impressionist art has been well known in the world, and its influence has spread to all continents. In the history, there are countless research studies on im- pressionist painting at home and abroad. With the rapid development of cultural industry, the demand for impres- sionist painting is increasing [1]. It makes people have higher requirements for the quantity and quality of impressionist paintings. In today’s fast-paced living environment, the material conditions are sufficient, people’s pursuit of spirit is more and more, entertainment and leisure has also become a very important part of life, the entertainment, interest, and appreciation of impressionist painting just meet people’s needs, and the artistic value of impressionist painting is more and more recognized by people [2]. In recent years, with the development of wireless communication technology and software computer tech- nology, impressionist painting industry began to grow. 'e popularization of contemporary new media technology and photography technology provides a good technical support for the development of impressionist painting. Successful impressionist paintings need not only good technical sup- port but also more innovative artistic connotation. In the history of art, there are many classic art schools, and the art forms created by them are well known. Impressionism came into being in the 19th century. As the beginning of modern art, it created an aesthetic taste different from that of classical art. It adapted to the needs of modern people’s artistic taste and developed rapidly. Impressionist painting works have a unique style of modeling language, which emphasizes the bold use of color, thus producing a colorful sense of the picture. Impressionist painters use sketches to quickly capture the changes of impressions that are about to pass away, with random strokes, or dots, or lines [3]. 'e emergence of modern impressionist painting is also the product of the times. Impressionist painting art comes from painting art, but there are also differences. In modern Hindawi Security and Communication Networks Volume 2021, Article ID 5511252, 6 pages https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5511252 mailto:dayu@cumt.edu.cn https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2903-4074 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5511252 impressionist paintings, there are many references and applications to traditional painting art, and the application of impressionist painting elements in modern scenes is also constantly emerging, including many applications [4]. 'erefore, the research on color visual communication of impressionist painting has become a hot topic. In reference [5], a color image enhancement method based on Lab color space and tone mapping is proposed. Aiming at the problems of detail preservation and color constancy in low illumination image contrast enhancement, a novel Retinex image contrast enhancement algorithm based on Lab color space and tone mapping is proposed. Firstly, a low-contrast input image is decomposed into luminance and chrominance components in Lab color space, and adaptive bilateral filtering is used to estimate the illumination intensity, so as to consider the appropriate adjacent pixels according to the luminance and color values. 'en, the parabola-based tone mapping function is used to improve the contrast of the estimated illumination image. Finally, the enhanced bright- ness is combined with the original chroma to produce an enhanced color output image. 'e proposed algorithm en- hances the details and edge structure of the image by reducing the image artifacts and preserves the naturalness of the image by avoiding color shift. However, the application of this method to the color visual communication of impressionist painting has some problems, such as poor communication effect, which still needs further improvement. In reference [6], a bionic visual image enhancement method based on top cap and bottom cap transformation is proposed. Aiming at the problems of low contrast, blurred details, and low color saturation in low illumination images, the method analyzes the nonlinear relationship between subjective brightness perception and light intensity of human eyes and the transmission characteristics of receptive field in retinal gan- glion cells of human eyes. A bionic image enhancement al- gorithm based on top hat transform and bottom HAT transform is proposed. Firstly, the RGB (red, green, blue) color space of low illumination image is transformed into HSV (hue, saturation, brightness) space, and the global brightness logarithm transform of brightness component V is carried out. Secondly, the contrast of local edge of image is adjusted by three Gaussian models of retinal neuron receptive field. Finally, according to the top hat transformation and the bottom hat transformation, the background of the light is extracted. 'e details of the low illumination image enhanced by this method are relatively clear, and the application of this method to the color enhancement of impressionist painting can improve the painting color, but the visual communication factors considered in the image enhancement are less, which has some limitations. In reference [7], an image enhancement and color correction model based on homomorphic filtering is proposed. In order to solve the problem of image brightness and color distortion, an underwater image enhancement and color correction model based on homomorphic filtering is proposed. Firstly, an underwater imaging model is con- structed by using Beer–Lambert law and path radiation component. 'e image without attenuation is estimated by homomorphic filtering. Finally, the imaging model is ex- panded by McLaughlin series, and then a color correction model is derived to keep the color constant. 'rough the correction of the model, the image color is enhanced, but there are still some limitations. Based on the problems in the above methods, this paper proposes a new performance research method of impres- sionist painting color visual communication based on ma- chine vision. 'e research content of this paper is as follows: (1) 'e research on the color visual transmission per- formance of impressionist painting based on ma- chine vision under the background of wireless network is proposed. (2) By analyzing the characteristics of impressionist paintings, we determine the visual communication objects of impressionist painting colors. (3) We analyze the process of visual communication and complete the color matching of impressionist paintings with the help of BP neural network algorithm. (4) We use the histogram method to process the image brightness of the impressionist paintings, use the image interpolation method to process the image brightness of the impressionist paintings, and correct the image through gamma correction to complete the image performance research. 2. An Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Impressionist Painting Impressionism came into being in France in 1860–70s. It has innovative painting ideas. Impressionist painters advocate going out of the room, going into the nature, directly sketching in the natural light, and paying more attention to the color, light, and brushwork of the picture than to the content of history, ethics, and other subjects. 'ey describe objective things objectively and scientifically from different directions with new perspectives and strongly oppose the rules of college art. Impressionism is a turning point in the history of art and the beginning of modernism. 'e name of impressionism comes from the first exhibition. At that time, Monet, Renoir, Bisharo, Sisley, Degas, Cezanne, Morrisol, Kiyoman, and others participated in the exhibition. 'e critic Louis leruwa used the title of Monet’s oil painting “impression of sunrise” as a satire in his article, calling the exhibition “the exhibition of impressionist painters,” which gave the impressionism its name [8]. Although the im- pressionist exhibitions at the beginning were full of fierce criticism and malicious ridicule, they also caused a sensation in the society. 'e middle class audience also saw the consciousness and art of freedom, as well as the yearning for free life. From then on, European painters tried to get rid of the shackles of the original painting concept and pay more attention to the painting language itself. 2.1. Color Contrast Study. Impressionist artists can well show the bright and dark color expression of the painted objects, and the feeling of color is very rich, and the sense of 2 Security and Communication Networks picture is also very strong, lively, and full of life. Impres- sionist painting mainly uses strong and bright colors and bold light. Especially in the dark part of the picture, bright and bold blue purple is used to replace black brown in the traditional painting. 'e research and expression of light in painting is the main concern of impressionist painting, so that painters do not pay attention to too clear and solid sketch relationship but use fuzzy and virtual contour to replace it [9]. Instead of time-consuming detail description, bold colors are used to construct the body structure of objects. 'erefore, when we observe impressionist paintings from a close distance, we will find that the picture is composed of many messy lines and color blocks, and the strokes give us a very scribble feeling. However, when we observe impressionist paintings from a distance, it will bring us a very strong light effect. 2.2. Objective Representation to Subjective Representation. Barbizon school makes light and color in painting expressed, and impressionist painters have a further exploration of light and color in nature on this basis. Impressionist painting opened the direction of diversified development of painting, and painters no longer simply describe the objective exis- tence of nature but put more emotions into the painted object, thus becoming a kind of personal emotional ca- tharsis. Painting has become more and more free and di- versified. It can be said that impressionism has changed the traditional European painting concept and redefined the social function of art. Instead of taking the serious theme in traditional painting as the only choice, religious theme and historical theme are no longer the dominant painting themes [10]. Free expression of the current real life has become a way of objective representation, which does not rely on narrative expression and pursues the direct feeling of the current things. Painting is no longer the traditional narrative way of religion, politics, and literature. Painting is closer to its most essential spiritual realm. It can be said that im- pressionist painters, in their efforts to explore the art of painting, pioneered the objective representation of painting into subjective spiritual expression and created an aesthetic form suitable for the development of the times. Impres- sionist paintings adapt to the aesthetic needs of the social class at that time, so as to more clearly express the aesthetic principles of impressionist painting. However, it should be noted that impressionism does not oppose the imitation of nature but pays more attention to the instant feeling of the first impression when imitating nature. Bissallo once said: “we should observe more for plane rather than sketch, and we should not lose the initial impression at the end of painting” [11]. 2.3. Using Scientific Principles of Color Creation. As the main expression of new impressionism, stippling can make the picture reach the highest purity and fresh tone and create a bright visual feeling. Moreover, it further shows the clear concept of order on the screen. 'e color of dot color painting is based on the color matching method created by impressionist painters, and through their own exploration and improvement, they used the principle of optical science experiment to reconcile dif- ferent and pure color points to form a new optical color matching method. For example, Seurat’s oil painting “Sunday afternoon on big bowl island” studied the the- oretical creation knowledge of “stippling” by combining the interaction of environment and sunlight and creating the toning effect by matching the color dots on the canvas. His novel artistic charm shocked the whole painting world at that time. 'e tranquil and harmonious colors of the work create a beautiful weekend afternoon in midsum- mer. On the lawn of big bowl island near Paris, visitors have different postures, bathed in sunshine and immersed in comfortable environment and beautiful life. 3. A Study on the Expression of Impressionist Painting Color Visual Communication in Machine Vision 3.1. Analysis of Visual Communication Process of Impres- sionist Painting Color. Visual communication is based on human visual organs to identify things in the living envi- ronment. Most of the external information obtained by humans is obtained through the visual system. Visual media help humans to understand the world. 'e visual system receives external information by receiving external visual symbols. 'is process is a visual communication process, and its essence is the transmission of information. Among them, visual conformity and communication are the core of visual communication. Visual symbol is the carrier of in- formation, which can objectively show the existence of information; communication is the transmission of infor- mation, which is the process of transmission from the sender to the receiver. 'e process of visual communication is from sender to medium to receiver [12], and the process is shown in Figure 1. As can be seen from Figure 1, the sender converts the information into visual symbols according to the infor- mation to be conveyed. 'e medium is the carrier of both. 'e receiver analyzes the received information. All links need to be supported by data. In the visual communication of impressionist painting colors, the first thing to consider is the intensity of painting colors, and the information con- veyed should follow the rules of visual communication. 3.2. Realization of Impressionist Painting Color Visual Communication Based on Machine Vision 3.2.1. A Study on Color Matching of Impressionist Painting Based on BP Neural Network. 'e exciting point, color area, line thickness, and other factors of impressionist painting will affect the balance of its layout. A large number of re- search results show that the visual effect of impressionist painting affects the browsing time. In impressionist painting, adding a unique color [13] can enhance the personalization of painting and attract more readers. 'is paper uses BP neural network to color impressionist paintings. Security and Communication Networks 3 An impressionist painting color matching target value is set in the hidden layer in the BP neural network, that is: Ai � ϖ ∗ i bi−1 + ψci, (1) in which i is the number of layers that indicate the color matching of impressionist paintings,ϖ∗i represents the color matching weight coefficient, bi and ci represent different areas of impressionist painting color matching, and ψ are neurons representing BP neural networks. Among them, ψ � [ψi1, ψi2, . . . , ψin]. Reset the hidden layer of the BP neural network, that is: A + i � ϖi + ψdi, (2) in which di represents the impressionist painting color matching area after BP neural network hidden layer reset and ψdi � [ψdi1, ψ di2, . . . , ψdn+1]. On the basis of the above analysis, the network output of impressionist painting color matching is S + i � ϖ T i + ψd T i􏼐 􏼑Si−1, (3) in which Si represents the number of impressionist paint- ings’ matching colors. Match the objective function of impressionist painting color through differential weight, we can obtain the required impressionist painting color matching [14], that is, zSi zik � −ψ2 􏽘 n i�1 ηi( 􏼁 2 − di Si−1( 􏼁j􏼐 􏼑􏽨 􏽩 Si−1( 􏼁j, (4) in which ηi represents the output dimension between the first output in impressionist painting color matching. 