History of religion - Wikipedia History of religion From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Historical development of religion For the journal of that name, see History of Religions (journal). For the academic study of religion in general, see Religious studies. For the history of religions school, see History of religions school. This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (March 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Part of a series on History of religions Founding figures Jesus (Christianity) Muhammad (Islam) Abraham (Judaism) Brahma (Hinduism) Siddhartha Gautama (Buddhism) Study of religion Anthropology Comparative religion Neurotheology God gene Origins Psychology Timeline Prehistoric Ancient Near East Ancient Egypt Mesopotamia Semitic Indo-European Vedic Hinduism Greco-Roman Celtic Germanic Axial Age Vedanta Śramaṇa Dharma Tao Hellenism Monism Dualism Monotheism Middle Ages Christianization Dharmaization (Hindu-Buddhist Indianization) Islamization Age of Discovery Renaissance Reformation Modern day Age of Reason New religious movements Great Awakening Fundamentalism New Age Postmodernism Religions Abrahamic Judaism Christianity Islam Bahá'í Faith Indic Hinduism Buddhism Jainism Sikhism Far Eastern Taoism Confucianism Shinto Neopagan Wicca v t e The history of religion refers to the written record of human religious feelings, thoughts, and ideas. This period of religious history begins with the invention of writing about 5,220 years ago (3200 BC).[1] The prehistory of religion involves the study of religious beliefs that existed prior to the advent of written records. One can also study comparative religious chronology through a timeline of religion. Writing played a major role in standardizing religious texts regardless of time or location, and making easier the memorization of prayers and divine rules. A small part of the Bible involves the collation of oral texts handed down over the centuries.[2] The concept of "religion" was formed in the 16th and 17th centuries,[3][4] despite the fact that ancient sacred texts like the Bible, the Quran, and others did not have a word or even a concept of religion in the original languages and neither did the people or the cultures in which these sacred texts were written.[5][6] The word religion as used in the 21st century does not have an obvious pre-colonial translation into non-European languages. The anthropologist Daniel Dubuisson writes that "what the West and the history of religions in its wake have objectified under the name 'religion' is ... something quite unique, which could be appropriate only to itself and its own history".[7] The history of other cultures' interaction with the "religious" category is therefore their interaction with an idea that first developed in Europe under the influence of Christianity.[8][need quotation to verify] Contents 1 History of study 2 Overview 3 Origin 4 Axial age 5 Middle Ages 6 Modern Ages 7 See also 7.1 Shamanism and ancestor worship 7.2 Panentheism 7.3 Polytheism 7.4 Monotheism 7.5 Monism 7.6 Dualism 7.7 New religious movements 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links History of study[edit] The school of religious history called the Religionsgeschichtliche Schule, a late 19th-century German school of thought, originated the systematic study of religion as a socio-cultural phenomenon. It depicted religion as evolving with human culture, from primitive polytheism to ethical monotheism. The Religionsgeschichtliche Schule emerged at a time when scholarly study of the Bible and of church history flourished in Germany and elsewhere (see higher criticism, also called the historical-critical method). The study of religion is important: religion and similar concepts have often shaped civilizations' law and moral codes, social structure, art and music. Overview[edit] The 19th century saw a dramatic increase in knowledge about a wide variety of cultures and religions, and also the establishment of economic and social histories of progress. The "history of religions" school sought to account for this religious diversity by connecting it with the social and economic