CEZANNE AS A "DECORATIVE" PAINTER by DANA ALEXANDRA FREEMAN Diploma i n A r t H i s t o r y , The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, 1977 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Department o f F i n e A r t s ) We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA November 19 8 2 (c) Dana A l e x a n d r a Freeman, 19 8 2 In presenting t h i s thesis i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the Library s h a l l make i t f r e e l y available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of t h i s thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. I t i s understood that copying or publication of t h i s thesis for f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be allowed without my written permission. / Department of Fine Arts The University of B r i t i s h Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3 Date 18 Oct. 1982 DE-6 (3/81) - r i i - ABSTRACT The thesis focuses on a s i g n i f i c a n t , but neglected aspect of Cezanne's oeuvre: the r e l a t i o n s h i p between Cezanne's pain- tings and the decorative aesthetic of the 1890s. Since the meaning of the term "decorative" underwent s i g - n i f i c a n t changes during the l a s t quarter of the 19th century and the f i r s t decade of the 20th century, p a r t i c u l a r attention i s paid to problems of d e f i n i t i o n i n Chapter I, Part 1. This section shows that the d e f i n i t i o n of what was "true" decoration, and the increasing emphasis on decoration, were related to the process of r e v i t a l i z a t i o n of the i n d u s t r i a l and decorative arts i n France. Chapter I, Part 2 establishes that the general tendency of the avant-garde painting i n the decade 1890-1900 was to be "decorative." The most innovative manifestation of t h i s trend was the introduction of the aesthetics of "decoration" into easel painting. The transformation of painting from tableau into "decoration" was a r e f l e c t i o n of an anti-Natural- i s t , a n t i - p o s i t i v i s t trend. The second chapter of the thesis i s devoted to Cezanne's p o s i t i o n v i s - a - v i s the "decorative trend." Chapter II, Part 1 analyses the c r i t i c i s m of Cezanne's contemporaries. Special attention i s given to the writer's p a r t i c u l a r positions on aesthetics, philosophy, r e l i g i o n , p o l i t i c s (whenever possible), as well as to changes i n these positions. Chapter I I , Part 2 analyses Cezanne's l e t t e r s (considered as the only authentic source of true quotations from the a r t i s t ) and paintings. The conclusion i s that Cezanne not only belongs to the general tendency toward the "decorative," but that he can be considered among i t s i n i t i a t o r s . Moreover, the present author proposes that C§zanne was part of the movement that introduced the aesthetic of "decoration" into easel painting. Q u a l i t i e s such as the interplay between two-dimensionality, and three- dimensionality, the accent on contours, the general aspect of b a s - r e l i e f , or even of tapestry (often noticed by his contem- poraries, as well as by l a t e r c r i t i c s ) , can be explained by Cezanne's intention to apply to his paintings a "decoration paradigm." Special attention i s placed on the method of "colour modulation" and i t s possible r e l a t i o n to similar meth- ods used i n 18th century French tapestries, or those recom- mended for tapestries i n t h e o r e t i c a l works by 19th century French reformers of the decorative a r t s . - i v - TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT i i LIST OF FIGURES . v i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ix INTRODUCTION . 1 I THE CONCEPT OF DECORATION IN LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY ART AND THE NEW TENDENCIES IN THE PAINTING OF THE 1890s . 8 Introduction . . 8 Part 1: The R e v i t a l i z a t i o n of the I n d u s t r i a l Arts i n France and i t s Role i n Redifining the Concept of Decoration.. .,,10 Part 2: The "New Tendencies" i n the Painting of the 1890s 51 Introduction 51 A. The new "decorative" tendency i n the French avant-garde painting of the 1880s and early 1890s and the " I d e a l i s t Renaissance.". 52 B. The new "decorative" tendency as defined by c r i t i c s i n the early 1890s: Aurier versus Lecomte ,60 C. The a r t i s t s who applied decorative - V - v arts p r i n c i p l e s to easel painting by the early 1890s....... 71 D. The mid and late 1890s 76 II CEZANNE AND THE "DECORATIVE" TREND..... 90 Part 1: Cezanne Seen by His Contemporaries as a "Decorative" Painter..... 90 . Introduction;;•.. . . . . 90 Part 2: Cezanne and the "Decoration Paradigm":. 142 Introduction .. 142 A. Did Cezanne f u l f i l the conditions that led easel painters toward V painting-decoration? . 144 B. Do Cezanne's paintings f i t the "Decoration Paradigm"?. 164 Conclusions 180 NOTES 18 4 Introduction 184 Chapter I, Introduction • 186 Chapter I, Part 1. 186 Chapter I, Part 2 201 Chapter I I , Part 1 241 Chapter II, Part 2 274 BIBLIOGRAPHY 293 LIST OF FIGURES P. Cezanne: Ouverture to Tannhauser. Moscow - Museum of Modern Western Art. 1869-71, V.90, 57x92 cm. (Source: L. Brion-Guerry, Paris, 19 66.) E. Bernard. P o r t r a i t of the A r t i s t ' s Grandmother. Rijksmuseum Vincent van Gogh, Amsterdam. 1887, 53x64 cm. (Source: B. Welsh-Ovcharov, Art G a l l , of Ontario, 19 81.) E. Bernard. S t i l l - L i f e with a Tobacco Pot. C o l l . Samuel Josefowitz, Lausanne. 1887, 33x56 cm. (Source: L i l l e , exh. Emile Bernard, 19 67.) P.Cezanne. The Temptation of St. Anthony C o l l . J.V. P e l l e r i n , Paris. 1873-77, V. 241, 47x56 cm. (Source: Th. Reff, "Cezanne, Flaubert, St. A n t h o n y 1 9 6 2 P. Cezanne. Madame Cezanne. 1872-1877, V.229, 55x46 cm. (Source: E. Bernard, Souvenirs.... Une Conversa- t i o n . .., Paris: A - Michel, 1926.) E. Bernard. Pont—Aven Seen From Bois d'Amour. C o l l . Samuel Josefowitz, Lausanne. 1892, 71.5x91 cm. (Source: L i l l e exh.) M. Denis. Hommage a Cezanne. Musee National d'Art Moderne, P a r i s . 1900, approx. 91.5x235 cm. (Source: Bonnard, V u i l l a r d et les Nabis, 19 55.) P..' Cezanne. S t i l l - L i f e.with Compotier. Musee du Luxembourg. 1879-82, V.341, 46x55 cm. (Source: F. Novotny, Cezanne, Phaidon, 1961.) M. Denis. Cezanne sortant de l a messe a Aix en 190 6. Drawing. (Source: M. Denis Du symbolisme au classicisme, Hermann, 19 - V l l - P. Cezanne. The E n v i r o n s o f A i x - e n - P r o v e n c e . W a l l y F i n d l a y G a l l . N.Y. P a i n t e d s c r e e n , 1858-60, V.3, 402x250 cm P. Cezanne. Grotesque d e c o r a t i o n s on t h e back o f t h e s c r e e n r e p r o d u c e d i n F i g . 10. V . l - 2 . (Source: L. V e n t u r i , Cezanne..., P a r i s , 1936.) P. Cezanne. Rocks a t L'Estaque. Sao P a u l o Museu de A r t e . ( D e t a i l . ) ( 1882-85, V.404, 73x91 cm. (Source: Sandra O r i e n t i , Complete P a i n t i n g s o f Cezanne, 1972.) P. Cezanne. House i n Provence. C o l l . P. M e l l o n . 1882-85, V.397, 65x81 cm. (Source: The World o f Cezanne, T i m e - L i f e Books, N.Y.) F r . Boucher. The C h i n e s e F i s h i n g P a r t y . ( D e t a i l . ) B e a u v a i s t a p e s t r y , 1758. (Source: M a d e l e i n e J a r r y , L a T a p i s s e r i e , des o r i g i n e s a nos j o u r s , P a r i s , 1968.) F r . Casanova. Les amusements de l a Cam- pagne: L ' A b r e u v o i r . ( D e t a i l . ) B e a u v a i s t a p e s t r y , 1772. M o b i l i e r N a t i o n a l , P a r i s . ( S o u r c e : P i e r r e V e r l e t e t . a l . , Le Grand L i v r e de l a T a p i s s e r i e , P a r i s , 1965.) P. Cezanne. Mont S a i n t e - V i c t o i r e . V i a d u c t and B i g T r e e s . M e t r o p o l i t a n Mus. o f A r t , N. Y. 1885-87, V.452, 65x81 cm. (Source: s l i d e from C a r l B e l z , Cezanne, Mc Graw- '•" H i l l , 1975.) P. Cezanne. Mont S a i n t e - V i c t o i r e Seen " v from Bibemus. The B a l t i m o r e Mus. o f A r t , bequest o f E t t a and C l a r i b e l Cone. 1898-1900, V.766, 64.8x81.3 cm. (Source: t h e p o s t e r o f the MOMA e x h i b . Cezanne. The L a t e Work, 1977-78.) P. Cezanne. S t i l l - L i f e w i t h Peppermint B o t t l e . N a t i o n a l G a l l , of A r t , Washing- t o n , D.C; C h e s t e r Dale C o l l . 1890-92, V.625, 65x81 cm. (Source: J . W e c h s l e r , Cezanne i n P e r s p e c t i v e , 19 7 5.) P. Cezanne. S t i l l - L i f e w i t h A p p l e s and Oranges. L o u v r e , P a r i s . 189 5-19 00, V - V l l l - .V.732, 73x92 cm. (Source: C. B e t z , Cezanne.) P.. Cezanne. . The Red Rock. L o u v r e , W a l t e r - G u i l l a u m e C o l l . 1895-1900, V.776, 91x66 cm. ( S o u r c e : S. O r i e n t i , Complete P a i n t i n g s o f Cezanne. P. Cezanne. Mont S a i n t e - V i c t o i r e . P r i v a t e C o l l . , S w i t z e r l a n d . 1902- 1906, V.802, 65x81 cm. (Source: F. Novotny, Cjzanne.) M. D e n i s . Ctszanne "on the M o t i f . " P r i v a t e C o l l . , F r a n c e . 1906. ( S o u r c e : Cat. o f t h e Bremen exh., M e i s t e r w e r k e des N a c h i m p r e s s i o n i s m u s aus der Sammlung M a u r i c e D e n i s , 17 Oct. 5 Dec. 1971.) - ix - ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am indebted to David H. Splkin and Serge Guibault for t h e i r guidance and help i n organizing my material, for asking penetrating questions, and for making useful suggestions. I am thankful to George Knox for teaching me how to "see" Cezanne's paintings and for encouragement. I am g r a t e f u l to Albert Boime, who on very short notice, took the time for a h e l p f u l discussion. My research was helped by the Staff of the UBC Fine Art Library, I n t e r l i b r a r y Loan, and S l i d e Library. My special thanks to Melva Dwyer, Diana Cooper, A l i c e McNair, Karen Peplow, Barbara Hopkins and Mary Webb. This thesis would not have been written without Mike's support and patience. - 1 - INTRODUCTION 1. The Key I s s u e o f t h e T h e s i s The p r e s e n t s t a t e o f r e s e a r c h on CSzanne shows a s t r o n g C u b i s t b i a s , w h i c h c l e a r l y emerged i n the e x h i b i t i o n o f h i s l a t e work o r g a n i z e d by t h e Museum o f Modern A r t i n 1977. The purpose o f t h i s e x h i b i t i o n was t o emphasize the " e v o l u t i o n " from the l a t e Cezanne t o Cubism and thence t o t h e o t h e r major a r t i s t i c movements o f t h e 20th c e n t u r y . Modern v i e w s o f Cezanne t e n d t o r e l y t o o h e a v i l y on t h o s e o f t h e C u b i s t p a i n t e r s , a t t h e expense o f t h o s e o f t h e a r t i s t ' s contemporaries." To sum up the s i t u a t i o n r o u g h l y , on one hand we are p r e s e n t e d w i t h a c u r r e n t image o f Cezanne t h a t emphasizes the p e r c e p t u a l c h a r a c t e r o f h i s approach (the C u b i s t v i e w , r e - i n f o r c e d by M e r l e a u - P o n t y ' s i n f l u e n t i a l "Cezanne's Doubt" o f 194 8"*") ; on t h e o t h e r hand, we are c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e o p i n i o n s o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s who a p p l i e d a d e c o r a t i v e c o n c e p t i o n t o h i s p a i n t i n g s . They saw Cezanne's work i n the l i g h t o f t h e " d e c o r a - t i v e i d e a l " as i t was u n d e r s t o o d a t the end o f the 19th c e n t u r y and t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 20th c e n t u r y . The emphasis p u t on " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " by avant-garde p a i n t e r s and c r i t i c s was an i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e s t r o n g r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t r e a l i s m and p o s i t i v i s m t h a t took p l a c e a t t h e end o f the l a s t c e n t u r y . Cezanne d e v e l o p e d h i s mature s t y l e i n t h i s p e r i o d o f r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t N a t u r a l i s m and was c o n s i d e r e d as " i n i t i a t o r " o f t h e d e c o r a t i v e t e n d e n c i e s i n avant-garde p a i n t i n g . R i g h t from the b e g i n n i n g , the C u b i s t s emphasized Cezanne's -i 2 - r o l e as t h e i r " f o r e f a t h e r " i n o r d e r t o " l e g i t i m i z e " t h e i r p a i n t i n g . (Cezanne was a l r e a d y an i d o l o f the avant-garde.) A t t h e same time they gave a "death-blow" t o the concept o f p a i n t i n g - d e c o r a t i o n , because t h e y , and e s p e c i a l l y t h e i r d e a l e r , K a h n w e i l e r , were concerned w i t h the s t a t u s o f p a i n t i n g . They f e l t t h a t t h e s t a t u s o f p a i n t i n g had been e r o d e d , l o w e r e d t o the l e v e l o f d e c o r a t i o n . I n 1912, i n t h e i r Cubism, G l e i z e s and M e t z i n g e r s t a t e d t h i s a n t i - d e c o r a t i v e a t t i t u d e v e r y c l e a r l y : Many c o n s i d e r t h a t d e c o r a t i v e p r e o c c u p a t i o n must govern t h e s p i r i t o f the new p a i n t e r s . ... Enough d e c o r a t i v e p l a s t i c a r t and p i c t o r i a l d e c o r a t i o n , enough c o n f u s i o n and a m b i g u i t y . 2 R e f e r r i n g t o 1906, and t o Braque, D e r a i n and M a t i s s e among o t h e r s , t h e i n f l u e n t i a l d e a l e r i n C u b i s t a r t , D a n i e l - H e n r y K a h n w e i l e r , d e c l a r e d i n 1915: " P a i n t i n g t h r e a t e n e d t o debase i t s e l f t o the l e v e l o f o r n a m e n t a t i o n ; i t sought t o be ' dec- o r a t i v e ' t o 'adorn' the w a l l . " Because K a h n w e i l e r c o n s i d e r e d the s t a t u s o f d e c o r a t i o n i n f e r i o r , he d i d n o t l i k e the d e s i g - n a t i o n o f Cubism as "Geometric A c t . " R e d u c t i o n s t o s i m p l e g e o m e t r i c a l forms such as cubes, spheres and c y l i n d e r s were "seen" by " e a r l y s p e c t a t o r s " o f C u b i s t p a i n t i n g s he remarked, b u t a c c o r d i n g t o K a h n w e i l e r , C u b i s t p a i n t e r s d i d n o t p r o c e e d from such r e d u c t i o n s w h i c h are commonplace i n a r c h i t e c t u r e and a p p l i e d a r t s . C u b i s t p a i n t e r s r e p r o d u c e d o b j e c t s he s a i d , by means o f s y n t h e s i z i n g v a r i o u s images o f the o b j e c t , o b t a i n e d from v a r i o u s v i e w p o i n t s . ^ I n o t h e r words they were " c o n c e p t u a l r e a l i s t s . " T h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e o b j e c t as i t r e a l l y i s (as opposed t o t h e way i t appears t o be when seen i n l i n e a r p e r s p e c t i v e ) was a l s o commonplace i n a r c h i t e c t u r e and a p p l i e d - 3 - a r t s c u r r i c u l a i n t h e 19th c e n t u r y , under t h e name o f d e s s i n 5 g e o m e t r a l (as opposed t o d e s s i n p e r s p e c t i f ) . K a h n w e i l e r a c t u a l l y a d m i t s t h a t t h e r e i s "a c e r t a i n resemblance" between t h e C u b i s t mode o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s o l i d o b j e c t s and t h i s " g e o m e t r i c a l drawing.. " Both Cubism and d e c o r a t i o n - as t h e l a t t e r was u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e second h a l f o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y - wanted t o a v o i d i l - l u s i o n i s m and used s i m i l a r methods t o do so. The b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e l a y s i n i n t e n t i o n . Cubism wanted t o r e a c t a g a i n s t p a i n t i n g "debased" t o t h e l e v e l o f d e c o r a t i o n , and t h u s l a b e l l e d i t s e l f " R e a l i s m " (a " p r o f o u n d , " o r b e t t e r , a " c o n c e p t u a l " o n e ) . D e c o r a t i o n a v o i d e d i l l u s i o n i s m i n o r d e r not to. " p i e r c e h o l e s " i n the w a l l s , i n o r d e r t o r e s p e c t t h e i r p l a n a r s u r f a c e , i n o t h e r words o u t o f s u b m i s s i o n t o a r c h i t e c t u r e . E a s e l p a i n t i n g based on t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n r e a c t e d a g a i n s t the R e a l i s m c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e p o s i t i v i s t , e m p i r i c i s t method, w h i c h o n l y r e p r o d u c e d "appearances." T h i s p a i n t i n g d i d n o t a s p i r e t o a h i g h e r s t a t u s than t h a t o f m u r a l p a i n t i n g , o f p a i n t i n g t h a t had a s p e c i f i c d e s t i n a t i o n . When t h e C u b i s t s g a t h e r e d t h e m s e l v e s under t h e banner o f " R e a l i s m , " t h e y d e c l a r e d t h e i r works d e r i v e d from C o u r b e t 1 s (whose r e a l i s m t h e y l a b e l l e d " s u p e r f i c i a l r e a l i s m " ) and Cezanne's ("profound r e a l i s m " ) . Of c o u r s e , Cezanne was not c o n s i d e r e d as " c o n c e p t u a l " as t h e m s e l v e s , because o t h e r w i s e where would have been t h e i n n o v a t i o n ? Thus t h e main d i f f e r e n c e between t h e C u b i s t s and Cezanne has t r a d i t i o n a l l y been c o n s i d e r e d t o r e s i d e i n the much more c o n c e p t u a l ( v e r s u s p e r c e p t u a l ) c h a r a c t e r o f C u b i s t a r t . Not l o n g ago, however, W i l l i a m Rubin remarked t h a t - 4 - a l o t o f Cezanne's a r t i s a l s o " c o n c e p t u a l . " He t u r n e d t h i s a d m i s s i o n i n t o an argument i n favour, o f a c l o s e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between Cezanne and the C u b i s t s , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t the d i f f e r e n c e between t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e methods "was as much one o f degree as 8 o f k i n d . " But i f t h e r e a r e s i m i l a r i t i e s i n method, i t does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean t h e r e are a l s o s i m i l a r i t i e s i n i n t e n t i o n s , i n m o t i v e s . Cezanne's c o n c e p t u a l i s m c o u l d be r o o t e d i n t h e p r i n - c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n , w h i c h were a p p l i e d t o p a i n t i n g as a r e - a c t i o n a g a i n s t r e a l i s m i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e . T h i s i s my w o r k i n g h y p o t h e s i s , w h i c h I hope t o demonstrate by p l a c i n g t h e p a i n t e r i n h i s own. h i s t o r i c a l t i m e . D u r i n g t h e 1890s and t h e f i r s t y e a r s o f t h i s c e n t u r y , t h e d e c o r a t i v e a s p e c t s o f Cezanne's work were c o n s i d e r e d "paramount 9 and new," as George Heard H a m i l t o n has p o i n t e d o u t . A p p a r e n t l y H a m i l t o n i s t h e o n l y modern a r t h i s t o r i a n who has c o n s i d e r e d t h i s as s i g n i f i c a n t . But even he s e p a r a t e d t h e " d e c o r a t i v e " from t h e " a r c h i t e c t u r a l , " when i n f a c t the two n o t i o n s were not a t a l l i n c o m p a t i b l e i n t h e c o n t e x t . o f " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " a t the time i n F r a n c e . ^ The p r e s e n t a u t h o r f e e l s t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t o f Cezanne has been n e g l e c t e d by modern s c h o l a r s h i p : t h e r e l a t i o n - s h i p between Cezanne's p a i n t i n g and the d e c o r a t i v e a e s t h e t i c o f t h e 1890s and t h e f i r s t y e a r s o f t h e 20th c e n t u r y . T h i s i s the key i s s u e o f t h e t h e s i s . 2. Overview I n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r I propose t o e s t a b l i s h t h a t the new tendency o f F r e n c h avant-garde p a i n t i n g i n t h e decade 1890 - - 5 - 1900 was t o be " d e c o r a t i v e . " T h i s . t e n d e n c y (emphasized by t h e c r i t i c s o f t h e p e r i o d ) encompassed more t h a n S y m b o l i s t p a i n t i n g . I t i n c l u d e d N e o - T m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g , as w e l l as new p a i n t i n g by the. o l d " i m p r e s s i o n i s t s . " I n C h a p t e r I , P a r t 1 I s h a l l d e a l w i t h problems o f d e f i n i - t i o n . A t o p i c o f utmost importance i s , o f c o u r s e , t h e e x a c t meaning o f " d e c o r a t i v e " a t t h a t t i m e . A p p l i e d t o p a i n t i n g i t d i d n o t mean t h e same t h i n g t o everybody. F o r some a v a n t - g a r d e p a i n t e r s i t meant t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f e a s e l p a i n t i n g i n t o " d e c o r a t i o n , " i n o t h e r words i t meant the a b o l u t i o n o f t h e t a b l e a u . I m p r e s s i o n i s m reduced e a s e l p a i n t i n g t o t h e s t a t e o f ebauche o r s k e t c h , b u t p r e s e r v e d t h e g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the t a b l e a u . I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g was a l s o " d e c o r a t i v e " i n t h e sense used i n the 1870s, b u t i t was not a t r u e " d e c o r a t i o n . " " D e c o r a t i o n " i s a g a i n a term t h a t r e q u i r e s d e f i n i t i o n . Decora- t i o n , as i t was u n d e r s t o o d a t t h e time was s u b s e r v i e n t t o a r c h i t e c t u r e , the most i m p o r t a n t consequence b e i n g t h e p r e s e r - v a t i o n o f t h e f l a t n e s s o f a w a l l . A t a b l e a u would s i m u l a t e a "window" where the a r c h i t e c t d i d not i n t e n d t o p l a c e one. A " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " ( p a i n t i n g - d e c o r a t i o n " was not t o make use e i t h e r o f c h i a r o s c u r o o r p e r s p e c t i v e e f f e c t s ( l i n e a r o r atmos- p h e r i c ) . But. t h i s d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean a b s o l u t e f l a t n e s s as i n an o r n a m e n t a l d e s i g n . Many " r e f o r m e r s " o f the d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n t h e second h a l f o f 1 9 t h c e n t u r y F r a n c e wanted d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g t o r e t a i n something o f t h e "Western t r a d i t i o n . " But why d i d t h e avant-garde want a t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r time t o t r a n s f o r m e a s e l p a i n t i n g i n t o d e c o r a t i o n ? The " r e b i r t h , " the f l o u r i s h i n g o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n t h e l a s t decade o f t h e - 6 - 19th c e n t u r y does n o t a u t o m a t i c a l l y e x p l a i n why t h e a r t i s t s d i d n o t j u s t l i m i t thernselyes t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l " d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . " Most o f the r e f o r m e r s o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s a c t i v e i n the second h a l f o f the l a s t c e n t u r y k e p t two s e p a r a t e s e t s o f "laws": one f o r d e c o r a t i o n , a n o t h e r f o r e a s e l p a i n t i n g s , f o r t a b l e a u x . Only V i o l l e t - l e - D u c and o t h e r G o t h i c R e v i v a l i s t s o r s y m p a t h i s e r s would have p r e f e r r e d the "decadent, 1 1 even "pagan" t a b l e a u a b o l i s h e d a l t o g e t h e r . The avant-garde o f the 1890s, as I w i l l d i s c u s s i n C h a p t e r I , P a r t 2, t u r n e d t o t h e s e t o f p r i n c i p l e s recommended f o r d e c o r a t i o n , m o t i v a t e d by i d e o l o g i c a l r e a s o n s . I c o n s i d e r e d i t n e c e s s a r y t o s t r e s s t h e . F r e n c h s o u r c e s o f i n f l u e n c e which c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e a v a n t - g a r d e ' s o r i e n t a t i o n toward d e c o r a t i o n , because t h i s a s p e c t has been n e g l e c t e d by modern s c h o l a r s h i p . I t i s f o r example customary t o mention the i n f l u e n c e o f R u s k i n o r W i l l i a m M o r r i s on t h e r e b i r t h o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n F r a n c e , o r even on t h e Nabi group o f p a i n t e r s , 12 w i t h o u t a word about V i o l l e t - l e - D u c . A f t e r e s t a b l i s h i n g i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r what t h e g e n e r a l t r e n d o f the a v a n t - g a r d e p a i n t i n g was a t t h e end o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y and the v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f the 20th c e n t u r y , I w i l l d e a l i n the second c h a p t e r o f the t h e s i s w i t h Cezanne's p o s i t i o n v i s - a - v i s t h i s t r e n d . C h a p t e r I I , P a r t 1 w i l l i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e b u l k o f con- temporary c r i t i c i s m emphasized t h e " d e c o r a t i v e " f e a t u r e s o f Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p o s i t i o n s r e g a r d i n g what " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " s h o u l d be (some were b o t h e r e d by the f l a t n e s s o f d e c o r a t i o n i n e a s e l p a i n t i n g , f o r i d e o l o g i c a l reasons) t h e c r i t i c s can be d i v i d e d i n two main - 7 - groups: those who c o n s i d e r e d Cezanne's " d i s t o r t i o n s " as b e i n g v o l u n t a r y , o f a c o n c e p t u a l n a t u r e , and t h o s e who blamed them on f a u l t y p e r c e p t i o n o r s k i l l . Both groups remarked though on s i m i l a r i t i e s between Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s and v a r i o u s d e c o r a t i v e a r t s such as c e r a m i c s , O r i e n t a l s i l k s , m o s a i c s , and e s p e c i a l l y t a p e s t r i e s . F i n a l l y , P a r t 2 o f the second c h a p t e r w i l l attempt t o determine i f Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s and h i s own words (I c o n s i d e r as h i s "own words" o n l y what he wrote i n h i s l e t t e r s ) are com- p a t i b l e w i t h a " d e c o r a t i o n paradigm." My c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t t h e r e i s a s t r o n g enough case f o r the " d e c o r a t i o n paradigm" f i t t i n g Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s o f h i s "mature" p e r i o d ( i . e . s i n c e the 1880s). Many o f t h e s e p a i n t i n g s f i t a c t u a l l y , i n my o p i n i o n , i n t o a " t a p e s t r y paradigm." I r e f e r e s p e c i a l l y t o the 18th c e n t u r y Rococo t a p e s t r i e s , among e x t a n t examples, as w e l l as t o h y p o t h e t i c a l t a p e s t r i e s , as e n v i s a g e d by the r e f o r m e r s o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n France i n the l a s t q u a r t e r o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y . I s h a l l p l a c e a s p e c i a l emphasis on the c o n n e c t i o n w h i c h can be made between Cezanne's method o f " c o l o u r m o d u l a t i o n s " and s i m i l a r methods recommended by t h e w r i t i n g s o f C h a r l e s B l a n c and M i c h e l Eugene Chevreul-, o r employed i n 18th c e n t u r y B e a u v a i s t a p e s t r y . - 8 - CHAPTER I THE CONCEPT OF DECORATION IN LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY ART AND THE NEW TENDENCIES IN THE PAINTING OF THE 1890s I n t r o d u c t i o n . I n t h e l a s t few y e a r s a r t h i s t o r i a n s have begun t o r e - c o g n i z e t h e r o l e p l a y e d by the " l o w l y , " "merely d e c o r a t i v e " a r t s i n the f o r m a t i o n o f " h i g h " modern art."*" Because t h e " d e c o r a t i v e " i s today a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a b s o l u t e f l a t n e s s , Cezanne has been e x c l u d e d from r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n s on 2 t h i s t o p i c . Yet Cezanne was c o n s i d e r e d by many o f h i s con- t e m p o r a r i e s as t h e " i n i t i a t o r " o f the new d e c o r a t i v e t e n d e n c i e s m a n i f e s t e d i n p a i n t i n g i n t h e 1890s. I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h i s i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c l a r i f y what " d e c o r a t i o n " and " d e c o r a - t i v e " meant a t the time when Cezanne worked, e s p e c i a l l y when he d e v e l o p e d h i s mature s t y l e . One o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t c o n c l u s i o n s o f C h a p t e r I , P a r t 1 i s t h e f a c t t h a t when Cezanne d e v e l o p e d h i s mature s t y l e , t h e term " d e c o r a t i v e " was n o t equated w i t h a b s o l u t e f l a t n e s s . A c c o r d i n g t o most F r e n c h t h e o r i s t s a t t h e t i m e , a s t r i c t t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l f l a t n e s s was n o t r e q u i r e d , nor even c o n s i d e r e d d e s i r a b l e , n e i t h e r i n d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g nor i n a l l the d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , such as t a p e s t r y f o r example ( o n l y i n c a r p e t s , w a l l p a p e r s , pavements, s t a i n e d - g l a s s windows). I t i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e a s o n s b e h i n d the - 9 - a p p a r e n t l y sudden i n t e r e s t o f a v a n t - g a r d e a r t i s t s i n " d e c o r a t i o n " and the " d e c o r a t i v e " i n t h e 1890s i n F r a n c e . The i n t e r e s t i n d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , e x p r e s s e d by a r t i s t s p r a c t i c i n g " h i g h " a r t was not a r o u s e d s u d d e n l y i n the 1890s. I t was the avant-garde o f the 1890s who a p p l i e d d e c o r a t i v e a r t s p r i n c i p l e s (which can be summarized as " f l a t n e s s " ) t o e a s e l p a i n t i n g as w e l l as t o mural d e c o r a t i o n s . (As w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter I , P a r t 2, t h i s was r e l a t e d t o the a n t i - n a t u r a l i s t , a n t i - p o s i t i v i s t r e - a c t i o n t h a t began i n t h e 1880s.) Y e t t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n , as w e l l as a r e v i v a l o f i n t e r e s t i n d e c o r a t i o n were r e s p e c t i v e l y f o r m u l a t e d and i n i t i a t e d n o t by t h e a v a n t - garde, b u t by " o f f i c i a l " r e f o r m e r s o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . I w i l l d e a l w i t h t h e s e problems o f a g e n e r a l n a t u r e i n P a r t 1 o f t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r . - 10 - C h a p t e r T, Part' 1 The R e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f t h e I n d u s t r i a l A r t s i n France and i t s R o l e i n R e d e f i n i n g t h e Concept o f D e c o r a t i o n . 3 The r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l and/or d e c o r a t i v e a r t s was a c o n s t a n t p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h i n v a r i o u s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s i n t h e second h a l f o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y i n F r a n c e . A t f i r s t o n l y t h e Government and p r i v a t e i n d u s t r y (not a r t i s t s ) s t r o v e toward t h i s g o a l , s i n c e t h e u l t i m a t e m o t i v e b e h i n d t h e i n d u s t r i a l a r t s r e v i t a l i z a t i o n was o f an economic n a t u r e : F r a n c e was a f r a i d o f l o s i n g the l e a d i n t h i s f i e l d , m a i n l y because o f E n g l i s h com- p e t i t i o n . There was however a s u b s t r a t u m o f a non-economic n a t u r e u n d e r l y i n g t h e r e f o r m s proposed: t h e " o f f i c i a l " r e f o r m e r s were G o t h i c R e v i v a l i s t s (or s y m p a t h i s e r s ) who wanted t o r e d e f i n e t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n i n such a way as t o c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r v i e w p o i n t . They c o n s i d e r e d a r t s i n c e t h e R e n a i s s a n c e 4 as "decadent" o r even "pagan." Of c o u r s e t h e y knew t h a t t h e Government would be v e r y r e c e p t i v e t o such r e a s o n s as an economic l a g and t h e " p r e s t i g e " o f F r a n c e . T h i s t a c t i c e ( s u b s t i t u t i n g economic r e a s o n s f o r t h e i d e o l o g i c a l ones) worked f i r s t v e r y w e l l i n E n g l a n d , where t h e G o t h i c R e v i v a l was a s t r o n g e r movement t h a n i n France i n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y . The o r i g i n a l m o t i v e s b e h i n d t h i s movement were o f a r e l i g i o u s n a t u r e ( w i t h e t h i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . ) as i s e v i d e n t i n i t s most i m p o r t a n t p r o p a g a n d i s t , t h e a r c h i t e c t and d e s i g n e r A.W.N. P u g i n . He i n s i s t e d on a r e t u r n t o " t r u e " C h r i s t i a n a r t and v i r t u e s w h i c h he found i n the M i d d l e Ages. - 11 - He a l s o found t h e r e a model o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , w h i c h he ad- v o c a t e d . " O f f i c i a l " r e f o r m e r s , such as the c i v i l s e r v a n t Henry C o l e (1808-1882) and h i s c i r c l e , argued f o r t h e n e c e s s i t y o f e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e " t r u e " p r i n c i p l e s " o f d e c o r a t i o n , and s t a r t e d a campaign a g a i n s t "bad t a s t e " (read i l l u s i o n i s t i c n a t u r a l i s m ) , 5 based on P u g i n ' s d o c t r i n e s . The Great London E x h i b i t i o n o f 1851 (the World's F a i r a t t h e C r y s t a l P a l a c e ) was s e i z e d upon by t h e s e r e f o r m e r s as a g r e a t o p p o r t u n i t y t o l a u n c h t h e i r s u c c e s s - f u l campaign a g a i n s t r e a l i s t i c i l l u s i o n i s m i n d e c o r a t i o n . The e x h i b i t s o f V i c t o r i a n England i n d e e d p r o v i d e d an abundance o f examples o f what t h e y c o n s i d e r e d "bad t a s t e . " I n t h e formu- l a t i o n o f the " t r u e p r i n c i p l e s " a v e r y i n f l u e n t i a l p e r s o n a l i t y was t h e a r c h i t e c t , i n d u s t r i a l d e s i g n e r , and i n t e r i o r d e c o r a t o r Owen Jones (1809-1874) who e s t a b l i s h e d what was " t r u e " and what was " f a l s e " i n the d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . He c o n s i d e r e d i t a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y t h a t an ornament s h o u l d p r e s e r v e t h e u n i t y o f t h e o b j e c t t h a t i t d e c o r a t e d . That i m p l i e d r e s p e c t f o r t h e p l a n e s u r f a c e o f w a l l s and f l o o r s . He o b j e c t e d t o w a l l p a p e r p a t t e r n s t h a t were n o t p e r f e c t l y f l a t , and t o c a r p e t s w i t h " p e r s p e c t i v e 7 r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , and p i e r c e d f u l l o f h o l e s . " F l a t n e s s , w h i c h o f t e n meant a s i m p l e , a b s t r a c t g e o m e t r i c a l d e s i g n , was v e r y s u i t a b l e f o r m e c h a n i c a l r e p r o d u c t i o n , f o r mass p r o d u c t i o n . The " o f f i c i a l s " I mentioned b e f o r e were v e r y much i n t e r e s t e d i n the r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t and i n d u s t r y . Henry C o l e and h i s c i r c l e (as opposed t o W i l l i a m M o r r i s and the l a t e r A r t s and C r a f t s movement, w h i c h r e p r e s e n t e d most a r t i s t s ' p o i n t o f view) a c c e p t e d w h o l e h e a r t e d l y t h e r o l e o f t h e machine i n t h e i n d u s - t r i a l a r t s and were i n t e r e s t e d i n b e t t e r d e s i g n s f o r mass- - 12 - produced goods, e s p e c i a l l y w a l l p a p e r s . In a c h i e v i n g t h i s g o a l , e d u c a t i o n was o f paramount importance.. C o l e c r e a t e d t h e famous " S c h o o l s o f D e s i g n " a t t a c h e d t o t h e South K e n s i n g t o n Museum, where t h e " t r u e p r i n c i p l e s " o f o r n a m e n t a l d e s i g n were t a u g h t . The r e s u l t s o f t h e o f f i c i a l r e f o r m e r s ' endeavours were seen i n the E n g l i s h e x h i b i t s a t t h e World's F a i r o f 1862. T h i s time the F r e n c h G o t h i c R e v i v a l i s t s and t h e i r s u p p o r t e r s saw t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o c r e a t e " p a n i c . " They found a v e r y s u s c e p t i b l e l i s t e n e r i n t h e p e r s o n o f t h e Emperor Napoleon I I I , who was e x t r e m e l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l a r t s . He l o o k e d upon t h e r i v a l r y . b e t w e e n F r a n c e and E n g l a n d i n t h i s f i e l d as a " k i n d o f war, w h i c h makes no v i c t i m s " and h e l d t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e p r o d u c t s o f t h e i n d u s t r y " t e s t i f y t o our m o r a l and 9 p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n . " Even b e f o r e he became emperor, w h i l e s t i l l t h e P r e s i d e n t o f F r a n c e , L o u i s Napoleon had a p p o i n t e d a committee headed by the Comte Leon de Laborde ( c u r a t o r o f m e d i e v a l monuments a t t h e Louvre) t o s t u d y t h e G r e a t London E x h i b i t i o n o f 1851 and the r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t s and i n d u s t r y . Not everybody i n the government was p r e p a r e d t o t a k e s e r i o u s l y Laborde's w a r n i n g s c o n c e r n i n g the n e c e s s i t y o f r e f o r m s r i g h t t h e n , s i n c e France r e c e i v e d g o l d and s i l v e r medals a t t h e f i r s t World's F a i r , p r o o f t h a t t h e r e was no d e s p e r a t e need f o r improve- ment."'"^ , However, i n 1862, t h e s u c c e s s o f England's e x h i b i t s gave more w e i g h t t o the c o n c l u s i o n r e a c h e d by a n o t h e r m e d i e v a l i s t , P r o s p e r Merimee ( n o v e l i s t and.medieval a r c h a e o l o g i s t , c i v i l s e r v a n t , f r i e n d o f de Laborde and o f V i o l l e t - l e - D u c - t h e b e s t known G o t h i c R e v i v a l i s t i n F r a n c e ) , who as a member o f t h e F r e n c h d e l e g a t i o n a t t h e F a i r , d e s c r i b e d t h e s i t u a t i o n as " s e r i o u s , even t h r e a t e n i n g . " The Government o f Napoleon I I I became con- v i n c e d t h a t a r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l a r t s . w a s a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y . That meant a c l o s e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between, " h i g h a r t " and i n d u s t r y , r e f o r m s i n a r t e d u c a t i o n a t a l l l e v e l s , as w e l l as the e d u c a t i o n o f m a n u f a c t u r e r s , merchants and the g e n e r a l p u b l i c i n o r d e r t o improve t h e i r , " t a s t e , " and make everybody aware o f "the t r u e p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n . " T h i s p r o c e s s o f r e v i t a l i z a t i o n d i d not p r o c e e d smoothly how- e v e r , because o f t h e c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s o f t h e v a r i o u s groups i n v o l v e d . The Government, as I a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t , was i n t e r e s t e d i n F r a n c e ' s " p r e s t i g e " and economic growth, and when c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e r e was a r e a l t h r e a t t o t h o s e a r e a s , agreed t o a c t . I t was t h u s p o s s i b l e f o r V i o l l e t - l e - D u c (whose i d e a s on d e c o r a t i o n , as we s h a l l see, w i l l be i m p o r t a n t f o r b o t h S y m b o l i s t p a i n t e r s as w e l l as A r t Nouveau) t o have h i s i d e a s on t h e r e f o r m a t i o n o f -the E c o l e des B e a u x - A r t s a c c e p t e d by t h e Emperor artd h i s a d m i n i s t r a - t i v e body. V i o l l e t - l e - D u c was t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e b e h i n d t h e "Decree o f 1863" which p l a c e d t h e E c o l e des B e a u x - A r t s under d i r e c t government c o n t r o l , u n d e r m i n i n g t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e 12 Academy. The importance o f t h e Decree o f 1863 from t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f s t r e s s i n g " o r i g i n a l i t y " and i t s consequences f o r t h e development o f independent a r t i s t i c movements has been v e r y w e l l 13 demonstrated by. A l b e r t Boime.. I would l i k e t o p l a c e more em- p h a s i s on t h e o t h e r main i s s u e r a i s e d by t h e Decree ( a l s o p o i n t e d out by Boime), namely t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t and i n d u s t r y . One o f t h e i m p o r t a n t achievements o f t h e Decree, i n accordance w i t h V i o l l e t - l e - D u c ' s dream o f u n i t i n g a l l the a r t s , was t h e -14 r- of p r e p a r a t o r y workshops i n p a i n t i n g , s c u l p t u r e , a r c h i t e c t u r e , as w e l l as i n e n g r a v i n g , m e d a l l i o n s and j e w e l e r y , on the p r e m i s e s o f t h e E c o l e des Beaux-Arts.. T h i s i n t r u s i o n o f t h e a p p l i e d a r t s i n t o t h a t b a s t i o n o f h i g h a r t t h a t was the Beaux- A r t s (where s t r a n g e l y enough n o t even p a i n t i n g was p r e v i o u s l y t a u g h t ) , was suppose t o a t t r a c t t h e b e s t a r t i s t s i n t o the f i e l d o f i n d u s t r i a l a r t s . I n the R e p o r t o f t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f B e a u x - A r t s (a t e x t t h a t was p u b l i s h e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e Decree i n the G a z e t t e des Beaux A r t s ) , the Comte A l f r e d - E m i l i e n N i e u - werkerke who h e l d t h i s o f f i c i a l p o s i t i o n , and who was a l s o co- a u t h o r o f t h e Decree ( w i t h V i o l l e t - l e - D u c ) , d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e E c o l e " w i l l i n s u r e our i n d u s t r y a 14 s u p e r i o r i t y w h i c h i s b e g i n n i n g t o be c o n t e s t e d . " The " o f f i c i a l " r e f o r m e r s (Nieuwerkerke, V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , de Laborde, Merimee, f o r example) i n the d e s i r e t o r e v i t a l i z e t h e i n d u s t r i a l a r t s e n t e r e d i n t o c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e Academy, because t h e y v i o l a t e d i t s s a c r e d t e r r i t o r y . The p r o t o t y p i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e Academy was I n g r e s . He p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t m i x i n g " a r t " and i n d u s t r y a t t h e E c o l e , w h i c h he c o n s i d e r e d a 15 " t r u e temple o f A p o l l o . " I n g r e s and h i s p u p i l s succeeded i n f o r c i n g t h e r e s i g n a t i o n o f V i o l l e t - l e - D u c as p r o f e s s o r o f H i s t o r y o f A r t and A e s t h e t i c s , a f t e r o n l y seven l e c t u r e s . Thus h i s i n f l u e n c e was g r e a t l y d i m i n i s h e d . V i o l l e t - l e - D u c can be c o n s i d e r e d as r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e " o f f i c i a l " s i d e o f t h e above-mentioned c o n f l i c t between t h e Academy on t h e one s i d e , and t h e o f f i c i a l s on t h e o t h e r . ( T h i s i s a c o n f l i c t t h a t would c o n t i n u e f o r t h e r e s t o f t h e 19th - 15 - 16 c e n t u r y . ) He was t h e f a v o u r i t e a r c h i t e c t o f Napoleon I I I , who a p p o i n t e d him I n s p e c t o r G e n e r a l . o f d i o c e s a n b u i l d i n g s soon a f t e r he p r o c l a i m e d h i m s e l f Emperor. V i o l l e t - l e - D u c was not t r a i n e d a t the E c o l e (he was l a r g e l y s e l f - t a u g h t ) and h a t e d t h e Academy (a resentment s h a r e d by Napoleon I I I ) and e v e r y t h i n g i t s t o o d f o r . I n s t e a d o f c l a s s i c i s m he p r a i s e d t h e G o t h i c and t h e s o c i a l system t h a t produced i t , i n w h i c h t h e d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r among a r t i s t s , t h a t would o c c u r l a t e r i n "decadent" s o c i e t i e s , d i d n o t y e t e x i s t . He was a g a i n s t t h e e m a n c i p a t i o n o f p a i n t i n g s i n c e t h e R e n a i s s a n c e , and a d v o c a t e d the u n i t y o f t h e t h r e e a r t s : a r c h i t e c t u r e , s c u l p t u r e and p a i n t i n g , s i n c e t h e b r e a k i n g o f t h e t i e s between them l e d t o the "decadence o f a l l o f them." He p r a i s e d p r i m i t i v e s o c i e t i e s i n w h i c h , he s a i d , "There are not 17 t h r e e v i s u a l a r t s , t h e r e i s o n l y one." V i o l l e t - l e - D u c de- p l o r e d t h e s p l i t between "the b e a u t i f u l " and "the u s e f u l , " between t h e a r c h i t e c t and e n g i n e e r , between " h i g h a r t " and i n - d u s t r y . H i s i d e a s i n the a r t i s t i c r e a l m were a c u r i o u s m i x t u r e o f o l d and new, so t h a t h i s enemies and l a t e r d e t r a c t o r s con- s i d e r e d him m e r e l y a " G o t h i c i m i t a t o r " ( w h i l e i n f a c t he op- posed t h e p l a g i a r i s m o f o l d e r s t y l e s ) and among h i s f u t u r e a d m i r e r s he would have such i m p o r t a n t f i g u r e s o f A r t Nouveau as H o r t a , Guimard, G a u d i , and S e r r u r i e r - B o v y . A l o o k a t the d e c o r a t i o n s he d i d f o r the Chateau d'Eu, f o r example ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e i r o n - w o r k o f t h e g r e a t s t a i r c a s e , the c e i l i n g o r n a m e n t a l m o t i f s w i t h arabesques , t h e m o t i f s i n s p i r e d by o r g a n i c , f l o r a l shapes t h a t d e c o r a t e the h e a t - c o n v e y i n g system) would t e l l 18 why. G r a s s e t , a n o t h e r well-known A r t Nouveau p e r s o n a l i t y ( m e d i e v a l i s t , s t u d e n t o f Japanese a r t and i n s i s t e n t on u s i n g - 16 - o r n a m e n t a l m o t i f s d e r i v e d from n a t u r e ) was V i o l l e t - l e - D u c 1 s p u p i l , and so was V.P. G a l l a n d , who .has o n l y l a t e l y been r e - c o g n i z e d as an i n f l u e n c e on t h e development o f t h e A r t Nouveau 19 s t y l e i n F r a n c e . G a l l a n d was a b l e t o r e i n t r o d u c e V i o l l e t - l e - Duc's i d e a s i n t o t h e E c o l e des B e a u x - A r t s i n 1873 (and a f t e r ) , when he was a p p o i n t e d t o t e a c h a c o u r s e i n d e c o r a t i v e a r t . V i o l l e t - l e - D u c g l a d l y would have a b o l i s h e d the t a b l e a u ( i n t h e Academic sense o f the word) a l t o g e t h e r , s i n c e f o r him i t embodied t i m e s o f decadence, and he would have had m u r a l p a i n t i n g resemble m e d i e v a l m a n u s c r i p t i l l u m i n a t i o n s . He r e - p r e s e n t e d one p o s i t i o n on d e c o r a t i o n i n France i n t h e second h a l f o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y . There was a n o t h e r , w i d e s p r e a d p o s i t i o n , w h i c h w h i l e i t a c c e p t e d t h a t d e c o r a t i o n s h o u l d r e s p e c t t h e f l a t n e s s o f t h e s u r f a c e i t d e c o r a t e d , wanted t o r e t a i n i n " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " something o f the "Western T r a d i t i o n , " t h a t i s , some m o d e l l i n g o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l o b j e c t s r e p r e s e n t e d , and e s p e c i a l l y o f t h e human f i g u r e . (I w i l l come back t o t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n i n p o s i t i o n s r e g a r d i n g d e c o r a t i o n l a t e r on, when I w i l l d i s c u s s t h e a c t u a l p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n . ) T h i s w i l l be t h e " o f f i c i a l " p o s i t i o n i n the 1880s. An extreme case o f a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e "Western t r a d i t i o n " was C h a r l e s B l a n c (1813-1882), V i o l l e t - l e - D u c ' s 20 contemporary. I c o n s i d e r e d him an "extreme c a s e " i n p r e - s e r v i n g the O c c i d e n t a l t r a d i t i o n , because i n m u r a l p a i n t i n g he d i d not make any c o n c e s s i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o m o d e l l i n g o f i n - d i v i d u a l forms ( o n l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o p e r s p e c t i v e and c o l o r i n g , r e g a r d i n g t h e g e n e r a l " e f f e c t , " as I s h a l l d i s c u s s l a t e r ) . He was i n t h e p e c u l i a r p o s i t i o n of b e i n g b o t h an " o f f i c i a l " and an - 17 - A c a d e m i c i a n , and i t i s e v i d e n t i n h i s i n f l u e n t i a l w r i t i n g s and a c t i v i t i e s , t h a t he t r i e d t o r e a c h a compromise between t h e two s i d e s . He was a f i r m b e l i e v e r i n h i e r a r c h y i n a r t . The h i g h e s t form o f a r t a c c o r d i n g t o him was an a r t t h a t had t h e a b i l i t y t o i n s t i g a t e h e r o i c s e n t i m e n t s i n the v i e w e r , t h a t c o u l d s e r v e ( w i t h o u t a d m i t t i n g t h i s as i t s purpose s i n c e " h i g h a r t " was not supposed t o have u t i l i t a r i a n ends) n o b l e c a u s e s , m o r a l ends. He f a v o u r e d c l a s s i c i s m , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t o f t h e 21 R e n a i s s a n c e . Thus he was i n tune w i t h t h e Academy. B l a n c h e l d t h e o p i n i o n t h a t o n l y t h e S t a t e s h o u l d have t h e monopoly o f "grand a r t , " produced f o r t h e " g r e a t e s t g l o r y o f F r e n c h a r t . " M u r a l s were v e r y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h i s k i n d o f a r t i n h i s v i e w , s i n c e when d e c o r a t i n g p u b l i c e d i f i c e s , t h e y had wide exposure t o numerous p e o p l e who c o u l d t h u s b e n e f i t from t h o s e 23 "noble i d e a s . " I n "grand a r t " m u r a l s , B l a n c would have never a c c e p t e d f i g u r e s r e n d e r e d i n t h e manner o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t i l l u m i n a t i o n s . He s t a t e d t h a t " a t the S a l o n and i n f r o n t o f 24 t h e p u b l i c one must e x h i b i t f i g u r e s and not shadows." T h i s comment was provoked by 'the camaieu p a i n t i n g P u v i s de Chavannes e x h i b i t e d a t t h e S a l o n . o f 1866, whose f i g u r e s , B l a n c s a i d , were "more dreamed t h a n p a i n t e d . " But B l a n c had a double s t a n d a r d w i t h r e s p e c t t o d e c o r a t i o n : one r e g a r d i n g p u b l i c a r t , and a n o t h e r one f o r p r i v a t e l y owned a r t . The l a t t e r was supposed t o t r a n s p o r t the v i e w e r " i n t o the i d e a l w o r l d , " t o s e r v e as a means o f e s c a p i n g r e a l i t y . I f he owned a p r i v a t e h o t e l , he s a i d , he would have l i k e d t o d e c o r a t e i t s w a l l s w i t h P u v i s 1 p a n e l s . W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s ( i n w h i c h he d i d n o t , as a r u l e , i n c l u d e - 18 - m u r a l s ) , d e s t i n e d m o s t l y f o r the p r i v a t e enjoyment o f an e l i t e , he recommended the form and c o n t e n t o f an I d e a l i s t a r t , as i s e v i d e n t i n h i s Gramma i r e : des a r t s : d e c o r a t i f s, t h e s e q u e l t o 25 t h e Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n . B l a n c was an adept o f t h e I d e a l i s t a e s t h e t i c o f Kant and S c h i l l e r , Hegel and S c h e l l i n g , i n t h e form p r o p a g a t e d i n France by V i c t o r C o u s i n , w h i c h was 2 6 q u i t e c l o s e t o t h e t h e o r y of. " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake." A t t h e same time he was i n f l u e n c e d by the w r i t i n g s o f Lamennais, as w e l l as by Proudhon. The l a s t two p e r s o n a l i t i e s were p o l e s a p a r t i n p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s , but t h e y b o t h f o u g h t the c o n c e p t o f a r t f o r a r t ' s sake. The c o n n e c t i o n w i t h Proudhon i s easy t o u n d e r s t a n d , s i n c e L o u i s B l a n c , C h a r l e s ' b r o t h e r was - an a r d e n t b e l i e v e r i n the s o c i a l r o l e o f a r t . L i k e Proudhon, who s a i d t h a t "The a r t i s t whose work ... p l e a s e s the g r e a t e s t number w i l l be r a t e d the g r e a t e s t o f a l l C h a r l e s B l a n c c o n s i d e r e d t h a t the work o f a r t " i s ennobled by t h e number o f 27 s p e c t a t o r s who e n j o y x t . " But u n l x k e Proudhon, B l a n c was a g a i n s t r e a l i s m . He admired Lamennais, who was a C a t h o l i c L i b e r a l , and who i n 1830 and 1831 p u b l i s h e d t o g e t h e r w i t h 28 L a c o r d a i r e and Montalembert t h e j o u r n a l L ' A v e n i r . Lamennais s a i d t h a t " a r t i s o n l y the e x t e r i o r shape o f i d e a s , the ex- p r e s s i o n o f r e l i g i o u s dogma, and o f the dominant s o c i a l 29 p r i n c i p l e i n c e r t a i n epochs." He c o n s i d e r e d t h a t " A r t f o r a r t ' s sake i s an a b s u r d i t y . " L i k e the S a i n t - S i m o n i a n s , he saw i n " i n d u s t r y " an a c t i v i t y t h a t s h o u l d e n j o y the same d i g n i t y as t h e a r t s and the s c i e n c e s . Thus, as A l b e r t Cassagne p o i n t e d o u t i n 1905 i n h i s book L a T h e o r i e de l ' a r t pour l ' a r t , Lamennais ^ r e a c h e d c o n c l u s i o n s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f L o u i s B l a n c , Proudhon - 19 - and t h e S a i n t - S i m o n i a n s . Whatever e c l e c t i c i n f l u e n c e s B l a n c a c c e p t e d , i t i s . c l e a r t h a t he b e l i e v e d i n the p r a c t i c a l u t i l i t y o f a r t (as d e c o r a t i o n o f homes or o b j e c t s ) as l o n g as i t was not "grand a r t . " As an a c t i v e s u p p o r t e r o f the r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f the i n d u s t r i a l a r t s , he b e l i e v e d i n a " r e j u v e n a t i o n o f f i n e a r t s w i t h t h e purpose o f a p p l y i n g them t o i n d u s t r y , " and i n "wedding the b e a u t i f u l and 31 *1 t h e u s e f u l . " B l a n c s h a r e d Merimee's, de L a b o r d e ' s , and f o r t h a t m a t t e r t h e Emperor's (who d e c o r a t e d Henry C o l e i n 1855) a d m i r a t i o n f o r England's achievements, e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e South K e n s i n g t o n system. I n e s t a b l i s h i n g the p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a - t i v e a r t s i n h i s Grammaire des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s (which w i l l be d i s c u s s e d more i n d e t a i l l a t e r ) , B l a n c was i n agreement w i t h Owen Jones,' g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s , f a i t h f u l t o the " o f f i c i a l " 32 l i n e . But he d i d not d e a l m o s t l y w i t h ornamental a b s t r a c t d e s i g n , as Jones and C o l e ' s c i r c l e d i d , and as I mentioned b e f o r e , he d i d u p h o l d t h e "Western t r a d i t i o n " e x p r e s s e d e s - p e c i a l l y by h i s p r e d i l e c t i o n f o r c o l o u r " g r a d a t i o n , " as opposed t o f l a t t i n t s . As c o n c e r n s t h e q u e s t i o n o f " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" (a key i s s u e i n t h i s p a p e r ) , even i f B l a n c a v o i d s u s i n g t h i s term w h i c h he h a l f - d r e a d e d , u l t i m a t e l y t h i s i s what he recommends f o r the d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . D e c o r a t i v e a r t s such as t h e a r t o f t a p e s t r y , i n v o l v e scenes w i t h f i g u r e s , and t h e y were not supposed t o convey p o w e r f u l e m o t i o n s , t o be e l o q u e n t , t o s e r v e any m o r a l i z i n g purpose. They s i m p l y had t o t r a n s p o r t t h e v i e w e r i n t o a w o r l d o f dreams, i n t o an i d e a l w o r l d , t o p l e a s e t h e eye and the " s p i r i t . " He r e q u i r e d e l o q u e n c e , as we have - 20 - a l r e a d y seen, o n l y from the "grand a r t " w h i c h was supposed t o i n s p i r e n o b l e s e n t i m e n t s . As much as he wanted t o p r e s e r v e t h e K a n t i a n autonomy o f a work o f a r t , he c o u l d . n o t f o r s a k e h i s b e l i e f o f a 1848 " r e v o l u t i o n a r y . " These b e l i e f s r e q u i r e d a r t t o have a m o b i l i z i n g , example s e t t i n g r o l e (by p o r t r a y i n g h e r o i c a c t s ) i n s o c i e t y . B l a n c found h i m s e l f a t the t h r e s h o l d o f c h a n g i n g c o n c e p t s : t h e dichotomy o f "pure a r t " v e r s u s " a p p l i e d a r t " w i l l soon be- come o f l e s s importance than the dichotomy o f " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" v e r s u s m o r a l a r t and " l i t e r a t u r e " ( l i t e r a r y a r t ) . So f a r the d i s c u s s i o n has been f o c u s s e d on t h e c o n f l i c t between "Academy" and t h e " O f f i c i a l s . " The i n t e r e s t s o f two o t h e r i m p o r t a n t groups i n v o l v e d i n the a c t u a l r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l a r t s , t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s t s and t h e a r t i s t s , were i n c o n f l i c t w i t h each o t h e r . The I n d u s t r i a l i s t s , t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s o f i n d u s t r i a l a r t s , j o i n e d t h e i r e f f o r t s t o form a p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e (which d i d , however, g e t s u p p o r t from the Government), the Union C e n t r a i e des B e a u x - A r t s a p p l i q u e s a l ' i n d u s t r i e ; founded on J u l y 1864, t h i s was renamed Union C e n t r a i e des A r t s D g c o r a t i f s a f t e r un- i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e S o c i e t y o f t h e Museum o f D e c o r a t i v e A r t s , i n 1880. The purpose o f t h e Union C e n t r a i e was t o c e n t r a l i z e the i n d u s t r i a l and d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , t a k i n g t h e South K e n s i n g t o n System as i t s model. I t o r g a n i z e d a museum o f a r t o b j e c t s o f v a r i o u s p e r i o d s , p e r i o d i c a l e x h i b i t i o n s o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s ( r e t r o s p e c t i v e and c o n t e m p o r a r y ) , p u b l i c l e c t u r e s and a l i b r a r y . The i n t e n t i o n t o c r e a t e a C o l l e g e de b e a u x - a r t s a p p l i q u € s a l ' i n d u s t r i e never q u i t e m a t e r i a l i z e d . Because o f t o o z e a l o u s s u p p o r t on the p a r t - 21 - o f Ch. B l a n c and E. G u i l l a u m e , t h e Union C e n t r a l e was i n f i l - 33 t r a t e d w i t h academic t r a d i t i o n . I n s t e a d o f a s i m p l e form o f i n s t r u c t i o n i n f l a t o r n a m e n t a l d e s i g n as most a p p r o p r i a t e f o r w a l l p a p e r s , l i k e t h a t o f f e r e d i n H. C o l e ' s s c h o o l s o f d e s i g n , t h e Union C e n t r a l e o f f e r e d l e c t u r e s i n geometry and p e r s p e c t i v e , as w e l l as i n o t h e r s c i e n c e s , and a e s t h e t i c t h e o r i e s such as i n t h e l e c t u r e s d e l i v e r e d by Ch. B l a n c h i m s e l f , c o n t a i n i n g e x c e r p t s from h i s y e t u n p u b l i s h e d book, Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n . Union C e n t r a l e d i d n o t f u l f i l one o f the main purposes f o r w h i c h i t was c r e a t e d , t h a t i s t o a t t r a c t a r t i s t s i n v o l v e d i n f i n e a r t s i n t o t h e f i e l d o f i n d u s t r i a l a r t s , p r e c i s e l y because i t was i n t h e hands o f " i n d u s t r i a l i s t s , " and d i d not r e p r e s e n t 34 t h e a r t i s t s ' i n t e r e s t s . The A r t i s t s who s p e c i a l i z e d i n " h i g h a r t " were t h e p r o d u c t o f a p r o c e s s o f " d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r " t h a t gave them a v e r y s p e c i a l s t a t u s , w h i c h t h e y wanted t o m a i n t a i n . Academic a r t i s t s f o r a l o n g time r e s i s t e d t h e i n v a s i o n o f the d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n t o t h e S a l o n , on "an e q u a l f o o t i n g w i t h t h e f i n e a r t s . As l o n g as t h e s t a t u s o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s was g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d " i n f e r i o r " t o t h a t o f " h i g h a r t , " the j u s t e m i l i e u a r t i s t s o r t h e a v a n t - 35 garde a r t i s t s were not i n t e r e s t e d e i t h e r . To a t t r a c t a r t i s t s who d i d not a l r e a d y have t h e s t a t u s o f " d e c o r a t o r " i n t o the f i e l d o f i n d u s t r i a l o r d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n o r d e r t o "improve t h e s t a n d a r d s " , . w o u l d have been p o s s i b l e o n l y i n one of t h e f o l l o w i n g two s i t u a t i o n s : 1) The a r t i s t s are committed t o t h e s o c i a l r o l e o f a r t , t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e " b e a u t i f u l " and. t h e " u s e f u l " - 22 - s h o u l d be u n i t e d , and a r e even p r e p a r e d t o d e s i g n f o r i n d u s t r i a l m a s s - p r o d u c t i o n , (thus a c c e p t i n g the r o l e o f "the machine" i n o r d e r t o r e a c h more p e o p l e , w i t h cheaper p r o d u c t s ) . 