3.2.2. Impressionist Painting Color Enhanced. On this basis, the impressionist painting image is enhanced. Histogram has obvious effect on uneven image brightness distribution, and it can complete image processing through limited resources. Assuming that the gray-brightness mapping of im- pressionist paintings is L i of simple mapping relationships Li, Ni can be used to calculate the minimum distinguishable luminance difference ΔLi of the human eye near the cor- responding luminance value of the gray i. Assume that the two-dimensional gray matrix of gray image in impressionist painting image is represented as F(x, y) and brightness before image enhancement using Li mapping image is L(x, y). For the purpose of making the adjacent gray level of impressionist painting image distinguishable, so as to achieve the human eye distinguishable display effect, the brightness difference of the adjacent gray level is set to the ΔL(i) level. At the same time, the image brightness after ΔL′(i) mapping is obtained, and there are L′(i) � L(0) + 􏽘ΔL(i). (5) Due to the limited number of gray levels, the image brightness after mapping is limited [15] in the process of user impressionist painting design. For enhancing the visual effect of impressionist painting image, the image is interpolated by impressionist painting brightness [16]. Because of the step error of gray level brightness in the process of image mapping from gray level to brightness δ(x, y), the real brightness of image pixels is the brightness of gray level mapping L′(x, y) and luminance error δ(x, y), 'en, the brightness of the map is corrected by the error of L″(x, y): L″(x, y) � L′(x, y) + δ(x, y), (6) where δ(x, y) needs to be distributed in a natural state; sort the pixels of the same gray level, obtain the sorting ordinal number of all pixels in the same gray level, and calculate the step error δ(x, y): δ(x, y) � ΔL(i) (j − 1) × K. (7) ΔL(i) represents the minimum resolution brightness, i represents the gray value at the pixel, and j represents the total number of pixels. According to the visual communication characteristics, the pixels in the same gray level are sorted according to the following rules [17]. For the purpose of making it easier to separate pixels from the local background without deepening the image noise points, the following sort factors are introduced D(x, y): D(x, y) � 0, |F(x, y) − �F(x, y)|≥N[�F(x, y)], 1 [F(x, y) − �F(x, y)] , |F(x, y) − �F(x, y)|<N[�F(x, y)], ⎧⎪⎪⎪⎪⎨ ⎪⎪⎪⎪⎩ (8) in which F(x, y) represents the gray value of pixel (x, y) and N[�F(x, y)] represents the minimum gray level that can be distinguished near the gray value of the display screen. Among them, the set of all F(x, y) pixels at the gray level is represented as the data M and all elements in M are arranged in ascending order by sorting factor D(x, y). Brightness values at the processed pixel (x, y): L″(x, y) � L″(x, y) + K(x, y) [[J(x, y) − 1] ×ΔLF(x, y)] . (9) After gamma correction, the gray-brightness relation can be approximated to some linear relation, and the linear relation is set as follows: ReceiverTransmitter Feedback New things Appreciation and reflection Accept Delivery content Figure 1: Visual communication process. 4 Security and Communication Networks L(i) � L(0) + m × i. (10) After the above operation, the enhanced impressionist painting image is F″ (x,y) � 􏽘 i�F(x,y) 0 N(i) + K(x, y) × N[F(x, y)] (J(x, y − 1)) × 256 􏽐 N(i) ⎡⎢⎣ ⎤⎥⎦. (11) 4. Experimental Analysis 4.1. Experimental Environment. 'e experiment was carried out on the platform of Maltab, and the impressionist painting images were selected from Corel image database for visual communication research. 'e experimental operating system is Windows XP system, the system memory is 16 GB, 200 impressionist painting images are selected in the image database, a total of 10000 image features are extracted and trained, and the image dimension is reduced through the difference filter. 'e experimental values were obtained through several iterations. 4.2. Experimental Parameters. 'e experimental parameters are shown in Table 1. 4.3. Experimental Indicators. To verify the scientific effec- tiveness of the proposed method, the experiment is carried out by comparing the method of this paper with the method of literature [5] and the method of literature [6], in order to set the experimental index of the color matching accuracy and visual communication effect of the sample impressionist painting image. Among them, impressionist painting image color matching accuracy calculation formula is precision � Utotal Un × 100%, (12) in which Utotal represents the total number of color matches in impressionist paintings and Un represents the number of color matches in impressionistic painting images. 4.4. Analysis of Experimental Results 4.4.1. Analysis of Color Matching Accuracy of Impressionist Painting Images by Different Methods. In order to verify the effectiveness of the proposed method, the methods of this paper, literature [5], and literature [6] are analyzed exper- imentally to analyze the color matching accuracy of sample impressionist painting images. 'e experimental results are shown in Figure 2. Figure 2 shows that with the change of iteration times, there are some differences in color matching accuracy of impressionist painting images by three methods, among which, the highest color matching accuracy of this method is about 98%. 'e color matching accuracy of the other two methods is always lower than that of this method. 4.4.2. Visual Communication Effect of Impressionist Painting Images in Different Methods. To further verify the effect of the proposed method in visual communication of impres- sionist painting images, the experimental results are shown in Table 2 by analyzing the accuracy of this method, the method of literature [5], and the method of literature [6] in color enhancement of impressionist painting images of samples. It can be seen from Table 2 that the visual commu- nication effects of the three different model methods on the impressionist painting images are different. When the number of iterations is 60, the visual communication effect of this method is about 95%, the visual commu- nication effect of document [5] is about 85%, and the visual communication effect of document [6] is about 84%. When the number of iterations is 100, the visual communication effect of this method is about 97%, and the visual communication effect of document [5] is about 86%. 'e visual communication effect of Yu et al. method [6] is about 82%, which proves the effectiveness of this method. Table 1: Experimental parameters. Parameter Short-cut process Image size (dpi) 256 × 256 Image noise (dB) −2 ∼ 2 Number of iterations (times) 20 Sample image number (sheet) 200 Sampling interval (s) 0.2 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 90 100 8070605040302010 90 100 �e proposed method R ec on st ru ct io n ac cu ra cy (% ) Reconstructed sample size (p) Literature [5] methods Literature [6] methods Figure 2: Analysis of color matching accuracy of impressionist painting images by different methods. Security and Communication Networks 5 5. Conclusion 'is paper proposes the performance research of impres- sionist painting color visual communication based on ma- chine vision under the background of wireless communication. 'rough the analysis of the characteristics of impressionist painting, the object of visual communica- tion enhancement of impressionist painting color is deter- mined; the visual communication process is analyzed, and the color matching of impressionist painting is completed with the help of BP neural network algorithm. On this basis, the histogram method is used to process the image brightness of impressionist painting, the image interpolation is used to process the image brightness of impressionist painting, and the gamma correction is used to correct the image. In order to complete the performance research of impressionist painting color visual communication, we need to correct the gray error of impressionist painting and enhance the color of impressionist painting. Compared with the traditional method, it has the following advantages. 'e color matching accuracy of this method is about 98%, which has a certain degree of credibility. 'e highest accuracy of this method is about 98%, which is feasible. Future research on visual communication and color analysis needs further research, especially on improving the ability of color re- duction analysis. Data Availability 'e data used to support the findings of this study are in- cluded within the article. Conflicts of Interest 'e author declares that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper. References [1] L. I. Ying-Pin, Z. Hui-Min, and J. University, “On the pro- foundness behind the painting lines——a study on the forms of Li bin’s modern enamel artistic expression,” Journal of Jingdezhen University, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 15–18, 2019. [2] H. J. Jeong and S. Park, “A study on the color characteristics and color change of pigments for lipstick color imple- mentation-focused on moisture formulation of pigment alone two color mixtures,” Journal of Korea Society of Color Studies, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 1–6, 2019. [3] Y. X. Li, X. H. Zhang, and Y. Z. Pang, “Construction of MC1R and ASIP eukaryotic expression vector and its regulation of plumage color in Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica),” <e Journal of Poultry Science, vol. 56, no. 2, pp. 32–37, 2019. [4] E. Fraser and C. Wilmott, “Ruins of the smart city: a visual intervention,” Visual Communication, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 147–151, 2020. [5] J.-h. Zhao, Y.-f. Wu, K.-r. Hu, and B. Pu, “Color image en- hancement algorithm based on lab color space and tone mapping,” Computer Science, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 297–300, 2018. [6] T. Yu, Y. Li, and C. Lan, “Bionic image enhancement algo- rithm based on top-bottom hat transformation,” Journal of Computer Applications, vol. 40, no. 5, pp. 1440–1445, 2020. [7] Y. Wang, M. Diao, and C. Han, “Underwater image en- hancement and color correction model based on homo- morphic filter,” Computer Engineering and Applications, vol. 54, no. 11, pp. 30–34, 2018. [8] S. Yin, “Innovation and exploration of visual thinking mode in visual communication design,” Packaging Engineering, vol. 41, no. 4, pp. 291–293, 2020. [9] F. Sun, “Automatic programming algorithm of graphic lan- guage in visual communication design,” Science Technology and Engineering, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 144–149, 2019. [10] L. Wang, “Regional 3D image Virtual reconstruction based on visual communication effect,” Modern Electronics Technique, vol. 43, no. 10, pp. 134–136, 2020. [11] J. Du, D. Zhou, and L. I. Xin, “Analysis on visual commu- nication based perception difference modeling for design of product appearance,” Modern Electronics Technique, vol. 43, no. 18, pp. 11–13, 2020. [12] T. Yin, “Self-matching simulation of salient image feature weight based on visual communication,” Computer Simula- tion, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 460–463, 2020. [13] Z. Wang, “3D image virtual reconstruction based on visual communication effect,” Modern Electronics Technique, vol. 42, no. 1, pp. 62–64, 2019. [14] H. Liu, “Design of color enhancement system for planar visual image of human-computer interactive interface,” Modern Electronics Technique, vol. 42, no. 8, pp. 77–81, 2019. [15] C.-H. Chen, “An arrival time prediction method for bus system,” IEEE Internet of <ings Journal, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 4231-4232, 2018. [16] Z. Dai, H. Zhou, F. Wen, and S. He, “Efficient predictability of stock return volatility: the role of stock market implied volatility,” <e North American Journal of Economics and Finance, vol. 52, Article ID 101174, 2020. [17] F. Wen, L. Xu, B. Chen et al., “Heterogeneous institutional investors, short selling and stock price crash risk: evidence from China,” Emerging Markets Finance and Trade, vol. 56, pp. 1–14, 2019. Table 2: Analysis of visual communication effect of impressionist painting images with different methods. Number of iterations (times) Methods of this paper (%) Document [5] methodology (%) Document [6] methodology (%) 20 98 78 89 40 97 84 85 60 95 85 84 80 95 75 84 100 97 86 82 6 Security and Communication Networks 
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work_ywbdikf5xndu3aeu7mgr4xy2gy	----	TD/14-1998 Molto si parla (e l’abbiamo fatto più volte anche noi su queste pagine) di uso del software con studenti che presentano qual- che tipo di difficoltà: programmi per il recu- pero di abilità, programmi che consentono attività altrimenti precluse, programmi di sensibilizzazione, programmi rieducativi… Mentre conducevamo esperienze, le più va- rie, di uso di software nella scuola di base abbiamo, tuttavia, anche riflettuto sul fatto che monitorare da vicino un dialogo compu- ter-studente pur senza prendervi parte, (gio- care, insomma, un ruolo di semplice “spetta- tore” in un processo di apprendimento) può essere estremamente significativo e può of- frire più spunti di riflessione di quanto si po- trebbe pensare. Non è come guardare “lo stesso bambino” che fa “lo stesso compito” con carta e penna: quello che si segue è di fatto un dialogo con “due” attori uno dei quali - lo studente- gioca una parte attiva di fronte ad un interlocutore (senza dubbio più “neutro” rispetto ad un interlocutore uma- no), che propone, corregge, sollecita, offre spunti e, eventualmente, in ultima analisi, giudica. Abbiamo, quindi, imparato, durante le no- stre esperienze educative e rieducative a se- derci alle spalle dei nostri piccoli studenti e a guardarli interagire con un software (op- portunamente scelto e calibrato) anche con l’obiettivo di “capire” qualcosa sul loro ap- proccio all’”imparare”, sulle strategie logi- che che mettono in atto e, soprattutto, sulle eventuali difficoltà che incontrano. Per ogni studente abbiamo, raccolto molte informazioni sulle abilità di soluzione di pro- blemi, sulle capacità di memoria e attenzio- ne, sulle attitudini alla manipolazione di informazioni, sulle abilità di costruzione creativa. Queste riflessioni ci hanno offerto non pochi spunti per calibrare e orientare meglio i nostri interventi successivi, indiriz- zandoli concretamente laddove si rilevava una particolare difficoltà e, cosa più impor- tante, seguendo la strategia educativa che meglio si adattava e/o era più gradita ad ognuno. Abbiamo visto Matteo muoversi vivacemen- te e con apparente destrezza all’interno di un ipertesto, passare velocemente da una pagina all’altra e poi, di fronte ad una domanda, scegliere, con foga indispettita, tutte le rispo- ste, tutte indistintamente, prima una poi l’al- tra, senza tener conto della controrisposta del computer, senza riflettere, senza leggere e va- lutare il feedback, senza soffermarsi a pensa- re. Trattandosi di un quesito a scelta multipla la risposta (che, detto incidentalmente, non era fuori della sua portata) avrebbe potuto anche essere trovata empiricamente sceglien- do ad una ad una, in sequenza, le varie alter- native proposte, ciò presupponeva tuttavia decidere una strategia di comportamento ed era esattamente quello che Matteo non sape- va o non voleva fare: soffermarsi e riflettere. E così abbiamo creduto di intravedere alme- no una delle possibili (e forse svariate) cause di tutti quei suoi insuccessi scolastici, (in un contesto generale di “normalità” e, per certi versi, di “vivacità”): una incapacità a concen- trarsi su un compito preciso, (semplice o complicato non importa) una tendenza a non riflettere, ma ad agire per analogia o per con- suetudine in base agli stimoli del momento, seguendo la strada del minor sforzo cogniti- vo possibile. Abbiamo, invece, visto Luca, (un bambino meno vivace e certo più lento di Matteo) di fronte ad una domanda ripetere più volte la stessa risposta sbagliata, abbiamo avuto l’impressione di vederlo insistere così capar- biamente sulla stessa risposta perché incapa- ce di costruirsi logicamente una strategia al- ternativa di soluzione del problema che ave- va di fronte; Luca, tuttavia, a differenza di Matteo, di fronte alle domande si dava tutto il tempo per rispondere, si concentrava e in apparenza rifletteva senza, evidentemente, riuscire a tener conto contestualmente dei diversi parametri in gioco (risposta data, messaggio di errore ricevuto, possibilità an- cora aperte), pertanto le sue risposte (cioè il risultato delle sue riflessioni, forzatamente parziali), in definitiva, finivano con lo sfug- gire ad ogni possibile logica. TD n. 14 volume 2-1998 61 TD E DISABILITÀ Alla ricerca delle “difficoltà” nascoste… a cura di Michela Ott ITD-CNR, Genova ott@itd.ge.cnr.it Per Lucia invece il problema, l’abbiamo per- cepito chiaramente, era ricordare: una me- moria scarsa e penalizzante, ce ne siamo resi conto vedendole costruire una storia con il computer; il lavoro sembrava faticoso, lento, spezzettato; il risultato appariva segmentato con una buona logica interna di ogni micro- segmento, ma globalmente deficitaria. Os- servandola l’abbiamo vista spesso tornare indietro, a rileggere quanto aveva fatto, alla ricerca di aiuto… alla ricerca di qualche co- sa che non trovava nella sua mente...; questa “impressione” sul suo modo di lavorare e sulla sua difficoltà di ricordare è stata ine- quivocabilmente confermata quando le ab- biamo proposto qualche software specifico per l’esercizio della memoria. Così per Matteo, Luca e Lucia, alunni della stessa classe e della stessa età (nessuno con “segnalazione” degli organi sanitari compe- tenti), con prestazioni scolastiche qualitati- vamente analoghe, abbiamo studiato strate- gie di intervento diverse basate su percorsi rieducativi che tenessero conto delle loro di- verse abilità e delle loro diverse difficoltà. Per Matteo e per Lucia l’assiduità del lavoro al computer (completamente autonomo, nel caso di Lucia, fortemente mediato dall’inse- gnante nel caso di Matteo) ha dato buoni ri- sultati ed abbiamo registrato miglioramenti consistenti. Luca è ancora la nostra spina nel cuore, vor- remmo che tutti gli sforzi che fa fossero pre- miati, ma la meta appare ancora lontana…; in accordo con i genitori chiederemo una consulenza, ma intanto ci siederemo ancora dietro al suo computer e lo guarderemo lavo- rare… 62 TD n. 14 volume 2-1998 È stata annunciata l’edizione 1998 di Netd@ys Europe per la settimana dal 17 al 24 ottobre prossimi. L’iniziativa, organizzata dalla Commissione Europea per l’Edu- cazione, l’Aggiornamento e la Gioventù, ha avuto la sua prima edizione lo scorso ottobre. Centi- naia di scuole di tutta Europa si sono collegate in contemporanea ed hanno potuto far conoscere le proprie iniziative e scambiare informazioni. In totale sono state organizzate oltre 700 attività a li- vello locale, regionale e naziona- le. L’edizione 1998 è orientata al- la partecipazione delle scuole pri- marie e secondarie europee ed è estesa al contributo dei musei, delle biblioteche e delle organiz- zazioni giovanili. Per informazioni contattare: Alain Dumort o Jimmy Jamar Settore Nuove Tecnologie della Commissione Europea tel. +32.2.2952082 fax +32.2.2966297 e mail: netdays@dg22.cec.be NETD@YS EUROPE 1998 