situation of a particular group. Typically, religions were divided into stages of progression from simple to complex societies, especially from polytheistic to monotheistic and from extempore to organized. One can also classify religions as circumcising and non-circumcising, proselytizing (attempting to convert people of other religion) and non-proselytizing. Many religions share common beliefs. Origin[edit] See also: Evolutionary origin of religions and Timeline of religion The earliest archeological evidence of religious ideas dates back several hundred thousand years to the Middle and Lower Paleolithic periods. Archaeologists take apparent intentional burials of early Homo sapiens from as early as 300,000 years ago as evidence of religious ideas. Other evidence of religious ideas includes symbolic artifacts from Middle Stone Age sites in Africa. However, the interpretation of early paleolithic artifacts, with regard to how they relate to religious ideas, remains controversial. Archeological evidence from more recent periods is less controversial. Scientists[which?] generally interpret a number of artifacts[which?] from the Upper Paleolithic (50,000-13,000 BCE) as representing religious ideas. Examples of Upper Paleolithic remains associated with religious beliefs include the lion man, the Venus figurines, cave paintings from Chauvet Cave and the elaborate ritual burial from Sungir. In the 19th century researchers proposed various theories regarding the origin of religion, challenging earlier claims of a Christianity-like urreligion. Early theorists Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917) and Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) emphasised the concept of animism, while archaeologist John Lubbock (1834-1913) used the term "fetishism". Meanwhile, religious scholar Max Müller (1823-1900) theorized that religion began in hedonism and folklorist Wilhelm Mannhardt (1831-1880) suggested that religion began in "naturalism" – by which he meant mythological explanation of natural events.[9][page needed] All of these theories have since been widely criticized; there is no broad consensus regarding the origin of religion. Pre-pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) Göbekli Tepe, the oldest religious site yet discovered anywhere[10] includes circles of erected massive T-shaped stone pillars, the world's oldest known megaliths[11] decorated with abstract, enigmatic pictograms and carved-animal reliefs. The site, near the home place of original wild wheat, was built before the so-called Neolithic Revolution, i.e., the beginning of agriculture and animal husbandry around 9000 BCE. But the construction of Göbekli Tepe implies organization of an advanced order not hitherto associated with Paleolithic, PPNA, or PPNB societies. The site, abandoned around the time the first agricultural societies started, is still being excavated and analyzed, and thus might shed light on the significance it had had for the religions of older, foraging communities, as well as for the general history of religions. The Pyramid Texts from ancient Egypt, the oldest known religious texts in the world, date to between 2400-2300 BCE.[12][13] The earliest records of Indian religion are the Vedas, composed ca. 1500-1200 Hinduism during the Vedic Period. Surviving early copies of religious texts include: The Upanishads, some of which date to the mid-first millennium BCE. The Dead Sea Scrolls, representing fragmentary texts of the Hebrew Tanakh;[14] these scrolls were copied approximately 2000 years ago. Complete Hebrew texts, also of the Tanakh, but translated into the Greek language (Septuagint 300-200 BC), were in wide use by the early 1st century CE. The Zoroastrian Avesta, from a Sassanian-era master copy. Axial age[edit] See also: Axial Age Historians have labelled the period from 900 to 200 BCE as the "axial age", a term coined by German-Swiss philosopher Karl Jaspers (1883-1969). According to Jaspers, in this era of history "the spiritual foundations of humanity were laid simultaneously and independently... And these are the foundations upon which humanity still subsists today." Intellectual historian Peter Watson has summarized this period as the foundation time of many of humanity's most influential philosophical traditions, including monotheism in Persia and Canaan, Platonism in Greece, Buddhism and Jainism in India, and Confucianism and Taoism in China. These ideas would become institutionalized in time – note for example Ashoka's role in the spread of Buddhism, or the role of platonic philosophy in Christianity at its foundation. The historical roots of Jainism in India date back to the 9th-century BCE with the rise of Parshvanatha and his non-violent philosophy.