2) The d i f f e r e n c e i n s t a t u s between " h i g h a r t " and . " d e c o r a t i v e a r t " i s a b o l i s h e d , t h u s a r t i s t s h e l d back by s c r u p l e s connected w i t h " s t a t u s - , " can now t a k e advantage o f a n o t h e r m a r k e t i n g o u t l e t , w i t h o u t f e e l i n g t h e y a r e " p r o s t i t u t i n g " t h e m s e l v e s . I t i s even b e t t e r i f i t i s emphasized t h a t t h e " d e c o r a t i v e a r t s " are " e l i t i s t , " " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake," as opposed t o the so- c a l l e d " f i n e a r t " e x h i b i t e d a t t h e S a l o n , t h a t c a t e r e d t o t h e t a s t e o f the p e t i t - b o u r g e o i s crowd. Thus t h e " d e c o r a t i v e a r t s " c o u l d even be c o n s i d e r e d as s u p e r i o r t o S a l o n a r t . The f i r s t s i t u a t i o n never q u i t e m a t e r i a l i z e d i n France i n t h e second h a l f o f the 19th c e n t u r y . A t f i r s t , o f f i c i a l p r o - paganda, i n t h e 1860s t r i e d t o a t t r a c t a r t i s t s w i t h the s l o g a n o f " u n i t i n g the b e a u t i f u l w i t h the u s e f u l , " a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f an o u t d a t e d U t o p i a n S a i n t - S i m o n i s m . (The i d e a s o f u n i t i n g a r t and i n d u s t r y o r i g i n a t e d i n f a c t i n the 1830s i n F r a n c e , prompted by such i d e a l s . ) Such propaganda was not v e r y s u c c e s s f u l , e s p e c i a l l y when i t was c l e a r t h a t t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s , t h e " i n d u s t r i a l i s t s " were the ones r e a p i n g t h e p r o f i t s . The a r t i s t s - i n d u s t r i a l i s t s c o n f l i c t became more a c u t e i n the l a t e r p a r t o f t h e c e n t u r y , when many a r t i s t s , i n s p i r e d by the example o f W i l l i a m M o r r i s and t h e B r i t i s h A r t s and C r a f t s movement r e a l i z e d t h a t by t h e m s e l v e s p r o d u c i n g " a r t o b j e c t s " f o r amateurs, a p o t e n t i a l market was open t o them. But t h e r e are s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between the r e v i v a l o f t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n E n g l a n d and B e l g i u m on one hand, and i n France on t h e o t h e r . M o r r i s and h i s group, as w e l l as t h e B e l g i a n a r t i s t s (such as H e n r i Van de V e l d e ) , b e l i e v e d i n the s o c i a l r o l e o f a r t . The f a c t t h a t F r e n c h a r t i s t s became i n t e r e s t e d i n M o r r i s 1 achievements (and n o t i n Henry C o l e ' s , as t h e Government and t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s t s were) had n o t h i n g t o do w i t h R u s k i n ' s " G o t h i c " h u m i l i t y " t h a t M o r r i s p r o f e s s e d , w h i c h i n f a c t i m p l i e d t h e l o w e r i n g o f t h e s p e c i a l s t a t u s t h e a r t i s t g a i n e d i n t h e c a p i - t a l i s t s o c i e t y . I r o n i c a l l y , t h e s o c i a l i s t M o r r i s , l a r g e l y be- cause o f h i s h a t r e d o f t h e machine o r any p o s t - m e d i e v a l methods o f p r o d u c t i o n , produced " a r t o b j e c t s " t h a t o n l y a w e a l t h y e l i t e c o u l d e n j o y . I t was t h i s p r o s p e c t o f " a r t i s t i c " v e r s u s i n d u s t r i a l m a s s - p r o d u c t i o n t h a t a p p e a l e d t o t h e F r e n c h a r t i s t s , and n o t t h e v i r t u e s o f t h e humble m e d i e v a l a r t i s a n . J u s t t h e o p p o s i t e , t h e y s e i z e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o r a i s e t h e s t a t u s o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s t o t h a t o f f i n e a r t s . The f a c t t h a t d u r i n g t h e 1890s t h e r e was a renewed a s s o c i a t i o n o f t h e a r t i s t i c ( v i s u a l ) avant-garde w i t h t h e p o l i t i c a l a v a n t - g a r d e , w i t h s o c i a l r a d i c a l i s m i n F r a n c e , d i d n o t a f f e c t the a r t i s t s ' p o s i t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l a r t s . F r a n c e d i d n o t produce a H e n r i van de V e l d e , B e l g i u m d i d , even though t h e r e were i n France l o u d v o i c e s t h a t t r i e d t o m o b i l i s e a r t i s t s t o p u t t h e i r a r t i n the s e r v i c e o f t h e p e o p l e , such as H. Nocq's: J 1 a t t e n d avec i m p a t i e n c e l e r e t o u r des a r t i s t e s a 1 ' I n d u s t r i e . Grace a l a p r o d u c t i o n mecanique l e u r s o e u v r e s s e r o n t m i s e s a l a p o r t e e du p l u s grand nombre e t a i n s i s e r v i r o n t au p r o g r e s s o c i a l . ^ 6 - 2:4 - I do n o t i n t e n d t o d i s c u s s B e l g i u m h e r e , b u t the c l o s e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between the a r t i s t s and the Worker's p a r t y i n t h a t c o u n t r y can throw a l i g h t on t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between F r e n c h and B e l g i a n a v a n t - g a r d e s . (For t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e " c o l l e c t i v i s t " movements i n France and B e l g i u m , and t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p o s i t i o n s toward a r t , see Eugenia H e r b e r t , The A r t i s t and S o c i a l Reform, 1961.) Not o n l y was t h e s o c i a l i s t movement weaker t h a n t h e a n a r c h i s t movement a t the t i m e i n F r a n c e , b u t a l s o i t d i d not g i v e a r t s u f f i c i e n t t h o u g h t . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e a n a r c h i s t movement made a s p e c i a l e f f o r t t o a t t r a c t a r t i s t s , and i t s emphasis on " i n d i v i d u a l i s m " a l s o a p p e a l e d t o F r e n c h a r t i s t s , most o f them.coming from b o u r g e o i s 37 backgrounds. Thus t h e N e o 7 l m p r e s s i o n i s t s among p a i n t e r s were a n a r c h i s t s y m p a t h i s e r s . They b e l i e v e d t h a t e v e n t u a l l y , i n t h e f u t u r e , a r t s h o u l d be i n t e g r a t e d w i t h the whole s o c i e t y , but f o r t h e time b e i n g , i n t h e i r p r e s e n t s o c i e t y t h e y d i d not c o n s i d e r t h i s p o s s i b l e . T h e i r a r t was produced e s s e n t i a l l y f o r an e l i t e o f amateurs, and as Eugenia and R o b e r t H e r b e r t have p o i n t e d o u t , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , i t was p r e c i s e l y i n the 1890s, when t h e i r c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e a n a r c h i s t movement became most m i l i t a n t , t h a t the a r t i s t s adopted a more pronounced " a r t 3 8 f o r a r t ' s sake" p o s i t i o n . S i g n a c , f o r example, was w e l l aware o f the d i s c r e p a n c y between h i s p o l i t i c a l c o n v i c t i o n s and the a e s t h e t i c ones, and t r i e d a t v a r i o u s o c c a s i o n s t o j u s t i f y i t . For example, i n June 1891, i n the a r t i c l e " I m p r e s s i o n i s t e s e t R e v o l u t i o n n a i r e s , " s i g n e d "an I m p r e s s i o n i s t Comrade," S i g n a c s a i d : - 25 - I t would t h u s be an e r r o r , i n t o w h i c h t h e b e s t i n t e n t i o n e d r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s , l i k e , Proudhon, a l l t o o o f t e n have f a l l e n , s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t o r e q u i r e a p r e c i s e s o c i a l i s t tendency i n works o f a r t , f o r t h i s tendency w i l l be found much more p o w e r f u l and e l o q u e n t i n t h e pure a e s t h e t e s , r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s by temperament, who, moving f a r o f f the b e a t e n p a t h , p a i n t what t h e y see as t h e y f e e l i t , and v e r y o f t e n u n c o n s c i o u s l y g i v e a h a r d blow o f t h e p i c k - a x e t o t h e o l d s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . 3 ^ C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o was another a n a r c h i s t s y m p a t h i s e r , a member o f t h e C l u b de 1'Art S o c i a l , and p r o f e s s e d h a t r e d o f the c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y . Y e t h i s a t t i t u d e was t h a t o f the F r e n c h a v a n t - g a r d e i n g e n e r a l , t h a t i s e l i t i s t . He was i n t e r e s t e d i n e d u c a t i n g o n l y t h e a r t i s t i c t a s t e o f an e l i t e o f "buyers," as opposed t o C a r r i e r e (a " j u s t e m i l i e u " p a i n t e r ) , o r t o t h e c r i t i c Gustave G e f f r o y ( a l s o not e x a c t l y an a v a n t - g a r d e . w r i t e r ) , who wanted t o educate t h e w o r k e r s . ^ , I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t , as Chesneau remarked, F r e n c h a r t i s t s 41 had the tendency t o a s p i r e toward t h e l o f t i e r l e v e l s o f a r t . As l o n g as t h e i n d u s t r i a l and d e c o r a t i v e a r t s were c o n s i d e r e d as a c t i v i t i e s o f a l e s s e r s t a t u s (an a t t i t u d e s u p p o r t e d by t h e Academy) t h e a r t i s t s ' response was l e s s t h a n e n t h u s i a s t i c . T h i s f a c t was u n d e r s t o o d by t h e non-Academic o f f i c i a l s and o t h e r p a r t i e s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , and t h e campaign t h e y l a u n c h e d s i n c e the l a t e 1870s was based on the e q u a l i z a t i o n i n s t a t u s . I n v o l v e d i n t h i s campaign were I n s p e c t o r s o f B e a u x - A r t s , such as Roger B a l l u and Henry Havard, V i c t o r Champier, t h e d i r e c t o r o f t h e Revue des A r t s D e c o r a t i f s (founded i n 1880 as an organ o f t h e Union C e n t r a l e ) / v and o f f i c i a l i n the B e a u x - A r t s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , and Roger Marx, who was a c r i t i c and e d i t o r o f t h e G a z e t t e des Beaux A r t s . Marx - 2.6 - was a l s o an exemplar o f a new s p e c i e s : "the e n l i g h t e n e d amateur o f modern a r t , " who formed t h a t " e l i t e " o f c o n n o i s s e u r s , t h a t s p e c i a l group o f the b o u r g e o i s i e f o r whom t h e avant-garde was c r e a t i n g . He was w e l l aware o f t h e r o l e o f t h e " W r i t e r " i n i n - f l u e n c i n g t h e d e s t i n y o f t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n France i n the 19th c e n t u r y , and w h i l e r e m i n d i n g h i s r e a d e r s o f the "movements o f o p i n i o n " i n c i t e d by V i c t o r Hugo, V i o l l e t T l e - D u c o r de Laborde, he c a r r i e d on h i s own propaganda t o b r i n g f i n e a r t s and d e c o r - 42 . . . a t i v e a r t s t o an e q u a l s t a t u s . T h i s e q u a l i z a t i o n i n s t a t u s d i d n o t mean t h e " d e b a s i n g " o f t h e f i n e a r t s , but j u s t t h e o p p o s i t e , r a i s i n g t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s t o the h i g h e r l e v e l o c c u p i e d by a s t a t u e , and e s p e c i a l l y by a t a b l e a u . Roger Marx c o n t r i b u t e d h i s o r g a n i s i n g s k i l l s t o t h e opening o f a s e c t i o n o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s a t t h e S a l o n o f t h e S o c i e t e N a t i o n a l e des 43 B e a u x - A r t s , h e l d a t t h e Champ-de-Mars. T h i s was a second S a l o n , o r g a n i z e d by. a second " s o c i e t y o f a r t i s t s , " t h a t e x h i b i t e d n o n - j u r i e d works, awarded no p r i z e s , and promoted m a i n l y t h e p a i n t e r s o f t h e j u s t e m i l i e u . T h i s second s o c i e t y (the f i r s t one b e i n g , o f c o u r s e , t h e academic o r i e n t e d S o c i e t e des A r t i s t e s F r a n c a i s t h a t h e l d S a l o n s on t h e Champs- E l y s e e s ) was formed i n 1890 a t t h e i n i t i a t i v e o f M e i s s o n i e r (as P r e s i d e n t ) and P u v i s de Chavannes ( V i c e - P r e s i d e n t ) . The i d e a o f a S a l o n o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s was n o t new; i t had been t r i e d i n 1882 by the Union C e n t r a i e , w h i c h had opened such a S a l o n , s i d e by s i d e and s i m u l t a n e i o u s l y w i t h t h e r e g u l a r 44 • S a l o n . But Union C e n t r a i e was not p o p u l a r w i t h t h e a r t i s t s . The a r t i s t s - i n d u s t r i a l i s t s c o n f l i c t was r e f l e c t e d i n t h e a r t i s t s ' b i t t e r n e s s towards t h e Union C e n t r a i e (which was c o n t r o l l e d by - 27 - t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s t s ) , whose p e r i o d i c a l e x h i b i t i o n s a t t h e P a l a i s de l ' i n d u s t r i e t h e y c o n s i d e r e d " e x c l u s i v e l y c o m m e r c i a l " and as s e r i o u s c o m p e t i t i o n f o r t h e s e c t i o n o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s a t t h e S a l o n o f t h e Champ-de-Mafs. The a r t i s t s f e l t t h a t t h e Union C e n t r a l e d i d not d e s e r v e the f i n a n c i a l h e l p i t r e c e i v e d from t h e Government, e s p e c i a l l y when i t r e p r e s e n t e d a p o r t i o n o f t h e budget o f t h e B e a u x - A r t s . T h i s resentment was p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g i n t h e e a r l y 1890s, when a c o n s c i o u s e f f o r t t o c r e a t e a new s t y l e i n t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s was h i n d e r e d by t h e i n d u s - t r i a l i s t s and merchants, who c o n s i d e r e d i t more p r o f i t a b l e t o i m i t a t e o l d e r s t y l e s . The a r t i s t s wanted more p e r s o n a l r e - c o g n i t i o n , t h e y wanted t o s i g n t h e i r a r t o b j e c t , t h e y wanted s t a t u s . T h i s was e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e avant-garde a r t i s t s . The F r e n c h a r t i s t i c avant-garde was e l i t i s t by d e f i n i t i o n , a l i e n a t e d from t h e c u l t u r e o f t h e d o m i n a t i n g c l a s s - t h e b o u r g e o i s i e - as w e l l as from mass c u l t u r e . The a v a n t - garde c o u l d have been a t t r a c t e d o n l y by t h e p r o s p e c t o f p r o d u c i n g an e l i t i s t a r t , an a r t w h i c h they, c o u l d judge " s u p e r i o r " because i t was not making any c o n c e s s i o n s t o t h e v u l g a r " t a s t e " o f the crowd. F o r the a v a n t - g a r d e , " a r t f o r 45 a r t ' s sake" became a "code o f p r o f e s s i o n a l e t h i c s . " I f members o f t h e F r e n c h avant-garde p a i n t i n g were a t t r a c t e d i n t o t h e f i e l d o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , i t was not because t h e y wanted t o u n i t e "the b e a u t i f u l " and "the u s e f u l , " but because t h e y were a t t r a c t e d by t h e " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" a s p e c t o f t h e de- c o r a t i v e a r t s . In d o i n g so, t h e " u t i l i t a r i a n " s i d e o f the de- c o r a t i v e a r t s became secondary. T h i s approach t o d e c o r a t i v e a r t s was emphasized d u r i n g the 188 0s and 1890s by a n t i - a c a d e m i c - 28 - w r i t e r s such as E r n e s t Chesneau or. Henry Havard, who a l s o s h a r e d an a n t i p a t h y f o r the B r i t i s h , and a b e l i e f i n t h e s u p e r - 46 i o r i t y o f F r e n c h a r t i s t i c g e n i u s . As Chesneau p u t i t , F r e n c h " 47 a r t i s above t h e , " s t a t i s t i c s c o n c e r n i n g commercial e x p o r t . He was a g a i n s t the F r e n c h Government's a d o p t i n g B r i t i s h - t y p e s c h o o l s o f i n d u s t r i a l d e s i g n , w h i c h o f c o u r s e were i n t e n d e d f o r 48 t h e development o f mass-produced i n d u s t r i a l a r t s . I n F r a n c e , " i n d u s t r i a l a r t " became more and more a p e j o r a t i v e term i n a r t i s t i c c i r c l e s , w h i l e " d e c o r a t i v e a r t " was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h 49 " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake." I n t h e " d e c o r a t i v e a r t s " the accent:'' was on the f o r m a l elements (shapes, c o l o u r s ) d i s p o s e d i n such 50 way as t o gxve p l e a s u r e t o t h e eye and " s p i r i t . " Havard c l e a r l y s t a t e d t h a t t h e a r t i s t s p r a c t i c i n g t h e B e a u x - A r t s were e a s i l y u n d e r s t o o d by t h e crowd (la. f o u l e ) , w h i l e t h o s e i n v o l v e d i n the d e c o r a t i v e a r t s "can be a p p r e c i a t e d o n l y by an e l i t e o f c o n o i s s e u r s . " He c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e " f a l s e h i e r a r c h y e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e a r t s " comes from t h e f a c t t h a t " i n a l l 51 txmes t h e i g n o r a n t s were more numerous." To i l l u s t r a t e the a v a n t - g a r d e ' s i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s I w i l l mention Gauguin, E m i l e B e r n a r d and t h e a r t i s t s o f t h e N a b i group. When Gauguin a p p l i e d h i m s e l f t o c e r a m i c s (he worked w i t h t h e famous c e r a m i c i s t C h a p e l e t ) f o r example, he d i d n o t t h i n k i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e o f p r o d u c i n g " u s e f u l o b j e c t s , " b u t " a r t o b j e c t s . " T h i s i s e v i d e n t from a l e t t e r he w r o t e h i s w i f e i n 1886: I am engaged i n making a r t p o t t e r y . S c h u f f e n e c k e r says t h e y are m a s t e r p i e c e s and so does the maker, b u t t h e y a r e p r o b a b l y t o o a r t i s t i c t o be s o l d . However, he says t h a t i f t h i s i d e a c o u l d e v e r be i n t r o d u c e d i n - t o an e x h i b i t i o n o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l a r t s , i t would have an amazing success.52 Thus Gauguin was t h i n k i n g i n terms o f " a r t p o t t e r y , " "master- p i e c e s . " He a l s o l e f t no doubt as f o r whom he i n t e n d e d h i s work; a n s w e r i n g an i n q u i r y whose purpose was t o probe t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a "Renaissance o f t h e a r t - i n d u s t r i e s " and t h e e v e n t u a l emergence o f a "new s t y l e , " Gauguin d e c l a r e d : Ne'. c h e r c h e z pas l a s o l u t i o n de v o t r e probleme dans l a r u e , p r e s des monuments p u b l i c s , dans l e s b o u t i q u e s des marchands. Chez 1." amateur seulement vous v e r r e z ce q u i a € t e f a i t . E t pour c e l a , n u l b e s o i n d'un grand nombre, du r e s t e l e s c h e f s - d ' o e u v r e ne se remuent pas a l a p e l l e . ^ 3 H i s " m a s t e r p i e c e s , " d e c o r a t i v e a r t o b j e c t s produced i n l i m i t e d q u a n t i t y , were d e s t i n e d f o r an e l i t e o f amateurs. Of c o u r s e , one s h o u l d n o t n e g l e c t the economic r e a s o n s , t h e poor f i n a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n t h a t l e d some a v a n t - g a r d e a r t i s t s i n t o t h e f i e l d o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . E m i l e B e r n a r d , f o r example, even t r i e d h i s hand a t i n d u s t r i a l d e s i g n i n 1890 ( w i t h o u t much 54 s u c c e s s ) i n o r d e r t o e a r n a l i v i n g . He a l s o took c o u r s e s a t t h e E c o l e des A r t D e c o r a t i f s b e f o r e he e n t r e d Acadgmie Cormon 55 i n 1885. B e r n a r d was one o f t h e f i r s t avant-garde p a i n t e r s t o be i n v o l v e d i n the d e c o r a t i v e a r t s : s t a i n e d - g l a s s windows, t a p e s t r y , e m b r o i d e r y , e t c . But e v e r y t h i n g was done i n t h e name o f a r t f o r a r t ' s sake. I n 1891 (as i s e v i d e n t from a l e t t e r t o S c h u f f e n e c k e r ) , B e r n a r d proposed i n f a c t t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f a s o c i e t y w i t h , t h e s l o g a n 1' A r t pour 1' A r t . ~*̂ T a p e s t r i e s and o t h e r d e c o r a t i v e a r t s were on t h e l i s t o f t h e a r t o b j e c t s t o be produced by t h i s s o c i e t y . The N a b i s ' i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s was e x t e n s i v e . Denis and Ranson even d e s i g n e d " a r t i s t i c " w a l l - 57 p a p e r s . Most o f the N a b i s ' work (except f o r c h u r c h com- m i s s i o n s ) was d e s t i n e d f o r t h e d e c o r a t i o n o f t h e apartments - 3D - o f w e l l - t o - d o amateurs (such as Thadee Natanson f o r example), 58 not o f w o r k e r s . The propaganda aimed a t b r i n g i n g f i n e a r t s and d e c o r a t i v e a r t s onto an equal: f o o t i n g i n o r d e r t o r e v i v e (and e v e n t u a l l y t o c r e a t e a new s t y l e o f ) F r e n c h d e c o r a t i o n , t h u s a t t r a c t e d avant-garde a r t i s t s , such as t h e members o f Pont-Aven o r N a b i groups. They e x h i b i t e d t h e i r d e c o r a t i v e a r t a t t h e Tndependants, a t t h e S a l o n o f Champ-de-Mars, o r a t B i n g ' s , and r i g h t from t h e s t a r t t h e y had t h e s u p p o r t o f Roger Marx, who as I i n d i c a t e d , had an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n the campaign t h a t r a i s e d t h e s t a t u s 59 o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . I n t r y i n g t o c o n c l u d e t o what e x t e n t t h e d e s i r e d r e - v i t a l i z a t i o n (even a " R e n a i s s a n c e " as some c a l l e d i t ) o f F r e n c h d e c o r a t i o n was r e a l i z e d i n p r a c t i c e , one can say t h a t i t was a c h i e v e d i n t h e d e c o r a t i v e r a t h e r than i n i n d u s t r i a l a r t s per s e , and t h a t i t r e a c h e d i t s peak i n the decade o f t h e 1890s. The home-grown " A r t Nouveau", t h a t a s s i m i l a t e d Japanese and Rococo i n f l u e n c e s i n t o a new s t y l e i n s p i r e d by n a t u r a l , o r g a n i c shapes, e x c e l l e d e s p e c i a l l y i n " a r t o b j e c t s , " o n e - o f - a k i n d , o r l i m i t e d e d i t i o n s . T h i s new, s p e c i f i c a l l y F r e n c h , d e c o r a t i v e s t y l e s h o u l d n o t be equated w i t h the a b s o l u t e l y f l a t A r t Nouveau s t y l e t h a t f i r s t appeared i n B e l g i u m and became more o r l e s s an i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t y l e . The l a t t e r , w h i l e i t drew from F r e n c h s o u r c e s , was i n t e n d e d f o r m a s s - p r o d u c t i o n , and was a l s o s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e s by E n g l i s h i n d u s t r i a l d e s i g n . The r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n France im- p l i e d a r e d e f i n i t i o n o f the p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n , as i t d i d i n England. I s h a l l f o c u s t h e d i s c u s s i o n f o r a w h i l e on - 31 - t h e s e " t r u e " p r i n c i p l e s , s i n c e t h e y were i m p o r t a n t not o n l y f o r t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , but a l s o f o r t h e development o f e a s e l p a i n t i n g (as i t w i l l be e v i d e n t i n Chapter I , P a r t 2) . I would a l s o l i k e t o emphasize t h a t t h e s p e c i f i c way t h e r e - v i t a l i z a t i o n was p r o c e e d i n g i n F r a n c e , was r e f l e c t e d i n t h e s p e c i f i c way d e c o r a t i o n was d e f i n e d . E q u a t i n g d e c o r a t i o n w i t h a b s o l u t e f l a t n e s s i s c o r r e c t o n l y f o r the o r n a m e n t a l d e s i g n o f f l a t p a t t e r n s , b e s t s u i t e d f o r w a l l - p a p e r s , such as f i r s t t a u g h t i n C o l e ' s s c h o o l s o f d e s i g n . In f a c t , i n my o p i n i o n , here l i e s the o r i g i n o f the m i s c o n c e p t i o n t h a t " d e c o r a t i v e " e q u a l s a f l a t l i n e a r d e s i g n and smooth c o l o u r . I n F r a n c e , as i n E n g l a n d , t h e r e s p e c t f o r the i n t e g r i t y o f t h e d e c o r a t e d o b j e c t became t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e o f d e c o r a t i o n . Thus a d e c o r a t i o n i n t e n d e d f o r a f l a t s u r f a c e such as a w a l l o r a f l o o r had t o a v o i d " p i e r c i n g h o l e s " i n i t w i t h i l l u s i o n i s t i c d e v i c e s . But i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r l i n e t h a t F r e n c h r e - f o r m e r s d e f i n e d s p e c i f i c p r i n c i p l e s f o r each b r a n c h o f d e c o r a - t i v e a r t s , a l l o w i n g f o r v a r i o u s degrees o f " f l a t n e s s " among them. W a l l p a p e r s f o r example were suppose t o have f l a t d e s i g n s , b u t s i n c e t h e w a l l p a p e r i n d u s t r y was not t h e " n a t i o n a l i n d u s t r y " t h e r e t o t h e e x t e n t i t was i n E n g l a n d , t h i s k i n d o f d e s i g n was n o t so p r o m i n e n t l y emphasized. I n France t a p e s t r y weaving was c o n s i d e r e d the " n a t i o n a l i n d u s t r y , " and t h e r e f o r m e r s o f d e c o r a - t i v e a r t s i n t h i s c o u n t r y were v e r y much i n t e r e s t e d i n a " r e n a i s s a n c e " o f t h e t a p e s t r y i n d u s t r y based on t h e t r u e p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n ( i n s t e a d o f i m i t a t i n g i l l u s i o n i s t i c t a b l e a u x ) , and a c c o r d e d s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o t h i s s u b j e c t . B e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g the i s s u e o f " t a p e s t r y f l a t n e s s " I would - 32 - l i k e t o mention a few words about t h e r e v i v a l o f i n t e r e s t i n t h i s d e c o r a t i v e a r t . I n the second h a l f o f the 19th c e n t u r y , e s p e c i a l l y i n the l a t e 1870s, t h e a f f l u e n t F r e n c h B o u r g e o i s i e became i n t e r e s t e d i n t a p e s t r i e s f o r home d e c o r a t i o n . In h i s r e p o r t on t a p e s t r y a t t h e U n i v e r s a l E x h i b i t i o n o f 1878, D e n u e l l e remarked t h a t t h e use o f t a p e s t r i e s i n p r i v a t e homes 6 0 had become q u i t e w i d e s p r e a d . I n t h e l a t e 1870s - e a r l y 1880s, t h e r e was an " i n f a t u a t i o n w i t h t h e t a p e s t r i e s done a f t e r t h e c a r t o o n s o f Boucher and C o y p e l " w h i c h l e d t o a tremendous i n - 61 c r e a s e i n t h e i r p r i c e . The A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e G o b e l i n s r e a l i z e d t h e r e was a p o t e n t i a l market f o r modern t a p e s t r y among t h e l e s s w e a l t h y amateurs who c o u l d not a f f o r d t h e a n t i q u e s . Also, v a r i o u s p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s r e q u i r e d contemporary t a p e s t r i e s . The problem was t o f i n d good models, t h a t i s c a r t o o n s p a i n t e d i n accordance w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a - 6 2 t i o n . " O f f i c i a l " a e s t h e t i c i a n s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , i n d u s t r i - a l i s t s , showed c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n c e r n i n t h i s r e s p e c t . I n 1876 Union C e n t r a i e o r g a n i z e d an e x h i b i t i o n o f t a p e s t r i e s w h i c h , as t h e M a r q u i s de C h e n n e v i e r e s ( B l a n c ' s s u c c e s s o r as d i r e c t o r o f t h e B e a u x - A r t s p o i n t e d o u t , "would become the s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f so many s t u d i e s and p u b l i c a t i o n s o f t h e a r t , o f w h i c h t h e o r i g i n s and t h e laws were i n the p r o c e s s o f b e i n g e s - 63 t a b l i s h e d . " A t t h e t i m e o f the e x h i b i t i o n t h e d i r e c t o r o f t h e G o b e l i n s was A l f r e d D a r c e l , and he p u b l i s h e d i n t h e G a z e t t e des B e a u x - A r t s a s e r i e s o f a r t i c l e s e n t i t l e d " E x p o s i t i o n de 64 l ' h i s t o i r e de l a t a p i s s e r i e . " He l o o k e d a t t h e e x h i b i t i o n 65 as a t a " l e s s o n i n d e c o r a t i v e a r t t h r o u g h t a p e s t r y . " D a r c e l was i n complete a c c o r d on t h i s s u b j e c t w i t h C h a r l e s B l a n c , from - 33 - whose a r t i c l e "Le Musee des t a p i s . s e r . i e s " (Le Temps, 4 September 66 187 6) he a c t u a l l y quoted. The p r i n c i p l e s advocated f o r t h e modern t a p e s t r y drew upon o l d e r p e r i o d s , as l o n g as t h o s e p e r i o d s a v o i d e d t h e r e a l i s t i c trompe l ' o e i l and the "window" e f f e c t . The g e n e r a l consensus was t h a t t a p e s t r y s h o u l d not i m i t a t e t a b l e a u x . T h i s c r i t i c i s m was e s p e c i a l l y d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e t a p e s t r i e s weaved i n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y , which had t r i e d t o reproduce n o t " d e c o r a t i v e t a b l e a u x , " as t h e Rococo t a p e s t r i e s d i d ( i n f a c t a t the time t h e r e was a r e v i v a l o f b o t h M e d i e v a l and Rococo t a p e s t r i e s ) , b u t " e x p r e s s i v e " .tableaux such as The Pesthouse o f J a f f a by Gros, w i t h a l l i t s s u b t l e t i e s o f m o d e l l i n g . ^ ' 7 C h a r l e s B l a n c ' s Grammaire des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s (1882) i s one o f t h e b e s t s o u r c e s f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g the s p e c i f i c d i f - f e r e n c e s i n t h e r u l e s e s t a b l i s h e d by most r e f o r m e r s f o r v a r i o u s d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , such as: pavements, m e t a l work, w a l l p a p e r , t a p e s t r i e s , c a r p e t s , f u r n i t u r e , g l a s s - w o r k , c e r a m i c s , e t c . C a r p e t s , f o r example, were t o be f l a t and t h e i r d e s i g n were t o e x c l u d e the human f i g u r e . W a l l p a p e r s d e s i g n s c o u l d i n c l u d e human f i g u r e s , b u t r e n d e r e d i n f l a t t i n t s and s i l h o u e t t e d . I n t h e t a p e s t r i e s scenes w i t h f i g u r e s and.landscapes were a l l o w e d . The g e n e r a l g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e s recommended by B l a n c f o r t a p e s t r y were t h e f o l l o w i n g : a v o i d a n c e o f t h e e f f e c t s o f l i n e a r and a t m o s p h e r i c p e r s p e c t i v e , and a v o i d a n c e o f c h i a r o s c u r o e f f e c t , w h i c h was t o be r e p l a c e d w i t h a " d e c o r a t i v e e f f e c t " t h a t gave 68 an i m p r e s s i o n o f o v e r a l u n i f o r m i t y o f v a l u e . I n o r d e r t o a v o i d t h e p e r s p e c t i v e e f f e c t , one b a s i c r u l e , a c c o r d i n g t o http://tapis.ser.ies B l a n c , was t o choose a v e r y h i g h v i e w p o i n t , w h i c h would a l s o 69 a v o i d . d i s p l a y i n g t o o much " s k y . " A good i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e p e r s p e c t i v e i n a t a p e s t r y and t h e one i n a t a b l e a u i s g i v e n i n Havard's La D e c o r a t i o n (c.1891, i n which he r e p a t e d much o f what B l a n c s a i d ) . He i l l u s t r a t e d t h i s d i s - t i n c t i o n w i t h two f i g u r e s : one r e p r e s e n t e d a 16th c e n t u r y F l e m i s h t a p e s t r y , the o t h e r t h e same t a p e s t r y "mise en p e r - 70 s p e c t i v e . " Havard commented: "The f i r s t one g i v e s the sen- s a t i o n o f a t a p e s t r y , t h e second one p i e r c e s t h e w a l l and has " 71 t h e a s p e c t o f a t a b l e a u . A v o i d i n g t h e p e r s p e c t i v e " e f f e c t " r e f e r s t o the scene as a whole, i t means a v o i d i n g t h e i l l u s i o n o f d e p t h , but i t does not e x c l u d e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l o b j e c t s seen i n p e r s p e c t i v e . A l s o , t h e " d e c o r a t i v e e f f e c t " d i d not e x c l u d e m o d e l l i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l volumes ( a l b e i t r u d i m e n t a r i l y and not by s u b t l e g r a d a t i o n s as i n p a i n t i n g ) , i n o t h e r words d i d 72 n o t e x c l u d e an e f f e c t o f r e l i e f . Even w i t h o u t an o u t l i n i n g o f t h e c o n t o u r s , a t a p e s t r y g i v e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f o u t l i n i n g shapes w i t h a l o s t - a n d - f o u n d c o n t o u r , due t o i t s s l i t s . B l a n c d i d not s p e c i f i c a l l y r e q u i r e a f i r m o u t - l i n i n g o f shapes (he, as I w i l l d i s c u s s l a t e r , s t i l l b e l i e v e d i n t h e o l d academic p r e j u d i c e about the i r r e c o n c i l a b i l i t y o f " l i n e " , and " c o l o u r , " and b e l i e v e d c o l o u r s h o u l d dominate i n d e c o r a t i o n ) , b u t most r e f o r m e r s r e q u i r e d a c l e a r d e f i n i t i o n o f forms i n d e c o r a t i o n , t a p e s t r y i n c l u d e d . In D e n u e l l e ' s r e p o r t o f 1877, l e t r a i t de r e d e s s i n e e i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be " c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t o 73 a l l d e c o r a t i v e a r t s d e r i v i n g from a r c h i t e c t u r e . " D a r c e l (who was d i r e c t o r o f t h e G o b e l i n s between 1871 - 1885) a l s o r e q u i r e d " f i r m n e s s i n d r a w i n g , " and C a l m e f t e s (a v e r y thorough h i s t o r i a n - 35 - o f t h e a r t o f t a p e s t r y i n t h e 19th c.) would say a few y e a r s l a t e r t h a t t h e most i m p o r t a n t r u l e i n t a p e s t r y was the r e n - 74 d e r i n g o f t h e p u r i t y o f form, e x p r e s s e d by f i r m c o n t o u r s . Edouard D i d r o n (who f o r a c o u p l e o f y e a r s r a n the A n n a l e s - a r c h e o l o g i q u e s , d e s c r i b e d as "the most e f f e c t i v e mouthpiece" f o r t h e G o t h i c R e v i v a l i n France)., a l s o l i s t e d t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t 75 among the p r i n c i p l e s he f o r m u l a t e d f o r t a p e s t r y . S i n c e h i s f o r m u l a t i o n (which he extended a l s o t o mosaics) summarizes q u i t e w e l l t h e p r e v a i l i n g t h e o r i e s c o n c e r n i n g t a p e s t r i e s i n the l a t e 1870s, I w i l l reproduce i t i n a s l i g h t l y s h o r t e n e d v e r s i o n : 1) A c o m p o s i t i o n t h a t l e a v e s v e r y few s p a c e s . 2) S i m p l i c i t y o f e x e c u t i o n , i n w h i c h t h e t r a i t i s predominant and t h e s i l h o u e t t e s are a c c e n t u a t e d . 3) "A sober m o d e l l i n g o f a t r u e d e c o r a t i v e c h a r a c t e r . " 4) An a l m o s t complete l a c k o f p e r s p e c t i v e . I t s h o u l d be c l e a r by how t h a t " t a p e s t r y f l a t n e s s " was not u n d e r s t o o d t o be t h e same as " w a l l p a p e r f l a t n e s s " (or as " s t a i n e d g l a s s window f l a t n e s s " ) by t h o s e who were i n t h e f o r e - f r o n t of t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s r e v i v a l i n F r a n c e . The t a p e s t r y - d e c o r a t i o n v e r s u s t a p e s t r y - t a b l e a u c o n f l i c t had a p a r a l l e l i n the d i s t i n c t i o n between " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " ( i n t h e sense o f monumental p a i n t i n g o r d e c o r a t i o n ) and t a b l e a u . I n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f the 19th c e n t u r y p a i n t i n g had emancipated i t s e l f from a r c h i t e c t u r e t o such degree, t h a t m u r a l d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g s became n o t h i n g e l s e b u t l a r g e s c a l e t a b l e a u x . The o n l y d i f f e r e n c e r e s i d e d i n the f a c t t h a t b e i n g i n t e n d e d f o r a s p e c i f i c d e s t i n a t i o n , t h e u s u a l shape o f a t a b l e a u was m o d i f i e d (and even t h i s was not always n e c e s s a r y ) . But d e f i n i n g d e c o r a - t i o n o n l y as a work w i t h a s p e c i f i c d e s t i n a t i o n was not good enough for. t h e r e f o r m e r s o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . V i o l l e t - l e - D u c was u n e q u i v o c a l on t h i s s u b j e c t : De ce que on p e i n t s u r un mur au l i e u de p e i n d r e s u r une t o i l e , 11 ne s ' e n s u i t pas que 1'oeuvre s o i t une p e i n t u r e monumentale, e t presque t o u t e s l e s p e i n t u r e s murales p r o d u i t e s de n o t r e temps, ne s o n t t o u j o u r s , malgre l a d i f f e r e n c e du p r o c e d e , que des t a b l e a u x ; 7 6 D e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g , i n o r d e r t o be a " t r u e " d e c o r a t i o n ( l i k e any o t h e r d e c o r a t i v e a r t ) had t o f u l f i l l t h e " t r u e " p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n . Of c o u r s e , t h e r e were s p e c i f i c r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r p a i n t i n g as d e c o r a t i o n , j u s t as t h e r e were s p e c i f i c r e - q u i r e m e n t s for. d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g t h e v a r i o u s d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . The g e n e r a l consensus among r e f o r m e r s was t h a t p a i n t i n g as d e c o r a t i o n s h o u l d be s u b o r d i n a t e d t o a r c h i t e c t u r e . S i n c e most d e c o r a t i o n s were i n t e n d e d f o r f l a t w a l l s , f l a t n e s s was t h e most common r e q u i r e m e n t . But how f l a t ? " F l a t n e s s " i n d e c o r a t i o n was o r i g i n a l l y a d v o c a t e d and i n t r o d u c e d d u r i n g t h e G o t h i c R e v i v a l and t h e N e o - C a t h o l i c movements, as a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t 77 what was c o n s i d e r e d t o be "paganism" and "decadence." S i n c e t h i s f l a t n e s s (which was a b s o l u t e ) , and s i m p l i f i e d d e s i g n , were a l s o v e r y c o n v e n i e n t f o r m e c h a n i c a l r e p r o d u c t i o n , i t became w i d e l y a c c e p t e d e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e f i e l d o f i n d u s t r i a l d e s i g n , and t h e i n i t i a l i d e o l o g i c a l m o t i v a t i o n f o r g o t t e n . I n t h e 1880s 7 " f l a t n e s s " i n d e c o r a t i o n was r e q u i r e d as a "common sense law." Of. c o u r s e , i n t h e f i e l d o f d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g t h e r e was no q u e s t i o n o f f a c i l i t a t i n g the p r o c e s s o f r e p r o d u c t i o n , and t h e "common s e n s e " . d i d not d i c t a t e a b s o l u t e f l a t n e s s . T h i s i s why i n t h i s a r e a t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f o p i n i o n s between t h e G o t h i c R e v i v a l i s t s and t h o s e whom I e a r l i e r . c a l l e d u p h o l d e r s o f t h e 79 "Western t r a d i t i o n " i s most o b v i o u s . - 37 - I n t h e f i r s t c a t e g o r y b e l o n g s o f c o u r s e V i o l l e t - l e - D u c ( G o t h i c R e v i v a l i s t ) , who d i e d i n 1879. I w i l l a l s o i n c l u d e here Henry Havard, c o n s i d e r e d an a u t h o r i t y i n d e c o r a t i o n i n the 1880s and 1890s, who, l i k e V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , b e l i e v e d i n t h e "decadence" brought about i n monumental a r t by the e m a n c i p a t i o n 8 0 o f p a i n t i n g s i n c e the R e n a i s s a n c e . A c c o r d i n g t o V i o l l e t - l e - Duc a monumental p a i n t i n g s h o u l d always p r e s e r v e "the a s p e c t o f a d e c o r a t e d p l a n e s u r f a c e " ("1'aspect d'une s u r f a c e p l a n e 81 d e c o r e e " ) . T h i s was t r u e not o n l y f o r o r n a m e n t a l p a i n t i n g p r o p e r , t h a t i s , t h e p a i n t i n g o f o r n a m e n t a l m o t i f s t h a t do n o t i n v o l v e t h e human f i g u r e and a s u b j e c t , b u t a l s o f o r monumental p a i n t i n g o f v a r i o u s s c e n e s . V i o l l e t - l e - D u c d e c l a r e d : "Les p e u p l e s a r t i s t e s n'ont vu dans l a p e i n t u r e monumentale q u 1 on ». 8 2 d e s s i n enlumine e t t r e s - l e g e r e m e n t modele." He p r e f e r r e d t o see t h e m o d e l l i n g reduced o n l y t o t h e l i n e a r m o d e l l i n g a c h i e v e d by "more o r l e s s a c c e n t u a t e d t r a i t s , " and c o l o u r as n o t h i n g more than an " i l l u m i n a t i o n . " He c o n s i d e r e d t h a t the apogee o f m e d i e v a l a r c h i t e c t u r a l p a i n t i n g was a t t a i n e d i n t h e 12th c e n t u r y i n F r a n c e , when t h e i n f l u e n c e of the h i e r a t i c B y z a n t i n e 8 3 s t y l e was v e r y pronounced. V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , as has o n l y l a t e l y been acknowledged, d i d n o t advocate a l i t e r a l " i m i t a t i o n " o f t h e G o t h i c s t y l e , b u t o n l y t h e b o r r o w i n g o f c e r t a i n g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s . Henry Havard, who was u s u a l l y , i n agreement w i t h V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , campaigned more o p e n l y f o r a modern s t y l e t o f i t the needs o f the modern way o f l i f e . L i k e V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , Eavard would have p r e f e r r e d a ban on m o d e l l i n g (which g i v e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f r e l i e f ) as w e l l as on t h e i l l u s i o n o f deep s p a t i a l r e c e s s i o n . H i s o p i n i o n - 38 - was t h a t i n a d e c o r a t i o n , not o n l y " i t i s awkward t o s i m u l a t e h o l e s and grooves where t h e demands o f the c o n s t r u c t i o n f o r b i d them," but i t i s j u s t as i n c o r r e c t " t o s i m u l a t e r e l i e f s i n a 84 p l a c e where the w a l l s h o u l d remain f i a t . " But even he, who o f c o u r s e banned any " i d e a o f r e l i e f " i n pavements and c a r p e t s , t o l e r a t e d i t e v e n t u a l l y i n m u r a l d e c o r a t i o n , because a t l e a s t , he s a i d , one can keep a d i s t a n c e from a w a l l , w h i l e w a l k i n g o v e r s i m u l a t e d r e l i e f s i s v e r y u n p l e a s a n t . H a v a r d 1 s d e s i r e f o r a b s o l u t e f l a t n e s s i n d e c o r a t i o n , even when he does not r e f e r t o p a i n t i n g , i s not r e l a t e d t o t h e problems o f m a s s - p r o d u c t i o n , w h i c h he a c t u a l l y d e p l o r e d . He was a g a i n s t t h e " d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n o f l u x u r y , " and as I mentioned b e f o r e , he f a v o r e d t h e e l i t i s t d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . Havard s h a r e d V i o l l e t - l e - D u c 1 s i n c l i n a t i o n toward a u s t e r i t y (he was a l s o a g a i n s t b r i g h t , pure c o l o u r s i n d e c o r a t i o n ) and h i s p o s i t i o n a g a i n s t p a i n t i n g b e i n g o v e r l y a s s e r t i v e i n d e c o r a t i o n . There were o t h e r s , though, who a c c e p t e d as a "common sense" r u l e t h a t i n d e c o r a t i o n p a i n t i n g had t o be s u b o r d i n a t e d t o a r c h i t e c t u r e , b u t d i d not want t o renounce t h e "Western" h e r i t a g e (which f a v o r e d m o d e l l i n g i n t h e round) c o m p l e t e l y . As Alphonse Germain (La Plume, 1891) put i t , "A t r u l y sane O c c i - 8 5 d e n t a l eye w i l l always f e e l t h e n e c e s s i t y o f g r a d a t i o n s . " (Germain, a r e a c t i o n a r y c r i t i c , s u p p o r t e r o f P e l a d a n , c r i - t i c i s e d the f l a t n e s s of S y m b o l i s t p a i n t i n g which d i d not r e s p e c t t h e "form" i n the name o f t h e s l o g a n " a r t i s not r e a l i t y > " and w h i c h would t h u s reduce t o a. " m a g n i f i c e n t a b e r r a t i o n " a l l t h e m a t e r p i e c e s produced s i n c e the R e n a i s s a n c e . ) The c r i t i c con- s i d e r e d t h a t t h e i m i t a t i o n o f t h e i m p e r f e c t i o n s o f " b a r b a r i a n s " - 3 9 - (among whom he seems t o i n c l u d e t h e B y z a n t i n e s ) would o n l y l e a d t o an " i n f e r i o r d e c o r a t i v e a r t , because i t was w i t h o u t r a p p o r t w i t h our r a c e and our m o d e r n i t y . " But i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t he a c c e p t e d " a r c h a i s m s " i n book d e c o r a t i o n s f o r example (such as D e n i s 1 i l l u s t r a t i o n s f o r Sagesse by V e r l a i n e ) . T h i s was so because a t t h e t i m e , i n p a i n t i n g (which had a s p e c i a l s t a t u s s i n c e R e n a i s s a n c e ) , f l a t n e s s was s t i l l a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an I d e a l i s t p h i l o s o p h y , w i t h r e p r e s e n t i n g the "dream" and t h e 1'au-dela. I mentioned b e f o r e t h a t an extreme case o f "Western t r a - d i t i o n a l i s m " can be found i n C h a r l e s B l a n c . He d i d p r e f e r " g r a d a t i o n s " (to f l a t t i n t s ) i n d e c o r a t i o n s i n g e n e r a l , b u t h i s "extremism" i s m a n i f e s t e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o p a i n t e d d e c o r a t i o n . I n f a c t he d i d not i n c l u d e p a i n t e d d e c o r a t i o n (except f o r p a i n t i n g on g l a s s . a n d m i n i a t u r e p a i n t i n g - such as were the e n l u m i n u r e s o f t h e 14th c e n t u r y - , w h i c h b e l o n g e d a c c o r d i n g t o him " r a t h e r t o o r n a m e n t a t i o n t h a n t o t h e a r t o f t h e p a i n t e r " ) • 8 6 among t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , as d i d Havard and V i o l l e t - l e - D u c . B l a n c d i d a c c e p t . f o r p a i n t e d d e c o r a t i o n t h e b a s i c r u l e o f "not s i m u l a t i n g h o l e s where the a r c h i t e c t wanted t o have s o l i d s t r u c t u r e s , " i . e . t h e r e s p e c t f o r t h e c h a r a c t e r o f the d e c o r a t e d 8 7 s u r f a c e . But the c o n c e s s i o n s t h a t p a i n t i n g s h o u l d make t o t h e f l a t n e s s o f t h e w a l l r e f e r r e d t o the g e n e r a l e f f e c t , and not t o the m o d e l l i n g o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l o b j e c t s and f i g u r e s i n t h e p a i n t i n g , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a t the m o d e l l i n g had t o be done i n c o l o u r . To: u n d e r s t a n d b e t t e r what were the d i f f e r e n c e s between a d e c o r a t i o n and a t a b l e a u i n B l a n c ' s v i e w (as w e l l as a c c o r d i n g t o o t h e r s ) , I w i l l c o n c e n t r a t e f i r s t on t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f the t a b l e a u . V i o l l e t - l e - D u c answered t h e q u e s t i o n "What i s - 40 - a t a b l e a u ? " w i t h the f o l l o w i n g d e f i n i t i o n : C'est une scene qu'on f a i t v o i r au s p e c t a t e u r a t r a v e r s un c a d r e , une f e n e t r e o u v e r t e . U n i t e de p o i n t de vue, u n i t e de d i r e c t i o n de l a l u m i e r e , u n i t e d 1 e f f e c t . 8 8 S i m i l a r l y , C h a r l e s B l a n c wrote i n h i s Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n (1867): M a i n t e n a n t , q u ' e s t - c e qu'un t a b l e a u dans l a p e i n t u r e proprement d i t e ? C'est l a r e p r e - s e n t a t i o n d'une scene dont 1'ensemble peut e t r e embrasse d'un coup d ' o e i l . 8 9 T h i s u n i t o f e f f e c t ( i n o t h e r words the u n i t y p e r c e i v e d i n the p a i n t i n g a t one g l a n c e ) was a c h i e v e d f i r s t o f a l l i n a t a b l e a u (understood s i n c e A l b e r t i as a "window") by the observance o f t h e . r u l e s o f l i n e a r p e r s p e c t i v e , w h i c h r e q u i r e d a u n i t y o f v i e w p o i n t . A n o t h e r f a c t o r t h a t a l l o w e d t h e scene r e p r e s e n t e d i n a t a b l e a u t o be p e r c e i v e d a t one g l a n c e was the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l i g h t , w h i c h had t o a c h i e v e what B l a n c c a l l e d "the u n i t y o f c h i a r o s c u r o . " C h i a r o s c u r o was used not o n l y f o r the m o d e l l i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l , f o r m s i n a t a b l e a u , but a l s o t o "model the t a b l e a u , " c o n s i d e r e d as a s i n g l e e n t i t y . The u n i t y o f c h i a r o s c u r o r e f e r s t o t h e l a t t e r , and i t means t h a t i n a t a b l e a u t h e r e i s one p r i n c i p a l l i g h t and one dominant dark a r e a . T h i s u n i t y o f 90 c h i a r o s c u r o i n d u c e d an u n i t y or " e f f e c t . " A d e c o r a t i o n was n o t supposed t o s i m i l a t e "windows" i n t h e w a l l , t h r o u g h w h i c h one c o u l d e x p e r i e n c e t h e i l l u s i o n o f d e p t h . I n o r d e r t o a v o i d t h i s , l i b e r t i e s t a k e n w i t h the r u l e s 91 o f l i n e a r p e r s p e c t i v e were a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y . S i n c e t h e c h i a r o s c u r o e f f e c t a l s o " p i e r c e d " t h e . w a l l , B l a n c recommended i t s r e p l a c e m e n t w i t h a polychrome e f f e c t , t h e u n i t y o f w h i c h i s a c h i e v e d by an even, l i g h t t o n a l i t y . B l a n c a l s o a s s o c i a t e d t h i s k i n d o f e f f e c t , c o n s i s t i n g o f a " d i f f u s e d and generous l i g h t " o b t a i n e d by such c o l o r i s t s as Veronese and Rubens, w i t h 92 t h e p a i n t i n g of. scenes t h a t t a k e . p l a c e i n p l a i n a i r . U n i t y i n c o l o r i n g was i n f a c t t h e o n l y way o f a c h i e v i n g t h e " u n i t y o f e f f e c t " i n d e c o r a t i o n , and t h i s u n i t y was s t i l l a r e q u i r e m e n t i n d e c o r a t i o n a l s o , o n l y a c h i e v e d by d i f f e r e n t means t h a n i n a t a b l e a u . Other w r i t e r s were s a t i s f i e d w i t h a more summary m o d e l l i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l forms t h a n B l a n c was, and i n f a c t such a v i e w w i l l be t h e predominant one i n the 1880s and 1890s, w i t h r e s p e c t t o p a i n t i n g - d e c o r a t i o n . I w i l l g i v e as examples o f such w r i t e r s , D a r c e l and Champier. A l f r e d D a r e e l (1818-1893) had been a s s o c i a t e d a t f i r s t w i t h the G o t h i c R e v i v a l , and he was con- s i d e r e d an a u t h o r i t y on the a r c h e o l o g y o f the F r e n c h M i d d l e 93 Ages, as w e l l a s . o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e . He was an o f f i c i a l i n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e B e a u x - A r t s , d i r e c t o r o f the G o b e l i n s , as I a l r e a d y mentioned, as w e l l as o f the Musee de C l u n y , and he was a member o f the A d m i n i s t r a t i v e C o u n c i l o f t h e Union C e n t r a l e des A r t s D e c o r a t i f s . He campaigned f o r t h e i n t r o - d u c t i o n o f t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n t o t h e S a l o n as e a r l y as 1882, when t h e Union C e n t r a l e h e l d i t s own S a l o n o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . On t h i s o c c a s i o n he wrote "Le S a l o n des A r t s D e c o r a t i f s , " an a r t i c l e i n w h i c h he s t a t e d t h a t a " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " ( i n t h e sense o f d e c o r a t i o n ) s h o u l d s a t i s f y the f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s : Dans l a c o m p o s i t i o n une c e r t a i n e e u r y t h m i e ; dans l e d e s s i n une c e r t a i n e a b r e v i a t i o n , q u i e s t une des c o n d i t i o n s du s t y l e a t q u i n ' e x c l u t p o i n t l a g r a c e elle-meme; dans l a c o u l e u r une c e r t a i n e u n i t € q u i r e s u l t e souvent de l a d e c o l o r a t i o n des l u m i a r e s e t une tenue q u i p r o v i e n t de ce que chaque chose e s t simplement modelee par l e s d i f f e r e n t s t o n s d'une - 42 - I w i l l come back l a t e r t o D a r c e l ' s r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r p a i n t i n g - d e c o r a t i o n ; f o r the moment I would l i k e t o p o i n t out t h a t D a r c e l h e l d t h e o p i n i o n t h a t i n such a p a i n t i n g e v e r y t h i n g s h o u l d be a t l e a s t summarily m o d e l l e d . He c o n t r a s t e d t h i s m o d e l l i n g w i t h t h e e v e n l y a p p l i e d c o l o u r ( l e s a - p l a t ) o f Japonisme, o f w h i c h he d i d not approve. L i k e B l a n c , D a r c e l d i d n o t want a m o d e l l i n g o f t h e p a i n t i n g as a whole ( c h i a r o s c u r o e f f e c t ) , b u t a u n i t y i n c o l o u r i n g ("which o f t e n i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e d i s c o l o r a t i o n s o f l i g h t " ) , most i m p o r t a n t l y i n v a l u e . Thus t h e a s p e c t o f a p a i n t e d d e c o r a t i o n was not t o be as f l a t as a Japanese p r i n t , o r as a m a n u s c r i p t i l l u m i n a t i o n , b u t more l i k e an e v e n l y l i t b a s - r e l i e f . The i l l u s i o n o f a h i g h r e l i e f was t o be e x p e c t e d o n l y i n a t a b l e a u . D a r c e l touched upon another d i s t i n c t i o n t h a t was t o be made between a d e c o r a t i o n and a t a b l e a u , r e l a t e d t o the problem o f " f i n i s h . " D e c o r a t i o n d i d n o t , r e q u i r e t h e same amount o f 95 " f i n i s h " as a t a b l e a u . B u t , on t h e o t h e r hand D a r c e l p o i n t e d o u t , the l a c k o f f i n i s h a l o n e , an ebauche, does not make a d e c o r a t i o n > no\more than t h e shape o f the p a i n t i n g does: P a r c e qu'en un panneau une des deux d i m e n s i o n s domine, ou p a r c e que l e p e i n t r e s ' e s t c o n t e n t e de b r o s s e r une ebauche, i l ne f a u d r a i t pas supposer que l a forme du c a d r e , pas p l u s que 1'inacheve, s ' u f f i s e n t . a donner l e c a r a c t e r e de d e c o r a t i o n a une p e i n t u r e ; ^ 0 " Of c o u r s e , what gave a p a i n t i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r o f a d e c o r a t i o n , as s h o u l d be c l e a r by now, was a s e t of r u l e s , a l l a i m i n g t o p r e s e r v e more o r l e s s t h e t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l i t y o f the s u r f a c e decorated..... These r u l e s were g a t h e r e d , t o g e t h e r , i n an even more o r g a n i z e d f a s h i o n than i n D a r c e l ' s a r t i c l e , by V i c t o r - 43 - Champier, t h e d i r e c t o r o f the Revue des A r t s D e c o r a t i f s , and 97 a l s o an o f f i c i a l i n the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e B e a u x - A r t s . I n t h e second p a r t o f h i s "M.P.