work_yzbo3qnk3fdsnpolxuckxxq3qy	----	382 book reviews © sally price, 2016 | doi: 10.1163/22134360-09003046 This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported (cc-by-nc 3.0) License. Edward J. Sullivan From San Juan to Paris and Back: Francisco Oller and Caribbean Art in the Era of Impressionism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014. ix + 198 pp. (Cloth, US$60.00) Francisco Oller (1833–1917) was a Puerto Rican artist born into a “white upper- middle-class family of intellectuals and medical professionals” (p. 12), whose life work was deeply marked by relationships with Impressionist artists and extended sojourns in European capitals, especially Madrid and Paris. Edward Sullivan looks at the ways in which Oller combined the influences of his experi- ences abroad with an “intense attachment to the specifics of Puerto Rican geog- raphy, light, flora, and the customs of its inhabitants” (p. 3). Tacking between art historical and social/political analysis, he attempts to tease out Oller’s posi- tions (abolitionist sympathies, anticlericalism, etc.) in the details of particular paintings. Chapter 1 runs through Caribbean scenes by American and European artists such as Winslow Homer and Frederic Church, arguing that Oller’s art fits the mold of works by these foreign travelers in spite of the fact that he was a native son. The next five chapters give special attention to particular paintings, using each to launch discussion of related topics in art history—Postmortem pho- tography, Naturalist painting in France, nineteenth-century history painting in Spain, the recent renewal of interest in still-life art, etc. Chapter 2 analyzes El Velorio, described by Cuban art historian Yolanda Wood as “the most impor- tant painting for the turn-of-the-century Caribbean.” (It also inspired a stun- ning homage to Oller by Puerto Rican artist Antonio Martorell—see nwig 85 [2011]:90.) Sullivan interprets El Velorio as “both allegorical and realistic [and] a mordant critique of both working-class society and the clergy” (pp. 77, 80). Chapter 3 analyzes a painting depicting Rafael Cordero, the son of free per- sons of color who founded Puerto Rico’s first school for the children of slaves. Chapter 4 focuses on The Battle of Treviño, a tumultuous scene realized at the end of Oller’s 1873–84 trip to Europe. Sullivan points out that Oller’s only battle painting depicts a scene from the history of Spain, and he contrasts the absence of war imagery in art of nineteenth-century Puerto Rico (and the Caribbean more generally) with its presence in contemporaneous art of postindepen- dence Mexico, Argentina, and Brazil. Chapter 5 returns to the Caribbean and Oller’s famous still lifes of Caribbean fruits, relating them to early European precedents—both Spanish still lifes and the depiction of Brazilian fruits by seventeenth-century Dutch artist Albert Eckhout. The final chapter is a reading of Oller’s portrait of William McKinley, made as a gift to the U.S. president at the end of the Spanish-American War. Executed Downloaded from Brill.com04/06/2021 01:36:13AM via free access http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ book reviews 383 New West Indian Guide 90 (2016) 295–403 on the basis of a photograph, it shows McKinley holding a map of Puerto Rico. Sullivan sets this painting in the context of others that Oller had done of Spanish military figures and Spanish governors of Puerto Rico, but also suggests a number of cross-cutting inspirations for portraying McKinley, including the fact that Oller “proactively—and successfully—sought out the patronage of colonial officials” (p. 166). Indeed, the painting was accompanied by Oller’s request to be included in the U.S. delegation to the 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris (a detail that Sullivan relegates to an endnote). As Martorell has pointed out (email of July 3, 2015), this portrait, like others of colonial governors by both Oller and Ramón Frade, “responds to the ambiguous and difficult relationship between artists and representatives of imperial power. Painting the portrait of a president overseas on the basis of a photograph was a common practice in order to ingratiate the artist in the noble undertaking of establishing an academy of fine arts, obtaining a scholarship to study abroad, or accessing an international fair.” Like Lowery Stokes Sims’s 2002 book about Wifredo Lam’s relationship to the avant-garde movement, Sullivan’s book is aimed at placing an important figure of Caribbean art history in the context of both regional and international move- ments. Had it been written by a Puerto Rican (or even Caribbean) art histo- rian, one suspects that the balance between the two would have shifted, giving more attention to Oller’s immense cultural/political/identitarian significance for Puerto Ricans.1 As it is, this is a book penned very much in art historical prose (e.g., “The viewer’s eye darts back and forth across the picture, trying to capture the myriad details” [p. 121]), alternating among detailed description of paintings, historical narrative, artistic influences to and from other artists, dis- cussion of preliminary studies made for important works, and commentary on technical matters such as brushstrokes. The book is particularly valuable for its excellent color illustrations. Sally Price Anse Chaudière, 97217 Anses d’Arlet, Martinique sallyprice123@gmail.com; www.richandsally.net 1 Martorell has argued that Oller’s concerns about the challenges facing Puerto Rican society at the turn of the twentieth century continue to have direct relevance for the Island at the dawn of the twenty-first (“Prólogo a El Velorio: velo, desvelo y relevo de la lengua,” 2008); see also Gervasio García, “Contestación de un desvelado por El Velorio de Martorell,”Boletín de la Academia Puertorriqueña de la Lengua Española 2010:111–22. Downloaded from Brill.com04/06/2021 01:36:13AM via free access mailto:sallyprice123@gmail.com http://www.richandsally.net 
work_z4q7uvplgff2dmyodo37tzzkdm	----	FOURTEENTH ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING of all creeds. Many of the children are assault cases and need healing in body, mind and spirit. We aim at treating the whole child-at giving them a normal child life in a Christian atmosphere. Strict discipline has always to be maintained, but we want them to forget fear. Besides our excellent medical staff we have one asset of immense value, a real " Nannie," and are able to keep an individual touch on every child, and give help physically, mentally and morally. The school, too, is a very distinctive feature of the Home. From the beginning Mr. Davies Colley, of Guy's, has been Treasurer and mainstay, and the L.C.C. has been most kind. C. E. BUNYON, Chairman. AN IMPRESSION OF THE CHILDREN'S MEDICAL HOME, WADDON THE medical practitioner faced with the care of vulvo- vaginitis in little girls may well feel all the social emotions purged by pity and terror-pity for the innocent victim and terror for its possible consequences to other small innocents. The physical injury carries with it a psycho- logical wound, all the deeper for the very impressionable age at which it has been inflicted, and the prolonged local treatment has unavoidably further special physiological and psychological dangers, to be counteracted only by humane assiduous care demanding the highest skill and the happiest moral surroundings. Few homes among hospital patients can provide this; and too often the best meaning institutional surroundings and discipline bleakly annul in the realm of the spirit the most skilful and unremitting individual care. It is therefore a welcome surprise to find in an institution the obvious and unmistakable proofs-in its children-of affectionate personal care inextricably interwoven with the happiest moral surroundings. The Children's Medical Home at Waddon is an old- fashioned country villa in its own wide gardens. Its furnishing is simple, it is well lighted and home-like; and clean without the pervading odour of newly scrubbed boards, Its children are plainly healthy, vigorous and 2I9 o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / B r J V e n e r D is: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /sti.1 1 .3 .2 1 9 o n 1 Ju ly 1 9 3 5 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ rat;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~A-: :.%The Matron with someofe.:e.:. charige-s'.'. The Matron with some of her charges. What are they thinking? 220 tiumb- ... I.6 tA.:.:% t. o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / B r J V e n e r D is: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /sti.1 1 .3 .2 1 9 o n 1 Ju ly 1 9 3 5 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ FOURTEENTH ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING bright, and as plainly content and happy. They are schooled, and the schooling has a religious foundation. Their natural instincts for possession and rivalry and their natural propensities to seek pleasure are, with the touch of genius, used to teach them to discipline themselves; and so exactly and successfully that no case of cross- reinfection has ever occurred there, though the children live and play together. To see this children's home and to watch its children is a valuable and gratifying experience to all medical practitioners. All of us fortunate enough to have had this experience believe that our school teachers could do no better than to study the ingenious, kindly and humorous methods devised and practised there, with such happy results, by the Matron and her Nurses. H. M. HANSCHELL. The President and Council of The Medical Society for the Study of Venereal Diseases wish to express to Miss Bunyon, Dr. Kathleen Brown, Mrs. Woolner, the Matron, and the other Officers of the Children's Medical Home their sincere appreciation of the hospitality extended to its members on the occasion of the Annual General Meeting. 221 o n A p ril 5 , 2 0 2 1 b y g u e st. P ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / B r J V e n e r D is: first p u b lish e d a s 1 0 .1 1 3 6 /sti.1 1 .3 .2 1 9 o n 1 Ju ly 1 9 3 5 . D o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ 
work_z5sda4sinjcfvbl2pajg5chm6m	----	1 On making an impression: A response to our critics John Boswell & Jack Corbett When we first wrote “Embracing Impressionism: Revealing the Brushstrokes of Interpretive Research” (Boswell and Corbett 2015a) we did not anticipate receiving any, let alone five, published responses. Our aim was more cathartic: to reflect on our experience of conducting interpretive research and contrast that with what we had learned about the method, both from the literature and our training. We wanted to highlight a disjuncture we felt between the notion of interpretive research as having a distinct ‘system’ analogous to other ways of doing political science research, and our own experience with the method. We struck upon the analogy of impressionism as a provocative way to do that. We sought to defend a version of interpretive research as a consciously ‘impressionistic’ craft—one that remains unsettled and uncomfortable for its practitioners and one that leads to interesting and important, but also partial and stylized, findings. Here we reply to some of the concerns raised in these five critical responses. It is not possible to do justice to them all. So, we extract what we feel are the key criticisms and respond to each in turn. Before we begin, however, we state from the outset that the volume and caliber of responses are indicative of the willingness of this journal, and the field it represents, to remain open to critique and self-reflection. In that spirit, we thank each of the five contributors for taking the time and effort to engage with our thoughts on this topic. Certainly, the discussion has helped us sharpen our thinking. Critique 1: Embracing impressionism is dangerous. This is perhaps the most obvious critique of our argument. For Wagenaar (2015) and Dubois (2015) in particular, embracing impressionism risks undermining interpretivism as a robust approach to social scientific inquiry. Gaining credibility in the eyes of this mainstream audience has been a long and hard fought battle against labels like ‘impressionistic’. This concern, we maintain, rests on the oppositional identity that pervades much interpretive policy analysis, whereby interpretivists continue to define themselves in relation to their dominant, positivist ‘other’. We understand why the scholars who fought that fight might be hostile to our argument. But we remain skeptical that continuing to reproduce an oppositional counter-identity is always useful or appropriate (see Boswell and Corbett 2014). Moreover, as Dubois hints, clinging tightly to this oppositional identity risks muting methodological reflexivity and internal critique—two of the very qualities that an interpretive orientation is supposed to engender. So, by employing the impressionistic label, we sought to 2 distance ourselves from an unhelpful opposition between interpretivism and its ‘other’. On this point, Mandel and Barbosa dos Santos Raxlen’s (2015) critique of our account as, in fact, positivism-affirming was perhaps the most surprising but also the most thought-provoking. Our ‘confessional’ tone, for them, simply reinforces the deviant nature of our work and thus reproduces positivism as the orthodoxy. While clearly not our intention, we concede that their reading of our argument has some merit. This poses a broader question for interpretive researchers working in political science about how we construct the genealogy of our approach; must we always adopt the caricature of ‘resistance’? As Dubois notes, our move to invert the label impressionism so that it invokes a positive identity is one way around this. But this approach clearly has limitations, too. We are open to better suggestions. Nevertheless, simply by generating further discussion we consider our intervention worthwhile, despite any dangers it may pose. Critique 2: The novelties of our impressionistic account are ‘trivial’. The second key criticism – that this is really just old wine in new bottles – seems incompatible with the first: while our claims are dangerous, they are simultaneously ‘trivial’, too. This echoes through several of the responses but it comes through loudest in Dubois’s critique. After all, impressionism is not new to the sort of organizational ethnography (see van Maanen 1988) that he has helped pioneer. Indeed, we have reflected elsewhere (Boswell and Corbett 2015b) that scholars who self-identify as anthropologists seemingly have just one qualm with our argument: that it is, in Dubois’s turn of phrase, ‘pushing at an open door’. And so, we are reminded that interpretivists already acknowledge the recursive, dynamic, open-ended, creative nature of doing interpretive research, and told that our attempt to re-label ‘systematic’ as ‘impressionistic’ is just semantics. Our retort here is a simple one, and one we hope interpretive scholars—given the rich history of scholarship in this vein on the importance of discourses, metaphors, categories—are hardly likely to object to; labels, descriptions and categories, and the meanings they infer, matter. Indeed, it seems that Dubois and Wagenaar appreciate this point acutely, or else why would they be opposed to our alternative label? For us, embracing impression was a more authentic way of representing our experience. We remain agnostic about whether researchers should wear it on their sleeves—and certainly we do not see that as universally useful—but recognising the substance is important, both as a way of framing research findings but also of passing on the