FROM MEDIAEVAL SWORD TO RENAISSANCE RAPIER by Dr. A d a Bruhn Holffmeyer THE sword types of the Middle Ages proper are not numerous. They are assembled chiefly a b u t two main types: the sword with the brazil-nutshapecl plommel and the swolrd with the disoor wheel pommel. I n both main groups there are numerous variations olf the pommel forms, with a certain amount of typological selqueme, inter- mediate form~s and special forms. T o some extent the shape of the pommel is related to the hand-guard, which may be horizontal or curved, thick and heavy, round, flat, much curved or sligthly curved. The shape of the pommel, the length of the tang and the sh~.pe and length of the guard or quillons are the most important aids to the period and provenance determination of the sword. In this respect the blade is secondary in implortance, because in the majolrity of cases blades were mass-produced in great blade centres, whereas the hilts mostly are individual work, carried out in accordance with the owner's personal idelas and pecuniary circumstances, and also accor- ding to the intended purpoise of the weapon: ceremonial, coronation, magistracy, public authorities or war. No dmb& further and detailed examinations of the various types and shapes of bla~des, their m a t e rial and the manufacture of the blades will be most useful a s an important aid i n regard to the determination of provenance, use and chronology. The sword with the brazil-nut pommel and the horizontal quiIlons dates chiefly to the pieriod between 950-1250, more especially in the 12th century. It is the sword of the Bayeux tapestry, carried both by AnglohS'axons and by Normansl (fig. 1). (Yet some few variations are seen in the tapestry, e. g. the State Sword of king Harold). But the forerunners occur in such illuminations as for instance T b Gos. pels of Otto 111, froim about 9183-991 (Munich Staatsbibl. Cod. Lat. 4453). The brazil-nut sword appelaw sometimes with curved quillons, but these are not common. The brazil-nut pommel sword is a direct continuation of the common Germanic-Viking Age types. I n actual faot it represents the close of an epoch, of the spatha which conti- nued from the Merovingian sword through the swords of t h e Csro- lingian and Viking periods with the many pommel variatiolns, by J a n Petersen divided into groups named after t h e letters of the alb phabet. The brazil-nut sword occurs especially in Central and North Europe, but it is also t o be found in the n o ~ t h m part of West FROM MEDIAEVAL SWORD TO RENAISSANCE RAPIER by Dr. Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer THE sword types of the Middle Ages proper are not numerous. They are assembled chiefly about two main types: the sword with the brazil-nut.shaped pommel and the sword with the disC'-or wheel pommel. In both main groups there are numerous variations of the pommel forms, with a certain amount of typological se1quence, inter- mediate forms and sp€lcial forms. To some extent the shape of the pommel is related to the hand.guard, wh1ch may be horizontal' or curved, thick and heavy, round, flat, much curved or sligthly curved. The shape of the pommel, the length of the tang and the shape and length of the guard or quillons are the most important aids to the period and provenance determination of the sword. In this respect the blade is secondary in importance, because in the ma1jority of cases blades were mass'produced in great blade centres, whereas the hilts mostly are individual work, carried out in accordance with the owner's personal idelas and pecuniary circumstances, and RIso accor. ding to the intended purpose of the weapon: ceremonial, coronation, magistracy, public authorities or war. No doubt further and detailed examinations of the various types ,and shapes of blades, their mate- rialand the manufacture of the blades wm be most useful as an important aid in regard to the determination of provenance, use and chronology. The sword with the braz,u-nut pommel and the horizontalquHlons dates chiefly to the period between 9'50-1250, more especially in the l'2th ,century. It 1s the sword of the Bayeux tapestry, carried both by Anglo-Saxons and by Normans (fig. 1). (Yet some few variations are seen in the tapestry, e, g. the State Sword of king Harold). But the forerunners occur in such illuminations as for instance The Gos· pels of Otto II!, from about 983-9;g1 (Munich Staatsbibl. God. Lat.4453). The brazil-nut sword appe'8l's sometimes with curved quillons, but these are not common. The brazil·nut pommel sword is a direct continuation of the common Germanic-Viking Age types.. In actual fa,ct it represents the close of an epoch, of the srpatha which conti- nued from the Merovingian sword through the swords of the Caro- lingian and Viking periods with the many pommel variations, by Jan Petersen divided into groups named after the letters of the al. phabet. The brazil-nut sword occurs especially in Central and North Europe, but it is also to be found in the northern part of West 5 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es F i g . 1. Transitional s W o r d , f r o m Meuse, late 11th century. In blade name o f Ulifberth. ( C o l l . E . A . Christensen, Copen- hagen, E 131). Europe, for instance in northern France, Holland, Belgium and En- gland, a s well as in the Baltic countries, eastwards as far as the Volga regions and possibly still more to the East. On the other hand it occurs less frequently in South Europe and in the South of France, regions in which the disc-and wheel pommels are sovereign. Fig. 1. Transitional s IV 0 r d, from Meuse, late 11th century. In blade /lame of Ulfberth. (Coli. E. A. Chr;stensen, Copen- hal?en. E 131). Europe, for instance in northern France, Holland, Belgium and En· gland, as well as in the Baltic countries, eastwards as far as the Volga regions and possibly still more to the East. On the other h3nd it occurs less frequently in South Europe and in the South of France, regions in which the disc-and wheel pommels are sovereign. 6 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es The brazil-nut polmmel varies with t h e periods, and to some extent also with locality. I n early times it was often almost a half disc; soon afterwards it acquired more or less olive, lenticular, h a t or saddle shapes, thick below and thin above, rounded or with a n almost pointed top. ( A detailed examination and division has been undertaken by the English archaeologist R. Ewart Oakeshott, in his book: T h e Archaeology of Weapons, 1960). I n most oases t h e tang is very short, somewhat longer on the later swords, especially those with a tall, pointed pommel. The quillons are generally horizontal: thin a n d slender in late Viking types, thick and foursided on t h e early swords, later on more slender, often with a cross section that is rounded or almost round. In North Italy, Switzerland a n d Austria we some. times find broad quillons, horizontal along the top, curved under- neath, perhaps the result of influence of South European forms (fig. 2-3). The curved quillon (including t h a t on some Vikibg F i g . 2. So-called Set. Mauritius sword, about 1200-1250. (Armerin Reale, Tbrino, G 25). types) is p~resumably due to Oriental influence. T h e blades are of the heavy cutting type1 with a molre or less rounded point. On the earlier ones the grooves extend almost to; the point, whereas later they reach only three fourths 09 the length or less. The brazil·nut pommel varies with the periods, and to some extent also with locality. In early times it was often almost a ha.lf disc; soon afterwards it acquired more or less olive, lenticular, hat or saddle shapes, thick below and thin above, rounded or with an almost pointed top. (A detailed examination and division has been undertaken by the English archaeologist R. Ewart Oa.keshott, in his book: The Archaeology of Weapons, 1960). In most cases the tang is very short, somewhat longer on the later swords, espec;ally those with a tall, pointed pommel. The quillons are generally horizontal: thin and slender in late Viking types, thick and four-sided on the early swords, later on more slender, often with a cross section that is rounded or almost round. In North Italy, Switzerland and Austria we some· times find broad quillons, horizontal along the top, curved under- neath, perhaps the result of influence of South European forms (fig. 2-3). The curved quillon (including that on some Vikihg Fig. 2. So-called Sct. Mauritius sword, about 1200-1250. (Armeria Rea/e, Thrino, G 25). types) is presumably due to Oriental influence. The blil.des are of the heavy cutting type with a more or less rounded point. On the earlier ones the g-rooves extend almostto' the point, whereas later they reach only three fourths of the length or less. 7 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es The Viking pattern-welded damast has disappeared; it is now en- countered olnly very oiocasionadly (e. g. a fragment in the National Museum in Copenhagen). Instead the blade-smiths have adopted another and improved technique. (Actually this new methcd makes its appearance as earliy as the 9th century.) His minute resea~ches and analyses have enabled the Italian scientist Carlo Panseri to ex- plain the technique, starting inter alia with a 12th century sword of the brazil-nut type found in 19148 at Adige, near Legnago castle, the important defence f~rtifica~tions against the barbarian hordes olf mi- gration times and against the enemies of later days. As regards the blades, continued metallurgical research will presumabiy make it possi- ble to make fairly valid distinctions between the bladecentres olf South and Central Europe. Inscriptions and pictorial scenes on bla- des are not uncommon. On solme of the early swords we find the master's signature ((Zngelri me fecit)), or simply the name Zngelri, spelt i n a variety of ways. Swords signed Ingelri can be traced across large sections of Europe, fosr instance in northern FraWx, Bel- gium, Englcmd, Germany, Norway and Sweden right over to the Volga. Only one specimen is known to have been found in Denhark, in South Schleswig and now in private Dlanish ownership (Coll. H. Briins Hansen, Hillerod). The lettering is the same as on the Ulfberth blades, goold and painstakingly executed on the earliest, often slipshold and clumsy on the later ones. Other inscriptions a'ppsar combined with this one, especially of a religious character (fig. 3) such as HOMO JXI or I;N NOlMJNE DOIMINI, whilch are familiar from swords with a wheel p~o~mmel. I t is presumable that these really are swords of the early days of the Crusades (Homo Dei, ((Man of God)), as the first crusaders called themselves see I. Timothy, 6,ll: ctTh autem, o homo Dein). Side by side with the iron-inlaid inscriptions we find several with fine silver or bratss inlay, pictorial and allego- rical scenes or merely ornaments between the letters. A remarkable example is the sword L. M. 10116, Zurich, with its long series of alle- gorical pictures. Incolvations of Christ or His Mother (0 Sancta Maria), St. Peter, blessings, ((Eripe Nos)), from the Psalms or other religious inscriptions are also met with. I n South E'urope they are often supplications to Virgin Mary. Another noteworthy sword is the one a t Rouen, found in the Seine at the ClhBteau Gaillard, a relic of the siege by Richard Coeur d'leon in 1203-4 with the ins- cription DEUS and Romanesque birds between each letter. These religious inscriptions are mostly confined to one palrticular perio~d, the Crusades under Richard Coeur d'leon, Erederick Barbarossa, Philippe-AugUste, the Counts of Flanders and in the days of St. Louis. Letters and ornaments on the sword blades have close p~aradlels in The Viking pattern-welded damast has disappeared; it is now en- countered only very occaslonatlly (e. g. a fragment in the National Museum in Copenhagen}. Instead the blade-smiths have adopted another and improved technique. (Actually this new methcd makes its appearance as early as the 9th century.) His minute researehes and analyses have enabled the Italian scientist Carlo Panseri to ex- plain the technique, 'Starting inter alia with a 12th century sword of the brazil-nut type found in 1948 at Adige, near Legnago castle, the important defence fortifications against the barbarian hordes of mi- gration times and against the enemies of later days. As regards the blades, continued metallurgical research will presumably make it possi- ble to make fairly valid distinctions between the blade-centres of South and Central Europe. Ins<:riptions and pictorial scenes On bla- des are not uncommon. On some of the early swords we find the master's signature «Ingelri me fecit», or simpl,y the name Ingelri, spelt in Ri variety of ways. Swords signed Ingelri can be traced across large sections of Europe, for instance in northern France, Bel- gium, England, Germany, Norway and Sweden right over to the Volga. Only one specimen is known to have been found in Denmark, in South Schleswig and now in private Danish ownership (Coll. H. Briins Hansen, Hillerod). The lettering is the same as on the Ulfberth blades, good and painstakingly executed on the earliest, often slipshod and clumsy on the later ones. Other inscriptions a,ppear combined with this one, especially of a religious character (fig. 3) such as HOMO DEI or IN NOMINE DOMINI, which are familiar from swords with a wheel pommel. It is presumable that these really are swords of the early days of the Crusades (Homo Dei, «Man of God», as the first crusaders called themselves see I. Timothy, 6,11: «Tu autem, 0 homo Dei!l). Side by side w;th the iron-inlaid inscriptions we find several with fine silver or brass inlay, pictorial and allego- rical scenes Or merely ornaments between the letters. A remarkable example is the sword L. M, 10116, ZUrich, with its long series of alle- gorical pictures. Incovations of Christ or His Mother (0 Sancta Maria), st. Peter, blessings, «Eripe Nos», from the Psalms or other religious inscriptions are also met with. In South Europe they are often supplications to Virgin Mary. Another noteworthy sword is the one at Rouen, found in the Seine at the Chateau Gaillard, a relic of the siege by Richard Coeur d'Leon ;n 1203-4 with the ins- cription DEUS and Romanesque birds between each letter. These religious inscriptions are mostly confined to one pa,rticular period, the Crusades under Richard Coeur d'Leon, Frederick Barbarossa, Philippe.Auguste, the Counts of Flanders and in the days of St. Louis. Letters and ornaments On the sword blades have close parallels in 8 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es the manuacrilpt illuminations of those times and sometimes can be dated by means of comparisons with dated manuscripts. They cons- titute an important chronolo~gical support. Among the swords with a brazil nut pommel there are several fine specimens that are fairly reliably dated. Among the most distinctive we may reckon the so-called St. Mauritius sword i n the Vienna Weltliche Schatzkammer, the Austrian coronation and ceremonial sword, which is dated by its inscriptions and heraldic figures, t h e German-Roman eagle and the three lelopards, the arms of the emperor Otto IV (1198-1215). The scabbard, adorned with chased gold work and its borders of enamel and semi.precious stones selems to be Sicilian work. Another r e markable sword is the second St. Mauritius specimen, originally from St. Mauritius monastery a t Valois, Switzerland, taken to Torino in 1591 (See Panseri, 1. c. I., p. 10). The hilt is well proportioned, with a charasteristic saddle-shaped pommel, short grip, band-shaped qui- llons curved on the underside, a farm to be seen mostly in the sword material of the Latin lands (fig. 2). The fragmentary sword from t h e Seine, outside t h e Ch&teau Gai- Ilard, dated to about 1203-4, is of interest on account of its finding place and its inslcripltion. Related blade inscriptions will be found on two1 blades in the! Real Arrnerio i n Madrid (G 21 and G 180); G l80 has a later hilt, made by the Toledo master Salvador de Avila, prior to 1539. T h e St. Mauritius sword at Torino, a similar specimen in t h e Dla. nish private aollection, of mr. E. A. Christensm, Copenhagen, and one in the Landesmuseun a t Zurich must be placed among t h e latest of the swords with a brazil-nut pommel I n all probability ad1 three are of Noirth Italian workmanship (fig. 3). At about t h e middle of the 13th century the type almost disappears from t h e practical sword material and is encountered only now and then in t h e plictorial arts, especially in Germany and t h e Scandina~vian countries, though i t is still t o be found in the illuminations of Matthew of Paris and in t h e Maciejowski Bible, dated about 1250. I t appears on the tombstone of the Swiss Ulrik von Regensberg as iate as 1280. This type of sword, terminates the era of the old Carolingian ancl Viking sword, which can be followed from certain Viking types via the swords of the Bayeux ta~pestry to the molst characteristic Germanilc type of sword of the 12th century. The relatively few swolrds with a lobed pommel like some of the late Viking types may be regarded as descendants of Viking swords with subdivided pommels, such as t h e types Jan Petersen: R, S, and 2. The Norwegian sword from Korsoygard with its runic inscriptions -owner's and maker's names-has a forerunner i n a sword frolm Riga the manuscript illuminations of those times and sometimes can be dated by means of comparisons with dated manuscripts. They cons- titute an important chronolo-gical support. Among the swords with a brazil-nut pommel there are several fine specimens that are fairly reliably dated. Among the most distinctive we may reckon the so-called St. Mauritius sword in the Vienna Weltiiche Schatzkammer, the Austrian coronation and ceremonial sword, which is dated by its inscriptions and heraldic figures, the German-Roman eagle and the three leopards, the arms of the emperor Otto IV (1198-1215). The scabbard, adorned with chased gold work and its borders of enamel and semi.precious stones seems to be Sicilian work. Another re- markable sword is the second St. Mauritius specimen, originally from St. Mauritius monastery at Va~ois, Switzerland, taken to Torino in 1591 (See Panseri, I. c. I., p. 10). The hilt is well