-V. G a l l a n d e t 1'enseignement de l ' a r t d e c o r a t i f , " (1888) Champier f o r m u l a t e d "the p r i n c i p l e s o f t r u e d e c o r a t i o n " f o r " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " - a n e c e s s a r y t a s k , because as he put i t , " i n s p i t e o f common sense, r e a s o n and good t a s t e , " t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s were v i o l a t e d i n p r a c t i c e . The most b a s i c r e q u i r e m e n t was o f c o u r s e , "not t o s i m u l a t e o p e n i n g s " i n t h e s o l i d i t y o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n , because t h i s would " t r o u b l e " our eye, i n d u c i n g i t t o "doubt" t h i s s o l i d i t y . I n o t h e r words, a degree o f f l a t n e s s was a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y . Then he added the f o l l o w i n g " l a w s " : La f r a n c h i s e dans l a c o l o r a t i o n s , une f a c t u r e s i m p l e e t l a r g e , presque j a m a i s de t o n s n e u t r e s , des masses b i e n e q u i l i b r e e s , pas de t r o m p e - 1 1 o e i l s e r r a n t de p r e s l a n a t u r e , n i de modele p r e c i e u x e t d e l i c a t comme dans l e s t a b l e a u x , v o i l a q u e l l e s s o n t , pour c e t t e forme d ' a r t , l e s l o i s c o n s a c r e e s p a r 1 ' e x p e r i e n c e e t l e bon sens. Champier t r i e d t o be above i d e o l o g i e s and p r e s e n t e d t h e s e "laws" as d e r i v i n g s i m p l y from "common sense." He c o n s i d e r e d them as " t r u t h s , " " p r o c l a i m e d by a l l a e s t h e t i c i a n s , " and which c o u l d be 99 found i n h i s day " i n most books." He gave V i o l l e t - l e - D u c a s p e c i a l m e n t i o n , but he combined i n f a c t t h e a r c h i t e c t ' s p o i n t o f v i e w w i t h B l a n c ' s , and p r a i s e d m e d i e v a l a r t as w e l l as t h e d e c o r a t i o n s o f Raphael and M i c h e l a n g e l o i n the V a t i c a n . H i s a n t i p a t h y f o r t h e Academy was o b v i o u s , though, i n h i s remarks about n o t w a n t i n g t o sound "dogmatic" a n d . e s t a b l i s h a "program" l i k e t h e "grammarians o f a r t " (most l i k e l y an a l l u s i o n t o B l a n c ' s two "grammars"). Champier wanted o n l y t o make i t c l e a r t h a t " D e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g and e a s e l p a i n t i n g are two t o t a l l y d i s t i n c t g e n r e s , w i t h s e p a r a t e laws and a d i f f e r e n t t e c h n i q u e . " " L U ± T h i s i s i n f a c t t h e most i m p o r t a n t c o n c l u s i o n t o be r e t a i n e d so f a r . As I w i l l i n d i c a t e i n t h e second p a r t o f t h i s , c h a p t e r , t h e most avant-garde t r e n d s i n t h e p a i n t i n g o f t h e 1890s would make use o f t h e s e "laws" o f d e c o r a t i o n , but a t the same time t h e y would a b o l i s h the double s t a n d a r d s w h i c h the " o f f i c i a l " a e s t h e t i c i a n s o f t h e second p a r t o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y m a i n t a i n e d f o r d e c o r a - t i o n and t a b l e a u . By a p p l y i n g t h e "laws o f d e c o r a t i o n " even t o t h e e a s e l p a i n t i n g , t h e y w i l l i n f a c t a b o l i s h t h e t a b l e a u . B e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g t h e s e new " d e c o r a t i v e " t e n d e n c i e s i n t h e p a i n t i n g o f . t h e 1890s, i t i s n e c e s s a r y , because o f a c o n f u s i n g t e r m i n o l o g y , t o d e f i n e D e c o r a t i v e as opposed t o D e c o r a t i o n . By t h e 1880s (and a l r e a d y q u i t e o f t e n i n t h e 1870s) t h e term " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " became i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e w i t h " p a i n t i n g - d e c o r a t i o n " (as i s e v i d e n t i n Champier's a r t i c l e f o r example). Thus " d e c o r a t i v e " became a s s o c i a t e d w i t h " d e c o r a t i o n , " t h a t i s , w i t h d e s i g n i n g a work o f a r t produced f o r a s p e c i f i c des- t i n a t i o n , w h i c h i m p l i e d o b e y i n g s p e c i f i c r u l e s . G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g (not o n l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o p a i n t i n g ) any d e c o r a t i o n was t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e " d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , " a s t a n d a r d d e f i n i t i o n o f which was g i v e n i n H a v a r d 1 s book La D e c o r a t i o n : B i e n que t o u s l e s a r t s p l a s t i q u e s c o n c o u r e n t dans une mesure p l u s ou moins l a r g e a l a d e c o r a t i o n , on donne p l u s s p e c i a l e m e n t l e nom d ' a r t s d e c o r a t i f s a ceux q u i o n t pour b u t , non pas l a c r e a t i o n d'une oeuvre d ' a r t i n d e p e n d a n t e , mais 1 1 o r n e m e n t a t i o n d'un ensemble de c o n s t r u c t i o n , d'une p i e c e , d'une s u r f a c e ou d'un o b j e t p r e a l a b l e m e n t e x i s t a n t . 1 ^ 2 R e t u r n i n g j u s t t o p a i n t i n g (because t h i s i s o f immediate i n t e r e s t ) , s i n c e t h e s u r f a c e f o r w h i c h i t was i n t e n d e d was u s u a l l y a f l a t w a l l , f l a t n e s s (a f o r m a l element) was t h e most - 45 - i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w h i c h d e f i n e d p a i n t i n g - d e c o r a t i o n . I t was a~ consequence o f i t s dependence on a r c h i t e c t u r e . Thus d e c o r a t i o n means f i r s t o f a l l s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o a r c h i t e c t u r e . A t a b l e a u , w h i c h i s "independent" of a r c h i t e c t u r e , i s n o t a d e c o r a t i o n . Yet the term " d e c o r a t i v e " was a l s o used t o q u a l i f y some t a b l e a u x . D u r i n g the 1860s and.1870s t h e g e n e r a l consensus was t h a t " d e c o r a t i v e " a r t was an a r t a p p e a l i n g o n l y t o the s e n s e s , i . e . p u r e l y " e x t e r n a l . " D u r i n g t h e 1880s and e a r l y 1890s i t was s a i d t h a t i t p l e a s e d t h e eye, b u t t h a t i t was a l s o r e s t f u l f o r t h e mind, o r p l e a s e d t h e " s p i r i t " , a s w e l l . I n any e v e n t , used i n t h i s sense, t h e a d j e c t i v e " d e c o r a t i v e " d i d not r e f e r t o t h e f a c t t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r work d e c o r a t e d a p a r t i c u l a r s u r f a c e (even though i t c o u l d be a p p l i e d t o a d e c o r a t i o n as w e l l as t o a t a b l e a u ) b u t t o t h e enjoyment b r o u g h t t o the v i e w e r , t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r e f f e c t i t had o n h i m . T h i s e f f e c t was such as not t o i n v o l v e him e m o t i o n a l l y , b u t r a t h e r a e s t h e t i c a l l y . Chesneau f o r example gave t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f " d e c o r a t i v e " a r t (I w i l l use t h e n o t a t i o n " d e c o r a t i v e " a r t and " d e c o r a t i v e a r t " t o d i s t i n g u i s h between t h e two meanings o f " d e c o r a t i v e " ! ) as i t was commonly u n d e r s t o o d i n the 1960s and 1970s: " I c a l l work of d e c o r a t i v e a r t any work made s o l e l y f o r the p l e a s u r e o f the e y e s , w i t h o u t any thought o f emotion." He a l s o s a i d t h a t i n t h e f i e l d o f " p l a s t i c a r t s , " " d e c o r a t i v e " 104 a r t i s t h e same as " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake", ( l ' a r t pour l ' a r t ) . Thus d e c o r a t i v e was synonymous w i t h a r t f o r a r t ' s sake, because i t emphasized not a s u b j e c t m a t t e r t h a t would i n d u c e i n t h e v i e w e r p o w e r f u l e m o t i o n s , but f o r m a l , and t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s , t h e m e t i e r . There were " d e c o r a t i v e " t a b l e a u x (which d i d not have t o - 46 - renounce a e r i a l p e r s p e c t i v e f o r example, s i n c e i t d i d not m a t t e r i f t h e y gave t h e i l l u s i o n o f d e p t h ) , as t h e r e were " d e c o r a t i v e " d e c o r a t i o n s . E v e n t u a l l y , as I a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , i n t h e " d e c o r a t i v e a r t s " t h e ' • u t i l i t a r i a n " : a s p e c t was pushed a s i d e , c o n s i d e r e d secondary, and t h e i r " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" c h a r a c t e r ( a r t w i t h o u t m o r a l ends) emphasized. D u r i n g t h e 1860s and most o f the 1870s, t h e term " d e c o r a - t i v e " p a i n t i n g had a p e j o r a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n , because i t was d e f i n e d a c c o r d i n g t o academic t r a d i t i o n , i n o p p o s i t i o n t o " e x p r e s s i v e " p a i n t i n g , t h e p a i n t i n g o f " S t y l e , " c a p a b l e o f e x p r e s s i n g "noble emotions" ( r e l i g i o u s i n n a t u r e , o r h e r o i c , e t c . ) , i n o t h e r words c o n t r a s t i n g w i t h "grand" a r t . The Academy ( l e a n i n g . h e a v i l y toward C l a s s i c i s m ) , c o n s i d e r e d t h e r e t o be a s u p e r i o r a r t , one w h i c h a p p e a l s t o t h e i n t e l l e c t (which c o u l d i n c l u d e a l s o m u r a l s ) , and an i n f e r i o r one, w h i c h a p p e a l s t o t h e s e n s e s , i t i s d e c o r a t i v e (which c o u l d . i n c l u d e " d e c o r a t i v e " t a b l e a u x ) . Such c l a s s i f i c a t i o n p e r p e t u a t e d the o l d P o u s s i n i s t / R u b e n i s t , C l a s s i c a l / R o m a n t i c , d r a w i n g o r l i n e ( r e l a t e d t o " S t y l e " ) / c o l o u r s q u a b b l e s . The " d e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g t h u s d e f i n e d had a " m a t e r i a l i s t i c " c o n n o t a t i o n , because i t was suppose t o p l e a s e o n l y t h e senses (not t h e " s p i r i t " o r t o i n - v o l v e t h e i n t e l l e c t ) and t o emphasize the " m a t e r i a l " s i d e o f p a i n t i n g . Thus, i n " d e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g t h e form i s r e n d e r e d by i n t e r i o r m o d e l l i n g (as opposed t o c o n t o u r , w h i c h d i s p l a y e d "the i n t e l l i g e n t arabesque o f t h e l i n e , " i n t h e p a i n t i n g o f " S t y l e " ) and by "the movement o f l a p a t e . " The p a i n t e r s who produced t h i s k i n d o f p a i n t i n g were m o s t l y " c o l o r i s t s " and p a i n t e r s o f "temperament" (as opposed t o p a i n t e r s o f i n t e l l e c t - 47 - 10 b o r e s p r i t ) . The p e r s o n a l " t o u c h " ( l a t o u c h e ) , o f t e n i n heavy i m p a s t o , was i m p o r t a n t i n t h i s " d e c o r a t i v e " or. " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" p a i n t i n g . A N a t u r a l i s t . - ; p a i n t i n g such as an Im- p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g o f t h e 1870s f i t s v e r y w e l l i n t o t h i s c a t e g o r y o f " d e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g . C h a r l e s B l a n c i n f a c t up- d a t e d t h e s e t o f c o n t r a r i e s p e r p e t u a t e d by the Academy, mentioned above, by r e d u c i n g them t o t h e dichotomy o f S t y l e .T , , .. 106 v e r u s N a t u r a l i s m . As I i n d i c a t e d , i n t h e l a t e 1870s and e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e 1880s, t h e term " d e c o r a t i v e " was used more and more t o d e s i g - n a t e a " d e c o r a t i o n " (thus t h e e x p r e s s i o n " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " meant p a i n t i n g - d e c o r a t i o n ) . T h i s was done i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h o s e who wanted t o r a i s e t h e s t a t u s o f t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s ; t h e y l o o s e l y used t h e e x p r e s s i o n " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " t o i n - d i c a t e any m u r a l , p a s t o r p r e s e n t (be i t " d e c o r a t i v e " i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l sense or n o t ) , because t h e y wanted t o be a b l e t o say t h a t " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " was p r a c t i c e d by such g i a n t s as M i c h e l a n g e l o o r R a p h a e l . T h i s t e r m i n o l o g y brought p r o t e s t s from C h a r l e s B l a n c f o r example, who c o n s i d e r e d d e p l o r a b l e t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e m u r a l s o f Mantegna, M i c h e l a n g e l o o r Raphael ( a l l p a i n t i n g s o f S t y l e and i n d u c i n g p o w e r f u l emotions i n t h e 107 v i e w e r ) as " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g . " Of c o u r s e , one can h a r d l y d e s c r i b e The L a s t Judgement o f M i c h e l a n g e l o as " d e c o r a t i v e , " w h i c h i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l sense meant s i m p l y p l e a s i n g t h e eye. I n f a c t such a d e c o r a t i o n d i d not even f i t t h e c a t e g o r y "de- c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " as d e f i n e d by a l l r e f o r m e r s , because t h e y f o r b a d e i n d e c o r a t i o n s scenes e x p r e s s i n g s t r o n g emotions. To resume, now ( i n t h e 1880s) " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " meant - 4 8 " - " d e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g w h i c h was a l s o " d e c o r a t i o n " ( t h a t i s f i r s t o f a i l , q u i t e " f l a t " ) . . But t h e meaning o f t h e term " d e c o r a t i v e " ( t h a t meaning w h i c h r e l a t e s t o t h e e f f e c t t h e work has on t h e v i e w e r ) was changed. A " d e c o r a t i v e " work o f a r t was n o t a d d r e s s e d now o n l y t o t h e s e n s e s , b u t a l s o t o t h e mind, even t o t h e " s o u l . " Thus t h e " d e c o r a t i v e " was n o t t o be de- f i n e d o n l y i n a m a t e r i a l i s t i c framework, w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t a N a t u r a l i s t p a i n t i n g was n o t " d e c o r a t i v e " by t h e new s t a n d a r d s . A l s o , t h e term " d e c o r a t i v e " d i d n o t have a p e j o r a t i v e con- n o t a t i o n anymore. I w i l l d i s c u s s b r i e f l y t h e l a s t two p o i n t s . " D e c o r a t i o n " and t h e " d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , " were d e f i n e d by t h e o r i g i n a l r e f o r m e r s i n an i d e a l i s t i c framework, b o t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o form and c o n t e n t . F o r m a l l y , a r e a l i s t i c , i l l u s i o n - i s t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n was f o r b i d d e n . T h i s c o u l d (as l a t e r be- came the norm) be j u s t i f i e d by a "common sense law" o f subor- d i n a t i o n t o a r c h i t e c t u r e , w h i c h r e q u i r e d " f l a t n e s s . " Of c o u r s e , t h i s "law" does not n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l y a s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f i d e a l i s t c o n t e n t , u n l e s s one b e l i e v e s t h e r e s h o u l d be such correspondence between form and c o n t e n t . T h i s i s e x a c t l y what the o r i g i n a l r e f o r m e r s had b e l i e v e d . C h a r l e s B l a n c , f o r example, wanted t o be t r a n s p o r t e d by t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n t o 108 "the enchanted gardens o f t h e i d e a l w o r l d . " He wanted the forms and c o l o u r s used i n t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s t o i n v i t e t h e i m a g i n a t i o n t o "dream," and even when i m i t a t i n g n a t u r e , t o f i g u r e r e a l i t y o n l y as a " s o u v e n i r " ("a l ' e t a t de s o u r v e n i r " ) . E m p h a s i z i n g t h a t he wanted, t o be " t r a n s p o r t e d i n t o t h e empire o f d r e a m s , " h e p r a i s e d t h e O r i e n t a l s , who, " c o u n s e l l e d by p o e t r y , " produced such dream images, f o r w h i c h , - 49 - . . . l e d e s s i n e s t p r i s s u r n a t u r e , t a n d i s que l a c o u l e u r en e s t i m a g i n a i r e , de s o r t e que l a v e r i t e s'.y mele au mensonge , comrae i l a r r i v e souvent dans nos r e v e s . ± 0 ^ T h i s way, .-..le r e g a r d , l o r s meme q u ' i l r e n c o n t r e 1'image des choses r g e l l e s , l e s v o i t r e v e t u e s de c o u l e u r s a r b i t r a i r e s e t purement o r n e m e n t a l e s ou s y m b o l i q u e s . Roger B a l l u (an o f f i c i a l i n t h e B e a u x - A r t s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ) , made i t v e r y c l e a r i n 1878 t h a t a N a t u r a l i s t p a i n t i n g would have no p l a c e i n d e c o r a t i v e a r t . He d e c l a r e d : . . . l e rendu d'un phenomene p a r t i c u l i e r n ' e s t pas du domaine de 1 ' a r t d e c o r a t i f . P l u s que t o u s l e s a u t r e s a r t s , c e l u i - c i v i t d ' i n v e n t i o n , de f i c t i o n meme, e t dans l e s l o i s q u i l u i s o n t p r o p r e s , l a v§rite n ' o b t i e n t qu'une p l a c e s e c o n d a i r e . m The same o p i n i o n was s h a r e d by D a r c e l , who i n 1882 r e f u s e d t o c l a s s i f y as " d e c o r a t i v e work" t h e p a i n t e d d e c o r a t i o n s of Gervex f o r a c i t y h a i l , m a i n l y because t h e y were p a i n t i n g s o f ' r e a l i t y , " and r e p r e s e n t e d o r d i n a r y p e o p l e i n t h e i r everyday c l o t h e s (even 112 u n l o a d i n g c o a l , o r s l a u g h t e r - h o u s e s c e n e s ) . In h i s book on d e c o r a t i o n (La D e c o r a t i o n , p u b l i s h e d i n t h e e a r l y 1 8 ? 0 s ) , Havard m a i n t a i n e d t h e I d e a l i s t c h a r a c t e r o f d e c o r a t i o n , and d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e " f i c t i o n s " o f d e c o r a t i o n s have t h e r o l e o f " r e n d e r i n g i n a c o n c r e t e f a s h i o n , t h a t i s v i s i b l e , somehow t a n g i b l e , t h e t h o u g h t , t h e i d e a , i n a word t h e a b s t r a c t i o n 113 w h i c h i s t h e o b j e c t o f t h e i r e x p r e s s i o n . " The f o r m a l i s m . o f . " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g , " a p a r t from f l a t - ness (no i l i u s i o n i s m ) , r e q u i r e d a l s o o r d e r e d c o m p o s i t i o n (no e m p i r i c i s m ) , as w e l l : as c l a r i t y o f l i n e a r c o n t o u r s , i n o r d e r t o s y n t h e s i z e t h e " c h a r a c t e r " o f the s u b j e c t , and even t o a c h i e v e " S t y l e " ( t h e r e f o r e not r e n d e r i n g the p a r t i c u l a r , b u t t h e - 50 - 114 g e n e r a l ) . " D e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g , o r " d e c o r a t i v e " t a b l e a u x were a l s o e x p e c t e d t o f u l f i l l t h e s e requirements,, e x c e p t f o r f l a t n e s s . " D e c o r a t i v e " had a p e j o r a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n o n l y when " c o l o u r " was supposed t o be t h e dominant element i n d e c o r a t i v e 115 a r t , t o t h e d e t r i m e n t o f " l i n e " and " S t y l e . " Most r e f o r m e r s though, emphasized t h e importance o f " l i n e , " even t h e n e c e s s i t y o f f i r m c o n t o u r s f o r d e f i n i t i o n o f form i n d e c o r a t i o n , r e g a r d - 116 l e s s o f t h e i r p o s i t i o n on a s s e r t i v e n e s s o f c o l o u r . These w r i t e r s c o n s i d e r e d l i n e t o be e i t h e r more i m p o r t a n t t h a n c o l o u r i n d e c o r a t i o n , o r a t l e a s t on an e q u a l f o o t i n g . Thus, t h r o u g h 117 t h e element " l i n e , " d e c o r a t i v e a r t i n v o l v e d t h e i n t e l l e c t . In c o n c l u s i o n , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e t a i n t h a t by t h e l a t e 1880s, not o n l y t h e concept o f " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " was w e l l d e f i n e d a c c o r d i n g to. the " t r u e p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n , " b u t the meaning o f " d e c o r a t i v e " was i n many r e s p e c t s t h e o p p o s i t e t o t h a t i n use i n t h e 1860s and 1870s. I n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e t h i s new e f f e c t . o n the v i e w e r , an i n t e l l e c t u a l e f f o r t from t h e p a r t o f t h e a r t i s t was n e c e s s a r y . " D e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g ( e i t h e r t a b l e a u o r d e c o r a t i o n ) meant p a i n t i n g t h a t was com- posed, had S t y l e , was i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h u n s e l e c t i y e i m i t a t i o n ( t h e r e f o r e w i t h e m p i r i c i s m , b u t t h i s d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean i t c o u l d not be i n s p i r e d by n a t u r e ) , . and a p p e a l e d t o t h e i n t e l l e c t , o r a t l e a s t n o t e x c l u s i v e l y t o t h e s e n s e s . Of c o u r s e , scenes o f s t r o n g emotions were s t i l l e x c l u d e d . The e f f e c t o f t h e work was t o be " r e s t f u l " f o r t h e s p i r i t , and n o t 118 s t r e n u o u s f o r t h e i n t e l l e c t - j u s t p l e a s i n g . C h a p t e r I , P a r t 2 The "New T e n d e n c i e s " i n the P a i n t i n g o f t h e 189 0s. I n t r o d u c t i o n . T h i s s e c t i o n w i l l d e a l m o s t l y w i t h t h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n i n t o t h e f i e l d o f e a s e l p a i n t i n g . W h i l e t h i s p r o c e s s began e a r l i e r , i t can be c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e s p e c i - f i c tendency o f F r e n c h avant-garde p a i n t i n g i n t h e 1890s. From t h i s s e c t i o n i t w i l l be a l s o e v i d e n t t h a t i n t h e e a r l y 18 90s t h e r e was a t r e n d toward " d e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g w h i c h was q u i t e g e n e r a l , and encompassed not o n l y t h e young avant-garde p a i n t e r s , b u t a l s o t h e o l d e r ones. I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o remember, though, from t h e l a s t s e c t i o n , t h a t " d e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g d i d n o t have t h e same meaning as i n t h e 1860s and 1870s (which was p u r e l y " m a t e r i a l i s t i c " ) . Even when an e a s e l p a i n t i n g remained a t t r a c t - i v e t o t h e senses t h r o u g h i t s c o l o u r f u l e f f e c t , i t had t o be com- posed, i t had t o be a p a i n t i n g o f S t y l e ( t h e r e f o r e f e a t u r i n g l i n - e a r contours,, s i n c e S t y l e was c o n s i d e r e d t o be embodied i n "the c o r r e c t i o n o f t h e l i n e " ) , i n o r d e r t o be decorative."''' I n t h e l a t e 1880s and e a r l y 1890s, a N a t u r a l i s t p a i n t i n g , i . e . based on t h e p o s i t i v i s t method o f e m p i r i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n , c o u l d not be q u a l i f i e d as " d e c o r a t i v e " anymore. A d e c o r a t i v e c o m p o s i t i o n im- p l i e d a p r o c e s s of s e l e c t i o n and g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o r b e t t e r , o f s y n t h e s i s , a p r o c e s s of r e f l e c t i o n and r e a s o n i n g . The s p o n a n e i t y o f v i s u a l " s e n s a t i o n " was r e p l a c e d . w i t h a more c o n c e p t u a l p r o - c e s s . Thus p r o t o t y p e s o f " d e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g were now con- 2 s i d e r e d t o be P o u s s i n and t h e " a r c h i t e c t u r a l " C o r o t . The mid and l a t e 1890s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d s e p a r a t e l y , s i n c e - 52 - t h e n o t i o n o f " d e c o r a t i v e " t a k e s a g a i n a new meaning. The t r e n d toward " d e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g had v a r i o u s m a n i f e s - t a t i o n s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a r t i s t ! s p a r t i c u l a r i d e o l o g i c a l p o s i - t i o n . The most i n n o v a t i v e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h i s t r e n d ( e x p r e s s e d and p r o f e s s e d f o r example by t h e Pont-Aven and N a b i groups - groups t o w h i c h I w i l l r e f e r as " S y m b o l i s t s - S y n t h e t i s t s , " i n o r d e r t o d i s t i n g u i s h them from o t h e r brands o f Symbolism, such as a d v o c a t e d by P e l a d a n ) , was t h a t w h i c h t r a n s f o r m e d e a s e l p a i n t i n g from t a b l e a u i n t o a movable " d e c o r a t i o n . " An attempt t o c l a r i f y t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e t r e n d toward " d e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g w i l l be made. A. The new . " d e c o r a t i v e " tendendy i n t h e F r e n c h avant-garde p a i n t i n g o f the 1880s and e a r l y 1890s and t h e " I d e a l i s t R e n a i s s a n c e . " A " d e c o r a t i v e " e a s e l p a i n t i n g was n o t something new. Im- p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g was a l s o " d e c o r a t i v e , " but i n t h e " m a t e r i a l - i s t i c " sense o f t h e 1870s, i . e . was c o m p a t i b l e w i t h p o s i t i v i s m . The new " d e c o r a t i v e " tendency t h a t r e a c h e d i t s peak i n the 1890s was t h e r e f l e c t i o n o f an " I d e a l i s t R e n a i s s a n c e , " o r a t l e a s t o f 3 a s t r o n g a n t i - p o s i t i v i s t r e a c t i o n . P o s i t i v i s m was t h e number one enemy o f C a t h o l i c i s m , and the r o o t s o f t h i s r e a c t i o n a r e t o be found i n . t h e C a t h o l i c and t h e R i g h t wing r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e f o r c e s o f the L e f t (which had adopted a p o s i t i v i s t p h i l o s - ophy) . S i n c e the R i g h t l o s t t h e " p o l i t i c a l was" o f 1879, i t i t c o n c e n t r a t e d i t s energy on a " r e l i g i o u s " o r " i d e o l o g i c a l war" d u r i n g t h e 1880s. C o n s i d e r i n g t h e s u c c e s s o f v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f Symbolism, I d e a l i s m , m y s t i c i s m even, a t t h e b e g i n n i n g - 53 - o f t h e 1890s decade, one might c o n c l u d e t h a t t h i s " i d e o l o g i c a l war" was t e m p o r a r i l y won by t h e C a t h o l i c - R i g h t wing s i d e . To t h i s s i t u a t i o n c o n t r i b u t e d some changes i n t h e o u t l o o k o f t h e do- minant c l a s s , t h e b o u r g e o i s i e . The 1890s b e f o r e t h e D r e f u s a f - f a i r a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by "compromise." The O p p o r t u n i s t (or Mod- e r a t e ) R e p u b l i c a n s then i n power, b e i n g s c a r e d by t h e r a i s i n g S o c i a l i s t movement, p r e f e r r e d a r e a l i g n m e n t w i t h t h e C a t h o l i c R i g h t (which i n t u r n was a d v i s e d by t h e Pope toward a R a l l i e m e n t ) . C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o d e s c r i b e d t h e s i t u a t i o n q u i t e a c c u r a t e l y : I t i s a s i g n o f the t i m e s , my d e a r . The b o u r g e o i s i e f r i g h t - ened, a s t o n i s h e d by t h e immense clamor o f t h e d i s i n h e r i t e d masses, by t h e i n s i s t e n t demands o f t h e p e o p l e , f e e l s t h a t i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e s t o r e t o t h e p e o p l e , t h e i r s u p e r s t i - t i o u s b e l i e f s . Hence t h e b u s t l i n g o f r e l i g i o u s s y m b o l i s t s , r e l i g i o u s s o c i a l i s t s , i d e a l i s t a r t , o c c u l t i s m , Buddism, e t c . , e t c . 6 The r e a s o n s as t o why t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l a r t i s t i c avant-garde a c t i v e i l y took p a r t i n t h i s " I d e a l i s t R e n a i s s a n c e " go f a r beyond!; t h i s 7 p r e s e n t t h e s i s . They v a r i e d from i n d i v i d u a l t o i n d i v i d u a l and from group t o group, as w e l l as i n r e s p e c t t o t h e degree o f " I d e a l ism" a c c e p t e d . The f a c t i s t h a t an a n t i - p o s i t i v i s t a t t i t u d e was a g e n e r a l tendency among a v a n t - g a r d e and j u s t e - m i l i e u a r t i s t s a t g the t i m e . I t . i s perhaps an e x a g g e r a t i o n on the p a r t o f the c r i t i c M e l l e r i o t o i n c l u d e i n "The I d e a l i s t Movement i n P a i n t i n g " t h e mosaic o f groups and i n d i v i d u a l s he assembled under the same u m b r e l l a . But i n f a c t M e l l e r i o d i d not r e f e r t o a p h i l o s o p h i c a l i d e a l i s m t h a t r e j e c t s the o b j e c t i v e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e m a t e r i a l w o r l d , b u t s p e c i f i c a l l y t o I d e a l i s m (as opposed t o R e a l i s m ) i n p a i n t i n g . M e l l e r i o 1 s " i d e a l i s t " s t i l l t a k e s N a t u r e as a " s t a r t - i n g p o i n t , " t h a t i s he recognizes:; i t s o b j e c t i v e e x i s t e n c e , but t h e s u b j e c t o f h i s work o f a r t i s t h e " c e r e b r a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n " o f t h i s N a t u r e , the "pure c o n c e p t , " i n s t e a d o f t h e s e n s o r y p e r - c e p t i o n . M e l l e r i o opposed an a r t based o n l y on a p e r c e p t u a l p r o c e s s , on t h e i n d i s c r i m i n a t e r e c o r d i n g o f o b s e r v a t i o n s a c c o r d - i n g t o t h e e m p i r i c i s t methodology a d v o c a t e d by p o s i t i v i s t s , t o a c o n c e p t u a l a r t t h a t makes c h o i c e s , s e l e c t s , t h r o u g h a v o l u n t a r y , r a t i o n a l p r o c e s s . The most encompassing d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e avant-garde a r t o f t h e 18 90s, w h i c h does n o t r e f e r o n l y t o I d e a l i s t a r t p r o p e r ( t h a t i s based on a p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y I d e a l i s t substratum) i s t h a t o f b e i n g " d e c o r a t i v e , " i n an a n t i - p o s i t i v i s t c o n n o t a t i o n o f t h e term I n a wide sense i t means an a r t t h a t was not p u r e l y " p e r c e p t u a l , " b u t a l l o w e d f o r a m i x t u r e of. R e a l i s m and I d e a l i s m , and was con- c e r n e d w i t h " d e c o r a t i v e beauty" not w i t h " l i t e r a t u r e . " I n a s t r i c t e r sense i t was a c t u a l l y based on t h e p r i n c i p l e s of. "decora t i o n , " and c o u l d t a k e t h e form o f a h i e r a t i c , I d e a l i s t a r t (such as S y m b o l i s m - S y n t h e t i s m ) . S y m b o l i s t - S y n t h e t i s t a r t (Pont-Aven,. N a b i s ) , w h i c h had t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e young S y m b o l i s t w r i t e r and c r i t i c A l b e r t A u r i e r , an a r d e n t C a t h o l i c , o f N e o - P l a t o n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h i c a l i n c l i n a t i o n , was " d e c o r a t i v e " a r t o r " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" i n a c l e a r - c u t i d e a l i s t i c : ' a c c e p t a n c e o f the term. I t borrowed t h e f o r m a l i s m o f ab- s o l u t e l y f l a t " d e c o r a t i o n " (of t h e t y p e recommended by t h e G o t h i c R e v i v a l i s t s ) f o r a p e r f e c t a c c o r d between form and content.'''''" I t i s n o t a c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t such a r d e n t C a t h o l i c s as E. B e r n a r d o r M. D e n i s and o t h e r N a b i s r e s u s c i t a t e d V i o l l e t - l e - D u c . As Roger Marx p o i n t e d o u t , "Le procede" de M. M a u r i c e D e n i s e s t c e l u i meme que V i o l l e t - l e - D u c recommende aux f r e s q u i s t e s : . 1 un d e s s i n e n l u m i n e , a p e i n e modele' ,* de f a i t , une s i m p l e t e i n t e - 55 - 12 p l a t e r e h a u s s e l ' i n t e r v a l l e compris dans l a cernge du c o n t o u r ; " Marx e x p l a i n e d t h a t i t was "the p r i n c i p l e o f t h e i r d o c t r i n e " w h i c h l e d t h e young S y m b o l i s t s t o t h e s o u r c e s o f " M e d i e v a l t r a - 13 d i t i o n , " a l l u d i n g t o t h e i r r e l i g i o u s f a i t h . He n o t i c e d t h a t •"l'epoque e s t venue de d o u t e r du d o u t e , e t un b e s o i n i m p e r i e u x de 14 c r o i r e s ' e s t empare de 1' ame moderne..." Roger Marx had a l - i r e a d y , i n 1892, d e d i c a t e d an a r t i c l e i n Le V o l t a i r e t o t h e i n - volvement o f the S y m b o l i s t s i n t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , p o i n t i n g out a t the same t i m e the. s i m i l a r i t y between t h e a e s t h e t i c s o f O r i e n t - 15 a l a r t and the a r t o f t h e M i d d l e Ages. Indeed, S y m b o l i s t a r t borrowed from t h e h i e r a t i c a r t o f the p a s t (when t h e t a b l e a u as such d i d not even e x i s t ) , as w e l l as from the Japanese p r i n t s and f o l k a r t , not o n l y i n d e c o r a t i o n s , but a l s o i n "independent" e a s e l p a i n t i n g s . S y m b o l i s t a r t i s t s d i d n o t b e l i e v e i n double s t a n d a r d s : one f o r d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , a n o t h e r f o r t a b l e a u x . Ac- c o r d i n g t o t h e i r i d e o l o g y , the t a b l e a u was " m a t e r i a l i s t " a r t , because o f i t s r e a l i s t i c t r o m p e - 1 ' o e i l e f f e c t s , even when i t was e x e c u t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e academic " i d e a l . " M a u r i c e D e n i s ( i n accordance w i t h A u r i e r ' s p o i n t o f view)' e x p l a i n e d why t h e y d i d n o t choose t h e academic " i d e a l " k Le mot i d e a l e s t t r o m p e u r r ' i l date d'une epoque d 1 a r t mat- e r i a l i s t e . On ne s t y l i s e pas a r t i f i c i e l l e m e n t , apres coup, une c o p i e s t u p i d e de l a n a t u r e . . . L e p o i n t de vue s y m b o l i s t e v e u t que nous c o n s i d e r i o n s 1'oeuvre d ' a r t comme 1 1 e q u i v a - l e n t d'une s e n s a t i o n r e c u e : .lYa n a t u r e peut done n ' e t r e , pour 1 ' a r t i s t e , qu'un e t a t de sa p r o p r e s u b j e c t i v i t y , E t ce que : nous appelons l a d e f o r m a t i o n s u b j e c t i v e , e ' e s t p r a t i q u e m e n t l e s t y l e . 16 A v e r y i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e S y m b o l i s t - S y n t h e t i s t p a i n t i n g i s the f a c t t h a t i t i s a p e i n t u r e de 1'ame, a p e i n t u r e i n t e r i e u r e , o f i n n e r f e e l i n g s o r emotions ( m y s t i c a l i n n a t u r e o r n o t ) , o f dreams, o f " I d e a s . " These Ideas and " s t a t e s o f t h e s o u l " -S56 - were not supposed-to be e x p r e s s e d e x p l i c i t l y , t h r o u g h an " i s t o r i a " ( i n t h e A l b e r t i a n sense) t h a t would "move t h e s o u l o f t h e s p e c t a - t o r " by e x p r e s s i v e g e s t u r e s . L i t e r a r y s u b j e c t - m a t t e r (even an a l - 17 l e g o r y i f i t were t o o e x p l i c i t ) was d i s c a r d e d i n the same way t h a t M a l l a r m e d i s c a r d e d " p r o s e , " a n d r e p l a c e d i t by a s u b t l e sug- 18 g e s t i o n a c h i e v e d s o l e l y t h r o u g h f o r m a l means. The "Idea" was e x p r e s s e d i n S y m b o l i s t - S y n t h e t i s t ; p a i n t i n g (which wanted t o be " a r t f o r . a r t ' s sake") by " l i n e , " by " S t y l e , " s i n c e as the c r i t i c Bouyer c o n c i s e l y p u t i t , S t y l e was a " v o l u n t a r y c o n v e n t i o n t i e d 19 i t s e l f t o t h e I d e a . " Symbolism-Synthetism u l t i m a t e l y borrowed d e c o r a t i v e a r t a e s t h e t i c s (from p r a c t i c a l s o u r c e s and from t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h e r e f o r m e r s , d i s c u s s e d i n the f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s c h a p t e r ) as a means o f r e i n t r o d i n g S t y l e ( l e s t y l e , not neces- s a r i l y "a s t y l e " ) i n t o p a i n t i n g , w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o go back t o t h e academic " i d e a l . " The d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , as e n v i s a g e d by t h e o r i - g i n a l r e f o r m e r s , were a l s o " a r t f o r , a r t ' s sake" i n an i d e a l i s t i c framework. Of c o u r s e , i n d e c o r a t i o n p e r s e , the S t y l e i s t i e d o n l y t o a c o n c e p t o f b e a u t y , and e x p r e s s e s o n l y t h e " c h a r a c t e r " o f t h e m o t i f (when t a k e n from n a t u r e ) . I n S y m b o l i s t p a i n t i n g , S t y l e was a l s o an e x p r e s s i o n . o f a s u b j e c t i v e " s t a t e o f s o u l " o r o f I d e a s , and t h e s e were e x p r e s s e d by " d i s t o r t i o n s . " I n h i s Notes i n e d i t e s , E m i l e B e r n a r d e x p l a i n e d how the f o r m a l i s m o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s s e r v e d t o s y m b o l i z e " l ' i d e e des choses en dehors de ces choses"': A ne l e c o n s i d e r e r que du d e h o r s , l e symbolisme e s t un systeme d e c o r a t i f analogue aux v i t r a u x ou aux t a p i s s - e r i e s . Le t r a i t du c o n t o u r y e s t a p p a r e n t , l e s formes n'y s o n t que sommairement model€es ou ne l e s o n t pas du t o u t , l e c l a i r - o b s c u r en e s t b a n n i , l a touche n'y joue aucun r o l e , i l n'y a pas de r e l i e f . C'est une p e i n t u r e p l a t e a s s e z analogue a c e l l e des crepons j a p o n a i s . Le c o l o r i s e t l e s t y l e en s o n t t o u t l e f o n d : mais l a c o u l e u r n'y e s t c o n s i d e f e e que s e l o n 1'usage qu'on f a i t dans l e s - 57 - t a p i s o r i e n t a u x ou l e s e n l u m i n u r e s . E l l e e s t a p p l i q e e pure ou avec l e moins d 1 a l t e r a t i o n s p o s s i b l e s . Comme e l l e d o i t d e t e r m i n e r l e s e n t i m e n t ou 1 ' e t a t m e n t a l du t a b l e a u , e l l e e s t adaptee au s b j e t .; c ' e s t l a son c a r a c t e r e de symbole. Quant au s t y l e , d e f o r m a t e u r s e l o n ce q u ' i l v e u t d i r e , i l e s t engendre p a r l e s o u v e n i r qu'a l a i s s e l ' o b j e t , p u i s q u e j a m a i s 1 ' a r t i s t e ne d o i t c o p i e r c e l u i - c i . 20 Thus S y m b o l i s t - S y n t h e t i s t p a i n t i n g r e c o n c i l e d t h e f o r m a l elements C o l o u r (n.b. a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e " s e n t i m e n t , " and " s y m b o l i c a l , " 21 as e n v i s a g e d by Ch. B l a n c ), and L i n e ( a s s o c i a t e d w i t h S t y l e , ex- p r e s s i o n o f the I d e a ) . S i n c e t h e i d e a s were e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h l i n e and form d i r e c t l y , not t h r o u g h t h e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r , t h e S t y l e 22 was, as B e r n a r d (and o t h e r s ) c a l l e d i t , d e f o r m a t e u r . As M a u r i c e D e n i s p u t i t , t h e S y m b o l i s t p r a c t i s e d two k i n d s o f d i s t o r t i o n s : an " o b j e c t i v e , d i s t o r t i o n , " i n a c c o r d w i t h t h e laws o f d e c o r a t i o n , and a " s u b j e c t i v e d i s t o r t i o n " r e l a t e d t o an e x p r e s s i v e way o f r e - 23 p r e s e n t i n g "the symbol o f a s e n s a t i o n . " The f o r m a l i s m o f S y m b o l i s t - S y n t h e t i s t p a i n t i n g was d i c t a t e d by an I d e a l i s t , even m y s t i c a l c o n t e n t . I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h e n t h a t i t was borrowed from t h e f o r m a l i s m o f the f l a t d e c o r a t i o n , w h i c h i n i t s t u r n was m o t i v i t a t e d o r i g i n a l l y by s i m i l a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . I n . h i s c r i t i - c i s m , Alphonse Germain (upholder o f t h e "Western t r a t i o n , " as I a l r e a d y mentioned, and n o t s y m p a t h e t i c toward t h e S y m b o l i s t - S y n t h e t i s t s t y l e as was Roger Marx) c l e a r l y p o i n t e d o u t t h e con- n e c t i o n between " a d a p t i n g t o t h e t a b l e a u t h a t w h i c h was c r e a t e d s e e m i n g l y f o r s t a i n e d g l a s s windows o r m o s a i c s " and t h e b e l i e f 24 t h a t " a r t i s not r e a l i t y . " C o n s i d e r i n g t h e propaganda f o r t h e r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , and t h e e d u c a t i o n s r e - forms t h a t f a m i l i a r i z e d t h e a r t s t u d e n t s w i t h t h e " t r u e p r i n c i - p l e s " o f d e c o r a t i o n , t h a t t o o k p l a c e p r i o r t o the appearance o f S y m b o l i s t p a i n t i n g , i t i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t t h e a r t i s t s - 58 - adapted t h e s e "ready-made f o r m u l a s " t o t h e e a s e l p a i n t i n g . F o r E m i l e B e r n a r d who took c o u r s e s a t the E c o l e des A r t s D e c o r a t i f s ( e s t a b l i s h e d as such i n 1877 on the p r e m i s e s o f t h e " P e t i t E c o l e " ) b e f o r e he e n t e r e d the Academie Cormon (where he met A n q u e t i n , T o u l o u s e - L a u t r e c and Van Gogh), and who was one o f the f i r s t young avant-garde a r t i s t s t o p r a c t i s e t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , i t was q u i t e n a t u r a l t o a p p l y t o e a s e l p a i n t i n g a s t y l e 25 d e r i v e d from d e c o r a t i o n . . T h i s s t y l e , t o be l a b e l l e d " C l o i s o n - ismy" was c l a i m e d by B e r n a r d as h i s own i n v e n t i o n . I do not propose t o s o l v e here the problem o f the p a t e r n i t y o f C l o i s o n - i s m , b u t i t i s w i d e l y acknowledged t h a t the i n i t i a t i v e was 26 B e r n a r d ' s . He emphasized he was a " C h r i s t i a n " ( r e a d : a ~27 " t r u e " C h r i s t i a n ) who was l o o k i n g f o r a " h i e r a t i c s t y l e - " Gauguin d e v e l o p e d a s i m i l a r s t y l e w o r k i n g on h i s c e r a m i c s , be- f o r e he met B e r n a r d , b u t i t seems he i n t r o d u c e d t h i s s t y l e i n t o h i s p a i n t i n g s o n l y a f t e r he f e l t encouraged by t h e example o f 2 8 the younger p a i n t e r . Gauguin was n o t r e l i g i o u s , nor was he a N e o - P l a t o n i s t , and b e f o r e h i s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h B e r n a r d he be- l i e v e d i n d i f f e r e n t s t a n d a r d s f o r d e c o r a t i v e a r t s and e a s e l p a i n t i n g . Gauguin's p a i n t i n g s were more i n a c c o r d w i t h the up- 29 h o l d e r s o f "Western t r a d i t i o n " i n d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g . H i s S y n t h e t i s m , even i n h i s " C l o i s o n i s t " p e r i o d , was not a p e r f e c t i m i t a t i o n o f c l o i s o n n e e , s i n c e the dark c o n t o u r s were not f i l l e d w i t h a b s o l u t e l y f l a t , monochrome c o l o u r . ^ He n e v e r gave up t h e p r a c t i c e o f " c o l o u r m o d u l a t i o n s " common t o t h e Chinese vases t h a t i n s p i r e d C h a p e l e t , w i t h whom he worked, and he a l s o 31 used t h i s t e c h n i q u e i n o r d e r t o model form. Gauguin borrowed a l s o Cezanne's method o f c o l o u r m o d u l a t i o n s , d e v e l o p e d i n the - 59 - 1880s (as f o r example i n Farmhouse w i t h Haystack o f Autumn 1888, Cat. Welsh-Ovcharov, #54) . He used h i s own method o f " z e b r e e " p a i n t i n g w h i c h he d e v e l o p e d e a r l i e r under the i n f l u e n c e o f P i s s a r r o and Degas, not o n l y i n o r d e r t o break t h e monotony o f 32 a f l a t monochrome s u r f a c e , b u t a l s o f o r m o d e l l i n g . W h i l e w e l l aware o f the f a c t t h a t m o d e l l i n g was i n a p p r o p r i a t e i n de- c o r a t i o n , Gauguin d i d n o t r e p r e s e n t f i g u r e s as f l a t s i l h o u e t t e s , 33 as B e r n a r d and Denis d i d . He was p a r t i c u l a r l y c a r e f u l i n m o d e l l i n g the human f a c e (except f o r t h a t o f C h r i s t , t o empha- s i z e i t s s p i r i t u a l c h a r a c t e r ) . I n h i s p a i n t i n g s from T a h i t i ( a f t e r 1891), the human f i g u r e r e v e a l s a " c l a s s i c a l " s o l i d i t y . T r u l y " f l a t " d e c o r a t i v e s t y l e s , i n accordance w i t h the G o t h i c R e v i v a l i s t s p r e c e p t s , such as the s t y l e s i n s p i r e d by c l o i s o n n e e , m e d i e v a l s t a i n e d - g l a s s windows o r m a n u s c r i p t i l - l u m i n a t i o n s , were i n t r o d u c e d i n the l a t e 1880s i n t o e a s e l p a i n t - i n g by a r t i s t s o f N e , o - P l a t o n i c and/or m y s t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n , and 34 t h e i r c l o s e a s s o c i a t e s . These s t y l e s were p a r t l y t h e r e s u l t o f the i n t e r a c t i o n between S y m b o l i s t w r i t e r s and avant-garde. p a i n t e r s . The former saw i n the f o r m a l i s m o f d e c o r a t i o n a p r o p e r way t o e x p r e s s the "Idea" i n - p a i n t i n g , b y - p a s s i n g " p r o s e " l i t e r a r y s u b s t r a t e , the same way S y m b o l i s t p o e t r y d i d , r e l y i n g 35 o n l y on i t s f o r m a l e l e m e n t s . (The way chosen t o e x p r e s s i d e a l i s m t h r o u g h the s u b j e c t - m a t t e r , such as f o r example the m y s t i c a l a l l e g o r i e s r e q u i r e d by P e l a d a n , need not c o n c e r n us here.) In t h e l a t e 1880s f l a t n e s s i n p a i n t i n g was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i d e a l i s m . T h i s a s s o c i a t i o n no l o n g e r h e l d f o r the d e c o r a - t i v e a r t s , f o r w h i c h s e p a r a t e "laws" were a c c e p t e d now as "common sense.1.' But g i v i n g an e a s e l p a i n t i n g (or even an o i l - 60 - p a n e l ) the a s p e c t o f a m e d i e v a l s t a i n e d g l a s s window f o r ex- 3 6 ample, was an i d e a l i s t s t a t e m e n t . As I mentioned e a r l i e r , t h e . r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t p o s i t i v i s m ( t r a n s l a t e d i n a r t as r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t N a t u r a l i s m ) was e v i d e n t not o n l y i n a r t i s t s and c r i t i c s o f I d e a l i s t p h i l o s o p h i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n , o r p a r t i s a n s o f r e a c t i o n a r y p o l i t i c s . Many r e - j e c t e d p o s i t i v i s m w i t h o u t r e j e c t i n g t h e o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l w o r l d , and f a v o r e d i n a r t a m i x t u r e o f " R e a l i s m " and " I d e a l i s m " (to use t h e terms employed a t t h e time) , a "comprom^ 37 i s e . " In t h e f o r m a l i s m o f t h a t avant-garde p a i n t i n g o f the e a r l y 189 0s w h i c h d i d not p u r p o s e f u l l y a s s o c i a t e i t s e l f w i t h t h e I d e a l i s t S y m b o l i s t movement ( f o r a more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n see s e c t i o n " C " ) , t h i s p o s i t i v i s t r e j e c t i o n m a n i f e s t e d i t s e l f e s - p e c i a l l y i n an o r i e n t a t i o n toward s y n t h e s i s and a new emphasis on " l i n e . " I t r e f l e c t e d an adherence t o the r e d e f i n e d , l e s s m a t e r i a l i s t i c concept o f " d e c o r a t i v e . " But even when t h e forma- l i s m a c t u a l l y borrowed t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f " d e c o r a t i o n " (as I be- l i e v e i s t h e case w i t h Cezanne p a i n t i n g s ) , i t d i d n o t borrow from t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s t h a t r e q u i r e d a b s o l u t e f l a t n e s s , such as p o s t e r s , w a l l p a p e r s , o r s t a i n e d g l a s s windows, o r f o r t h a t mat- t e r i t d i d n o t borrow from E g y p t i a n , B y z a n t i n e , o r G o t h i c a r t , b o t h t h e l a c k o f depth as w e l l as t h e l a c k o f m o d e l l i n g . o f o b j e c t s . B. The new " d e c o r a t i v e " tendency as d e f i n e d by c r i t i c s i n t h e e a r l y ,1890s: A u r l e r v e r s u s Lecomte. C r i t i c s o f v a r i o u s p e r s u a s i o n s emphasized t h a t the new t e n d e n c i e s i n t h e p a i n t i n g o f the 1890s were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e " d e c o r a t i v e . " The most e l o q u e n t - 61 - w r i t e r s on t h i s s u b j e c t were G. A l b e r t A u r i e r and Georges Lecomte. They were a l s o r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e two main c u r - r e n t s i n the c r i t i q u e o f the avant-guarde i n the e a r l y 1890s: p a r t i s a n s o f an I d e a l i s t a e s t h e t i c ( A u r i e r ) and those who o p t e d f o r a compromise between R e a l i s m and I d e a l i s m (Lecomte). I n e s t a b l i s h i n g the most avant-garde t r e n d , t h a t i s the t r e n d t o - ward the " d e c o r a t i v e , " b o t h c r i t i c s f o u g h t t o ensure p r i o r i t y f o r the p a i n t e r s they defended. B u t , because o f t h e i r d i f - f e r e n t i d e o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n s they had d i f f e r e n t views on what " d e c o r a t i v e " i n p a i n t i n g s h o u l d be. E s s e n t i a l l y , Lecomte ad- v o c a t e d " d e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g as u n d e r s t o o d a t t h e t i m e , w h i l e A u r i e r wanted a l l p a i n t i n g t o be " d e c o r a t i v e painting';"" t h a t 3 8 i s " d e c o r a t i o n . ' ! The young S y m b o l i s t w r i t e r A l b e r t A u r i e r s t r o n g l y r e a c t e d a g a i n s t " m a t e r i a l i s t " a e s t h e t i c s (such as T a i n e ' s o r Z o l a ' s ) . Not o n l y was he a g a i n s t p o s i t i v i s m , b u t he was a c t u a l l y a Neo- P l a t o n i s t , adept o f P l o t i n u s and P l a t o , and a l s o h e l d the b e l i e f t h a t " o n l y m y s t i c i s m can save o u r s o c i e t y from d e g r a d a t i o n , 39 s e n s u a l i s m , and u t i l i t a r i s m . " L i k e the G o t h i c R e v i v a l i s t s o r Havard, he a s s o c i a t e d the development o f the independent, " m a t e r i a l i s t i c " t a b l e a u w i t h decadent c i v i l i z a t i o n s , and de- c l a r e d i n h i s a r t i c l e i n the Mercure de France o f March 1891, "Le Symbolisme en p e i n t u r e , " La p e i n t u r e n'a pu e t r e c r e e que pour d e c o r e r de pensees, de r e v e s e t d ' i d e e s l e s murales b a n a l i t e s des e d i f i c e s humains. Le t a b l e a u de c h e v a l e t n ' e s t qu'un i l l o g i q u e r a f f i n e m e n t i n v e n t e pour s a t i s f a i r e l a f a n t a i s i e ou 1 ' e s p r i t commercial des c i v i l i s a t i o n s decadentes.40 T h e r e f o r e he s t a t e d t h a t " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " i s i n f a c t "the - 62 - t r u e p a i n t i n g " , b u t he made i t c l e a r t h a t he.meant the "de- c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g p r o p e r , as was u n d e r s t o o d by the E g y p t i a n s , v e r y l i k e l y by the Greeks and t h e Primitives,...", I n o t h e r words A u r i e r was not i n t e r e s t e d o n l y i n the o r n a m e n t a l f u n c t i o n o f p a i n t i n g (which c o u l d be performed by f a c s i m i l e s o f t a b l e a u x as i t has been s i n c e the R e n a i s s a n c e ) , b u t i n " t r u e " d e c o r a - t i o n , as e n v i s a g e d by t h e r e f o r m e r s o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . As i n the case o f the G o t h i c R e v i v a l i s t s , A u r i e r a d v o c a t e d t h e r e - t u r n t o r a p a r t i c u l a r f o r m a l i s m because i t p r o j e c t e d an i d e a l i s t c o n t e n t . I n f a c t t o make s u r e i t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t the sub- s t r a t u m o f t h i s a r t was a t r u e i d e a l i s t p h i l o s o p h y , he used the term " Ideist3.'