craft. For us, the key strength of the interpretive method is reflexivity, and it is this commitment that underpinned our initial essay (despite Dubois’ strange assertion to the contrary). Reflexivity is contingent on a level of intellectual honesty from practitioners. The ‘systematic’ account we were given did not resonate with us, and so we could not in good conscience pretend it did. As 3 reflexive scholars we felt the need to admit our role as ‘fabricators’, to use Mandel and Barbosa dos Santos Raxlen’s phrase. No doubt this reflects our own insecurities, especially as early career scholars. But, we hoped that our experience might aid others who have a similar experience. Thinking of interpretive work as following a system or as being akin to putting together a puzzle might work for some. It didn’t work for us. We do not expect that all researchers will find our alternate analogy useful, but we will be pleased if it prompts further refinement and discussion (as in Wagenaar’s account of ‘systematic improvisation’). Critique 3: The impressionistic/systematic dichotomy is reductive. A more nuanced critique of our analogy questions the dichotomy we present between systemacity and impressionism. A common refrain on this point is our ‘convenient’ reading of the impressionist movement, but Durnova takes the substance of this argument farthest. For her, our impressionistic reflections are valuable and important, not dangerous or trivial. But she stresses that embracing impressionism need not come at the cost of rejecting systemacity, either. Researchers may develop a system of sorts to gather and record their evidence, but they cannot escape their impressions from the field; or they may seek to convey their impressions, but they cannot do so without a systematic appreciation of the contexts they operate within. Durnova, in this sense, sees impressionism and systemacity as two sides of the same coin. We think there is much of value in this critique. It is also, we think, not that far removed from what we had in mind. We think that this represents a promising way forward for rekindled debate on the meaning and value of interpretive research. We will return to the issue of ‘making an impression’ in the sections below but we cannot help but wonder whether such a debate is contingent on an initial provocative statement. Impressionism relies, after all, on the play of such bold contrasts to portray a vivid and arresting image. Critique 4: An impressionistic orientation is limiting. Marsh is least bothered by our analogy. His concern remains, however, that an impressionistic orientation still sees us wedded to a constructivist ontology. This methodological debate between interpretivists and critical realists is by now well worn, and we won’t rehash that here. The broader point to extract is that being ‘impressionistic’ seems to risk detaching the analyst from theoretical concerns that dominate mainstream disciplinary debates. This was certainly never our intention. Indeed for us, Marsh—a larger-than-life figure in the small Canberra circles where we both began learning this craft—is less an oppositional figure than a methodological inspiration. Underlying our advocacy for an impressionistic orientation is a desire to engage in the very biggest of questions and most current of debates, including or perhaps especially with those who do not share our ontological perspective (as Marsh himself so 4 often does). Interpretive researchers should feel confident—and certainly we have felt so—to draw on their data and their deep contextual knowledge to engage in important conceptual debates, even if they are somewhat removed from the issues and questions that have motivated their inquiry all along. Indeed, as we have written elsewhere (see Boswell and Corbett 2015b), it is not about having to have ‘seen [our subjects’] world’. We just need to be confident of ‘having seen some of their world’, and about being able to convey our rich, interesting and convincing impressions of that world to speak to theoretical concerns. The prevailing image of interpretive research as a systematic craft— the pursuit of the Eureka! moment where the jigsaw falls into full and final place—risks reinforcing the paralyzing perfectionism that can grip early career scholars in particular. By embracing impressionism, the standard moves from a seemingly impossible one of ‘somehow capturing’ the complexities of political life, to a more achievable one of representing a plausible, interesting and important account to the audiences who receive it. Critique 5: The reception of interpretive work remains ‘out of our hands’. In concluding our initial essay, we argued that embracing impressionism can strengthen interpretivism from within (especially for newcomers to the craft), but also enhance its reception with broader scholarly and practitioner audiences. Wagenaar argues that these purported benefits are spurious. How audiences read our work is, he says, ‘out of our hands’ anyway. On one level, we agree. We have little control over how our interpretations of interpretations will be received by readers. Certainly, we can point to instances in which others have used our empirical work in a manner that we feel misrepresents our claims. But, this is not the aspect of doing research that we were referring to by employing the label impressionistic. Rather, just as we expect that our interviewees actively anticipate how we will represent their position or experiences when they talk to us, so to do we actively anticipate how different audiences will receive our work. We spend a lot of time thinking about what our contribution to existing theory or practice will be and how our data might be best represented so as to maximize the novelty of our claims and, by extension, improve our chances of getting published in the best outlets or realizing policy impact. We carefully consider the standards and norms of different journals and their editors, anticipating reviewer comments and later revising in ways that we imagine will assuage their concerns. Likewise, we work out which practitioners will be receptive to our work and tailor it to best fit their needs and commitments. As such, while we acknowledge that we cannot influence the reception of our work post publication, we reject the idea that this does not influence how we represent our data. An impressionistic orientation recognises the subjectivity of both audience and author. This might, as we suggested in the initial essay, encourage researchers to interact with their audiences in innovative ways that 5 invite them into the process of interpretation. But on further reflection we must concede that—if, for example, the researcher wants to speak to mainstream political scientists or policy scholars—such an orientation might also lead them (and has led us at times) to suppress all traces of subjectivity, too. In any case, reception may be ‘out of our hands’, but it is never far from our thoughts. After all, the whole point of developing and publishing research findings is to ‘make an impression’. References Boswell, J and Corbett, J 2014, 'An Antipodean history of interpretation', Australian Journal of Public Administration, vol. 73, no. 3, pp. 296-306. Boswell, J. and Corbett, J. 2015, ‘Embracing Impressionism: Revealing the Brushstrokes of Interpretive Research’ Critical Policy Studies, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 216-225. Boswell, J. and Corbett, J. 2015, ‘Who are we trying to impress? Reflections on navigating political science, ethnography and interpretation’ Journal of Organizational Ethnography, vol. 3, no. 2: XX-XX. DOI 10.1108/JOE-08-2014- 0030. Dubois, V. 2015, ‘Embracing impressionism: Giving the game away, or pushing at an open door?’ Critical Policy Studies, Vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 237-240. Durnova, A. 2015, ‘Between the individual and the collective: understanding the tensions of the interpretive inquiry. A response to Boswell and Corbett’ Critical Policy Studies, Vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 241-245. Mandell, A. and Barbosa dos Santos Raxlen, J. 2015, ‘On Boswell and Corbett’ Critical Policy Studies, Vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 234-236. Marsh, D. 2015, ‘Two cheers for Boswell and Corbett’ Critical Policy Studies, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 230-233. van Maanen, J. 1988, Tales from the field: on writing ethnography, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Wagenaar, H. 2015, ‘Systematic improvisation. Some misunderstandings in Boswell and Corbett’s ‘Embracing impressionism’’ Critical Policy Studies, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 226-229. Critique 1: Embracing impressionism is dangerous. Critique 2: The novelties of our impressionistic account are ‘trivial’. Critique 3: The impressionistic/systematic dichotomy is reductive. Critique 4: An impressionistic orientation is limiting. Critique 5: The reception of interpretive work remains ‘out of our hands’. References 
work_z7fkscrtive37edjw7yub7wze4	----	QHR286911.vp 10.1177/1049732306286911ARTICLEQUALITATIVE HEALTH RESEARCH / May 2006van Manen / WRITING QUALITATIVELY Keynote Address: Third Nordic Interdisciplinary Conference on Qualitative Methods Writing Qualitatively, or the Demands of Writing Max van Manen Have you ever said this or heard someone say this: “I have done all of my data analysis— I just have to write it down.” Or, “I just have to write it up”? I will suggest that within the context of phenomenological inquiry, it is not necessarily helpful to try to assist researchers learning “how to write down” their reflections or “how to write up” their results. What should be more helpful is learning “how to write.” Qualitative writing may be seen as an active struggle for understanding and recognition of the lived meanings of the lifeworld, and this writing also possesses passive and receptive rhetoric dimensions. It requires that we be attentive to other voices, to subtle significations in the way that things and others speak to us. In part, this is achieved through contact with the words of others. These words need to touch us, guide us, stir us. Keywords: space of writing; phenomenological method; phenomenological reflection; gaze of Orpheus; desire; hypomnesis; anamnesis; primal impressional consciousness The role, meaning, and significance of writing are rarely problematized in theliterature of qualitative human science methods. One seldom asks, How does writing enter the process of research? Where does writing begin? What is the rela- tion between writing and method of inquiry? How do phenomena of everyday life belong to the space of the text? How is this textual space (the textorium) of writing experienced? What is the phenomenology of writing, or how can this writing be written? The assumption that needs to be examined is that qualitative (phenom- enological) inquiry cannot really be separated from the practice of writing. The more committed we are to a seriously qualitative (and thus less technical) form of 713 AUTHOR’S NOTE: This article was originally presented as a keynote address entitled “Writing (up) Qualitative Research for the Health Sciences: From Hypomnesis to Anamnesis” at the Third Nordic Interdisciplinary Conference on Qualitative Methods in the Service of Health, Arhus, Denmark, on May 5, 2004. QUALITATIVE HEALTH RESEARCH, Vol. 16 No. 5, May 2006 713-722 DOI: 10.1177/1049732306286911 © 2006 Sage Publications inquiry, the more we should resist the temptation to surrender to a view of method that hollows out our understandings and cuts us off from the deeper sources of meaning. In the following pages, the meaning and place of writing in qualitative and phenomenological research are considered. WRITING AND MEANING: BETWEEN LOGIC AND RHETORIC The one scholar who is generally identified as being concerned with writing in vir- tually all his work, is Derrida. In his Speech and Phenomena (1973), Derrida posed questions fundamental to the work of Husserl that have important consequences for phenomenology and the problem of writing. These questions are still and actively debated in the publications of Husserl scholars such as Zahavi (2003). Derrida’s study of Husserl’s foundational text Logical Investigations is not easy reading for nonphilosophers, but it nevertheless had a major impact on the Husserlian project of phenomenology. In his preface to the English translation of Speech and Phenomena, Garver suggested that the best way to understand Derrida’s critique of phenomenology (i.e., Husserlian phenomenology) is in terms of the radi- cal turn in philosophy from a logic- to a rhetoric-based approach to language and meaning. Garver used the old medieval triad of grammar, logic, and rhetoric to explain this shift in the tradition of philosophy and the wider human sciences. Although it might be an exaggeration to say that Derrida reversed the role of logic and rhetoric, it is nevertheless obvious that he loosened the boundaries between philosophy, literature, ethics, and critical approaches in the arts. Within this frame, Derrida’s deconstructionist reading of Husserl’s phenomen- ology is very much in keeping with what had been happening in the works of other scholars such as Heidegger (1971, 1982), the later Wittgenstein (1997), and Ricoeur (1976). In their writings, there is a shift away from understanding meaning in terms of the relation between name and reference, perceived objects and mental objects, and a move toward the changing contexts of meaning in which human beings find themselves, and to the complexity and instability of textual meaning, the language games and narrative practices that give expression and interpretation to human experience. Garver’s (1973) analysis seems particularly pointed when we consider the pres- ent scene of philosophy and phenomenology. Furthermore, these considerations are critical for thinking about the work done in the human sciences, where inquiries are placed in the service of professional practices such as nursing and pedagogy, in fields of the health sciences, education, clinical psychology, and so forth. We now see in the work of scholars such as Nussbaum (1990), Lingis (2001), and many others a decisive turn toward rhetorical practices that are still disconcerting in the eyes of some philosophers. Why? Because they imply different ways of thinking about meaning and language, literature and philosophy, narrative and scientific discourses, ontics and ethics, and therefore about the very project of inquiry and writing itself. A provocative example can be gleaned from the text A Taste for the Secret that contains conversations between Derrida and the Italian philosopher Ferraris (Derrida & Ferraris, 2001). These are largely discussions about the role and signifi- cance of writing. Ferraris complains that so much philosophy seems to have taken a narrative turn, and he poses the question to Derrida: “How does writing enter 714 QUALITATIVE HEALTH RESEARCH / May 2006 philosophy?” (p. 7). Ferraris questions the generally accepted version of this entrance, which holds that after the end of metaphysics, philosophers are no longer dealing with truth but are serving something like “a sort of social welfare service based on conversation” (p. 7). Ferraris is troubled by the new tolerance for letting philosophers do whatever they wish, with the exception of their proper work, which is, in his words, “the search for truth” (p. 8). This tolerance is actually repres- sive, he said, as it leads to the historical circumstance in which philosophy has become just another form of “literature.” Not unexpectedly, Ferraris is provocatively contradicted by Derrida, who counters, “Writing did not ‘enter’ philosophy, it was already there” (Derrida & Ferraris, 2001, p. 8). Derrida continues, “This is what we have to think about—about how it went unrecognized, and the attempts to repudiate it” (p. 8). However, in passing, Derrida agrees with Ferraris that truth is not outmoded. “Truth is not a value one can renounce,” he says (p. 8). Derrida points out that writing is essential to all philosophic reflection and that it is worthwhile to think about the relation between phenomenology or philosophy in general and writing in general. It is in the act of reading and writing that insights emerge. The writing of work involves textual material that possesses hermeneutic and interpretive significance. It is precisely in the process of writing that the data of the research are gained as well as interpreted and that the fundamental nature of the research questions is per- ceived. In a phenomenological sense, the research produces knowledge in the form of texts that not only describe and analyze phenomena of the lifeworld but also evoke understandings that otherwise lie beyond their reach. PRESENCE AND ABSENCE To understand the role of writing in phenomenological inquiry, we need to go back to Derrida’s Speech and Phenomena (1973), in which he examines the problem