[15][16][need quotation to verify] Middle Ages[edit] Medieval world religions World religions of the present day established themselves throughout Eurasia during the Middle Ages by: Christianization of the Western world Buddhist missions to East Asia the decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent the spread of Islam throughout the Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa and parts of Europe and India During the Middle Ages, Muslims came into conflict with Zoroastrians during the Islamic conquest of Persia (633-654); Christians fought against Muslims during the Byzantine-Arab Wars (7th to 11th centuries), the Crusades (1095 onward), the Reconquista (718-1492), the Ottoman wars in Europe (13th century onwards) and the Inquisition; Shamanism was in conflict with Buddhists, Taoists, Muslims and Christians during the Mongol invasions (1206-1337); and Muslims clashed with Hindus and Sikhs during the Muslim conquest of the Indian subcontinent (8th to 16th centuries). Many medieval religious movements emphasized mysticism, such as the Cathars and related movements in the West, the Jews in Spain (see Zohar), the Bhakti movement in India and Sufism in Islam. Monotheism reached definite forms in Christian Christology and in Islamic Tawhid. Hindu monotheist notions of Brahman likewise reached their classical form with the teaching of Adi Shankara (788-820). Modern Ages[edit] European colonisation during the 15th to 19th centuries resulted in the spread of Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa, and to the Americas, Australia and the Philippines. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century played a major role in the rapid spread of the Protestant Reformation under leaders such as Martin Luther (1483-1546) and John Calvin (1509-1564). Wars of religion broke out, culminating in the Thirty Years War which ravaged central Europe between 1618 and 1648. The 18th century saw the beginning of secularisation in Europe, gaining momentum after the French Revolution of 1789 and following. By the late 20th century religion had declined in most of Europe.[17] By 2001 people began to use the internet to discover or adhere to their religious beliefs. In January 2000 the website beliefnet was established, and the following year, every month it had over 1.7 million visitors.[18] See also[edit] Historiography of religion Religion and politics Christianity and politics Women as theological figures List of founders of religious traditions List of religious movements that began in the United States Shamanism and ancestor worship[edit] Prehistoric religion Shamanism Animism Ancestor worship Tribal religion Panentheism[edit] Sikhism Neoplatonism Polytheism[edit] See also: Polytheism, Pantheon (gods), and Paganism Ancient Near Eastern religion, Egyptian mythology Ancient Greek religion, Ancient Roman religion Germanic paganism, Finnish Paganism, Norse paganism Maya religion, Inca religion, Aztec religion Neopaganism, Polytheistic reconstructionism Monotheism[edit] See also Monotheism, Abrahamic religions. Aten History of Judaism Neoplatonism History of Christianity History of Roman Catholicism History of Eastern Orthodox Christianity History of Protestantism History of Islam Zoroastrianism Monism[edit] Main article: Monism History of Buddhism History of Jainism History of Hinduism Dualism[edit] Gnosticism New religious movements[edit] Main article: New religious movements History of Ayyavazhi Rastafari movement History of Wicca Timeline of Scientology Mormonism Baháʼí Faith Bábism History of Spiritism Thelema