proportioned, with a charasteristic saddle-shaped pommel, short grip, band-shaped qui- lIons curved on the underside, a fcrm to be seen mostly in the sword material of the Latin lands (fig. 2>- The fragmentary sword from the Seine, outside the Chateau Gai. llard, dated to about 1203-4, is of interest on account of its finding place and its inscription. Related blade inscriptions will be found on two blades in the Real Armeria in Madrid (G 21 and G 180); G 180 has a later hilt, made by the Toledo ma-ster Salvador de Avila, prior to 1539. The St. Mauritius sword at T(}rino, a similar specimen in the D'a- nish private collectiO'n, of mr. E. A. Christensen, Copenhagen, and one in the Landesmuseun at Zurich must be ,placed among the latest of the swords with a brazil-nut pommel. In a:1l probability all three are of North Italian workmanship (fig. 3>. At about the middle of the 13th century the type almost disappears from the practical sword material and is encountered only now and then in the pictorial arts, especially in Germany and the Scandinavian countries, though it is still to be found in the illuminations of Matthew of Paris and in the Maciejowski Bible, dated about 1250. It appears on the tombstone of the Swiss Ulrik van Regenl;berg as late as 1280. This type Of sword, terminates the era Of the old CarolinQ'ian and Viking sword, which can be followed from certain Viking types via the swords of the Bayeux tapestry to the most characteristic Germanic type of sword of the 12th century. The relatively few swords with a lobed pommel like some of the late Viking types may be regarded as descendants of Viking swords with subdivided pommels, such as the types Jan Petersen: R, S, and Z. The Norwegian sword from Korsoygard with its runic inscriptions -owner's and maker's names-has a forerunner in a sword from Riga 9 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es Fig. Sword yro- h a b l y o f North Italian w o r k m a n s - hip, a b o u t 1200 - 1250. B l a d e ins- cription: IN N O M I N E D O M I N Z . (Coll. E. A. C h r isrensen, CopenL ngen, E I . Grip modern). in Latvia, a younger parallel in a sword in an English private co~llec- tion, found .n River Trent in England, and is known in pictorial art inter alia fro~m the Ebberston carving in England. This type of pom- mel still is to be found in Danish altar carvings from the end of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th century. The trilobate pommel, that recurs in the various MSlS of the Apaaalypse of S. Beato de Lie- bano, dated to loth, 11th or later centuries originates from Eastern types. I t is wall know from various Spanish MSS, from the notable Fig. 3. Sword pro- ha b Jy of N orlll Ilalian workmans- hip, a bo III 1200 - 1250. B Ja d c ins- criplion: IN NOMINE DOM IN I. (Coli. E. A. Ch ri slensen, Copen;;agen. E I. Grip modern), in Latvia, a younger paraUel in a sword in an English private collec- tion, found ~n River Trent in England, and is known in pictorial art inter alia from the Ebberston carving in England. This type of pom- mel still is to be found in Danish altar carvings from the end of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th century. The trilobate pommel, that recurs in the various MSS of the Apocalypse of S. Beato de Lie- bano, dated to 10th. 11th or later centuries originates from Eastern types. It is well know from various Spanish MSS, from the notable 10 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es sword of San Femando in Real Armeria i n Madrid and from spe- cimens, for instance in Musee Cluny in Paris. We find it too, for Instance i n Matthew of Paris, o 1250, in his description of t h e Battle of Stamfordbridge in 10166. The Maciejowski Bible of about 1250 has it too. The 12th and 13th century trifoil pommel sometimes occurs on crusader's swords, with the leavels moreover decorated in varie- gated enamels This type of pommel is to be found in Spanish paintings as late as the end of 15th and the beginning of 16th cen- tury. Coming of the Knightly Sword The main form of sword in t h e Middle Ages is the cPiscand wheel- pgmmel sword, whether the pommel is flat or moulded, groo~ved or round-lenticular. The wheel pommel is combined with horixWzta1 and with curved quillons. I n this group the material is immense and spans over a period from about l100 t a 1500-for t h e Northern countries in fact to about 1550. I n this large group several subgroups can be distinguished accor- ding to the pommel details, for example the size of t h e mouldings, the thickness and weight of the p~ommel, t h e size and shape of the top rivet on the pommel, the shape a n d length of t h e guard, t h e length of the tang. T h e results of this subdivision must be supple mented by studies of the shape, type a n d size of t h e blades, to which must be added any individual marks, heraldry, ornamentation, etc. With shalpe and type as a basis i t is possible to split t h e material into several chronological sections, in which the types group them- selves about characteristic, more or less definitely dated specimens. The grolupls comprise the early swords up to 1200 or shortly after, the swords of the 13th century, the true classical knightly sword of about 1300-1350 and t h e various chronological periods after about 1350. The time about t h e middle of t h e 14th century signifies a distinct line of demarcation in t h e evolution of t h e weapon a s re- gards the hilt and especially the blade: new blade type~s, t h e thrus- ting blade and the cut-and thrust blade begin t o be very much i n evi- dence and exert a n influence on the evolution of the sword otherwise. Moreover, it is possible to draw more distinct national lines, t o distin- guish more clearly between North and South, or rather betwelen Latin and Germanic. At an early stage there is already a separation between the Latin and the Germanic. This applies also to England, which to a certain degree is more Latin t h a n Germanic in character. This parting of t h e ways between Latin and Germanic development is perceptible part~cularly after the middle of the 14th century. Among the Latin peopihes the development passes via the pointed infantry sword of San Fernando in Real Armeria in Madrid and from spe- cimens, for instance in Musee Cluny in Paris. We find it too, for instance in Matthew of Paris, o. 1250, in his description of the Battle of Stamfordbridge in 1066. The Maciejowski Bible of about 1250 has it too. The 12th and 13th century trifoil pommel sometimes occurs on crusader's swords, with the leaves moreover decorated in varie· gated enamels This type of pommel is to be found in Span:sh paintings as late as the end of 15th and the beginning of 16th cen- tury. Coming of the Knightly Sword The main form of sword in the Middle Ages is the disc-and wheel- p~mmel sword, whether the pommel is flat or moulded, grooved or round-lenticular. The wheel pommel ;s combined with horizontal and with curved quillons. In this group the material is immense and spans over a period from about 1100 to 150G-for the Northern countries in fact to about 1550. In this large group several sub-groups can be distinguished accor- ding to the pommel details, for example the size of the mouldings, the thickness and weight of the pommel, the size and shape of the top rivet on the pommel, the shape and length of the guard, the length of the tang. The results of this subdivision must be supple- mented by studies of the shape, type and size of the blades, to which must be added any individual marks, heraldry, ornamentation, etc. With shape and type as a basis it is possible to split the material into several chronological sections, in which the types group them- selves about characteristic, more or less definitely dated specimens. The groups comprise the early swords up to 1200 or shortly after, the swords of the 13th century, the true classical knightly sword of about 1300..1350 and the various chronological periods after about 1350. The time about the middle of the 14th century signifies a distinct line of demarcation in the evolution of the weapon as re- gards the hilt and especially the blade: new blade types, the thrus- ting blade and the cut·andthrust blade begin to be very much in evi- dence and exert an influence on the evolution of the sword otherwise. Moreover, it is possible to draw more distinct national lines, to distin- guish more clearly between North and South, or rather between Latin and Germanic. At an early stage there is already a separation between the Latin and the Germanic. This applies also to England, which to a certain degree is more Latin than Germanic in character. This parting of the ways between Latin and Germanic development is perceptible particularly after the middle of the 14th century. Among the Latin peoples the development passes via the pointed infantry 11 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es thrusting sword and the hispano-arab jinete sword with a short hilt to the aristocratic rapier, whereas among the Germaric peoples t h e old cutting technique is continued and developed. Formidable cut- ting swords are produced for use by the infantry. Mixed forms, in- termediate forms, mutual influences and currents frolm t h e Orient and East Europe are introlduced and often make it difficult t o u n r a ~ vel t h e types of subsequent epochs. The wheel pommel (in which context the spherical pommel must be included) h a s nothing whatever t o do with Viking traditions. Actually it is a n ancient Mediterranean inheritance. Neither the wheel nor the splherical pommel is to be observed in Carolingian- Viking swords, any more than i t was on the spathas of t h e Merovin. gian period. Beyond the Roman Empire it is to be found prioir to the Migration period in provincial Roman areas and in the Roman Iron Age of the Scandinavian countries e. g in the bog deposits of Denmark. I n reality i t is possible to trace the mediaeval wheel or spherical pommel back via Byzantium and the Bosporan culture r e gion and the Levant a s far as the ancient Roman and Bymntine empire reached, including Persia, etc, to the thrusting sword of the soldiers of the Roman legions. I t is characteristic of this type that for instance in the 12th century when it reappeared in Europe, it was common in South Europe, less common in Central Europe and sparsely represented in t h e Scandinavian lands. I n pictolrial a r t it is almost universal in the Latin countries. From the 10th century Byzantine triptych in the Louvre (Harbarville) and other Byzantine works of that time it can be followed in Italy, Spain and France. Its occurrence is earliest i n Italy and Splain, where a n examination of early art found it to be common. On a capita,l from San Pedro de las Duefias in L ~ ~ T u , now in the Archeol. Mus Madrid, l l t h century, a sword of this kind is to be seen thrust into t h e jaws of a lion; in Biblia cEe Farfa (Santa Maria de Ripoll), l l t h century, now in Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, it appears distinctly several times. The same is true of t h e Libros de 101s Testamentos from the cathedral in Oviedo, 1126-29, a fresco in t h e apsis central in San Martin, in Museo Episcopal de Vich, abfout 1150, in ms. ill. (Tantigla~ de Alfonso el Sabio in El Escorial, latter part of 13th century, in Monreale at Palermo, 1174-87, on t h e seal of Raoul de Fougere, 1161, on the tombstone of Geoffrey Plantagenet ( m enamel) a t Mans, about 1175, where t h e rendering is very characteristic of Latin swords in that period. I t can be traced in numerous other monuments a n d illumi- nations of manuscripts. As a rule the pommel is rendered a s a flat disc without mouldings, as we also see it i n the archaeological ma- terial. Around 1200 or in the flrst half of the 13th century we see thrusting sword and the h;spano-arab jinete sword with a short hilt to the aristocratic rapier, whereas among the Germaric peoples the old cutting technique is continued and developed. Formidable cut- ting swords are produced for use by the infantry. Mixed forms, in- termediate forms, mutual influences and currents from the Orient and East Europe are introduced and often make it difficult to unra- vel the types of subsequent epochs. The wheel pommel (in which context the spherical pommel must be included) has nothing whatever to do with Viking traditions. Actually it is an ancient Mediterranean inheritance. Neither the wheel nor the spherical pommel is to be observed in Carolingian- Viking swords, any more than it was on the spathas of the Merovin- gian period. Beyond the Roman Empire it is to be found prior to the Migration period in provincial Roman areas and in the Roman Iron Age of the Scandinavian countries e. g in the bog deposits of Denmark. In reality it is possible to trace the mediaeval wheel or spherical pommel back via Byzantium and the Bosporan culture re- gion and the Levant as far as the ancient Roman and Byzantine empire reached, including Persia, etc, to the thrusting sword of the soldiers of the Roman legions. It is chara:teristic of this type that for instance in the 12th century when it reappeared in Europe, it was common in South Europe, less common in Central Europe and sparsely represented in the Scandinavian lands. In pictorial art it is almost universal in the Latin countries. From the 10th century Byzantine triptych in the Louvre (Harbarville) and other Byzantine works of that time it can be followed in Italy, Spain and France. Its occurrence is earliest in Italy and Spain, where an examination of early art found it to be common. On a capital from San Pedro de las Dueiias in Lea7lJ, now in the Archeol. Mus. Madrid, 11th century, a sword of this kind is to be seen thrust into the jaws of a lion; in Biblia de Farfa (Santa Maria de Ripoll), 11th century, now in Biblioteca Apost6lica Vaticana, it appears distinctly several times. The same is true of the Libros de los Testamentos from the cathedral in Oviedo, 1126-29, a fresco in the apsis central in San Marttn, in Museo Episcopal de Vich, about 1150, in ms. ill. Cantigas de Alfonso el Sabio in El Escorial, latter part of 13th century, in Monreale at Palermo, 1174-87, on the seal of Raoul de Fougere, 1161, on the tombstone of Geoffrey Plantagenet (in enamel) at Mans, about 1175, where the rendering is very characteristic of Latin swords in that period. It can be traced in numerous other monuments and illumi- nations of manuscripts. As a rule the pommel is rendered as a flat disc without mouldings, as we also see it in the archaeological ma- terial. Around 1200 or in the first half of the 13th century we see 12 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es the commencement of the mouldings that become so characteristic of the wheel pommel of the classical Knightly sword. The other de- tails of these earIy swords are more or less the same as those of the brazihnut sword: the tang is short, the guard often has horizontal quillons that are rectangular in cross section, the blades are as befo~ re, with a more or less rounded point, but sometimes with a n approach to a sharper form. As regards inscriptions, these early blades too are sometimes furnished with an Ingelri mark, though less frequently than the (previous ones, whereas HOMO DEI or I N NOMINE DIOMINI, benedictory inscriptions, silver and brass inlays-religious or decorati- ve--are more frequent, especially after about 12100. Entire complexes olf letters occur, framed or separated by ornaments, animal figures, cros- ses, etc. With regard to these apparently meaningless and insoluble devices however it is probable t h a t a t any rate some could be inter- preted by means of a careful study of t h e culture in Crusade days, of the Old Testament, especially the Books of Psalms a n d Proverbs. I t seems t h a t these wheelp~ommel swords made their appearance with the first crusades. I t is the close contact with Byzantine cul- ture and warfare, a contact that left its traces in other fields, also within t h e sphere of warfare and arms and is particularly pro~minent in the enamel-decorated mountings on equestrian trapphgs and harness. Sword pommels of the disc form, decorated with heraldic figures in coloured enamels, are known from t h e 12th century. A special ordinance established the national colours, white for English crusaders, red for French and green for Flemish. Disc pommels with castle motives and the like, have been found in Syria i. a. a t Damascus, as in the case of bronze pommels for instance in t h e Musee Cluny. A fine enamel pommel now is in the Metropolitan Mu- seum, New York, with t h e arms of Pierre de Dreux and his national colours. Pierre de Dlreux took part in S t Louis' crusade a t the siege of Jerusalem in 1248-50. With the crusaders the Mediterranean sword types were spread out over the countries of Europe which in one way or another had contributed man-power or had been implicated directly i n the crusades. The wheel pommel developed in the course of the 13th century. I t became larger, heavier, thicker, with grooves and a n elevated pa. nel on each side, a panel which especially on t h e Germanic swords was often o~ccupied by a small tininlaid cross. These crosses are also familiar in pictorial renderings and are not uncommon in French illuminated MSS of the late 13th and t h e 14th century (e. g. French Titus Livius ms. a t Bordeaux). The pommel acquires higher and more conical top rivelt, often of brass. The tang becomes longer, the guard longer, often more slender, round or octagonal-sometimes the commencement of the mouldings that become so characteristic of the wheel pommel of the classical Knightly sword. The other de. tails of these early swords are more or less the same as those of the brazil-nut sword: the tang is short, the guard often has horizontal Quillons that are rectangular in cross section. the blades are as befo- re, with a more or less rounded point, but sometimes with an approach to a sharper form. As regards inscriptions, these early blades too are sometimes furnished with an Ingelri mark, though les& frequently than the ,previous ones, whereas HOMO DEI or IN NOMINE DOMINI, benedictory inscriptions, silver and brass inlays-religious or decorati· ve-are more frequent, especially after about 1200. EnLre complexes of letters occur, framed or separated by