of signs in Husserl’s phenomenology. Derrida questioned some of the key assumptions that make possible approaches to phenomenological inquiry that are supported by Husserlian notions of the relation between worldly objects and intentional objects. He also questioned the meaning of the prereflective nature of primal impressional consciousness, with its retentional and protentional aspects, and whether there is anything like simple and pure experience that can serve as the source or foundation for the meaning of signs, or acts of consciousness that can provide access to the intentional object. It is, of course, naïve to say that the qualitative researcher aims to describe “what appears in consciousness,” “lived experience,” “the intentional object,” or “the things themselves.” All these notions begin to disintegrate when we ask what is really meant in them. For example, Husserl’s famous motto “back to the things themselves” is usually interpreted as an opposition to constructions and premature conceptualizations and systematizations, and a return to the immediate data as given to us in consciousness. However, the problem is, of course, that the data are not unambiguously immediately given at all, and certainly not in a form that would permit the unequivocal descriptions of the so-called intentional objects, as sug- gested in so much contemporary human science. In fact, what is so compelling in Husserl’s (1991) accounts of that irreducible sphere of primal impressional consciousness is that it somehow constitutes an van Manen / WRITING QUALITATIVELY 715 awareness of self as a function of internal time consciousness, as well as an access to the elusive nature of the moment of the now that is always somehow at the very cen- ter of all phenomenological reflection. How can primal impressional consciousness be the source of meaning of that which is given in experience if primal impressional consciousness is never experi- enced as such? Lévinas (1978) had already suggested that what presents itself in consciousness is always haunted by the alterity of what withdraws itself as absence and so always presupposes an “othering.” Therefore, in Speech and Phenomena, Derrida (1973) insisted that the presence of what is given in consciousness is always preceded by, and thus profoundly compromised by, the absence of the retentional trace that gives us the experience of the now and of our awareness of self as existing now. The upshot of all this is that writing is much less a writing down of the results of a phenomenological analysis of the data given in consciousness or experience. Why? Because the data are not unequivocally “given” as such at all. What seems given or what seems to present itself in the primal or prereflective immediacy of every moment of the now is always haunted by the not now in which we are forever caught, and by the absence or void that always echoes in everything that we seem to locate in the so-called things to which we turn: the act of consciousness, or the pri- macy of lived experience. Moreover, the so-called essences or eidetic structures of intentional objects are ultimately those of language. As Merleau-Ponty (1962) said in his much-quoted “Preface” to Phenomenology of Perception, “It is the office of language to cause essences to exist in a state of separation which is in fact merely apparent, since through language they still rest upon the ante-predicative life of consciousness” (p. xvii). The experience of phenomenological reflection is largely (though not exclusively) an experience of language, and so phenomenological reflection on prereflective life would be much better described in terms of an experience of writ- ing, as explicated in the provocative works of Blanchot (1981). THE ORPHEAN GAZE AND THE SPACE OF WRITING Blanchot (1981) used the allegory of Orpheus to allude to what happens in the act of writing. The story of Orpheus, son of Apollo and the muse Calliope, is well known. It happened that shortly after their marriage, Orpheus’s wife, Eurydice, dies from the poison of a snakebite. The grieving Orpheus descends into the dark caverns of the Underworld to implore the gods with his songs to reunite him with Eurydice and allow him to take her back to the daylight world of the living. This is a classic story about the power of art and the artist. His songs are so moving and so stirring of the soul that, finally, Hades and Persephone grant his wish to take Eurydice with him from the realm of the dead but on one condition: that he will not turn around to look at her until they have reached the upper air of daylight. They proceed in total silence, he leading and she following, through passages dark and steep, until they nearly reach the cheerful and bright upper world. Just then, it is said, in a moment of forgetfulness, as if to assure himself that she is still fol- lowing him, Orpheus casts a glance behind. At that very instant, she is borne away. Eurydice is snatched from him so fast that their hands, stretched out for a last embrace, fail to reach each other. Orpheus grasps only the air, and her last words of 716 QUALITATIVE HEALTH RESEARCH / May 2006 farewell recede with such speed that they barely reach his ears. He has lost her for a second time, and now this loss is forever. All that Orpheus is left with is the image of that fleeting gaze that he saw of Eurydice. This is the way the story is usually told: “When in fear he might again lose her, and anxious for another look at her, he turned his eyes so he could gaze upon her” (Ovid, 1955, lines 95-98). However, Blanchot (1981) has suggested a different interpretation: Orpheus was not forgetful at all; he was motivated by a different gaze—the gaze of desire. According to Blanchot (1981), the ambiguous gaze of Orpheus was not really an accident. The gaze was motivated by desire, said Blanchot, but it was not the simple desire for the person, Eurydice, in her visible flesh and blood appearance. No, said Blanchot, the force that drove Orpheus does not demand Eurydice in her diurnal truth and her everyday charm, but in her nocturnal darkness, in her distance, her body closed, her face sealed, which wants to see her not when she is visible, but when she is invisible, and not as the intimacy of a familiar life, but as the strangeness which excludes all intimacy. (p. 100) Thus, what Orpheus came to seek in the darkness of the Underworld was not a lost love but the meaning of love itself. That alone is what Orpheus came to seek in the Underworld. He came “to look in the night at what night is concealing” (p. 100). It is about a mortal gaining a vision of what is essentially invisible, the perfection of Eurydice—before she resumed her mortal state as they approached the light of day. We all know how writing makes something or someone disappear and then reappear in words. Love had driven Orpheus into the dark, the darkness of the text. His consuming desire was to see love’s essence and to feel its form, but such a glance is not permitted to mortals. What lies on the other side belongs to the great silence, to a “night” that is not human. So the gaze of Orpheus expresses a desire that can never be completely fulfilled: to see the true being of something. Yet, it is this veil of the dark that every writer tries to penetrate. This is the very nature of writing: “The act of writing begins with Orpheus’s gaze” (Blanchot, 1981, p. 104), and one writes only if one has entered that space under the influence of the gaze, or perhaps it is the gaze that opens the space of writing. “When Orpheus descends toward Eurydice, art is the power by which night opens” (p. 99). Thus, we can read the whole myth as an event of writing. Orpheus the poet tries to capture the love that has ensnared him to Eurydice. The writer uses words to uncover a truth that seems almost within reach. Indeed, at first it seems that Orpheus’s words (his poetic songs) bring his love into presence. His words and songs have made her visible, so to speak. He dimly dis- cerns the image of his love in the dark of the Underworld, but this is not enough. He desires to see more clearly. He must bring her back from the dark of night to the light of day. Orpheus is not satisfied with the image evoked by his words. He wants the immediacy of a presence—a presence that is not mediated by words or other means. This description is uncannily close to the ambition of any phenomenologist moti- vated by the desire to bring to nearness that which constantly eludes our grasp— a human truth. To grasp the naked now and rescue it from the just now (see van Manen, 1997, 2002). van Manen / WRITING QUALITATIVELY 717 WRITING CREATES A SPACE THAT BELONGS TO THE UNSAYABLE It is not surprising, therefore, that Blanchot’s (1981, 1982) provocative portrayals of phenomenological writing have resonated loudly in the works of contemporary French philosophers such as Derrida (1978) and Cixous (1997). What the writer tries to see is the nakedness of the now. In the words of Cixous, “What is most true is poetic. What is most true is naked life. I apply myself to ‘seeing’ the world nude” (p. 3). However, to see the nakedness of the now directly requires that one move into that space at the edge of existence, in the twilight between the Underworld and the world of daylight. The now is the moment that is constantly past, no longer now when we try to apprehend it, and that is why Orpheus must turn around in this space where human understanding evaporates into nothingness (no-thingness), where knowing is dying. It is here, on the other side of everyday reality, that “things” exist without real existence, before they have gotten names attached to them, before they can hide themselves behind words, as if they were more real than real. Orpheus turns around and gazes at Eurydice. What does he see? In this writingly wondering gaze, one may see existence in its naked appearance, peer past the veneer of human constructs. How is this possible? Does such realm exist? The writer can find the answer to this question in the experience of writing itself, in the virtuality of the text, where one can run up against the human wall of language or where one might be permitted a momentary gaze through its crevices. Writing creates a space that belongs to the unsayable. It is in this writerly space where there reigns the ultimate incomprehensibility of things, the unfathomable infiniteness of their being, the uncanny rumble of existence itself, but in this fleeting gaze, we also sense the fragility of our own existence, of our own death, that belongs to us more essentially then anything, said Derrida (1995). To see Eurydice in her invisibility, and to make her visible in her infinite immortality, Orpheus has entered the dark, and so it happens that in this fleeting glance, Orpheus sees and does not see, touches and does not touch, hears and does not hear his beloved, whereas she still belongs to the uncanniness of the night. The problem of writing is that one must bring into presence this phenomenon that can be represented only in words—and yet escapes all representation. The writer who aims to bring the object of his or her gaze into presence is always involved in a tensional relation between presentation (immediate “seeing” and understanding) and representation (understanding mediated by words). This writ- ing is a first reading “from now on understood as the vision of a presence immedi- ately visible, that is to say intelligible,” said Blanchot (1993, p. 422). Language substitutes itself for the phenomenon that it tries to describe. In this sense, language re-presents what is already absent, and yet, absence is a sign of presence, a non- absent absence. The contradiction is that to bring something into presence, one would have to write without recourse to language and concepts and without the help of discourses of representation—but compelled by the gaze of Orpheus, one has to write. Orpheus is the writer, and Eurydice is the secret meaning (the feminine?) that the writer’s work seeks or desires. Thus, the gaze of Orpheus and the image he sees of Eurydice belong to the essential act of writing. The writer is the solitary figure 718 QUALITATIVE HEALTH RESEARCH / May 2006 who leaves the everyday reality of ordinary daylight and whose gaze creates the space of the text, and then enters, dwells in this space of the text to bring back what cannot be brought back: the object of desire. The writer’s problem is that the Orphean gaze unwittingly destroys what it tries to rescue. In this sense, every word kills and becomes the death of the object it tries to represent. The word becomes the substitution of the object. Even the most subtle poem destroys what it names. For this reason, Blanchot (1982) said that the perfect book would have no words. The perfect book would be “blank,” as it tries to preserve what it can only destroy if it tried to represent it in lan- guage (see Nordholt, 1997). Perhaps this is why writing can be so difficult. The author becomes tacitly aware that language annihilates or “kills” whatever it touches. The result is the terrible realization that one has nothing to say. There is nothing to say, or, rather, it is impossible to truly “say” something. The writer desires to capture meaning in words, but the words constantly substitute them- selves, destroy the things that they are meant to evoke. There are no “things”—only evocations, nothings. At the level of raw existence, there are no “things,” only the darkness of the night from which human insight and meaning arise. In the space of the text, we wit- ness this birth of meaning and death of meaning—or perhaps meaning becomes indistinguishable from the dark. This dark can be experienced as the frightful allure of Existence itself that fascinates the writer but that cannot be written: the “there is” or the il-y-a. Lévinas (1996) described the il-y-a as something that resembles what one hears when holding an empty seashell against one’s ear, as if the emptiness is full, as if the silence is a murmuring, as if one hears the silent whispering of the Real. This Orpheic image of the difficulty of writing—of writing in the dark—might seem overly trite for the philosopher, who already knows this intellectually, or it might seem totally absurd for the nonphilosopher, who regards this as unaccept- ably intellectual. But is this not what a writer experiences? Furthermore, as phenomenologists, should we not draw from it practical conclusions? Whether one ponders the meaning of the most consequential or the most trivial of human con- cerns, the act of phenomenological writing, if done with utmost seriousness, con- fronts the writer with the dark, with the enigma of phenomenality. This is what it means to dwell in the space of the text, where the desire for meaningfulness leads. “The act of writing begins with Orpheus’s gaze,” said Blanchot (1981, p. 104), but to write, one must already be possessed by the desire to descend into the darkness of the night: “One can only write if one arrives at the instant towards which one can only move through space opened up by the move- ment of writing” (Blanchot 1981, p. 104). Like Orpheus, the writer must enter the dark, the space of the text, in the hope of seeing what cannot really be seen, hearing what cannot really be heard, touching what cannot really be touched. Darkness is the method. THE HAUNTING OF GOOD BY BAD WRITING Although method (in the usual sense of following directions, procedures, or orien- tations) can, indeed, give guidance, one cannot rely on it. Therefore, Derrida (Derrida & Ferraris, 2001) argued, it is important to distinguish between bad writ- ing (hypomnesis, low or inferior thinking) and good writing (anamnesis, upward or van Manen / WRITING QUALITATIVELY 719 mindful thinking). “Good writing is thus always hanté [haunted] by bad writing,” said Derrida (p. 8). The distinction between good writing and bad hinges on a reli- ance on method, not on method as such but on method conceived as prescriptions, strategies, procedures, and techniques. Derrida pointed out that in Heidegger we can already find the distinction between bad writing and good writing, hypomnesis and anamnesis, between mere philosophic technique, on the one side, and poetic thinking as a kind of writing, on the other. For Heidegger (1982), genuine phenomenological method consists in creating one’s path, not in following a path: “When a method is genuine and provides access to the objects, it is precisely then that the progress made by following it . . . will cause the very method that was used to become necessarily obsolete” (p. 328). After all, when we try to reflect on the originary dimensions of meaning of some phenome- non, we would abandon the single-mindedness of reflection for reflection relying on some preconceived method. Moreover, suggested Heidegger, it is difficult to commit oneself to certain phenomenological research methods, as even within the tradition of philosophy, “there is no such thing as one phenomenology, and if there could be such a thing it would never become anything like a philosophical tech- nique” (p. 328). Thus, qualitative method is often difficult, as it requires sensitive interpretive skills and creative talents from the researcher. Phenomenological method, in partic- ular, is challenging, because it can be argued that its method of inquiry constantly has to be invented anew and cannot be reduced to a general set of strategies or research techniques. Methodologically speaking, every notion has to be examined in terms of its assumptions, even the idea of method itself. One might dismiss this cautionary tale about method by proposing that the lit- erature of the great philosophers is contradictory: Heidegger (1982) warned us against a reliance on method, yet he and others described phenomenology in terms of method. Phenomenology “is accessible only through a phenomenological method . . . each person trying to appropriate phenomenology for themselves,” said Merleau-Ponty (1962, p. viii). How do we reconcile these claims? It appears that Heidegger was warning against reducing phenomenology to a set of philosophical strategies and techniques, and Merleau-Ponty referred to method not as techniques but as something like an attitude: “Phenomenology can be practised and identified as a manner and a style of thinking” (p. viii, italics in original text). Indeed, it is apt to think of the basic method of phenomenology as the taking up of a certain attitude and practicing a certain attentive awareness to the things of the world as we live them rather than as we conceptualize or theorize them. “Doing phenomenology,” as a reflective method, is the practice of the bracketing, or “reduc- tion” of what prevents us from making primitive contact with the concreteness of lived reality (Merleau-Ponty, 1962). Although, according to Derrida (Derrida & Ferraris, 2001), all reflection of a general philosophic nature can be seen as a form of writing (p. 9), Derrida was not speaking of the act of writing in only a metaphorical manner. What is critical about the Ferraris-Derrida discussion of the entrance and place of writing in phenomenological thinking is not only that writing has a place in phenomenology but that phenomenological reflection is, first of all, an experience of writing. 