Ahmadiyya References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ "The Origins of Writing | Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art". Metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ Humayun Ansari (2004). The Infidel Within: Muslims in Britain Since 1800. C. Hurst & Co. pp. 399–400. ISBN 978-1-85065-685-2. ^ Nongbri, Brent (2013). Before Religion: A History of a Modern Concept. Yale University Press. p. 152. ISBN 978-0300154160. Although the Greeks, Romans, Mesopotamians, and many other peoples have long histories, the stories of their respective religions are of recent pedigree. The formation of ancient religions as objects of study coincided with the formation of religion itself as a concept of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. ^ Harrison, Peter (1990). 'Religion' and the Religions in the English Enlightenment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0521892933. That there exist in the world such entities as 'the religions' is an uncontroversial claim...However, it was not always so. The concepts 'religion' and 'the religions', as we presently understand them, emerged quite late in Western thought, during the Enlightenment. Between them, these two notions provided a new framework for classifying particular aspects of human life. ^ Nongbri, Brent (2013). "2. Lost in Translation: Inserting "Religion" into Ancient Texts". Before Religion: A History of a Modern Concept. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300154160. ^ Morreall, John; Sonn, Tamara (2013). 50 Great Myths about Religions. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 13. ISBN 9780470673508. Many languages do not even have a word equivalent to our word 'religion'; nor is such a word found in either the Bible or the Qur'an. ^ Daniel Dubuisson. The Western Construction of Religion. 1998. William Sayers (trans.) Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003. p. 90. ^ Timothy Fitzgerald. Discourse on Civility and Barbarity. ISBN 9780190293642. Oxford University Press, 2007. pp.45-46. ^ "Religion". Encyclopedia Universal Ilustrada Europeo-Americana, 70 vols. Madrid. 1907-1930. ^ "The World's First Temple". Archaeology magazine. Nov–Dec 2008. p. 23. ^ Sagona, Claudia (25 August 2015). The Archaeology of Malta. Cambridge University Press. p. 47. ISBN 9781107006690. Retrieved 25 November 2016. ^ Budge, Wallis (January 1997). An Introduction to Ancient Egyptian Literature. p. 9. ISBN 0-486-29502-8. ^ Allen, James (2005). The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts. ISBN 1-58983-182-9. ^ Abegg, Martin G.; Flint, Peter; Ulrich, Eugene (1999). The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible: The Oldest Known Bible Translated for the First Time into English. Harper Collins (published 2012). p. xvii. ISBN 9780062031129. Retrieved 18 November 2019. The Dead Sea Scrolls include more than 225 'biblical' manuscripts [...]. Unfortunately, with a few exceptions [...] almost all these manuscipts are in fragmentary form. Parts of every book of the Jewish and Protestant Old Testament are included, with the exception of Esther and Nehemiah. ^ Dundas 2002, p. 30. ^ Zimmer 1953, p. 182-183. ^ Norris, Pippa (2011). Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide. Cambridge University Press. ^ Zabriskie, Phil (2001-06-04). "I Once Was Lost, but Now I'm Wired". Time Asia. Vol. 157 no. 22. Archived from the original on 2001-06-08. Retrieved 2020-09-02. Sources[edit] Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-26605-X Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952], Campbell, Joseph (ed.), Philosophies Of India, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6 Further reading[edit] Armstrong, Karen. A History of God: The 4,000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity and Islam (1994) excerpt and text search Armstrong, Karen. Islam: A Short History (2002) excerpt and text search Bowker, John Westerdale, ed. The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (2007) excerpt and text search 1126pp Carus, Paul. The history of the devil and the idea of evil: from the earliest times to the present day (1899) full text Eliade, Mircea, and Joan P. Culianu. The HarperCollins Concise Guide to World Religion: The A-to-Z Encyclopedia of All the Major Religious Traditions (1999) covers 33 principal religions, including Buddhism, Christianity, Jainism, Judaism, Islam, Shinto, Shamanism, Taoism, South American religions, Baltic and Slavic religions, Confucianism, and the religions of Africa and Oceania. Eliade, Mircea ed. Encyclopedia of Religion (16 vol. 1986; 2nd ed 15 vol. 2005; online at Gale Virtual Reference Library). 