ornaments, animal figures, cros- ses, etc. With regard to these apparently meaningless and insoluble devices however it is probable that at a,ny rate some could be inter- preted by means of a careful study of the culture in Crusade days, of the Old Testament, especially the Books of Psaims and Proverbs. It seems that these wheel pommel swords made their appearance with the first crusades. It is the close contact with Byzantine cul- ture and warfare, a contact that left its traces in other fields, also within the sphere of warfare and arms and is particularly prominent in the enamel·decorated mountings on equestrian trapp:ngs and harness. Sword pommels of the disc form, decorated with heraldic figures in coloured enamels, are known from the 12th century. A special ordinance established the national colours, white for English crusaders, red for French and green for Flemish. Disc pommels with castle motives and the like, have been found in Syria i. a. at Damascus, as in the case of bronze pommels for instance in the Musee Cluny. A fine enamel pommel nOW is in the Metropolitan Mu- seum, New York, with the arms of Pierre de Dreux and his national colours. Pierre de Dreux took part in SL Louis' crusade at the siege of Jerusalem in 1248-50. With the crusaders the Mediterranean sword types were spread out over the countries of Europe which in one way or another had contributed man-power or had been implicated directly in the crusades. The wheel pommel developed in the course of the 13th century. It became larger, heavier, thicker, with grooves and an elevated pa. nel on each s;de, a panel which especially on the Germanic swords was often occupied by a smaH tin inlaid cross. These crosses are also familiar in pictorial renderings and are not uncommon in French illuminated MSS of the late 13th and the 14th century (e. g. French Titus Livius ms. at Bordeaux). The pommel acquires higher and more conical top rivet, often of brass. The tang becomes longer, the guard longer, often more slender, round or octagonal-sometimes 13 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es round a t the ends only-in cross-section. Among the different po~mmels t h e details become much more varied. On the whole, however, these wheel p~ommels provide quite good material for their chronological and typological classificatio~n, and sometimes a determination of their provenance. The 13th and 14th centuries are the period of chivalry's flores- cence. Chain mail for m a n aind horse, additional defences in the form of cuir bouilli, iron plates, helmets, triangular shields and heavy lances, massive cradlesaddles and good rowel-spurs are a knight's outfit, besides his sword and the military dagger, especially i n the 14th century. T h e effective and costly cutting sword, like the helmet and dagger, are chained to the iron breast plate under or over the mail. There may be national differences in details of the helmet and sword, probably individual pireferences too, but there is a certain international stamp about the equipment, for which reason the type of sword is more or less t h e same in t h e greater part of Europe in the real days of chivalry. The classical knight's sword has the shar- ply profiled pommel, the high top rivet, the grip of fine but not exaggerated length, t h e hor,zontal or the curved quillons in proportions suitable to the length of the hilt, the blade heavy, with grooves half or three quarters of the way down and with a more pointed tip than before. I n this period t h e curved quillons are encountered chiefly in the L a t i n regions and in England. I t i s well known from the pictorial representations of t h e period, illuminated MSS, as well a s the nume- rous sepulchral monuments, particularly in Italy, Spain and England. German and Swiss tombs provide excellent specimens of the knightly sword with horizontal quillo~ns (many of the French were delstroyed during t h e Revolution). But in the archaeological material the hori- zontal quillons are also frequent ,n South Europe. There are good, datable specimens o~f both types. Among characteristic specimens that are fairly well dated there is, for the early period, the Oldenburg sword, which was found near Harmenhausen in Oldenburg and i s probably a relic of t h e battle of S t e d i n g e in 1234, where a crusader army fought against a force of pfeasants. The sword represents t h e introduction of the cllassical knight's sword, the pommel still only slightly mo~delle~d and a hang that is just beginning to lengthen. The decorative and well-executed silver-inlaid blade inscription was deciphered by t h e late Paul Post together with Professor Ruthinger, and in all probability correctly so. From this sword, dated to t h e first quarter of t h e 13th oeatury, developments proceed via types like the fragmentary Breslau s w o ~ d round at the ends only-in cross-section. Among the different pommels the details become much more varied. On the whole, however, these wheel pommels provide quite good material for their chronological and typological classification, and sometimes a determination of their provenance. The 13th and 14th centuries are the period of chivalry's flores- cence. Chain mail for man and horse, additional defences in the form of cuir bouilli, iron plates, helmets, triangular shields and heavy lances, massive cradlesaddles and good rowel-spurs are a knight's outfit, besides his sword and the military dagger, especiaUy in the 14th century. The effective and costly cutting sword, like the helmet and dagger, are chained to the iron breast plate under or over the mail. There may be national differences in details of the helmet and sword, probably individual preferences too, but there is a certain international stamp about the equipment, for which reason the type of sword is more or less the same in the greater part of Europe in the real days of chivalry. The classical knight's sword has the shar- ply profiled pommel, the high top rivet, the grip of fine but not exaggerated length, the hor:zontal or the curved quillons in proportions suitable to the length of the hilt, the blade heavy, with grooves half or three quarters of the way down and with a more pointed tip than before. In this period the curved quillons are encountered chiefly in the Latin regions and in England. It is well known from the pictorial representations of the period, illuminated MSS, as well as the nume- rous sepulchral monuments, particularly in Italy, Spain and England. German and Swiss tombs provide excellent specimens of the knightly sword with horizontal quillons (many of the French were destroyed during the Revolution). But in the archaeological material the hori- zontal quillons are also frequent :n South Europe. There are good, datable specimens of both types. Among characteristic specimens that are fairly well dated there is, for the early period, the Oldenburg sword, which was found near Harmenhausen in Oldenburg and is probably a reHc of the battle of stedinge in 1234, where a crusader army fought against a force of peasants. The sword represents the introduction of the classical knight's sword, the pommel still only slightly modelled and a tang that is just beginning to lengthen. The decorative and well-executed silver-inlaid blade inscription was deciphered by the late Paul Post together with Professor Riithinger, and in all probability correctly so. From this sword, dated to the first quarter of the 13th century, developments proceed via types like the fragmentary Breslau sword 14 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es which probably belonged to King Ottokar of Bohemia and which has blade figures, inlaid with silver, representing a knight crusader wearing his helmet, a Cross of Jerusadem on his shield, the Agnus Dei and with a tin cross in the now more profiled pommel, altogether a splendid specimen of a crusader sword of the period about 1255-1275. Although the quillons are now missung it is reasonable to assume that they were probably horizontal. Round about the year 1300 the classical sword reached its full de- velopment, and in the first half of the 14th century we find the best m d clearest representatives of the Germanic knightly swords in a number of speoimens i. a. at Ziirich, Rambusg, Lubeck, Berlin, Co- penhagen and several other localities. For exemple, with its date determined from the find combinations is the Bettximatt s w o ~ d from the battle of 1337, now in the L. M., Ziirich. Undated, but closely related though more Latin of type and of splendid shape i s a sword from the Thames, now in the British Museum; another mench s p e cimen is now in the Wallace Coll. in London. A South European sword from ToLedo cathedral is the child's sword of Juan, younger brother of Sancho ZV; this well-preserved specimen has a silver gilt pommel of modelled-wheel form with the arms of Castille and Leon on both sides in coloured enamels, a grip of medium size, horizontal quillons, a good cut-and-thrust blade, the scabbard covered with velvet and having the same heraldic coats of arms in enamel. This well-pro- portioned type is a clear expression of the classical knightly swor~d at its best and typ~ologically conforms well to the first quarter of the 14th century. If the interpretations of the heraldic emblems are correct it agrees well with the claim that the sword belonged to Juan, who fell in 1319, fighting the Moors near Granada. The weapon is undoubtedly of Spanish workmanship; the enamel might indicate Valencia, which was well known for its enamel work in the period. As a matter of fact the town was also famous for its blades. One Italian parallel is the sword of Can Grande della Scala (ob. 13291, from the tomb at Verona dated to pre-1330. I t is also in this period t h a t we find the best parallels to the archaeological objects on tombstones in Spain, Italy and Germany. Another characteristic feature of this group of swords is the inlay of letters. Both letter groups and letter types are first-rate adjuvants in date determinations. Among examples of datable swords with carved quillons I may mention another sword in Toledo cathedral, recovered from the tomb of Sancho ZV, king of Castille and Leon (1284-1295), a son of Alfon- so X el Sabio (fig. 4). The cruciform hilt has a modelled pommel of a form which well matches the later part of the 13th century, a short tang on which the grip covering is still extant, short, flat and which probably belonged to King Ottokar 0/ Bohemia and which has blade figures, inlaid with silver, representing a knight crusader wearing his helmet, a Cross of Jerusalem on his shield, the Agnus Dei and with a tin cross in the now more profiled pommel, altogether a splendid specimen of a crusader sword of the period about 1255-1275. Although the quillons are now missJng it is reasonable to assume that they were probably horizontal. Round about the year 1300 the classical sword reached its full de- velopment, and in the first half of the 14th century we find the best and clearest representatives of the Germanic knightly swords in a number of specimens i. a. at Ziirich, Hamburg, Liibeck, Berlin, Co- penhagen and several other localities. For exemple, with its date determined from the find combinations is the Bettzimatt sword from the battle of 1337, now in the L. M., Ziirich. Undated, but closely related though more Latin of type and of splendid shape is a sword from the Thames, now in the British Museum; another French spe- cimen is now ;n the Wallace ColI. in Loncton. A South European sword from Toledo cathedral is the child's sword ot Juan, yaunger brother at Sancho IV; this well-preserved specimen has a silver gilt ponunel of modelled-wheel form with the arms of Castille and Le6n on both sides in coloured enamels, a grip of medium size, horizontal quillons, a good cut-and-thrust blade, the scabbard covered with velvet and having the same heraldic coats of arms in enamel. This well-pro- portioned type is a clear expression of the classical knightly sword at its best and typologically conforms well to the first quarter of the 14th century. If the interpretations of the heraldic emblems are correct it agrees well with the claim that the sword belonged to Juan, who fell in 1319, fighting the Moors near Granada. The weapon is undoubtedly of Spanish workmanship; the enamel might indicate Valencia, which was well knovm for its enamel work in the period. As a matter of fact the town was also famous for its blades. One Italian parallel is the sword of Can Grande della Scala (ob. 1329), from the tomb at Verona dated to pre-1330. It is also in this period that we find the best parallels to the archaeological objects on tombstones in Spain, Italy and Germany. Another characteristic feature of this group of swords is the inlay of letters. Both letter groups and letter types are first-rate adjuvants ,n date determinations. Among examples of datable swords with (;..J.rved quillons I may mention another sword in Toledo cathedral, recovered from the tomb of Sancho IV, king 0/ Castille and Lean 0284-1295), a son of Alfon- so X el Sabio (fig. 4). The cruciform hilt has a modelled ponunel of a form which well matches the later part of the 13th century, a short tang on which the grip covering is still extant, short, flat and 15 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es Fig. 4. Sword f r o m t h e t o m b of S a n c h o I V , K i n g of Casti- lle (1284-95). I n blade part o f inscription still visible b n h o r h s i d e s . W i t h part o f the belt. ( C a - pilla M a y o r , T o l e d o Cathe- dral). curved quillons with decorated lobate ends. Pommel and quillons are decorated with ornaments in Mudejar style and with Arabic letters. The sword is a characteristic South European form and the short grip is fully in concord with local custom there Another outstanding sword olf the type undated it is true, is the characteristic specimen in the Institute del Conde Valencia de Don Juan, the so-called Santa Casilda Sword with its heraldioally arnamented disc pommel on which the wavy lines are seen in enamel and surrounded by the prayer: Ave Fig, 4. Sword 1ro m the tomb 01 Sallcho IV, King 01 Cast i- lie (I284-95). III blade part 01 illscriptioll still visible IJn both sides. With part 01 the belt. (Ca- pilla Mayor, Toledo Cathe- dral), curved quillons with decorated lobate ends. Pommel and quillons are decorated with ornaments in Mudejar style and with Arabic letters. The sword is a characteristic South European fonn and the short grip is fully in concord with local custom there. Another outstanding sword of the type undated it is true, is the characteristic specimen in the Instituto del Conde Valencia de Don Juan, the so-called Santa Casilda Sword with its heraldically ornamented disc pommel on which the wavy lines are seen in enamel and surrounded by the prayer: Ave 16 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es Maria, gratia plena (fig. 5). The quillons, which are broad with a slightly curved upper edge and under edge in the shape of a, double arch, are of a form that is characteristic of and very popular in South EXlrope. They have an inscription in Spanish whose characters and contents place it to the period shortly after 1300: Dios es vencedor en todo. This sword type is known but is anything but common in Fig. 5 . So-called Santu Casilda's sword. Inscriptions on pommel: A V E MARZA G R A T I A PLENA; on quillons: DlOS ES VENCEDOR EN T O D O , A(MEN). (Inst. de Valencia de Don Juan, Madrid). Maria, gratia plena (fig. 5). The quillons, which are broad with a slightly curved upper edge and under edge in the shape of a doubie arch, are of a form that is charactenstic of and very popular in South Europe. They have an inscription in Spanish whose characters and contents place it to the period shortly after 1300: Dios es vencedOr en todo. This sword type is known but is anything but common in Fig. 5. So-called Santa Casilda's sword. Inscriptions on pommel: AVE MARIA GRATIA PLENA; on quillons: DIOS ES VENCEDOR EN TODO, A(MEN). (Inst. de Valencia de Don Juan, Madrid). 