„' Thus, he d i s t i n g u i s h e d the p a i n t i n g he was s u p p o r t i n g from t h e academic " I d e a l i s t " p a i n t i n g , w h i c h was d o i n g n o t h i n g more than m o d i f y i n g m a t e r i a l o b j e c t s a c c o r d i n g 42 t o p a r t i c u l a r norms o r c o n v e n t i o n s . To see the d i f f e r e n c e , a c c o r d i n g t o A u r i e r , one s h o u l d n o t have a m a t e r i a l i s t c o n c e p t - i o n o f the w o r l d and s h o u l d not " p r e f e r Auguste Comte and 43 C o n d i l l a c t o P l o t i n u s and Plato':'.' A u r i e r s t a t e d t h a t "de- c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g i n t h e p r o p e r sense... i s n o t h i n g e l s e b u t t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f an a r t a t the same time s u b j e c t i v e , s y n t h e t i c , s y m b o l i s t and i d e i s t 1 . ' " ^ The c r i t i c c o n s i d e r e d P a u l Gauguin as the head o f the young " s y n t h e t i s t s , i d e i s t s , symbolists; 1 , 1 t h e " i n i t i a t o r o f a new a r t " ; o r as he p u t i t i n the a r t i c l e , "Les S y m b o l i s t e s / V o f 1892, Gauguin was the " i n - c o n t e s t a b l e " i n i t i a t o r o f an " a r t i s t i c movement" which one day 45 might be c o n s i d e r e d a "Renaissance!;'" The c h a r a c t e r o f "de- c o r a t i o n " was the e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e o f t h i s new a r t . Were they g i v e n the means, the a r t i s t s o f t h i s new movement, A u r i e r - 63 - e x p l a i n s , would have a r r i v e d " a t an a r t o f d e c o r a t i o n , an a r t 4 6 o f monumental f r e s c o e s , r a t h e r t h a n a t e a s e l p a i n t i n g s . " The 1891 a r t i c l e , w h i c h makes a s t r o n g case f o r Gauguin (as w e l l as f o r a l l t h e " I d e i s t " p a i n t e r s ) as d e c o r a t o r , ends w i t h a d r a m a t i c a p p e a l : "...you have i n your m i d s t a d e c o r a t o r o f 47 g e n i u s : w a l l s 1 w a l l s I g i v e him w a l l s I" As p r o o f o f Gauguin's p o t e n t i a l a b i l i t y t o a c h i e v e g r e a t m u r a l d e c o r a t i o n s , A u r i e r named t h e a r t i s t ' s e a s e l p a i n t i n g s , w h i c h c o u l d e a s i l y be seen as "fragments o f g i a n t f r e s c o e s . " A u r i e r made i t c l e a r he was l o o k i n g f o r the c o u n t e r p a r t i n the p l a s t i c a r t s o f t h e r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t N a t u r a l i s m t h a t took p l a c e i n l i t e r a t u r e . I n t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r he had a l r e a d y des- c r i b e d Van Gogh as "a S y m b o l i s t , " b u t a t t h e same time as a 48 " r e a l i s t " , " v e r y aware o f m a t t e r . " True S y m b o l i s t a r t was based on i d e a l i s t p h i l o s o p h y though, and i n Van Gogh he d e t e c t e d o n l y " i d e a l i s t t e n d e n c i e s , " w h i l e Gauguin was " P l a t o p l a s t i c a l - 4 9 l y i n t e r p r e t e d by a g e n i a l savage." A c c o r d i n g t o A u r i e r , Gauguin's p i c t o r i a l oeuvre was "marked by a p r o f o u n d and h i g h l y 50 i d e a l i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y . " I d e a l i s m , not s i m p l y " s u b j e c t i v i s m , " was t h e main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Symbolism; t h i s i s why A u r i e r 51 so c l e a r l y opposed Symbolism and I m p r e s s i o n i s m . I n t h e a r t i c l e o f 1891, A u r i e r a d m i t t e d t h e " s u b j e c t i v i t y " o f Im- p r e s s i o n i s t a r t , y e t he d i s m i s s e d I m p r e s s i o n i s m ( a c t u a l l y 52 naming P i s s a r r o and Monet) as a n o t h e r " v a r i e t y o f R e a l i s m . " He made i t a p o i n t t o c l a r i f y t h e d i s t i n c t i o n one s h o u l d make w i t h i n the "heterogeneous group o f Independent p a i n t e r s " be- tween the " I m p r e s s i o n i s t s " on t h e one hand, and the "newly - 6 4 - a r r i v e d , headed by Gauguin;" on the o t h e r . F o r the l a t t e r A u r i e r s u g g e s t e d the use o f a n o t h e r " i s t s " - e n d i n g word, such as S y n t h e t i s t s , I d e i s t s , o r S y m b o l i s t s . A c c o r d i n g t o him they r e p r e s e n t e d i n p a i n t i n g a new tendency t h a t p a r a l l e l l e d the s i t u a t i o n i n l i t e r a t u r e : "the agony o f N a t u r a l i s m " and an 53 " i d e a l i s t , even m y s t i c reaction':." A u r i e r was s t r o n g l y op- posed t o the " o f f i c i a l " p h i l o s o p h y ' o f I m p r e s s i o n i s m (as c r y s t a l - l i s e d i n t h e 1870s) as a movement, b u t was among the f i r s t t o welcome the changes he d e t e c t e d i n the l a t e s t p a i n t i n g s o f the 5 4 o l d I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , such as f o r example P i s s a r r o i ' s . Of c o u r s e P i s s a r r o , even l e s s t h a n Van Gogh, was n o t a good can- d i d a t e f o r embodying an i d e a l i s t p h i l o s o p h y . Thus i n h i s f i r s t a r t i c l e i n which he wanted t o d e f i n e the Symbolism i n p a i n t i n g , A u r i e r ( p r o b a b l y under the i n f l u e n c e o f Gauguin and Bernard) d e c i d e d t o make a c l e a r break w i t h I m p r e s s i o n i s m and not t o com- p l i c a t e t h e m a t t e r by b r i n g i n g i n the l a t e s t changes i n t h e a r t o f i n d i v i d u a l I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . The S y m b o l i s t c r i t i c was k i n d e r t o w a r d " t h e I m p r e s s i o n i s t s i n 189 2, p o s s i b l y a t the s u g g e s t i o n 55 o f Denis o r S e r u s i e r . In "Les S y m b o l i s t e s " o f t h a t y e a r he a d m i t t e d the i n f l u e n c e o f Degas, Cezanne, Monet, S i s l e y , P i s s a r r o , as w e l l as t h a t o f t h e N e o - I m p r e s s i o n i s t s ( e s p e c i a l - l y S e u r a t ) and o f A n q u e t i n (who was not i n the Pont-Aven o r 5 6 N a b i groups) on the e v o l u t i o n o f the I d e i s t p a i n t e r s . Georges Lecomte, n o t a S y m b o l i s t h i m s e l f , b u t connected w i t h S y m b o l i s t c i r c l e s , was w e l l aware o f the d e c l i n e o f n a t u r a l i s m and p o s i t i v i s m and a c t u a l l y took an a n t i - p o s i t i v i s t , 57 a n t i - e m p i r i c i s t p o s i t i o n . He c o n s i d e r e d t h a t N a t u r a l i s m - 65 - n e g l e c t e d t h e s p i r i t u a l s i d e o f l i f e , t h e " i n t e r n a l l i f e , " b u t he d i d n o t s u b s c r i b e t o i d e a l i s t p h i l o s o p h i e s , and was a g a i n s t C a t h o l o c i s m and m y s t i c i s m . He found i n t h e l a t e s t a r t o f t h e o l d e r i m p r e s s i o n i s t s t h e m i x t u r e o f R e a l i s m and I d e a l i s m he f a v o r e d , and c r e d i t e d them w i t h s w i t c h i n g from a n a l y s i s t o s y n t h e s i s , w i t h an i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o c e s s o f a b s t r a c t i o n from r e a b i t y t h a t r e p l a c e d t h e "immediate copy o f n a t u r e , " p r i o r t o any such a t t e m p t s among contemporary s c h o o l s . Lecomte's l e c t u r e a t t h e S a l o n des XX e n t i t l e d "Des tendances de l a p e i n t u r e moderne," p u b l i s h e d as a s e r i e s o f t h r e e a r t i c l e s i n L ' A r t Moderne o f 1892, as w e l l as t h e l a s t c h a p t e r of h i s book L ' A r t I m p r e s s i o n n i s t e o f t h e same y e a r , e n t i t l e d " L ' A r t de demain," can be seen as a r e p l y t o A u r i e r ' s "Le Symbolisme en p e i n t u r e " 58 o f March 1891. Lecomte c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d the "new t e n d e n - c i e s " (tendances n o u v e l l e s ) in:modern p a i n t i n g w i t h a p r o g r e s s - 59 i v e s e a r c h f o r d e c o r a t i v e beauty. He d e c l a r e d : E t c ' e s t p r i c i s e m e n t ce SOUCI DE BEAUTE DECORATIVE q u i nous p a r a i t , en dehors de t o u t e p r e o c c u p a t i o n s e c o n d a i r e ^ d e v o i r e t r e la,MARQUE DISTINCTIVE DE NOTRE EPOQUE DANS L'HISTOIRE GENERALE DE L'ART. 60 But Lecomte argued f o r D e l a c r o i x and t h e I m p r e s s i o n i s t s ( P i s s a r r o , Cezanne, R e n o i r , Monet) as b e i n g t h e t r u e o r i g i n a t o r s o f t h e new tendency o f p a i n t i n g toward t h e d e c o r a t i v e , and n o t t h e " I d e i s t . " He used t h e term p e i n t r e s i d e i s t e s i n t r o d u c e d by A u r i e r , w i t h the comment: " c ' e s t a i n s i que l e s c l a s s i f i a un 61 t r e s e l o q u e n t c r i t i q u e . " A l s o , Lecomte p o i n t e d o u t , t h e e f f o r t made by t h e I m p r e s s i o n i s t s "toward o r n a m e n t a l i n t e r - p r e t a t i o n s , b o t h t h r o u g h c o l o u r and l i n e s , " had been " e f f i - c i e n t l y c o n t i n u e d " by t h o s e whom F e l i x Feneon had dubbed t h e - 66 - "Neo-Tmpressionists.. Only a f t e r "these a l r e a d y c o n c l u s i v e a t t e m p t s , " Lecomte s a i d , had new p a i n t e r s a f f i r m e d t h e m s e l v e s as " p r o t a g o n i s t s o f an a r t more e x c l u s i v e l y m y s t i c , s y m b o l i c 6 3 and d e c o r a t i v e . " I n t h e c h a p t e r " L ' A r t de demain" o f h i s book L ' A r t I m p r e s s i o n n i s t e , Lecomte was even more c a t e g o r i c a l i n d e n y i n g the r o l e o f t r u e i n n o v a t o r s t o t h o s e p a i n t e r s " I d e i s t s , " t o whom he r e f e r r e d as t h e "newly a r r i v e d " : Les a n n o n c i a t e u r s de l ' A r t a v e n i r , c ' e s t - a d i r e de l ' A r t m y s t i q u e , symbolique e t d e c o r a t i f e x c l u s i v e m e n t , i n - novent moins q u ' i l s ne l e p e n s e n t . / L 1 E v o l u t i o n dont i l s se t a r g u e n t a e t e d e p u i s longtemps commencee par l e s p r e m i e r s i m p r e s s i o n n i s t e s eux-memes. Les nouveaux venues ne f o n t que l a c o n t i n u e r systematiquement, s e l o n une e s t h e t i q u e t o u t e p h i l o s o p h i q u e , avec une r e c h e r c h e t r e s i n t e n t i o n n e l l e de Pensee e t de Reve. 64 Lecomte had s t r o n g t i e s w i t h l i t e r a r y Symbolism, but w h i l e w e l l aware o f what he c a l l e d " t h i s i d e a l i s t R e n a i s s a n c e , " he made, i t c l e a r t h a t i n a r t he f a v o r e d (as d i d q u i t e a few o t h e r c r i t i c s a t t h e time) a compromise, a b l e n d i n g o f r e a l i s m and i d e a l i s m . ^ He admired t h o s e " b e a u t i f u l e v o c a t i o n s o f n a t u r e g o i n g beyond r e a l i t y , " w h i c h a r e b o t h " s u g g e s t i v e and r e p r e s e n t a - t i o n a l " and s t a n d f o r an a r t o f i n t e l l e c t u a l c h a r a c t e r . From such works ...se d^gage l a pensee, s ' e s s o r e l e r e v e . Le grand mystere de l a n a t u r e e s t p a r e l l e s rendu. C e t t e p e i n t u r e s a t i s f a i t 1'ame a u t a n t q u ' e l l e enchante l e s yeux. 66 A c c o r d i n g t o Lecomte such works had a l r e a d y been c r e a t e d by 67 t h e I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . But, he added, i n t h e i d e a l i z e d e v o c a - t i o n o f t h e s e m a t e r i a l b e a u t i e s , , t h e s e p a i n t e r s d i d not s a c r i f i c e any o f t h e " p l a s t i c q u a l i t i e s " t h a t c o n s t i t u t e t h e p i c t o r i a l beauty. F o r Lecomte, " i n p a i n t i n g , the d e c o r a t i v e i s a c c e p t a b l e o n l y as an e x t e n t i o n , a l o g i c a l development o f the truth;". He c r i t i c i s e d the I d e i s t p a i n t e r s f o r d i s t o r t i n g the human f i g u r e s and o b j e c t s i n an exaggerated manner, t o the p o i n t of " l a c k i n g resemblance and being unrecognizable!'". Lecomte, i n a very s y s t e m a t i c way, demolished the I d e i s t s ' c l a i m t o p r i o r i t y i n g i v i n g contemporary p a i n t i n g what he saw as i t s most s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e , namely i t s d e c o r a t i v e c h a r a c t e r . But there i s a fundamental d i f f e r e n c e i n the meanings of the concept d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g as envisaged by Lecomte and A u r i e r r e s p e c t i v e l y . Lecomte never e l u c i d a t e s the f a c t t h a t A u r i e r c a l l s f o r a r e t u r n to p a i n t i n g as " d e c o r a t i o n " o f w a l l s , as i t used t o be before the dreaded t a b l e a u l e d t o i t s emancipation. What Lecomte understands by d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g i s a d e c o r a t i v e t a b l e a u t h a t a p a r t from the c o l o r i s t i c e f f e t . i n c l u d e s an orna- 69 mental use of the l i n e , the arabesque. In t h a t sense, of course, one can b u i l d up a case f o r the " d e c o r a t i v e n e s s " of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g s going back to the 1870s, and t h i s i s e x a c t l y what Lecomte i s doing. He r e l a t e s t h a t i n the be- g i n n i n g , the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s ' concern f o r d e c o r a t i v e beauty was " i n s t i n c t i v e " and r e s t r i c t e d only to " d e c o r a t i o n through c o l - - \ 70 our.," They were " p l e i n a i r " p a i n t e r s , concerned with render- i n g "the t r u t h " about the n a t u r a l c o l o r a t i o n s , the l i g h t , the atmosphere, the enveloppements de c l a r t e s , and w i t h the "exact 71 d e s c r i p t i o n of the e f f e t " of p a r t i c u l a r s i t e s . AS was shown i n P a r t 1, a p a i n t i n g of "polychrome e f f e c t " (connected by Charles Blanc w i t h p l e i n a i r - i s m ) was a " d e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g 72 by the standards of the 1870s. C r i t i c s of the:1870s saw I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g s i n terms of both pochades or etudes - 68 .- and o f d e c o r a t i v e works (to be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from the e x p r e s - 73 s i v e p a i n t i n g s o f " S t y l e " ) . But they were not " d e c o r a t i o n s " i n the t r u e sense, they were s t i l l independent p a i n t i n g s , "windows" open t o n a t u r e , d e c o r a t i v e t a b l e a u x (or d e c o r a t i v e etudes i f one i s t o be f a s t i d i o u s about the l a c k o f f i n i s h ) . Even when they e x e c u t e d l a r g e s c a l e p a i n t i n g s w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r d e s t i n a t i o n i n mind ( t h a t i s , i n t e n d e d t o s e r v e as d e c o r a t i o n s ) , the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s o f the 1870s d i d not f u l f i l the c r i t e r i a o f d e c o r a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d a t the time by t h e o f f i c i a l a e s t h e t i - c i a n s . T h e i r " d e c o r a t i o n s " were n o t h i n g b u t blown-up d e c o r a - t i v e t a b l e a u x , h a v i n g i n common w i t h a t r u e d e c o r a t i o n o n l y the f a c t t h a t t h e u n i t y o f e f f e c t was a c h i e v e d n o t t h r o u g h the u n i t y o f c h i a r o s c u r o , b u t by r e n d e r i n g the "envelope" o f a i r 74 and l i g h t , which t r a n s l a t e d i n t o u n i f o r m i t y o f v a l u e . So f a r the I m p r e s s i o n i s t " d e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g d i d n o t go beyond the N a t u r a l i s t , m a t e r i a l i s t i c - p o s i t i v i s t framework. The " e f f e c t " a c h i e v e d i n t h e i r p a i n t i n g s c o u l d be t a k e n as d e c o r a - t i v e and a t the same time as based on the e m p i r i c a l o b s e r v a - t i o n o f the n a t u r a l e f f e c t o f l i g h t . Lecomte h i m s e l f s a i d t h a t f o r a w h i l e "the c o n c e r n f o r l u m i n o s i t y " seemed t o d e f i n e the " t e n d e n c i e s o f modern a r t ; " and f o r a l o n g time he thought 75 t h i s t o be so. B u t , he added, now ( i n 189 2) he changed h i s o p i n i o n : i t became c l e a r t o him t h a t the p e r i o d o f " r e s e a r c h o f l i g h t " was o n l y a f i r s t s t e p i n what he saw as a c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s o f e v o l u t i o n toward the d e c o r a t i v e , namely the d e c o r a - t i o n by means o f c o l o u r a l o n e ("souci de d e c o r a t i o n p a r l a 76 c o u l e u r " ) . " G r a d u a l l y ; 1 ! Lecomte s a i d , the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s "detached themselves from r e a l i t y ; " d e l i b e r a t e l y m o d i f i e d "the e x t e r n a l a s p e c t o f t h i n g s ; 5 " and a c t u a l l y "composed, away from n a t u r e T h e n a t u r a l s i t e became "the e s s e n t i a l l e i t - m o t i v , t h e p r e t e x t f o r a d e c o r a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; 1 ' ! , w h i c h now i n c l u d e d the o r n a m e n t a l use o f the l i n e ; and not o n l y d i d the 77 d e s s i n become more summary, the c o l o u r a l s o became s i m p l e r . Lecomte makes i t c l e a r t h a t the " d e c o r a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n " i s a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h " s y n t h e t i c e l i m i n a t i o n o f the s u p e r f l u o u s 78 and the momentary" from t h e n a t u r a l m o t i f . The word " s y n t h e - t i c ; " no doubt, was meant t o s e r v e as a reminder t h a t the Im- p r e s s i o n i s t s were " S y n t h e t i s t s " b e f o r e Gauguin and h i s f o l l o w - e r s . Lecomte i m p l i e s t h e y were a l s o S y m b o l i s t s , s i n c e from t h e i r p a i n t i n g s emanate the t h o u g h t , the dream, the mystery 79 o f n a t u r e . The I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , however, were not g u i l t y o f e x a g g e r a t e d d i s t o r t i o n s o f o b j e c t s o r b e i n g s , nor d i d they v i o l a t e t h e " p l a s t i c i t y " o f p a i n t i n g , o r t h e concept o f t a b l e a u . The I d e i s t s were g u i l t y o f a l l t h o s e t h i n g s . The d r a w i n g was d i s t o r t e d , n o t d e s c r i p t i v e , the v a l u e s ( l i g h t t o dark) i g n o r e d - 80 t h e r e f o r e no m o d e l l i n g o f o b j e c t s , no " p l a s t i c i t y I',' A l s o t h e i r p a i n t i n g s had no d e p t h , no a e r i a l p e r s p e c t i v e , e v e r y - t h i n g seemed t o be i n the same p l a n e ; i n o t h e r words t h e y were n o t t a b l e a u x : Sous p r e t e x t e de s y n t h e s e e t de d e c o r a t i o n , on couvre l e s t o i l e s de t e i n t e s p l a t e s q u i ne r e s t i t u e n t p o i n t l e s lumineuses l i m p i d i t e s de 1'atmosphere, ne donnent p o i n t 1'enveloppment des c h o s e s , l a p r o f o n d e u r , l a p e r s p e c t i v e a e r i e n n e . Les v a l e u r s s o n t s i r a p p r o c h e e s ( p u i s s e n t - e l l e s t o u j o u r s e t r e en de r i g o u r e u x a c c o r d s ) que tous l e S g ^ p o i n t s d'un t a b l e a u semblent e t r e dans un p l a n i d e n t i q u e . Lecomte blamed the I d e i s t s ' d i s t o r t i o n s on t h e i r p h i l o s o p h i c a l i d e a l i s m and m y s t i c i s m , t h a t s a c r i f i c e s "the c h a r a c t e r o f t h i n g s " f o r an e x c l u s i v e c o n c e r n w i t h " e x p r e s s i n g i d e a s , 82 r e a l i z i n g theories.*'! He d e c l a r e d t h a t nobody l o v e d i n t e l - l e c t u a l i t y " and the e x p r e s s i o n o f the i d e a l more than he d i d , b u t he b e l i e v e d t h a t " i n the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l a r t s , the i d e a 8 3 s h o u l d be s u b o r d i n a t e d t o the pure p l a s t i c beauty!" He im- p l i e d t h a t o t h e r w i s e , i f i d e a s are a l l o w e d t o be dominant, " P a i n t i n g becomes l i t e r a r y and p h i l o s o p h i c a l ; " and even f e a r e d t h a t : - nous a r r i v e r o n s a c e t t e t r e s b i z a r r e e s t h e t i q u e , p h i l o - s o p h i q u e , r e l i g i e u s e , v o i r meme p o l i t i q u e , s e l o n l a q u e l l e l e s oeuvres p i c t u r a l e s se r e p a r t i s s e n t en deux c l a s s e s : c e l l e s q u i r e p r e s e n t e n t -des : s u j e t s n o b l e s ; c e l l e s q u i r e s t i t u e n t des v u l g a r i t e s . 8 4 Thus Lecomte i m p l i e d t h a t the I d e i s t s ' p a i n t i n g was n o t " p a i n t - i n g f o r p a i n t i n g ' s sakey" w h i c h was i n f a c t the utmost i n s u l t a c r i t i c c o u l d address t o an avant-garde a r t i s t . Of c o u r s e , M a u r i c e Denis f e l t c o m p e l l e d t o answer such an a t t a c k which v v - ; would have p l a c e d t h e S y m b o l i s t s - S y n t h e t i s t s i n the same c a t e - 85 gory w i t h the adepts o f P e l a d a n . Lecomte r e p r e s e n t e d the p o i n t o f view o f a r t i s t s who wanted t h e i r p a i n t i n g t o be " d e c o r a t i v e " i n t h e sense a c c e p t e d i n the e a r l y 1890s ( d e c o r a t i v e c o m p o s i t i o n , s y n t h e s i s , s t y l e ) , b u t n o t "decoration'. 1,' Who were t h e a r t i s t s " ( a s i d e from S y m b o l i s t s - S y n t h e t i s t s ) who a c t u a l l y i n t r o d u c e d the p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a - t i o n i n t o e a s e l p a i n t i n g a t the time when s e p a r a t e s e t s o f laws were commonly a c c e p t e d f o r t a b l e a u x and d e c o r a t i o n s and why? I w i l l t r y t o answer t h i s q u e s t i o n i n the n e x t s e c t i o n . - 71 - C. The a r t i s t s who a p p l i e d d e c o r a t i v e a r t s p r i n c i p l e s t o e a s e l p a i n t i n g by the e a r l y 1890s. I do not propose t o g i v e a complete l i s t o f t h e s e a r t i s t s , b u t t o p o i n t out the common g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s , o r r a t h e r g o a l s , t h a t bound o t h e r w i s e q u i t e d i s t i n c t i n d i v i d u a l i t i e s . I n my o p i n i o n , the a r t i s t s who a p p l i e d d e c o r a t i v e a r t s p r i n c i p l e s ( i n c l u d i n g the a r t s t h a t d i d not r e q u i r e a b s o l u t e f l a t n e s s ) were those who f u l f i l l e d t h r e e c o n d i t i o n s : 1. A r t f o r a r t ' s s a k e , u n d e r s t o o d o n l y by an e l i t e f o r the time b e i n g . 2. A n t i - N a t u r a l i s m ( a n t i - m a t e r i a l i s m , a n t i p o s i t i v i s m , 8 6 a n t i - e m p i r i c i s m ) . 3. Acceptance o f the s t a t u s o f " d e c o r a t o r ^ " i m p l i c i t l y the l e a d of a r c h i t e c t u r e ; even d e s i r e t o e l i m i n a t e t h e t a b l e a u a l t o g e t h e r . I would l i k e t o emphasize t h a t a l l t h r e e c o n d i t i o n s had t o be met. Thus f o r example o l d I m p r e s s i o n i s t s who m o d i f i e d t h e i r 8 7 a r t i n the 1880s d i d not f u l f i l the t h i r d c o n d i t i o n . Of c o u r s e I e x c l u d e from t h i s d i s c u s s i o n t h e academic a r t i s t s , who would never dream t o mix t a b l e a u and d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . But even •'.' j u s t e - m i l l i e u " a r t i s t s d i d not produce e a s e l p a i n t i n g t h a t was a " t r u e " d e c o r a t i o n , because t h e i r s was n o t " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake : , " and even a f t e r h a v i n g m o d i f i e d the r i g i d academic 8 8 r u l e s , they s t i l l b e l i e v e d i n t a b l e a u . Each o f t h e s e t h r e e c o n d i t i o n s d e s e r v e s o f c o u r s e a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n , t o the ex- t e n t they, can be d i s c u s s e d s e p a r a t e l y . The f i r s t c o n d i t i o n , the e l i t i s t " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" r e - q u i r e m e n t , i n d i c a t e s r i g h t away we are d e a l i n g w i t h avant-garde - 72 - a r t i s t s . " ^ I t i s r e l a t e d t o t h e fundamental q u e s t i o n : f o r whom d i d t h e s e a r t i s t s produce t h e i r a r t ? As I i n d i c a t e d i n P a r t 1 o f t h i s c h a p t e r , t h e i r a r t was i n t e n d e d m a i n l y f o r " e n l i g h t e n e d " amateurs, w i t h t h e hope t h a t i n the f u t u r e , a w i d e r segment o f a more j u s t s o c i e t y would be a b l e t o a p p r e c i a t e i t . As I a l s o i n d i c a t e d i n P a r t 1, " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" was e q u i v a l e n t w i t h " d e c o r a t i v e . " T h i s " d e c o r a t i v e " a r t was t h e one t o adorn t h e w a l l s , o f p r i v a t e houses and apartments o f the amateurs, as op- posed t o the a r t d e s t i n e d f o r p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s o r e x h i b i t e d a t the S a l o n , " f o r t h e g l o r y o f F r a n c e . " Such was t h e o f f i c i a l o p i n i o n i n the 1860s, when t h o s e who would be known as the 90 " I m p r e s s i o n i s t s " a r r i v e d on the a r t i s t i c scene. Among the k i n d o f a r t s u i t a b l e f o r the o r n a m e n t a t i o n o f p r i v a t e homes, C h a r l e s B l a n c l i s t e d p o r t r a i t s and l a n d s c a p e s "which t r a n s l a t e the p a i n t e r ' s emotion i n f r o n t of n a t u r e , t h e s e t a b l e a u x h o l - 91 l a n d a i s w h i c h our Frenchmen are d o i n g so w e l l . " D u r i n g the 1860s and 1870s, " d e c o r a t i v e " t a b l e a u x were d e f i n e d i n a mat- e r i a l i s t i c framework, aimed t o p l e a s e the eye through t h e i r 92 c o l o r i s t i c e f f e c t and m a n i p u l a t i o n o f the p a t e . Thus Im- p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g was c o n s i d e r e d by c r i t i c s as " d e c o r a t i v e . " But i n the 1880s and e a r l y 1890s the concept o f " d e c o r a t i v e " p u t f o r w a r d by t h o s e i n p o s i t i o n t o i n f l u e n c e t h e amateur's market, as we have seen, changed t o t h e p o i n t o f e x c l u d i n g from t h i s c a t e g o r y a N a t u r a l i s t p a i n t i n g l i k e the I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g o f the 1870s. T h i s i s why a c r i t i c l i k e Lecomte, who had p e r s o n a l f r i e n d s h i p s w i t h some o f the o l d I m p r e s s i o n i s t s and chose t o be t h e i r d e f e n d e r , was so i n s i s t e n t i n t h e e a r l y 1890s t h a t they were not " r e a l i s t s " now, t h a t they "composed" - 73 - t h e i r p i c t u r e s , and t h a t they used what was c o n s i d e r e d the " i n t e l l i g e n t arabesque." Indeed, the o l d I m p r e s s i o n i s t s ' a r t d i d move away from the " N a t u r a l i s t image" ( f o r some a r t i s t s more than f o r o t h e r s ) i n the 1880s, thus not s u r p r i s i n g l y 9 3 l o s i n g Z o l a ' s s u p p o r t . The second r e q u i r e m e n t , t h e " a n t i - N a t u r a l i s m i s i n t e r d e - pendent on t h e f i r s t one, t h a t i s , u l t i m a t e l y , on t h e q u e s t i o n : 9 4 " f o r whom was t h i s a r t i n t e n d e d ; " Of c o u r s e , p e r s o n a l , p o l i t i c a l and i d e o l o g i c a l i n c l i n a t i o n s p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t r o l e . P i s s a r r o ' s a n t i - p o s i t i v i s t a t t i t u d e n e v e r went as f a r as R e n o i r ' s (who underwent an "Ingresque" p e r i o d ) or" Cezanne's. A l s o n e i t h e r P i s s a r r o nor R e n o i r embraced an i d e a l i s t p h i l o s o - phy as d i d the S y m b o l i s t s , t h u s n e i t h e r o f them i n t r o d u c e d i n p a i n t i n g t h e a b s o l u t e f l a t n e s s o f a p o s t e r o r s t a i n e d g l a s s window. Of c o u r s e , n o t a l l avant-garde a r t i s t s who i n t r o d u c e d i n t o p a i n t i n g p r i n c i p l e s borrowed from t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s were m y s t i c s o r adopted a N e o - P l a t o n i s t p h i l o s o p h y . But t h e n , they f o l l o w e d o n l y g e n e r a l recommendations f o r d e c o r a t i o n s , r e g a r d i n g p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e l e v e l o f the h o r i z o n , c l a r i t y o r even emphasis o f t h e c o n t o u r s , o r borrowed from d e c o r a t i v e a r t s such as t a p e s t r y , t h a t a l l o w e d f o r a " b a s - r e l i e f " k i n d o f 95 f l a t n e s s , w i t h o u t a i m i n g toward t r u e f l a t n e s s . I n any e v e n t , S y m b o l i s t s o r n o t , the a r t i s t s who i n t r o d u c e d p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n i n t o e a s e l p a i n t i n g were t h o s e who wanted t h e i r p a i n t i n g s t o be c o n s i d e r e d " d e c o r a t i o n s ; " one not t o be o v e r - l o o k e d r e a s o n f o r t h i s b e i n g t h e m a r k e t i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s . T h i s e c o n o m i c a l reason was c l e a r l y e x p r e s s e d by V i n c e n t Van Gogh i n a l e t t e r o f 1888 t o h i s b r o t h e r Theo: - 74 - N o t h i n g would h e l p us t o s e l l our canvases more than i f they c o u l d g a i n g e n e r a l acceptance as d e c o r a t i o n s f o r gg m i d d l e - c l a s s houses. The way i t used t o be i n H o l l a n d . The t h i r d c o n d i t i o n , w h i c h a g a i n , i s r e l a t e d t o the f i r s t two (because d e c o r a t i v e a r t s were d e f i n e d b o t h as " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" and as b e i n g i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h n a t u r a l i s m ) d e f i n e s t h o s e a r t i s t s who were w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t the s t a t u s o f "de- c o r a t o r " o r even wanted t o a b o l i s h the independent t a b l e a u a l - t o g e t h e r . C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o f o r example was n o t one o f them, and he made i t c l e a r he f a v o r e d an a r t t h a t was " d e c o r a t i v e " 9 7 b u t n o t " d e c o r a t i o n . " On t h e o t h e r hand, a contemporary o f the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s b u t o u t s i d e t h e i r c i r c l e ( r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the n o n - n a t u r a l i s t s i d e o f t h e non-academic c u r r e n t i n the second h a l f o f the 19th 98 c ) , P u v i s de Chavannes, became a t r u e " d e c o r a t o r . " He a l s o 9 9 b r o u g h t the a e s t h e t i c o f d e c o r a t i o n t o e a s e l p a i n t i n g . P u v i s a p p l i e d t o h i s e a s e l p a i n t i n g s the same p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a - t i o n he f o l l o w e d i n h i s murals r e s e m b l i n g 14th and 15th c. F l o r e n t i n e f r e s c o e s , because he b e l i e v e d i n r e t u r n i n g t o the o r i g i n a l r o l e o f p a i n t i n g as w a l l d e c o r a t i o n . The c r i t i c f o r the j o u r n a l L ' A r t i s t e (which had then a s t r o n g " j u s t e - m i l i e u " o r i e n t a t i o n ) e x p r e s s e d w e l l i n 1893 P u v i s ' g o a l : " . . . t e l l e e s t s a d i s t i n c t i v e o r i g i n a l i t e parmi l e s a r t i s t e s modernes, - s e u l ou a. peu p r e s e n t r e t o u s , i l t e n t a de r e s t i t u e r a l a p e i n t u r e l e c a r a c t e r e d e c o r a t i f q u i f u t , aux o r i g i n e s de c e t a r t , s a v e r i t a b l e r a i s o n d ' e t r e . . . " 1 0 0 I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g then t h a t A u r i e r l i n k e d Gauguin and P u v i s t o g e t h e r i n h i s a r t i c l e o f 1891, and t h a t the l a t t e r was r e v e r e d by a l l S y n t h e t i s t - - 75 - S y m b o l i s t a r t i s t s o f t h e e a r l y 1890s. J"WJ" The N a b i s , who became v e r y much i n v o l v e d w i t h apartment d e c o r a t i o n and o t h e r forms o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t i n t h e 1890s, were t h e most outspoken about t h e i r d e c o r a t i v e i n t e n t i o n s i n p a i n t i n g . They p u b l i c l y a d m i t t e d t h e s e i n t e n t i o n s e a r l y i n 1891, as f o r example i n the i n t e r v i e w p u b l i s h e d i n L'Echo de 102 P a r i s by Jacques K a u r e l l e . M a u r i c e D e n i s d e c l a r e d * Je pense qu'avant t o u t une p e i n t u r e d o i t o r n e r . Le c h o i x des s u b j e t s e t des scenes n ' e s t r i e n . C'est p a r l a s u r f a c e c o l o r e e , p a r l a v a l e u r des t o n s , p a r l ' h a r m o n i e des l i g n e s que j e p r e t e n d s a t t e i n d r e 1 ' e s p r i t , e v e i l l e r 1'emotion. 103 D e n i s , who was t h e t h e o r i s t o f t h e N a b i s , s t r o n g l y emphasized i n t h e e a r l y 18 90s t h e f l a t n e s s o f p a i n t i n g , t h u s i t s c h a r a c t e r o f " t r u e " d e c o r a t i o n . The S y m b o l i s t s , as I a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , wanted i n f a c t t o a b o l i s h t h e concept o f t a b l e a u a l t o g e t h e r . T h i s g o a l i s b e s t e x p r e s s e d by one o f t h e N a b i s , Verkade: V e r s l e debut de 1890, un c r i de g u e r r e f u t l a n c e d'un a t e l i e r a 1 ' a u t r e : P l u s de t a b l e a u de c h e v a l e t l A bas l e s meubles i n u t i l e s ! La p e i n t u r e ne d o i t pas u s u r p e r une l i b e r t e q u i l ' i s o l e des a u t r e s a r t s . Le t r a v a i l du p e i n t r e commence ou 1 ' a r c h i t e c t u r e c o n s i d e r e l e s i e n comme t e r m i n e . Le mur d o i t r e s t e r s u r f a c e , ne d o i t pas e t r e p e r c e pour l a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n d ' h o r i z o n s i n f i n i s . I I n'y a pas de t a b l e a u x , i l n'y a que des d e c o r a t i o n s . 104 What i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e t a i n i s t h a t none o f t h e a r t i s t s who i n t r o d u c e d the p r i n c i p l e s of d e c o r a t i o n i n t o p a i n t i n g t r i e d t o e x p l a i n t h e f o r m a l a s p e c t o f t h e i r works. by means o f " p e r c e p t i o n ' . " They d i d not say t h i s was t h e way t h e y "saw" t h i n g s , j u s t t h e op- p o s i t e , t h e y emphasized t h e c o n c e p t u a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e i r a r t . They brought back a r t " t o t h e s i m p l i c i t y o f i t s b e g i n n i n g s , " as M a u r i c e Denis s a i d , because t h e y wanted t o r e a c t a g a i n s t N a t u r a - 105 l i s m . They a l s o wanted t o produce " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake." '- 76 - D. The mid and l a t e 189 0s. The l a s t y e a r s o f the 19th c e n t u r y w i t n e s s e d a d e c l i n e o f l i t e r a r y Symbolism, r e f l e c t e d a l s o i n t h e f i e l d o f p a i n t i n g . On the l i t e r a r y scene, Symbolism was d e f e a t e d by two new move- ments w h i c h l a u n c h e d t h e i r s y s t e m a t i c a t t a c k s s t a r t i n g in/t-he' e a r l y 1890s, namely the Romanic S c h o o l and the N a t u r i s t move- ment. The f i r s t one was founded by none' o t h e r than Jean Moreas (the a u t h o r o f the S y m b o l i s t "Manifesto"" o f 18 86) as e a r l y as 1891, and i t s t r u e l e a d e r became C h a r l e s Maurras, t h e r e a c t i o n a r y c r i t i c and j o u r n a l i s t who i n 189 8 was t o found the A c t i o n F r a n c a i s e i n o r d e r t o f i g h t the D r e y f u s a r d s . T h i s Romanic S c h o o l wanted t o r e s t o r e the G r e c o - L a t i n h e r i t a g e t o t h e F r e n c h l e t t e r s and i t e v e n t u a l l y e v o l v e d i n t o a N e o - c l a s - s i c i s t movement. Moreas accused "Romanticism and i t s P a r n a s s i a n , N a t u r a l i s t , and S y m b o l i s t descendants" o f b r e a k i n g "the con- t i n u i t y o f the G a l l i c c h a i n . " N a t u r i s m was a movement t h a t had t r i e d t o e s t a b l i s h i t s e l f s i n c e 189 2. I t r e a c t e d a g a i n s t a r t i f i c i a l i t y and the N a r c i s s i s t i c i n t r o s p e c t i o n o f Symbolism, a g a i n s t i d e a l i s t t e n d e n c i e s , i n f a v o r o f L i f e and N a t u r e . I t appeared f o r a s h o r t w h i l e , e s p e c i a l l y i n 1896 - 19 87, t h a t N a t u r i s m was t o be the s u c c e s s o r o f Symbolism, the n e x t g e n e r a l t r e n d t o w h i c h t h e new g e n e r a t i o n o f p o e t s would adhere. One r e a s o n i t d i d n o t succeed seems t o be the D r e y f u s A f f a i r t h a t p o l a r i z e d a r t i s t s and c r i t i c s . I n January 1898 Z o l a p u b l i s h e d h i s famous " J ' a c c u s e " i n L ' A u r o r e , and M a u r i c e Le B l o n d , p r i n - c i p a l f i g u r e i n the N a t u r i s t movement wrote a s e r i e s o f f a v o r a b l e a r t i c l e s on Z o l a i n L a Plume (February-May 1898), - 77 - c a l l i n g him an h e i r t o a d e m o c r a t i c t r a d i t i o n . T h i s was not the f i r s t time the main p r o t a g o n i s t s o f Natuf.ism : had .expresse'd t h e i r sympathy f o r Z o l a . But i n 1898 Z o l a was a t t a c k e d j u s t as much as D r e y f u s h i m s e l f , and many w r i t e r s who would have become N a t u r i s t s , perhaps o n l y t o f o l l o w a f a s h i o n , r e a l i z e d ( a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r p o l i t i c a l c o n v i c t i o n s ) t h a t they had t o r e a c t i n f a v o r o f the e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r and French t r a d i t i o n . " ^ 6 One o f the w r i t e r s who i n i t i a l l y was w i l l i n g t o a s s o c i a t e h i m s e l f w i t h the N a t u r i s t s was Andre Gide. I f o c u s on him because he was an i m p o r t a n t l i n k between the l i t e r a r y and a r t - i s t i c a v a n t - g a r d e , e s p e c i a l l y as a good f r i e n d o f M a u r i c e Den-:' . 107 x s . I n any e v e n t , i n the mid and l a t e . 1890s Symbolism came more and more under a t t a c k f o r i t s detachment from l i f e and r e a l i t y , from N a t u r e . As M i c h e l Decaudin s a i d i n h i s book La C r i s e des V a l e u r s S y m b o l i s t e s , De 1894 a 1898, l e s m o t s - c l e f ont change; on p a r l e moins de Reve, d ' I d e l a l , one proclame l e s beautes de l a N a t u r e , l e s s p l e n d e u r s de l a V i e ; 10 8 How d i d t h i s move away from i d e a l i s m and dreams, toward n a t u r e and l i f e a f f e c t S y m b o l i s t p a i n t i n g ? The S y m b o l i s t p a i n t e r s i n the mid-1890s were the N a b i s . One o f t h e i r d e f e n d e r s , Roger Marx,was i n a h u r r y t o d e c l a r e i n 1895 t h a t they "do not p r o - l o g f e s s the h a t r e d o f n a t u r e , " as t h e i r a c c u s e r s i m p l i e d . M a u r i c e D e n i s , the t h e o r i s t o f the N a b i s , a l s o t r i e d t o c o u n t e r - a c t such a c c u s a t i o n s as those mentioned by Marx. A l r e a d y i n March 189 5, Denis t r i e d t o persuade the r e a d e r s o f La Plume t h a t Symbolism was not r e a l l y an i d e a l i s t a r t : - 78 - L ' a r t s y m b o l i s t e n ' e s t pas c e t a r t de nevrose e t de f o l i e qu'on c r o i t generalement. l i n e f a u t pas se l a s s e r de d i r e en q u e l sens c e t a r t e s t i d g a l i s t e , e t en q u e l sens i t ne l ' e s t absolument pas. 110 The f o l l o w i n g y e a r , i n L ' A r t e t l a V i e o f October 1896, Denis was even more c a t e g o r i c a l i n d e n y i n g the i d e a l i s m o f p i c t o r i a l Symbolism, d e c l a r i n g : " C e r t a i n l y n o t , i t was n o t an i d e a l i s t theory." 1 1 "'" Denis was eager t o p o i n t out t h a t t h i s a r t was i n i t i a t e d n o t by the " p a i n t e r s o f the s o u l j " b u t by p a i n t e r s o f l a n d s c a p e and s t i l l - l i f e , and he e x e m p l i f i e d : " i n f l u e n c e o f Cezanne on Gauguin, B e r n a r d , e t c . " These i n i t i a t o r s were i m p a s s i o n e d f o r t r u t h and " l i v e d i n communion w i t h n a t u r e , " 112 and, Denis added, " I t h i n k w i t h o u t m e t a p h y s i c s . " \ Denis r e f e r r e d t o Cezanne i n h i s w r i t i n g s t h e f i r s t time i n 189 5, a t a time when he wanted t o prove t h a t Symbolism-Synthetism was 113 n o t based on i d e a l i s t t h e o r i e s . I n the same y e a r he t r i e d t o j u s t i f y h i m s e l f and o t h e r "young S y m b o l i s t s " f o r b o r r o w i n g from " t r a d i t i o n " ( t h a t i s the m e d i e v a l t r a d i t i o n w h i c h b r o u g h t upon them the a c c u s a t i o n s o f "archaism") on the account t h a t they 114 had t o r e a c t s t r o n g l y a g a i n s t the " n a t u r a l i s t ambiance." He a l s o e x p r e s s e d a b e l i e f i n the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t one day they c o u l d be c l o s e r t o Nature ("Peut-etre un j o u r a r r i v e r o n t - 115 i l s a l a N a t u r e " ) . No doubt Denis' f r i e n d s h i p w i t h Andre* Gide had an i n f l u e n c e on h i s new i n s i s t e n c e on n a t u r e . A l s o G i d e 1 s d e c l a r a t i o n i n h i s N o u r r i t u r e s T e r r e s t r e s : " E n t r e t o u t e s l e s j o i e s des sens j ' e n v i a i s c e l l e s du t o u c h e r " i s i n a c c o r d w i t h D e n i s ' u n - S y m b o l i s t i n s i s t e n c e on the m a t i e r e o f 116 t h e p a i n t i n g . I n t h e mid-1890s D e n i s ' c o n c e p t o f p a i n t i n g became more h e d o n i s t i c , he t a l k e d about the o l d d i c t u m p u l c h r a - 79 - esse Quae v i s a p l a c e n t and added t o h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f p a i n t - 117 i n g t h e purpose o f i t : " f o r the p l e a s u r e o f t h e eye." I t i s t h i s h e d o n i s t i c t w i s t i n D e n i s ' a e s t h e t i c s (and f o r t h a t m a t t e r i n most of N a b i s ' p a i n t i n g ) , the new a d m i s s i o n t h a t the r o l e o f a r t i s t o p l e a s e the senses t h r o u g h b e a u t i f u l shapes, c o l o u r s and m a t i e r e , t h a t shows an abandonment o f Symbolism. The " S y m b o l i s t " t a g was s t i l l a t t a c h e d t o t h e N a b i s i n 1895-96 (and even i n l a t e r y e a r s , s i n c e l a b e l s d i e d h a r d ) . Yet w h i l e i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o p i n p o i n t e x a c t l y f o r each o f them when t h e y ceased t o be S y m b o l i s t s , the f a c t i s t h a t V u i l l a r d ( i n p a r t i c u - l a r ) , Bonnard, Ranson, even D e n i s , were then p r o d u c i n g p a i n t i n g t h a t was " d e c o r a t i v e " i n the m a t e r i a l i s t i c sense o f t h e word 118 (as i n t h e 1860s and 1870s) . In the e a r l y 1890s c o l o u r f u l p a t t e r n s o f checks and d o t s and f l o r a l m o t i f s , s i m p l y d e c o r a - t i v e i n the sense t h e y were p l e a s i n g t o the eye j u s t l i k e the p a t t e r n o f a c a r p e t , had a l r e a d y been used by the N a b i s . But by 189 3, i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t the S y m b o l i s t - C l o i s o n i s t l i n e 119 d i s a p p e a r e d a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y from V u i l l a r d ' s p a i n t i n g . I n the mid-1890s he became more and more i n t e r e s t e d i n t e x t u r e s , h i s p a i n t i n g s had p a t e , the emphasis on m a t i e r e was v e r y p r o - nounced, the "temperament" ( v i s i b l e i n h i s p a t t e ) was r u n n i n g 120 f r e e . H i s f a v o r i t e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r was scenes o f d o m e s t i c 121 l i f e . Bonnard was i n t e r e s t e d i n 1895 i n s t r e e t s c e n e s , and he a l s o dropped the S y m b o l i s t l i n e . W h i l e t h e i r p i c t u r e s 122 were s t i l l f l a t , t h e y were more n a t u r a l i s t i c . Ranson's p a i n t i n g s o f the same p e r i o d can be c o n s i d e r e d A r t Nouveau, i f 123 t h i s l a b e l can be a p p l i e d t o p a i n t i n g a t a l l . D e n i s ' l i n e a l s o became more s i n u o u s and sensuous than i n the e a r l i e r - 80 - p a i n t i n g s , a l r e a d y i n t h e e a r l y 1890s, e s p e c i a l l y when the s u b j e c t was n o t o v e r t l y r e l i g i o u s . 1 2 4 The r e l a t i o n s h i p be- tween S y m b o l i s t - S y n t h e t i s t p a i n t i n g and A r t Nouveau i s q u i t e complex. There are d e f i n i t e s t y l i s t i c s i m i l a r i t i e s between the two, and the i n f l u e n c e the N a b i p a i n t i n g ( t o g e t h e r w i t h t h a t o f Gauguin, L a u t r e c and Van Gogh) had on the e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h i s i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t y l e c o n s i d e r e d t o be b o r n i n 189 3 i n B e l - 125 gium, i s now r e c o g n i z e d . We have t o keep i n mind, though, t h e fundamental d i f f e r e n c e i n p h i l o s o p h y between t h e two. The S y m b o l i s t - S y n t h e f i s t p a i n t i n g b e l o n g e d i n a p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y i d e a l i s t framework. I t r e p r e s e n t e d the I d e a , n o t the e x t e r n a l , m a t e r i a l w o r l d , and i t was i n t e n d e d f o r s p i r i t u a l d e l e c t a t i o n , n o t j u s t f o r the p l e a s u r e o f t h e eye. A r t Nouveau was an " e x t e r n a l " a r t , aimed o n l y t o p l e a s e the eye, and i f was a s t y l e d e v e l o p e d f o r the d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , not f o r p a i n t i n g , 12 6 s u i t a b l e f o r m a s s - p r o d u c t i o n . I t d i d not e x p r e s s a n y t h i n g , i t was o n l y o r n a m e n t a l , and f e a t u r e d h i g h l y s t y l i z e d l i n e s and p a t t e r n s e n c l o s i n g f l a t t i n t s . A r t Nouveau e v o l v e d out o f a c o n s c i o u s e f f o r t t o c r e a t e a modern s t y l e i n d e c o r a t i o n , t o e l i m i n a t e " h i s t o r i c i s m . " I n F r a n c e , a f r e s h l o o k a t n a t u r e , a t o r g a n i c shapes, was s t r o n g l y recommended as an i n s p i r a t i o n f o r a new s t y l e , f o l l o w i n g a t r a d i t i o n t h a t can be t r a c e d back t o 12 7 ' V i o l l e t - l e - D u c and V.P. G a l l a n d . The p a t t e r n o f l e a v e s Denis used i n h i s S a c r e d Wood o f 189 3 can be i n t e r p r e t e d I n t h i s l i g h t . The N a b i s became i n v o l v e d w i t h v a r i o u s forms o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n the e a r l y 1890s, thus becoming p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h the c r e a t i o n o f a s t y l e (not t o be confounded w i t h S t y l e ) d e v o i d o f "archaismsvV Together w i t h T o u l o u s e - L a u t r e c and - 81 - o t h e r a r t i s t s o u t s i d e t h e i r own N a b i group, they p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the r e n a i s s a n c e o f d e c o r a t i o n t h a t took p l a c e i n the l a s t y e a r s o f the 19th c e n t u r y , b e i n g among the f i r s t t o e x h i b i t a t 12 8 B i n g ' s Maison de l ' A r t Nouveau. The N a b i s themselves p a r t i - c i p a t e d i n the p r o c e s s t h a t i n c o r p o r a t e d Symbolism i n t o a " d e c o r a t i v e s t y l e " i n w h i c h the i d e a l i s t s u b s t r a t u m was l o s t . The " l i n e " l o s t i t s p r e s t i g e as symbol o f t h e I d e a , became " s e n s u a l . " The S y m b o l i s t s were the f i r s t t o t r a n s f o r m p a i n t i n g s i n t o d e c o r a t i o n s and t o o p e n l y acknowledge t h i s f a c t , b u t by mid- 18903 t h i s t r e n d became t h e .general tendency o f avant-garde p a i n t i n g , e x c e p t t h e s e d e c o r a t i o n s were " d e c o r a t i v e " i n the m a t e r i a l i s t i c sense o f the word. The emphasis i n t h i s " p a i n t - i n g f o r i t s own sake" (soon t o be c a l l e d u s u a l l y "pure p a i n t - i n g " ) was on t e x t u r e s , p a t t e r n s , m a t i e r e , c o l o u r . I t r e t a i n e d the f l a t n e s s o f d e c o r a t i o n , b u t t h i s f l a t n e s s was n o t t o be i n t e r p r e t e d any more i n p a i n t i n g as " i d e a l i s m / " no more than i n any d e c o r a t i v e a r t . ' I t s . p h i l o s o p h y was a k i n t o t h a t o f A r t Nouveau, i n the sense t h a t i n t e n d e d o n l y t o be v i s u a l l y p l e a s - i n g ; b u t i t emphasized p a i n t e r l y q u a l i t i e s , and the "tempera- ment" o f the a r t i s t . I t was not i n t e n d e d f o r m e c h a n i c a l r e p r o - d u c t i o n , and perhaps as a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t the v u l g a r i z a t i o n o f the c o n t i n u o u s l i n e a r c o n t o u r by A r t Nouveau, t h i s "pure p a i n t i n g " made l e s s and l e s s use of the l i n e . V u i l l a r d ' s p a i n t i n g s w i t h t h e i r t e x t i l e s - l i k e t e x t u r e , o r S i g n a c 1 s p a i n t - ' i n g s r e s e m b l i n g mosaics are among the b e s t examples o f t h i s " p a i n t i n g f o r i t s own sake" t h a t r e p l a c e d the t a b l e a u . C a m i l l e - 82 - M a u c l a i r c r i t i c i s e d t h i s new t r e n d o f t h e young a v a n t - g a r d e : Leur a r t ne f a i t p l u s que charmer l e s yeux. l i s l e s e n t e n t b i e n obscurement, puisque, l e u r grand mot, l e u r con- s t a n t d e s i d e r a t u m , c ' e s t l e d e c o r a t i f , c ' e s t - a - d i r e un a r t fonde s u r 1 1 agrement de l a e o u l e u r en elle-meme, a p p l i q u e a des d e f o r m a t i o n s d-'etres, f l e u r s , a c c e s s o i r e s , s e l o n l e p r i n - c i p e fondamental de 1'ornementation. On n'entend que ce mot d e c o r a t i f dans t o u s l e s a t e l i e r s . C e l a , a'.est l ' a r t de l a t a p i s s e r i e , de 1'arabesque e t de l a robe a u t a n t e t p l u s que l ' a r t p i c t u r a l . Beaucoup ne v e u l e n t p l u s f a i r e que c e l a , un grand nombre l e v e u l e n t meler a l ' e s t h e t i q u e d e . l a p e i n t u r e e t du paysage. Le c o u r a n t de ces o p i n i o n s e s t s i c a r a c t e r i s e , qu'on cherche meme a s u p p r i m e r l e t a b l e a u e n c a d r e . Cet o b j e c t p a r a l l e l o g r a m m a t i q u e que l ' o n suspend aux murs obsede l e s p e i n t r e s . On harmonise l a p e i n t u r e j a u x appartments, on 1'agence comme l e s t e n t u r e s , on 1'execute a t e i n t e s p l a t e s , par j u x t a p o s i t i o n s de t o n s , on r e d u i t ses t o n a l i t e s a une gamme c l a i r e s e l o n l ' e c l a i r a g e q u ' e l l e r e c e v r a . 129 M a u c l a i r c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e I m p r e s s i o n i s t s were t h e o r i g i n a - t o r s o f t h i s " d e c o r a t i v e r e v o l u t i o n , " meaning by " d e c o r a t i v e , " as I a l r e a d y mentioned, e x a c t l y t h e same t h i n g as t h e c r i t i c s o f the 1970s meant. L i k e many o t h e r e x - S y m b o l i s t w r i t e r s , M a u c l a i r d i d n o t approve t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e a v a n t - g a r d e toward o u t r i g h t m a t e r i a l i s m . He h e l d the o p i n i o n t h a t t h e r e i s a s u p e r i o r , a r t , one which a p p e a l s t o t h e i n t e l l e c t ( t h a t c o u l d i n c l u d e d e c o r a t i o n , such as P u v i s de C h a v a n n e s 1 ) , and an i n f e r i o r one w h i c h a p p e a l s t o t h e s e n s e s , i t i s d e c o r a t i v e . He admired t h e I m p r e s s i o n i s t s f o r t h e t e c h n i c a l achievements, b u t p l a c e d t h e i r a r t i n t h e second c a t e g o r y , and p u t f o r w a r d t h e i d e a t h a t " I m p r e s s i o n i s m i s above a l l a new e s s a y i n F r e n c h 130 d e c o r a t i o n . " B u t , M a u c l a i r r e m a r k e d , " t h e o l d e r ones i n 131 t h e group, even.now, d i d n o t renounce t h e t a b l e a u . " The young a v a n t - g a r d e however a c t u a l l y a b o l i s h e d t h e t a b l e a u , a f a c t t o w h i c h M a u c l a i r was now s t r o n g l y o b j e c t i n g . The c r i t i c was a l s o o u t r a g e d by t h i s l o v e o f m a t i e r e , w h i c h l e d t o t h e - 83 - i m i t a t i o n o f v a r i o u s m a t e r i a l s and t e x t u r e s i n p a i n t i n g , such as O r i e n t a l c a r p e t s , Japanese: c r e p o n , and v a r i o u s , t i s s u e s . T h i s i m i t a t i o n mania went so f a r as t o i m i t a t e the s p e c i f i c a s p e c t s o f one medium i n a n o t h e r (such as i m i t a t i n g o i l . p a i n t i n g i n w a t e r c o l o u r s and v i c e v e r s a ) . . M a u c l a i r c o m p l a i n e d t h a t t h e c o n n o i s s e u r ' s i n t e r e s t i n t h i s a r t works was not i n t e n d e d t o be f o c u s e d on "what t h e y r e p r e s e n t , " b u t on "the way t h e y a r e 132 made." Thus M a u c l a i r p o i n t e d out here the tendency o f p a i n t i n g t o become more " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake," i n t h e sense t h a t the s u b j e c t - m a t t e r becomes even l e s s i m p o r t a n t i n comparison w i t h t h e pure a c t o f p a i n t i n g , the p a i n t i n g ' s m a t i e r e , the d e c o r a t i v e p a t t e r n s and c o l o u r s to.be, admired f o r . t h e i r own sake. T h i s m a t e r i a l i s t i c a r t f o r a r t ' s sake can i n d e e d be con- n e c t e d w i t h t h e I m p r e s s i o n i s m o f t h e 187 0s as M a u c l a i r s a i d ( i n f a c t he made a b e t t e r case t h e n Lecomte f o r the Impres- s i o n i s t s as o r i g i n a t o r s o f t h e d e c o r a t i v e tendency, because he d i d n o t t r y t o c o n n e c t them w i t h t h e i d e a l i s t i c tendency A u r i e r was p r o m o t i n g ) . Van Gogh's p a i n t i n g a l s o s t r o n g l y f e a - t u r e d t h i s " m a t e r i a l i s m , " a f a c t which caused A u r i e r t o have 133 r e s e r v e s xn c a l l i n g him a " S y m b o l i s t " o u t r x g h t . The Neo- I m p r e s s i o n i s t s t r i e d t o s u p p r e s s t h e " m a t e r i a l " s i d e o f t h e i r p a i n t i n g d u r i n g t h e few y e a r s when t h e Symbolism was t r i u m p h a n t , but now t h e y emphasized t h e m o s a i c - l i k e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e i r p a i n t i n g s by e n l a r g i n g the " d o t s . " .This f a c t e x a s p e r a t e d P i s s a r . r o , who, as M a u c l a i r c o r r e c t l y remarked, d i d not want 134 t o t r a n s f o r m p a i n t i n g s i n t o d e c o r a t i o n s . . S i g n a c , on t h e o t h e r hand, was proud t o admit t h e y d i d j u s t t h a t . He s a i d http://Pissar.ro - 8 4 - that even small Neo-Impressionist paintings are to be con- sidered neither as "studies," nor as "easel paintings" (tableaux de chevalet), but as "decorations," specifying t h e i r kinship with Oriental carpets, mosaics, or tapestries: ...ces t o i l e s qui restituent de l a lumiere aux murs de nos appartements modernes, qui enchassent de pure couleurs dans des lignes rythmiques, qui participent du charme des tapis d 1 Orient, des mosaiques et des t a p i s s e r i e s , ne sont- e l l e s pas des decorations aussi? 