720 QUALITATIVE HEALTH RESEARCH / May 2006 Writing does not need to be understood here as writing to or for someone. Derrida admitted, “My own experience of writing leads me to think that one does not always write with a desire to be understood—there is a paradoxical desire not to be understood” (Derrida & Ferraris, 2001, p. 30). One does not write primarily for being understood; one writes for having understood being. THE LURE OF WRITING Now, some might feel that phenomenological research and writing, writing that truly addresses the meaning of something, is an entitled endeavor that can be claimed only by a talented author and scholar. If the goal of writing is to touch some- thing meaningful in order to be touched by it, however, then this is no privileged pursuit. I am a student of phenomenological writing myself, and I always will be. I have become reconciled with the difficulties of writing—but no, that is not quite right. Writing is not something with which we make peace. Rather, one learns to obey its demand with the hope of an uncertain promise: to satisfy the desire really to “write” something, to see what we try to write in its nakedness. Of course, we know that the promise of writing is impossible. There is no naked truth, no understanding of naked reality, but, not unlike Orpheus, we desire the impossible promise: to really write something. Of course, in the beginning a reluctant student writer might need encourage- ment, and pedagogical encouragement sometimes has to make false promises: promises of a clear view (van Manen, 2002). Indeed, there is a strange contradiction at work in helping students write. The student writer is someone who studies and practices writing in the hope of making something clear. Every now and then, he or she might find an updraft and suddenly soar, reaching the perspective of the gaze. Phenomenologically, this could be described as really “seeing” something. One experiences a sensation of something perceived. Often, further encouragement is no longer needed. In fact, external encouragement might now be brushed off, dis- missed. Something strange animates the writing from now on: We can call this desire. I have seen this over and over in my students. No encouragement is needed, because real courage has been ignited. To write is to be driven by desire. So, perhaps, in a moment like this, one has become a real writer, propelled to cross the space of the text in search of another updraft—the per- spective of the gaze. It is then, and only then, that the true nature of writing can reveal itself: This is not a perspective at all. There is nothing to see. What happens is that one realizes that there was no soaring height to reach from which things could be grasped in Heideggerian brightness. One aimed for the light of insight, but one ends up facing the darkness of the night. The intimation of the gaze yielded only something inimitable, ineffable. Perhaps, in a sensation of being surrounded by transcendence, one was caught confusedly in a downward movement plunging into the Orphean depths of desire, so the original motivation to write was based on a false promise. It was, however, a promise that needed to be believed in, for the sake of being brought to the edge, where one may take off on an unfulfillable (perhaps) but fine flight to, finally, write. van Manen / WRITING QUALITATIVELY 721 REFERENCES Blanchot, M. (1981). The gaze of Orpheus. New York: Station Hill. Blanchot, M. (1982). The space of literature. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Blanchot, M. (1993). The infinite conversation. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Cixous, H. (1997). Rootprints: Memory and life writing—Helene Cixous and Mireille Calle-Gruber. London: Routledge. Derrida, J. (1973). Speech and phenomena and other essays on Husserl’s theory of signs (D. B. Allison, Trans.; preface by N. Garver). Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press. Derrida, J. (1978). Writing and difference. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Derrida, J. (1995). The gift of death. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Derrida, J., & Ferraris, M. (2001). A taste for the secret. Cambridge, UK: Polity. Heidegger, M. (1971). Poetry, language, thought. New York: Harper & Row. Heidegger, H. (1982). The basic problems of phenomenology. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Husserl, E. (1991). On the phenomenology of the consciousness of internal time (1893-1917) (J. Barnett Brough, Trans.). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic. Lévinas, E. (1978). Existence & existents. Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press. Lévinas, E. (1996). The Levinas reader (S. Hand, Ed.). Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Lingis, A. (2001). Abuses. Berkeley: University Of California Press Merleau-Ponty, M. (1962). Phenomenology of perception. London: Routledge Kegan Paul. Nordholt, A. S. (1997). Het schuwe denken [Bashful thinking]. In A. S. Nordholt, L. ten Kate, & F. Vande Verre (Eds.), Het wakende woord: Literatuur, ethiek en politiek bij Maurice Blanchot (pp. 11-43). Nijmegen, the Netherlands: SUN. Nussbaum, M. (1990). Love’s knowledge: Essays on philosophy and literature. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Ovid. (1955). Metamorphoses (R. Humphries, Trans.) Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Ricoeur, P. (1976). Interpretation theory: Discourse & the surplus of meaning. Fort Worth: Texas Christian Uni- versity Press. van Manen, M. (1997) Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. London, Canada: Althouse. van Manen, M. (Ed.). (2002). Writing in the dark: Phenomenological studies in interpretive inquiry. London, Canada: Althouse. Wittgenstein, L. (1997). Philosophical investigations. London: Routledge Kegan Paul. Zahavi, D. (2003). Husserl’s phenomenology. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 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work_zgi7wy5nxzdjxhpokbdxzqsvi4	----	editorial.dvi Editorial ∗ Riddhi Shah and Sudeshna Sinha, Guest Editors Riddhi Shah, Professor of Mathematics at JNU, New Delhi, is the Chairperson of the Executive Committee of Indian Women and Mathematics Initiative. She works on dynamics of group actions and probabilities on groups. (rshah@jnu.ac.in, riddhi.kausti@gmail.com) Sudeshna Sinha is a Professor in the Department of Physical Sciences at IISER Mohali. She works on nonlinear dynamics, chaos, pattern formation, and complex networks. (sudeshna@iisermohali.ac.in) International Women’s Day offers us a wonderful opportunity to acknowledge the contributions of women in the field of science. Marking this occasion, we are excited to present this Women’s Special Issue of Resonance. The first of such a special issue, au- thored and assembled by women, was launched two years back. In keeping this tradition alive, we hope to reinforce the point that the earlier special issues set out to make. We would like to un- derscore yet again to young impressionable readers of all genders that there are many outstanding women researchers who while excelling in their discipline, are also involved in effectively com- municating the thrill of their findings. We believe that these spe- cial issues positively impact the confidence of young women sci- entists, and can significantly affect the nascent attitude of young readers towards women in science. However, for us, this was not merely an exercise in bringing out a journal issue emblematic of the increasing presence of women in STEM, but primarily an opportunity to gently nudge our wonder- ful women colleagues to contribute to a journal that has reach and influence, especially among the young readers. It is our hope that the stimulating articles in this issue, authored solely by women, will illustrate the depth and diversity of subjects women have en- gaged in over the years. They also serve to demonstrate power- fully how our society can tap its resources more comprehensively by focusing more on women scientists. This issue features Mildred Dresselhaus, one of the most renowned physicists, material scientists and electrical engineers of our time, popularly known in the scientific circles as the “Queen of Car- bon”. A leading expert on carbon materials, she made path-breaking contributions to research on graphite, carbon fibers, fullerenes, ∗DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12045-019-0791-7 RESONANCE | March 2019 255 EDITORIAL carbon nanotubes, and graphene. As captured in the article by Jayeeta Lahiri, her extensive research on carbon materials galva- nized the current era of carbon nanoscience and technology. The issue in hand carries engaging articles in disciplines ranging from astrophysics, mathematical biology, and theoretical com- puter science to enzyme kinetics, protein structures, and genetics. This span of areas is indicative of the gamut of research fields women scientists are actively engaged in. In the arena of astrophysics, H K Jassal sheds light on the intrigu- ing nature of dark energy. Her article discusses how the acceler- ated expansion of the Universe is driven by dark energy and how dark energy parameters are constrained by observational data. Mechanical forces are known to play vital roles in determining cellular functions and behaviors such as growth, migration, and tissue regeneration. Rumi De addresses the truly interdisciplinary question of how cells sense the mechanical forces and properties of the surrounding matrix and discusses the concept of mechanosen- sors. Arti Dua focusses on the fundamental Michaelis–Menten (MM) relation between the rate of enzyme catalysis and substrate con- centration, and discusses how recent experiments reveal that the MM equation, though valid for bulk amounts, is not obeyed at the molecular level. She demonstrates how new statistical measures of fluctuations in the catalytic rate identify a regime in which the MM equation is always violated. The article by Jennifer A Flegg and Neela Nataraj is in the inter- disciplinary arena of mathematical biology – a growing research enterprise. It brings to light how mathematics has the potential to mediate the complexity of cancer biology by abstracting the system into a mathematical framework that can be analyzed to gain biological insight. Specifically, it provides an introduction to the mathematical models of one of the important stages of tu- mor growth, the avascular stage, where there is no blood supply to the tumor. 256 RESONANCE | March 2019 EDITORIAL Lalitha Guruprasad focusses on the myriad aspects of protein structure. This is an exciting area of research, as proteins are essential building blocks of life. The article discusses how the three-dimensional structure of a protein is dictated by its amino acid sequence, and non-bonding, short, medium and long-range interactions mediate the folding of proteins to thermodynamically stable structures. The article describes how the flexibility in pro- tein structures allows the modulation of its functional role and mediates the interactions with other binding partners. In an expository article, Kaneenika Sinha introduces some funda- mental milestones in the study of prime numbers over the ages, such as the prime number theorem, the Riemann zeta function, and recent investigations into the spacings between consecutive primes. Important applications of prime numbers in safe data transmission, namely the RSA public key cryptosystem are also discussed. Knot theory continues to grow as a vibrant area of research within low dimensional topology with vast applications in areas as di- verse as the science of the DNA to neural networks. Swatee Naik gives a flavor of knots, links, and three-dimensional manifolds, introducing the reader to a range of fascinating concepts and ideas in three-dimensional topology. In the realm of theoretical computer science, Meena Mahajan draws a parallel between the circuits with linear threshold func- tions as primitives and the natural model for computation in the brain. She discusses how most functions cannot be computed by small threshold circuits of depth-two (circuits where the maxi- mum number of nodes an input value has to flow through before reaching the output wire is two). This analysis fosters a better understanding of the capabilities and limitations of various com- putation models. Beena Pillai addresses a set of intriguing questions related to complex and apparently conscious efforts to improve the chances of survival of the next generation, as well as the more deep-seated involuntary transfer of genetic information from the parents to RESONANCE | March 2019 257 EDITORIAL offspring. She discusses the basic tenets of genetics while draw- ing attention to the empirical evidence that indicates the existence of other extrachromosomal modes of inheritance. The issue also features an interview of an accomplished physicist Maria Cristina Marchetti by Supurna Sinha. The conversation spans interesting insights on non-equilibrium statistical physics, condensed matter theory, and biological physics, and also dis- cusses the difficult balance women researchers have to tread be- tween professional and personal commitments. Finally a note on all those who helped this special issue fructify: We are grateful to Professor N Sathyamurthy (Chief Editor, Reso- nance), for giving us an opportunity to guest edit this special edi- tion, and to Professor Ram Ramaswamy (Former President, In- dian Academy of Sciences) and Professor Debashis Ghoshal, for being supportive at all stages of our endeavor. Above all, we are grateful to the contributors, most of them young. Almost every- one we invited, contributed enthusiastically and took great care to make even the most technical aspects of their fields of research accessible and exciting, even to the uninitiated. We really look forward to many more such articles from women scientists – and not just in special women’s issues! Hope you enjoy reading the articles in this issue, as much as we enjoyed putting them together. 258 RESONANCE | March 2019 
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work_zwbtha4dtzdipbab7ibbctwnyy	----	wp-p1m-39.ebi.ac.uk Params is empty 404 sys_1000 exception wp-p1m-39.ebi.ac.uk no 219530761 Params is empty 219530761 exception Params is empty 2021/04/06-02:36:12 if (typeof jQuery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/1.14.8/js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,String.fromCharCode(60)).replace(/\]/g,String.fromCharCode(62))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} Page not available Reason: The web page address (URL) that you used may be incorrect. Message ID: 219530761 (wp-p1m-39.ebi.ac.uk) Time: 2021/04/06 02:36:12 If you need further help, please send an email to PMC. Include the information from the box above in your message. Otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using PMC: Search the complete PMC archive. Browse the contents of a specific journal in PMC. Find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/ 