17 2 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es the first half of the 14th century in the Germanic countries, whereas it is frequently met with in the pictorial arts of the Latin lands. From cut to thrust, change-over about 1350 The sword is in constant evolution, dependent as it is upon the development of the oth~er weapons, upon strategy and tactics. For this reason it may often be hard to draw sharp chronological bound- aries, even when there are apparently good evidences. On the other hand there are some points that make sharp distinctions and help to set up a good terminus. This holds good of the time around the middlo of the 14th century-a restless, belligerent period. Conditions are disturbed in the Mediterranean world. On the Iberian peninsula it is the conflict between Pedro el Cruel and Enrique de Trastamara. Ell prinoipe negro Edward of E3lgland is actively trying to introtduce his new tacticall methods on the peninsula. Barcelona is enjoying a golden age, the Catalanians holding all the strings to the maritime routes on the Mediterranean, with brisk communications with Athens, Morea, Byzantium etc, with dominion over Sicily and a Iarge part of the islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea. Opposite them are the Italian trade republics, especially Pisa and Genoa. The Hundred Years War between France and England was in progress; the famous Battle of C r e ~ y in 1346 had revealed an important tactical advance, a form oif shock tactics with the E,nglish long-bow archers against heavily ar- moured French cavalry. The Swiss fight for freedom against the Austrians, commenced with the Battle of Moorgarten in 1315, continued with Laupen in 1339, Sempach in 1386, again with infantry superior to the knights. The house of Anjou was at Naples, the French knights, conducted by Peter of Lusignan, were defeated by the sultan a t Ale- xandria in 1365. The Itallan republics and duchies fighted. Cavalry had begun to waver, unable to cope with a mobile infantry carrying other categories of weapons such as the halberd, pike and two-hand sword, or against the short and sharp thrusting swords of South European foot soldiers. The thrusting sword had already been usled in battle in the second half of the 13th century. Of the Battle of Benevento in 1266 Primatus de Bouquet writes that at first the Proven~al troops of Charles $Anjou were unable to stand up to the great cutting sworlds of the German cavalry, wielded with both hands. I t was only when, covered by the long pikes and armed with small, light thrusting swords, they engaged the horsemen at close querters and thrust their sharp blades into armpits, groin and other unprotected parts of the riders that they the first half of the 14th century in the Germanic countries, whereas it is frequently met with in the pictorial arts of the Latin lands. From cut to thrust, change-over about 1350 The sword is in constant evolution, dependent as it is upon the development of the other weapons, upon strategy and tactics. For this reason it may often be hard to draw sharp chronological bound- al."i.es, even when there are apparently good evidences. On the other hand there are some points that make sharp distinctions and help to set up a good terminus. This holds good of the time around the middlo of the 14th century-a restless, belligerent period. Conditions ar~ disturbed in the Mediterranean world. On the Iberian peninsula it is the conflict between pedro el Cruel and Enrique de Trastamara. El principe negru Edward of England is actively trying to introduce his new tacticaJ methods on the peninsula. Barcelona is enjoying a golden age, the Catalanians holding all the strings to the maritime routes on the Mediterranean, with brisk communications with Athens, Morea, Byzantium etc, with dominion over Sicily and a large part of the islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea. Opposite them are the Italian trade republics, especially Pisa and Genoa. The Hundred Years War between France and England was in progress; the famous Batble of CreQY in 1346 had revealed an important tactical advance, a form of shock tactics with the English long-bow archers against heavily ar- moured French cavalry. The Swiss fight for freedom against the Austrians, conunenced with the Battle of Moorgarten in 1315, continued with Laupen in 1339, Sempach in 1386, again with infantry superior to the knights. The house of Anjou was at Naples, the French knights, conducted by Peter of Lusignan, were defeated by the sultan at Ale- xandria in 1365. The Italian republics and duchies fighted. Cavalry had begun to waver, unable to cope with a mobile infantry carrying other categories of weapons such as the halberd, pike and two-hand sword, or against the short and sharp thrusting swords of South European foot soldiers. The thrusting sword had already been used in battle in the second half of the 13th century. Of the Battle of Benevento in 1266 Primatus de Bouquet writes that at first the ProvenQal troops of Charles d'Anjou were unable to stand up to the great cutting swords of the German cavalry, w:elded with both hands. It was only when, covered by the long pikes and armed with small, light thrusting swords, they engaged the horsemen at close quarters and thrust their sharp blades into armpits, groin and other unprotected parts of the riders that they 18 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es got the better of the heavily armoured cavalry. Thus the thrusting sword was in use, at any rate by the lower ranks of soldiers in South Europe, in the 13th century. Sieur de Joinville relates in his memoirs, written, when he was en old man, about 1309, of the Battle at Man- sourah during St. Louis' crusade in Egypt in the year 1250, OC a sword used for thrusting. A Saracen had struck him with a lance, so that he was pressed against the neck of his horse and the lance, and he was unable to draw his sword, which was suspended at his waist belt. When the Saracen now saw t h e knight draw the other sword, suspendeld at the saddle, he turne~d his horse and rode away, but the knight too turned his hcrse, rode against the Saracen and killed him, using his sword in the manner of a lance, as1 h e writes in the memoirs. In Chapter 13 of his manual: De regimine principum, on the art of war, the Italian nobleman archbishop of Bourges since 1295 and general of the Augustine Order, Bgidius Romanus Colonna, the tutor of Philip the Flair. writes that the thrusting sword is the most useful form of sword, because it penetrates chain-mail more easily than the cutting sword, gives deeper and more mortal wounds and is less strenuous in use. I n his manual IEgidius is evidently in- fluenced. by his studies of Vegetius, just as was king Alfonso el Sabio of Castille, who wrote a textbook on warfare in 1260. Yet Alfonso was even more influenced by the Arabic authors. And so it appears that in the wars of the 14th century - especially in the latter half - the heavily armoured cavalry with its cutting sword, which in the meantime had become very large, had difficulty in holding its own against the agile infantry armed with short thrusting swords. T'ime and again Froissart, writing on the Hundred Years' War, relates how both French and English had short, stiff thrusting swords, short Bordeaux swords which are stiff and pointed. French pictorid pepre- sentations olf the period contain splendid examples of such thrusting swords. At Sempach and elsewhere the Swiss carry a characteristic thrusting sword with a slender, sharp-pointed blade and a new form of hilt, a facetted, pear-shaped pommel, short grip and curved quillons, a weapon presumably inspired by French forms and, after the many finds on the battlefield of Sempach, came to be known a s the Sempach sword. The Swiss freedom wars in the 14th and 15th centuries stand like a series of epitaphs over th,e cavalry. Side by side with the pointed thrusting sword the heavy two-hand sword proved to be an efficient infantry weapon. In t h e second half of the 14th century the course of developments divided into two prin- cipal directions: a thrusting szuord and a cutting sword, both esr sentially for infantry use, and in between a more commonly carried cut-and-thrust sword. used from horseback. The cutting sword, which got the better of the heavily armoured cavalry. Thus the thrusting sword was in use, at any rate by the lower ranks of soldiers in South Europe, in the 13th century. Sieur de Joinville relates in his memoirs, written, when he was en old man, about 1309, of the Battle at Man. sourah during St. Louis' crusade in Egypt in the year 1250, of a sword used for thrusting. A Saracen had struck him with a lance, so that he was pressed against the neck of his horse and the lance, and he was unable to draw his sword, which was suspended at his waist belt. When the Saracen now saw the knight draw the other sword, suspended at the saddle, he turned his horse and rode away, but the knight too turned his hcrse, rode against the Saracen and killed him, using his sword in the manner of a lance, as! he writes in the memoirs. In Chapter 13 of his manual: De regimine principum, on the art of war, the Italian nobleman archbishop of Bourges since 1295 and general of the Augustine Order, ./Egidius Romanus Colonna, the tutor of Philip the Fair, writes that the thrusting sword is the most useful form of sword, because it penetrates chain·mail more easily than the cutting sword, gives deeper and more mortal wounds and is less strenuous in use. In his manual lEgidius is evidently in· fluenced. by his studies of Vegetius, just as was king Alfonso el Sabio of Castille, who wrote a textbook on warfare in 1260. Yet Alfonso was even more influenced by the Arabic authors. And so it appears that in the wars of the 14th century - especially in the latter half - the heavily armoured cavalry with its cutting sword, which in the meantime had become very large, had difficulty in holding its own against the agile infantry armed with short thrusting swords. Time and again Froissart, writing on the Hundred Years' War, relates how both French and English had short, stiff thrusting swords, short Bordeaux swords Which are stiff and pointed. French pictorial repre- sentations of the period contain splendid examp:es of such thrusting swords. At Semp2ch and elsewhere the Swiss carry a characteristic thrusting sword with a slender, sharp-pointed blade and a new form of hilt, a facetted, pear-shaped pommel, short gr;p and curved quillons, a weapon presumably inspired by French forms and, after the many finds on the battlefield of Sempach, came to be known as the Sempach sword. The Swiss freedom wars in the 14th and 15th centuries stand like a series of epitaphs over the cavalry. Side by side with the pointed thrusting sword the heavy two-hand sword proved to be an efficient infantry weapon. In the second half of the 14th century the course of developments divided into two prin- cipal directions: a thrusting sword and a cutting sword, both es- sentially for infantry use, and in between a more commonly carried cut-and-thrust sword, used from horseback. The cutting sword, which 19 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es evolved f r o m hand and-half t o a two-hand sword, is mainly a Ger- manic creation, t h e thrusting sword a Latin. T h e former is used chiefly i n t h e Germanic lands but is b y n o means unknown in Latin regions, though there it d i f f e r s i n appearance f r o m t h e Germanic. I t was i n t h e Latin regions that t h e foundation was laid i n this period for the 16th century rapier hilts w i t h their complicated systems o f branches for t h e protection o f t h e hand. T h i s hilt i s t h e product o f several factors, t h e Latin way of using a sword - whether thrusting or cutting weapon - influence f r o m the cavalry sword o f the BwbeTs with its very short hilt, and the systemization of fencing as an art. Towards t h e close o f t h e 15th century gunpowder and firearms bring more influence t o bear upon t h e art o f war. T h e change of men- tality with the new school of thought, the Renatssance, disinterreid t h e inheritance f r o m antiquity, its great generals and its writings o n war and strategy, t h e study of Vegetius, Vitruvius, Polybius, Caesar, the impulses from the learned Greek-speaking world which had t o flee before t h e Turks, all led t o a complete change. I n 1521 came in Florence Machiavelli's w o r k : Libro dell' Arte della Guerra in which that great politician drew largely upon the antique writers, particularly Polybios and Cesar; but even Vegetius and Frontinus were his teachers. Machiavelli too had m u c h t o say about the role o f t h e thrusting sword. 4 s an adjuvant t o t h e thrusting sword the long infantry pike acquired great importance. Italy, Spain, the Low Countries and Switzerland brought it forward into t h e front ranks; t h e Swiss had halberds too. T h e two-handed sword or t h e halberd was combined b y t h e Swiss with, t h e pike, whereas t h e Latin nations combined pike and thrusting sword. T h e latter combination proved superior t o the former i n t h e famous Battle neur Bellinzona in 1422. Armed with the thrusting sword t h e Italian infantry commanded by t h e famous Mi- lanese Carmagnola, were more mobile a n d effective than the Swiss with the halberd. It is not without reason that the pointed thrusting sword became dominant i n t h e South. The Germanic line, i. e. Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Scandi- navia, in that period had gone in, completely for the large cruciform hilt with a heavy highly profiled pommel and a long grip, horizontal quillons (more rarely curveld), or an entirely different type, the bas- tard sword w i t h t h e pear-shaped pommel that was merely smooth or facetted. T h e tang was long, t h e quillons hoirizontal or curved almost like khose o f t h e Sempach swords. This type belongeid mainly North o f t h e Alps, though it i s sometimes met with to t h e South e. g. i n Spain, introduced by t h e mercenaries under t h e Hapsburgs. There ere m a n y variations, and d a b b l e specimens become more numerous. evolved from a hand-and-half to a two-hand sword, is mainly a Ger- manic creation, the thrusting sword a Latin. The former is used chiefly in the Gennanic lands but is by no means unknown ~n Latin regions, though there it differs in appearance from the Gennanic. It was in the Latin regions that the foundation was laid in this period for the 16th century rapier hilts with their complicated systems of branches for the protection of the hand. This hilt is the product of several factors, the Latin way of using a sword - whether thrusting or cutting weapon - influence from the cavalry sword 0/ the Berbers with its very short hilt, and the systemization 0/ fencing as an art. Towards the close of the 15th century glUlpowder and firearms bring more ,influence to bear upon the art of war. The change of men- tality with the new school 0/ thought, the Renaissance, disinterred the inheritance from antiquity, its great generals and its writings on war and strategy, the study of Vegetius, Vitruvius, Polybius, Caesar, the impulses from the learned Greek-speaking world which had to flee before the Turks, all led to a complete change. In 1521 came in Florence Machiavelli's work: Libro dell' Arte della Guerra in which that great politician drew largely upon the antique writers, particularly Polybios and Cesar; but even Vegetius and Frontinus were his teachers. Machiavelli too had much to say about the role of the thrusting sword. As an adjuvant to the thrusting sword the long infantry pike acquired great importance. Italy, Spain, the Low Countries and Switzerland brought it forward into the front ranks; the Swiss had halberds too. The two-handed sword or the halberd was combined by the Swiss with the pike, whereas the Latin nations combined pike and thrusting sword. The latter combination proved superior to the former in the famous Battle near Bellin:<.ona in 1422. Armed with the thrusting sword the Italian infantry commanded by the famous Mi- lanese Carmagnola, were more mobile and effective than the Swiss with the halberd. It is not without reason that the pointed thrusting sword became dominant in the South. The Germanic line, i. e. Gennany, Austria, Switzerland and Scandi- navia, in that period had gone in completely for the large crucifonn hilt with a heavy highly profiled pommel and a long grip, horizontal quillons (more rarely curved), or an entirely different type, the bas- tard sword with the pear-shaped pommel that was merely smooth or facetted. The tang was long, the quillons horizontal or curved almost like those of the 8empach swords. This type belonged mainly North of the Alps, though it is sometimes met with to the South e. g. in Spain, introduced by the mercenaries under the Hapsburgs. There are many variations, and datable specimens become more numerous. 20 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es It is possible to make a typological and chronologicd classification, which shows how developments took place within periods of about a quarter or a half century. A pear-shaped pommel is often seen on thrusting swords, frequently the very long ones small lances in fact. Gut-and-thrust swords and the purely cutting swords mostly have a wheel or more or less spherical pommel. In the Scandinavian countries this type of sword continues in use right up to 1500, and even later often in conjunction with a n almost spherical pommel that was especially popular in the North. Early in the 16th century in the S~candinavian countries these hand-and-half swords are furnished with branches and loops which turn them into big, awkward versions of the rapier. In a great many instances the blades of these large cuband-thrust swords and the cutting swords bear the wolf and crozier stamp, the emblem of the Passau workshops. Passau blades were in particular favour in the Scandinavian countries in the 14th and 15th oenturies; in fact, these blades were in very wide use in the Germanic countries a t the time. All through the Middle Ages the Passau smiths did a large export trade with East Europe. In t h e 15th century the Solingen factories came more and more into the foreground and in time displaced the Passau products, at any rate on the Northern market, especially after about 1500. The Passau workshops had proveld capable of satisfying the military standards set by the North Germanic countries for a sword blade, and Solingen in its turn did the same. The skilful Solingen smiths in the next centuries succeede,d in turning out blades that satisfied the requirements of both Latin and Germanic countries, and thereby in the course of time became paramount-quantitativelv; on the other hand there is no doubt that the Spanish factories, at any rate Toledo and Valencia, and the Italian, Mi,:an, Belluno and Brescia were1 quali- tatively superior. The large cut-and-thrust swords and the long Germanic Panzerste- cher or foining estoc of the end of the 15th century have no long religious inscriptions like the cutting sword of Crusade times. Stamps, figures such as woIf marks, stars, cartouches containing e. g. ZNRZ or JHS in Gothic minuscles appear frequently on the Germanic swords. In the Latin regions conditions in the 15th and 16th aenturies are somewhat different ; ((Maria)) inscriptions and invocations of Virgin Mary are not uncommon. Naturally these years have handed down a n ~ n b e r of distinotive and costly dated or datable swords of Gennanic type, individual specimens created to suit the wishes and wealth of the patron, and there are also many plain, simple war swords, some factory made throughout, for instance from Fassau or Solingen, others finished off It is possible to make a typological and chronological classification, which shows how developments took place within periods of about a quarter or a half century. A pear-shaped pommel is often seen on thrusting swords, frequently the very long ones small lances in fact. Cut-and-thrust swords and the purely cutting swords mostly have a wheel or more or less spherical pommel. In the Scandinavian countries this type of sword continues in use right up to 1500, and even later often in conjunction with an almost spherical pommel that was especially popular in the North. Early in the 16th century in the Scandinavian countries these hand-and-half swords are furnished with branches and loops which turn them into big, awkward versions of the rapier. In a great many instances the blades of these large cut-and-thrust swords and the cutting swords bear the wolf and crozier stamp, the emblem of the ?assau workshops. Passau blades were in particular favour in the Scandinavtan countries in the 14th and 15th centuries; in fact, these blades were in very wide use in the Germanic countries at the time. All through the Middle Ages the Passau smiths did a large export trade with East Europe. In the 15th century the Solingen factories came more and more into the foreground and in time displaced the Passau products, at any rate on the Northern market, especially after about 1500. The Passau workshops had proved ca.pable of satisfying the military standards set by the North Germanic countries for a sword blade, and Solingen· in its turn did the same. The skilful Solingen smiths in the next centuries succeeded. in turning out blades that satisfied the requirements of both Latin and Germanic countries, and thereby in the course of time became paramount-quantitatively; on the other hand there is no doubt that the Spanish factories, at any rate Toledo and Valencia, and the Italian, Mi.:an, Bel/uno and Brescia were quali. tatively superior. The large cut-and-thrust swords and the long Germanic Panzerste- cher or faining estoc of the end of the 15th century have no long religious inscriptions like the cutting sword of Crusade times. stamps, figures such as wolf marks, stars, ca·rtouches containing e. g. INRI or JHS in Gothic minuscles appear frequently on the Germanic swords. In the Latin regions conditions in the 15th and 16th centuries are somewhat d:fferent; «Maria» inscriptions and invocations of Virgin Mary are not uncommon. Naturally these years have handed down a m;..