135 In concluding t h i s section dealing with the defeat of Symbolism (therefore of Platonic idealism) by a return to the material world, to l i f e and nature, I want to point out that t h i s did not mean a return of the painting avant-garde to Naturalism, that i s to an art that had to give the impression that i t re- f l e c t e d only what the a r t i s t a c t u a l l y saw (even though the work was not always executed on the spot), an art of empirical observation. The m a t e r i a l i s t philosophy triumphed again, but not positivism. These "decorative" paintings were s t i l l "decorations," that i s they featured conceptual, intentional alterations, made by the a r t i s t i n order to comply'with the requirement of flatness i n decoration. Another observation i s that there i s no r e a l correspondence between the Naturist movement i n l i t e r a t u r e and the painting avant-garde, as had been the case with Mallarmean Symbolism, f i r s t of a l l because Naturism repudiated "art; for art's sake." Naturism did proclaim however that the "return to nature" con- s i s t e d i n a "joyous acceptance of the world" (in contrast with the Symbolist introspection), and t h i s i s what the decorative 136 "pure painting" of the turn of the century suggested. - 85 - But t o M a u r i c e D e n i s t h i s p a i n t i n g was soon t o suggest "anarchism" and " D r e y f u s s i s m . " The D r e y f u s A f f a i r , w h i c h r e s u l t e d i n the R a d i c a l R e p u b l i c a n s s e i z i n g . t h e p o l i t i c a l power i n 1899, p o l a r i z e d a r t i s t s , and i n t e l l e c t u a l s i n g e n e r a l . (For example among the o l d I m p r e s s i o n i s t s : Degas and R e n o i r were a n t i - D r e f u s a r d s , w i t h Degas e s p e c i a l l y becoming s t r o n g l y a n t i - s e m i t i c ; P i s s a r o and Monet were D r e f u s a r d s . ) On a r t i s t i c l e v e l t h i s p o l a r i z a t i o n i s b e s t i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e work o f D e n i s and V u i l l a r d , and documented i n D e n i s ' w r i t i n g s and i n t h e l e t t e r s t h e y exchangedy V u i l l a r d became t h e Epitome o f "pure p a i n t i n g , " w h i l e Denis by 1898 j o i n e d t h e r e a c t i o n a r y N e o - C l a s s i c i s t movement. Because o f h i s a l l e g i a n c e t o C a t h o l i c i s m he became a s t r o n g s u p p o r t e r o f a n t i - D r e f u s s i s m and n a t i o n a l i s m , a s s o c i a t i n g h i m s e l f w i t h the cause o f C h a r l e s Maurras. He e n t e r t a i n e d a l o n g f r i e n d s h i p w i t h A d r i e n M i t h o u a r d , and e x p r e s s e d h i s s u p p o r t f o r c l a s s i c i s m and t r a d i t i o n a l i s m i n t h e l a t t e r V s p u b l i c a t i o n s , Le S p e c t a t e u r C a t h o l i q u e and e s - 137 p e c i a l l y i n L ' O c c i d e n t . F o r Denis c l a s s i c i s m meant f i r s t o f a l l " o r d e r , " as opposed t o the d i s o r d e r he d e t e c t e d i n "pure 138 p a i n t i n g , " w h i c h breeded anarchy and D r e f u s s i s m . I t meant r a l l y i n g w i t h t h a t G r e c o - L a t i n , and. F r e n c h t r a d i t i o n w h i c h f a v o r e d an a b s o l u t e i d e a l , , a g a i n s t , a l l modern m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m . Such m a n i f e s t a t i o n s were e v i d e n t i n b o t h I m p r e s s i o n i s m and Symbolism, w h i c h had f o r s a k e n t h e n o t i o n o f an " a b s o l u t e i d e a l beauty" and p a t i e n t m e t i e r , i n f a v o r o f i n - d i v i d u a l e x p r e s s i o n (of temperament, o r e m o t i o n ) , a c c o r d i n g t o 139 D e n i s . As e a r l y as September 1897, and a g a i n i n the f o l - l o w i n g y e a r , D e n i s had c r i t i c i s e d S y m b o l i s t a r t i s t s ( h i m s e l f i n c l u d e d , but e s p e c i a l l y V u i l l a r d ) i n a manner v e r y s i m i l a r t o 140 C h a r l e s M a u r r a s ' , t h e l e a d e r o f t h e Romanic S c h o o l . Yet o n l y i n 1895 Denis had defended S y m b o l i s t p a i n t i n g a g a i n s t ac- c u s a t i o n s made from a c l a s s i c i s t s t a n d . C r i t i c i z i n g "some o f to- day's l i t e r a r y men" ( l i t t e r a t e u r s d ' a u j o u r d ' h u i ) , D e n i s had p o i n t e d but t h a t f o r them t h e r e i s o n l y d i s t o r t i o n and u g l i n e s s o u t s i d e o f t h e a b s o l u t e t y p e s o f b e a u t y , norms o f harmony, p r o - p o r t i o n s . Y e t , D e n i s s a i d , even "the g l o r i o u s masters o f the R e n a i s s a n c e " d i d n o t b o t h e r w i t h e x a c t r e s e a r c h i n m a t t e r s o f p e r s p e c t i v e , anatomy and a r c h e o l o g y . I n f a c t , i m p l i e d D e n i s , t h e y had views, on a r t t h a t were s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f t h e young N a b i s , s i n c e among o t h e r t h i n g s , " A r t f o r them was t h e beauty o f t h e d e c o r , the j o y f u l n e s s of b e a u t i f u l forms and b e a u t i f u l 141 c o l o u r s . " Now, i n F e b r u a r y 1898, he t r i e d t o c o n v e r t V u i l l a r d t o h i s new found c l a s s i c i s m (found p a r t l y under t h e guidance o f G i d e ) , and opposed Raphael and t h e " t h e o r y o f ab- s o l u t e i d e a l b e a u t y " on one hand, t o Thadee Natanson's " s e n s u a l - ism" and t h e " r e l a t i v i s t " t h e o r i e s c o n c e r n i n g beauty (to w h i c h 142 t h e " I m p r e s s i o n i s t t e n d e n c i e s " b e l o n g e d ) , on t h e o t h e r . Natanson (who was Jewish) was a p a r t i s a n o f t h e m a t e r i a l i s t i c "pure p a i n t i n g , " and a f r i e n d o f V u i l l a r d . As an i n f l u e n t i a l c r i t i c and f o u n d e r o f t h e Revue B l a n c h e ( w i t h h i s b r o t h e r s i n 1891), as w e l l as i n h i s r o l e o f w e a l t h y amateur, p a t r o n o f a r t , he u n d o u b t e d l y had a r o l e i n t h e changes t h a t took p l a c e a l - r e a d y i n t h e e a r l y 1890s i n t h e a r t o f V u i l l a r d , R o u s s e l and Bonnard, whom he f a v o r e d among t h e N a b i s . D e n i s was not i n - 143 v o l v e d w i t h Natanson and La Revue Blanche as V u i l l a r d was. - 87 - But he d i d m o d i f y h i s a e s t h e t i c s i n the d i r e c t i o n o f a more " m a t e r i a l i s t i c " concept o f " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" i n 1895. He was even p r e p a r e d t o " r e t u r n t o nature;!! n o t o n l y i n t h e sense t h a t the s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o f h i s p a i n t i n g s was t o be " e x t e r n a l , " e x t r a c t e d from l i f e , from r e a l i t y , b u t i n the sense o f a more 144 n a t u r a l i s t i c (but n o t " c o n v e n t i o n a l " ) r e n d e r i n g . Y e t i n 1901 he w r o t e : "On a t r o p p a r l e dans ces d e r n i e r s temps de l a 145 n a t u r e , de l a r e a l i t e e t de l a v i e . " He was a f r a i d t h a t such " b i g words" were l e a d i n g the academies and t h e B e a u x - A r t s t o - ward m i n d l e s s c o p i e s a f t e r n a t u r e ( i n s t e a d o f u s i n g the c l a s - 146 s i c a l method o f c o m p o s i t i o n , t h a t i s a r a t i o n a l c o n c e p t i o n ) . Denis became a l s o c r i t i c a l o f A r t Nouveau, and o f the e v o l u t i o n o f t h e avant-garde toward "pure p a i n t i n g 1 , " b o t h b e i n g a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the m a t e r i a l i s t p h i l o s o p h y , w h i c h was a f t e r a l l the p h i - l o s o p h y o f the R a d i c a l R e p u b l i c a n s . (He e m b r a c e d . p i c t o r i a l i d e a l i s m once a g a i n , now i n the form c r i t i c i s e d by Symbolism, 147 such as embodied i n the a r t o f I n g r e s . ) The main i s s u e now i s n o t so much though t h a t o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l i d e a l i s m , w i t h w h i c h many p r o g r e s s i v e a r t i s t s had i d e n t i f i e d i n the l a t e 1880s, t o g e t h e r w i t h C a t h o l i c s and R i g h t - w i n g , as a r e a c t i o n t o the c r a s s m a t e r i a l i s m o f t h e b o u r g e o i s s o c i e t y . F o r the r e a c t i o n a r y e l e m e n t s , c o n c e p t s such as " o r d e r " , " t r a d i t i o n " , " n a t i o n a l i s m " were t h e most i m p o r t a n t ones a f t e r the D r e y f u s A f f a i r . The k i n d o f n e o - P l a t o n i s t i d e a l i s m t h a t t u r n s the back t o the r e a l w o r l d , and a l l o w s f o r i d i o s y n c h r a t i c e x p r e s s i o n s o f o n e s e l f , c o u l d be j u s t as w e l l a s s o c i a t e d w i t h "anarchy" as the "pure p a i n t i n g " , was. I n f a c t , many S y m b o l i s t - 88 - w r i t e r s were a n a r c h i s t s y m p a t h i s e r s . T h i s i s why Denis was so c r i t i c a l o f the " i n d i v i d u a l i t y " m a n i f e s t e d i n the Symbolism o f the Nabis. i n 1898. But i f t h e most r e a c t i o n a r y elements i n a r t i s t i c c i r c l e s (such as Denis o r Bernard) t u r n e d t o c l a s s i c i s m as a means o f v i s i b l e s u p p o r t f o r R i g h t - w i n g p o l i t i c s , "pure p a i n t i n g " was n o t i n t e n d e d as a p o l i t i c a l statement (even though Denis o r B e r n a r d and o t h e r r e a c t i o n a r y c r i t i c s c o n s i d e r e d i t as an i n - c i t e m e n t t o a n a r c h y ) , r a t h e r i t e x p r e s s e d a. d e s i r e f o r non- i x. • . , . 14 8 i n v o l v e m e n t i n p o l i t i c s . In c o n c l u d i n g t h i s c h a p t e r , I w i l l emphasize a few s a l i e n t p o i n t s : The most i m p o r t a n t outcome of t h e r e v i v a l o f t h e d e c o r a - t i v e a r t s (a c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s d u r i n g the second h a l f o f the 19th c e n t u r y t h a t r e a c h e d i t s peak i n the 1890s) con- c e r n i n g t h e f i e l d o f p a i n t i n g was the r e n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e t a b l e a u . W h i l e the o l d I m p r e s s i o n i s t s changed t h e i r p a i n t i n g ac- c o r d i n g t o the new concept of " d e c o r a t i v e " (which had c l a s s i c i s t o v e r t o n e s ) , they s t i l l m a i n t a i n e d double s t a n - dards f o r the a e s t h e t i c s o f e a s e l p a i n t i n g and t h a t o f the d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n the e a r l y 1890s. The a e s t h e t i c s o f f l a t " d e c o r a t i o n " ( f l a t t i n t s - l a c k o f m o d e l l i n g , as w e l l as l a c k o f s p a t i a l r e c e s s i o n ) was f i r s t a p p l i e d t o p a i n t i n g i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the " I d e a l i s t Ren- a i s s a n c e " by p a i n t e r s o f n e o - P l a t o n i s t and m y s t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n who a l s o b e l i e v e d i n " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake." I n - 89 - t h e e a r l y 1890s t h i s p a i n t i n g w i l l be known as " S y m b o l i s t p a i n t i n g , " the a r t i s t s and t h e i r s u p p o r t i n g c r i t i c s o p e n l y a d m i t t i n g i t s c h a r a c t e r o f " d e c o r a t i o n . " By t h e l a t e 1890s, t h e a e s t h e t i c o f " d e c o r a t i o n " i s even more w i d e s p r e a d and p r o c l a i m e d as a d e s i d e r a t u m by a v a n t - garde p a i n t e r s ; e x c e p t f o l l o w i n g the d e c l i n e o f l i t e r a r y Symbolism t h i s p a i n t i n g - d e c o r a t i o n i s " d e c o r a t i v e " i n the " m a t e r i a l i s t i c " sense. T h i s "pure p a i n t i n g " r e t a i n e d the f l a t n e s s o f " t r u e " d e c o r a t i o n (not n e c e s s a r i l y a b s o l u t e f l a t n e s s ) and emphasized t e x t u r e s , p a t t e r n s , c o l o u r , t h e m a t i e r e o f the p a i n t i n g , the p r o c e s s o f p a i n t i n g , the "temperament" o f t h e a r t i s t (a concept used i n " m a t e r i a l - i s t i c epochs" as S e r u s i e r would s a y , and w h i c h Denis cons. 149 n e c t e d w i t h " b e s t i a l i t y " ) . D i s s i d e n t s from the t r e n d toward p a i n t i n g as " t r u e " ( t h e r e - f o r e e s s e n t i a l l y f l a t ) d e c o r a t i o n such as Denis and B e r n a r d , who became N e o - C l a s s i c i s t s , r e j e c t f l a t n e s s i n p a i n t i n g , be i t e a s e l p a i n t i n g o r m u r a l d e c o r a t i o n . Denis f o r example admires the d e c o r a t i o n work o f I n g r e s and h i s p u p i l s , and i n s t e a d o f e m p h a s i z i n g the arabesque (as i n h i s S y m b o l i s t p e r i o d ) he emphasizes "volumes'." They are a l s o v e r y much a g a i n s t the " m a t e r i a l i s m " o f "pure p a i n t i n g ; ' " and g i v e a p e j o r a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n t o t h e term " d e c o r a t i v e " when used i n the sense o f " p l e a s i n g the eye" or the senses o n l y . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o keep i n mind Denis and B e r n a r d ' s changes o f o p i n i o n because t h e i r w r i t i n g s were v e r y i n f l u e n t i a l i n f o r m i n g the contemporary u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f Cezanne. - 90 - CHAPTER I I CEZANNE AND THE "DECORATIVE" TREND P a r t 1. Cezanne Seen.by H i s C o n t e m p o r a r i e s as a " D e c o r a t i v e " P a i n t e r I n t r o d u c t i o n . I n t h e 1890s, t o use M a u r i c e D e n i s ' e x p r e s s i o n , t h e word " d e c o r a t i v e " became t h e " t a r t e a l a creme o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n s among a r t i s t s , and even among gens du monde."1 From t h e l a s t c h a p t e r i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e tendency f o r p a i n t i n g t o be " d e c o r a t i v e " was a g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f avant-garde p a i n t - i n g o f t h i s p e r i o d . Was Cezanne o u t s i d e t h i s g e n e r a l t r e n d ? And i f n o t , d i d he p a i n t o n l y " d e c o r a t i v e " t a b l e a u x (or p e r - haps, more a p p r o p r i a t e , " d e c o r a t i v e " s k e t c h e s ) as h i s I m p r e s s i o n i s t f r i e n d s , o r " d e c o r a t i o n s " ? The main p r o t a g o n i s t s o f t h i s " d e c o r a t i v e " t r e n d - t h e S y m b o l i s t s o f t h e e a r l y 1890s, and t h e p a r t i s a n s o f "pure p a i n t i n g " - saw Cezanne as t h e i r i n i t i a t o r . The problem posed by t h e Cezanne c r i t i c i s m i s t h a t i t i s u s u a l l y d e l a y e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e time when t h e p a i n t i n g s were c r e a t e d . Cezanne had h i s f i r s t major e x h i b i t i o n a t V o l l a r d ' s i n 1895, and t h e r e he e x h i b i t e d p a i n t i n g s done much e a r l i e r t o g e t h e r w i t h new ones ( t h i s w i l l be t h e case i n a l l h i s subsequent e x h i b i t i o n s ) . B e f o r e 1895 t h e o n l y p l a c e s where Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s c o u l d be seen were a few p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n s , and e s p e c i a l l y Pere Tanguy's shop. T h i s b e i n g t h e c a s e , i t i s o f paramount - 91 - i m p o r t a n c e t o pay a t t e n t i o n t o t h e t i m e when t h e c r i t i q u e was w r i t t e n , because as i t i s e v i d e n t from t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , c o n c e p t s were v o l a t i l e , o f t e n c h a n g i n g t h e i r meaning. A l s o i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o be aware o f t h e c r i t i c ' s p o s i t i o n a t t h e t i m e , because t h i s was s h i f t i n g t o o i n many cases ( B e r n a r d and Denis b e i n g n o t o r i o u s e x a m p l e s ) . The d i s c u s s i o n w i l l p r o c e e d more o r l e s s i n a c h r o n o l o g i - c a l o r d e r , because t h i s way i t w i l l be e a s i e r t o keep t r a c k o f a l l t h e s e changes. But I s h a l l ask t h e r e a d e r t o keep i n mind a p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p i n g o f t h e c r i t i c s . Those who w r o t e about Cezanne between 1891 and 1907 (the y e a r o f t h e Cezanne r e t r o - s p e c t i v e e x h i b i t i o n a t t h e S a l o n d'Automne, one y e a r a f t e r h i s death) can be d i v i d e d i n t o two main groups. The f i r s t group, w h i l e r e c o g n i z i n g " d e c o r a t i v e " q u a l i t i e s i n h i s p a i n t i n g s , c o n s i d e r e d h i s " d i s t o r t i o n s " o f space and i n d i v i d u a l forms as i n v o l u n t a r y , due t o s h o r t c o m i n g o f p e r c e p - 2 t i o n and/or t e c h n i q u e . These c r i t i c s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n Chapter I , P a r t 2 as "compromising" R e a l i s m and I d e a l i s m , m a i n t a i n i n g an I n c l i n a t i o n toward r e a l i s t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n (not t o be con- founded w i t h R e a l i s m as s u c h ) , such as Lecomte and G e f f r o y . I n t h i s group we have t o i n c l u d e a l s o t h e " C l a s s i c i s t s " and t h e i r s u p p o r t e r s (Denis a f t e r 1898, B e r n a r d i n h i s " S o u v e n i r s " o f 1907, p u b l i s h e d i n t h e Mercure de F r a n c e , o r t h e c r i t i c Monod i n 1905, f o r example). N a t u r a l i s t c r i t i c s p r o p e r (such as T h l e . b a u l t - S i s s o n ) a l s o c o n s i d e r e d Cezanne's d i s t o r t i o n s i n v o l u n t a r y , s i n c e t h e y con- 3 s i d e r e d him a s o r t o f R e a l i s t manque. I n t h e p e r i o d under d i s - c u s s i o n , N a t u r a l i s m was o n l y a weak c u r r e n t i n t h e mainstream - 9 2 - a r t i s t i c a v a n t - g a r d e , as was p o s i t i v i s m , which s t i l l was a h i g h l y r e g a r d e d d o c t r i n e among R a d i c a l R e p u b l i c a n p o l i t i c i a n s (such as Clemenceau). The second group o f c r i t i c s d e a l t w i t h t h e d i s t o r t i o n as v o l u n t a r y a l t e r a t i o n s o f c o n c e p t u a l n a t u r e . To t h i s group be- l o n g t h e S y m t h e t i s t - S y m b o l i s t s o f t h e e a r l y 1890s ( f o r example B e r n a r d o f 1891) and t h e p a r t i s a n s o f "pure p a i n t i n g " (Thadee Natanson, P i e r r e Hepp, Roger Marx) as w e l l as t h o s e o f " p a i n t - i n g f o r p a i n t i n g ' s s a l e " i n a l e s s " m a t e r i a l i s t i c " sence ( S e r u s i e r , C a r l o s de C a s t e r a ) . I n 1907, i n an a r t i c l e i n t e n d e d f o r a d i f f e r e n t audience t h a n t h e M e r c u r e , w r i t t e n i n h i s R e n o v a t i o n E s t h e t i q u e , B e r n a r d a l s o a d m i t t e d Cezanne's d i s t o r - t i o n s were v o l u n t a r y , f o r t h e purpose o f d e c o r a t i o n , but he now meant i t as a p e j o r a t i v e comment. There were c r i t i c s who, w h i l e a d m i t t i n g Cezanne's p a i n t i n g b e l o n g e d i n t h e c a t e g o r y o f "pure p a i n t i n g , " were not i n f a v o r o f i t , because o f i t s " m a t e r i a l i s t i c " n a t u r e ( C h a r l e s M o r i c e , Denis and B e r n a r d - c o n c e r n i n g o n l y some a s p e c t s o f Cezanne's p a i n t i n g ) . I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t b o t h " f a t h e r s " o f C l o i s o n i s m i n p a i n t i n g , E m i l e B e r n a r d and L o u i s A n q u e t i n , when asked i n an i n t e r v i e w p u b l i s h e d i n L'Echo de P a r i s o f 1891: "which i s t h e 4 master you admire most?" named Cezanne as t h e i r f i r s t c h o i c e . E m i l e B e r n a r d d e c l a r e d l a t e r t h a t t h e t r u e b i r t h - p l a c e o f t h e Pont-Aven s c h o o l ( t h a t i s o f C l o i s o n i s m - S y n t h e t i s m ) was J u l i e n Tanguy's shop and t h a t "The s o - c a l l e d s c h o o l o f Pont-Aven would 5 be more j u s t l y c a l l e d t h e S c h o o l o f t h e S t r e e t C l a u z e l . " He a l s o w r o t e : - 93 - C'est dans 1'.ecole. d i t e de Pont-Aven que j e veux f a i r e f i g u r e r Tanguy, p a r c e que c e t t e e c o l e se d o i t t o u t e a l a c o n t e m p l a t i o n des t o i l e s de Cezanne e t que de Gauguin a S e r u s i e r , i l n'y a pas un s e u l s y m b o l i s t e ' q u i n ' a i t f a i t son p e l e r i n a g e rue C l a u z e l . 6 I n Tanguy's shop the f u t u r e S y m b o l i s t s became a c q u a i n t e d w i t h e a r l y p a i n t i n g s o f Cezanne, such as t h e l a r g e - s c a l e P o r t r a i t o f A c h i l l e Emperaire (V.88, 1967-70) - w h i c h b e l o n g e d t o t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f Pere Tanguy, a c c o r d i n g t o V e n t u r i - f e a t u r i n g f l a t c o l o u r and w e l l emphasized dark c o n t o u r s , a s h a l l o w space and a d e c o r a t i v e f l o r a l p a t t e r n on the a r m c h a i r , which seems t o be o f t h e same importance i n the p i c t u r e as t h e p o r t r a i t i t - 7 s e l f . I n the f i r s t a r t i c l e B e r n a r d wrote on Cezanne, p u b l i s h e d i n Les Hommes d ' A u j o u r d ! h u i a t the b e g i n n i n g o f 1891, he r a t e d t h e s e e a r l i e r works h i g h e r than the ones o f the "Impres- 8 s i o n i s t " p e r i o d . But a t the time he wrote t h i s a r t i c l e B e r n a r d was more i n t e r e s t e d i n Cezanne's l a t e r manner o f p a i n t i n g . (developed s i n c e the l a t e 1870s) . He e s p e c i a l l y p r a i s e d one o f v e r y few p a i n t i n g s by Cezanne w i t h a r e l i g i o u s s u b j e c t , one o f h i s v e r s i o n s o f the Temptation o f S a i n t Anthony ("belonging t o M. Murer'," t h a t i s V.241, a s c r i b e d by V e n t u r i t o the p e r i o d 9 1873-1877)--Fig. 4. B e r n a r d d e s c r i b e d i t s drawing as b e i n g "as n a i v e as p o s s i b l e , t h a t o n l y an a n c e s t r a l p o p u l a r image c o u l d g i v e an i d e a o f i t . " ^ P o p u l a r images (Images d ' E p i n a l ) were one o f t h e s o u r c e s o f i n s p i r a t i o n acknowledged by a l l S y n t h e t i s t - S y m b o l i s t s . . As e a r l y as 1889, K a r l Madsen (whose i d e a s were i n f l u e n c e d by Gauguin, and who o r g a n i z e d i n Copen- hagen an e x h i b i t i o n o f Gauguin's own p a i n t i n g s and o t h e r F r e n c h p a i n t i n g s from h i s c o l l e c t i o n ) had c o n s i d e r e d the - 94 - colour-scheme o f Cezanne's Montagues, L'Estague (V.490, d a t e d by V e n t u r i 1886-90, but r i g h t f u l l y a s c r i b e d by Merete B o d e l s e n t o t h e p e r i o d 1882-1883) " e x a c t l y l i k e t h a t o f an Image d ' E p i - • n a l . T h e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h d e c o r a t i o n was a l s o made by B e r n a r d i n comparing t h e a s p e c t o f t h e T e n t a t i o n w i t h a " v e r y o l d b a s - r e l i e f , " i n which t h e r e i s "no p o s i t i v e shadow," but 12 u n i f o r m v a l u e o f l i g h t . B e r n a r d emphasized t h e c e r e b r a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h i s work, w h i c h a t a : f i r s t s u p e r f i c i a l l o o k c o u l d be c l a s s i f i e d as a " c r o u t e g r o s s i e r e . " B e f o r e . d i s c u s s i n g B e r n a r d ' s a r t i c l e o f 18 91 any f u r t h e r , I want t o p o i n t out t h a t t h i s i s t h e y e a r when he b e g i n s h i s r e - l a t i o n s h i p w i t h P e l a d a n . We know f o r c e r t a i n t h a t B e r n a r d was a l r e a d y a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e Sar i n September o f 1891 and t h a t 13 s u b s e q u e n t l y t h e y had l e n g t h y d i s c u s s x o n s . I t i s e v i d e n t when we compare B e r n a r d ' s l e t t e r s w i t h P e l a d a n ' s program f o r R o s e - C r o i x , t h a t t h e p e r s u a s i v e B e r n a r d had an i n f l u e n c e on i t . But when d i d a c t u a l l y B e r n a r d (who became d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h Gauguin's " l e a d e r s h i p , " and p r o b a b l y sensed t h a t A u r i e r ap- p r e c i a t e d him l e s s t h a n Gauguin, b e f o r e t h e c r i t i c ' s a r t i c l e on "Symbolism; i n P a i n t i n g " was p u b l i s h e d i n March 1891') , t h o u g h t a rapprochement w i t h P e l a d a n w i t h whom, a f t e r a l l , he 14 ^ had a l o t i n common? A l r e a d y i n the 1880s, P e l a d a n a d v o c a t e d a r e v i v a l Of t h e F l o r e n t i n e P r i m i t i v e s . "*""* I n October 1891, a f t e r d i s c u s s i n g w i t h P e l a d a n "the p l a n " f o r R o s e - C r o i x , B e r n a r d wrote t o S c h u f f e n e c k e r about t h e n e c e s s i t y t o f a m i - l i a r i z e each.member o f t h e R o s e - C r o i x w i t h the not so w e l l known 16 I t a l i a n works, such as t h o s e o f G i o t t o o r A n g e l i c o . But a t - 95 - t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e y e a r , B e r n a r d a l r e a d y d e s c r i b e d some o f Cezanne's canvases as "of a charming c h i l d i s h n e s s , " w h i c h "awaken t h e p r e c i s e i d e a o f a t a l e n t e d shepherd boy - l i k e 17 G i o t t o - who p l a y s around w i t h c o l o u r s . " Or d e s c r i b i n g one o f Cezanne's p o r t r a i t s o f h i s w i f e ( i d e n t i f i e d by L i n d a N O c h l i n w i t h V.229 o f t h e p e r i o d 1872-1877) - F i g . 5, he s a i d : E s s e n t i a l l y h i e r a t i c and o f a p u r i t y o f t h e l i n e known o n l y t o t h e pure p r i m i t i v e m a s t e r s , t h i s canvas seems t o me l i k e one o f t h e g r e a t e s t a t t e m p t s o f modern a r t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f c l a s s i c a l b e a u t y . 18 T h i s i s a g a i n i n tune w i t h P e l a d a n ' s c a l l f o r r e v i v a l o f an a r t o f I t a l i a n i n s p i r a t i o n t h a t emphasized a l i n e a r s t y l e (to 19 r e p l a c e t h e p a i n t e r l y v u l g a r i t i e s o f F r e n c h a r t ) , and w i t h t h e R o s e - C r o i x campaign f o r an a r t a t t h e same time C h r i s t i a n , m y s t i c a l , i d e a l i s t , o f L a t i n t r a d i t i o n and non-academic. The o n l y l a n d s c a p e t o be a c c e p t e d by t h e R o s e - C r o i x S a l o n was t o 2 0 be t h a t i n t h e manner o f P o u s s i n . B e r n a r d d e s c r i b e d Cezanne's "works i n t h e l a t e s t manner" i n terms o f " a r c h i t e c t u r a l solem- n i t y " and " o r d i n a n c e o f l i n e s " and d e c l a r e d : The l a s t manner i s s c a r c e l y more t h a n a r e t u r n t o t h e f i r s t , b u t by way o f t h e n a s c e n t c o l o u r t h e o r i e s and some v e r y p e r s o n a l and unexpected i n s i g h t s i n t o s t y l e . 21 The " c l a s s i c a l " l a n d s c a p e s i n t h e manner o f P o u s s i n , " a r c h i - t e c t u r a l ," f e a t u r i n g " S t y l e , " were t h e ones c o n s i d e r e d a t the time as " d e c o r a t i v e , " as i n d i c a t e d above. They r e p r e s e n t e d an e l e v a t e d k i n d o f " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake," c o m p a t i b l e w i t h i d e a l i s m . I n August 1891 B e r n a r d would w r i t e t o S c h u f f e n e c k e r : . . . l e paysage d e c o r a t i f me semble l e s e u l p o s s i b l e . . . Je ne. c o n c o i s pas une p e i n t u r e q u i s o i t a u t r e chose q u ' e l l e - meme, c ' e s t a d i r e de l a d e c o r a t i o n p u r e . 22 - 96 - Thus f o r B e r n a r d , t h e " d e c o r a t i v e l a n d s c a p e " was " p a i n t i n g f o r i t s own sake" (or "pure p a i n t i n g " i n t h e i d e a l i s t sense, b u t I r e s e r v e t h i s term f o r t h e m a t e r i a l i s t i c c o n n o t a t i o n , s i n c e i t . 2 3 was commonly used as such) and a t the same time " d e c o r a t i o n . " I n f a c t , f o r him t h i s " p a i n t i n g f o r i t s own sake" i s e q u i v a l - e n t w i t h "pure d e c o r a t i o n . " A few months b e f o r e he had d e s c r i b e d Cezanne and h i s a r t t h u s : S t y l e . Tone. - A p a i n t e r above a l l - a l t h o u g h he i s a t h i n k e r and a s e r i o u s one - he opens f o r a r t t h a t s u r - p r i s i n g door: p a i n t i n g f o r i t s own sake.24 Cezanne was a t t h e time B e r n a r d ' s "Master" and t h i s i s r e f l e c t - ed i n h i s p a i n t i n g s , such as t h e " d e c o r a t i v e l a n d s c a p e " 25 Pont-Aven vu du B o i s d'Amour o f 1892 - F i g . 6. The c r i t i c who most c l e a r l y a s s o c i a t e d Cezanne w i t h t h e 2 6 new d e c o r a t i v e tendency was Georges Lecomte, i n 1892. But w h i l e B e r n a r d t r i e d t o d e t a c h Cezanne from I m p r e s s i o n i s m , Lecomte d i d j u s t t h e o p p o s i t e , p r e s e n t i n g him t o g e t h e r w i t h P i s s a r r o as t h e i n i t i a t o r s , o f t h i s tendency. Lecomte's c o n c e p t o f " d e c o r a t i v e " i n p a i n t i n g , as was i n d i c a t e d i n the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , t o o k i n t o account t h e new r e q u i r e m e n t s o f " s y n t h e s i s , " " c o m p o s i t i o n , " emphasis on l i n e , b u t d i d not e x t e n d t o a c c e p t - 27 i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r o f " d e c o r a t i o n . " I n h i s l e c t u r e t o Les XX, d i s c u s s e d b e f o r e , Lecomte d e c l a r e d : C ' e s t s u r t o u t M. Cezanne q u i f u t 1'une des p r e m i e r s a n n o n c i a t e u r s . des tendances n o u v e l l s e t dont l ' e f f o r t e x e r g a une i n f l u e n c e n o t a b l e s u r 1 ' e v o l u t i o n i m p r e s s i o n - n i s t e : son m e t i e r s o b r e , ses s y n t h e s e s e t ses s i m p l i f i c a - t i o n s de c o u l e u r s s i s u r p r e n a n t e a une epoque ou 1'on e t a i t p a r t i c u l i e r e m e n t e p r i s de r e a l i t e e t d ' a n a l y s e , ses v a l e u r s t r e s r a p p r o c h e e s , t r e s douces, dont l e j e u s a v a n t c r e e de s i s u b f i l e s e t i m p e c c a b l e s harmonies, c o n t i e n n e n t e t r e v e l e n t t o u t l e mouvement c o n t e m p o r a i n ; e l l e s f u r e n t pour t o u s un p r o f i t a b l e e n s e i g n e m e n t . 2 ^ - 97 - E a r l i e r i n t h e t e x t Lecomte had d e s c r i b e d t h e way t h e Impres- s i o n i s t s had "detached t h e m s e l v e s from r e a l i t y " i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e a " d e c o r a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n " : Peu a peu, i l s s 1 a b s t r a y e n t de l a r e a l i t e . l i s s'en i n s p i r e n t t o u j o u r s s c r u p u l e u s e m e n t , mais s u r l e s donees e x a c t e s q u ' i l s en r e c u e i l l e n t , i l s e d i f i e n t des c o m p o s i t i o n s b e l l e s t o u t a l a f o i s p a r l e c a r a c t e r e e t p a r l a d e c o r a - t i o n : i l s assemblent des l i g n e s , r e g l e n t des g e s t i c u l a t i o n s , a c c o r d e n t l a d i r e c t i o n des mpuvements du s o l avec c e l l e des a t t i t u d e s de l ' e t r e humain qui s'y a g i t e ; i l s composent, l o i n de l a n a t u r e , pour r e a l i s e r une harmonie t o t a l e , v E n meme temps que l e d e s s i n d e v i e n t p l u s l a r g e , p l u s sommaire e t p l u s c a r a c t e r i s t i q u e , l a c o u l e u r t e n d a se s i m p l i f i e r . Le r e l a t i f du t r a i t e t du t o n d i s p a r a i t . Le p e i n t r e q u i , l e p r e m i e r , avec M. Cezanne, s'emancipa d'une t r o p s t r i c t e communion a v e c : l a n a t u r e , n o t r e m a i t r e e t n o t r e ami, M. C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o . . . 29 Lecomte was w e l l aware t h a t t h e " i d e i s t s " c l a i m e d d e s c e n t from Cezanne, and d i d n o t even t r y t o deny t h a t t h e r e was a b a s i s f o r t h i s . But he c l a i m e d t h e y l o o k e d a t t h e wrong p i c t u r e s o f Cezanne, t h e " i n c o m p l e t e " ones, w h i c h t h e p a i n t e r h i m s e l f c o n 1 s i d e r e d as " i n f e r i o r , " n o t a t the. ones w h i c h are b e a u t i f u l i n t h e i r " l o g i c a l o r d i n a n c e " and "harmony o f t o n e s . " 3 0 As I a l - ready mentioned, Lecomte a c c u s e d t h e S y m b o l i s t s - S y n t h e t i s t s o f d i s t o r t i o n , and o f d e p a r t u r e s from t h e c o n c e p t o f t a b l e a u , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e i n t h e i r p i c t u r e s e v e r y p o i n t seems t o l i e i n 31 t h e same p l a n e . I t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y on account o f t h i s f l a t - n e s s t h a t Lecomte r e f u t e s t h e i r c l a i m s , o f d e s c e n t from Cezanne. Cezanne, a c c o r d i n g t o Lecomte, "most o f t e n " r e s p e c t e d t h e s u c - c e s s i o n o f p l a n e s i n p e r s p e c t i v e , and a t m o s p h e r i c p e r s p e c t i v e , even though he a d m i t t e d Cezanne's " v a l u e s " were t o o c l o s e t o 32 each o t h e r (a f a c t w h i c h o f c o u r s e , r e s u l t e d i n f l a t n e s s ) . < Lecomte c o u l d not a b i d e t o see Cezanne, t h e comrade o f P i s s a r r o - 98 - and o f the o t h e r I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , used t o " l e g i t i m i z e " an a r t w i t h m y s t i c a l , C a t h o l i c t e n d e n c i e s . T h e r e f o r e he c o n c l u d e d h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f Cezanne by s a y i n g : I I f a u t que l a r e p u t a t i o n de M.; Cezanne s o i t s o l i d e - ment a s s i s e pour r e s i s t e r a de s i m a l e n c o n t r e u s e s g l o r i - f i c a t i o n s . Ce que nous devons r e t e n i r de son a r t s i n c e r e , s i s i m p l i f i c a t e u r , c ' e s t l a synthese de l i g n e s e t de t o n s en vue de 1 ' o r n e m e n t a t i o n , son r e s p e c t des v a l e u r s , son d e s s i n c a r a c t e r i s t i q u e . 33 Thus Lecomte c o n s i d e r e d t h a t Cezanne's s y n t h e s i s o f l i n e s and t o n e s " were t h e r e s u l t o f h i s i n t e n t i o n s t o p a i n t d e c o r a t i v e p i c t u r e s ("en vue de 1 ' o r n e m e n t a t i o n " ) . But he a l s o c o n s i d e r e d h i s p i c t u r e s t h a t c o n t a i n e d d i s t o r t i o n s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e t o be found i n t h e S y m b o l i s t p a i n t i n g s as " i n c o m p l e t e , " s i n c e t h e y d i d not have t h e degree o f r e a l i s t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , based on p e r c e p t i o n , he s t i l l e x p e c t e d i n an e a s e l p a i n t i n g . S i m i l a r v i e w s were e x p r e s s e d by Lecomte's f r i e n d , Gustave 34 G e f f r o y . He a l s o b e l i e v e d i n a compromise between r e a l i s m . . . 35 and i d e a l i s m i n a r t . G e f f r o y c o u l d not a c c e p t i n p a i n t i n g , even i n p a i n t i n g d e s t i n e d t o s e r v e as d e c o r a t i o n , t h e l a c k o f d e p t h , a t - mosphere, m o d e l l i n g . The " d e c o r a t i v e sense," a c c o r d i n g t o G e f f r o y i s m a n i f e s t e d by a " c e r t a i n rythm o f t h e l i n e s " and 3 6 i n a "harmony o f atmosphere." The a t h e i s t G e f f r o y , l i k e t h e a n t i - C a t h o l i c Lecomte, would not a l l o w any h i e r a t i s m i n p a i n t - i n g , the v e r y t h i n g B e r n a r d thought he saw i n Cezanne and p r a i s e d . I n .his a r t i c l e " P a u l Cezanne" i n La V i e a r t i s t i q u e o f 1894, G e f f r o y a d m i t t e d : - 99 - Ceizanne has become a k i n d o f p r e c u r s o r t o whom t h e s y m b o l i s t s have r e f e r r e d and. i t i s q u i t e c e r t a i n , t o s t i c k t o t h e f a c t s , t h a t t h e r e i s a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n , a . c l e a r l y e s t a b l i s h e d c o n t i n u i t y , between t h e p a i n t i n g o f Cezanne and t h a t o f Gauguin, E m i l e B e r n a r d , e t c . And l i k e w i s e , w i t h the a r t o f V i n c e n t Van Gogh. 38 L i k e Lecomte, G e f f r o y f i n d s Cezanne " f r e q u e n t l y i n c o m p l e t e " q u o t i n g s i m i l a r f a u l t s : There are absences o f atmosphere, o f t h e f l u i d i t y t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e p l a n e s must be s e p a r a t e d and t h e f a r t h e s t depths be p l a c e d a t . t h e i r p r o p e r d i s t a n c e . The forms become awk- ward a t t i m e s , t h e o b j e c t s a r e b l e n d e d t o g e t h e r , t h e p r o - p o r t i o n s are n o t always e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h s u f f i c i e n t r i g o r . These a r e " f a u l t s " o f an i n v o l u n t a r y n a t u r e a c c o r d i n g t o G e f f r o y , who compared C e z a n n e 1 s e f f o r t s w i t h "the t o u c h i n g e f f o r t s o f t h e p r i m i t i v e s " ( w i t h o u t i m p l y i n g o f c o u r s e , t h a t t h e p a i n t e r wanted t o i m i t a t e the p r i m i t i v e s ) . He meant t h a t the. p a i n t e r wanted t o be more r e a l i s t i c , b u t "he has been u n a b l e t o conquer t h e 40 d i f f i c u l t y " o f r e a l i z a t i o n . G e f f r o y who never h i n t s t h a t most f e a t u r e s he c r i t i c i s e d (which a f t e r a l l are i n accordance w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n ) might be i n t e n t i o n a l , i s r e l i e v e d to. a s s u r e t h e r e a d e r s t h a t "these remarks cannot be made b e f o r e each canvas o f Cezanne." He mentioned t h a t t h e r e a r e p a i n t i n g s i n w h i c h "he e r e c t s w i t h a l i m p i d atmosphere, h i s dear h i l l o f S a i n t e - V i c t o i r e , " or r e p r e s e n t s a "weighty i n l e t o f t h e s e a l i n a r o c k y bay where t h e l a n d s c a p e i s c r u s h e d 41 beneath an atmosphere o f h e a t . " In such p a i n t i n g s , The a r b i t r a r y d i s t r i b u t i o n of l i g h t and shade w h i c h might o t h e r w i s e be s u r p r i s i n g i s no l o n g e r n o t i c e a b l e . One i s i n t h e presence o f a u n i f i e d p a i n t i n g w h i c h seems a l l o f a p i e c e and w h i c h i s e x e c u t e d over a l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e , i n t h i n l a y e r s , w h i c h has ended up by becoming compact, dense, v e l v e t y . . . H i s p a i n t i n g t h e n t a k e s on t h e muted beauty o f t a p e s t r y , a r r a y s i t s e l f i n a s t r o n g , harmonious w e f t . Or e l s e , . a s i n the B a t h e r s , c o a g u l a t e d and l u m i n o u s , i t assumes t h e a s p e c t o f a p i e c e o f r i c h l y d e c o r a t e d f a i e n c e . 42 - 100 - Here we e n c o u n t e r f o r t h e f i r s t time (and as we s h a l l see i t w i l l n o t be t h e l a s t ) t h e comparison between Cezanne's canvases and t a p e s t r i e s . The " a r b i t r a r y d i s t r i b u t i o n of l i g h t and shade" w h i c h somehow b o t h e r s G e f f r o y i n a p a i n t i n g was recommended i n t a p e s t r y i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e a u n i t y o f e f f e c t by o v e r a l l u n i - 43 f o r m i t y o f v a l u e . What i s a c t u a l l y p r a i s e d by G e f f r o y i s t h e t e x t u r e o f t a p e s t r y (such as i n some l a n d s c a p e s - see f o r example Rocks a t L'Estaque - F i g . 12, V4 04, 1882-1885) o r t h e a s p e c t s o f c e r a m i c s ( i n B a t h e r s ) , t h a t i s t h e m a t i e r e o f t h e 44 p a i n t i n g . Cezanne's f r u i t s i n h i s s t i l l - l i f e s were a l s o com- 45 p a r e d w i t h C h e r e t ' s c e r a m i c s by Huysmans. G e f f r o y p r a i s e d Cezanne's "famous a p p l e s , " b u t was b o t h e r e d by t h e f a c t t h a t I i n h i s s t i l l - l i f e s "the backgrounds sometimes come f o r w a r d " ; t h a t i s he o b j e c t e d p r e c i s e l y t o one o f t h e d e v i c e s recommended f o r d e c o r a t i o n , i n o r d e r n o t t o " p i e r c e t h e w a l l " w i t h t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l i l l u s i o n i s m . ^ On t h e o c c a s i o n o f Cezanne's e x h i b i t i o n o f 1895 a t V o l l a r d ' s G a l l e r y , G e f f r o y a g a i n s t r e s s e d t h e d e c o r a t i v e q u a l i t y o f h i s p a i n t i n g s : Les t a b l e u x de f l e u r s et. de f r u i t s donnent l a meme preuve de l a f a c u l t e d e c o r a t i v e de Cezanne. Toute l a gamme des t o n s , t o u t l ' a c c o r d d e l i c i e u x des. v a l e u r s . . . 47 D e s c r i b i n g Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s o f b a t h e r s (male and female) i n t h e e x h i b i t i o n , G e f f r o y remarked on t h e i r s t y l i z a t i o n : "by t h e s o r c e r y o f a . d e l i b e r a t e and s t y l i z e d a r t " t h e y gave t h e im- 48 p r e s s i o n o f . " a r r a n g e m e n t s i n an i d e a l p a r k . " He d i d i m p l y t h a t t h e • B a t h e r s had q u a l i t i e s o f grandes o e u v r e s , such as t h o s e o f t h e g r e a t d e c o r a t i v e works by Veronese, Rubens and D e l a c r o i x , - 101 - f o r w h i c h Cezanne had a l r e a d y p r o v e d h i s "comprehensive ad- m i r a t i o n " i n e a r l i e r works such as the " l a r g e p a n e l " The Orgy, 49 a l s o i n t h e e x h i b i t i o n . G e f f r o y sensed t h a t Cezanne had t h e a p t i t u d e , t o be a g r a n d - s c a l e d e c o r a t o r , and somewhat p a r a p h r a s - i n g A u r i e r ' s lament on a s i m i l a r t o p i c when he r e f e r r e d t o Gauguin, s a i d : A n'en pas d o u t e r , par ces t o i l e s . . . 11 a f f i r m e q u ' i l a u r a i t pu e n t r e p r e n d r e e t r e l i s e r de grandes o e u v r e s , f a i r e • f l e u r i r l e s m u r a i l l e s comme des j a r d i n s l u m i n e u x . Le s o r t ne l ' a pas f o u l u . . . R e g r e t t o n s q u ' i l n ' a i t pas dote son pays e t son temps de 1'oeuvre g r a n d i o s e q u i e t a i t en l u i . 50 But w h i l e A u r i e r p r e f e r r e d the g r e a t d e c o r a t i o n s o f the p a s t t h a t had a h i e r a t i c s t y l e , G e f f r o y p r e f e r r e d t h e most n a t u r a l i s - t i c , p o s t - R e n a i s s a n c e ones. In f a c t h i s a t t i t u d e toward p a i n t - ed d e c o r a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t s a s t e p backwards from t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f p r e s e r v i n g t h e f l a t n e s s . o f t h e w a l l t o be d e c o r a t e d , 51 even i n comparison w i t h C h a r l e s B l a n c . G e f f r o y was n o t an a v a n t - g a r d e c r i t i c . H i s t a s t e was r a t h e r c o n s e r v a t i v e , p r o b - a b l y because he thought a more n a t u r a l i s t i c s t y l e would s e r v e b e t t e r the s o c i a l r o l e o f a r t . H i s f a v o r i t e a r t i s t s were 52 R a f f a e l l i and C a r r i e r e . I n t h e 1894 a r t i c l e on Cezanne G e f f r o y had been c r i t i c a l o f t h e absence o f atmosphere and d e p t h , o f background t h a t came forward.,. In: t h e r e v i e w o f t h e V o l l a r d e x h i b i t i o n he c a u t i o n e d the p r o s p e c t i v e v i s i t o r : . Vous q u i l i r e z ces l i g n e s e t q u i i r e z p e u t - e t r e e n s u i t e c h e r c h e r c e t t e beaute e t c e t t e g r a c e que j ' a f f i r m e , ne vous a r r e t e z pas a t e l l e g a u c h e r i e , a tel•manque de p e r s - p e c t i v e , d ' e q u i l i b r e , a t e l s p e c t i n a c h e v e . 53 The e p i t h e t s " u n f i n i s h e d " and " i n c o m p l e t e " used by G e f f r o y (or Lecomte) were u n a c c e p t a b l e t o a n o t h e r r e v i e w e r o f the - 102 - V o l l a r d e x h i b i t i o n o f 1895, Thadee Natanson, the c h i e f e d i t o r and c o f o u n d e r o f t h e Revue B l a n c h e , p a t r o n and d e f e n d e r o f t h e 54 N a b i s . These words d i d n o t have any meaning f o r Natanson, who d i d n o t t r y t o prove t h a t Cezanne was a v e r i d i q u e , b u t one who was not q u i t e a c c o m p l i s h e d i n t h i s r o l e , as G e f f r o y d i d . Natanson speaks from an " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" p o s i t i o n , and as 55 B e r n a r d b e f o r e him (1891 ) a p p r e c i a t e s Cezanne's " p a i n t i n g f o r i t s own sake," t h a t w h i c h i s " o n l y p a i n t i n g . " r ^ E x c e p t , as opposed t o B e r n a r d , as I a l r e a d y mentioned i n t h e l a s t c h a p t e r , Natanson f a v o r s t h e m a t e r i a l i s t i c "pure p a i n t i n g . " The f a c t t h a t "the o b j e c t s a r e b l e n d e d t o g e t h e r " does n o t 57 b o t h e r Natanson a t a l l , as i t b o t h e r e d G e f f r o y ; j u s t t h e o p p o s i t e , f o r him i t has t h e advantage o f e m p h a s i z i n g t h e f o r m a l elements and t h e d e c o r a t i v e q u a l i t i e s o f t h e p a i n t i n g : La f r a n c h i s e e t c e t t e q u a l i t e s i s o l i d e m e n t e t a b l i e des formes comme e q u a r r i e s , nuages q u i s ' e n r o u l e n t s u r l e c i e l b l e u , t o i t s des maisons, f e u i l l a g e s , c e r n u r e s des f r u i t s a c c e n t u a n t l e s ronds ou l e s a n g l e s , muscles s e r t i s , c a s s u r e s des l i g n e s , ornements des e t o f f e s , d r a p e r i e s r a i d e s , f a i t qu'aucun o b j e t r e p r e s e n t s n'a p l u s qu'une v a l e u r de b r o d e r i e , de f e s t o n ou d'arabesque dans 1'email q u ' a p p a r a i t c e t t e p e i n t u r e . 58 Natanson emphasized t h a t o n l y a s m a l l number o f p e o p l e , an e l i t e , c o u l d a p p r e c i a t e such pure p a i n t i n g , "the e n a m e l - l i k e q u a l i t y o f the m a t i e r e , t h e r o l e o f arabesques w h i c h he a s s i g n s t o 59 forms," e t c . T h i s "pure p a i n t i n g " p r a i s e d by Natanson w e l - comes i n t o t h e f i e l d o f e a s e l p a i n t i n g an i n v a s i o n o f c h a r a c t e r - i s t i c s o f t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s : t h e emphasis on shapes f o r t h e i r own sake, i n , p a r t i c u l a r on t h e arabesque, on pure c o l o u r s , on t h e t e x t u r a l q u a l i t i e s o f t h e m a t i e r e , c o u p l e d w i t h a n o n c h a l a n t - 103 - d i s r e g a r d f o r t h e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r . The purpose o f t h i s a r t i s t o p l e a s e t h e s e n s e s , b u t o f c o u r s e n o t t h e senses o f a v u l g a r crowd. L i k e B e r n a r d i n 1891, Natanson compared Cezanne's p a i n t i n g w i t h p o p u l a r images: ... ce s u r p r e n a n t vase b l a n c a ornements b l e u s dont l e gerbe f l e u r i e e s t s i j o l i m e n t ouyragee e t qu'on d i t c o p i e e d'une image p o p u l a i r e - . . . Natanson a d m i t t e d w i t h o u t r e s e r v e Cezanne' i n f l u e n c e on t h e younger p a i n t e r s , "who perhaps have never seen him" ( p r o b a b l y r e f e r r i n g t o t h e N a b i s ) , and not o n l y on "those who have been a s s o c i a t e d w i t h him" ( p r o b a b l y r e f e r r i n g t o G a u g u i n ) . The c r i t i c c o n s i d e r e d t h a t Cezanne a l o n e among h i s " i l l u s t r i o u s contem- p o r a r i e s " had "the g l o r y o f h a v i n g t r a i n e d p u p i l s and formed 61 a s c h o o l , i n the b e s t and most p r o f o u n d sense o f t h e s e words." The f o l l o w i n g y e a r (1896) t h e c r i t i c Andree M e l l e r i o (to whom M a u r i c e Denis r e f e r r e d t o as "an e x c e l l e n t c r i t i c " and whom he r e p r e s e n t e d i n h i s Hommage a Cezanne - F i g . 7) a l s o s t a t e d t h a t Cezanne, who as w e l l as V i n c e n t van Gogh was n o t v e r y w e l l known by t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c (as P u v i s , Moreau, Redon and Gauguin w e r e ) , 6 2 was "much honored by t h e young g e n e r a t i o n . " M e l l e r i o r e f e r r e d t o t h e young p r o t a g o n i s t s o f t h e " I d e a l i s t Movement" i n p a i n t i n g and o f t h e t r e n d toward d e c o r a t i o n . Even though he quoted e x t e n s i v e l y from A u r i e r ' s a r t i c l e on Symbolism i n p a i n t i n g , 6 3 M e l l e r i o ' s i d e a l i s m was n o t n e o - P l a t o n i c i n n a t u r e . By " i d e a l i s m " i n p a i n t i n g he meant a " c e r e b r a l , " " c o n c e p t u a l " t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f N a t u r e . Such a c o n c e p t u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f Nature was Cezanne's "own v i s i o n " w h i c h l e a d t o a " s y n t h e s i s o f c o l o u r s and forms i n t h e i r i n t r i n s i c b e a u t y " : - 104 - . . . i l p r e s e n t e l a n a t u r e d'apres une v i s i o n a l u i p r o p r e , ou l a j u x t a p o s i t i o n des t e i n t e s , un c e r t a i n agencement des l i g n e s ; f o n t de s a p e i n t u r e s i f r a n c h e comme une s y n t h e s e des c o u l e u r s e t des formes en l e u r beaute i n t r i n s e q u e . On b o t h Cezanne and Van Gogh, M e l l e r i o made t h e comment: Tous deux eminemment p e i n t r e s dans 1 " a c c e p t i o n du mot,: c ' e s t - a - d i r e consid§rant l e s p e c t a c l e q u i l e s e n t o u r e sous l e presque unique p o i n t de vue du j e u des c o u l e u r s e t des l i g n e s - a r r i v a n t a i n s i a d ' e t r a n g e s e t imprevus e f f e t s . M e l l e r i o t h e n , j u s t as Natanson, emphasized Cezanne's " p a i n t i n g f o r p a i n t i n g ' s sake," w h i c h was equated w i t h a d e c o r a t i v e aim: t o r e v e a l t h e i n t r i n s i c beauty o f c o l o u r and l i n e s . By t h e time M e l l e r i o wrote h i s book, Symbolism, as I i n d i c a t e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , was i n d e c l i n e . I n f a c t he d i d not c a l l any o f t h e avant-garde young p a i n t e r s " S y m b o l i s t s , " and h i s v i e w s on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between A r t and Nature a r e q u i t e i n a c c o r d w i t h t h o s e h e l d by Denis i n 1 8 9 5 . ^ A l s o l i k e D e n i s , he t r a d e d Gauguin f o r Cezanne as M a s t e r and " i n i t i a t o r " „ 67 o f t h e " S y n t h e t i s t s . I n 189 9 Cezanne e x h i b i t e d f o r t y p a i n t i n g s a t G a l e r i e V o l l a r d . L i k e Natanson,the a r t c r i t i c f o r La Revue B l a n c h e , F e l i c i e n Fagus, u n d e r l i n e d Cezanne's c o n c e r n w i t h pure p a i n t i n g and m a t i e r e : C e l u i - l a , c ' e s t l e p e i n t r e ; 1'amoureux de l a c o u l e u r pour l a c o u l e u r - a h l l a p a t e , l a p a t e qu'on p e t r i t comme une c h a i r ... Que c ' e s t bonI Comme on s e n t c e t homme-la b i e n h e u r e u x d'etendre l a b e l l e m a t i e r e s u r l a t o i l e ; 6 8 ,• Fagus compared Cezanne w i t h t h e " g r e a t V e n e t i a n d e c o r a t o r s . " S p e a k i n g o f Repas au b o r d de l a mer, Fagus e x c l a i m e d : Quel repas I v e s t i g e c h a r n e l , t r i o m p h a l j e u de d e c o r a t i o n p e r s p e c t i v e e t flamboiement i n o u i d ' e t o f f e s e t de n u d i t e s , c e t t e t o i l e e x i g u e d i s t e n d l a v a s t i t u d e e n s p l e i l l e e des grands d e c o r a t e u r s v e n i t i e n s ; - 105 - Only t h e p r e v i o u s year. V u i l l a r d had remarked on s i m i l a r i t i e s be- tween Cezanne and Veronese, and he a c t u a l l y t o l d Denis, t h a t 70 Cezanne speaks o f Verones w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t a d m i r a t i o n . The same e x h i b i t i o n a t V o l l a r d . i n 1899 prompted an a r t i c l e by Georges Lecomte i n t h e Revue d ' A r t . I t was n o t r e a l l y a r e v i e w ft- o f t h i s e x h i b i t i o n ; 'rather Lecomte r e p e a t e d most o f what he had t o say i n 1892. Of c o u r s e , he d i d n o t f o r g e t t o mention t h a t he was among t h e f i r s t t o w r i t e f a v o r a b l y on Cezanne, now t h a t "the work o f Cezanne i s n o t o r i o u s " and much i n demand w i t h c o l - l e c t o r s . T h i s time he emphasized^ even more s t r o n g l y t h a n i n 1892 t h a t he found Cezanne uneven and c l a i m e d t h a t none o f h i s g a u c h e r i e s was v o l u n t a r y . He was e s p e c i a l l y b o t h e r e d by t h e p a i n t e r ' s i n a b i l i t y t o r e n d e r d e p t h , by t h e f l a t n e s s o f h i s 71 p a i n t i n g s . He blamed t h e s e f a u l t s on Cezanne's i n a b i l i t y " t o r e n d e r e v e r y t h i n g he p e r c e i v e s . " I t was because o f t h i s l a c k o f "means" h i s p a i n t i n g s gave t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f "sumptuous t a p e s t r i e s t h a t l a c k d i s t a n c e . " Lecomte d i d n o t v o l u n t e e r t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t maybe Cezanne wanted h i s p a i n t i n g s t o l o o k l i k e t a p e s t r y , o r t o f o l l o w the g e n e r a l r u l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n . The o b v i o u s r e a s o n he was n o t d o i n g t h i s was t h a t he wanted t o demonstrate t h a t t h e s c h o o l o f " m y s t i c a l Symbolism" was based on Cezanne's f a u l t s , t h e most s e r i o u s one b e i n g , a c c o r d i n g t o Lecomte, "the l a c k o f depth."72 As i f t o s p i t e Lecomte, D e n i s ' l a r g e p a i n t i n g Hommage a Cezanne - F i g . 7 - o f 1900 hung a t t h e S a l o n o f t h e S o c i e t e N a t i o n a l e des Beaux A r t s i n 1901, and a l s o , a t La L i b r e 73 E s t h e t x q u e i n B r u s s e l s i n t h e same y e a r . The p a i n t i n g grouped around C j e X a h n e 's.Still L i f e w i t h - 106 - Compotier (V.341, w h i c h Gauguin owned and a l s o r e p r e s e n t e d i n one o f h i s p a i n t i n g s , t h e p o r t r a i t o f M a r i e D e r r i e h o f 1890) - F i g . 