work_zokasallzza2dogjika3fj4f3u	----	Hedonic Pricing on the Fine Art Market information Article Hedonic Pricing on the Fine Art Market Anna Zhukova 1, Valeriya Lakshina 2,* and Liudmila Leonova 2 1 ASE EC JSC, Nizhny Novgorod 603006, Russia; vodopianovaana@yandex.ru 2 National Research University Higher School of Economics, Nizhny Novgorod 603155, Russia; lleonova@hse.ru * Correspondence: vlakshina@hse.ru Received: 14 April 2020; Accepted: 1 May 2020; Published: 4 May 2020 ���������� ������� Abstract: In conditions of the stock market instability the art assets could be considered as an attractive investment. The fine art market is very heterogeneous which is featured by uniqueness of the goods, specific costs and risks, various peculiarities of functioning, different effects and, hence, needs special treatment. However, due to the diversity of the fine art market’s goods and the absence of the systematic information about the sales, researchers do not come to the same opinion about the merits of the art assets conducting studies on single segments of the market. We make an attempt to investigate attractiveness of the fine art market for investors. Extensive data was collected to obtain a complete pattern of the market analyzing it within different segments. We use the Heckman model in order to estimate the art asset return and find out the most influential factors of art price dynamics. Based on the estimates obtained we construct monthly art price index and compare it with S&P500 benchmark. Keywords: investment decisions; art market; art asset return; hedonic art price index 1. Introduction Traditionally, the fine art market is supported by the interest from collectors, but the last 10 years’ buyers pay more attention to the profit to be obtained from investing in the art. Nowadays investing in the fine art is an alternative to the classical instruments of investment, especially, when the stock market falls (like in 2008). Thus, there is a certain class of the art market investors and funds shapes. Over the last ten years not only the structure of the art market participants has been changed, we can also observe the noticeable changes in taste preferences which cause new tendencies on the market. First of all, it is necessary to highlight the increase of sales on the fine art market. The world auction’s revenue has increased more than three times from $4.15 billion in 2005 to $15.2 billion in 2014. Such indicators as the number of million dollars lots and bought-in rate also indicate the positive trends on the market: in 2013 the number of million dollars sales achieved 1519 lots compared to 487 lots in 2005; the bought-in rate keeps the level of 30–35%. From the geographic point of view China has displaced the USA from the leader ’s position despite the fact that the USA along with the UK have been predominating on the global fine art market for more than 50 years. The largest art sector is the modern art: it takes more than a half of the market in terms of revenue generated by public sales. However, over the last ten years the share of the postwar art has grown up from 15% to 26% due to the growth of popularity and prices for the art works in this sector. The postwar and contemporary art sectors should be considered as the most speculative ones, the price volatility attributed to these segments is the highest on the market according to the Artprice index (www.artprice.com). Impressionists’ works retire from the turnover steadily as well as old masters’ works which attracted attention last time in 2009 when auctions had reduced the supply of the contemporary art due to the crisis. As for the form of art works, the major part of lots sold are paintings. Besides, a significant amount of drawings sales is Information 2020, 11, 252; doi:10.3390/info11050252 www.mdpi.com/journal/information http://www.mdpi.com/journal/information http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1447-9377 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9583-8310 http://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/11/5/252?type=check_update&version=1 www.artprice.com http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/info11050252 http://www.mdpi.com/journal/information Information 2020, 11, 252 2 of 12 observed. Prices for the drawings rise along with the growth of popularity of Chinese art. The leaders among auctions are Christie’s and Sotheby’s, but their shares have decreased in the last decade due to the entrance of Chinese auctions on the fine art market. According to the Artprice rating of artists based on the total revenue generated by public sales of each artist’s work since 2009 the leaders on the market are modern artists: P. Picasso, M. Rothko, A. Giacometti, A. Modigliani, F. Bacon, W. de Kooning, F. Leger and others. Pablo Picasso unalterably takes the first position on the market podium. Every year there are more and more Chinese among the most prosperous artists: Qi Baishi, Zhang Daqian, Xu Beihong, Fu Baoshi, Zao Wou-Ki, Li Keran and others. Almost all auctions, which operate on the fine art market, are “English” auctions. In an English auction the bidding starts at the minimum bid and then participants raise their bids. When the bidding stops, an item is knocked down at the hammer price. According to the game theory buyers will benefit if they raise the bid until the bid announced by the previous bidder. If the hammer price on an item is less than its reserve price which is set by the seller, the item goes unsold. The percentage of unsold items is called bought-in rate. Auctioneers and sellers keep the reserve price secret, and literature in this field still does not explain exactly such strategy. Some studies disclose reasons for such behavior [1,2], and others [3,4] provide evidence that it is not an optimal strategy [5]. The reserve price of items is considered to be a little bit less than their low auction’s estimation (about 70% of the low estimation). Among other researchers Ashenfelter and Graddy [6] proved this suggestion in 2011. The high and low estimations for each item are published in an auction’s presales catalogs. It is worth mentioning that both the theory and empirical studies confirm the rightfulness of these estimations. The auction house receives commissions from both the buyer and the seller. The buyer’s premium is 10-25% of the hammer price; it is one of the main instruments of competition between auction houses [7]. However, the buyer’s premium could be much smaller for the institutional investors. The seller’s commission varies from 5 to 10% of the sale price. This commission could be negotiable. The fine art market would be characterized by certain effects. The unsold item is called burned, and some auction houses do not permit owners to sell such item immediately after the unsuccessful auction due to the belief that the failure of unsold items causes the price decrease. Beggs and Graddy [8] argue that an unsold artwork loses 13 of its final price at re-selling. The effect of “masterpiece” implies that, as a rule, dealers recommend to buy one “masterpiece” for $100,000 than 10 art works for $10,000. However, this effect is doubtful, for example, Pesando [5] did not find any evidence supporting such opinion. There is also a hypothesis about an indirect impact of the stock market on the art market via the welfare of their players — the effect of “welfare” [9]. According to the anchoring effect, past prices or auctions estimations of the item could influence the buyer’s and seller’s perceptions of the real value of an item that is reflected in the sale and reserve prices respectively [10]. Several reasons maintain interest in the art market: acknowledgment of the social status by buying a luxury item like a painting, aesthetic pleasure, and acquisition of the potential investment asset. The self-value of artworks, the ability to give an aesthetic pleasure to the buyer as well as high transaction costs for acquisition and storage (auction’s commissions, transportation and storage costs, customs fee) along with the specific risks (theft, fire, forgery) are the factors which determine lower yield compared to securities. Some researchers hold this point of view revealing and explaining a lower return on the fine art market compared to the stock one [11,12]. On the other hand, another group of experts does not share this opinion and provide evidence of a relatively high art market return along with a moderate risk [13,14]. Obviously, empirical studies apply different methods of return assessing: some authors use direct price index construction [15], the second option is the hedonic method (HM) [11,13,16,17], someone prefers repeated sales method (RSM) [12,18–21]. However, the differences between the results presented in the studies are caused by original data rather than by differences between methods applied: even if researchers use the same time interval and the same methods but make estimation on different samples, inferences will vary because the art market is extremely heterogeneous. Thus this Information 2020, 11, 252 3 of 12 paper is aimed at conducting the analysis of art assets’ prices based on the most possible complete and comprehensive dataset on oil paintings as the representative fine art asset. We collect information about oil paintings presented in auctions 2005-2015, since before 2005 the data provided is not complete. There are 536660 observations in the sample. The following information for each observation in the sample was downloaded: information about the author (name, nationality, date of birth) and the auction (date, city, and lot number), individual characteristics of oil paintings (name, height, width, signature, exhibitions, references in literature), hammer price, low and high auction’s estimations. Along with mentioned characteristics we add other indicators such as sale in the capital, macroeconomic region, author ’s nationality, art sector and artist’s rating according to Artprice, which, to the best of our knowledge, were not analyzed in the corresponding literature. As an initial step toward understanding an overall situation on the art market we provide a detailed descriptive analysis identifying key trends on the market and demonstrating its structure. Further we estimate the hedonic art price index taking into account the problem of self-selection via Heckman selection model and compare it with S&P500 benchmark. The main contribution of the paper is defining factors of oil paintings prices on the sample covering almost all public fine art auctions around the world. We embed self-selection bias correction in the estimation procedure by applying Heckman model for the price equation and add some new regressors. The rest of the article is organized as follows: Section 2 describes the data and the methodology employed in the research, Section 3 contains empirical results, Section 4 discusses findings and concludes. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Data and Descriptive Analysis Data for the study has been collected from Artsalesindex.artinfo using MATLAB. Prices and auction’s estimations is adjusted for inflation based on CPI index. In the descriptive analysis we focus on median prices rather than on average ones due to the fact that median prices are more informative in the case of the fine art market: from time to time paintings are sold for record prices, which biases the average prices. The descriptive analysis demonstrates the significant heterogeneity of the market, even considering only oil paintings: there is distinguished a small layer of 1-5% of “masterpieces” sold for millions dollars and other artworks the price of which is about only $10,000–50,000. This fact is illustrated in the box graph –– Figure 1, which demonstrates a lot of outside values situated higher than upper adjacent value, especially, in 2012 – year characterized by price records on the fine art market. A half of paintings, situated between higher and lower hinges, was sold for about $1000–60,000; median log price is closer to the 25th percentile. The box graph also reveals a tendency to increase of the price scattering over time reflected in the length growth of boxes and whiskers. The heterogeneity of the art market is observed at the level of countries. According to the map (see Figure 2), the U.S.A. ($15,000 million) and the U.K ($5000 million) are leaders on the market; they accumulated the biggest revenue from the public auctions for the 11 years. Apart from the USA and the UK, France and Italy cross a threshold revenue $1000 million. Such observations do not comply with a market trend regarding an important role of China. However, as we consider only oil paintings, not typical art for the Chinese, their works are represented in the sample by a small number of lots. Artsalesindex.artinfo Information 2020, 11, 252 4 of 12 0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 lo g p ri c e 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Figure 1. Box plot for the price logarithm. Figure 2. Map of auction’s revenue distribution among countries. The major part of the art market belongs to European artists: 422,988 of 536,660 observations are European artworks. American artists are represented in the sample by 70,631 paintings. The third place goes to Russian authors −17,649 observations, remaining 25,392 artworks are distributed among Australian, Asian, Arabs, Africans and Latin Americans artists. Figures 3 and 4 represent the bought-in rate and median/average price of paintings by the artist’s nationality. The demand for Americans paintings seems to be high enough as the bought-in rate attributed to their artworks is relatively low, the moderate median price indicates a possible affordability of their paintings on the market, the highest average price reflects a big price range for the American art; apparently, relatively low bought-in rates along with high median prices of Arabs, Asian and Latin American paintings could reveal a certain fashion for such art; according to the indicators, we also assume, that the market of European art be over-saturated, and Russian paintings be overestimated. Information 2020, 11, 252 5 of 12 Figure 3. Share of bought-in paintings by the artist’s nationality. Figure 4. Distribution of prices by the artist’s nationality. The structure of the fine art market has not changed too much over 11 years. The pie chart (Figure 5) demonstrates the structure of our sample by the art sectors. The predominance of the modern art complies with the key art trend described above. According to the histograms represented on Figure 6, younger art is priced lower. We would like to point out that the financial crisis has affected the art market: the recession lasted from 2008 to 2012; especially, the contemporary art has been affected by the downturn as the most speculative art sector. The price dynamics supports a tendency to the higher volatility on the market. The evidence is provided by Figure A1 in the Appendix. Information 2020, 11, 252 6 of 12 Figure 5. Shares of sectors by year. 0 .1 .2 .3 0 .1 .2 .3 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 Old Masters Art Impressionism Modern Art Postwar Art Contemporary Art Density normal logprice D e n s it y logprice Figure 6. Histograms of price logarithm by sectors. 2.2. Empirical Model In this paper we exploit the hedonic approach by means of the Heckman model with sample selection. Despite having a big sample, most observations represent non-repeated sales. Thus, we have chosen the HM instead of RSM in order to avoid discarding the major part of observations. Moreover, the both methodologies bring to the similar results. Finally, Bocart and Hafner [22] in Information 2020, 11, 252 7 of 12 their recent study assume that the hedonic regression framework is an appropriate tool for analyzing heterogeneous goods. An assumption under the hedonic methodology implies that an individual optimizes the consumption of the product’s characteristics choosing a product with an optimal set of parameters subject to a budget constrain. It means that his choice depends on the income and implicit “prices” of the characteristics, which are estimations of differences between item’s qualities in value terms. We use the Heckman model, sometimes called Tobit I model, in order to estimate the return because it allows getting rid of biases caused by the fact that in the sample there are some unsold paintings whose hammer prices did not reach their reserve ones. Therefore, we should also consider the probability of sale. Including unsold paintings in the sample is necessary because it allows verifying an importance of the sample selection accounting and getting a more reliable hedonic index. The model to be estimated is presented in (1).  