~ber of distinctive and costly dated or datable swords of Germanic type, individual specimens created to suit the wishes and wealth of the patron, and there are also many plain, simple war swords, some factory made throughout, for instance from Passau or Solingen, others finished off 21 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es in the importing countries. I t is possible to draw up a fairly re~liable chronology for these swords from the 15th century. However there is one group of swords that is mostly of Latin origin, some thrusting swords, others of the cut-and-thrust type, almost all of them with a wheel pommel, the majority with a short grip and curved quillons. These swords are dated by means of their blade inscriptions in Arabic, which give brief historical information about the weapons. They are war trophies, captured by the Egyptian sultans, from the Cypriote knights in 1365 when they besieged Alexandria and were defeateld, and in 1426 when Barsbey raided Cyprus and took a large booty (fig. 6-71. Including swords, helmets and other weapons this booty was taken t o the arsenal at Alexandria and hung as trophies, Fig. 6 . Ztalian sword w i f h Arabic inscription. Part. of s p i l tu- ken f r o m the C y p r i o f e knights by the Egyptians in 1365. ( C o l l . E . A . Christen- sen, Copenhagen. E . 190). in the importing countries. It is possible to draw up a fairly re-liable chronology for these swords from the 15th century. However there is one group of swords that is mostly of Latin origin, some thrusting swords, others of the cut-and-thrust type, almost all of them with a whe-el pommel, the majority with a short grip and curved quillons. These swords are dated by means of their blade inscriptions in Arabic, which give brief historical information about the weapons. They are war trophies, captured by the Egyptian sultans, from the Cypriote knights in 1365 when they besieged Alexandria and were defeated, and in 1426 when Barsbey raided Cyprus and took a large booty (fig. 6-7). InclUding swords, helmets and other weapons this booty was taken to the arsenal at Alexandria and hung as trophies, Fig. 6. JlaJilln sword with A rabic illScript;oll. Part. of spoil la- ken fro 111 the Cypriole knights by Iht: t.'gy ptialls ill /365, (Col/. E. A. Christell- WII, Copellhagell. E, 190). 22 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es Fig. 7 . Italian sword with Arabic cription. War-booty from tan Barsbey's invasion o f pros in 1426. (Coll. E . Christensen. E 129. Grip dern). ins- sul- CY - A . 1120- but when the Mameluke captured Egypt in 1517 most of them were carried to Constantinople. (Some few specimens Napoleon later was fortunate enough to bring away from Egypt). Several specimens came into the European market in the 1930's. Thanks to their Arabic inscriptions they provide partkulars of sultans, emirs, etc., which have enabled them to be dated positively. On some of these swords (of which one group can be dated prior to 1365 the other to before 1426, a few speciments to 1419, 1431, etc.), there is a blade detail of considera- ble interest, a ricasso ornamented with a very plain design: an engraved line at each side terminating in a curve and an eye. Somet- hing similar is to be seen on the handsome sword recently published by Pierre Contat (Annales Valaisannes 19601), the ceremonial sword of the Archbmishops of Sion, dated to about 14010 (fig. 8). Some of the swords from the Alexandria arsenal have very pointed thrusting blades with a sharp grat, broad at the top, almost triangular h shape. They rccall what Froissart says of the sharp and stiff Bmdeaux swords of the latter half of the 14th century. A number of swords of Latin Fig. 7. /III/ian sword wirh Arabic ins- cription. War-booty from SU/- tan Barsbey's invasion of Cy- pros in 1426. (Coli. E. A. ChristclIsen. E 129. Grip mo- dern). but when the Mameluke captured Egypt in 1517 most of them were carried to Constantinople. (Some few specimens Napoleon later was fortunate enough to bring away from Egypt). Several specimens came into the European market in the 1930's. Thanks to their Arabic inscriptions they provide parLculars of sultans, emirs, etc., which have enabled them to be dated positively. On some of these swords (of which one group can be dated prior to 1365 the other to before 1426, a few speciments to 1419, 1431, etc.), there is a blade detail of considera- ble interest, a rlcasso ornamented with a very plain design: an engraved line at each side terminating in a curve and an eye. Somet- hing similar is to be seen on the handsome sword recently published by Pierre Con tat (Annales Valaisannes 1960), the ceremonial sword of the Archbishops of Sion, dated to about 1400 (fig. 8). Some of the swords from the Alexandria arsenal have very pointed thrusting blades with a sharp grat, broad at the top, almost triangular in shape. They recall what Froissart says of the sharp and stiff Bordeaux swords of the latter half of the 14th century. A number of swords of Latin 23 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es Fig. 8. Ceremonial sword @f the Archbishop o f Sion, Swit- zerland, about 1400. (Coll. PiLrre Contat, Sion). origin, mostly Spanish, and Italian, with a wheel pommel, some with a concave-mirror like depression in the side panels, other with enamel- led heraldic arms, others again with a lenticular or shawly profiled pommel, but all with almost horizontal quillons whose ends bend downwards like hooks, are of the period around 1400-a little before or after. One particularly characteristic expression of this Latin type is the Italian sword in the Metropolitan Museum in New York, dated by its Arabic inscription to before 1419. Several others group themselves about it, e. g. a type familiar from Spanish paintings of about 1400 and a little way into the 15th century. The Italian blades from centres such as Milan, Belluno, Brescia, and other places were renowned far and wide for the quality of their products. Through Venice, Pisa and Genoa they were exported notwithstanding reiterated papal prohibition-to the Orient while simuitaneously Oriental blades were imported, for instance from Syria. The Syrian factories fell into disuse in the 15th century. I t is true t h a t others began working in Egypt and Morocco, but part of the Syrian business seams to have passed to the Iberian peninsula. I t is hardly likely that any est- ablishment approache~d Toledo for quality. ( A s in the case of the Milanese products Toledo blades were extensively imitated by Sol- "1.v~-, . ''If ~ .. ~orf'4. • : ...;~ . "','.....~ Fig. 8. Ceremonial sword uf Ihe Archhishops of .'lion, Swit- zerland, aboul 1400. (Coli. Pierre Conlal, .'lion). origin, mostly Spanish, and Italian, with a wheel pommel, some with a concave-mirror like depression in the side panels, other with enamel- led heraldic arms, others again with a lenticular or sharply profiled pommel, but all with almost horizontal quillons whose ends bend downwards like hooks, are of the period around 140o-a little before or after. One particularly characteristic expression of this Latin type is the Italian sword in the Metropolitan Museum in New York, dated by its Arabic inscription to before 1419. Several others group themselves about it, e. g. a type familiar from Spanish paintings of about 1400 and a little way into the 15th century. The Italian blades from centres such as Milan, Belluno, Brescia, and other places were renowned far and wide for the quality of their products. Through Venice, Pisa and Genoa they were exported notwithstanding reiterated papal prohibition-to the Orient while simultaneously Oriental blades were imported, for instance from Syria. The Syrian factories fell into disuse in the 15th century. It is true that others began working in Egypt and Morocco, but part of the Syrian business seems to have passed to the Iberian peninsula. It is hardly likely that any est- ablishment approached Toledo for quality. (As in the case of the Milanese products Toledo blades were extensively imitated by Sol- 24 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es ingen). With only few gaps Toledo's history can be traced back to antiquity, to the Iberians and Celto-Iberians, from whom the Romans, who already had exoellent Etruscan workshops, learned a great dea~l. But there were other centres, Valencia for instance, which produced fine blades that were much in demand; some are still extant with signatures. Seville too was one of the most renowned establishments, and besides there were Granada, Murcia, Barcelona and various Basque smithies. The documents and accounts in the local archives of Sp1a.n- ish towns contain the names of a host of blade smiths. France, too, was in no way behind in the Middle Ages: The Rhbne valley, French Savffie with Annecy, Bordeaux, and other places. Mention of blade smiths is to be found in several towns of southern France, at Lyons, Chatellerault, Poitou, and in the North at Paris, R o w n etc. The sword type of the Latin countries in the 15th century is well represented in the museums, and richly so in the pictorial arts of the perio~d. Characteristic types with the special forms of pommel, the short grip, usually curved quillons, distinctly thrusting blades with grat and strengthened point, and in many instances with a ~icasso, are to be found on several Spanish altar-pieces, sepulchral monuments, mural paintings and in illuminated manuscripts. The birth of Renaissance It was a restless epoch, a time of ferment, of incessant political disturbance, of intellectual currents, commercial connections with distant parts, the period leading up to the crisis of the Renaissance and humanism. The Mediterranean world lives under a pressure born of the fear of the advancing Turks, who in 1453 finally demolished the weak and effete Byzantine empire. The kingdom of Aragdn grows up to a period of brilliance which leid to a certain rallying of the different Mediterranean cultural elements. Catalonia and with it Bar- celona having fallen behind in many respects on account of internal and international political competition and conflicts in the Mediterm nem, the house of Aragon, of the Trastamare family, rose to a mighty state. The very complicated political situation between France, Milan, Arag6n and other states led to the great naval battle a t Ponza in 1435, where the king of Aragon, Alfonso V and his navy was defeated by the Genoese. B g h t years later matters turned, and Arag6n under Alfonso came forward into the limelight, when the Aragonese king defeated the defenders of Naples, Renato de Anjou and the Genoese. I n 1442 Alfonso marched into Naples and from there conducted a large scale imperialistic policy, w;th dreams of becoming another Ale. ingen). With only few gaps Toledo's history can be traced back to antiquity, to the Iberians and Gelto-Iberians, from whom the Romans, who already had excellent Etruscan workshops, learned a great den,!. But there were other centres, Valencia for instance, which produced fine blades that were much in demand; some are still extant with signatures. Seville too was one of the most renowned establishments, and besides there were Granada, Murcia, Barcelona and various Basque smithies. The documents and accounts in the local archives of Span- ish towns contain the names of a host of blade smiths. France, too, was in no way behind in the Middle Ages: The Rhone valley, French Savoie with Annecy, Bordeaux, and other places. Mention of blade smiths is to be found in several towns of southern France, at Lyons, Chatellerault, Poitou, and in the North at Paris, Rouen etc. The sword type of the Latin countries in the 15th century is well represented in the museums, and richly so in the pictorial arts of the period. Characteristic types with the special forms of pommel, the short grip, usually curved quillons, distinctly thrusting blades with grat and strengthened point, and in many instances with a ricasso, are to be found on several Spanish altar'pie<:es, sepulchral monuments, mural paintings and in illuminated manuscripts. The birth of Renaissance It was a restless epoch, a time of ferment, of incessant political disturbance, of intellectual currents, commercial connections with distant parts, the period leading up to the crisis of the Renaissance and humanism. The Mediterranean world lives under a pressure born of the fear of the advancing Turks, who in 1453 finally demolished the weak and effete Byzantine empire. The kingdom of Arag6n grows up to a period of brilliance which led to a certain rallying of the different Mediterranean cultural elements. Catalonia and with it Bar- celona having fallen behind in many respects on account of internal and international political competition and conflicts in the Mediterra- nean. the house of Arag6n. of the Trastamare family, rose to a mighty state. The very complicated political situation between France, Milan, Arag6n and other states led to the great naval battle at Ponza in 1435, where the king of Arag6n, Al/onsa V and his navy was defeated by the Genoese. Eight years later matters turned, and Arag6n under Alfonso came forward into the limelight, when the Aragonese king defeated the defenders of Naples, Renato de Anjou and the Genoese. In 1442 Alfonso marched into Naples and from there conducted a large scale imperialistic policy, w:th dreams of becoming another Ale- 25 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es xander the Great assembling the entire civilized world under his ban- ner. He assumed the titles of king of Jerusalem, Hungary, Croatia, Greece, Cyprus, had mercantile relations with Syria and its hinterlands and with such remote regions as Abyssmia, where he became friend with the Negus with Mogul and Peking. On the Balkan he contacted the famous chieftain of Albania, Scanderbeg. He called himself Divus and in the Roman manner had a triumphal arch erected at Caste1 Nuovo in Naples. The kingdom of Naples became a most important factor in the Mediterranean world, a strong safeguard against the Turkish menace just outside Byzantium. The whole Mediterranean world without France partook in this saf- eguard against the Turks. With this important position Naples was destined to influence cultural developments. With the numerous and far reaching trade connections and the cultural currents flowing in from many quarters: the learned men of the Greek-speaking world, fleeing from the Turks to Venice, Florence and South Italy, the Arabian and Byzantine craftsmen and artists coming to Italy, the Spanish artists and gold- smiths attracted to the Ho-y See and to the court at Naples, and the Italians travelling to the cities of the Iberian peninsula, it is nothing remarkable that some measure of cultural fellowship was formed; Naples became a centre of polztics and culture, from which emanated a stream of cultural renewal to the rest of the world, a Renaissance. In addition there was the rich culture that thrived at the courts of the various Italian princes, a t Florence with the family of Medici (Cosimo, Piero and Lorenzo ctil Magnificon) in Milan, in 1395, created a ducal with the family of the Viscontis and since 1450 the family of the Sforzas. Milan was the sovereign of almost all Lombardy with Pisa (since 1399) and Genoa ctla Superbax since 1464. In Mantova we find the ducal family of the Gonzagas, in Verona the family of the Scalas. Venice was the ruler of a great part of the Dalmatian coast, the island of Crete and after 1489 even the ruler of Cypros. There can be no question of definite delimitations in the Latin world, for which reason we find noble Italian goldsmith's work on Spanish swords, Zaragozan goldsmith's work en Roman swords (e. g. the goldsmiths Pedro de ilm Cellas and Antonio from Zaragoza). Nor is it remarkable that we find almost the same sword types and the same ttnovelties)) in Spanish and Italian paintings of that time. Swords appearing in paintings of the Valencian school of about 1420-30 are to be seen in similar renderings in e. g. Pisan art of about 1430. About the middle of the 15th century there is a wealth of types and forms in both South and North of the two peninsulas. I t is only in rough outlines that the various sword types can be xander the Great assembling the entire civilized world under his ban- ner. He assumed the titles of king of Jerusalem, Hungary, Croatia, Greece, Cyprus, had mercantile relations with Syria and its hinterlands and with such remote regions as Abyssinia, where he became friend with the Negus. with Mogul and Peking. On the Balkan he contacted the famous chieftain of Albania, Scanderbeg. He called himself Divus and in the Roman manner had a triumphal arch erected at Castel Nuovo in Naples. The kingdom of Naples became a most important factor in the Mediterranean world, a strong safeguard against the Turkish menace just outside Byzantium. The whole Mediterranean world without France partook in this saf- eguard ag'ainst the Turks. With this important position Naples was destined to influence cultural developments. With the numerous and far reaching' trade connections and the cultural currents nowing in from many quarters: the learned men of the Greek-speaking world, neeing from the Turks to Venice, Florence and South Italy, the Arabian and Byzantine craftsmep. and artists coming to Italy, the Spanish artists and gold- smiths attracted to the Ho'y See and to the court at Naples, and the Italians travelling to the cities of the Iberian peninsula, it is nothing remarkable that some measure of cultural fellowship was formed; Naples became a centre of politics and culture, from which emanated a stream of cultural renewal to the rest of the world, a Renaissance. In addition there was the rich culture that thrived at the courts of the various Italian princes, at Florence with the family of Medici (Cosimo, Piero and Lorenzo «il Magnifico») in Milan, in 1395, created a ducal with the family of the Viscontis and since 1450 the family of the Sforzas. Milan was the sovereign of almost all Lombardy with Pisa (since 1399) and Genoa «la Superba)) since 1464. In Mantova we find the ducal family of the Gonzagas, in Verona the family of the Sceuas. Venice was the ruler of a great part of the Dalmatian coast, the island of Crete and after 1489 even the ruler of Cypros. There can be no question of definite delimitations in the Latin world, for which reason we find noble Italian goldsmith's work on Spanish swords, Zaragozan goldsmith's work en Roman swords (e. g. the goldsmiths pedro de las Cel/as and Antonio from Zaragoza). Nor is it remarkable that we find almost the same sword types and the same <>. I n blicade D e H o r t u n o de Ayuire e n T o l e d o and t h e o f f i c i u l s t u m p of Espudero del R e y . h: Spanish r u p k r with damascened ornaments, n o w faint. I n ricusso s t a m p of Johunne, W u n d e , in blade n a m e of Sebasticin Heincinder and i n w i p t i o n s . ( N a t . M U F , C o p n h a g e n . 