8 - most o f t h e N a b i s : V u i l l a r d , D e n i s , S e r u s i e r , Ranson, R o u s s e l , Bonnard, as w e l l as O d i l o n Redon, M e l l e r i o , V o l l a r d ( i n whose g a l l e r y t h e group i s assembled) and D e n i s 1 w i f e Marthe. Cezanne h i m s e l f , whom Denis had n o t met y e t , d i d n o t appear i n t h e p i c t u r e . He was touched by t h i s homage, and wrote t o Denis a few l i n e s t o e x p r e s s h i s "warmest g r a t i t u d e , " w h i c h he asked , Denis " t o pass on t o t h e a r t i s t s who have j o i n e d w i t h you on 74 t h i s occasion*.." As we have seen i n s e c t i o n "D" o f the l a s t c h a p t e r , Denis had never mentioned Cezanne b e f o r e 1895 when he p r e f e r r e d t o speak o f " s y n t h e t i s m " r a t h e r t h a n "Symbolism," o f an a r t r o o t e d i n N a t u r e , " w i t h o u t m e t a p h y s i c s . " But s i n c e t h e n he had spoken o f Cezanne as o f the " i n i t i a t o r " o f t h e "movement o f 1890." He c o n t i n u e d t o do so even a f t e r h i s f u l l c o n v e r s i o n t o " c l a s s i c i s m " (which a f t e r a l l was a l s o an a r t based on Nature) i n 1898, when he wanted t o b u i l d a b r i d g e between t h e p i c t o r i a l Symbolism (or r a t h e r . "Synthetism") and 75 c l a s s i c i s m . Soon Denis was t o d e c l a r e t h a t S y n t h e t i s m was a r a t i o n a l and t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o r y , t h a t s u r v i v e d l i t e r a r y Symbolism w h i c h was always " s u s p e c t " t o t h e p a i n t e r s , b e i n g t o o m e t a p h y s i c a l . ^ L i k e D e n i s , E m i l e B e r n a r d t u r n e d t o c l a s s i c i s m and t r a d i t i o n , and f o r s i m i l a r r e a s o n s ( r e a c t i o n a r y i d e o l o g y , b e s t s e r v e d by t h i s t r e n d , i n the new h i s t o r i c a l c o n d i t i o n s ) . Bernard's evo- l u t i o n i n t h i s , d i r e c t i o n had begun a l r e a d y i n 1891, a t t h e time 77 o f h i s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h P e l a d a n . A f t e r a l o n g absence from F r a n c e ( d u r i n g w h i c h he v i s i t e d I t a l y , and l i v e d i n C a i r o ) , - 107 - B e r n a r d r e t u r n e d i n 1904. I n 1905 he founded the e x t r e m e l y r e - a c t i o n a r y r e v u e La R e n o v a t i o n E s t h e t i q u e ( w i t h s i m i l a r aims as L ' O c c i d e n t ) , w h i c h would l i v e on u n t i l 1910. E a r l y i n 19 04 E m i l e B e r n a r d v i s i t e d Cezanne i n A i x and w r o t e an a r t i c l e about t h e p a i n t e r i n L ' O c c i d e n t . N e e d l e s s t o say, t h i s a r t i c l e , even though i t was meant t o r e f l e c t Cezanne's own o p i n i o n s , has t h e i m p r i n t o f B e r n a r d ' s b e l i e f s and p e c u l i a r t h e o r e t i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n s . I t r e f l e c t s t h e changes i n Bernard's o u t l o o k w h i c h had o c c u r r e d between 1891 (when he had w r i t t e n h i s p r e v i o u s a r t i c l e on Cezanne) and 1904. B e r n a r d ' s " c l a s s i c i s m " i s n o t t o be t a k e n i n t h e o r t h o d o x , o r narrow sense, t h a t i s i n o p p o s i t i o n w i t h Romanticism and i t s a n c e s t o r s , b u t i n t h e sense 7 8 o f " t r a d i t i o n . " T h i s t r a d i t i o n however e x c l u d e d "academism" (such as I n g r e s ) . H i s M a s t e r s a r e now not t h e P r i m i t i v e s , b u t M i c h e l a n g e l o , V i n c i , R a p h a e l , G i o g i o n e , T i t i a n , T i n t o r e t t o , as w e l l as D e l a c r o i x . He s t i l l b e l i e v e s i n a " d e c o r a t i v e c o n c e p t i o n " , w h i c h f o r him i s e q u i v a l e n t w i t h "pure A r t " o r " p a i n t i n g f o r i t s own sake" (not t o be confounded w i t h t h e m a t e r i a l i s t i c "pure p a i n t i n g " o f t h e 1890s). Only he accommodates now i n t h i s d e f i n i t i o n R e n a i s s a n c e and p o s t - R e n a i s s a n c e i l l u s i o n i s t i c a r t , w h i c h was a c t u a l l y not " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" o r " d e c o r a t i v e " , b u t " l i t e r a r y " p a i n t i n g , some o f i t e x p r e s s i n g p o w e r f u l e m o t i o n s . Thus t h i s "pure A r t " has t o be u n d e r s t o o d more i n t h e sense o f C h a r l e s B l a n c ' s dichotomy, as " A r t " v e r s u s N a t u r a l i s m (which 79 d i s r e g a r d s a p r e e s t a b l i s h e d c o n c e p t o f b e a u t y ) . B e r n a r d ' s " d e c o r a t i v e c o n c e p t i o n " i m p l i e s "freedom" and " e x a l t a t i o n " now, n o t a " h i e r a t i c " s t y l e . As opposed t o Denis ( e v e n t u a l l y i t seems he persuaded even Denis t o change h i s mind) B e r n a r d does - 1 0 8 n o t a p p r e c i a t e I n g r e s and h i s emphasis on l i n e a r , " c o n t o u r " and r i g i d academic r u l e s , w h i c h would i n t e r f e r e w i t h h i s s t a n d a r d s o f "freedom:" Thus i t i s h a r d t o b e l i e v e t h a t Cezanne i s t h e a u t h o r o f t h e f o l l o w i n g c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , as B e r n a r d c l a i m e d i n h i s a r t i c l e : P a u l Cezanne c o n s i d e r e q u ' i l e s t deux p l a s t i q u e s , l'une s c u l p t u r a l e ou l i n e a i r e , 1'autre d e c o r a t i v e ou c o l o r i s t e . Ce q u ' i l nomme l a p l a s t i q u e s c u l p t u r a l e s e r a i t amplement s i g n i f i e p a r l e type de l a Venus de M i l o . Ce-£l;u'il nomme p l a s t i q u e d e c o r a t i v e se r a t t a c h e a M i c h e l - A n g e , a Rubens. L'une de ces p l a s t i q u e s , s e r v i l e , 1 ' a u t r e , l i b r e ; l ' u n e dans l a q u e l l e l e • c o n t o u r l ' e m p o r t e , 1'autre dans l a q u e l l e dom Ihe - l a s a i l l i e , l a c o u l e u r e t l a fougue. I n g r e s e s t de l a p r e m i e r e , D e l a c r o i x e s t de l a s e c o n d e d " T h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n l o o k s s u p e r f i c i a l l y l i k e t h e s t a n d a r d academic c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , t o be found i n B l a n c ' s books f o r example, be- tween t h e F l o r e n t i n e and Roman S c h o o l on one hand (to w h i c h M i c h e l a n g e l o b e l o n g e d and t o w h i c h B l a n c a t t a c h e d D a v i d and I n g r e s ) and t h e " d e c o r a t i v e " V e n e t i a n S c h o o l on t h e o t h e r ( r e p r e s e n t e d by Veronese and R u b e n s - " t h i s V e n e t i a n o f t h e N o r t h " - 81 and t o w h i c h D e l a c r o i x was a t t a c h e d ) . That Cezanne c o n s i d e r e d Veronese and Rubens as "the g r e a t d e c o r a t i v e Masters" we know 8 2 from h i s l e t t e r s . But a d i s t i n c t i o n between a " d e c o r a t i v e " p l a s t i c a r t t h a t i n c l u d e d M i c h e l a n g e l o , and a " s c u l p t u r a l o r l i n e a r " one t h a t d i d n o t , c o u l d have been c o n c e i v e d o n l y by B e r n a r d . B e r n a r d says about Cezanne: "His c o n c l u s i o n , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h h i s m e r i d i o n a l and e x p a n s i v e n a t u r e i s d e c o r a t i v e ; 8 3 t h a t i s , f r e e and e x a l t e d . " A c c o r d i n g t o B e r n a r d , as i s e v i d e n t from o t h e r o f h i s w r i t i n g s , c l a s s i c a l a r t i s "the f r e e s t a r t " because i t t a k e s from n a t u r e o n l y i t s laws,and c r e a t e s w i t h t h e a i d o f t h e s e laws i n a manner s i m i l a r t o t h e C r e a t o r ' s , - 109 - "who obeys n o t m a t t e r , b u t t h e s p i r i t , t h a t i s t o say h i s own 84 t h o u g h t . " The a r t i s t comes t o know t h e s e laws, o f n a t u r e from t h e o r y and by c o u n t l e s s s t u d i e s from n a t u r e , but a c c o r d i n g t o B e r n a r d , when he e x e c u t e s h i s d e f i n i t i v e work does not p a i n t i n f r o n t o f n a t u r e o r i n f r o n t o f a model. Such a freedom a c q u i r e d from t h e knowledge o f t h e "laws" o f c r e a t i o n was m a n i f e s t e d f o r 8 5 example i n M i c h e l a n g e l o (Bernard's i d o l ) . And B e r n a r d de- s c r i b e d M i c h e l a n g e l o ' s method: on one hand t h e c o n s t a n t s t u d y o f r e a l i t y , on t h e o t h e r "the freedom, the s y n t h e s i s , t h e im- 8 6 p o s i n g grandeur." I n 1904 he d e s c r i b e d Cezanne's method s i m i l a r l y , i n two s t e p s : f i r s t t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e "laws o f 8 7 n a t u r e " by s t u d i e s , t h a n a l o g i c a l s y n t h e s i s . Or, i n a n o t h e r v a r i a n t , he d e s c r i b e d Cezanne's w o r k i n g method as such: T e l l e e s t sa methode de t r a v a i l : d'abord une s o u m i s s i o n complete au modele; avec s o i n , 1 ' e t a b l i s s e m e n t de l a mise en p l a c e , l a r e c h e r c h e des g a l b e s , l e s r e l a t i o n s de p r o p o r t i o n s ; p u i s , a t r e s m e d i t a t i v e s s e a n c e s , 1 ' e x a l t a t i o n des s e n s a t i o n s c o l o r a n t e s , 1 ' e l e v a t i o n de l a forme v e r s une c o n c e p t i o n d e c o r a t i v e ; de l a c o u l e u r v e r s l e p l u s c h a n t a n t d i a p a s o n . A i n s i p l u s 1 ' a r t i s t e t r a v a i l l e , p l u s son ouvrage s ' e l o i g n e de l ' o b j e c t i f , p l u s i l se d i s t a n c e de l ' o p a c i t e du modele l u i s e r v a n t de p o i n t de d e p a r t , p l u s 11 e n t r e dans l a p e i n t u r e nue, sans a u t r e b u t qu'elle-meme; p l u s i l a b s t r a i t son t a b l e a u , p l u s i l s i m p l i f i e avec ampleur, a c r e s 1 ' a v o i r e n f a n t e e t r o i t , conforme, h e s i t a n t . Thus, as i n t h e a r t i c l e w r i t t e n i n 1891, B e r n a r d a g a i n emphasized Cezanne's " p a i n t i n g f o r i t s own sake ." Even though, as w i l l be- come c l e a r l a t e r , B e r n a r d d i d n o t approve o f t h e m a t e r i a l i s t i c c o n c e p t o f "pure p a i n t i n g , " h e had t o admit t h a t Cezanne's oeuvre was admired,; because,::among o t h e r t h i n g s , o f t h e "beauty 89 o f i t s m a t i e r e . " B e r n a r d i n s i s t e d on t h e e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s between Cezanne and I m p r e s s i o n i s m , m a i n l y on r e f l e c t i o n r e p l a c i n g - 110 - s p o n t a n e i t y , and achievement o f new d e c o r a t i v e s y n t h e s e s , n o t 90 f o r g e t t i n g t o m e n t i o n t h a t he " d e r i v e s " from I m p r e s s i o n i s m . T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n does n o t d i f f e r r e a l l y from L e c o m t e 1 s f o r example, and as a m a t t e r o f f a c t t h e l a t t e r had a p p l i e d i t n o t o n l y t o Cezanne, b u t t o P i s s a r r o and o t h e r o l d I m p r e s s i o n i s t s 91 as w e l l , i n 1892. B e r n a r d ' s own i d e a on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between n a t u r e and a r t became such t h a t he c o n s i d e r e d as " n a t u r a l i s m " any a e s t h e t i c based on e x p r e s s i n g " v i s i b l e t h i n g s " u s i n g a model i n s t e a d o f w o r k i n g from memory (he meant e s p e c i a l l y 92 memory o f o l d a r t ) and b y p a s s i n g " i n v e n t i o n . " I n a l e t t e r t o h i s mother w r i t t e n a t t h e t i m e o f h i s m e e t i n g w i t h Cezanne, B e r n a r d w r o t e t h a t t h e p a i n t e r " p r o f e s s e s t h e t h e o r i e s o f n a t u r a l i s m and I m p r e s s i o n i s m " and t h a t he "speaks o n l y o f p a i n t i n g n a t u r e a c c o r d i n g t o h i s p e r s o n a l i t y and n o t a c c o r d i n g 93 t o a r t i t s e l f . " Yet i n t h e p u b l i s h e d a r t i c l e B e r n a r d d e c l a r e d t h a t Cezanne was w r o n g l y c l a s s i f i e d i n t h e " d e p l o r a b l e s c h o o l i n a u g u r a t e d by M. Z o l a , " because he had a " m y s t i c a l temperament" and had a " p u r e l y a b s t r a c t and a e s t h e t i c v i s i o n o f t h i n g s . " B e r n a r d added: La ou d ' a u t r e s se p r e o c c u p e n t , pour se t r a d u i r e , de c r e e r un s u j e t , l u i se c o n t e n t e de quelques harmonies de l i g n e s e t de t o n a l i t i e s p r i s e s s u r des o b j e t s quelqohques, sans se s o u c i e r de ces o b j e t s en eux-memes; ...CSzanne e s t un m y s t i q u e p r e c i s e m e n t p a r ce d e d a i n de t o u t s u j e t , p a r 1'absence de v i s i o n m a t e r i e l l e , p a r un gout qu'avouent ses paysages, ses n a t u r e s m o r t e s , ses p o r t r a i t s , l e p l u s n o b l e e t l e p l u s h a u t : , .1-94 • *" l e s t y l e . T h i s was n o t t h e l a s t t i m e B e r n a r d ' s o p i n i o n s on Cezanne v a r i e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a u d i e n c e f o r w h i c h t h e y were i n t e n d e d , as we s h a l l see. I n t h i s a r t i c l e B e r n a r d t r i e d t o b u i l d an image o f Cezanne - I l l - as " c l a s s i c i s t . " I t i s here t h a t we e n c o u n t e r f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , a s coming from Cezanne, t h e s e n t e n c e : "One must become a g a i n c l a s s i c a l by t h e way o f n a t u r e , " b u t w i t h no mention o f P o u s s i n (who was n o t on the l i s t o f B e r n a r d ' s f a v o r i t e s , b u t on 95 D e n i s ' ) . The N e o - c l a s s i c i s t s were a g a i n s t " f l a t n e s s " i n d e c o r a t i o n , as w e l l as i n e a s e l p a i n t i n g , e s p e c i a l l y e m p h a s i z i n g t h e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l m o d e l l i n g o f forms, t h e "volumes." T h i s e x p l a i n s why B e r n a r d s w i t c h e d t h e meaning o f Cezanne's l e c t u r e on "the c y l i n d e r , t h e s p h e r e , t h e cone" from a l e s s o n i n p e r - s p e c t i v e , t o one on m o d e l l i n g , and gave as one o f the " o p i n i o n s o f P a u l Cezanne," t h i s : Tout dans l a n a t u r e se modele s e l o n l a s p h e r e , l e cone e t l e c y l i n d r e . I I f a u t s'apprendre a p e i n d r e s u r ces f i g u r e s s i m p l e s , on p o u r r a e n s u i t e f a i r e t o u t de qu'on v o u d r a . But B e r n a r d was a g a i n s t l i n e a r m o d e l l i n g , he was a g a i n s t l i n e a r c o n t o u r s , s i n c e t h e y i n t e r f e r e d , as we have seen, w i t h h i s c o n c e p t o f "freedom" and reminded him o f t h e academicism o f I n g r e s . He was a l s o a g a i n s t any k i n d o f l i n e a r " s t y l i z a t i o n , " 97 and a l s o c r i t i c i s e d Symbolism f o r t h a t r e a s o n . That " l i n e does n o t e x i s t " i n Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s was a l o n g l a s t i n g myth i n t h e h i s t o r y o f a r t , s t a r t e d by B e r n a r d who a p p a r e n t l y f o r g o t 98 t h a t he once admired h i s " p u r i t y o f l i n e . " When B e r n a r d says " l i n e does n o t e x i s t , " and "Drawing and c o l o u r a r e n o t s e p a r a t e a t a l l ; one draws as one p a i n t s ; " he a l m o s t seems t o quote from Gauguin's Notes S y n t h e t i q u e s ( w r i t t e n around 1885), b e f o r e B e r n a r d h i m s e l f i n d u c e d him i n t o u s i n g t h e " l i n e " ) t h a n from Cezanne, i n 99 whose p a i n t i n g s l i n e s , c e r t a i n l y do e x i s t . That i s , l i n e s e x i s t e x a c t l y i n t h o s e p a i n t i n g s i n w h i c h volumes a r e a l s o - 112 - emphasized, and w h i c h i n t e r e s t e d B e r n a r d . I t so happens t h a t i n 1904, when he v i s i t e d Cezanne, the o l d e r p a i n t e r was c l o s e r t o I m p r e s s i o n i s m than he had been i n more t h a n twenty y e a r s , and he was p r o d u c i n g what i n my o p i n i o n can be c o n s i d e r e d h i s b e s t examples o f "pure p a i n t i n g 1 , " h i s l a t e s t s e r i e s o f S a i n t e - V i c t o i r e canvases.''"^ I n such p a i n t i n g s Cezanne d i d not emphasize o u t l i n e s , nor volumes, b u t r a t h e r t h e c o l o u r e d " p a t c h " ( l a tache) . I t seems t h a t a t the time Cezanne c o u l d have been outspoken a g a i n s t d a r k , emphasized o u t l i n e s ( l i n e f e l l i n d i s g r a c e among o t h e r p a i n t e r s t h a t used t o r e l y h e a v i l y on i t , such as V u i l l a r d o r Bonnard), because t h i s i s e v i d e n t i n h i s l e t t e r o f 23 O c t o b e r , 102 1905 t o B e r n a r d . But i n the p a i n t i n g s B e r n a r d admired most, i n w h i c h volumes were c l e a r l y d e f i n e d , the s o l i d shapes were m o d e l l e d b o t h by l i n e a r c o n t o u r s ( o u t l i n e d u s u a l l y i n P r u s s i a n b l u e , not c o n t i n u o u s , but o f a " l o s t - a n d - f o u n d " type) and by c o n t r a s t s between f a i r l y l a r g e a r e a s o f d i f f e r e n t t o n a l i t y , as w e l l as by " c o l o u r m o d u l a t i o n s " (but t h i s o n l y as a r e f i n e m e n t ) . The concept o f " m o d u l a t i o n " i n Cezanne's p a i n t i n g was here i n - t r o d u c e d f o r t h e f i r s t time by B e r n a r d , who c l a i m e d i t was a s u b s t i t u t e f o r " m o d e l l i n g . " Thus B e r n a r d c o u l d say Cezanne "modulated" t h e shapes w h i l e m o d u l a t i n g the c o l o u r , w i t h o u t any h e l p from l i n e s . W h i l e t h i s might be t r u e f o r shapes t h a t d i d n o t have much r e l i e f , such as f o l i a g e o r s l i g h t a c c i d e n t s i n t h e t e r r a i n , i t does not h o l d f o r t h e " c y l i n d e r , " the "sphere," o r the "cone." That Cezanne m o d e l l e d i n c o l o u r and not i n terms o f b l a c k and w h i t e ( c h i a r o s c u r o ) i s not a n o v e l t y , a l l Im- 103 p r e s s i o n i s t s d i d i t , a l l " c o l o r i s t s . " But I doubt v e r y much - 113 - i f Cezanne s a i d "One s h o u l d n o t say t o model, one s h o u l d say t o modulate," u n l e s s he r e f e r r e d t o t h e " m o d e l l i n g o f t h e t a b l e a 104 n o t o f i n d i v i d u a l o b j e c t s i n p a i n t i n g . The term " m o d u l a t i o n " was used by C h a r l e s B l a n c , i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h D e l a c r o i x and O r i e n t a l t i s s u e s and c e r a m i c s , and i t r e f e r s t o making a f l a t 105 and s e e m i n g l y u n i f o r m l y c o l o r e d s u r f a c e " v i b r a t e . " Cezanne might have been used t h e term, s i n c e he c e r t a i n l y used the p r o - c e d u r e , o r B e r n a r d might have remembered i t from Gauguin o r from 106 h i s own r e a d i n g s . But i t i s n o t c o r r e c t t o s u b s t i t u t e i t f o r m o d e l l i n g i n g e n e r a l . Toward t h e end o f t h e y e a r (1904) a n o t h e r a r t i c l e was p u b l i s h e d i n L'.Occident, i n w h i c h Cezanne o c c u p i e d a c e n t r a l p l a c e . I t was w r i t t e n by C a r l o s de C a s t e r a (a f r i e n d o f M a u r i c e Denis) who s i g n e d i t " S o l r a c " (which i s " C a r l o s " s p e l l e d back- wards) , on t h e o c c a s i o n o f t h e F a l l S a l o n ( S a l o n DIAutomne) 10 7 -- - — • where Cezanne had a whole room. De C a s t e r a made an i n - t e r e s t i n g comparison between P u v i s de Chavannes and Cezanne, from t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e i r " d e c o r a t i v e c o n c e p t i o n . " He compared P u v i s ' l a r g e - s c a l e d e c o r a t i o n s w i t h Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s and p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i n b o t h c a s e s t h e r e was c o n c e r n f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e p l a n a r s u r f a c e . Of c o u r s e , Puvisj^' de- c o r a t i o n s had a p r e c i s e d e s t i n a t i o n , and t h e r e f o r e had t o be i n harmony w i t h t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s : L'un p e i n t en vue d'une s a l l e , d'un e d i f i c e ; l a c o m p o s i t i o n d e c o r a t i v e s'harmonise avec l e m i l i e u a i n s i que l e s c o u l e u r s q u i f o n t c o r p s avec l e mur ou l e p l a f o n d , l e c o n t i n u e sans faire.'trou'!;!)autre- ment d i t , P u v i s s i t u e s a peinture; x® 8 ' ' Cezanne d i d not p a i n t w i t h a p r e c i s e d e s t i n a t i o n i n mind, b u t h i s p a i n t i n g f u l f i l l e d t h e same b a s i c d e c o r a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t o f - 114 - n o t making a " h o l e " i n the w a l l . " S o l r a c " w r o t e : - 1 ' a u t r e , Cezanne, au c o n t r a i r e , l o c a l i s e s a c o n c e p t i o n t o u t e n t i e r e dans l a l i m i t e de l a t o i l e , n'en depasse pas l e r e c t a n g l e ; e l l e o b t i e n t son maximum d - ' e f f e t d e c o r a t i f en vue du c a d r e q u i l a renferme. E l l e ne derange pas non p l u s l e p l a n du t a b l e a u . Ce n ' e s t pas que Cezanne ne p e r g o i v e l e s t r o i s d i m e n s i o n s des o b j e t s dans l a n a t u r e mais s a t o i l e n'en possede que deux; conforme avec l a l o g i q u e de son i d e a l d e c o r a t i f , i l ne f a i t pas usage des " v a l e u r s " p o u r en c r e v e r l a s u r f a c e p l a n e t f a i r e f u i r un f o n d ; sa v i s i o n e s t s i m p l e comme c e l l e des p r e m i e r s i m a g i e r s e t chaque o b j e t r e s t e dans l e p l a n du t a b l e a u , t e l l e une d e c o r a t i o n de P u v i s r e s t e dans l e p l a n du mur; l e s o b j e t s du t a b l e a u ne p r e n n e n t une s i g n f i c a t i o n que p a r 1 ' e x a l t a t i o n de l a p e i n t u r e nue sans a u t r e b u t qu'elle-meme. ^9 " S o l r a c " added t h a t b e f o r e a c h i e v i n g t h i s phase o f pure p a i n t i n g , Cezanne spends "numerous m e d i t a t i v e seances i n f r o n t o f n a t u r e , a n e c e s s a r y c r u t c h f o r h i s c o l o r e d t r a n s p o s i t i o n s , f o r t h e r i g h t - f u l n e s s o f t h e l o c a l tone and t h i s l a r g e synthesis."''""'"^ T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n he acknowledged he g o t from B e r n a r d ' s a r t i c l e o f t h e same y e a r i n L ' O c c i d e n t . " S o l r a c " d e s c r i b e d t h r e e o f Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s i n t h e e x h i b i t i o n ; the s t i l l - l i f e he mentioned can be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e one Denis r e p r e s e n t e d ( S y m b o l i z i n g Cezanne) i n h i s Hommage au Cezanne ( F i g . 7 ) , t h a t i s V.341. C a l l i n g i t a "pure m a s t e r p i e c e , " he emphasized a g a i n t h a t i t s q u a l i t y i s w h o l l y d e t e r m i n e d by i t b e i n g a pure p a i n t i n g , w i t h o u t any c o n c e r n f o r t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r : T e l l e une m a r q u e t e r i e q u i n ' a u r a i t pas de sens on peut l a r e g a r d e r independamment du s u j e t , debout, i n c l i n e e , . couchee e t l e s t a c h e s de bas en h a u t , de -, , , d r o i t e a gauche, s ' e q u i l i b r e n t , se c o n t r e - b a l a n c e n t . " S o l r a c " p o i n t e d o u t t h a t Cezanne a c h i e v e d a harmony w i t h i n h i s c a n v a s , t h a t i s i n t h e m i l i e u o f t h e p a i n t i n g i t s e l f . T h i s was t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from P u v i s ' h a r m o n i z i n g h i s d e c o r a t i v e c o m p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e m i l i e u f o r w h i c h i t i s d e s t i n e d t o be a p a r t . - 115 - We are dealing here with the emancipation of "pure painting," with a painting that while being .decorative and based on the same p r i n c i p l e s as a mural decoration, s t r i v e s toward " i n - dependence," s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y , since i t i s not dependent on a 112 p a r t i c u l a r destination. After a l l that struggle f o r de- coration to catch up i n a status with painting, painting found a way to get ahead again*. In a characterization that reminds one of Geffroy's (minus the reserves about h i s gaucheries), Solrac declared that Cezanne "does not approach nature with a program," and added: Pas de formule dans son oeuvre qui repond simplement a un i d e a l decoratif portant l'empreinte de sa grand p e r s o n n a l i t e . 1 ± 3 The c r i t i c then proceeds to discuss Cezanne's influence on the young generation and characterizes i t as "a s p i r i t u a l t i e , rather than a d i r e c t influence." He refers to Maurice Denis (described as "the most complete," knowing how to blend "freshness" and "modernity" with a "sane t r a d i t i o n , " and having an "insatiable decorative imagination" that brings every year "the most d e l i c i o u s surprises"), V u i l l a r d , Roussel, and Bonnard. "Solrac" considered that a l l these painters who yesterday were i s o l a t e d i n d i v i d u a l i s t s , today form a "family," united by the recognition of nature as t h e i r only c o u n s e l l o r 4 Roger Marx's review of the same F a l l Salon of 1904 included a discussion of Cezanne and the reproduction of one of h i s paintings, L'Aqueduc (V.477, 1885-87). The review was published i n the Gazette des Beaux-Arts of which he was the editor. Marx, as i t was mentioned already, was an "enlightened amateur" and 115 supporter of the decorative a r t s . He was an early supporter - 116 - o f the Nabis. and o f E m i l e Bernard.. He s u p p o r t e d t h e r e t u r n t o " f a i t h " e v i d e n t i n S y m b o l i s t a r t , and defended the young a v a n t - garde i n 1895 d e c l a r i n g t h a t n e i t h e r t h e N a b i s , nor t h e p u p i l s o f Gustave Moreau h a t e d n a t u r e , t h e y were s i m p l y a g a i n s t a 116 p h o t o g r a p h i c image o f i t . Now, i n 1904, as i s e v i d e n t from 117 t h i s a r t i c l e , he i s a s u p p o r t e r o f F r e n c h n a t i o n a l i s m . He i s i n s i s t e n t on p o i n t i n g out t h e l i n k s w i t h t h e p a s t (the F r e n c h past'.) m a i n t a i n e d i n modern a r t p r o d u c t i o n . I n f a c t t h i s i s why t h e S a l o n d.'Automne had s p e c i a l rooms ( r e t r o s p e c t i v e e x h i b i t i o n s ) f o r P u v i s , Redon, Cezanne, R e n o i r and T o u l o u s e - L a u t r e c . As Marx p u t s i t , t h e new g e n e r a t i o n o f " i n v e n t o r s " and " r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s " does n o t b e l i e v e i n " g e n e r a t i o n spontanee," t h a t i s b e l i e v e s i n 118 i t s e v o l u t i o n , i n i t s descendence from " M a s t e r s . " Marx e s t a b l i s h e d Cezanne's genealogy as a p a i n t e r , q u o t i n g o n l y F r e n c h " a n c e s t o r s " : t h e F r e n c h P r i m i t i v e s , P o u s s i n , C o r o t , C o u r b e t , Daumier. I would l i k e t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h i s i s t h e f i r s t t i m e 119 Cezanne was c o n n e c t e d w i t h P o u s s i n . Thus Marx l i n k e d Cezanne w i t h t h e " d e c o r a t i v e " t r a d i t i o n o f P o u s s i n and C o r o t , as w e l l as w i t h Courbet and Daumier, who were a p p r e c i a t e d then f o r 120 t h e i r "pure p a i n t i n g " q u a l i t i e s (such as p a t e and brushwork). I n l i n k i n g him w i t h Daumier, t h e c r i t i c r e f e r r e d t o Cezanne's nude b a t h e r s '('academies) and t h e d e l i b e r a t e e x a g g e r a t i o n o f t h e 121 c o n t o u r s i n 'search o f c h a r a c t e r . ! ' T h i s c o n t r a d i c t e d B e r n a r d ' s d e n i a l o f c o n t o u r s . A l s o , u n l i k e B e r n a r d o f 1904, Marx em- p h a s i z e d t h e f l a t c o l o u r ( a - p T a t s ) i n Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s , i n - d i c a t i n g he was n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n " d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t o n e " as t h e - I m p r e s s i o n i s t s were. There a r e i n d e e d f a i r l y l a r g e a r e a s o f " f l a t " c o l o u r i n Cezanne's p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e 1890s and e a r l y - 117 - 1900s, w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f most o f t h e l a n d s c a p e s . Marx con- c l u d e d h i s d i s c u s s i o n on Cezanne by p o i n t i n g o u t Cezanne's i n - f l u e n c e on t h e m a t e r i a l i s t i c "pure p a i n t i n g , " as w e l l as on t h e group o f p a i n t e r s ( e x - p u p i l s o f Moreau) such as Mar que t',. M a t i s s e , Camoin, who combined t h e method o f a p p l y i n g l a r g e touches o f 122 f l a t c o l o u r w i t h a tendency toward " S t y l e . " I n t h e end he d e c l a r e d t h a t "the r e v o l u t i o n a r y r e a l i z e d t h e oeuvre o f a c l a s s i c " and a t t h e same t i m e he " f o r c e f u l l y b r o u g h t back t h e 123 l o v e f o r t h e b e a u t i f u l m a t i e r e . " Cezanne thanked Marx i n a l e t t e r i n w h i c h he f l a t t e r e d t h e "amator" i n Marx by d e c l a r i n g he w i l l "always be g r a t e f u l t o t h e p u b l i c o f i n t e l l i g e n t amateurs who... .have i n t u i t i v e l y u n d e r s t o o d what I wanted t o t r y i n o r d e r 124 t o renew my a r t . " I n May 1905 Denis p u b l i s h e d i n L'Ermitage t h e a r t i c l e "La r e a c t i o n n a t i o n a l i s t e , " d e d i c a t e d t o h i s f r i e n d A d r i e n M i t h o u a r d , "who had t h e b o l d n e s s t o found L ' O c c i d e n t d u r i n g t h e f u l l - 125 f l e d g e d D r e y f u s i s t c r i s i s . " He mentioned t h a t a f t e r t h e p r e v i o u s S a l o n d'automne Cezanne was " u n i v e r s a l l y admired" and t h a t " o n l y he who i s b o r n out o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s e two m a s t e r s ( h e r e f e r r e d t o P u v i s de Chavannes and Gustave Moreau) 126 and o u t o f t h e 'barbary' o f Cezanne w i l l s u r v i v e . " I n March 1905, r e v i e w i n g t h e e x h i b i t i o n o f Ch. G u e r i n (whose p a i n t i n g he c l a s s i f i e d as "pure p a i n t i n g ' 9 >' Denis w r o t e i n L ' O c c i d e n t : Meme son etude d'apres n a t u r e ne comporte r i e n de p l u s qu'une s u r f a c e p l a n e r e c o u v e r t e de c o u l e u r s en un c e r t a i n o r d r e a s s e m b l i e s , s e l o n 1'exemplc de Cezanne; e t c ' e s t Cezanne q u ' i l e s t r e d e v a b l e , comme t o u s l e s modernes, de l a c o n c e p t i o n v r a i m e n t ' p e i n t r e ' du t a b l e a u . 1 2 7 - 118 - D e n i s r e f e r r e d here t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n he gave p a i n t i n g i n 1980, 128 and w h i c h he p r e v i o u s l y c l a i m e d he l e a r n e d from Gauguin. Now he h e l d Cezanne r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h i s c o n c e p t , w h i c h meant e s - s e n t i a l l y t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t a b l e a u i n t o f l a t d e c o r a t i o n . The c r i t i c f o r A r t e t D e c o r a t i o n , F r a n c o i s Monod, i n h i s r e v i e w o f the S a l o n d'Automne o f 1905 was e x t r e m e l y c r i t i c a l o f t h i s i n f l u e n c e o f Cezanne w i t h r e g a r d t o the t r e n d toward "pure p a i n t i n g . " Monod was on t h e s i d e o f N e o - C l a s s i c i s m and a s s o c i a - t e d "pure p a i n t i n g " w i t h "anarchy." He was unhappy t h a t " t h i s group o f c o l o r i s t s , c u r i o u s and new, w h i c h made a r e p u t a t i o n f o r t h e m s e l v e s a t t h e S a l o n des Independents, who d i d show some p r o - mise and who r u i n e d t h e m s e l v e s because t h e y took i m p r o v i s a t i o n and i n c o h e r e n c e as a r u l e , r e f u s i n g t o condescend t o a n y t h i n g t h a t means o r d e r , s e l e c t i o n , d i l i g e n c e w e r e the ones who "con- 129 t i n u e d t o g i v e t h e tone a t the S a l o n d'Automne." Monod p o i n t e d o u t t h a t Cezanne was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s : A son c o r p s d e f e n d a n t , M. Cezanne s u r t o u t e s t r e s p o n s a b l e de c e t t e d i s o r g a n i s a t i o n du m e t i e r parmi quelque-uns des p e i n t r e s q u i se f l a t t e n t ^ 0 d ' a v o i r r e c u i l l i l a . s u c c e s s i o n de 1 ' i m p r e s s i o n n i s m e . One o f t h e s e p a i n t e r s was V u i l l a r d , who a d m i t t e d l y , was "one o f t h e b e s t c o l o r i s t s o f our t i m e . " But Monod t h i n k s t h a t , Meme r e d u i t e a un.pur p a r t i - p r i s de t a c h e s d e c o r a t i v e s , l a p e i n t u r e n'a j a m a i s pu, e l l e ne p o u r r a j a m a i s r e p r e s e n t e r des meubles, des f i g u r e s , une p e r s p e c t i v e ou un assemblage d ' o b j e t s s o l i d e s a l a maniere d'une c o r b e i l l e d'echeveaux. 131 Monod cannot a c c e p t e a s e l p a i n t i n g b e i n g equated w i t h d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , t h a t i s w i t h p a i n t i n g w h i c h i s n o t o n l y d e c o r a t i v e , b u t i s a l s o a " t r u e " d e c o r a t i o n . ' He a d m i t s t h a t V u i l l a r d has t h i s "magic v i s i o n t h a t t r a n s p o s e s the most v u l g a r s p e c t a c l e s i n - 119 - e x q u i s i t e and unexpected a c c o r d s o f t o n e s , " t h a t h i s e x h i b i t e d p a n e l s have the. c o l o r harmony o f t h e most rare, " d e c o r a t i v e t a p e s t r i e s . " B u t V u i l l a r d ' s p a i n t i n g s a l s o had t h e f a u l t t h a t because o f l a c k o f " c o n s t r u c t i o n , o f c l a r i t y , o r f i r m n e s s i n l i n e s and arabesques" t h e y were n o t h i n g b u t "ebauches." A l s o t h e y were l i k e an O r i e n t a l r u g a t w h i c h one l o o k s w i t h o u t t h i n k i n g o f a n y t h i n g : Le monde e x t e r i e u r , t e n t u r e s , m o b i l i e r s , personages, l i g n e s de t e r r a i n s , c i e l s , a r b r e s e t f e u i l l a g e s , l u i a p p a r a i t comme un p l a n d e c o r a t i f ou t o u t e s choses f o u r m i l l e n t e t f l e u r i s s e n t a l a fagon d'un r i c h e t a p i s d ' O r i e n t qu'on r e g a r d e sans penser a r i e n . x 3 2 I n Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s Monod found "good p i e c e s o f mosaic": I l y a, dans ses t a b l e a u x , de c i , de l a , de beaux morceaux de mosalque; i l a p e i n t des pommes e t des b i s c u i t s avec une c e r t a i n e r i c h e s s e ou avec une v e r d e u r p e s a n t e de touche e t de t o n ; 1 3 3 But he d e t e s t e d t h e p l a s t e r - l i k e q u a l i t y o f h i s m a t i e r e , and h i s " i n a b i l i t y " t o draw and p a i n t : - M a i s , du r e s t e , q u e l l e h o r r i b l e r u s t i c i t e ' . Q u e l l e m a t i e r e h i d e u s e e t p l a t r e u s e l Q u e l l e p i t o y a b l e , q u e l l e i r r e p a r a b l e i m p u i s s a n c e a manier d e s s i n e t p e i n t u r e ' . x 3 ^ Monod g r u d g i n g l y conceded t h a t one c o u l d d e t e c t some dormant "Grandeur o f c o n s t r u c t i o n " i n Cezanne's l a n d s c a p e s : ...ses paysages o n t c e r t a i n s a c c o r d s drus e t opaques d'outremer, d'emeraude e t de t e r r e rouge, q u i s o n t a f o r c e de c o n t e m p l a t i o n n a i v e , d'y f a i r e p r e s s e n t i r j e ne s a i s q u e l l e grandeur de c o n s t r u c t i o n q u i y someille.135" Monod f a i l e d t o see c o n s t r u c t i v e q u a l i t i e s i n t h e manner o f P o u s s i n i n Cezanne (he a c t u a l l y p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t h a v i n g Cezanne p l a c e d among P o u s s i n , P u v i s and Watteau i n t h e p r e f a c e o f t h e S a l o n C a t a l o g u e ) , b u t saw r a t h e r a d e c o r a t i v e m o s a i c . I t i s t r u e t h a t w h i l e h i s c l a s s i c i s t a d m i r e r s were comparing him w i t h P o u s s i n , -120 - Cezanne was p a i n t i n g h i s famous s e r i e s o f Mount S a i n t e - V i c t o i r e (such as f o r example V. 79 8-V.802) o r Chateau N o i r ( e s p e c i a l l y V. 795 and V. 797) t h a t even today draws comparisons w i t h woven 136 m a t e r i a l s , such as t a p e s t r y . L o o k i n g a t t h e s q u a r i s h p a t c h e s o f s t r o k e s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e t h e b u i l d i n g b r i c k s o f t h e p a i n t i n g Chateau N o i r now i n t h e Louvre (V. 795), i t i s easy t o see t h e comparison w i t h a m o s a i c . Monod saw i n Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s m o s t l y t h e " d e c o r a t i v e f l a t n e s s " ( t h a t i s t h e f l a t n e s s o f a c a r p e t o r a mosaic) t h a t today i s imputed t o Gauguin and c o n s i d e r e d t h e main d i s t i n c t i o n between him and Cezanne. On t h e o t h e r hand, i n h i s r e v i e w o f t h e S a l o n d'Automne o f 1905, D e n i s remarked t h a t "...Cezanne p a r a i t quelque v i e u x m a i t r e s e v e r e , au s t y l e c h a t i e , l e P o u s s i n de l a n a t u r e - m o r t e 137 e t du paysage v e r t " . T h i s i s t h e f i r s t t i m e Denis compared 138 C i z a n n e t o P o u s s i n , t h a t i s a y e a r a f t e r Roger Marx. No doubt D e n i s was i n f l u e n c e d i n h i s comparison w i t h P o u s s i n (who was a t t h e t i m e v e r y much i n f a v o r w i t h t h e n a t i o n a l i s t i c c l a s s i c i s t s ) by t h e r e c e n t d e c l a r a t i o n made by C h a r l e s Camoin i n Mercure de F r a n c e , namely t h a t "Cezanne o f t e n says t h a t a l l 139 he wanted was t o v i v i f y P o u s s i n a f t e r n a t u r e . " That D e n i s v e r y c a r e f u l l y r e a d a l l t h e answers t o t h e i n t e r v i e w s o f t h e Enquete p u b l i s h e d by C h a r l e s M o r i c e i n t h e Mercure i s e v i d e n t 140 from t h i s r e v i e w o f t h e S a l o n o f 1905. Among D e n i s ' con- c l u s i o n s was t h e f a c t t h a t " I m p r e s s i o n i s m was f i n i s h e d " ( M o r i c e s p e c i f i c a l l y asked i f t h i s was t h e c a s e ) , and t h a t "Cezanne was v e r y much d i s c u s s e d : i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t he i s t h e s u b j e c t o f c o n v e r s a t i o n s i n a l l s t u d i o s " ( a g a i n M o r i c e asked s p e c i f i c a l l y - 121 - f o r an o p i n i o n on Cezanne). Denis wanted to. demonstrate now t h a t t h e r e e x i s t e d a smooth t r a n s i t i o n from Symbolism t o 141 ' C l a s s i c i s m . . Thus he p r e s e n t e d Gauguin as a " c l a s s i c i s t , " and o f c o u r s e a l s o Cezanne (whose l a n d s c a p e s can be r e l a t e d a f t e r a l l t o t h e P o u s s i n e s q u e c o n c e p t o f t h e " d e c o r a t i v e " l a n d - scape f a v o u r e d by c r i t i c s o f t h e e a r l y 1890s,>), "the i n i t i a t o r o f P a u l Gauguin, 1 1 who Denis p o i n t e d o u t , " i n t u r n became^, i n - 142 f l u e n t i a l " o n l y a f t e r Gauguin. W r i t i n g on A r i s t i d e M a i l l o l ( L ' O c c i d e n t , November 1905) D e n i s f l a t l y d e c l a r e d : . . . i l a p r i s p a r t au mouvement n e o - c l a s s i q u e dont i l f a u t c h e r c h e r 1 ' o r i g i n e r i c e n t e a u t o u r de Cezanne e t de G a u g u i n . x ^ 3 P a u l S e r u s i e r c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e i n i t i a t o r s o f t h e " p r e s e n t movement" were n o t o n l y Cezanne and Gauguin, b u t a l s o P i s s a r r o , e x c e p t S e r u s i e r was n o t a " c l a s s i c i s t " i n D e n i s ' sense. He e x p l a i n e d i n M o r i c e ' s Enquete t h a t he f a v o r e d t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n o f " c l a s s i c a l " works i n t h e sense o f b e i n g " v e r y a n c i e n t . " He r e f e r r e d e s p e c i a l l y t o "anonymous" works o f a r t , such as o l d t a p e s t r y , o r Cambodian s c u l p t u r e . S e r u s i e r was n o t a g a i n s t " f l a t n e s s " as t h e N e o - C l a s s i c i s t s were, b u t f o r p a i n t i n g f o r p a i n t i n g ' s sake w h i c h had not o n l y t o "charm t h e eye" b u t a l s o t o "speak t o t h e s p i r i t " " (He n e v e r renounced N e o - P l a t o n i s m , and he became an adept o f t h e Beuron a e s t h e t i c s . ) S e r u s i e r e s p e c i a l l y emphasized Cezanne's r o l e i n t u r n i n g a r t from n a t u r a l i s t i c i m i t a t i o n t o t h i s " d e c o r a t i v e " (but not s i m p l y i n t h e m a t e r i a l i s t i c sense o f "pure, p a i n t i n g " ) a r t f o r a r t ' s sake: Je d o i s t o u t e f o i s r e c o n n a i t r e que Gauguin h ' e s t pas I ' i n i t i a t e u r de mouvement a c t u e l . Ce mouvement, d i r i g g d'abord p a r P i s s a r r o , f u t r e c t i f i e e n s u i t e p a r C i z a n n e , que Gauguin nous r e v g l a . - 122 - Cezanne a su d e p o u i l l e r l ' a r t p i c t u r a l de t o u t e s l e s m o i s i s s u r e s que l e temps y a v a i e n t accumulees. I I a montre c l a i r e m e n t que 1 ' i m i t a t i o n n ' e s t qu'un moyen, que l e but.unique e s t de d i s p o s e r s u r une s u r f ace ..donee l e s l i g n e s e t l e s c o u l e u r s , de f a c o n a charmer l e s yeux, a p a r l e r a 1 ' e s p r i t , a c r i e r , e n f i n , par. des moyens purement. p l a s t i q u e s un l a n g a g e , ou p l u t o t e n c o r e , a r e t r o u v e r l e langage u n i v e r s e l . ...Qu'une t r a d i t i o n ;naisse a n o t r e epoque,- ce que j ' o s e e s p e r e r , - c ' e s t de Cezanne q u ' e l l e n a i t r a . x 4 4 To t h e d i s t r e s s o f h a r d - l i n e c l a s s i c i s t s and t r a d i t i o n a - l i s t s such as B e r n a r d , one o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n s emerging from M o r i c e ' s i n q u i r y , o f 1905. was t h e f a c t t h a t most p a i n t e r s p r e - f e r r e d contemporary masters t o the O l d M a s t e r s . Both La R e n o v a t i o n E s t h e t i q u e (the r e a c t i o n a r y r e v i e w o f B e r n a r d ) , as w e l l as L ' O c c i d e n t c o m p l a i n e d about t h e "anarchy" and " i n c o - herence" r e v e a l e d by M o r i c e ' s Enquete b u t o n l y t h e R e n o v a t i o n complained t h a t "Nobody dared t o go t o M i c h e l a n g e l o o r R a p h a e l . The summits are s c a r y ! " The O c c i d e n t was a c t u a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n c l a s s i c i s m as a "method," i n a. "modern c l a s s i c i s m . " B e r n a r d was i n c e n s e d t h a t P i e r r e Hepp, the w r i t e r f o r the O c c i d e n t com- p a r e d Cezanne (who o t h e r w i s e was "the r e m a r k a b l e p a i n t e r whom we admire") t o M i c h e l a n g e l o , " t h i s l i g h t h o u s e from which a l l c l a r i t y p r o p a g a t e d f o r t h e l a s t t h r e e c e n t u r i e s on a l l branches 14 5 o f A b s o l u t e A r t . " Eepp e x p l a i n e d .that Raphael and \ M i c h e l a n g e l o were t o o p e r f e c t , d i d not l e a v e much room f o r development and. improvement f o r f o l l o w e r s . He s a i d : Raphael donne t o u t , ce q u i e s t t r o p . . . I I a conjugue e n t i e r e m e n t l e v e r b e . Cezanne n.'en a conjugue que deux ou t r o i s temps a p e i n e . I I nous l a i s s e de l a besogne et.nous propose une d i s c i p l i n e pour l a mener a bonne f i n . Eepp found i t " r e m a r k a b l e " t h a t t h e p a i n t e r s i n t e r v i e w e d by M o r i c e ("most o f them young") "unanimously r e n d e r e d hommage - 123 - t o Cezanne. x'*' . He e x p l a i n e d : "Cezanne i s a M a s t e r , because . he i s a beginning.. He. p r e s c r i b e s a method." And Hepp made t h i s s t a t e m e n t , t h a t as we s h a l l see, enraged B e r n a r d : Pour 1 ' o e i l q u i ne goute p o i n t m a t e r i e l l e m e n t l e s q u a l i t e s d'un t o n , l a p l e n i t u d e d'un a c c o r d , l ' o r - .. donnance d'une s u r f a c e c o l o r e e , en. dehors de t o u t e p r e o c c u p a t i o n o b j e c t i v e , sa pure p e i n t u r e demeure sans a t t r a i t e t f o u r n i t un a l i m e n t i n - a s s i m i l a b l e . E l l e dejoue l e s commentateurs l i t t e r a i r e s e t ne s o l l i c i t e p o i n t l e u r s u f f r a g e , ayant c e l u i des v r a i s p e i n t r e s q u i t r o u v e n t en e l l e l e p o i n t d'appui i n d i s p e n s a b l e pour a l l e r p l u s a v a n t dans l e u r s r e c h e r c h e s . x ^ 8 B e r n a r d r e t o r t e d w i t h t h e a r t i c l e "De M i c h e l Ange a P a u l Cezanne," p u b l i s h e d i n t h e R e n o v a t i o n E s t h e t i q u e under t h e name • F r a n c i s • Lepeseur (one o f the pseudonyms he was u s i n g ) . He was o u t r a g e d t h a t a " t r a d i t i o n a l i s t i c and n a t i o n a l i s t i c revue w h i c h r e s p e c t s i t s e l f and a c c e p t s o n l y a v e r y s m a l l number o f members w i t h pure i n t e n t i o n s " as L ' O c c i d e n t was, gave way, 149 " l i k e the most a n a r c h i s t i c ones," t o the t a s t e f o r paradox. B e r n a r d e s p e c i a l l y o b j e c t e d t o t h e above quote from L ' O c c i d e n t (note 153) w h i c h he r e p r o d u c e d h i m s e l f i n t h e R e n o v a t i o n , c l a i m i n g " i n i t s e n t i r e t y , " b u t o m i t t i n g the i m p o r t a n t word " m a t e r i e l l e m e n t . " A c c o r d i n g t o B e r n a r d , t h i s p r i n c i p l e o f Hepp's e x c l u d e d Raphael o r M i c h e l a n g e l o from "Pure P a i n t i n g , " e q u a t i n g them w i t h " l i t e r a r y g e n i u s e s , " and d i s m i s s i n g t h e S i s t i n e o r V a t i c a n . f r e s c o e s as " o b j e c t i v i t y " because I I ne s ' a g i t p l u s que de p e i n d r e , e t de p e i n d r e n'impor.te q u o i , pourvu que c e l a ne s o i t pas O b j e c t i f , c ' e s t - a - d i r e r e c o n n a i s s a b l e ; i l f a u t que n o t r e s u r f a c e n ' S t a l e p l u s que l a q u a l i t y d'un t o n , l a p l e n i t u d e : d'un a c c o r d , 1'ordonnance c o l o r e e , e t c . , b r e f que ce s o i t de l a pure p e i n t u r e , de l a t e c h n i e , u t i l e seulement a ceux q u i f o n t des r e c h e r c h e s . x 5 0 What b o t h e r e d B e r n a r d r e a l l y was the f a c t t h a t t h i s "pure - 124 - p a i n t i n g " was t o be e n j o y e d on t h e m a t e r i a l , not s p i r i t u a l l e v e l ; i t d i d n o t s t a n d f o r any I d e a . A f t e r a l l , i n 1 8 9 i 1 he was t h e f i r s t t o a c c l a i m t h i s "door" t h a t Cezanne "opened." He had a l s o i m i t a t e d Cezanne q u i t e l i t e r a l l y , y e t now he d e c l a r e d , Quoique r e c o n n a i s a n t en Paul. Cezanne un p e i n t r e de r a r e q u a l i t e , nous ne pouvons c r o i r e a l a p o s s i b i l i t e de son a m p l i f i c a t i o n p a r un a u t r e que lui-meme. L i m i t e a une t e c h n i q u e p a r t i c u l i e r e , rendue e t r o i t e p a r ses precedes c o m p i i q u e s , i n a s s i m i l a b l e a de grand f o r m a t s par s u i t e de son extreme m i n u t i e e t n e g a t r i e e des grands e f f e t s r e c l a m e s par 1 1 oevre d 1 i m a g i n a t i o n , P a u l Cezanne .. n ' e s s u i e r a qu 1 une i m i t a t i o n f a c h e u s e e t m a l a d r o i t e . The same y e a r (June 1905), M. D e n i s a l s o c r i t i c i s e d t h i s con- c e p t o f "pure p a i n t i n g " t h a t aims o n l y f o r t h e " s e n s u a l p l e a s u r e o f t h e eye" and n e g l e c t s the s o u l ; Mais ne c h e r c h e r dans l a p e i n t u r e , comme on t e n d a l e f a i r e de p l u s en p l u s , que l e p l a i s i r s e n s u e l des yeux, ne l a v o u l o i r que d e c o r a t i v e , c ' e s t i g n o r e r l a p a r t que prend 1'ame humaine aux s a t i s f a c t i o n s re&t h e t i q u e s . . . x ^3 He n o t i c e d t h a t a t t h e Independents' e x h i b i t i o n s t h e r e are not many canvases v / i t h a n n e c d o t a l o r l i t e r a r y s u b j e c t s , but " t h e o r e t i c a l and t e c h n i c a l r e s e a r c h i s i n abundance: t h e e f f o r t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f pure p a i n t i n g i s c o n s i d e r a b l e and r e m a r k a b l y v a r i e d . " Y e t , Denis asks a r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n , "are t h e r e s u l t s any b e t t e r ? " : E s t - c e a d i r e que l e s r e s u l t a t s s o i e n t m e i l l e u r s ? I I ne s u f f . i t pas de v o u l o i r n ' e t r e que p e i n t r e pour l ' e t r e s u p e r i e u r e m e n t . L'example d'un Cezanne ou d'un V u i l l a r d n ' i n f i r m e pas n o t r e o p i n i o n . Car s ' i l e s t v r a i q u ' l l s ne t i r e n t que des r e s s o u r c e s meme de l e u r a r t l e s moyens par..quoi i l s nous emeuvent). i l f a u t n o t e r q u e l e s t 1'apport de l e u r s e n s i b i l i t e d'hommes; a v e c q u e l l e p a s s i o n i l s s ' e f f o r c e n t de c h e r c h e r aux s p e c t a c l e s de l a n a t u r e des e q u i v a l e n t s e x q u i s ou somptueux; avec q u e l l e f e r v e u r i l s s ' a t t a c h e n t a ne r e n d r e de l a n a t u r e que 1'admirable r e f l e t q u ' i l s en t r o u v e n t en eux-memes.:"^ http://suff.it - 125 - I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e c a l l t h a t here Denis a d m i t t e d t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f i n t e n t i o n between Cezanne and V u i l l a r d (who d i d n o t s u b s c r i b e t o D e n i s ' c l a s s i c i s m ) , a l r e a d y n o t i c e d by o t h e r c r i t i c s , as f o r example Monod. In J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y 1906 Denis and R o u s s e l v i s i t e d . Cezanne i n A i x . T h i s was t h e f i r s t time D e n i s had met Cezanne, and as he would admit y e a r s l a t e r , t h e main r e a s o n f o r t h i s " p i l g r i m a g e was " t o hear from the o l d master's mouth a p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e i d e a s w h i c h I thought I had grounds t o a t t r i b u t e t o him';" And as an excuse he added: T e l e s t Cezanne, complexe e t d i v e r s , que chacum a t t e n d de l u i l a c o n f i r m a t i o n de son p r o p r e systeme; t a n t sa p e i n t u r e e t ses i d e e s demandent a e t r e i n t e r - p r e t e r s .155 Indeed, as i s e v i d e n t from D e n i s ' J o u r n a l , he managed t o e x t r a c t from Cezanne a b o u n d l e s s a d m i r a t i o n f o r t h e 17th c e n t u r y , and s u p p o r t f o r t h e " t h e o r y o f e q u i v a l e n t s . " The e n t r y i n the J o u r n a l r e a d s , as coming from Cezanne: La l u m i e r e n ' e s t pas une chose q u i peut e t r e r e p r o d u i t e , mais q u i d o i t e t r e r e p r e s e n t e e par a u t r e chose, p a r des c o u l e u r s . J ' a i e t e c o n t e n t , de moi l o r s q u e j ' a i t r o u v e c a . Je v o u d r a i s f a i r e des paysages d e c o r a t i f s comme Eugo d ' - A l e s i , o u i , avec ma p e t i t e s e n s i b i l i t e . 1 ' 5 6 _ The f i r s t sentence o f t h i s quote was used time and'-agaih by D e n i s , w i t h s u i t a b l e v a r i a t i o n s . Ee was a b l e t o a f f i r m now t h a t t h e S y m b o l i s t t h e o r y o f c o l o u r " e q u i v a l e n t s , " p r a c t i s e d by Gauguin ( f o r whom "as i n t h e case o f V e n e t i a n s the l i g h t 15 7 became c o l o u r " ) , was i n i t i a t e d by Cezanne. The S a l o n d'Automne o f 1906, i n w h i c h Cezanne was r e - p r e s e n t e d by t e n p a i n t i n g s , had r e t r o s p e c t i v e s o f C a r r i e r e , - 126 - Gauguin and a s m a l l e r one o f C o u r b e t . A c c o r d i n g t o M a u c l a i r , 158 "the a t t r a c t i o n " o f t h i s S a l o n was Gauguin's e x h i b i t i o n . I t seems t h a t t h i s e x h i b i t i o n was i m p o r t a n t i n the p r o c e s s t h a t c r e a t e d a wide gap between Gauguin and Cezanne, s i n c e i t s t i r r e d up p a r t i s a n f i g h t s . T h i s was t h e f i r s t time Gauguin's oeuvre was w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d i n an e x h i b i t i o n , i n good c o n d i t i o n s . There were rumors a t t h e time t h a t an " i n j u r i o u s c u l t " formed 15 9 a g a i n s t Gauguin had a "commercial p r e j u d i c e toward Cezanne." M a u c l a i r was d e f i n i t e l y on the s i d e o f Gauguin. I f t h e r e was any c o n s t a n t i n h i s l i f e , i t was h i s l a c k of u n d e r s t a n d i n g and n e g a t i v e c r i t i c i s m o f Cezanne. I n t h e r e v i e w he wrote f o r A r t and D e c o r a t i o n he had a t f i r s t i n t e n d e d t o c r i t i c i z e him v i o l e n t l y , but when the news o f Cezanne's d e a t h a r r i v e d , 160 he p r e f e r r e d t o be s i l e n t . He d i d mention though t h a t Gauguin s u r p a s s e d Cezanne 'a hundred t i m e s . " Toward t h e end o f t h e n e x t y e a r , C h a r l e s M o r i c e (who was t h e f r i e n d and l o y a l d e f e n d e r o f G a u g u i n ) , p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t "the g r e a t Q u a r r e l " i n t h e w o r l d o f a r t , t h a t i s Gauguin ver.us Cezanne: ... . - C'est a u t o u r de deux, m a i t r e s recemment r e m i s en honneur, au lendemain de l a mort, que se p r o d u i t , dans l e monde des a r t s , l a grande Q u e r e l l e ... Les i n t r a n s i g e a n t s p a r t i s a n s de Gauguin e t de Cezanne e t l e u r s d e t r a c t e u r s echangent des r e g a r d s i r r i t e s . P l u s i e u r s ont meme e n t r e l e s deux i n i t i a t e u r s f a i t un e h o i x , e t n i e n t l 1 u n , au b e n e f i c e , c r o i e n t - i l s , de 1' a u t r e . . . L a v e r i t e c e r t a i n e , c ' e s t que Gauguin .et Cezanne, f u r e n t deux t r e s grands a r t i s t e s . Le p r e m i e r a r e a l i s e ; " l e second a In^iquiv.•'• Devant l a h a i n e u s e f u r e u r dont l ' a r t o f f i c i o ! l e s p o u r s u i t e n c o r e , i l ne f a u t pas que l e u r s e o n t i n u a t e u r s l e g i t i m e s , l e s a r t i s t e s s i n c e r e s , se d i v i s e n t . 1 ^ M o r i c e s p e c i f i c a l l y complained about M a u r i c e D e n i s , whose development would have been d i f f e r e n t w i t h o u t Gauguin, and - 127 - who was now p a s s i n g on " w i t h an u n g r a t e f u l c o m p l i c i t y t h e more o r l e s s a u t h e n t i c r e c r i m i n a t i o n s o f Cezanne a g a i n s t Gauguin." He r e f e r r e d t o t h e w i d e l y quoted by now, s o - c a l l e d c o m p l a i n t by Cezanne t h a t Gauguin "had t a k e n from him h i s l i t t l e s e n s a - t i o n , h i s l i t t l e s e n s i b i l i t y . " D e n i s heard t h i s from Octave M i r b e a u and r e p e a t e d i t i n h i s a r t i c l e on Cezanne p u b l i s h e d a 163 few months e a r l i e r . A t l e a s t f o r D e n i s , M o r i c e had o t h e r - w i s e h i g h r e g a r d s ; he c o n s i d e r e d him a " t r u e a r t i s t . " T h i s was not t h e case w i t h h i s s e n t i m e n t s toward E m i l e B e r n a r d , who had q u a r r e l l e d w i t h Gauguin back i n 1891, and s i n c e t h e n had been d e n i g r a t i n g him and i n s i s t i n g t h a t he was t h e t r u e i n - 164 v e n t o r o f C l o i s o n i s m . M o r i c e w r o t e : A q u o i bon b r o u i l l e r l e s morts? - e t des morts comme c e u x - c i , que d e v r a i t r e u n i r , dans l e s Champs-Elysees de l a memoire humaine, l a r e c o n n a i s s a n c e des g e n e r a t i o n s ! De t e l propos s o n t de ceux q u ' i l c o n v i e n t de l a i s s e r a M.Emile B e r n a r d , de q u i l e s commerages, l a c r i t i q u e e t l e s oeuvres n'ont aucune i m p o r t a n c e . x ^ 5 In 1907 t h e S a l o n d'automne had a Cezanne r e t r o s p e c t i v e , so i n an i n t e r v a l o f one y e a r b o t h a r t i s t s (Cezanne and Gauguin) had a wide exposure. C h a r l e s M o r i c e , who was the a r t c r i t i c f o r Mercure, had a l s o t a k e n the o p p o r t u n i t y i n November (the S a l o n t o o k p l a c e i n October-November) t o b r i n g Gauguin's and Cezanne's a r t c l o s e r t o one a n o t h e r , d e c l a r i n g t h a t " t h e r e i s n o t h i n g e s s e n t i a l t h a t s e p a r a t e s the c o n c e p t i o n o f Cezanne from t h a t 166 o f Gauguin." He a l s o n o t i c e d t h a t Cezanne had "the sense o f grandeur i n e x p r e s s i n g the: most i n s i g n i f i c a n t of t h e s p e c t a c l e s o f n a t u r e , " and remarked: M a i s remarquez comme ses paysages aux t o i t s rouges s 1 a g r a n d i s s e n t a l a v a s t e p r o p o r t i o n de l a haute d e c o r a t i o n ; comme ses n i l s , l y r i q u e s de s o l i d i t e , - 128 - de v e r i t e , de n a i v e t e , depassent l e s c a d r e s , a p p e l l e n t l e s etendues m u r a l e s . 1 ^ A l r e a d y e a r l i e r i n the y e a r , on t h e o c c a s i o n o f Cezanne's d e a t h , M o r i c e had p u b l i s h e d an a r t i c l e . i n . M e i c u r e , i n which he had s a i d t h a t . t h e p a i n t e r had c r o s s e d I m p r e s s i o n i s m but had gone f u r t h e r . He went t o n a t u r e , b u t he was not c o n t e n t o n l y w i t h an a n a l y t i c a l p r o c e d u r e . He wanted t h e S y n t h e s i s , w h i c h p e r m i t t e d him " t o add t o the enjoyment o f h i s eyes t h e enjoyment o f t h e s p i r i t , " and t o t h e s p l e n d o r s o f n a t u r e "the d e c o r a t i v e sense, the s e c r e t o f which i s i n t h e thought of 168 man." Y e t , w h i l e p r o t e s t i n g a g a i n s t t h e q u a r r e l around Gauguin and Cezanne, M o r i c e was not a t a l l i m p a r t i a l . He d i d 169 c o n s i d e r Gauguin a g r e a t e r p a i n t e r . As was a l r e a d y mentioned, 170 a c c o r d i n g t o him, Cezanne " i n d i c a t e d " and Gauguin " r e a l i z e d . " What he a c t u a l l y imputed t o Cezanne was not b e i n g a S y m b o l i s t , o f p a i n t i n g o n l y t h e v i s i b l e w o r l d , w i t h o u t t h i n k i n g of e x p r e s s i n g s t a t e s o f the s o u l ( e t a t s d'ame), o f b e i n g i n v o l v e d o n l y i n pure p a i n t i n g ( p e i n t u r e en s o i was t h e e x p r e s s i o n used 171 by M o r i c e ) . But M o r i c e found i n Cezanne t h e m e r i t o f p o i n t i n g out t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r a New Symbolism, based on the " i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f n a t u r e a c c o r d i n g t o i t s own l a w s , " even though he was n o t g r e a t enough t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e n e c e s s i t y o f 172 a "Tendresse R a i s o n n e " as w e l l . The a r t i c l e on Cezanne p u b l i s h e d , by M a u r i c e D e n i s i n L ' O c c i d e n t o f September 1907, does not l e a v e any doubt as t o why i t was so i m p o r t a n t f o r him t o b u i l d up an image o f a " c l a s s i c i s t " Cezanne. Denis wanted t o have him on h i s s i d e , because, as h i m s e l f remarked, "Cezanne i n f l u e n c e d a l a r g e s e c t i o n o f the younger a r t i s t s . " T h i s . " c l a s s i c i s m " has t o be u n d e r s t o o d i n a f a i r l y wide sense, t h a t i s a r e t u r n t o a t r a d i t i o n ( G r e c o - L a t i n , o r even b e t t e r , French) o f " o r d e r . " "Order" i s the key word f o r D e n i s , who m i l i t a t e s a g a i n s t an "age o f d i s o r d e r , " a g a i n s t "anarchy" and a g a i n s t " D r e y f u s i s m . " A c c o r d i n g t o D e n i s , C l a s s i c a l a r t a c h i e v e s a p e r f e c t b a l a n c e be- tween "Nature and S t y l e , " o r between."the sense o f Beauty and 175 l o v e o f R e a l i t y . " C o n s e q u e n t l y the l a c k o f m o d e l l i n g was un- c l a s s i c i s t , and a " h i e r a t i c " a r t , w h i l e i t had S t y l e , was d e p a r t i n g t o o much from N a t u r e . D e n i s i s not a g a i n s t d e c o r a t i o n p e r se ( i n f a c t he c o n t i n u e d t o p r a c t i s e i t h i m s e l f ) , but a g a i n s t f l a t d e c o r a t i o n , t h a t i s a g a i n s t t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f " t r u e " d e c o r a t i o n as f i r s t e l a b o r a t e d by t h e G o t h i c R e v i v a l i s t s . He i s n o t so s t r i c t about the r u l e s o f l i n e a r p e r s p e c t i v e , but he r e q u i r e d an emphasis on "volumes," t h e m o d e l l i n g o f i n - d i v i d u a l o b j e c t s i n t h e p a i n t i n g . He i s a g a i n s t t h e " d e c o r a - t i v e " when u n d e r s t o o d as " o n l y p l e a s i n g t h e eye" and f l a t . D e n i s was o f c o u r s e r e p e n t a n t f o r h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e f l a t a r t , and found someone t o blame f o r i t : Gauguin, who as he put i t c o n c i s e l y a c o u p l e o f y e a r s l a t e r , " f l a t t e n e d Cezanne's 176 m o d e l l i n g . " Cezanne, o f c o u r s e , u n d e n i a b l y p r e s e r v e d t h e "Western t r a d i t i o n " . o f m o d e l l i n g , even, though i n summary form (which as we have seen was recommended by many r e f o r m e r s o f 177 decoration.) . I n t h e a r t i c l e on Cezanne, D e n i s made a h y p o t h e t i c a l comparison between two p a i n t i n g s "of t h e same f a m i l y , " f o r example two s t i l l - l i f e ' s , , one by Gauguin,, one by Cezanne (Denis l i k e d t o t a l k i n g e n e r a l terms, n o t about con- c r e t e examples) . He found t h a t Gauguin's, r e v e a l e d a. " d e c o r a t i v e - 130 - even h i e r a t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f n a t u r e , " w h i l e i n f r o n t o f Cezanne's, "we t h i n k o n l y o f p a i n t i n g ; , n e i t h e r t h e o b j e c t r e - p r e s e n t e d , nor t h e a r t i s t ' s s u b j e c t i v i t y h o l d s o u r a t t e n t i o n . We cannot d e c i d e so q u i c k l y whether i t . i s an i m i t a t i o n o r an 178 i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f n a t u r e . " Thus Cezanne a r t b a l a n c e d Nature and S t y l e , w h i l e Gauguin o n l y a c h i e v e d a d e c o r a t i v e s t y l i z a t i o n . D e n i s added: Nous sentons que c e t a r t - l a e s t p l u s p r e s de C h a r d i n que de Manet e t de Gauguin. E t s i , au p r e m i e r a s p e c t , nous d i s o n s : c ' e s t un t a b l e a u , e t u n t a b l e a u e l a s s i q u e , l e mot commence a p r e n d r e un.sens t r e s n e t , c e l u i d'un e q u i l i b r e , d'une c o n c i l i a t i o n e n t r e l ' o b j e c t i f e t l e s u b j e c t i f . 