3300 articles in 15,000 pages by 2000 experts. Ellwood, Robert S. and Gregory D. Alles. The Encyclopedia of World Religions (2007) 528pp; for middle schools Gilley, Sheridan; Shiels, W. J. History of Religion in Britain: Practice and Belief from Pre-Roman Times to the Present (1994) 590pp James, Paul; Mandaville, Peter (2010). Globalization and Culture, Vol. 2: Globalizing Religions. London: Sage Publications. Marshall, Peter. "(Re)defining the English Reformation," Journal of British Studies, July 2009, Vol. 48#3 pp 564–586 Schultz, Kevin M.; Harvey, Paul. "Everywhere and Nowhere: Recent Trends in American Religious History and Historiography," Journal of the American Academy of Religion, March 2010, Vol. 78#1 pp 129–162 Wilson, John F. Religion and the American Nation: Historiography and History (2003) 119pp External links[edit] Historyofreligions.com The history of religious and philosophical ideas, in Dictionary of the History of Ideas History of Religion as flash animation The history and origins of world religions depicted as a navigable tree v t e History of religions Timeline of religion List of religions and spiritual traditions Major groups Abrahamic Baha'i Christianity Islam Judaism Rastafarianism Amerindian Aztec Mayan Inca East Asian Confucianism Taoism Shinto Indian Buddhism Hinduism Jainism Sikhism Iranian Mithraism Zoroastrianism Manichaeanism Modern Neopaganism Wicca New Thought Scientology Spiritism Historical Prehistoric Paleolithic Near East Egyptian Semitic Mesopotamian Indo-European Celtic Germanic Illyro-thracian Greek Hellenism Gnosticism Neoplatonism Roman Slavic Vedic Hinduism Related topics Evolution of morality Evolutionary origin of religions Evolutionary psychology of religion History of atheism History of theology (Greco-Abrahamic) Humanism Irreligion Roman School Secularism v t e Religion Major religious groups and denominations1 Abrahamic Judaism Orthodox Haredi Hasidic Modern Conservative Reform Karaite Samaritanism Haymanot Reconstructionist Renewal Humanistic list Christianity Catholicism Latin Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Nestorianism Assyrian Ancient Proto-Protestantism Waldensians Czech Brethren/Moravians Protestantism Lutheranism Calvinism Reformed Presbyterianism Congregationalism Anabaptism Amish Brethren Hutterites Mennonites Schwenkfelders Anglicanism Methodism Holiness Baptists Quakerism Plymouth Brethren Restorationism Irvingism Adventism Pentecostalism/Charismatic Evangelicalism Nondenominational Independent Catholicism Nontrinitarianism Unitarianism Swedenborgianism Mormonism Christadelphians Bible Students/Jehovah's Witnesses Anglo-Israelism Oneness Pentecostalism Spiritual Tolstoyan Judaizers Esoteric list Islam Sunni Ashʿari Maturidi Traditionalist theology Salafism Wahhabism Modernist Salafism Shia Twelver Zaidiyyah Isma'ilism Alawis Sufism Khawarij Ibadism Alevism Ahmadi Mahdavia Quranism Non-denominational Others Bábism Azali Baháʼí Druze Ali-Illahism Mandaeism Rastafarianism Dharmic Hinduism Vaishnavism Sri Vaishnavism Brahma Sampradaya Nimbarka Sampradaya Pushtimarg Mahanubhava Ramanandi Varkari Shaivism Siddhantism Kashmir Kapalika Kaumaram Lingayatism Nath Balinese Shaktism Smartism Śrauta Sant Mat Neo-Hinduism Buddhism Theravada Mahayana Chan/Zen/Thiền Amidism Nichiren Vajrayana Tibetan Neo-Buddhism Others Ayyavazhi Jainism Digambara Śvētāmbara Ravidassia Sikhism Khalsa Sects Mazdans Zoroastrianism Yazidism Yarsanism Indo-European Armenian Baltic Celtic Druidry Germanic Hellenism Italo-Roman Romanian Slavic Ossetian Kalash Uralic Estonian Finnish Hungarian Mari Mordvin Sámi Udmurt Altaic Turko-Mongolic Tengrism