21711 and 10136, m u s . fot.). is the mountings on the ornamental firearms of the day.) From Naples we have the signatures of several artists who for instance fashioned the cups for Spanish cup hilt rapiers. Round about 1530 many rapier hilts were designed by Raphael's disciple Caravaggio. Fig. 18. a: Spanish rapier «espada de [azo». 111 bl'Gde De Ronuno de Aguire en Toledo alld rhe official .r/llIllp of Espadero del Rey. h: Spanish rapia with dll1nllscened ornaments. now faint. In ricasso stll/llP of ]ohanne,\' Wunde, in blade name of Sebastian RernwuJez and inscriptions. INat. Mus. Copellhaf?l'll. 21711 and 1013(,. m/ls. fot.). 50 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es North Italian hilts often have a rather complicated basket with many bows, which is nothing strange having regard to the fencing masters there and the manuals on fencing published in that part of the country. The Italian hilts are often extremely elegant with slender guards and quillons. The latter are very long, longer than for instance the German and French though scarcely comparable with the Spanish. The bows are often artistically entwined. From below the pas-d'he runs the traditional bow followed upwards by a midway bow which may assume the form of a spiral volute; a third joins the knuckle bow at its middle. and on the side of the counter- giiard three bows emanate from the pas-d'Bne and join on to the knuckle bow. Often the latter is only loosely joined on to the pommel. I t may end in a small b d l or knob corresponding to the ends of the quillons, or in a hook bent outwards; or, slightly rounded, it may terminate a very short distance from the pommel, often no more than a millimetre. The museum m the Pdaxxo Capodimonte has a number of typical Italian hilts of the middle 16th century. Several of them are richly ornamented, a type that is familiar for example from the famous work from 1554 in the Victoria and Albert Museum on London (No. E 1764-19291, by Philipplo Urso of Mantova. The hilt material is often iron (fig. 15) gold or silver gilt with a wealth of ornaments and figures inlaid wlth the technique mentioned by Benvenuto. Although this form of inlay recalls the Spanish and French it differs from them; the blades are often of Italian work, especially from Milan (Caino, Piccinino (fig. 16-17) and others), from which city we also have archival evidence of a large production of arms, and not armour alone. Other names are Ferrara of Belluno, Pedro di Napoli. They may also be Spanish, signed by Hortuno de Aguirre, Delaorta, Ayala, Sebastian, Hernandex (fig. IS), Alonso de Sahagun and others. In many instances the blades are from Solingen, some of them imi- tations of the Italian and Spanish-and into the bargain with imita- tions of the names of the Italian and Spanlsh masters. Sometimes it may be difficult to distinguish between the genuine blades and the good imitations, but the Spanish blade smiths had their own technique for farming and placing the letters, and this could not be copied. Spain is highly individual with her rapiers (fig. 18-20). The hilts are remarkably short-an inheritance from the Moorish swords. The pommels are often like those of Italy and France but there are special forms too (lantern-shaped, etc.) (fig. 20). There is something undefinable, something foreign about many of the Spanish forms. The pas-d'he bows, guards, pitons and the like are slightly more prominent than on the weapons of the other countries, but first and 51 North Italian hilts often have a rather complicated basket with many bows, which is nothing strange having regard to the fencing masters there and the manua,ls on fencing published in that part of the country. The Italian hilts are often extremely elegant with slender guards and quillons. The latter are very long, longer than for instance the German and French though scarcely comparable with the Spanish. The bows are often artistically entwined. From below the pas-d'ane runs the traditional bow followed upwards by a midway bow which may assume the form of a spiral volute; a third joins the knuckle bow at its middle" and on the side of the counter- gUard three bows emanate from the pas-d'ane and join on to the knuckle bow. Often the latter is only loosely joined on to the pommel. It may end in a small ball or knob corresponding to the ends of the quillons, or in a hook bent outwards; or, slightly rounded, it may terminate a very short distance from the ponunel, often no more than a millimetre. The museum in the Palazzo Capodimonte has a number of typical Italian hilts of the middle 16th century. Several of them are richly ornamented, a type that is familiar for example from the famous work from 1554 in the Victoria and Albert Museum on London (No, E 1764-1929), by Philippo Urso of Mantova, The hilt material is often iron (fig, 15) gold or silver gilt with a wealth of ornaments and figures inlaid with the technique mentioned by Benvenuto. Although this form of inlay recalls the Spanish and French it differs from them; the blades are often of Italian work, especially from Milan (Caino, Piccinino (fig. 16'17) and others), from Which city we also have archival evidence of a large production of arms, and not armour alone. Other names are Ferrara 0/ Belluno, Pedro di Napoli. They may also be Spanish, signed by Hortuno de Aguirre, Delaorta, Ayala, sebastian, Hernandez (fig. 18), Alonso de Sahagun and others. In many instances the blades are from Solingen, some of them imi- tations of the Italian and Spanish-and into the bargain with imita- tions of the names of the Italian and Spanish masters, Sometimes it may be difficult to distinguish between the genuine blades and the good imitations, but the Spanish blade smiths had their own technique for forming and placing the letters, and this could not be copied. Spain is highly individual with her rapiers (fig. 18-20). The hilts are remarkably short-an inheritance from the Moorish 'swords. The pommels are often like those of Italy and France but there are special forms too (lantern-shaped, etc.) (fig. 20). There is something undefinable, something foreign about many of the Spanish forms. The pas-d'ane bows, guards, pitons and the like are slightly more prominent than on the weapons of the other countries, but first and 51 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es F i g . 19. a: Spanish rapier with engraved ornaments in the hilt. In the blade. Juan Martinez en Toledo and stamp oaf Erpadero del Rey. b: Spanish? rapier with engraved scrolls m d with hearts and flowers in enamel and silver openwork. In the blade the whole prayer o f Ave Maria, gratia plena. In ricasso crossbow stamp^.. (Nar. Mus. Copenhagen, 10134 and 10130, mur. fot.). foremost the quillons are often of a different style, the foremost being turned upwards into an open knuckle guard, often in an elegant arc, whereas the lower one is turned downwards in a corresponding curve (fig. 181. Sometimes there is quite a small cage of close bows emanating from the pas-d'gne. One guard is sometimes turned upwards i n an open knuckle guard, the quillons forming a long, elegant letter 9. In these rapiers, whose blades are often unusually long, slender, strong but whippy, like a steel splring, Toledo work, we find the prototypes of the curious Flemish rapiers with a basket hilt of I I Fig. /9. a: Spwlish rapier with engraved ornaments in rhe hilf. III the Made; Juan Martine" ('11 Toledo alld slOmp ul e.fpadero del Re)'. b: Spanish? ropier Iv;,1I ('n1?,.a~·ed seroJ/s Gild wilh hearts and /101-1:(''',,, in enamel and silver opellll'ork. In the blade {he whole prayer of A~'e Maria, gratia plena. In rrcas.'io crossbow sramps. (Na,. It/us. Co[Xnhagl>n. 10134 and /0130, IH1H. /ot.). foremost the quillons are often of a d;fferent style, the foremost being turned upwards into a,n open knuckle guard, often in an elegant arc, whereas the lower one is turned downwards in a corresponding curve (fig. 18). Sometimes there is quite a small cage of close bows emanating from the pas-ct'une. One guard is sometimes turned upwards in an open knuckle guard, the quillons forming a long, elegant letter S. In these rapiers, whose blades are often unusually long, slender, strong but whippy, like a steel spring, Toledo work, we find the prototypes of the curious Flemish rapiers with a basket hilt of 52 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es Fig. 20. a: Spanish rapier with Ian~ern-shaped pommel and lantern-ornaments on quill'ons and side rings. About 1580. In the blade De Francisco Ruiz en T o k d o . b: Officers sword, so-called c>. Dutch type from about 1620-30. The type was very popular in Sweden. In the hilt engraved ornmenrs, in the blade: Clemens Deinger, and stamp with a w a n . (Nat. Mus. Copenhagen, I0123 and 10132, rnus. fot.). many bows that almost wraps itself about the hand. The shape of the quillons may embody a reminiscence of the old a la Valencianas. It is no long step from there to the more or less perforated mussel- shell guard plates to be found especially on the Flemish rapiers but not uncc~mmonly on the Spanish too. There is no! aoubt that in this we see an influence from Germany (fig. 21). The Spanish rapier hilts also provided the goldsmiths with Op- portunities to display their skill. Like the Italian, the art of the goldsmith in S p a i n was on a particularly high level in the early Re- naissance and the 16th century. One of the most remarkable localities for this art was Guadalupe in E s t r e m a d u r a , which had fostered one of the most able Spanish goldsmiths, F r a y J u a n d e Segovia. Most i l ,. ~.. " l ifjo :l (. Fig. 20. a: Spanish rapier with lantern-shaped pommel and lantern-ornaments 011 quili'Ons and side rings. About 1580. In the blade De Francisco Ruiz en To~edo. b: Officers sword, so-called «Pappenheimer». DU/ch type from about 1620-30. The rype was very popular in Sweden. In the hilt engraved omaments, in the blade: Clemens Deinger, and stamp with a swan. (Nat. Mus. CopenhaKen, 10123 and 10132, mus. tot.). many bows that almost wraps itself about the hand. The shape of the quillons may embody a reminiscence of the old a la Valencianas. It is no long step from there to the more or less perforated mussel- shell guard plates to be found especially on the Flemish rapiers but not uncommonly on the Spanish too. There is no doubt that in this we see an influence from Germany (fig. 21). The Spanish rapier hilts also provided the goldsmiths with op- portunities to display their skill. Like the Italian, the art of the goldsmith in Spain was on a particularly high level in the early Re- naissance and the 16th century. One of the most remarkable localities for this art was Guado1upe in Estremadura, which had fostered one of the most able Spanish goldsmiths, Fray Juan de Segovia. Most 53 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es Fig. 2 ' I . Flemish r a p i e r , < < P a p p e n h e i m e r > > , about 1620-30. In the blade the name o f Heinrich Pae- ther. ( C o l l . E . A . Christensen, E 18). prominent, and also one of the oldest, was Toledo, followed by San- tiago de Compostela and Oviedo; the art was somewhat younger in Leon and Seville. Granada too belonged to the circle. Zaragoxa must also be mentioned, because from it came a large number of skilful goldsmiths t o the many Italian courts and to Rome. The damasce- ning technique that was practised at Toledo was closely related to the Oriental, which originally came from India. Both technically and stylistically it differs from t h e damascening of t h e other Romanesque countries. This special products of damascening is to be seen not only on rapler hilts but also on daggers, particularly o n the characte- ristic ear daggers. Like the Venetian weapon the Spanish types originated in the Orient, but t h e two types-the Venetian and the Spanish-differ in both ornamentation and form. The main center of manufacture in Spain may have been Granada. A n outstanding representative from this center is t h e dagger of Boabdil in t h e Real Fig. 2/. Flemish rap i er, «Pappellheimer». aho/lt /620-30. /11 the hlade the lIame of Heillrich Pue- ther. (Call. E. A. ChristellSell. E /8). prominent, and also one of the oldest, was Toledo, followed by San- ttago de Compostela and Ovtedo,' the art was somewhat younger in LeOn and Seville. Granada too belonged to the circle. Zaragoza must also be mentioned, because from it came a large number of skilful goldsmiths to the many Italian courts and to Rome. The damasce- ning technique that was practised at Toledo was closely related to the Oriental, which originally came from India. Both technically and stylistically it differs from the damascening of the other Romanesque countries. This special products of damascening is to be seen not only on rapier hilts but also on daggers, particularly on the characte- ristic ear daggers. Like the Venetian weapon the Spanish types originated in the Orient, but the two types-the Venetian and the Spanish-differ in both ornamentation and form. The main center of manufacture in Spain may have been Granada. An outstanding representative from this center is the dagger of Boabdil in the Real 54 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es Armeria in Madrld. Another outstanding spec:men of ear dagger possibly from Granada is to be found in Institute Valencia de Don Juan. Madrid. Various specimens are in the museum of Lazaro Galdiano in Madrid, in the coll, of Palazxo Odeschalchi in Rome and in a, few other museums. The types have been treated by mrs. Pilar Fernandez Vega in an essay: Dagas granadinas. The Spanish type by the way was popular at the French court, and French accounts of both 15th and 16th centuries, make more mention of Spanish elar dag- gers, e. g. the inventory from Fontainebleu as late a s 1560. Dating from 1538 there is a drawinq by the goldsmith Cristobal Juan at Bar- celona, of a most elegant ear dagger. The archives of B,arcelona mention drawings from such artists as Antonio de Valdes and Rafael de Ximenes from 1537. The most characteristic rap-ers are the cup hilt rapiers, which make their appearance early in the 17th century and culminate round about the 16501's (fig 22). They were still in use around 1700, and dated and signed specimens of after the year 1700 are known. The cup was possibly designed under the influence of the mussel shells of German rapiers, which on the Spanish rapiers were made larger and rounder, and in time qrew into the well-known cup or bell. The turned edge was developed in conformity with the manuals of the Spanish fen- cing masters, its function being to catch and break the blade. The quillons are extremely long, the grip very short and the knuckle guard does not close r;ght up to the rather flattened spherical pom- mel. On the later cup hilt rapiers various details are added on the inside of the bell, details that are of importance to the holding of the weapon. Cup and pommel may be quite plain, un~decorated o r ha- ving merely a narrow lace edge cut in the iron; but the most charac- teristic form is the cup with openwork Lke fine lace. Outstanding specimens are extant, made in Spain itself, i. a. in Madrid by Madrile- nian artists, and indeed in Portugal. But it was the artists at Naples -then under Spanish rule--who became famous for their extraordi- narily fine cup h i l t rapiers. The cup was carved a la espagnole, and among the more renowned artists in this field are two whose signed works now repose in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London and the Detroit Art Institute, U. S. A., Antonio Cilenta and Lorenzio Palumbo. Brescia and Milan are other towns which had a name for their Spanish-style cup hilt rapiers. The Solingen factories imitated them, and in Germany we find the type represented, but often of somewhat coarser finish. Coupled with these rapiers are the Spanish left-hand daggers with similar iron-work (fig. 22). Just as the cup of the cup hilt rapier was produced in various forms, for instance