1 7 9 Denis sees i n Cezanne "the s t r u g g l e f o r s t y l e and t h e p a s s i o n 180 f o r n a t u r e , " w h i c h r e l a t e him t o c l a s s i c i s m . A t t h e same 181 time he sees him as a " n a i v e a r t i s a n , a p r i m i t i v e . " The concept o f " P r i m i t i v e " a l l o w s him t o e x p l a i n Cezanne's gaucher 1 e s , because i t i m p l i e s Cezanne r e n d e r s t h e w o r l d t h r o u g h a " d e c o r a t i v e s y n t h e s i s " the same way a P r i m i t i v e (but not " h i e r a t i c " ) p a i n t e r d i d , t h a t i s , ... 11 accumule l e s o b s e r v a t i o n s , i l en f a i t l e t o t a l , e t i l en e x t r a i t c e t e q u i v a l e n t c a r a c t e r i s t i q u e q u i meme a t r a v e r s l e s s y n t h e s e s l e s p l u s d e c o r a t i v e s c o n s e r v e un apre gout d ' a n a l y s e . 1 8 2 I t was i m p o r t a n t a t the time f o r Denis t o say t h a t n o t a l l o f Cezanne's d i s t o r t i o n s were due t o a , d e c o r a t i v e s t y l i z a t i o n , because o n l y t h i s way c o u l d he make the c o n n e c t i o n w i t h c l a s s i c a l a r t , a c c o r d i n g t o h i s own d e f i n i t i o n . A t t h e same t i m e , Cezanne was f a r from t h e c l a s s i c a l ; , trompe-1' o e i l . The most s t r i k i n g example i s h i s p e r s p e c t i v e ( i n terms o f b o t h l i n e a r and a t m o s p h e r i c ) . There were o n l y two a l t e r n a t i v e s l e f t t o e x p l a i n Cezanne's s p a t i a l d i s t o r t i o n s : one was t o say - 131 - (as Huysmans or T h i e f c a u l t - S i s s o n , when b o t h on n a t u r a l i s t 18 3 grounds had s a i d ) t h a t Cezanne had a " d i s e a s e d eye;" t h e o t h e r was t h a t he, as a P r i m i t i v e , r e n d e r s t h e w o r l d a c c o r d i n g t o the way he knows i t ( a f t e r an. " a c c u m u l a t i o n o f o b s e r v a t i o n s " ) , 184 n o t the way i t appears t o be. D e n i s e x p l a i n e d i n . h i s a r t i c l e on the g a u c h e r i e s o f t h e P r i m i t i v e s , t h a t a P r i m i t i v e r e p r e s e n t s e v e r y t h i n g i n one p l a n e , p i l i n g o b j e c t s on t o p o f each o t h e r i n - s t e a d o f r e p r e s e n t i n g them i n depth,. because: I I p r e f e r e l a r e a l i t e a 1'apparence de l a r e a l i t e . P l u t o t que de se r e s i g n e r aux d e f o r m a t i o n s de l a p e r s p e c t i v e q u i n 1 i n t e r e s s e n t pas.son o e i l v i e r g e , i l . ' con forme 1'image des choses a l a n o t i o n q u ' i l en a.18 5 Of c o u r s e , one cannot h e l p n o t i c i n g t h a t Cezanne d i d not have a " v i r g i n " eye, b u t a v e r y e d u c a t e d one, and a l s o t h a t e a r l i e r p a i n t i n g s done, " d u r i n g t h e h e r o i c t i m e s o f n a t u r a l i s m " (to use Lecomte's e x p r e s s i o n ) d i d have depth a c c o r d i n g t o l i n e a r p e r s p e c t i v e (as f o r example Rue des S a u l e s , Montmartre o f 186 ' ' 1867-1869, V.45). The n o t i o n t h a t p e r s p e c t i v e , " b e i n g o n l y a v i s u a l a l t e r a t i o n , independent o f t h e o b j e c t " g i v e s o n l y t h e "appearance o f r e a l i t y " was a common n o t i o n i n 19th c e n t u r y academic t e a c h i n g o f d e s s i n p e r s p e c t i f and d e s s i n 18 7 g e o m e t r a l . Geometry w h i c h t e a c h e s us the " r e a l c o n s t r u c t i o n " o f t h e o b j e c t s , a l l o w s us t o see them "as t h e y a c t u a l l y a r e , " 188 i t was s a i d . As I i n d i c a t e d i n the f i r s t c h a p t e r ( P a r t 1 ) , t h e r e f o r m e r s o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s .(which i n c l u d e d a c a d e m i c i a n s such as C h a r l e s B l a n c ) i n the second h a l f o f 19th c e n t u r y F r a n c e recommended the a v o i d a n c e o f p e r s p e c t i v e e f f e c t s i n 18 9 d e c o r a t i o n . The d e s s i n g g o m e t r a l ( i n w h i c h a l l f a c e t s o f an o b j e c t a r e r e p r e s e n t e d , w h i l e a des s i n p e r s p e c t i f h i d e s - 132 - some), was the b a s i s o f drawing i n s t r u c t i o n f o r a r c h i t e c t s and d e c o r a t o r s . Denis c o u l d v e r y w e l l have known t h a t Cezanne's s p a t i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n and d i s t o r t i o n s c o u l d be e x p l a i n e d by h i s a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n t h a t he, Denis h i m s e l f , had a p p l i e d t o p a i n t i n g i n t h e 1890s ( a f t e r a l l he c a l l e d Cezanne "the i n i t i a t o r o f t h e movement o f 1890"). But f o r D e n i s , the " n a i v e t e " and " g a u c h e r i e " o f Cezanne were now p r o o f t h a t he d i d n o t " s t y l i z e a s t u d y [meaning a s t u d y a f t e r nature.] as P u v i s de Chavannes i n f a c t d i d , " o r " s t y l i z e an 190 o b j e c t as t h e y say i n t h e S c h o o l o f G r a s s e t . " D e n i s i s now outspoken a g a i n s t A r t Nouveau, w h i c h he c o n s i d e r s " s n o b b i s h , " 191 even though he c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e c r e a t i o n o f i t s s t y l e . I n - s t e a d o f "arabesques," he i s now i n t e r e s t e d i n "volumes." He i s a g a i n s t t h e S y n t h e t i s m o f Gauguin, B e r n a r d and A n q u e t i n (who he a d m i t s were "the f i r s t t o l o v e and i m i t a t e Cezanne"), because: Leur sy.steme de s y n t h e s e a d m e t t r a i t seulement l a t e i n t e p l a t e e t un dur c o n t o u r ; de l a v i e n t t o u t e une s e r i e d'oeuvres d e c o r a t i v e s dont i l ne m ' a p p a r t i e n t pas de m e d i r e ; mais combien l e s s y n t h e s e s de Cezanne e t a i e n t p l u s s y n o p t i q u e s , p l u s c o n c r e t e s e t p l u s v i v a n t e s ! x ^ 2 D e n i s d e f i n e s Cezanne's S y n t h e t i s m o n l y i n terms o f c o l o u r , not l i n e . Together w i t h B e r n a r d , he c o n t r i b u t e d t o 193 t h e n o t i o n t h a t i n Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s l i n e does not e x i s t . They were b o t h a g a i n s t l i n e a r s t y l i z a t i o n now, and D e n i s r e l i e d i n t h i s a r t i c l e v e r y much on B e r n a r d ' s a r t i c l e on Cezanne, o f 1904 (a f a c t w h i c h he acknowledged). D e n i s s t a t e d t h a t Cezanne " d i d not u n d e r s t a n d d r a w i n g as b e i n g done by l i n e and - 133 - 194 c o n t o u r . " He i m p l i e d t h a t Cezanne s y n t h e s i z e d c o l o u r and "forms" a t t h e same time,, b u t not lines:.; D e n i s s a i d , i n t e r - • 195 p r e t i n g Cezanne: "Forms a r e f o r him volumes." A c c o r d i n g t o D e n i s , Cezanne s y n t h e s i z e d t h e same way a " c l a s s i c " d i d , not 196 o n l y when he p a i n t e d , b u t a l s o "when he l o o k e d around him." In o t h e r words, the c l a s s i c a l method by-passes a n a l y s i s . A t the same time a c l a s s i c d i d n o t e l i m i n a t e a n y t h i n g e s s e n t i a l from an o b j e c t , when he " s y n t h e s i z e d " o r " s t y l i z e d " : " f o r a p a i n t e r such as P o u s s i n , a t r e e does not l o s e i t s t r e e - l i k e c h a r a c t e r t o become under h i s b r u s h a p i c t u r e s q u e mass o f 197 s i m p l e form." Denis c o n s i d e r e d t h a t Cezanne p o s s e s s e d a " c l a s s i c a l s p o n t a n e i t y " i n h i s v e r y " s e n s a t i o n " which he always t r i e d t o p r e s e r v e , . a n d t h i s s e n s a t i o n i m p l i e d " i d e n t i t y o f 198 c o l o r and form." T h i s i s why, a p p a r e n t l y , u n l i k e Gauguin and the C l o i s o n i s t s ( " f l a t t i n t s " and " f i r m o u t l i n e s " ) or "the s c h o o l o f G r a s s e t " ("which o u t l i n e d t h i c k l y t h e e x t e r n a l c o n t o u r o f some c o p y " ) , Cezanne d i d not s e p a r a t e c o l o u r from form. H i s "forms" are never f l a t says Denis ( h i s " f a c u l t y o f a b s t r a c t i o n " a l l o w s him t o d i s t i n g u i s h "the s p h e r e , t h e cone and t h e c y l i n d e r , " but never "the c i r c l e , t h e t r i a n g l e , the 19 9 p a r a l l e l o g r a m " ) . Cezanne wants t o p r e s e r v e t h e " r e l i e f " o f o b j e c t s , as w e l l as t h e s e n s a t i o n o f depth i n t h e p a i n t i n g , and t h a t o b s e r v e s D e n i s , causes an "antinomy" w i t h t h e "plane s u r f a c e c o v e r e d w i t h c o l o u r s a r r a n g e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r o r d e r . " 2 0 0 "Cezanne s o l v e d t h i s antinomy, 1 1 says D e n i s , "by chromatism, t h a t i s by t h e t r a n s p o s i t i o n o f b l a c k and w h i t e v a l u e s i n t o 201 v a l u e s o f color'.'" T h i s "chromatism" as he c a l l e d i t was not a n o v e l t y , as D e n i s v e r y w e l l knew, s i n c e i n 1897 - 134 - he wrote i n h i s J o u r n a l : V a l u e s o f l i g h t =.' t a b l e a u V a l u e s o f c o l o r = de;coration 20 2- ^ Denis was a l s o v e r y w e l l aware of. the f a c t t h a t t h e I m p r e s s i o n - 203 i s t s had used t h e s e " v a l u e s o f c o l o r . " Cezanne h i m s e l f had 204 acknowledged P i s s a r r o ' s p r i o r i t y i n t h i s r e s p e c t . The d i f f e r e n c e between Cezanne and I m p r e s s i o n i s t s i s t h a t he p r e s e r v e d t h e " l o c a l c o l o u r " most o f t h e t i m e , i n s t e a d o f g i v i n g 205 the i m p r e s s i o n of. "envelope" o f r e f l e c t e d l i g h t . . Cezanne showed o n l y l i m i t e d usage o f t h e "envelope," m o s t l y i n f o l i a g e . F o r Denis (because o f the. " c o l o u r m o d u l a t i o n s " ) , Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s l o o k l i k e t a p e s t r i e s : Toute l a t o i l e e s t une t a p i s s e r i e ou chaque c o u l e u r joue separement e t confond cependant s a s o n o r i t e dans l'ensumble. L ' a s p e c t c a r a c t e r i s t i q u e . des t a b l e a u x de Cezanne v i e n t de c e t t e j u x t a p o s i t i o n , de c e t t e mosaique des t o n s s e p a r e s e t legerement fondus 1'un dans 1 ' a u t r e . 2 0 6 A c c o r d i n g t o Denis (who o b v i o u s l y had i n mind 18th c. t a p e s t r y ) , Cezanne renewed C h a r d i n ' s method d e s c r i b e d by Bachaumont i n 1767: Sa maniere de p e i n d r e e s t s i n g u l i e r e . I I p l a c e ses c o u l e u r s l'une apres 1 ' a u t r e , sans presque l e s meler de f a c o n que son ouvrage ressemble un peu a de l a mosaique ou p i e c e de r a p p o r t comme l a t a p i s s e r i e a 1 ' a i g u i l l e qu'on a p p e l l e p o i n t c a r r e . 2 0 7 D e n i s t h i n k s t h a t Cezanne's f r u i t , o r t h e u n f i n i s h e d f i g u r e s , o f f e r the b e s t example o f t h i s method. D e n i s , as w e l l as B e r n a r d , must have had i n mind o l d e r p a i n t i n g s , w h i c h f i t t h e i r t h e o r y o f "volume m o d u l a t i o n s " b e t t e r , because s i n c e t h e 1890s Cezanne's s t i l l - l i f e s (such as V.730-V.732) were done i n a d i f f e r e n t manner. O b v i o u s l y i n f l u e n c e d by B e r n a r d , D e n i s s a i d t h a t i n Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s the. "forms," t h e "volumes" are o n l y "modulated" by a " s e r i e s o f t o u c h e s " w h i c h ."succeed one a n o t h e r by c o n t r a s t o r a n a l o g y a c c o r d i n g t o whether t h e form i s i n t e r - 20 8 r u p t e d o r c o n t i n u o u s . " Yet l o o k i n g a t t h e p a i n t i n g s one can see t h a t Cezanne d i d not i n t e n d t h e " c o l o u r m o d u l a t i o n s " as a s u b s t i t u t e ' f o r m o d e l l i n g , o n l y as a r e f i n e m e n t . In s p i t e o f D e n i s ' and e s p e c i a l l y B e r n a r d ' s e f f o r t s t o demonstrate the c o n t r a r y , Cezanne d e f i n e d h i s volumes by drawing and o f t e n emphasized t h e c o n t o u r i n d a r k o u t l i n e s (not c o n t i n u o u s 209 t h o u g h ) . Denis i n f a c t acknowledged t h i s emphasis on con- t o u r , b u t p l a y s down i t s r o l e : . . . l e c o n t o u r ne v i e n t qu'a l a f i n , comme un a c c e n t rageur'> un t r a i t a l ' e s s e n c e , q u i . s o u l i g n e e t i s o l e l a forme d e j a rendue s e n s i b l e p a r l e degrade de l a : c o u l e u r . 2 x ^ Of c o u r s e , he cannot e x p l a i n t h e s e f i r m o u t l i n e s on b a s i s of " p e r c e p t i o n . " They are an embarrassment t o any i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Cezanne t h a t does n o t a l l o w f o r an i n t e n t o f s t y l i z a t i o n 211 from h i s p a r t . W h i l e t h i s i s not t h e g e n e r a l r u l e of de- f i n i n g volumes (such as cubes, s y l i n d r e s , spheres) i n Cezanne's o e u v r e , t h e r e a r e a few i n s t a n c e i n h i s l a n d s c a p e s o f the e a r l y 1880s where the shapes o f r o c k s , t h e a c c i d e n t s i n t e r r a i n s ( r e l i e f s , r a t h e r t h a n t r u l y t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l forms, such as a house) a r e b u i l d up by sequences of s m a l l graded u n i t s , o r s i m p l y by. h a t c h i n g . Such examples are Rocks a t L'Estague (V.404, 1 8 8 2 - 5 ) - F i g . 12, o r House i n Provence (V. 397, 1882-5) - F i g . 13. T h i s i s a t e c h n i q u e B e r n a r d im- i t a t e d i n h i s l a n d s c a p e o f Pont-Aven i n 1892 - F i g . 6, mentioned above. . The b u i l d i n g s though, i n Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s - 136 - (such as t h e house i n F i g . 1 3 ) , p r e s e r v e t h e i r g e o m e t r i c a l forms. They a r e d e f i n e d by drawing and r e i n f o r c e d o u t l i n e s , and c o l o r e d p r a c t i c a l l y i n f l a t t i n t s . They are a l s o seen i n p e r s p e c t i v e . . The cube o f a house, t h e sphere o f an a p p l e , t h e c y l i n d e r o f a b o t t l e , are volumes t h a t Cezanne d i d n o t want t o d i s s o l v e i n a polychrome " e f f e c t . " As he t r i e d t o e x p l a i n t o B e r n a r d i n h i s l e t t e r , he wanted them "brought i n t o p r o p e r 212 p e r s p e c t i v e " ( l e t t e r o f 15 A p r i l 1904). He a l s o wanted t o make s u r e t h a t d e s p i t e t h e " e f f e c t " ( a c h i e v e d e i t h e r by c h i a r o s c u r o - " l i g h t and shade," o r by " c o l o u r s e n s a t i o n s " ) , each such o b j e c t i s m o d e l l e d , t h a t i s i t shows a " c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t " w h i c h i s " c l o s e s t t o our eye:" ...dans une orange, une pomme, une b o u l e , une t e t e , i l y a un p o i n t c u l m i n a n t ; e t ce p o i n t e s t t o u j o u r s - malgrg l e t e r r i b l e e f f e t : l u m i e r e ombre, s e n s a t i o n s c o l o r a n t e s - l e p l u s r a p p r o c h e de n o t r e o e i l . 2 - ' - 3 D e n i s ' a r t i c l e had a double purpose. On one hand i t p r o - posed t o e s t a b l i s h t h a t Cezanne was e s s e n t i a l l y a " c l a s s i c i s t " i n a g e n e r a l sense (which meant c o n n e c t i n g him not o n l y w i t h 214 P o u s s i n , but a l s o w i t h o t h e r O l d M a s t e r s ) . On t h e o t h e r hand i t was meant t o emphasize t h a t he was not as a c c o m p l i s h e d as the O l d M a s t e r s , and many o f h i s f o l l o w e r s (the p a r t i s a n s 215 o f "pure p a i n t i n g " ) were o n l y i m i t a t i n g h i s f a u l t s . A c c o r d - i n g t o Denis he was a spontaneous o r i n t u i t i v e c l a s s i c , m o s t l y a t t h e l e v e l o f h i s " s e n s a t i o n , " but not so much a t the l e v e l 216 o f " r e a l i z a t i o n . " Thus Cezanne's s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f t h e P r i m i t i v e s , r a t h e r t h a n t o t h o s e en- c o u n t e r e d i n a c l a s s i c a l work. Cezanne o b t a i n e d a " d e c o r a t i v e e f f e c t " , comparable w i t h t h a t o f V e n e t i a n p a i n t i n g , w h i c h - 137 - s i m i l a r l y o f f e r s " t h i s b e a u t i f u l a s p e c t o f u n i t y o f p l a n e , ". o r t o C h a r d i n ' s ; b u t C h a r d i n and Veronese, D e n i s p o i n t e d o u t , 217 obeyed "the laws o f p e r s p e c t i v e and anatomy." In f a c t , t h i s " d e c o r a t i v e e f f e c t , " based not on c h i a r o s c u r o , but on c o l o r v a l u e s , i n w h i c h "the a e r i a l p e r s p e c t i v e i s s a c r i f i e d t o t h e extreme," was a c c o r d i n g t o D e n i s , "what most s t r u c k t h e f i r s t S y m b o l i s t s , Gauguin, B e r n a r d , A n q u e t i n , t h o s e who 218 were t h e f i r s t ones t o l o v e and i m i t a t e Cezanne." But t h e p r e s e n t i m i t a t o r s , t h o s e who l o v e "anarchy," " d i s o r d e r , " "paradox," t a k e from Cezanne, Denis i m p l i e s , n o t t h e v o l u n t a r y s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s , n e c e s s a r y i n v i e w o f a d e c o r a t i v e s y n t h e s i s , 219 b u t h i s " n e g l i g e n c e s and i m p e r f e c t i o n s . " Denis a r r i v e s a t the same c o n c l u s i o n as B e r n a r d d i d : i m i t a t e O l d M a s t e r s , not modern ones. A f t e r a l l Cezanne a l s o , s a i d D e n i s , "was s u b j e c t e d t o t h e c o u n t e r - a t t a c k o f t h e d i s o r d e r t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s our ,,220 t i m e s . " I n h i s " S o u v e n i r s s u r P a u l Cezanne," p u b l i s h e d i n t h e f a l l o f 1907 i n t h e Mercure de F r a n c e , E m i l e B e r n a r d , l i k e D e n i s , emphasized t h a t Cezanne's " c o l o u r m o d u l a t i o n s " can be r e l a t e d t o t a p e s t r y p r o c e d u r e s : Je compris de s u i t e que c ' e t a i t une l o i d'harmonie q u i g u i d a i t son t r a v a i l , e t que t o u t e s ces m o d u l a t i o n s a v a i e n t u n e . d i r e c t i o n f i x e e d'avance dans s a r a i s o n . I I p r o c e d a i t en somme comme ont du 1'observer l e s t a p i s s i e r s a n c i e n s , f a i s a n t se s u i v r e l e s c o u l e u r s a p p a r e n t e e s j u s q u ' a ce q u ' e l l e s r e n c o n t r a s s e n t l e u r c o n t r a s t e dans 1 ' o p p o s i t i o n ; 2 2 ± Even more s t r o n g l y t h a n D e n i s , B e r n a r d c r i t i c i s e d Cezanne from h i s c l a s s i c i s t p o s i t i o n . He c r i t i c i s e d Cezanne f o r u s i n g t h e c o l o u r v a l u e s i n s t e a d o f t h e o l d - f a s h i o n e d t o n a l v a l u e s , be- 222 cause t h i s l e d t o a weakness i n d e f i n i n g "form." I n B e r n a r d ' s - 138 - o p i n i o n , Cezanne "does not c a p t i v a t e us w i t h h i s r e n d e r i n g o f 223 form. A c c o r d i n g t o B e r n a r d , Cezanne d i d n o t use the t o n a l v a l u e s because o f h i s f a u l t y v i s i o n ( e x p l a n a t i o n w h i c h b r i n g s 224 t o mind the " d i s e a s e d eye" t h e o r y o f Huysmans).. B e r n a r d c l a i m e d he thought a t f i r s t Cezanne's . " f a u l t s " were " v o l u n t a r y n e g l i g e n c e s , " b u t t h a t Cezanne h i m s e l f blamed them on h i s poor 225 v i s i o n . But a t l e a s t Cezanne t r i e d t o "become c l a s s i c a l by 226 way o f n a t u r e . " He a c h i e v e d " r e l i e f " i n h i s p a i n t i n g s , w h i c h i s more t h a n can be s a i d about Gauguin. T h i s i s the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t can be drawn from B e r n a r d ' s " S o u v e n i r s , " i n w h i c h he "quoted" Cezanne as p r o n o u n c i n g the famous sentence so o f t e n r e p e a t e d s i n c e : "Gauguin was not a p a i n t e r / he made o n l y 227 C h i n e s e images." B e r n a r d c l a i m e d C i z a n n e c o n s i d e r e d Gauguin's i n f l u e n c e " d i s a s t r o u s " and t h a t he always t o l d him o n l y bad t h i n g s about t h i s p a i n t e r . He added: Gauguin a i m a i t beaucoup v o t r e p e i n t u r e , l u i d i s - j e , e t i l vous a beaucoup i m i t e . - Eh b i e n ! i l ne m'a pas c o m p r i s , r e p o n d a i t - i l f u r i e u s e m e n t ; j a m a i s j e n ' a i v o u l u , e t j e n ' a c c e p t e r a i j a m a i s l e manque de modele ou de g r a d u a t i o n ; c ' e s t un n o n - s e n s . 2 2 ^ L a t e r on, B e r n a r d s a i d : Les p l a n s I c ' e t a i t sa c o n t i n u e l l e p r e o c c u p a t i o n . ' V o i l a ce que Gauguin n'a j a m a i s comprise" , i n s i n u a i t - i l . Je d e v a i s a u s s i pour beaucoup p r e n d r e ma p a r t de ce r e p r o c h e ; c a r j e s e n t a i s que Cezanne a v a i t r a i s o n , i l n ' e s t pas de l a b e l l e p e i n t u r e , s i l a s u r f a c e p l a n e r e s t e p l a t e , i l f a u t q u e . l e s o b j e t s t o u r n e n t , s ' e l o i g n e n t , v i v e n t . C'est l a t o u t e l a magie de n o t r e a r t . 2 2 9 From h i s i d e a l i s t (even S y m b o l i s t p o s i t i o n , c o n s i d e r i n g he thought o f h i s c l a s s i c i s m as a " C l a s s i c a l Symbolism"), B e r n a r d l i k e C h a r l e s M o r i c e , c r i t i c i z e d Cezanne f o r n o t r e n d e r i n g t h e s p i r i t , t h e s o u l o f t h i n g s , b u t o n l y t h e i r m a t e r i a l a s p e c t : - 139 - P u i s q u ' l l ne s ' a t t a c h a i t pas a r e n d r e 1 ' e s p r i t des c h o s e s , mais l e u r charme c o l o r i s t e , l e u r m a t i e r e . i l f a u t s u r t o u t l e p r e n d r e dans l a n a t u r e morte. The S a l o n d'Automne o f 1907 h e l d a Cezanne r e s t r o s p e c t i v e t h a t r e u n i t e d a g a i n o l d e r and newer p a i n t i n g s . E m i l e B e r n a r d wrote i n La R e n o v a t i o n E s t h e t i q u e , " R e f l e x i o n s a propos du S a l o n d'automne" i n which he t a l k e d most about Cezanne. The a t t a c k s a g a i n s t him a r e more pronounced here t h a n i n the p r e v i o u s " S o u v e n i r s . " I n f a c t the main a c c u s a t i o n s a r e t h e same ones he made about Gauguin: f l a t n e s s , d e c o r a t i v e c o l o r , l i n e a r s t y l i z a t i o n . Of c o u r s e t h e r e i s no q u e s t i o n o f the a b s o l u t e f l a t n e s s o f w h i c h Gauguin was g u i l t y i n B e r n a r d ' s o p i n i o n , b u t t h e f a c t t h a t Cezanne d i d not make use o f c h i a r o s c u r o , o f b l a c k and w h i t e m o d e l l i n g , " k i l l e d t h e p l a n s " and made i m p o s s i b l e a p r o p e r m o d e l l i n g i n the round ( l e t o u r n e ) 231 o f o b j e c t s . Thus B e r n a r d seems t o c o n t r a d i c t here what he s a i d i n the " S o u v e n i r s " o f t h e same y e a r (see t h e quote on p. 138, n. 229). But he was w r i t i n g now f o r a d i f f e r e n c e a u d i e n c e . He d i d r e a l i z e t h a t Cezanne's l a t e s t p a i n t i n g s d i d n o t f i t t h e c l a s s i c i s t image he was t r y i n g t o b u i l d f o r the p a i n t e r , and he d i d not even t r y any more t o say t h a t t h e " f a u l t s " were i n v o l u n t a r y . Comparing the p a i n t i n g s o f h i s e a r l y s t y l e e x h i b i t e d a t the S a l o n , w i t h t h e more r e c e n t ones, B e r n a r d d e c l a r e d : . . . e t nous l e voyons, en l a r e t r o s p e c t i v e du S a l o n d'automne, p a r t a n t de ces p r e m i e r e s e t sompteuses p e i n t u r e s c l a i r o b s c u r e e s e t s o l i d e m e n t magonnees a l a C o u r b e t , a b o u t i r a une. v i s i o n ou l e b l e u , l e jaune e t l e rouge dominent, en un c h a n t p l u s d e c o r a t i f que v r a i e t dans l e s l i n e a m e n t s s t y l i s e s d'une forme v o u l u e s i m p l e , souvent n a i v e . 2 3 2 Thus t h e c o l o u r was " d e c o r a t i v e , " hot- " t r u e , " t h e s i m p l i c i t y - 140 - and n a i v e t y o f forms was: d e s i r e d , and Cezanne used l i n e a r s t y l i z a t i o n . L a t e r , i n 1920, B e r n a r d was t o s u g g e s t t h a t Cezanne's t e c h n i q u e would be a p p r o p r i a t e f o r p r a c t i c a l a p p l i - 23 3 c a t i o n s , ".in d e c o r a t i o n , i n t a p e s t r y , i n t i s s u e s " . I n c o n c l u d i n g t h i s s e c t i o n I would l i k e t o emphasize t h a t Cezanne's c o n t e m p o r a r i e s d i d i n d e e d see him as a " d e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t e r . Depending on t h e i r own p o s i t i o n , on a r t i n g e n e r a l (not j u s t on Cezanne), some were however .prepared t o a c c e p t o n l y h i s " d e c o r a t i v e e f f e c t " ( r e l a t e d t o c o l o u r ) as d e l i b e r a t e , and n o t t h e l i b e r t i e s he t o o k w i t h l i n e a r p e r s p e c t i v e f o r example, o r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s o f form. Some c r i t i c s s w i t c h e d p o s i t i o n s d u r i n g t h e l a s t decade o f t h e 19th c., and i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o remember when and why. Thus, s i m i l a r t a c t i c s used by Lecomte i n t h e e a r l y ,1890s a g a i n s t the S y m b o l i s t s , were used by D e n i s i n t h e 1900s i n o r d e r t o prove t h a t t h e " a n a r c h i s t s " are borrow- i n g from Cezanne o n l y h i s " f a u l t s v " . D e n i s ' c o n c l u s i o n i n 1907 was t h a t CSzanne m o d e l l e d , but n o t l i k e an O l d M a s t e r , more summarily. Only t h e c o l o r i s t i c e f f e c t (which h e l p e d t o p r e - s e r v e t h e f l a t n e s s o f the p i c t u r e ) was s i m i l a r t o t h a t o b t a i n e d by Veronese o r o t h e r " V e n e t i a n p a i n t i n g . , " y e t more l i k e t h a t o f t a p e s t r y . A l s o , Veronese mastered anatomy and t h e r u l e s o f l i n e a r p e r s p e c t i v e , w h i c h Cezanne d i d n o t . Cezanne's s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e n o t l i k e t h o s e o f . a t r u e c l a s s i c a l M a s t e r , a c c o r d i n g t o D e n i s , b u t more l i k e t h o s e o f a P r i m i t i v e p a i n t e r , who " p r e f e r s r e a l i t y t o the appearance o f r e a l i t y " (which "appearance" o n l y , was g i v e n by t h e l i n e a r p e r s p e c t i v e ) . S t i l l , - 141 - a c c o r d i n g t o D e n i s , the r e l a t i o n s h i p A r t / N a t u r e i n P r i m i t i v e p a i n t i n g i s c l o s e r t o t h a t o f a c l a s s i c a l p a i n t e r than i n a " h i e r a t i c " p a i n t i n g which he now a b h o r s , as he does a l s o abhor f l a t d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g . B e r n a r d who h e l d views s i m i l a r t o h i s f e l l o w - c l a s s i c i s t D e n i s , a d m i t t e d though t o h i s r e a c t i o n a r y r e a d e r s o f t h e R e n o v a t i o n E s t h e t i q u e i n 1907 t h a t the A r t / N a t u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p i n C e z a n n e ' s . p a i n t i n g i n c l u d e d v o l u n t a r y d i s t o r t i o n s f o r t h e purpose o f b e i n g d e c o r a t i v e . I c o n c e n t r a t e d more on Denis and B e r n a r d than on the o t h e r c r i t i c s , because a p r o c e s s o f " u n n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n " o f t h e i r w r i t i n g s on C i z a n n e ( e s p e c i a l l y the s o - c a l l e d "quotes" from h i m ) , done by subsequent w r i t e r s , has l e d t o a p r e s e n t day i n t e r - p r e t a t i o n o f Cezanne t h a t i s o l a t e s him from t h e g e n e r a l t r e n d o f t h e a v a n t - g a r d e p a i n t i n g o f h i s t i m e , i n o r d e r t o make o u t o f him a p r e c u r s o r o f movements t h a t took p l a c e a f t e r h i s d e a t h . - 142 - C h a p t e r IT,; P a r t 2 Cezanne and t h e " D e c o r a t i o n Paradigm." I n t r o d u c t i o n . As i s e v i d e n t from Ch. IT, P a r t I , t h e b u l k o f contem- p o r a r y c r i t i c i s m i s i n agreement t h a t Cezanne was a c t u a l l y p a r t o f t h e g e n e r a l a n t i - N a t u r a l i s t tendency toward " d e c o r a - t i v e " p a i n t i n g . But n o t e v e r y commentator c o n s i d e r e d t h a t Cezanne's i n t e n t i o n was t o a p p l y t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f " d e c o r a t i o n " t o e a s e l p a i n t i n g , i n o t h e r words h i s s p a t i a l " d i s t o r t i o n s " f o r example were c o n s i d e r e d by some as n o t v o l u n t a r y . Of c o u r s e , as i s e v i d e n t from Ch. IT, P a r t I a g a i n , t h o s e c r i t i c s had t h e i r s u b j e c t i v e r e a s o n s f o r s a y i n g so. The w r i t i n g s o f M.Denis and E. B e r n a r d from t h e i r " C l a s s i c i s t " p e r i o d a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y s u s p i c i o u s . On one hand t h e y wanted t o demon- s t r a t e t h a t Cezanne was a " C l a s s i c i s t , " c o n s e q u e n t l y on t h e i r s i d e , on t h e o t h e r hand t h e y wanted t o prove he was an "im- p e r f e c t " C l a s s i c i s t , and t h a t h i s " f a u l t s " were e x a c t l y t h e f e a t u r e s t a k e n up by t h e adepts o f "pure p a i n t i n g . " Denis c o m p l a i n e d about t h i s p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e " i n c o m p l e t e , " about t h e g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f Cezanne's, " n e g l i g e n c e s and i m p e r f e c t i o n s " w h i c h he c o n s i d e r e d p a r t o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t "breed D r e y f u s i s m . " The " C l a s s i c i s t c o n n e c t i o n " i s not t o t a l l y f a r f e t c h e d . But q u a l i t i e s such as " o r d e r , " " c l a r i t y , " " a r c h i t e c t u r a l , " P o u s s i n - l i k e f e a t u r e s , i n o t h e r words the "good p o i n t s " o f Cezanne by t h e N e o - C l a s s i c i s t s t a n d a r d s , c o u l d be a c c o u n t e d f o r by t h e c o n c e p t o f " d e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g as u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e 1880s - 143 - and e a r l y 1890s. A t t h e same time most o f the " f a u l t s " can be a l s o a c c o u n t e d f o r as v o l u n t a r y d i s t o r t i o n s i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e a degree o f f l a t n e s s r e q u i r e d by " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " o r d e c o r a t i o n . S i n c e contemporary c r i t i c i s m ( i n c l u d i n g "eye w i t n e s s a c c o u n t s " ) , as i s t o be e x p e c t e d , c o n t a i n s v a r i o u s , b i a s e s , I w i l l now d i s c u s s Cezanne's l e t t e r s and p a i n t i n g s i n t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t , i n o r d e r t o r e a c h a more d e f i n i t e con- c l u s i o n . In t h i s s e c t i o n , t h e f o l l o w i n g two main q u e s t i o n s w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d : A. D i d Cezanne f u l f i l l t h e t h r e e c o n d i t i o n s ( i n d i c a t e d i n C h a p t e r I , P a r t 2) t h a t l e d e a s e l p a i n t e r s toward p a i n t i n g - d e c o r a t i o n ? The c o n d i t i o n s were: 1) A r t f o r a r t ' s sake, e l i t i s m . 2) A n t i - N a t u r a l i s m ( i n the sense o f a n t i - e m p i r i c i s m , b u t not b e i n g a g a i n s t u s i n g n a t u r e as " m o t i f " ) . 3) W i l l i n g n e s s t o be a " d e c o r a t o r . " B. Do Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s f i t the " d e c o r a t i o n paradigm"? A d i s c u s s i o n o f s p e c i f i c p a i n t i n g s i n c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r r e v e a l s Cezanne as an i n i t i a t o r , as w e l l as a f o l l o w e r o f t h i s t r e n d i n i t s v a r i o u s a s p e c t s . A s p e c i a l emphasis w i l l be p l a c e d on the c o n n e c t i o n I am s u g g e s t i n g , between h i s method o f " c o l o r m o d u l a t i o n s " and t h e w r i t i n g s o f C h a r l e s B l a n c , C h e v r e u l , as w e l l as t h e p r a c t i c a l example o f Rococo t a p e s t r i e s (some o f t h e b e s t specimens o f w h i c h a r e i n A i x ) . - 144 - A. D i d Cezanne f u l f i l the c o n d i t i o n s t h a t l e d e a s e l p a i n t e r s toward p a i n t i n g - d e c o r a t i o n ? 1) A r t f o r a r t ' s sake, e l i t i s m . To "prove" t h i s p o i n t i n Cezanne's p a r t i c u l a r case i s i n f a c t redundant. I t i s r e a l l y no more n e c e s s a r y t h a n t o prove t h a t Cezanne was p a r t of t h e a v a n t - g a r d e , s i n c e " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" was t h e a v a n t - g a r d e ' s credo I n t h e p e r i o d t h a t i n t e r e s t s us h e r e . As I mentioned b e f o r e , " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" was a "code o f p r o f e s s i o n a l e t h i c s , " e v e r s i n c e the S a l o n became f l o o d e d w i t h l i t e r a r y i l l u s t r a t i o n s t h a t s t i r r e d cheap emotions i n t h e v u l g a r b o u r g e o i s p u b l i c . X Nobody d e s c r i b e d more v i v i d l y t h i s p u b l i c , t h e crowd i n v a d i n g t h e S a l o n on Sunday t o be amused, than Cezanne's boyhood f r i e n d E m i l e Z o l a . I t i s w e l l known t h a t Z o l a , t h e " f a t h e r " o f l i t e r a r y N a t u r a l i s m , c o n s i d e r e d I m p r e s s i o n i s m ( i n the l a t e 1860s and 1870s) as the c o u n t e r p a r t o f N a t u r a l i s m i n p a i n t i n g . I t i s not o f t e n p o i n t e d out t h a t Z o l a h i m s e l f emphasized the " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" q u a l i t i e s o f I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g : i t was p a i n t i n g b e f o r e a n y t h i n g e l s e , i t was not s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r t o the p o i n t o f t e l l i n g s t o r i e s o r i l l u s t r a t i n g a poem. Of c o u r s e , t h i s d i d n o t mean t h e c h o i c e , o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r was n o t i m p o r t a n t . F o r Z o l a t h e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r had t o be t a k e n from r e a l i t y , from 4 modern l i f e , he was a g a i n s t "dreamers and i d e a l i s t s . " But l o o k i n g a t Cezanne's range o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r , even i n t h e p e r i o d o f t r i u m p h a n t N a t u r a l i s m , we can see t h a t many o f h i s c o m p o s i t i o n s (and t h e y are " c o m p o s i t i o n s , " a word t h a t was taboo i n the N a t u r a l i s t v o c a b u l a r y ) f i t r a t h e r i n t o t h e "dream" - 145 - o r a t l e a s t f i g m e n t o f i m a g i n a t i o n c a t e g o r y . Such a r e h i s B a t h e r s ( f o r example' F i v e Women - V . 2 6 4 , 1873-1877, o r Three Women - V.266, C. .1876) , a t o p i c o f importance i n Cezanne's oeuvre, o r c o m p o s i t i o n s l i k e the T e m p t a t i o n o f S t . Anthony o f w h i c h he p a i n t e d t h r e e v e r s i o n s and d i d a t l e a s t f o u r drawings." A l l t h r e e v e r s i o n s e x h i b i t t h e q u a l i t i e s o f "pure p a i n t i n g " so much admired l a t e r on, and t o t a l l y d i s r e g a r d human e x p r e s s i o n , t h e s t o r y - t e l l i n g a s p e c t . I f t h e f i r s t v e r s i o n (V. 103, c.1870) c o n t i n u e s t h e p a i n t e r l y a r t f o r a r t ' s s a k e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e Romantic s c h o o l , t h e t h i r d v e r s i o n (V.241, 1873-1877; 1875 a c c o r d i n g t o R e f f ) - F i g . 4, i s an example o f a c l e a r l y non- n a t u r a l i s t work, where Cezanne a p p l i e d h i s " I m p r e s s i o n i s t manner," and where h i s " d e l i b e r a t e " s t r o k e can be a l r e a d y d e t e c t e d . T h i s was t h e p a i n t i n g t h a t B e r n a r d compared i n h i s a r t i c l e o f 1891 w i t h an o l d b a s - r e l i e f . I n such c o m p o s i t i o n s i n w h i c h Cezanne p l a c e d nude f i g u r e s i n p l e i n - a i r , he em- p h a s i z e d not o n l y c o l o u r , p a t e , b u t a l s o the o u t l i n e s o f h i s "academies." Thus Cezanne's " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" c o n c e p t i n - c l u d e d b o t h c o l o u r and l i n e a t . a time when l i n e (which was c o n s i d e r e d as not a c t u a l l y "seen" i n n a t u r e ) was a v o i d e d by t h e . I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . E i s l i n e r e n d e r e d •- the " c h a r a c t e r " o f the f i g u r e s , w h i c h i f they were dream a p p a r i t i o n s , i n d i c a t e d Cezanne d i d n o t have t h e same k i n d o f dreams t h e S y m b o l i s t s had. H i s women a r e not phantoms, but e r o t i c v i s i o n s . Cezanne was, never an I d e a l i s t , but he was not a R e a l i s t e i t h e r . " B a t h e r s , " w i t h t h e i r m y t h o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r , r e p r e s e n t e d a s u b j e c t i n p e r f e c t accordance w i t h the recommendations g i v e n 7 by the r e f o r m e r s o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . They would t a k e the - 146 - v i e w e r i n t o a f a n t a s y w o r l d , w i t h o u t s u b j e c t i n g him t o power- f u l emotions. . But by p l a c i n g h i s s k e t c h y nudes i n an "im- p r e s s i o n i s t i c l a n d s c a p e " Cezanne was s u b s t i t u t i n g a "modern i d e a l " f o r a " c l a s s i c a l i d e a l , " not; u n l i k e what the i n f l u e n t i a l non-academic c r i t i c , E r n e s t Chesneau had a d v o c a t e d a l r e a d y i n 1862 i n h i s book on F r e n c h p a i n t i n g o f the 19th c e n t u r y , Les C h e f s d'eCO1e. As w i l l be e v i d e n t a l s o from t h e n e x t s e c t i o n , t h e r e are s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s between Chesneau's and Cezanne's o p i n i o n s . Chesneau d e c l a r e d t h a t i n the f i e l d o f p l a s t i c a r t s , " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" (which was the d o c t r i n e o f the Romantic 9 School) was e q u i v a l e n t t o " d e c o r a t i v e " a r t . But he d i d not approve o f an a r t f o r a r t ' s sake as u n d e r s t o o d i n the 1860s and 187 0s, t h a t i s i n a p u r e l y m a t e r i a l i s t i c framework, d e s t i n e d f o r the p l e a s u r e o f the eye a l o n e . He was i n f a v o r o f a m i x t u r e of R e a l i s m and I d e a l i s m , f o r an a r t f o r a r t ' s sake w h i c h g i v e s t h e " s p e c t a c l e o f l i f e , " i n w h i c h "the s u b j e c t i s n o t h i n g , a r t i s e v e r y t h i n g " and a t t h e same time c o n t a i n s an " i d e a . " H i s f a v o r e d p r o t o t y p e f o r such an a r t (which.of c o u r s e , as he e x p l a i n e d , was not u n d e r s t o o d by t h e v u l g a r crowd t h a t f r e - quented the Salon) was t h e p a i n t e r R i b o t , about whose s t i l l l i f e s he had t h i s t o say: L ' a r t de R i b o t n ' e v e i l l e pas seulement 1'idee des o b j e t s q u ' i l met en scene, i l n'en f a i t pas seulement un p r e t e x t e a c o l o r a t i o n s , de p r o f o n d e harmonie; i l en donne l a s e n s a t i o n e x a c t e , non en trompe - l ' o e i l e n f a n t i n , mais a l a f a c o n du grand a r t q u i c h o i s i t e t i n t e r p r e t e . I c i , l a v i e de ces choses i n e r t e s , de ces n a t u r e s - m o r t e s e s t p r o d i g i e u s e ; x ^ . Chesneau p r a i s e d R i b o t because he d i d n o t make any c o n c e s s i o n s t o " b o u r g e o i s p o p u l a r i t y " ("II n'a f a i t aucune. avance a l a 11 p o p u l a r i t e .bour.geoi.se.-...") . Thus S t i l l L i f e was another http://bour.geoi.se - 147 - i d e a l s u b j e c t - m a t t e r f o r t h e " d e c o r a t i v e " o r " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" e a s e l p a i n t i n g s , and not o n l y i n the p u r e l y m a t e r i a l i s t i c o r i m i t a t i v e sense w h i c h was a l r e a d y amply e x p l o i t e d by t h e n i n t h i s theme, b u t i n . t h e manner o f " h i g h a r t w h i c h makes c h o i c e s and i n t e r p r e t s . " I t i s i n t h i s l i g h t t h a t , i n my o p i n i o n , we 12 s h o u l d r e g a r d Cezanne's s t i l l l i f e s . I t i s easy t o u n d e r s t a n d why Chesneau would a p p e a l t o t h e a v a n t - g a r d e , when he not o n l y s u p p o r t e d a r t f o r a r t ' s sake, but warned h i s r e a d e r s a g a i n s t what he c o n s i d e r e d , "the bad s i d e o f a r t f o r a r t ' s sake," namely t h e danger o f becoming o n l y "more o r l e s s s k i l f u l w o r k e r s " ("des m a n o u v r i e r s p l u s ou moins 13 h a b i l e s " ) , not " a r t i s t s . " Chesneau c o n s i d e r e d s k i l f u l n e s s ( " h a b i l e t e du m e t i e r " ) , manual d e x t e r i t y , " v i r t u o s i t y , " t o be "the enemy o f a l l t h a t i s s i n c e r e , n a i v e and t r u e , " which f o r 14 him meant t o be a g a i n s t " a l l m o r a l i t y . " In a l e t t e r t o h i s mother (26 September 1874), Cezanne e x p r e s s e d s i m i l a r t h o u g h t s c o n c e r n i n g what was t r u l y " a r t i s t i c " : I have t o work a l l t h e t i m e , not t o r e a c h t h a t f i n a l p e r f e c t i o n w h i c h e a r n s t h e a d m i r a t i o n o f i m b e c i l e s . - And t h i s t h i n g w h i c h i s commonly a p p r e c i a t e d so much i s m e r e l y t h e e f f e c t o f d r a f t m a n s h i p and r e n d e r s a l l work r e s u l t i n g from i t , i n a r t i s t i c and common.x^ Chesneau p r a i s e d " n a t i o n a l g e n i u s " and i n d i v i d u a l i t y . He b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e o n l y way t o r e g e n e r a t e a r t , w h i c h a c c o r d i n g t o him was i n decadence, was t h r o u g h N a t u r e : "La s e u l e , 1 ' i n - t a r i s s a b l e source...1Veau de r e g e n e r a t i o n , c ' e s t l a n a t u r e . " ^ T h i s was t r u e f o r " h i g h a r t " as w e l l as f o r the " d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , " s i n c e t h e y were b o t h based on the same p r i n c i p l e : "the 17 s e n t i m e n t o f b e a u t y o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f n a t u r e . " Chesneau e n v i s a g e d t h e a r t i s t as an e d u c a t e d p e r s o n and a - 148 - t h i n k e r . He c o n s i d e r e d t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f l i t e r a r y men t o t h e "language o f a r t " as u n f o r t u n a t e . The w r i t e r s , i n t h e i r q u a l i t y o f a r t c r i t i c s , . - u s e d "vague" and " p o o r e l y d e f i n e d terms',1 1 t h e y c o n s t a n t l y s u b s t i t u t e d "the l i t e r a r y . i d e a f o r t h e p l a s t i c 18 i d e a . " Cezanne s h a r e s Chesneau 1 s m i s t r u s t o f . m i x i n g p a i n t i n g and l i t e r a t u r e , as w e l l as h i s emphasis on Nature as the s o u r c e o f a r t : He (the a r t i s t ) must be aware o f t h e l i t e r a r y s p i r i t w h i c h so o f t e n causes t h e p a i n t e r t o d e v i a t e from h i s t r u e p a t h - t h e c o n c r e t e s t u d y o f n a t u r e - t o l o s e h i m s e l f t o o l o n g i n i n t a n g i b l e s p e c u l a t i o n . • Cezanne c e r t a i n l y f u l f i l l e d t h e f i r s t c o n d i t i o n t h a t l e d p a i n t e r s toward a r t f o r a r t ' s sake, namely t h e h a t r e d f o r t h e b o u r g e o i s . I n a l e t t e r t o B e r n a r d he d e c l a r e d : " I t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o have a sense o f a r t - and t h i s i s w i t h o u t doubt t h e h o r r o r o f t h e 2 0 b o u r g e o i s , t h i s sense." He p a r t i c u l a r l y h a t e d t h e m a t e r i a l - i s t i c b o u r g e o i s i e o f h i s p a r t o f the c o u n t r y ; i n 1878 he wrote t o Z o l a : M a r s e i l l e i s F r a n c e ' s o i l c a p i t a l , j u s t as P a r i s i s t h e b u t t e r c a p i t a l ; you have no i d e a o f the presump- t u o u s n e s s o f t h i s f i e r c e p o p u l a t i o n , t h e y have b u t one i n s t i n c t , t h a t f o r money; i t i s s a i d t h a t t h e y e a r n a l o t , b u t they a r e v e r y u g l y . 2 - 1 Cezanne was o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t " t a s t e " i s something " r a r e , " and t h a t " A r t a d d r e s s e s i t s e l f o n l y t o an e x c e s s i v e l y l i m i t e d 22 number o f i n d i v i d u a l s . " He c o n s i d e r e d t h a t "The work w h i c h b r i n g s about some p r o g r e s s i n one's o w n . c r a f t i s s u f f i c i e n t 23 compensation f o r not b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d by the i m b e c i l e s . " But Cezanne d i d b e l i e v e t h a t p a i n t e r s s h o u l d "produce p i c t u r e s w h i c h w i l l be an e d u c a t i o n , " j u s t as M a l l a r m e thought 24 t h a t a r t s h o u l d be a form o f e d u c a t i o n . ; .It was common f o r - 149 - t h e avant-garde t o b e l i e v e (and t h i s i n c l u d e s Mallarme as w e l l as Cezanne) t h a t t h e p u b l i c somewhere i n t h e f u t u r e would be r e c e p t i v e t o t h e i r work, b u t t h a t i n t h e p r e s e n t s o c i e t y i t c o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d o n l y by a s m a l l e l i t e . Who was t h i s e l i t e ? A s m a l l group o f " i n t e l l i g e n t amateurs" such as Roger Marx ("the most i n t e l l i g e n t " o f them i f we are t o b e l i e v e 25 M a u c l a i r ) , t o whom, as I mentioned m C h a p t e r I I , P a r t 1, 26 Cezanne wrote; t o e x p r e s s h i s g r a t i t u d e . 2) A n t i - N a t u r a l i s m . The purpose o f t h i s s e c t i o n i s t o demonstrate t h a t a t t h e o n s e t o f t h e a n t i - p o s i t i v i s t r e a c t i o n and l a t e r , Cezanne's p o s i t i o n i n r e g a r d w i t h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p A r t / N a t u r e was not t h a t o f a N a t u r a l i s t . I remind t h e r e a d e r t h a t I am r e f e r r i n g t o t h e N a t u r a l i s t movement a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p o s i t i v i s t p h i l o s o p h y , and do not mean by N a t u r a l i s m r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l a r t i n g e n e r a l , a c o n n o t a t i o n o f t e n t o be found i n modern w r i t i n g s . N a t u r a l i s m was based on t h e e m p i r i c a l method o f o b s e r v a t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r phenomena (emphasized t h e " a c c i d e n t a l " v e r s u s t h e "permanent"), was a n a l y t i c a l , d i d not a c c e p t g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , o r " c o m p o s i t i o n . " I t was based i n t h e case o f t h e I m p r e s s i o n i s m o f t h e 1870s on t h e pure spontaneous, v i s u a l sen- s a t i o n , i t was not " c o n c e p t u a l , " i t was i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h an 27 " i d e a l . " S u b j e c t i v i t y was a l l o w e d o n l y as "temperament," ^ 28 w h i c h a l s o had a p h y s i o l o g i c a l c o n n o t a t i o n . Cezanne's language, as w i l l be e v i d e n t f r o m . h i s l e t t e r s , was not t h a t o f an I d e a l i s t . He was not a S y m b o l i s t . H i s - 150 - language c o n t a i n s a m i x t u r e o f N a t u r a l i s t and a n t i - N a t u r a l i s t , even S y m b o l i s t c o n c e p t s . Words such as "temperament" (which was a term a c t u a l l y used p r i o r , t o t h e N a t u r a l i s t movement) and a l s o i n the c o n t e x t o f "pure p a i n t i n g " ) and " a r t i s t i c i d e a l " a r e used i n t h e same sentence ("With a p a i n t e r ' s tem- perament and an a r t i s t i c i d e a l , t h a t i s t o say a c o n c e p t i o n o f 29 n a t u r e . . . " ) . He o f t e n t a l k s about e x p r e s s i n g h i s "emotion" i n f r o n t o f n a t u r e (which has a S y m b o l i s t c o n n o t a t i o n , a t l e a s t a c c o r d i n g t o D e n i s , i f n o t t o A u r i e r ) and o f not h a v i n g t h e d e s i r e t o r e p r o d u c e n a t u r e . 3 0 I n 1878 Cezanne wondered i f h i s o p i n i o n o f " p a i n t i n g as a means o f e x p r e s s i n g f e e l i n g s " 31 was s h a r e d by Z o l a . A month l a t e r Cezanne wrote t o Z o l a : As you say, t h e r e a r e some v e r y b e a u t i f u l v i e w s here (at l ' E s t a q u e ) . The d i f f i c u l t y i s t o reproduce them, t h i s i s n ' t e x a c t l y my T i n e . I began t o see n a t u r e r a t h e r l a t e , though t h i s does not p r e v e n t i t b e i n g f u l l o f i n t e r e s t f o r me. 3 2 Oezanne had c o n n e c t i o n s i n v a r i o u s i n t e l l e c t u a l c i r c l e s . I n the l a s t y e a r o f h i s l i f e he was r e m i n i s c i n g about h i s v i s i t s i n 1877 t o t h e house o f N i n a de V i l l a r d , who was a f r i e n d o f V e r l a i n e ,and M a l l a r m e , and who r e c e i v e d many 33 a r t i s t s . He was w e l l i n f o r m e d not o n l y on t h e l a t e s t developments i n p a i n t i n g , l i t e r a t u r e , p o e t r y , but a l s o i n music t h r o u g h h i s f r i e n d s M o r s t a t t and Cabaner. Cezanne had been a l o v e r o f Wagner's music s i n c e the mid-1860s and p a i d t r i b u t e t o him i n . h i s t h r e e v e r s i o n s o f O u v e r t u r e t o Tannhauser, o f w h i c h o n l y t h e t h i r d v e r s i o n , o f 1868, (or a f t e r ) i s e x t a n t - 34 F i g . 1. I f i t seems t h a t i n some ways he can be connected w i t h Symbolism, i t . i s because he had a f f i n i t i e s not o n l y w i t h t h e N a t u r a l i s t s c h o o l a t i t s apogee, but a l s o w i t h . t h e non- p o s i t i v i s t , a n t i - N a t u r a l i s t , non-academic c u l t u r a l m i l i e u i n w h i c h f u t u r e S y m b o l i s t i d e a s f e r m e n t e d . Cezanne's c h o i c e o f t h e T e m p t a t i o n o f S t . Anthony theme i s t h e r e s u l t o f h i s a f f i n i t i e s w i t h . t h e l a t t e r . This.theme i n t e r e s t e d B a u d e l a i r e , 35 as w e l l as V e r l a i n e . Cezanne's i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h t h i s s u b j e c t precedes t h a t o f O d i l o n Redon (a p a i n t e r whom he "enormously" 36 a d m i r e d ) . I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t the l a s t v e r s i o n o f t h e T e m p t a t i o n ( F i g . 4) i s one o f t h e , f i r s t p a i n t i n g s i n w h i c h Cezanne e x h i b i t s t h e o r d e r e d , p a r a l l e l b r u s h s t r o k e s t h a t i n t h e 1880s w i l l c o v e r t h e e n t i r e s u r f a c e o f a l l h i s p a i n t i n g s , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r . The o t h e r p i c t u r e s done about t h e same time i n w h i c h t h i s " h a t c h i n g " appears are a l s o f a n t a s y c o m p o s i t i o n s , as R e f f remarked: La L u t t e d'amour (V.379) and L ' E t e r n e l f e m i n i n (V.. 247) . I n t h e l a s t one, t h e r e g u l a r s t r o k e s c o v e r almost t h e e n t i r e s u r f a c e o f t h e p a i n t i n g . R e f f p o i n t e d out t h a t Cezanne d e v e l o p e d t h i s f o r m a l f e a t u r e f i r s t l y i n f a n t a s y c o m p o s i t i o n s , because i t was o n l y a f o r m a l d e v i c e and not "an a n a l y t i c d e v i c e adapted t o t h e o b s e r v a t i o n 37 o f n a t u r a l phenomena." T h i s new f a c t u r e h e l p e d t o a c h i e v e a u n i t y o f e f f e c t . The o v e r a l l b l u i s h tone o f t h e T e m p t a t i o n 3 8 ( F i g . 4) worked t o the same purpose. The f a c t t h a t he l a t e r i n t r o d u c e d t h e same " f o r m u l a s " i n t o l a n d s c a p e p a i n t i n g o n l y shows t h a t h i s approach t o n a t u r e was not a t a l l e m p i r i c a l . He was s e l e c t i n g from n a t u r e o n l y what he c o n s i d e r e d would make a good m o t i f (a word t h a t Chesneau used v e r y o f t e n ) and p a i d s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o the " d e c o r a t i v e e f f e c t . " I n 1883 he w r o t e t o Z o l a : - 152 - I have here some b e a u t i f u l v i e w s but t h e y do not q u i t e make m o t i f s . - N e v e r t h e l e s s , c l i m b i n g t h e h i l l s as t h e sun goes down one has a g l o r i o u s v i e w of M a r s e i l l e i n t h e background and. t h e i s l a n d s , a l l e n v e l o p e d towards e v e n i n g t o v e r y d e c o r a t i v e e f f e c t . 3 ^ In the l a t e 1870s and e a r l y 18 8 0s t h e r e i s a pronounced p r e - o c c u p a t i o n w i t h " o r d e r " i n Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s , e s p e c i a l l y i n h i s brushwork (a p r e o c c u p a t i o n t h a t was s h a r e d by P i s s a r r o and c o n s t i t u t e d a s o u r c e o f i n s p i r a t i o n f o r the N e o - I m p r e s s i o n i s t s ^ ) and w i t h "harmony" o f c o l o u r s from a s c i e n t i f i c ( t h e o r e t i c a l 41 not e m p i r i c a l ! ) p o i n t o f v i e w . I n 1884 Cezanne wrote t o Z o l a : . . . a r t i s c h a n g i n g t e r r i b l y i n i t s o u t e r appearance... a t t h e same t i m e t h e i g n o r a n c e o f harmony r e v e a l s i t - s e l f more and more t h r o u g h t h e d i s c o r d o f the c o l o u r s and, what^ i s even worse, the aphony o f t h e tones.42 The " s c i e n c e o f harmony" was a l s o a major c o n c e r n o f Gauguin a t about t h e same t i m e , as i s e v i d e n t from h i s m a n u s c r i p t 43 o f "Notes S y n t h e t i q u e s " o f c a . 1884-1885. Gauguin met Cezanne i n 1881 i n P o n t o i s e where he was v i s i t i n g P i s s a r r o , and s i n c e t h e n he had a s s i d u o u s l y t r i e d t o o b t a i n h i s " f o r - 44 mula." I n a few y e a r s Gauguin f e l l under t h e s p e l l o f B e r n a r d and became, a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e l i t e r a r y Symbolism, t h u s h i s p a i n t i n g became i n t e n t i o n a l l y the r e f l e c t i o n o f an I d e a l i s t p h i l o s o p h y . As h i s former f r i e n d and master P i s s a r r o put i t , Gauguin "has sensed the tendency" toward I d e a l i s m , 45 • m y s t i c i s m , o c c u l t i s m , r e l i g i o n . . Cezanne however, even though he was g e t t i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y c l o s e r t o t h e C a t h o l i c 46 c h u r c h , d i d not embrace p h i l o s o p h i c a l i d e a l i s m . . What he wanted t o r e n d e r was h i s "emotion i n f r o n t o f n a t u r e " as he 47 r e p e a t e d o v e r and o v e r a g a i n . T h i s was not t h e t r a n s c e n - - 153 - d e n t a l emotion" A u r i e r thought he d e t e c t e d i n Gauguin's p a i n t - i n g s . Cezanne e x p r e s s e d i n f a c t a p r e - S y m b o l i s t n o t i o n w h i c h was q u i t e common-place b e f o r e t h e o n s e t o f N a t u r a l i s m . That l a n d s c a p e s s h o u l d t r a n s l a t e "the emotion o f a p a i n t e r i n f r o n t o f n a t u r e " was c o n s i d e r e d t h e norm f o r C h a r l e s B l a n c , who a l - ready i n 1866 recommended such "Dutch p a i n t i n g s t h a t our F r e n c h - men make so w e l l , " among t h e "works d e s t i n e d f o r t h e ornamenta- 49 t i o n o f our houses." D e l a c r o i x a l s o h e l d t h e o p i n i o n t h a t a p a i n t e r s h o u l d e x p r e s s h i s "emotions b e f o r e n a t u r e , " as was known from a book on h i s l i f e and work p u b l i s h e d i n 1865 by 50 . A c h i l l e P i r o n . Cezanne's l o n g l a s t i n g i n t e r e s t i n D e l a c r o i x i s w e l l known (even a t t h e end o f h i s l i f e he was r e a d i n g "the a p p r e c i a t i o n t h a t B a u d e l a i r e has w r i t t e n about t h e work o f 51 D e l a c r o i x " ) so i t i s q u i t e l i k e l y he was p a r a p h r a s i n g him. B a u d e l a i r e r e c a l l e d t h a t D e l a c r o i x "used c o n t i n u a l l y t o say": " I c o n s i d e r t h e i m p r e s s i o n t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e a r t i s t by n a t u r e 52 as t h e most i m p o r t a n t t h i n g o f a l l t o t r a n s l a t e . " Cezanne w r o t e : "To succeed i n f o r m u l a t i n g s u f f i c i e n t l y t h e i m p r e s s i o n w h i c h we e x p e r i e n c e i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h i s b e a u t i f u l n a t u r e -man, woman, s t i l l - l i f e . . . t h a t i s my w i s h t o a l l who are i n sympathy 53 w i t h a r t . " But t h e s e are no more t h e words o f a N a t u r a l i s t t h a n are D e l a c r o i x ' s . The l a t t e r wrote i n 1860: " R e a l i s m should 54 be d e s c r i b e d as t h e a n t i p o d e s o f a r t . " L i k e D e l a c r o i x , Cezanne was c o n s t a n t l y p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e "means o f e x p r e s s - 55 i o n " o f t h e emotions he f e l t . A l s o l i k e D e l a c r o i x (most l i k e - l y i n f l u e n c e d by him as were t h e N e o - I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , Van Gogh and Gauguin) he a r r i v e d a t t h e l o g i c o f " h a r m o n y . I n h i s J o u r n a l s D e l a c r o i x r e m i n i s c e d about a s k i n g Chopin t o " e x p l a i n what i t i s t h a t g i v e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f l o g i c i n music." The - 154 - composer e x p l a i n e d t o the p a i n t e r , c o m p l y i n g t o h i s r e q u e s t , 57 "the meaning o f harmony and c o u n t e r p o i n t . " Cezanne as w e l l as Gauguin were i n t e r e s t e d i n 1884, as I a l r e a d y mentioned, i n harmony o f c o l o u r and m u s i c a l harmony, and t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e between them. I f t h e r e a r e s i m i l a r i t i e s between Cezanne's concept t h a t p a i n t i n g s h o u l d e x p r e s s f e e l i n g s , and S y m b o l i s t v i e w s on a r t , i t i s because b o t h p a r t i e s used common s o u r c e s : B a u d e l a i r e , who 5 8 c o n s i d e r e d Romanticism a "mode o f f e e l i n g , " and D e l a c r o i x . A l s o , t h e s i m i l a r i t y i n t h e d e s i r e t o o r d e r t h e s e s e n s a t i o n s i n a t h e o r e t i c a l s c i e n t i f i c way, w h i c h can be d e t e c t e d i n Cezanne and t h e N e o - I m p r e s s i o n i s t s has a common s o u r c e : D e l a c r o i x . Cezanne h e l d t h e o p i n i o n t h a t " E v e r y t h i n g , e s p e c i a l l y . ' i n a r t , 59 i s t h e o r y d e v e l o p e d and a p p l i e d i n c o n t a c t w i t h n a t u r e . " D e l a c r o i x c o n s i d e r e d t h a t " a r t i t s e l f " i s " s c i e n c e , " and "not what t h e v u l g a r b e l i e v e i t t o be,. a vague i n s p i r a t i o n coming from nowhere..."