Burkhanism Vattisen Yaly Tungusic Manchu Evenki Chinese Confucianism Taoism Folk Taoism Yao Taoism Nuo Salvationist Xiantiandao Yiguandao Luoism Tibeto-Burmese Bon Burmese Benzhuism Bimoism Bathouism Bongthingism Donyi-Polo Heraka Kiratism Qiang Sanamahism Korean Korean shamanism Cheondoism Jeungsanism Japanese Shinto Shugendō Tenrikyo Ryukyuan Tai and Miao Ahom Hmongism Mo Satsana Phi Austroasiatic Vietnamese Caodaism Đạo Mẫu Hoahaoism Sarnaism Austronesian Batak Parmalim Dayak Kaharingan Momolianism Javanese Kejawèn Karo Pemena Malaysian Philippine Dayawism Tagalog Polynesian Hawaiian Māori Sumbese Marapu Sundanese Wiwitan African Traditional Akan Akamba Baluba Bantu Kongo Zulu Berber Guanche church Bushongo Dinka Dogon Efik Fon and Ewe Ik Lotuko Lozi Lugbara Maasai Mbuti Odinani San Serer Tumbuka Urhobo Waaqeffanna Yoruba Ifá Diasporic Candomblé Bantu Jejé Ketu Comfa Convince Espiritismo Kumina Obeah Palo Quimbanda Santería Tambor de Mina Trinidad Orisha Umbanda Vodou Voodoo Winti Native American Abenaki Anishinaabe Blackfoot Californian Miwok Ohlone Pomo Cherokee Chilote Choctaw Creek Guarani Haida Ho-Chunk Hopi Iroquois Seneca Wyandot Longhouse Religion Jivaroan Kwakwakaʼwakw Lakota Lenape Mapuche Mesoamerican Aztec Maya Purépecha Midewiwin Muisca Native American Church Navajo Nuu-chah-nulth Pawnee Tsimshian Ute Zuni Other ethnic Aboriginal Australian Caucasian Abkhaz Circassian Inuit Papuan Siberian Recent Adi Dharm/Brahmoism Anthroposophy Discordianism Eckankar Falun Gong Fourth Way Goddess Japanese Jediism Modekngei Neopaganism Reconstructionism Wicca list Neoshamanism New Acropolis New Age New Thought Rajneesh Satanism Spiritualism Subud Tensegrity Thelema Theosophy Neo-Theosophy Agni Yoga Transcendental Meditation UFO religion Raëlism Scientology Unitarian Universalism White Brotherhood Note: 1 The main source: Eliade, Mircea, ed. (1987). The Encyclopedia of Religion. 1–16. New York: MacMillan. Historical religions Prehistoric Paleolithic Harappan Dravidian Egyptian Atenism Mesopotamian Sumerian Babylonian Semitic Canaanite Yahwism Arabian Somali Hurrian Urartu Etruscan Basque Georgian Vainakh Proto-Indo-European Proto-Indo-Iranian Vedic Mazdaism Hittite Armenian Paleo-Balkan Albanian Illyrian Thracian Dacian Greek Mysteries Orphism Gnosticism Hermeticism Greco-Buddhism Roman Imperial cult Gallo-Roman Mithraism Manichaeism Mazdakism Scythian Germanic Anglo-Saxon Continental Frankish Norse Celtic Baltic Slavic Finnish Hungarian Ainu Melanesian Micronesian Nauruan Cook Islands Rapa Nui Tongan Inca Olmec Zapotec Fuegian Selk'nam Guanche Jamaican Maroon Topics Aspects Apostasy / Disaffiliation Behaviour Beliefs Clergy Conversion Deities Entheogens Ethnic religion Denomination Faith Fire Folk religion God Meditation Monasticism monk nun Mysticism Mythology Nature Ordination Orthodoxy Orthopraxy Prayer Prophecy Religious experience Ritual liturgy sacrifice Spirituality Supernatural Symbols Truth Water Worship Theism Animism Deism Dualism Henotheism Monotheism Nontheism Panentheism Pantheism Polytheism Transtheism Religious studies Anthropology Cognitive science Comparative Development Evolutionary origin Evolutionary psychology History Philosophy Neurotheology Psychology Sociology Theology Theories Women Religion and society Agriculture Business Clergy monasticism ordination Conversion evangelism missionary proselytism Disability Education Fanaticism Freedom pluralism syncretism toleration universalism Fundamentalism Growth Happiness Homosexuality Minorities National church National religiosity levels Religiocentrism Populations Schism Science State Theocracy Vegetarianism Video games Violence persecution terrorism war Wealth Secularism and irreligion Antireligion Deism Agnosticism Atheism Criticism LaVeyan Satanism Deconstruction Humanistic Judaism Irreligion by country Objectivism Secular humanism Secular theology Secularization Separation of church and state Unaffiliated Overviews and lists Index Outline Timeline Abrahamic prophets Deification Deities Founders Mass gatherings New religious movements Organizations Religions and spiritual traditions Scholars Category Portal v t e Philosophy of religion