like a scalloped Armeria in Madrid. Another outstanding spec:men of ear dagger possibly from Granada is to be found in Instituto Valencia de Don JUaJ"l. Madrid. Various specimens are in the museum of Laza;ro Galdiano in Madrid., in the coll, oj Pala"i!zo Odeschalchiin Rome and in a few other museums. The types have been treated by mrs. Pilar Fern{mdez Vega in an essay: Dag9s granadinas. The Spanish type by the way was popular at the French court, and French accounts of both 15th and 16th centuries, make more mention of Spanish ear dag- gers, e. g. the inventory from Fontainebleu as late as 1560. Dating from 1538 there is a drawing by the goldsmith Crist6bal Juan at Bar- celona, of a most elegant ~ar dagger. The archives of Barcelona mention drawings from such artists as Antonio de Valdes and Rajael de Ximenes from 1537. The most characteristic rap:ers are the cup hilt rapiers, which make their appearance early in the 17th century and culminate round about the 1650's (fig. 22). They were still in use around 1700, and dated a,nd signed specimens of after the year 1700 are known. The cup was passibly designed under the influence of the mussel shells of German rapiers, which on the Spanish rapiers were made larger and rounder, and in time grew into the well-known cup or bell. The turned edge was developed in conformity with the manuals of the Spanish fen- cing masters, its function being to catch and break the blade. The quillons are extremely long, the grip very short and the knuckle guard does not close r:ght up to the rather flattened spherical pom- mel. On the later cup hilt rapiers various details are added on the inside of the bell, details that are of importance to the holding of the weapon. Cup and pommel. may be quite plain, undecorated or ha- ving merely a narrow lace edge cut in the iron; but the most charac- teristic form is the cup with openwork like fine lace. Outstanding specimens are extant, made in Spain itself, i. a. in Madrid by Madrile- nfan artists, and indeed in Portugal. But it was the artists at Naples -then under Spanish rule--who became famous for their extraordi- narily fine cup hilt rapiers. The cup was carved a la espagnole, and among the more renowned artists in this field are two whose signed works now repose in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London and the Detroit Art Institute, U. S. A., Ant01lio Cilenta and Lorenzio Palumbo. Brescia and Milan are other towns which had a name for their Spanish-style cup hilt rapiers. The Solingen factories imitated them, and in Germany we find the type represented, but often of somewhat coarser finish. Coupled with these rapiers are the Spanish lejt-hand daggers with similar iron·work (fig. 22). Just as the cup of the cup hilt rapier was produced in various forms, for :nstance like a scalloped 55 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es Fig. 22. Spanish left-hand dagger and cup-hilt rapier. T h e pierced and chiselled hilts are possibly Italian w o r k m a n s h i p , about 1650. (Coll. E. A. Chris- tensen, E 71 and 79). calyx of greater or smaller depth and especially in the latter part of the 17th century got sloping brims with a higher margin under the knuckle guard, so the guard on the SDanish left-hand dagger varies in appearance, becomes lobate, with a ((lace border)) on the smooth iroln plate. That the cup hilt rapier pers-sts so long in Spain is due to the special line of development in Spanish fencing as evolved by Luis Pacheco de Narvaex with its methodology and its geometrical, scientifically devised movements. A good idea of the Spanish school of fencing was provided by the large work which appeared in Leyden in 1630, by Girard Thibaust d'Anvers: Academie de l'epee ou se uemonstru"nt par reigles mathematiques sur le f o n d a m n t d'un cercle mysterteux la theofie et pratique des vrais et jusqu'a present i n c o p u s , ; " ·t, .. .C'~ . .,. .. :~.-;<> Fig. 22. Spanish left-hand dagger and cup-hilt rapier. The pierced and chiselled hilts are possibly Italian workmanship, about 1650. (Coli. E. A. Chris- tensen, E 71 and 79). calyx of greater or smaller depth and especially in the latter part of the 17th century got sloping brims with a higher margin under the knuckle guard, so the guard on the Spanish left-hand dagger varies in appearance, becomes lobate, with a «lace border» on the smooth iron plate. That the cup hilt rapier pers:sts so long in Spain is due to the special line of development in Spanish fencing as evolved by Luis Paeheeo de Nal'vaez with its methodology and its geometr~cal, scientifically devised movements. A good idea of the Spanish school of fencing was provided by the large work which appeared in Leyden in 1630, by Girard Thibaust d'Anvers: Aeademie de i'epee ou se dcmonstrent par reigles mathematiques sur le fondament d'un eercle mysterieux la theorie et pratique des vrais et jusqu'a present ineognus 56 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es secrets de maniement des armes a pied et a cheval, a work difficult to understand but illustrated by eminent artists. In France at about the middle of the 17th century a change was made to a shorter small-sword-xla courte &peen and the left-hand dagger was abolished. The three edged blade was introduced at the same time and a distinction was made between epee militaire and epee de v;lle. A book by Le Perche du Courdray the founder of the French School with: L'Exercioe des armes ou le maniement des fleu- ret-, Paris 1635 was of particular interest, The French school was ins- trumenta~l in causing the long rapier to disappear in Italy and elsewhe- re except Spain, and the new shorter and more simple form to appear. During the second half of 17th century the small-sword led to the handsome dress-swords which flourished during the rococo. France separated herself on the whole from Italy and Spain by her heavkr forms of sword, though maintaining a high degree of elegance. Iron chiselling came into1 the foreground and Spanish dam- ascening made its way mross the Pyrtntes (fig. 23). At first the hilts were of the same complicated types as the Italian and Spanish. Some way into the 17th century the French swords separated from those of the other Romanesque countries on account of the French fencing system. French renaissance hilts are scarceIy ever lacking a quillon run- ning right through the cross with a front and back end. Then there are the knuckle-guard and the other bows. It has several points of similarity with Slouth German hilts, which were often mfluenced by French work especially towards the close of the1 16th century and around the year 1600. French artists and goldsmiths provide drawings and suggestions for characteristic renaissance hilts in gold and silver, and several such drawings are extant. after them i a at Lyons by Pierre Woezriot from Lorraine, Bordeaux, Paris and elsewhere. The drawings of EZienne Delaune influenced the artists and swords makers at the Bavarian court, including iron chisellers like Daniel and Bnanuel Sadetler, whose hilts are actually French in style. A special iron-work technique developed in France, with orna- ments and whole pictorial scenes in blued relief on a gilt background. One famous sword and gun smith, Antoine Jacquard of Poitiers, drew designs for hilts with silver incrustations in black steel. I n the late baroque and during the rococo France, especially Paris, became the European centre for elegant dress-swords. French 16th and 17th cen- tury inventories and other documents sometimes mention swords with hilts h la espagnole, B la italienne, and a la allemaigne by French artists. A sword hilt was not necessarily made in the country in secrets de maniement des armes a pied et a cheval, a work difficult to tUlderstand but illustrated by eminent artists. In France at about the middle of the 17th century a change was made to a shorter small-sword-----{(la courte epee» and the left-hand dagger was abolished. The three edged blade was introduced at the same time and a distinction was made between epee militaire and epee de v:Ile. A book by Le P(~rche du Courdray the founder of the French School with: l'Exercice des armes OU le maniement des Ileu- ret-, Paris 1635 was of particular interest. The French school was ins- trumental in causing the long rapier to disappear in Italy and elsewhe- re except Spain, and the new shorter and more simple form to appear. During the second half of 17th century the small-sword led to the handsome dress-swords which flourished during the rococo. France separated herself on the whole from Italy and Spain by her heav:er forms of sword, though maintaining a high degree of elegance. Iron chiselling came into the foreground and Spanish dam- ascening made its way across the Pyrenees (fig. 23). At first the hilts were of the same complicated types as the Italian and Spanish. Some way into the 17th century the French swords separated from those of the other Romanesque countries on accotUlt of the French fencing system. French renaissance hilts are scarcely ever lacking a quillon run- ning right through the cross with a front and back end. Then there are the knuckle-guard and the other bows. It has several points of similarity with South German hilts, which were often influenced by French work especially towards the close of the 16th century and arotUld the year 1600. French artists and goldsmiths provide drawings and suggestions for characteristic renaissance hilts in gold and silver, and several such drawings are extant after them i a at Lyons by Pierre WoeiriOt from Lorraine, Bordeaux, Paris and elsewhere. The drawings of Etienne Delaune influenced the artists and swords makers at the Bavarian court, including iron chisellers like Daniel and Emanuel Sadeler, whose hIlts are actually French in style. A special iron-work technique developed in France, with orna- ments and whole pictorial scenes in blued relief on a gilt backgrotUld. One famous sword and gtUl smith, Antoine Jacquard 0/ Poitiers, drew designs for hilts with silver incrustations in black steel. In the late baroque and during the rococo France, especially Paris, became the European centre for elegant dress-swords. French 16th and 17th cen- tury inventories and other documents sometimes mention swords with hilts a la espagnole, a la italienne, and a la allemaigne by French artists. A sword hilt was not necessarily made in the cotUltry in 57 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es Fig. 2 3 . T h e < French rapier f&m about 1575. Hilt richly damascened with gold and x i h r . Stamps in the ricasso. ( C o l l . E . A . Christensen, E 208). whose type and style it was designed. Form and style depended upon the desires of the customer. The swords in England stand to some degree quite alone. I n that country were evolved a separate group of designs and a separate style which on the whole were local (fig. 24 6 ) . The hilts often have several bows and guards, half-and whole guard plates, small, shallow bowls, etc. Sometimes the pommels are reminiscent of the Spanish and French, occasionally of the German. The quillons are frequently peculiar, for instance extremely volute-rolled. The decorative elements are highly characteristic A special favourite is the damascening, -:~~:t { .". . . J '., ..". "'I. .• ~t-~~.' ,., Fii!. 23. Tile «classical» French rapier INm about 1575. Hilt richly damascened wilh Raid and silver. Slam ps in Ihe ricasso. (Call. E. A. Christensen. E 208). whose type and style it was designed. Form and style depended upon the desires of the customer. The swords in England stand to some degree quite alone. In that country were evolved a separate group of designs and a separate style which on the whole were local (fig. 24 b). The hilts often have several bows and guards, half-and whole guard plates, small, shallow bowls, etc. Sometimes the pommels are reminiscent of the Spanish and French, occasionally of the German. The quillons are frequently peculiar, for instance extremely volute-rolled. The decorative elements are highly characteristic. A special favourite is the damascening, 58 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es Fig. 24. a: Italian. b: English and. c : Spanish cup-hilt rapiers, the English ra- pier with rich silver incrustrrtions. First half of 17th century. ( C o l l . E . A . Christensen, E 91, 20, 206). which recalls the French or South german. There is a predilection for salver and gold incrustations in the dark steel. The artistic quality is often very high. In many cases it is impossible to decide whether the hilts are the work of Engiish goldsmiths and artists or of immi- grated South German craftsmen. The latter alternative is not unu- sual, as in the 17th century England sent for German craftsmen and blade smiths (Hounslow blades). There is also pierced iron work with no form of inlay in other materials. Some of this work attains to great beauty whereas others are rather crude, almost primitive. On the whole, England's 17th century sidearms have a physiognomy of their own. There as in Italy and France the hilt became simplified about the Fig. 24. a: /lalian. b: English and. r: Spanish nw-hill rapiers. the English ra- pier IVith rich silver incruslalions. Fir,l'l half of 171h cenlury. (Call. E. A. Chri.wensen, E 91, 20. 20(,). which recalls the French or South german. There is a predilection for sJver and gold incrustations in the dark steel. The artistic quality is often very high. In many cases it is impossible to decide whether the hilts are the work of Eng;ish goldsmiths and artists or of immi· grated South German craftsmen. The latter alternative is not unu· sual, as in the 17t~ century England sent for German craftsmen and blade smiths (HOWlSlow blades). There is also pierced iron work with no form of inlay in other materials. Some of this work attains to great beauty whereas others are rather crude, almost primitive. On the whole, England's 17th century sidearms have a physiognomy of their own. There as in Italy and France the hilt became simplified about the 59 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es middle of the 17th century. The many bows disappear and are re- placed by a single knuckle-bow and mussel-shell guards, often rather small and placed below the quillons at the lower ends of the pas-d'8ne. Although it cannot generally be said that all European sword hilts can be divided into Latin and Germanic and these again into Italian, Spanish, French, English, etc., it is possible t o make a certain subdivision. The Germanic hilts were evolved on another basis and originally according to other principles than the Latin. Actually it was not long before the Latin characteristics began to influence the Ger- manic and vice versa. In Germany especially in the South, many Latin elements were absorbea. The same was the case in the Nether- lands, where in particular the Spanish influence was highly percepti- ble. (fig. 21). I n conjunction with the Germanic elements special forms emerge just here, as was the case in England. One separate development occurred in the East corner of Central Europa, where the much enclosed basket hilts that are familiar from the schiavones, dusaggr: sa~bres, etc., become characteristic, However this extreme hand protection, intended mainly as a guard against the cutting blow, also become the recipient of Latin elements, receives a kind af pas d'kne, oblique bows, etc., on the counter-guard or quite a little cross of bows on that side. In this respect North Italy displays a curious form with the Latin, very long quillons, often slightly S-shaped, with a closed basket-hilt, sometimes quite devoid of pas-d'hne and oblique guards, an Italo-Slav type of sword, mainly intended for cutting. In Switxerland the combination of Latin and Germanic is clearly visible. Around the 15210's there are still large cutting swords to be seen, almost hand-and-half swords with a cruciform hilt, pas-d'be and oblique bows, side rings which connect the pas-d'hne-ends, pitons and half or whole knuckle-bows (fig. 25). The Swiss sabres also have curious combinations of bows. On the whole Switzerland is remar- kable for her different local types-swords as we11 as rapiers, hangers and daggers. One of the local groups observable especially in the Germanic development is to be found in Saxony. A number of excellent and very characteristic rapiers are preserved in the Electorial Armoury in Dresden, while others have been spread about museums and collections in the course of time. Characteristic is another large and simple cruciform type, one that was easy to imitate and therefore gave rise to a multitude of copies and falsifications. The characteristic feature of these swords is the often short, plump form of the grip with an almost serrated collar above and below as well as vertical bands of iron from the one to the other, and also a biconical pommel, often with six sides on each half. One also encounters the long, divided middle of the 17th century. The many bows disappear and are re- placed by a single knuckle-bow and mussel-shell guards, often rather small and placed below the quillons at the lower ends of the pas-d'fl.lle. Although it cannot generally be said that all European sword hilts can be divided into Latin and Germanic and these again into Italian, Spanish, French, English, etc., it is possible to make a certain subdivision. The Germanic hilts were evolved on a.nother basis and originally according to other principles than the Latin. Actually it was not long before the Latin characteristics began to influence the Ger- manic and vice versa. In Germany especially in the South, many Latin elements were absorbed. The same was the case in the Nether- lands, where in particUlar the Spanish influence was highly percepti- ble. (fig. 21). In conjunction with the Germanic elements special forms emerge just here, as was the case in England. One separate development occurred in the East corner of Central Europa, where the much enclosed basket hilts that are familiar from the schiavones, dusagg,~ sa'bres, etc., become characteristic. However this extreme hand protection, intended mainly as a guard against the cutting blow, also become the recipient of Latin elements, receives a kind af I::as-d'ane, oblique bows, etc., on the counter-guard or quite a little cross of bows On that side. In this respect North Italy displays a curious form with the Latin, very long quillons, often slightly S-shaped, with a closed basket-hilt, sometimes quite devoid of pas-d'ane and oblique guards, an Halo-Slav type of sword, mainly intended for cutting. In Switzerland the combination of Latin and Germanic is clearly visible. Around the 1520's there are still large cutting swords to be seen, almost hand-and-half swords with a cruciform hilt, pas-d'ane and oblique bows, side rings which connect the pas-d'ane-ends, pitons and half or whole knuckle-bows (fig. 25). The Swiss sabres also have curious combinations of bows. On the whole Switzerland is remar- kable for her different local types-swords as well as rapiers, hangers and daggers. One of the local groups observable especially in the Germanic development is to be found in Saxony. A number of excellent and very characteristic rapiers are preserved in the Electorial Armoury in Dresden, while others have been spread about museums and collections in the course of time. Characteristic is another large and simple cruciform type, one that was easy to imitate and therefore gave rise to a multitude of copies and falsifications. The characteristic feature of these swords is the often short, plump form of the grip with an almost serrated collar above and below as well as vertical bands of iron from the one to the other, and also a biconical pommel, often with six sides on each half. One also encounters the long, divided 60 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es Fig. 25. Swiss one-and-a-half sword, early 16th century. (Coll. E . A . Christen- sen, E 1 1 ) . grip, a reminiscence of the late-mediaeval sword. The quillons, which often widen towards the ends, are either horizontal or faintly curved. In the cross on the guard is a horizontal bow. Some have two pas- d'kne, connected by a small ring whereas the counterguard: has an oblique bow from the end of one pas-d'he to the cross or there are two crossed oblique guards, one from each pas-d'he. Others have only one pas-d'8ne and a single oblique bow. Belolw the cross there is sometimes a kind of muff of silver. The blades are often i I I Fig. 25. Swiss one-and-a-half sword, early 16th century. (Coli. E. A. Christen- .