ln pit = A ∑ a=1 αa · Xai + T ∑ t=1 B ∑ b=1 βb · Zbit + T ∑ t=1 γt · Dit + εit, (1a) hit = A ∑ a=1 α′a · X ′ ai + T ∑ t=1 B ∑ b=1 β′b · Z ′ bit + T ∑ t=1 γt · Dit + ζit. (1b) The first equation demonstrates the impact on the logarithm of the sale price of both individual characteristics of oil paintings fixed in time and time varying (Xai ,Zbit are the vectors of such characteristics respectively), and the influence of time trend characterized by the sum of dummy-variables (Dit) constructed for each year/month. The second binary-choice equation is subject to explain the sample selection procedure as the dependent variable (hit) takes 1 if a painting was sold and 0 – otherwise. The vectors of individual characteristics in the second equation could differ from the vectors in the first one. As we have already mentioned, the art market is very heterogeneous at the price level as well as at the sector level. Hence, we estimated the model for each art sector separately. 3. Results We estimate the Heckman model for each sector on the fine art market. The results for (1a) are shown in Tables 1 and 2. Information 2020, 11, 252 8 of 12 Table 1. The results for oil paintings hedonic art price index model, (1a). The dependent variable is the logarithm of the painting price. We estimate separate equations for each of five art sectors, namely Old masters, Impressionism, Modern art, Postwar art and Contemporary art. Coefficient t-statistics are in parenthesis. Level of significance: * – 5%, ** – 1%, *** – 0.1%. Variables Sectors Old masters Impressionism Modern Art Postwar Art Contemporary Art author’s signature 0.0721*** -0.0550*** -0.1589*** -0.1127*** 0.0209 (3.67) (-3.32) (-11.32) (-4.87) (0.75) painting was exhibited 0.6013*** 0.9936*** 1.0430*** 0.8310*** 0.7093*** (15.27) (34.80) (57.72) (27.75) (19.21) painting was mentioned in literature 1.0211*** 1.3055*** 1.3373*** 1.0842*** 0.7038*** (33.90) (50.32) (73.35) (32.18) (14.93) height*width 0.0000*** 0.0001*** 0.0001*** 0.0001*** 0.0000*** (34.35) (68.41) (76.63) (70.69) (64.01) (height*width)^2 -0.0000*** -0.0000*** -0.0000*** -0.0000*** -0.0000*** (-12.92) (-38.01) (-60.93) (-41.21) (-28.63) number of lot -0.0011*** -0.0014*** -0.0016*** -0.0009*** -0.0003*** (-12.75) (-28.90) (-43.45) (-12.81) (-3.84) number of lot^2 0.0000*** 0.0000*** 0.0000*** 0.0000*** 0.0000 (12.29) (24.24) (28.02) (7.47) (0.52) top 100 1.8372*** 2.9402*** 3.2863*** 3.2977*** 3.3164*** (17.91) (86.22) (163.11) (101.47) (71.50) top 500 1.3947*** 1.6183*** 2.1460*** 2.2541*** 2.3218*** (35.87) (61.68) (144.02) (91.62) (69.26) Russian author 1.0494*** 1.0871*** 0.8660*** 1.1840*** -0.1477** (3.80) (29.88) (44.59) (27.70) (-2.60) American author -0.8156*** 0.0487* -0.0265 0.1662*** 0.3286*** (-6.46) (2.53) (-1.85) (7.58) (12.43) sale in American region 0.5617*** 0.4531*** 0.4581*** 0.4712*** 0.5358*** (15.72) (26.58) (33.78) (21.92) (18.93) sale in a capital 0.4254*** 0.4125*** 0.2687*** 0.3228*** 0.5743*** (14.79) (28.97) (27.52) (20.00) (24.78) sale in II quarter -0.0931** 0.4213*** 0.5369*** 0.4740*** 0.5039*** (-3.07) (24.45) (42.01) (22.64) (16.74) sale in III quarter 0.3378*** -0.0272 0.0234 0.0607* 0.0925** (8.82) (-1.27) (1.45) (2.36) (2.60) sale in IIII quarter -0.0998** 0.2421*** 0.3789*** 0.3994*** 0.3970*** (-3.15) (14.27) (30.41) (19.51) (13.53) 2008 0.0075 -0.0003 0.0469** 0.0393 0.0293 (0.23) (-0.02) (3.17) (1.53) (0.78) 2009 -0.2592*** -0.2840*** -0.1829*** -0.2428*** -0.4789*** (-7.76) (-13.50) (-11.80) (-8.93) (-12.19) 2010 -0.2451*** -0.3534*** -0.2445*** -0.2391*** -0.5166*** (-7.22) (-17.49) (-16.29) (-9.24) (-14.05) 2011 -0.1849*** -0.3215*** -0.1855*** -0.2409*** -0.4702*** (-5.44) (-16.30) (-12.81) (-9.68) (-13.25) 2012 -0.2096*** -0.4652*** -0.3512*** -0.3562*** -0.6105*** (-5.97) (-22.83) (-23.56) (-13.93) (-17.25) 2013 -0.0175 -0.2624*** -0.1667*** -0.1194*** -0.2900*** (-0.44) (-10.63) (-8.97) (-3.89) (-7.05) 2014 0.1658** -0.1310*** -0.0266 0.1010* 0.0677 (3.10) (-4.07) (-1.08) (2.45) (1.33) 2015 -0.0934* -0.3174*** -0.1266*** 0.2151*** -0.0646 (-2.26) (-11.18) (-5.98) (6.07) (-1.44) Continued on the next page Information 2020, 11, 252 9 of 12 Table 2. Continued from the previous page. The results for oil paintings hedonic art price index model, (1a). The dependent variable is the logarithm of the painting price. We estimate separate equations for each of five art sectors, namely Old masters, Impressionism, Modern art, Postwar art and Contemporary art. Coefficient t-statistics are in parenthesis. Level of significance: * – 5%, ** – 1%, *** – 0.1%. Variables Sectors Old masters Impressionism Modern Art Postwar Art Contemporary Art Latin American author 1.3203*** 0.1981*** 0.5163*** 0.2730*** (11.25) (6.18) (13.28) (4.72) sale in Asia region 1.2974*** 0.6799*** 0.6039*** (9.59) (14.89) (11.42) sale in Oceania region -0.7802*** 0.0975 0.3745*** (-3.97) (0.95) (3.89) Asian author 0.2177*** 0.6414*** 0.5949*** (6.76) (21.36) (17.12) Australian author 0.0328 0.1313 (0.26) (0.81) Arabian author 1.0079*** 1.1983*** (13.90) (22.86) African author 0.8342*** 0.4648*** (10.02) (5.93) sale in African region 2.0574*** 0.0728 (6.68) (0.17) Number of observations 34736 99172 194022 62755 32509 Almost all coefficients in the equation are significant and have expected signs except for the coefficient “author’s signature”, whose negative sign does not comply with theoretical promises. It could be caused by the situation when a painting without any signature is a rare or unusual (atypical) work of an artist which is evaluated at a higher price. We observe high difference between the values of coefficients between sectors. The highest contribution to the explanation of price logarithm is provided by the author’s popularity. If an author falls in the top of 100 best artists according to the Artprice review, the price for his artworks will be almost three times higher than for other paintings compared with the author’s who is not presented in the rating. The same thing can be seen with the top 500. Moreover, the younger the art sector is the higher coefficient values are attributed to these two variables. Also, it should be mentioned that the price increases as a consequence of paintings publications in the literature, exhibitions, sales in the second and fourth quarters in comparison with the first quarter and sales in a capital. Contemporary paintings are sold better among American artists in comparison with Europeans; on the other hand, the price of old American masters artworks is lower. Russian nationality of artists contributes to the higher sale price except for the Contemporary art. According to the negative signs of coefficients of dummy variables for years 2009–2013 the financial crisis of 2008–2009 had impact on the fine art market. In 2009–2013 the log price was 30% lower on average than in 2007. The contemporary art market has been affected by the crisis most of all. Further, we estimated an extended specification of the model in order to obtain a monthly hedonic index. In particular, we added dummy variables for each month of the period 2007–2015 (a basic variable is January of 2007). We consider the results obtained by estimating the model on the full sample and on a restricted one, which contains only oil paintings under $10,000. The variance of the index is too high even if we impose restrictions on paintings under $10,000. As an example, we present the art price index dynamics in comparison with S&P500 index for the largest sector – the modern art (Figure 7); the indexes constructed for other sectors demonstrate the similar behavior. Information 2020, 11, 252 10 of 12 Figure 7. Cumulative dynamics of the art price index for the modern art. It should be noted that we use different sets of explaining variables for different art sectors as robustness check and due to the low variation of some regressors (dummy-variables for the author’s nationality and the region of sales) with respect to the relatively small number of observations in some sectors (old masters, impressionism and contemporary art) we suppose that coefficients variances associated with such variables could be overestimated. 4. Discussion and Conclusions In this paper we focus on oil paintings as the most representative product on the art market, the period of observation is 2005–2015. The data analysis confirms the high level of heterogeneity even upon consideration of oil paintings only. The analysis indicates that the non-uniformity of the market is observed at the countries level and across artists’ nationalities; parameters considered in the study demonstrate a different behavior at the art sectors level; we could also provide evidence of the 2008 crisis impact on the art market. The comparison with S&P500 shows that the US market index is outperformed by the art price index during the periods of negative returns. Consequently, oil paintings can serve as a “safe haven” asset, which is in line with [23], who show that between 2000 and 2015 art assets do not underperform the market. For art price index, estimated on broad sample, the average return is about 1% above inflation, which substantially lower, than for some fast growing fine art markets such as Russia, India and China [24]. For more details on art price returns in different countries see [25]. The negative impact of 2008 crises on oil painting prices is supported by the estimation results. During four years after the crisis the coefficients of the corresponding variables are significant and negative and the contemporary art market incurred the highest losses from the crisis. The study reveals that the sample selection model allows understanding factors that drives art prices, taking into account the bias caused by the presence of unsold paintings. There are at least four factors that have the highest influence on oil paintings prices and, as a result are most important for the investors — the author’s popularity, the novelty of the art sector, mentioning the painting in literature and taking part in exhibitions. Besides, the works of Russian artists get higher sale price for all sectors except Contemporary art, in opposite to Americans, who have negative price increment in Old Masters sector. The other nationalities have significant and positive coefficients. The findings of the paper also include the quadratic relation between the size of the paintings and its price, meaning that there is some “optimal” size of the canvas, for which the highest price is given. Information 2020, 11, 252 11 of 12 To sum up, we investigate factors that influence the pricing of oil paintings on the broad worldwide sample. The results of this analysis could be applied by buyers, as well as sellers of the art assets, while making a decision on the transaction. The study can be improved by addressing the possible issues of endogeneity, adding more characteristics, describing both the artist and the paintings and examining the long-run dynamics and cointegration of fine art market sectors similarly to [26]. It’d be interesting to continue the work by adding a survival model in order to see how the time of sale affects the price. Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.L. and A.Z.; methodology, L.L.; software, A.Z.; validation, L.L. and V.L.; formal analysis, A.Z.; investigation, A.Z., V.L. and L.L.; resources, A.Z.; writing–original draft preparation, A.Z. and L.L.; writing–review and editing, V.L.; visualization, V.L.; supervision, V.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research received no external funding Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Figure A1. Dynamics of prices by sectors. Information 2020, 11, 252 12 of 12 References 1. Ashenfelter, O. How auctions work for wine and art. J. Econ. Perspect. 1989, 3, 23–36. 2. Horstmann, I.; LaCasse, C. Secret reserve prices in a bidding model with a real option. Am. Econ. Rev. 1997, 87, 663–684. 3. Milgrom, P.; Weber, R. A theory of auctions and competitive bidding. Econometrica 1982, 50, 1089–1122. 4. Vincent, D. Bidding off the wall: why reserve prices may be kept secret. 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Le Fur, E. Dynamics of the global fine art market prices. Q. Rev. Econ. Financ. 2019, doi:10.1016/j.qref.2019.05.014. c© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.03.057 http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Introduction Materials and Methods Data and Descriptive Analysis Empirical Model Results Discussion and Conclusions References 
work_zzwbmjk5tbbippkv23dzmgqud4	----	[PDF] Contemplating the GANE model using an extreme case paradigm | Semantic Scholar Skip to search formSkip to main content> Semantic Scholar's Logo Search Sign InCreate Free Account You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI:10.1017/S0140525X15001806 Corpus ID: 17196144Contemplating the GANE model using an extreme case paradigm @article{Geva2016ContemplatingTG, title={Contemplating the GANE model using an extreme case paradigm}, author={R. Geva}, journal={Behavioral and Brain Sciences}, year={2016}, volume={39} } R. Geva Published 2016 Medicine, Psychology Behavioral and Brain Sciences Abstract Early experiences play a crucial role in programming brain function, affecting selective attention, learning, and memory. Infancy literature suggests an extension of the GANE (glutamate amplifies noradrenergic effects) model to conditions with minimal priority-map inputs, yet suggests qualifications by noting that its efficacy is increased when tonic levels of arousal are maintained in an optimal range, in manners that are age and exposure dependent.  View on Cambridge Press gero.usc.edu Save to Library Create Alert Cite Launch Research Feed Share This Paper Topics from this paper Glutamic Acid Experience References SHOWING 1-10 OF 29 REFERENCES SORT BYRelevance Most Influenced Papers Recency The locus coeruleus and noradrenergic modulation of cognition S. Sara Psychology, Medicine Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2009 1,128 PDF View 2 excerpts, references background Save Alert Research Feed Is speech learning 'gated' by the social brain? P. Kuhl Psychology, Medicine Developmental science 2007 474 PDF View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Damage to ceruleo-cortical noradrenergic projections impairs locally cued but enhances spatially cued water maze acquisition N. Selden, B. J. Cole, B. Everitt, T. Robbins Psychology, Medicine Behavioural Brain Research 1990 83 Save Alert Research Feed Sensitivity of Locus Ceruleus Neurons to Reward Value for Goal-Directed Actions S. Bouret, B. Richmond Psychology, Medicine The Journal of Neuroscience 2015 92 PDF View 2 excerpts, references background Save Alert Research Feed A neurobiological model for the effects of early brainstem functioning on the development of behavior and emotion regulation in infants: implications for prenatal and perinatal risk. R. Geva, R. Feldman Psychology, Medicine Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines 2008 94 PDF View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Effects of a Neonatal Experience Involving Reward Through Maternal Contact on the Noradrenergic System of the Rat Prefrontal Cortex. Theodora Kalpachidou, A. Raftogianni, Pelagia Melissa, A. Kollia, F. Stylianopoulou, A. Stamatakis Psychology, Medicine Cerebral cortex 2016 9 PDF View 2 excerpts, references background Save Alert Research Feed Locus coeruleus activity in monkey: Phasic and tonic changes are associated with altered vigilance J. Rajkowski, P. Kubiak, G. Aston-Jones Psychology, Medicine Brain Research Bulletin 1994 275 Save Alert Research Feed Locus coeruleus neurons in the neonatal rat: electrical activity and responses to sensory stimulation. F. Kimura, S. Nakamura Biology, Medicine Brain research 1985 48 View 1 excerpt, references results Save Alert Research Feed Maternal separation increases GABAA receptor-mediated modulation of norepinephrine release in the hippocampus of a rat model of ADHD, the spontaneously hypertensive rat Toni-Lee Sterley, F. Howells, V. Russell Chemistry, Medicine Brain Research 2013 26 View 1 excerpt, references background Save Alert Research Feed Feeding-based arousal effects on visual recognition memory in early infancy. R. Geva, J. Gardner, B. Karmel Medicine Developmental psychology 1999 19 Highly Influential View 4 excerpts, references background Save Alert Research Feed ... 1 2 3 ... Related Papers Abstract Topics 29 References Related Papers Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up About Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. Learn More → Resources DatasetsSupp.aiAPIOpen Corpus Organization About UsResearchPublishing PartnersData Partners   FAQContact Proudly built by AI2 with the help of our Collaborators Terms of Service•Privacy Policy The Allen Institute for AI By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our Privacy Policy, Terms of Service, and Dataset License ACCEPT & CONTINUE