Concepts in religion Afterlife Euthyphro dilemma Faith Intelligent design Miracle Problem of evil Religious belief Soul Spirit Theodicy Theological veto Conceptions of God Aristotelian view Brahman Demiurge Divine simplicity Egoism Holy Spirit Misotheism Pandeism Personal god Process theology Supreme Being Unmoved mover God in Abrahamic religions Buddhism Christianity Hinduism Islam Jainism Judaism Mormonism Sikhism Baháʼí Faith Wicca Existence of God For Beauty Christological Consciousness Cosmological Kalam Contingency Degree Desire Experience Fine-tuning of the universe Love Miracles Morality Necessary existent Ontological Pascal's wager Proper basis Reason Teleological Natural law Watchmaker analogy Transcendental Against 747 gambit Atheist's Wager Evil Free will Hell Inconsistent revelations Nonbelief Noncognitivism Occam's razor Omnipotence Poor design Russell's teapot Theology Acosmism Agnosticism Animism Antireligion Atheism Creationism Dharmism Deism Demonology Divine command theory Dualism Esotericism Exclusivism Existentialism Christian Agnostic Atheistic Feminist theology Thealogy Womanist theology Fideism Fundamentalism Gnosticism Henotheism Humanism Religious Secular Christian Inclusivism Theories about religions Monism Monotheism Mysticism Naturalism Metaphysical Religious Humanistic New Age Nondualism Nontheism Pandeism Panentheism Pantheism Perennialism Polytheism Possibilianism Process theology Religious skepticism Spiritualism Shamanism Taoic Theism Transcendentalism more... Religious language Eschatological verification Language game Logical positivism Apophatic theology Verificationism Problem of evil Augustinian theodicy Best of all possible worlds Euthyphro dilemma Inconsistent triad Irenaean theodicy Natural evil Theodicy Philosophers of religion (by date active) Ancient and medieval Anselm of Canterbury Augustine of Hippo Avicenna Averroes Boethius Erasmus Gaunilo of Marmoutiers Pico della Mirandola Heraclitus King James VI and I Marcion of Sinope Thomas Aquinas Maimonides Early modern Augustin Calmet René Descartes Blaise Pascal Baruch Spinoza Nicolas Malebranche Gottfried W Leibniz William Wollaston Thomas Chubb David Hume Baron d'Holbach Immanuel Kant Johann G Herder 1800 1850 Friedrich Schleiermacher Karl C F Krause Georg W F Hegel William Whewell Ludwig Feuerbach Søren Kierkegaard Karl Marx Albrecht Ritschl Afrikan Spir 1880 1900 Ernst Haeckel W K Clifford Friedrich Nietzsche Harald Høffding William James Vladimir Solovyov Ernst Troeltsch Rudolf Otto Lev Shestov Sergei Bulgakov Pavel Florensky Ernst Cassirer Joseph Maréchal 1920 postwar George Santayana Bertrand Russell Martin Buber René Guénon Paul Tillich Karl Barth Emil Brunner Rudolf Bultmann Gabriel Marcel Reinhold Niebuhr Charles Hartshorne Mircea Eliade Frithjof Schuon J L Mackie Walter Kaufmann Martin Lings Peter Geach George I Mavrodes William Alston Antony Flew 1970 1990 2010 William L Rowe Dewi Z Phillips Alvin Plantinga Anthony Kenny Nicholas Wolterstorff Richard Swinburne Robert Merrihew Adams Ravi Zacharias Peter van Inwagen Daniel Dennett Loyal Rue Jean-Luc Marion William Lane Craig Ali Akbar Rashad Alexander Pruss Related topics Criticism of religion Desacralization of knowledge Ethics in religion Exegesis History of religion Religion Religious language Religious philosophy Relationship between religion and science Faith and rationality more... Portal Category Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_religion&oldid=996429918" Categories: History of religion Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from March 2018 All articles lacking in-text citations Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from July 2017 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from July 2017 Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from March 2020 Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from July 2017 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu বাংলা Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский کوردی Српски / srpski Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 December 2020, at 15:39 (UTC). 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