~I'Il, Ell). grip, a reminiscence of the late-mediaeval sword. The quillons, which often widen towards the ends, are either horizontal or faintly curved. In the cross on the guard is a horizontal bow. Some have two pas- d'ane, connected by a small ring whereas the counterguarct has an oblique bow from the end of one pas-d'ane to the cross or there are two crossed oblique guards, one from each pas-d'ane. Others have only one pas-d'a.ne and a single oblique bow. Below the cross there is sometimes a k;nd of muff of silver. The blades are often 61 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es heavy with one or more grooves. I n a few cases they are Milanese blades, in others Solingen. The mountings on hilt and scabbard are often silver, decorated with ornaments (engraved or chased) in a style recalling i. a. Heinrich Aldegrever and his circle. In this type we see the old mediaeval sword of cross-form surviving under the influence of the new Latin currents, the short grip and the various bows under the quillons and the pas-d'ane. This transitional type was very popular in the Scandinavian countries, where not uncom- monly it appears with a long two-piece grip, pas-d'ane, oblique branches and the like. There are examples in Sweden. I t was popular in Den- mark and is represented by the silver-adorned sword of the Danish nobleman Herluf Trolle (1516-1565) in Herlufsholm Church in Sealand. . A Saxonian type, influenced by the North Italian rapiers or striscias is i. a. the burial sword of Christoph Rosengaard (ob. 1596) in the Cathedral of Roskilde (fig. 26). The heavy Saxonian types are often depicted on the tombstones of Danish nobles. This Saxon type achieved such a wide distribution in Denmark because of the latter's intimate relationship with Saxony through royal marriages and the cultural influence from the Lutheran Eilectorate. Saxon craftmen came to Den- F i g . 26. Silvermounted rapier f r o m the t o m b o f Christoph Rosengaard, o h . 1596. Suxon type with Italian influence. O n the broad silverplate the coat of arms and name o f the owner. (Roskilde Carhedral, Denmark). ........ '\.' heavy with one or more grooves. In a few cases they are Milanese blades, in others Solingen. The mountings on hilt and scabbard are often silver, decorated with ornaments (engraved or chased) in a style recalling i. a. Heinrich Aldegrever and his circle. In this type we see the old mediaeval sword of cross-form surviving under the influence of the new Latin currents, the short grip and the various bows under the quillons and the pas-d'ane. This transitional type was very popular in the Scandinavian cOlUltries, where not lUlcom- monly it appears with a long two-piece grip, pas-d'ane, oblique branches and the like. There are examples in Sweden. It was popular in Den- mark and is represented by the silver-adorned sword of the Danish nobleman Herluf Trolle 0516-1565) in Herlufsholm Church in Sealand. A Saxonian type, influenced by the North Italian rapiers or striscias is i. a. the burial sword of Christoph Rosengaard (ob. 1596) in the Cathedral of Roskilde (fig. 26). The heavy Saxonian types are often depicted on the tombstones of Danish nobles. This Saxon type achieved such a wide distribution in Denmark because of the latter's intimate relat:onship with Saxony through royal marriages and the cultural influence from the Lutheran Electorate. Saxon craftmen came to Den- .,....=;r-.... FiR. 26. Silvennounled rapier from Ihe IOmh of Chdsloph Rosengaard, ·.)h. 1596. Saxon Iype wilh ltalian influence. On Ihe broad silverplale Ihe coal of arms and name of Ihe owner. (Roskilde Cathedral, Denmark). 62 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es mark, sword-makers among them. Sidearms were imported from there or imitated. Swords of Saxon type are reproduced in Danish portrait paintings of the period. Another characteristic Saxon type with its appurtenant left-hand dagger is in the Dlresden A r m o u r y . The hilt has not quite lost its mediaeval form, though it h a s got the modern accessories such as pas-d'ane, side rings and counterguard. The material is iron chkelled in a basketry pattern. There are other sword-rapiers in Dresden with hilts in t h e same basketry pattern and with knuckle- bow and curved parade quillon. Some of the specimens preserved in the Dresden Armoury have Milanese blades others have Sollin- gen blades bearing t h e name of Peter Munsten. Possibly there was some question of a series of swords, made for t h e Electoral life- Fig. 27. Saxonian rapiers, about 1600. Silver incrustations in hilt and g r i p . In the blades: Herman Stof m e fecit Solingen, and stumps. Blade PO the left dared 1619. (Nar. Mus. Copenhagen, 10128 and 10127, muy. fat.). mark, sword-makers among them. Sidearms were imported from there or imitated. Swords of Saxon ~ype are rEproduced in Danish portrait paintings of the period. Another characteristic Saxon type with its appurtenant left-hand dagger is in the Dresden Armoury. The hilt has not quite lost its mediaeval form, though it has got the modern accessories such as pas-d'ane, side rings and counterguard. The material is iron ch:selled in a basketry pattern. There are other sword-rapiers in Dresden with hilts in the same basketry pattern and with knuckle- bow and curved parade quillon. Some of the specimens preserved in the Dresden Armoury have Milanese blades others have Solin- gen blades bearing the name of Peter Munsten. Possibly there was some question of a series of swords, made for the Electoral life- Fig. 27. Sl1xoniall rapiers, ahout 1600. Silver incrusl(/(ions ill hilt and grip. III the blades: Hermall Slof me fecit Solillgell, alld stamps. Blade I\) the left dated 1619. (Nat. Mus. Copellhal!ell, 10128 alld 10127, mus. fot.). 63 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es guards under Christian I (1586-91) and Christian I 1 (1601-1611). Some elegant rapiers are now in the Danish nat-onal museum (fig. 27-28). In connection with the Saxon swords mention must be made of one of the period's most distinguished German chisellers, O t t m a ~ Wetter, who was attached to the Elector's court at the close of the 16th oentury. Actually he was from Munich, whence as a Protestant he had had to flee to Saxony, where he found protection under the Lutheran Elector. For the prince he made a number of sword hilts besides other iron work. One of his most characteristic swords, entirely in black, now in the Royal Arsenal Museunl in Copenhagen, is both signed and dated (1594). And other works from his hand and his school are to be seen in several museums in Germany, Eng- land, U. S . A. (J. Hayward, Studies on Ottmar Wetter, Livrustkamma- ren V. Stockh. 1949). F i g . 28. Smon rapier with wheel- lock pistol. T o it belongs the dagger fig. 14. (Nar. Mus. Copenhagen, I0115 and 10163, mus. fot.). guards under Christian I (1586-91) and Christian Il (1601-1611). Some elegant rapiers are now in the Danish naLonal museum (fig. 27-28). In connection with the Saxon swords mention must be made of one of the period's most distinguished German chisellers, Ottmar Wetter, who was attached to the Elector's court at the close of the 16th century. Actually he was from Munich, whence as a Protestant he had had to flee to Saxony, where he found protection under the Lutheran Elector. For the prince he made a number of sword hilts besides other iron work. One of his most characteristic swords, entirely in black, now in the Royal Arsenal Museum in Copenhagen, is both signed and dated (1594). And other works from his hand and his school are to be seen in several museums in Germany, Eng- land, U, S. A. CJ. Hayward, Studies on Ottmar Wetter, Livrustkamma- ren V. Stockh. 1949). Fig. 28. Saxon rapier with wheel- lock pistol. To it helongs the da/?ger fig. 14. (Nat, Mus. Copenhagen. IO/ /5 and 10163, nlI/S. rot,). 64 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es The most distinguished of the German groups is undoubtedly that belonging to Munich at the Bavarian court. The forms of these swords and their left-hand daggers are particularly good and survi- ceable, of the latest fashion; but what makes them remarkable i s the decoration, the masterly ch-selling-work, in which figures, leaves and flowers stand well in finely cut and blued relief against the gilt background. They are chiefly the work of the two brothers DanieJ and Emanuel Sadeler. Slightly younger is the similarly fine, but p s h a p s somewhat less thorough work of Caspaa Spath. The Sadelers were summoned to Prague by the German emperor Rudolf 11, where they made several cerem~nial weapons, specimens of which are now to be seen in Vienna. The motifs in their chiselled hilts are typical of the period: antique gods and goddesses, herms, fauns, masks, etc., among leaves and flower garlands. Many of the Sadelers' work was dono in collaboration with French artists and designers and all their products bear a light and elegant stamp that suggests French proto- types. Very remarkable are the hilts on some of these swords now in the Victoria and Albert Museum and in t h e Wallace Collection in London, others in Munich and Vienna. Among other things there are the drawings of Etierzne Delaune, which were patterns. The blades in many of the Sadelers' works are Milanese. Round about the year 1700 and in the first half of the 18th century drawings were published on hilts for dress-swords, especially by Augsburg and Nuremberg air- tists. The simplification of these sword hilts in the 17th century was not confined to South and West Europe. One particular form de- veloped. in North Germany about the middle of that century, the so-called Brandenburg sword, wholly devoid of bows and handguard, having a cruciform hilt but more slender and of other proportions than the old mediaeval swords. A typical and unusually fine example of i t is the one in the Victoria and Albert Museum, signed by the chiseller Gottfried Leygebe, dated to 16601-70. Others by the same and other artists repose in the museums of Ebrope and AmeTica, or are depicted in the portrait painting of the time. With hilts such as the later French, Qnglish and Brandenburg we are now on the way to sidearms of an entirely different form. In reality they form a connecting link with the characteristic small- swords of the 18th century, the fine, often elegant and slender dress- swords whose small hilts bear survivals of the old pas-d'sne and whose blades are slender, sharp-pointed and stiff. With the sidearms of the baroque we have arrived at the transitional stage to the last phase of these weapons. This is the last independent epoch before they becorn2 shorn of their artistic significant-to some extent The most distinguished of the German groups is undoubtedly that belonging to Munich at the Bavarian court. The forms of these swords and their left-hand daggers are particularly good and survi- ceable, of the latest fashion; but what makes them remarkable is the decoration, the masterly ch:selling-work, in which figures, leaves and flowers stand well in finely cut and blued relief against the gilt background. They are chiefly the work of the two brothers Daniel and Emanuel Sadel'er. Slightly younger is the similarly fine, but ~~rhaps somewhat less thorough work of Caspa'1" Spiith. The Sadelers were summoned to Prague by the German emperor Rudol/ II, where they made several ceremonial weapons, specimens of which are now to be seen in Vienna. The motifs in their chiselled hilts are t~ical of the period: antique gods and goddesses, herms, fauns, masks, etc., among leaves and flower garlands. Many of the Sadelers' work was dono in collaboration with French artists and designers and all their products bear a light and elegant stamp that suggests French proto- types. Very remarkable are the hilts on some of these swords now in the Victoria and Albert Museum and in the Wall ace Collection in London, others in Munich and Vienna. Among other things there are the drawings of Etienne Delaune, which were patterns. The blades in many of the Sadelers' works are Milanese. Round about the year 1700 and in the first half of the 18th century drawings were published on hilts for dress-swords, especially by Augsburg and Nuremberg a,r· tists. The simplification of these sword hilts in the 17th century was not confined to South and West Europe. One particular form de- veloped in North Germany about the middle of that century, the so-called Brandenburg sword, wholly devoid of bows and h andguard , having a cruciform hilt but more slender and of other proportions than the old mediaeval swords. A typical and unusually fine example of it is the one in the Victoria and Albert Museum, signed by the chiseller Gott/Tied Leygebe, dated to 1660-70. Others by the same and other artists repose in the museums of Europe and America, or are depicted in the portrait painting of the time. With hilts such as the later French, English and Brandenburg we are now on the way to sidearms of an entirely different fonn. In reality they form a connecting link with the characteristic small- sword5 of the 18th century, the fine, often elegant and slender dress- swords whose small hilts bear survivals of the old pas-d'ane and whose blades are slender, sharJrPointed and stiff. With the sidearms of the baroque we have arrived at the transitional stage to the last phase of these weapons. This is the last independent epoch before they becom2 shorn of their artist:c significance-to some extent 65 5 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es their usefulness too, and become simply brazier work, more or less in mass production. Individual swords are made only in special cases. In its best style the sidearm becomes an accessory to the gala uni- form of officers or civil servants, or swords of honour like the French swords from Boutet in Versailles, sabres presented on special W- casions to persons of merit, from generals to N. C. 0 s . As mass arc. cles they become the regulation military swords, sabres, etc, bearing the impress of the particular services who are to wear them and, to some extent, of the style and fashion of the period. Their interest and importance lie elsewhere Their value as art and their cost - with few exceptions - are slight compared with the sidearms of former periods, from the mediaeval sword to the rapiers of the renaissance and thence to the dress-swords of the rococo. their usefulness too, and become simply brazier work, more or less in mass production. Individual swords are made only in special cases. In its best style the sidearm becomes an accessory to the gala uni- form of officers or civil servants, or swords of honour like the French swords from Boutet in Versailles, sabres presented on special oc- casions to persons of merit, from generals to N. C. Os. As mass arti' cles they become the regulation military swords, sabres, etc., bearing the impress of the particular services who are to wear them and, to some extent, of the style and fashion of the period. Their interest and importance lie elsewhere. Their value as art and their cost - with few exceptions - are slight compared with the sidearms of former periods, from the mediaeval sword to the rapiers of the renaissance and thence to the dress-swords of the rococo. 66 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 ISSN 0435-029X Digitalizado por InterClassica http://interclassica.um.es Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://gladius.revistas.csic.es BIBLIOGRAPHY Ancona, Paolo d' : La miniature Italienne du XI-XVI sieclels. Panz+Bruxelles 1925. Angelucci, A.: Catalogo della Armeria Reale. Tolrino 1890. Blair, : Medieval swords and spurs in Toledo Cathedral (Journal Arms and Armour Soc. London 19519. Vol. 3). Bruhn Hoffmeyer, Ada: Middelalderens tveaggede wawd. Copenhagen 1954. Vol. 1-2. - Introduction to the history of Eiuropean sword. (Gladius 1961. Vol 1, p. 30-75). Buttm, Charles : Les poignards et les sabres marocaines. (Hespms 1999. Vol. 26, p. 1-28). - Une ep& de Oharles-Quint. (A.rmes Anciennas no. 3. 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