^ 0 Cezanne's a d v i c e t o o t h e r s c o n c e r n i n g b o t h t h e r e l a t i o n - s h i p a r t / n a t u r e , as w e l l as modern a r t / t r a d i t i o n i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h a t g i v e n by Chesneau. Chesneau as we remember, recommended N a t u r e as a s o u r c e o f r e j u v e n a t i o n f o r a r t . He p l e a d e d f o r t h e " s i n c e r e " and " d i r e c t " o b s e r v a t i o n o f N a t u r e , w h i c h a c c o r d i n g t o him, t h e M a s t e r s w h i c h today a r e c o p i e s and i m i t a t e d a l s o p r a c t i s e d . A t t h e same t i m e , he s a i d , t h e M a s t e r ' s works o f a r t were s u p e r i o r t o N a t u r e , because t h e y l e f t out t h e unneces- s a r y d e t a i l s and e x t r a c t e d "the s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r , t h e ex- p r e s s i v e s i g n . C h e s n e a u p o i n t e d out t h a t t h e M a s t e r s " d i d n o t t e l l t h e i r s u c c e s s o r s " : - 155 -= . " F a i t e s ce que nous avons f a i t ; " U s on d i t : " F a i t e s comme nous avons f a i t ; a t t a c h e z - v o u s a r e a l i s e r , d'apres d 1 a u t r e v e r i t e s connues de vous, ce que nous avons r e a l i s e r d'apres c e l l e s .qui nous e t a i e n t f a m i l i e r e s . " 62 Cezanne d e c l a r e d i n 1897: A r t i s a harmony which runs p a r a l l e l w i t h n a t u r e - what i s one t o t h i n k o f t h o s e i m b e c i l e s who say t h a t t h e a r t i s t i s always i n f e r i o r t o n a t u r e ? 63 I n a l e t t e r t o B e r n a r d o f 1905, Cezanne t o u c h e d upon most o f t h e same i s s u e s Chesneau r a i s e d . He c o m p l a i n e d t h a t t h e " o f - f i c i a l S a l o n s remain so i n f e r i o r " because t h e y encourage o n l y a c c e p t e d methods, and o f f e r e d t h i s opinion': I t would be b e t t e r t o b r i n g i n more p e r s o n a l emotion, o b s e r v a t i o n and c h a r a c t e r . The Louvre i s t h e book i n w h i c h we l e a r n t o r e a d . We must n o t , however, be s a t i s f i e d , w i t h r e t a i n i n g t h e b e a u t i - f u l f o r m u l a s - o f our i l l u s t r i o u s p r e d e c e s s o r s . L e t us go f o r t h t o s t u d y b e a u t i f u l n a t u r e , l e t us t r y t o f r e e our minds from them, l e t us s t r i v e t o e x p r e s s o u r s e l v e s a c c o r d i n g t o our p e r s o n a l temperament. 64 Three y e a r s e a r l i e r Cezanne a d v i s e d t h e p a i n t e r C h a r l e s Camoin: S i n c e you are now i n P a r i s and t h e masters of t h e Louvre a t t r a c t you, i f i t a p p e a l s t o you, make some s t u d i e s a f t e r t h e g r e a t d e c o r a t i v e m a s t e r s Veronese and Rubens, b u t as you would do from n a t u r e - a t h i n g I m y s e l f was o n l y a b l e t o do i n a d e q u a t e l y . 65 Cezanne was n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n r e n d e r i n g a spontaneous v i s u a l s e n s a t i o n , b u t i n " c o n s t r u c t i o n s a f t e r n a t u r e , based on method, 6 6 s e n s a t i o n s and developments s u g g e s t e d by t h e model." He wanted t o comprehend Nature "from t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e p i c t u r e . " T h i s comprehension was brought about by " t i m e " and 6 7 by " r e f l e c t i o n ; " w h i c h "modify l i t t l e by l i t t l e our v i s i o n . " From Cezanne's l e t t e r s we can deduce two a p p a r e n t l y con- t r a d i c t o r y - c o n c l u s i o n s : f i r s t - he was n o t a N a t u r a l i s t , second - he i n c r e a s i n g l y t a l k s about N a t u r e a f t e r 1896. T h i s can be u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e l i g h t o f Cezanne's a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e - 156 - a r t i s t i c movements b l o s s o m i n g i n P r o v e n c e , and e s p e c i a l l y i n h i s own town, A i x - e n - P r o v e n c e . I n t h e 1890s, A i x was not a t a l l t h e s t e r e o t y p e o f a p r o - v i n c i a l town i n which n o t h i n g e v e r happens, and t h e r e f o r e t h e p l a c e i n w h i c h Cezanne i s o l a t e d h i m s e l f , presumably t o c r e a t e i n peace, away from i n f l u e n c e s . T h i s i s a myth p r o p a g a t e d by a r t d e a l e r s , b e g i n n i n g o f c o u r s e w i t h V o l l a r d . T h i s k i n d o f t h i n k i n g i s a l s o r e l a t e d t o t h e e r r o n e o u s assumption t h a t e v e r y t h i n g i m p o r t a n t i n c u l t u r a l movements i s l o c a l i z e d i n t h e c a p i t a l . c i t y , i s " c e n t r a l i z e d . " I t so happened t h a t a t t h e t i m e P r o v e n c e , and p a r t i c u l a r l y A i x , was t h e c e n t e r o f what was named "the P r o v i n c i a l R e n a i s s a n c e , " w h i c h had c l o s e t i e s w i t h 6 8 b o t h t h e " C l a s s i c a l R e n a i s s a n c e " and N a t u r i s m . I t was a l s o p a r t o f t h e g e n e r a l p i c t u r e o f t h e "French R e n a i s s a n c e , " t h e n a t i o n a l i s t i c o u t b u r s t provoked by t h e D r e y f u s A f f a i r . As Decaudin has p o i n t e d o u t , t h e p r o v i n c e s had an i n c r e a s i n g r o l e d u r i n g the T h i r d R e p u b l i c i n F r a n c e , and a t t h e same time i t was t h e r e t h a t t h e r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t , t h e decadent and S y m b o l i s t movements, as w e l l as a g a i n s t " f o r e i g n i m p o r t s " was p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g . E s p e c i a l l y i n the South, t h i s r e a c t i o n "took t h e form 6 9 o f a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e L a t i n g e n i u s and M e d i t e r r a n e a n l i g h t . " I n 1896 Cezanne began a c l o s e f r i e n d s h i p w i t h Joachim Gasquet, a prominent f i g u r e i n t h e r e v i v a l o f p o e t r y i n t h e South.of F r a n c h , who i n t h e l a s t few y e a r s o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y a t t e m p t e d a s y n t h e s i s between C l a s s i c i s m ( r e p r e s e n t e d by C h a r l e s Maurras and t h e E c o l e Romane) and N a t u r i s m . " 7 0 Gasquet was t h e son o f one o f Cezanne's o l d f r i e n d s and t h e y had many t h i n g s i n - 157 - common: C a t h o l i c i s m , l o v e f o r Provence and f o r t h e L a t i n h e r i - 71 tage and presumably a n t i - D r e y f u s i s m . Cezanne's l e t t e r s t o Gasquet, o r t o o t h e r young f r i e n d s o f t h e l a t t e r , show c l e a r l y t h e p a i n t e r ' s sympathy toward what he c a l l e d "the r e n e w a l o f 72 A r t w h i c h awakens i n P r o v e n c e . " A l s o , t h e l e t t e r t o Gasquet's f a t h e r c o u l d not l e a v e any doubt: He (Gasquet.], Madame Gasquet and h i s f r i e n d s , have t h e f u t u r e on t h e i r s i d e . I a s s o c i a t e m y s e l f w i t h a l l my h e a r t w i t h t h e movement i n t h e a r t s w h i c h t h e y r e p r e s e n t and t o w h i c h t h e y g i v e i t s c h a r a c t e r . The movement Gasquet r e p r e s e n t e d was a r i g h t - w i n g movement, c o r r e s p o n d i n g on the l i t e r a r y p l a n e to> the r i g h t - w i n g p o l i t i c a l r e a c t i o n o f C a t h o l i c s and M o n a r c h i s t s . T h i s was a r e a c t i o n a r y movement d e v e l o p e d under t h e t r i p l e banner o f C a t h o l i c i s m , L a t i n t r a d i t i o n , and r e g i o n a l i s m o r d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n . L i k e t h e N e o - C l a s s i c i s t s , Gasquet and h i s c i r c l e b e l i e v e d i n t h e n e c e s s i t y o f s o c i a l o r d e r r e f l e c t e d i n an a r t i s t i c p r o d u c t i o n t h a t would s u p p o r t t h a t o r d e r . Gasquet's " c l a s s i c i s m " has t o be u n d e r s t o o d i n a v e r y wide sense, s i n c e i t was encumbered by l y r i c i s m and r o m a n t i c i s m . As M a r c e l Raymond p o i n t e d o u t , t h i s C l a s s i c i s m meant an a r t d o c t r i n e , as w e l l as an e t h i c , 74 based on o r d e r and r e a s o n . I n t h e f i r s t i s s u e o f h i s Pays de F r a n c e , Gasquet wrote i n 1899.. the f o l l o w i n g l i n e s : " S i j e b r i s e 1'ordre des c h o s e s , l e sang de D i e u c o u l e r a . I I y a une r a i s o n dans l e s choses. Je d o i s me conformer." He a l s o added: " L ' a r t q u i s ' i n s p i r e de ces p r i n c i p e s a une p o r t e s o c i a l e . I I rend v i s i b l e l a l o i de l a r a i s o n . . . , " and: "Nous 75 avons l e c u l t e de l a R a i s o n . " I n the same p i e c e o f w r i t i n g Gasquet a l s o e x p r e s s e d h i s a l l e g i a n c e t o N a t u r i s m : - 158 - L ' a r t que nous v o u l o n s , c e l u i que M . V . i o l l i s p r o p o s a i t d ' a p p e l e r n a t u r i s m e . . . c e l u i q u i exprime l e s d e s i r s de t o u t e une g e n e r a t i o n . . . c e t a r t a su f a i r e de l a m a t i e r e un e t r e moral,, dans l ' u n i v e r s i l a su t r o u v e r l e s d i e u x . 7 ^ Gasquet a l r e a d y p r a i s e d N a t u r i s m i n Les Mois P o r e s , t h e magazine he p u b l i s h e d , i n A i x between 1896-1897. I n J a n u a r y 1897 he pub- l i s h e d the e s s a y "Notes pour s e r v i r a l ' h i s t o i r e de n a t u r i s m e , " i n w h i c h he c r i t i c i z e d t h e S y m b o l i s t s , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f 77 Mallarme f o r whom he had a h i g h r e g a r d . Cezanne's recommendation t o l e a r n from t h e " g r e a t m a s t e r s " b u t t o ̂ v i v i f y " t h i s l e s s o n "by t h e way o f n a t u r e " has N a t u r i s t 7 8 o v e r t o n e s . A l s o , Gasquet's way o f t h i n k i n g when he s a y s , "A sa p l a c e t o u t e s t beau. I I y a une h i e r a r c h i e dans l e monde. L ' a r t n a t u r i s t e ne n e g l i g e r i e n . La ou j e s u i s , de l a j e p u i s c o n t e m p l e r l ' u n i v e r s , " has resonances w i t h Cezanne's l i n e s : Here on the bank o f t h e r i v e r the m o t i f s m u l t i p l y , t h e same s u b j e c t seen from a d i f f e r e n t a n g l e o f f e r s s u b j e c t f o r s t u d y o f t h e most p o w e r f u l i n t e r e s t and so v a r i e d t h a t I t h i n k I c o u l d occupy m y s e l f f o r months w i t h o u t c h a n g i n g p l a c e , by t u r n i n g now more t o t h e r i g h t , now more t o the left.™ John Rewald, i n my o p i n i o n , went out o f h i s way t o demon- s t r a t e how u n i m p o r t a n t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p Cezanne-Gasquet was f o r t h e p a i n t e r i n h i s book Cezanne, G e f f r o y e t Gasquet. Rewald i s b i a s e d toward an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Cezanne, as N a t u r a l i s t . W h i l e i t i s t r u e t h a t Gasquet i s not a r e l i a b l e w i t n e s s (but who w a s ? ) , n e v e r t h e l e s s h i s f r i e n d s h i p was i m p o r t a n t a t the t i m e f o r Cezanne, as i s e v i d e n t from h i s l e t t e r s . Rewalds t h i n k s t h a t G e f f r o y (who as we have seen c o n s i d e r e d Cezanne s o r t o f a r e a l i s t manque) u n d e r s t o o d t h e p a i n t e r much b e t t e r t h a n Gasquet, who among o t h e r t h i n g s d w e l t t o o much on Cezanne - 159 - r e v e a l i n g "the s o u l o f Provence." Y e t , w h i l e Cezanne was angered by G e f f r o y ' s a r t i c l e o f 1895 on him and d i d n o t thank him, he had t h i s t o say t o Gasquet who j u s t mentioned Cezanne i n one o f h i s a r t i c l e s , i n w h i c h he i m p l i e d Cezanne r e n d e r e d "the s o u l o f Provence": Having r e a d t h e superb l i n e s i n w h i c h you e x a l t t h e P r o v e n c a l b l o o d , I cannot g e t m y s e l f t o keep s i l e n t , as though I found m y s e l f i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f an u n f o r t u n a t e , a v u l g a r G e f f r o y . 8 0 I n 1903 Gasquet p u b l i s h e d h i s Chants s e c u l a i r e s , w i t h a p r e f a c e by h i s "master" L o u i s B e r t r a n d . T h i s p r e f a c e was d e s c r i b e d as a " m a n i f e s t o i n f a v o u r o f a Medfteraneean and C l a s s i c a l 81 p o e t r y . 1 1 Cezanne seemed t o agree w i t h B e r t r a n d , s i n c e he made t h i s comment about h i s p r e f a c e : The a r t i s t i c movement w h i c h L o u i s B e r t r a n d c h a r a c t e r i z e s so w e l l i n h i s f i n e p r e f a c e , which p r e - cedes t h e 'Chants: S e c u l a i r e s * j i s f u l l o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n . March on and you w i l l c o n t i n u e t o open f o r t h e a r t s a new r o a d l e a d i n g t o t h e C a p i t o l . Your d e v o t e d c o m p a t r i o t and a d m i r e r , 8 2 P a u l Cezanne B e r t r a n d c r i t i c i z e d b o t h t h e Romantic and t h e N a t u r a l i s t move- ments o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y . He advocated t h e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f A r t and L i f e w i t h i n a C l a s s i c a l I d e a l . He wanted t o e x c l u d e from "the r e a l " ( l e r e e l ) e v e r y t h i n g t h a t was not c h a r a c t e r i z e d by " o r d e r , harmony and b e a u t y , " e v e r y t h i n g t h a t was "amorphic, 8 3 i n o r g a n i c , monstrous." B e r t r a n d c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e r o l e o f a r t i s t o p l e a s e and t o i n s t r u c t . (Compare w i t h Cezanne's d e s i r e f o r " d e c o r a t i v e e f f e c t , " " d e c o r a t i v e m a s t e r s " and h i s o p i n i o n t h a t p i c t u r e s s h o u l d be "an e d u c a t i o n . " ) He s t r o n g l y emphasized t h e L a t i n t r a d i t i o n i n g e n e r a l and t h e F r e n c h one i n p a r t i c u l a r (and a p p e a l e d t o t h e L a t i n w o r l d , as h e i r o f - 160 - c i v i l i z a t i o n , t o f i g h t the "new B a r b a r i a n s , " t h e Anglo-Germans). , One o f t h e e r r o r s o f t h e Romantics was, a c c o r d i n g t o B e r t r a n d , t h e l o v e f o r e x o t i c i s m and a d m i r a t i o n o f f o r e i g n a r t . Gasquet h i m s e l f , w h i l e g u i l t y o f Romantic e f f u s i o n , s h a r e d many o f B e r t r a n d ' s p o i n t s o f v i e w , such as t h e e x c l u s i v e p r a i s e o f t h e L a t i n t r a d i t i o n . T h i s e x p l a i n s why he would l a t e r be so i n - s i s t e n t i n d e n y i n g any i n f l u e n c e s t h a t were n o t F r e n c h o r a t l e a s t L a t i n i n Cezanne's work. He s p e c i f i c a l l y r e f e r r e d t o C h i n e s e o r Japanese a r t ( w h i l e a d m i t t i n g though t h a t Cezanne 84 had r e a d Goncourt's books on Utamaro and H o k u s a i ) . C o n s i d e r i n g t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l ambiance i n w h i c h Cezanne l i v e d and w i t h w h i c h he i n t e r a c t e d , i t i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t he was a l r e a d y p r e p a r e d , o r prone t o be r e c e p t i v e t o some o f t h e i d e a s o f t h e N e o - C l a s s i c i s t s E m i l e B e r n a r d and M a u r i c e D e n i s when he f i n a l l y met them. On t h e o t h e r hand, i f Cezanne s u p p o r t e d w i t h " a l l h i s h e a r t " t h e r e n e w a l o f a r t i n h i s b e l o v e d Provence, t h i s d i d n o t mean he agreed t o t a l l y w i t h t h e p o l i t i c a l v i e w s o f Gasquet and h i s c i r c l e ( t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p a c t u a l l y c o o l e d i n t h e p a i n t e r ' s l a t e r y e a r s ) ; nor d i d i t mean t h a t he agreed w i t h t h e p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s b e h i n d t h e N e o - C l a s s i c a l movement o f t h e e a r l y 1900s, and t h e r e t r o g r a d e a e s t h e t i c s which were t h e i r r e s u l t . Cezanne met B e r n a r d i n 1904 and Denis i n 1906. W i t h B e r n a r d he c o r r e s p o n d e d u n t i l h i s d e a t h . But i f they were i n agreement on t h e o l d M a s t e r s t h e y admired, i t i s o b v i o u s from Cezanne's l e t t e r s t h a t t h e N a t u r e / A r t r e l a t i o n s h i p was t h e bone o f con- t e n t i o n between them. Cezanne f e l t c o m p e l l e d t o emphasize o v e r and o v e r t h e d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h n a t u r e , because B e r n a r d would not a c c e p t p a i n t i n g i n f r o n t o f a m o t i f (even i f i t d i d n o t mean - 161 - a f a i t h f u l copy),. b u t p a i n t i n g n a t u r e t h r o u g h t h e eyes o f the M a s t e r s he admired, o r as he p u t i t , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e "laws" 8 5 t h e y " e x t r a c t e d " from n a t u r e . Cezanne, who d i d n o t waste much time t h e o r i z i n g , and d i d n o t s h a r e B e r n a r d ' s e x t r e m e l y r e a c t i o n a r y i d e o l o g y , e x a s p e r a t e d , wrote t o h i s son not l o n g b e f o r e h i s d e a t h : I am s e n d i n g you a l e t t e r t h a t I have j u s t r e c e i v e d from E m i l i o B e r n a r d i n o s , one o f the most d i s t i n g u i s h e d a e s t h e t e s . I am s o r r y not t o have him under my thumb so as t o i n s t i l i n t o him t h e i d e a so sane, so c o m f o r t i n g and the o n l y c o r r e c t one, o f a development o f a r t t h r o u g h c o n t a c t w i t h n a t u r e . . . i n h i s drawings he produces n o t h i n g but o l d - f a s h i o n e d r u b b i s h w h i c h smacks o f h i s a r t i s t i c dreams, based not on t h e e m o t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f n a t u r e b u t on what he has been a b l e t o see i n t h e museums, and more s t i l l on a p h i l o s o p h i c a t t i t u d e o f mind w h i c h comes from h i s e x c e s s i v e knowledge o f the m a s t e r s he admires.86 The f a c t t h a t Cezanne t a l k s so much about N a t u r e toward t h e end o f h i s l i f e does not prove t h a t he was a N a t u r a l i s t . The r e t u r n t o Nature had been a d v o c a t e d s i n c e t h e mid-1890s by t h e a n t i - S y m b o l i s t r e a c t i o n and i t was t h e common ground f o r N a t u r i s t s , C l a s s i c i s t s , o r any c o m b i n a t i o n o f the two move- ments, such as embodied i n Gasquet. "Pure p a i n t i n g " was a l s o an " e x t e r n a l " a r t , r o o t e d i n the m a t e r i a l w o r l d , even though i t was " a b s t r a c t i n g " t h i s w o r l d (thus Denis was s t i l l r e - f e r r i n g t o i t as an a r t o f " i m i t a t i o n " ) . Cezanne's l e t t e r s o n l y prove t h a t he was v e r y much i n t o u c h w i t h t h e a r t i s t i c movements o f h i s own t i m e , w i t h t h e young g e n e r a t i o n . A week b e f o r e h i s death Cezanne w r o t e : " I t h i n k t h e young p a i n t e r s a r e much more i n t e l l i g e n t t h a n t h e 8 7 o t h e r s , t h e o l d ones see i n me o n l y a d i s a s t r o u s r i v a l . " - 162 - 3) D e s i r e t o be a d e c o r a t o r . Cezanne m a n i f e s t e d an i n t e r e s t i n d e c o r a t i o n a t an e a r l y s t a g e o f h i s c a r e e r . H i s f i r s t work i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be a s c r e e n r e p r e s e n t i n g an 1 8 t h c e n t u r y p a s t o r a l (V.3, 1858-60)- F i g . 10. The r i g h t p a r t o f t h e s c r e e n was based on a work by 88 L a n c r e t . The back o f t h e s c r e e n ( V . l - 2 ) - F i g . 1 1 c o n s i s t s o f " g r o t e s q u e " d e c o r a t i o n s i n the v e i n o f B e r a i n ( a f t e r whose models the T a p e s t r y Museum i n A i x has s i x Grotesques t a p e s t r i e s ) . I remind the r e a d e r t h a t " g r o t e s q u e s " are "arabesques" which i n - c l u d e i n t h e i r d e s i g n t h e human f i g u r e . I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t Cezanne was one o f t h e f i r s t (as Lecomte n o t i c e d ) t o i n - t r o d u c e t h e "arabesques" i n h i s p a i n t i n g s . Cezanne " r e f e r r e d " t o t h i s s c r e e n i n s e v e r a l l a t e r p a i n t i n g s , such as P e a s a n t w i t h a B l u e B l o u s e (V.687, 1890-92) and v a r i o u s s t i l l l i f e s , t h e e a r l i e r one b e i n g The P l a t e o f A p p l e s (V. 207, c. 1876) - where he used as a d e c o r a t i v e background a blown-up v e r s i o n o f one o f t h e m o t i f s on t h e back o f the 1858-60 s c r e e n , i n w h i c h a l l the o t h e r o b j e c t s i n t h e p i c t u r e are w e l l i n t e g r a t e d . (For t h e o t h e r p i c t u r e s i n w h i c h he r e f e r s t o t h i s s c r e e n see Th. R e f f , "The 89 P i c t u r e s W i t h i n Cezanne's P i c t u r e s " ) . As R e f f remarked, t h i s s c r e e n had a "unique s i g n i f i c a n c e " f o r Cezanne, because he had d e c o r a t e d i t h i m s e l f . I would add he wanted t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e c o n t i n u i t y i n h i s d e c o r a t i v e i n t e n t i o n s . I t i s a l s o i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t the f r o n t p a r t o f the s c r e e n s i m u l a t e s a t a p e s t r y , w i t h i t s b o r d e r t h a t , as R e f f n o t i c e d , was p r o b a b l y i n s p i r e d by t h e F l e m i s h t a p e s t r y i n t h e C a t h e d r a l o f A i x . That p a r t i c u l a r t a p e s t r y i s a 15th c. one, but Cezanne's s c r e e n l o o k s l i k e an 1 8 t h c. t a p e s t r y . - 163 - I n t h e 1860s, Cezanne p a i n t e d m u r a l s ( w a i l - p a i n t i n g s l a t e r t r a n s f e r r e d t o canvas) such as The Four" Seasons (V.4-7) and the p a i r C h r i s t i n Limbo (V.84, a f t e r a r e p r o d u c t i o n of t h e p a i n t i n g i n t h e Prado by S e b a s t i a n o d e l Piombo i n one o f Ch. B l a n c ' s books, where i t was a t t r i b u t e d t o N a v a r e t t e ) and Sorrow o r Mary Magdalen (V. 8 6 ) . Gasquet s a i d l a t e r t h a t Cezanne would have l i k e d t o "cover w a l l s " w i t h huge p a i n t i n g s , and q u o t i n g E m i l e S o l a r i (the son o f Cezanne's f r i e n d ) , he s p e c i f i e d he 90 would have l i k e d " t o d e c o r a t e f a c a d e s as a V e n e t i a n . " That h i s i d o l s were "the g r e a t d e c o r a t i v e masters Veronese and ' 91 Rubens," and he admired t h e V e n e t i a n s we know t o be t r u e . As opposed t o h i s I m p r e s s i o n i s t c o l l e a g u e s , who as I i n d i c a t e d , wanted t o be " d e c o r a t i v e " b u t d i d not a c c e p t t h e s t a t u s o f " d e c o r a t o r s , " CSzanne d i d not mind r e n o u n c i n g t h e s t a t u s o f 92 " t a b l e a u maker." The f a c t he d i d not p a i n t l a r g e murals was p r o b a b l y due t o the f a c t t h a t nobody commissioned them, as G e f f r o y i m p l i e d . J o s s e and Gaston Bernheim - Jeune, r e l a t e d t h a t a t t h e time when G a r n i e r j u s t f i n i s h e d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e new P a r i s Opera, P i s s a r r o t r i e d t o c o n v i n c e H a l a n z i e r , t h e d i r e c t o r o f t h e Opera, t o commission Cezanne t h e p i c t o r i a l 93 d e c o r a t i o n o f t h e b u i l d i n g . The o n l y commission t o d e c o r a t e t h a t Cezanne r e c e i v e d came from Chocquet, f o r whom he e x e c u t e d i n 1890 t h e p a i r La barque e t l e s b a i g n e u r s (V. 583) and La vasque au paon (V. 584), b o t h 30 x 124 cm., p r o b a b l y as o v e r - d o o r s . The t h r e e l a r g e p a i n t i n g s o f b a t h e r s (V.719 - 21) done i n t h e l a s t y e a r s o f h i s l i f e r e p r e s e n t an attempt t o f u l f i l l a l i f e l o n g dream, t h e c r e a t i o n o f monumental p a i n t i n g s w i t h nudes, l i k e t h e o l d d e c o r a t i v e m a s t e r s . I t seems Cezanne - 164 - b e l i e v e d i n a h i e r a r c h y among v a r i o u s branches o f d e c o r a t i o n , 9 4 t h o u g h , w i t h p a i n t i n g o c c u p y i n g the f i r s t p l a c e . B. Do Cezanne's P a i n t i n g s F i t t h e " D e c o r a t i o n Paradigm"? From C h a p t e r I , P a r t 1, i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t i n t h e l a t e 1870s and a l l t h r o u g h the 1880s, most non-academic a u t h o r i t i e s i n mural d e c o r a t i o n (whether t a p e s t r y , m o s a i c , o r d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g ) a d v o c a t e d r o u g h l y t h e f o l l o w i n g r u l e s : t h e absence o f t r o m p e - 1 ' o e i l , t h e l a c k (or a l m o s t complete l a c k ) o f l i n e a r and a t m o s p h e r i c p e r s p e c t i v e e f f e c t , summary m o d e l l i n g , a l a r g e and s i m p l e f a c t u r e , u n i t y i n c o l o u r i n g ( f o r a " d e c o r a t i v e e f f e c t " i n s t e a d o f " c h i a r o s c u r o e f f e c t " ) , b a l a n c e d masses, a b b r e v i a t i o n i n d r a w i n g and emphasis on t h e c o n t o u r s (which d i d n o t have t o be n e c e s s a r i l y u n i n t e r r u p t e d ) f o r c l a r i t y , rhythm i n com- p o s i t i o n , as w e l l as a c o m p o s i t i o n t h a t l e a v e s v e r y few f r e e s p a c e s . Of c o u r s e " o r d e r " was c o n s i d e r e d "the s o v e r e i g n law o f the d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , " as B l a n c s a i d ( p o i n t i n g out t h a t t h i s " o p t i c a l o r d e r " i s m i s s i n g i n n a t u r e ) , a l l o w i n g a t the same 9 5 time f o r a " d e c o r a t i v e c o n f u s i o n . " I n t h e s e k i n d s o f mural d e c o r a t i o n (I am n o t r e f e r r i n g t o w a l l p a p e r s o r p o s t e r s ) , the w r i t e r s o f t h i s p e r i o d agreed upon p r e s e r v i n g t h e "Western t r a d i t i o n " ( V i o l l e t - l e - D u c d i e d i n 1879, and Havard g r u d g i n g l y a l l o w e d some " r e l i e f " ) . The Japanese a - p l a t (of t h e i r u k i y o - e ) was n o t recommended. Cezanne's "mature p a i n t i n g s " o b v i o u s l y f e a t u r e a l l t h e above-mentioned c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The "Western t r a d i t i o n " i s a l s o p r e s e n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o m o d e l l i n g , a c h i e v e d o f t e n t h r o u g h c o l o u r g r a d a t i o n s t h a t i n c l u d e d "passages," (from one s c a l e t o 9 6 a n o t h e r ) as B l a n c f o r example recommended. To say though, - 165. - as Gasquet d i d , t h a t Cezanne was n o t a t a l l i n f l u e n c e d by O r i e n t a l a r t s i s not c o r r e c t . I n f a c t , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e t i m e he l i v e d and the c i r c l e s o f a r t i s t s and c o l l e c t o r s he was a s s o - c i a t e d w i t h , i t would have been i m p o s s i b l e not t o be i n f l u e n c e d . One of. t h e b e s t examples o f "Japonlsme" i n Cezanne's work i s O u v e r t u r e to. Tannhauser - F i g . 1, a l r e a d y mentioned, p a i n t e d p r o b a b l y i n 1868. I f i t i s t r u e t h a t l a t e r on he d i d not use f l a t t i n t s , he c e r t a i n l y used s o l u t i o n s o f f e r e d by t h e O r i e n t a l a r t s f o r a v o i d i n g l i n e a r p e r s p e c t i v e and f o r making c o l o u r " v i b r a t e > " as Ch. B l a n c a l s o recommended, and p o s s i b l y a few " c o m p o s i t i o n a l t r i c k s " w h i c h I w i l l p o i n t out l a t e r . But w i t h r e s p e c t t o m o d e l l i n g ( i n d i v i d u a l o b j e c t s , as w e l l as the p i c t u r e as a w h o l e ) , i n h i s mature work Cezanne i s c l o s e r t o F r e n c h s o u r c e s o f i n s p i r a t i o n . I n s t e a d o f Japanese p r i n t s , the F r e n c h " n a t i o n a l " d e c o r a t i v e a r t o f t a p e s t r y , from t h e most F r e n c h p e r i o d - t h e Rococo, p r o v i d e d the b e s t s o l u t i o n f o r a d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g t h a t w h i l e i t p r e s e r v e d t h e f l a t n e s s o f t h e w a l l , m a i n t a i n e d a degree o f m o d e l l i n g , o f r e l i e f . The comparison w i t h t a p e s t r y was o f t e n made by Cezanne's c o n t e m p o r a r i e s (see Ch. I I , P a r t 1 ) . Denis and B e r n a r d remarked p r e c i s e l y on the s i m i l a r i t y between Cezanne's " c o l o r m o d u l a t i o n s " and t h e i r t a p e s t r y c o u n t e r p a r t , and t h e y d i d not mean t h i s as f l a t t e r y a t t h e t i m e . I n h i s "Cezanne's C o n s t r u c t i v e S t r o k e " o f 1962, . Theodore R e f f remarked t h a t t h e " p a t t e r n o f f i n e p a r a l l e l s t r o k e s " t h a t CSzanne i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e l a t e 1 8 7 0 s - e a r l y 1880s, 97 resembled t h e "weave i n some c o s t l y t a p e s t r y . " In h i s c h a p t e r i n t h e 1978 C a t a l o g o f t h e Cezanne e x h i b i t i o n R e f f mentioned t h a t t h i s a n a l o g y a l r e a d y drawn by t h e p a i n t e r ' s - 166 - c o n t e m p o r a r i e s i s a " f a m i l i a r theme i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e on 98 Cezanne." But he d i d not pursue the p r o b l e m any f u r t h e r . I suggest t h i s a n a l o g y i s not s i m p l y a metaphor. As i s e v i d e n t from t h e C h a p t e r I , P a r t 1, t h e r e was a r e v i v a l o f i n t e r e s t i n t h e t a p e s t r y i n l a t e 1870s and e a r l y 1880s. There was an i n t e r e s t i n o l d M e d i e v a l t a p e s t r i e s as w e l l as Rococo (the c o l l e c t o r s were e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n the l a s t k i n d because o f t h e i r " d e c o r a t i v e " q u a l i t i e s ) . A t t h e same t i m e , i n t h e wake o f t h e e x h i b i t i o n p u t up by t h e Union C e n t r a l e i n 1876, many a r t p u b l i c a t i o n s d e v o t e d many pages t o t h e h i s t o r y o f t a p e s t r y and t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f i t s "laws" (as d e c o r a t i o n ) . A l s o a new k i n d o f " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " t h a t . . 99 i m i t a t e s t a p e s t r y was proposed i n 1877. A l l t h i s c o i n c i d e s i n an uncanny way w i t h Cezanne d e v e l o p i n g h i s new method. There i s no q u e s t i o n o f c o u r s e o f Cezanne a c t u a l l y c o p y i n g t a p e s t r y (even when some o f t h e b e s t specimens of B e a u v a i s t a p e s t r y were i n A i x ) , x ^ but r a t h e r o f h i s e x t r a c t i n g g e n e r a l methods. A f t e r a l l , as t h e Goncourt b r o t h e r s p o i n t e d out (a f a c t brought up by D e n i s a l s o i n h i s a r t i c l e on C e z a n n e ) f C h a r d i n ' s method c o u l d a l s o be connected w i t h t a p e s t r y o r m o s a i c . C e z a n n e ' s i n t e r e s t b o t h i n t h e Goncourts and i n 102 C h a r d i n i s known from h i s l e t t e r s . I n t h e framework o f "Western t r a d i t i o n , " m u r a l p a i n t i n g as t r u e d e c o r a t i o n was r e l a t e d t o t a p e s t r y - d e c o r a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n t o M e d i e v a l m a n u s c r i p t i l l u m u n a t i o n , as V i o l l e t - l e - D u c would have had i t . Chesneau f o r example, c l e a r l y a s s i g n e d m u r a l p a i n t i n g a r o l e " h i g h e r b u t s i m i l a r " t o t h a t p l a y e d 103 by t a p e s t r y i n t h e p a s t , i n t h e d e c o r a t i o n o f p a l a c e s . - 167 - Among e x t a n t t a p e s t r i e s , t h e Rococo ones p r o v i d e d a p r a c t i c a l example c l o s e enough t o t h e d e s i r e d a s p e c t o f a " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g , " because of t h e i r d e c o r a t i v e " t a p e s t r y e f f e c t . " They were not i m i t a t i o n s o f t a b l e a u x w i t h s t r o n g c h i a r o s c u r o e f f e c t , b u t o f " d e c o r a t i v e " t a b l e a u x , and even then " 1 1 e f f e t - p e i n t u r e " was t r a n s p o s e d i n " e f f e c t - t a p i s s e r i e , " t h a t i s i n a h i g h e r s c a l e 104 o f t o n e s . But even i n t h e s e t h e m o d e l l i n g was t o o s u b t l e f o r t h e summary m o d e l l i n g now d e s i r e d b o t h i n t a p e s t r y and i n " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g . " The m o d e l l i n g by h a t c h i n g , used i n the M e d i e v a l t a p e s t r y was v e r y much recommended i n t h e l a t e 18 70s 105 and i n 1880s f o r t a p e s t r y c a r t o o n s . (18th c. t a p e s t r i e s used s t i l l f i n e r h a t c h i n g , even though i t was somewhat s u p e r f l u o u s , due t o t h e i r b e t t e r c o l o u r t e c h n i q u e s . ) The t h e o r e t i c a l w r i t i n g s t h a t l a i d out t h e r u l e s f o r f u t u r e t a p e s t r y c a r t o o n s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e w r i t i n g s of C h e v r e u l and C h a r l e s B l a n c , p r o v i d e d even b e t t e r , modern s o l u t i o n s , t h a n an 4- +- * . 4- 106 e x t a n t t a p e s t r y . Cezanne in.' i n t r o d u c i n g " h a t c h i n g " i n the l a t e 1870s i n t o h i s o i l p a i n t i n g s (such as L ' E t e r n e l f e m i n i n , V.247 o r t h e S t i l l L i f e i n F i g . 8, V.341, 1879-82, t h a t b e l o n g e d t o Gauguin) p a r a l l e l s t h e advocacy o f h a t c h i n g i n t a p e s t r y . In t a p e s t r y o n l y the v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n i s p o s s i b l e f o r h a t c h i n g . The d i a g o n a l d i r e c t i o n d i d p r o b a b l y come n a t u r a l l y t o Cezanne, s i n c e he was used t o t h e method o f r a p i d d i a g o n a l h a t c h i n g i n 107 d r a w i n g s , as R e f f s u g g e s t e d . But why d i d he d e c i d e t o use h a t c h i n g as a m o d e l l i n g d e v i c e i n h i s o i l p a i n t i n g p r e c i s e l y i n t h e l a t e 1870s - e a r l y 1880s? I do not t h i n k t h a t a t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r time he wanted h i s p a i n t i n g t o l o o k l i k e a t a p e s t r y - 168 - b u t t h a t he was l o o k i n g f o r s o l u t i o n s t o such problems a s : a summary m o d e l l i n g t h a t a t the same .time a l l o w s f o r o r d e r , c l a r i t y , and harmony o f c o l o r . As I mentioned b e f o r e , i n the e a r l y 1880s P i s a r r o was a l s o l o o k i n g f o r ways o f i n t r o d u c i n g " o r d e r " i n t o h i s p a i n t i n g s , as i s e v i d e n t from La Cote du Chou a P o n t o i s e o f 108 1882. P i s s a r r o d e v e l o p e d h i s r e g u l a r "comma s t r o k e s " and seemed i n t e r e s t e d i n o p t i c a l m i x i n g o f c o n t r a s t i n g hues ( r e d and green i n t h i s p i c t u r e ) , f o r a more o r d e r e d " I m p r e s s i o n i s t e f f e c t " i n f a c t , (which i n s p i r e d t h e f u t u r e N e o - I m p r e s s i o n i s t s whom he would a c t u a l l y j o i n l a t e r i n t h e 1880s). Cezanne was i n - t e r e s t e d o b v i o u s l y i n an " e f f e c t " t h a t w h i l e s t i l l " d e c o r a t i v e , " a l l o w e d a b e t t e r way o f c l e a r l y d e f i n i n g s o l i d shapes, as r e q u i r e d i n an " a r c h i t e c t u r a l " d e c o r a t i o n . T h i s i s e v i d e n t i n p i c t u r e s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e p e r i o d 1882-1885, such as Rocks a t L'Estague. (V.404) - F i g . 12 o r House i n Provence (V.397) - F i g . 13. We know from h i s l e t t e r s t h a t a t t h e time he e l a b o r - a t e d t h i s p a t i e n t , o r d e r e d method, based on i n d i v i d u a l u n i t s , o f " m o d u l a t i n g " r e l i e f s i n c o l o r , Cezanne was i n t e r e s t e d i n the s c i e n c e , o f "harmony." There was no b e t t e r F r e n c h a u t h o r i t y a t the time i n t h i s f i e l d (as f a r as c o l o r was concerned) t h a n the c h e m i s t M.E. C h e v r e u l who worked f o r the G o b e l i n s . H i s i n - f l u e n c e on D e l a c r o i x and S e u r a t . i s w e l l , known. I t i s q u i t e l i k e l y Cezanne's i n t e r e s t b o t h i n D e l a c r o i x and i n a s c i e n t i f i c t r e a t m e n t o f harmony o f c o l o r s , b r o u g h t him i n c o n t a c t w i t h C h e v r e u l ' s book De l a l o i du c o n t r a s t e s i m u l t a n e des c o u l e u r s , f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1839. Even though he was o f t e n blamed f o r c o n t r i b u t i n g t o the e x e c u t i o n o f t ape s t r y - 1 a b l e au i n t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y , i t i s not t r u e t h a t C h e v r e u l s u p p o r t e d t h i s c o n c e p t , - 169 - 109 as Ch. B l a n c a l s o emphasized. C h e v r e u l proposed f o r p a i n t i n g s i n t e n d e d t o s e r v e as models f o r t a p e s t r y a more r u d i m e n t a r y method o f m o d e l l i n g , an i n t e r m e d i a t e system be- tween c h i a r o s c u r o , and f l a t t i n t s ( f o r w h i c h he gave as t y p i c a l example "the windows o f G o t h i c c h u r c h e s " ) . The s u b t l e g r a d a t i o n o f nuances was t o be r e p l a c e d by a s u c c e s s i o n o f "monochromous s i n g l e t i n t e d p a r t s , o f a v i s i b l e s i z e . " 1 1 0 I n o t h e r words a s i m p l i f i e d m o d e l l i n g c o u l d be o b t a i n e d by t h e " j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f c o l o r s d i s t i n c t l y s e p a r a t e d , " a q u a n t i f i e d g r a d a t i o n . As I mentioned i n Ch. IT, P a r t 1, B e r n a r d , who was v e r y f a m i l i a r w i t h Cezanne's " c o l o r m o d u l a t i o n s " (see a l s o h i s own v e r s i o n i n t h e l a n d s c a p e o f Pont-Aven o f 1892 - F i g . 6 ) , r e a l i z e d t h a t he was g u i d e d by a "law o f harmony," and t h a t he proceeded as o l d t a p e s t r y weavers i n h i s c o l o u r g r a d a t i o n s and passages from one s c a l e t o a n o t h e r . 1 1 1 The t r a n s i t i o n s g o i n g t h r o u g h t h e whole range o f t o n a l s c a l e s , from one end o f t h e spectrum t o a n o t h e r are a c t u a l l y q u i t e r a r e i n Cezanne's oeuvre. One o f t h e b e s t examples o f a p a i n t i n g t e c h n i q u e t h a t con- s c i o u s l y t r i e s t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e "rainbow" g r a d a t i o n s , not i n a c o n t i n u o u s f a s h i o n , b u t u s i n g t h e method recommended by C h e v r e u l , can be found i n the above-mentioned Rocks a t T'Estaque (V.404), F i g . 12. Among t h e o l d e r t a p e s t r i e s , t h e ones t h a t p r e s e n t a s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t y w i t h Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s , are the 18th c e n t u r y F r e n c h t a p e s t r i e s . The m o d e l l i n g of t h e r e l i e f s o f t h e t e r r a i n : , i n the p a i n t i n g s done a t Estaque i n the e a r l y 1880s, i s s i m i l a r f o r example t o t h a t i n Boucher's t a p e s t r y C h i n e s e F i s h i n g P a r t y - p i g . 14 - woven i n s i l k a t B e a u v a i s 112 i n 1758. There i s no o p t i c a l m i x i n g o f c o n t r a s t i n g t o n e s - 170 - i n Boucher, as we o f t e n f i n d i n Cezanne's p a r a l l e l b r u s h s t r o k e s , s i n c e Boucher d i d n o t have t h e b e n e f i t o f C h e v r e u l 1 s r e s e a r c h and a d v i c e . C h e v r e u l d i d recommend such a method w h i c h meant e m p l o y i n g a l t e r n a t i n g t h i n bands o f two hues i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n 113 (when seen from a d i s t a n c e ) a t h i r d one. The method i s a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d i n C h a r l e s B l a n c ' s Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n , as an a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e p o i n t i l l i s t i c method o f o b t a i n i n g o p t i c a l m i x i n g o f c o l o u r s , w h i c h as we know was t h e s o l u t i o n adopted 114 by S e u r a t . The f a c t t h a t Cezanne's p a r a l l e l , " c o n s t r u c t i v e s t r o k e s " as t h e y were c a l l e d by R e f f , f o l l o w a d i a g o n a l 115 d i r e c t i o n , i n s t e a d o f v e r t i c a l as i n t a p e s t r y i s i r r e l e v a n t . As a m a t t e r o f f a c t l a t e r Cezanne abandoned t h i s d i a g o n a l d i r e c t i o n ( i t i s seen i n t h e p a i n t i n g o f t h e 1890s m a i n l y i n f o l i a g e , and even t h e n i t does not have t h e same a n g l e o f i n c l i n a t i o n a l l - o v e r ) o f b r u s h s t r o k e s t h a t have t h e same i n - c l i n a t i o n everywhere on t h e s u r f a c e o f the canvas. The e a r l i e s t l a n d s c a p e t h a t we know, i n w h i c h t h e r e g u l a r , one d i r e c t i o n o n l y , p a r a l l e l b r u s h s t r o k e s c o v e r t h e e n t i r e canvas 116 p r a c t i c a l l y i s Le Chateau de Medan (V.325) o f 1880. T h i s p a i n t i n g used t o be i n the p o s s e s s i o n o f Gauguin, and from i t s d e s c r i p t i o n i t seems t o be the one Gauguin compared l a t e r w i t h 117 " O r i e n t a l s i l k s . " T h i s comparison i s not j u s t a f i g u r e o f speech. Gauguin, l i k e S e u r a t and h i s c i r c l e , was v e r y much i n t e r e s t e d i n the mid-1880s i n what S i g n a c c a l l e d "the O r i e n t a l t r a d i t i o n " ( c o l o r i s t i c t r a d i t i o n i n t i s s u e s and c e r a m i c s ) 118 p r a i s e d by Ch. B l a n c . They a l l r e a d Ch. B l a n c ' s Grammaire des a r t du d e s s i n as f a r as we know, and p r o b a b l y h i s s t u d i e s on D e l a c r o i x , as w e l l as t h e Grammaire des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s . , - 171 - (Gauguin e s p e c i a l l y , w h i l e w o r k i n g i n C h a p e l e t ' s c e r a m i c s work- shop), i n w h i c h he r a v e d about, t h e " i n s t i n c t i v e . " knowledge o f t h e laws o f c o l o u r e v i d e n t i n O r i e n t a l t i s s u e s and c e r a m i c s . B l a n c s p e c i f i c a l l y r e f e r r e d t o o p t i c a l m i x i n g . o f c o l o u r s , and t o t h e a b i l i t y , t o make even a p p a r e n t l y u n i f o r m monochrome s u r f a c e s 119 " v i b r a t e " t h r o u t h .. " m o d u l a t i o n s " o f t o n e . Cezanne must have r e a d a t l e a s t B l a n c 1 s w r i t i n g s on D e l a c r o i x , because o f h i s 120 i n t e r e s t i n t h a t p a i n t e r , and p r o b a b l y t h e o t h e r s t o o . E i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y F r e n c h t a p e s t r y (from a p e r i o d when .Chinese, s i l k t a p e s t r i e s and o t h e r t i s s u e s were v e r y p o p u l a r ) a l s o e x h i b i t s b e a u t i f u l c o l o u r m o d u l a t i o n s , as i s e v i d e n t f o r example i n a d e t a i l from Les amusements de l a C ampagne: L ' A b r e u v o i r by F r a n c o i s Casanova ( B e a u v a i s , 1772) - F i g . 15. Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s o f t h e e a r l y 1880s can be c o n s i d e r e d as h i s most " s y n t h e t i c " ones. They a r e t h e ones i n w h i c h t h e p a r a l l e l b r u s h s t r o k e s " u n i t s " c o v e r the canvas almost e n t i r e l y , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e s p e c i f i c t e x t u r e o f t h e o b j e c t s r e p r e s e n t e d i n i t , and r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e type o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r ( l a n d s c a p e , s t i l l l i f e , b a t h e r c o m p o s i t i o n - such as f o r example Three B a t h i n g Women now i n P e t i t P a l a i s , P a r i s , V.381, w h i c h M a t i s s e owned). They l o o k l i k e c l o s e - u p s o f t a p e s t r y d e t a i l s i n w h i c h t h e r e g u l a r t e x t u r e ( u n i f y i n g element) shows. T h i s " S y n t h e t i s m " o f Cezanne, as D e n i s mentioned, i n f l u e n c e d Gauguin and c o u l d be r e l a t e d t o the: " d e c o r a t i v e " s i d e o f Symbolism. C l o i s o n i s m i s a f t e r a l l o n l y a form, a v a r i a n t o f S y n t h e t i s m , and i t i s p o s - s i b l e Gauguin would n o t even had t r i e d t h a t v a r i a n t i n p a i n t i n g i f n o t f o r B e r n a r d . B e r n a r d h i m s e l f was i n f l u e n c e d i n h i s C l o i s o n i s m by Cezanne's e a r l i e r p a i n t i n g s , as w e l l as t h e ones - 172 - i n the 1880s, as i s evident from his S t i l l - L i f e with Tobacco Pot of 1877 - F i g . 3. In any event, the Symbolists paid t r i b u t e to both Puvis and Cezanne, since as Charles Morice pointed out, 121 both applied decoration p r i n c i p l e s to easel painting. The . difference resides only with the s p e c i f i c decorative a r t they took as model: Puvis - pre-Renaissance fresco painting, Cezanne- tapestry, the Cloisonnists - cloisonnee work or stained glass windows. As opposed to the Symbolists, even i f Cezanne's paintings were "Synthetic," they were not completely a r t i f i c i a l , not supernatural. Cezanne's colour i s not "symbolic" (even when a painting i s a l l b l u i s h , he can j u s t i f y t h i s by the " f e e l i n g of a i r " ) , his landscapes are p l a u s i b l e , they look and have the colour of Provence. Later i n the 1880s (around 18 8 5) he might have been influenced by the idea that tapestry imitation i n l i q u i d colours can lead to a new kind of decorative painting. This idea has been expounded i n a book by the painter-decora- tor J u l i e n Godon, La Peinture sur t o i l e et son application a 122 l a decoration i n t e r l e u r e . In paintings such as Aix, Rocky Landscape, i n the National Gallery i n London (V.491, c.1887), or Viaduct and Big Trees (V.452, 1885-87) i n the Metropolitan - F i g . 16, Cezanne began to use a technique s i m i l a r to the one used i n watercolours. His paint i s d i l u t e d for t h i s purpose. Instead of the commercial l i q u i d colours, s p e c i a l l y prepared for t h i s kind of painting (such as the ones advertised by Lechertier, Barbe, & Co. i n the 1879 English t r a n s l a t i o n of Godon"s book), Godon suggested also the use of the regular o i l colours, mixed with essence of turpentine. I t i s known t h a t Cezanne used t h i s p r o c e d u r e . Godon s p e c i f i e d t h a t f o r t h o s e f a m i l i a r w i t h w a t e r c o l o u r t e c h n i q u e , "the use o f l i q u i d 124 c o l o u r s would be s i m p l y a game." Cezanne mastered w a t e r - c o l o u r t e c h n i q u e e a r l y i n h i s c a r e e r . There i s a s e r i e s o f o i l l a n d s c a p e s p a i n t e d i n t h i s t e c h n i q u e , which does not r e v e a l so much t h e c l o s e - u p . t e x t u r e o f a t a p e s t r y as t h e e a r l i e r p a i n t i n g s , b u t g i v e more t h e a s p e c t o f a t a p e s t r y seen from a d i s t a n c e , i n i t s o r d e r and c l a r i t y . As i n t a p e s t r y , t h i s o r d e r l y a s p e c t i s l a r g e l y due t o t h e c r e a t i o n o f "shadow-paths" a l o n g broken c o n - / 125 t o u r s . I n t a p e s t r y t h e broken c o n t o u r s appear due t o i t s s p e c i f i c method o f f a b r i c a t i o n . (Even w i t h o u t an o u t l i n i n g o f t h e c o n t o u r s , a t a p e s t r y g i v e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f o u t l i n i n g shapes w i t h a l o s t - a n d - f o u n d . c o n t o u r , due t o i t s s l i t s . ) I n a p a i n t i n g l i k e t h e Mount S a i n t e - V i c t o i r e .with V i a d u c t and B i g Trees - F i g . 16, Cezanne a v o i d e d t h e e f f e c t o f l i n e a r p e r s p e c t i v e by u s i n g a " b i r d ' s eye view" as i n Japanese p r i n t s . The use o f O r i e n t a l p e r s p e c t i v e was recommended by C h a r l e s B l a n c f o r t a p e s t r y i n h i s Grammaire des a r t s , d e c o r a t i f s . The " t a p e s t r y paradigm" c o n t i n u e s t o f i t Cezanne's p a i n t - i n g s a l l t h r o u g h t h e 1890s, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e l a n d s c a p e s . F o r o t h e r s u b j e c t - m a t t e r i t i s more a p p r o p r i a t e t o speak o f a "de- c o r a t i o n paradigm" i n g e n e r a l . The s q u a r i s h p a t c h e s and h a t c h - i n g , t h a t can be. connected w i t h the l o o k o f t a p e s t r y , were t o o r i g i d and l i f e l e s s t o r e n d e r a f r u i t o r human f l e s h . In t h e 1880s Cezanne d i d use t h e same t e c h n i q u e , however, r e g a r d l e s s o f the s u b j e c t - m a t t e r (compare f o r example F i g . 8 and F i g . 1 2 ) . I n the 1890s, as we have seen i n Chapter I , P a r t 2 ("D"), t h e r e was a t r e n d toward a r e t u r n t o " l i f e . " As e a r l y as 1893, - 174 - t h e p r e s t i g i o u s j o u r n a l L ' A r t i s t e (which was l e a n i n g toward the j u s t e m i l i e u ) , w h i l e welcoming the new p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h " S t y l e " ( r e l a t e d t o C o r o t and P o u s s i n ) ' was i n tune w i t h o t h e r a n t i - S y m b o l i s t r e a c t i o n s i n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e " i d e i s t " p a i n t e r s t o o remote from l i f e and n a t u r e . R. Bouyer d e c l a r e d : . . . s i l e r e a l i s m e a o u t r a n c e nous a donne l a n o s t a l g i e du s t y l e , l e s p a y s a g i s t e s du decor symbolique a u r o n t sans doute a compter avec l e s b r u t a l e s r e v o l t e s de l a n a t u r e m o r t i f i e e . 126 Bouyer a l s o p o i n t e d out t h a t N i c o l a s P o u s s i n , "...ce g e n i e , b i e n meconnue en e f f e t , l o i n de t y r a n n i s e r 1 ' a r t , a r e h a b i l i t e l a n a t u r e , v i v i f i a n t p a r l e coeur l a g l a e i a l e c o n v e n t i o n des 127 B o l o n a i s . " The w r i t e r a l s o mentioned P o u s s i n ' s p a s s i o n a t e i n t e r e s t o f h i s y o u t h i n t h e " V e n e t i a n c o l o r i s t s . " Among the l a n d s c a p e s o f t h e l a t e 18 90s, I s h a l l choose f o r / d i s c u s s i o n t h e B a l t i m o r e S t e - V i c t o i r e seen from Bibemus, (V.766, c. 1898-1900) c.1837 a c c o r d i n g t o Rewald) - F i g . 17. The t a p e s t r y e f f e c t i s s t r i k i n g . I t i s due t o an a r b i t r a r y d i s t r i - b u t i o n o f l i g h t and shade t h a t c r e a t e s . a n even l i g h t n e s s . The whole p a i n t i n g appears t o be c o l o u r e d . i n a. h i g h key, s i n c e t h e b r o k e n t o n e s a r e s p a r i n g l y used and u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d on t h e p a i n t i n g ' s s u r f a c e . The a r t i f i c i a l l i g h t o f the p i c t u r e 128 r e c a l l s t h e " i n n e r l i g h t " o f t h e B e a u v a i s t a p e s t r i e s . The p a r t i c u l a r l o o k o f t a p e s t r y i s enhanced by t h e s q u a r i s h p a t c h e s o f a f a i r l y . l a r g e s i z e , i n r e l a t e d hues o f r e d s o r brown-reds t h a t modulate the b a s i c orange-ochre l o c a l , c o l o u r o f t h e q u a r r y . Cezanne has r e s e r v e d t h e method o f h a t c h i n g f o r t h e m i d d l e - g r o u n d f o l i a g e i n p a r t i c u l a r , f o r a shimmering e f f e c t . As i n t h e t a p e s t r y , t h e f i n e h a t c h i n g l i n e s h e l p t h e passage - 175 - o f c o l o u r , the t r a n s i t i o n n e c e s s a r y i n g r a d a t i o n s . I n s t e a d o f r e l y i n g so much on c o n t r a s t o f hues as on t h e N e o - T m p r e s s i o n i s t s (or even as t h e I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , i n a l e s s s c i e n t i f i c way), Cezanne used g r a d a t i o n s o f hues t h a t , are c l o s e i n t h e c h r o m a t i c c i r c l e , and t h r o u g h i n t e r m e d i a t e t r a n s i t i o n s , o r "passages," went 129 from one t o n a l s c a l e t o a n o t h e r . T h i s i s not t o say he d i d n o t use complementary hues n e x t t o each o t h e r . I n t h e Bibemus p a i n t i n g he used t h e c o n t r a s t o r a n g e - b l u e i n t e n s i v e l y , b u t i n l a r g e a r e a s o f f l a t . c o l o u r as f o r example i n the orange g o i n g a l l a l o n g t h e c o n t o u r o f t h e mountain (contour emphasized i n P r u s s i a n b l u e ) c o n t r a s t i n g . w i t h t h e b l u e o f t h e sky. The sky i t s e l f i s "modulated" ( a c c o r d i n g t o B l a n c ' s recommendations about making s e e m i n g l y f l a t c o l o u r , " v i b r a t e " ) and t h e r e are orange t o u c h e s i n i t . T h i s "orange" i s the b a s i c hue o f the q u a r r y i n w h i c h a r e a s o f b l u e a r e used f o r m o d e l l i n g , as w e l l as t o g i v e "a f e e l i n g o f a i r " , and a l s o because a r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e same hue a l l over the s u r f a c e o f the p a i n t i n g c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e u n i t y o f e f f e c t . The l a t t e r i s a " t r i c k " recommended by manuals on decoration."*" 3 ^ C o l o u r b a l a n c e t h r o u g h o u t t h e p i c t u r e a r e a was v e r y im- p o r t a n t t o Cezanne. O f t e n whole p i c t u r e s were b u i l t up on a b a s i c c o l o u r note ( b l u e , blue-green,. r e d d i s h - b r o w n o c h r e , e t c . ) , a key note as i n music, t o w h i c h he added " m o d u l a t i o n s . " A good example i s Rocks i n the F o r e s t (V.673,c.1894) w h i c h has an o v e r a l l and d u l l p u r p l e t o n a l i t y , the same way an o l d G o b e l i n t a p e s t r y has a r e d d i s h t o n a l i t y . D a r c e l ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f C a z i n ' s l a n d s c a p e s i n 1882 would a l s o f i t t h i s p a i n t i n g . T a l k - i n g about t h e " u n i t y o f c o l o r a t i o n , w h i c h i s a l r e a d y one o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s r e q u i r e d by o r n a m e n t a l p a i n t i n g , " D a r c e l s a i d about C a z i n ' s p a i n t i n g s e x h i b i t e d a t t h e S a l o n o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s t h a t t h e Union C e n t r a i e o r g a n i z e d t h a t y e a r : Ce s o n t d ' e x q u i s e s symphonies dans l e g r i s , . comme c e r t a i n s morceaux de musique de chambre ou M o z a r t se. c o m p l a i t a e n t o u r e r un theme d i s c r e t de m o d u l a t i o n s charmantes.; 131 I n f a c t , Cezanne's l a n d s c a p e s c o r r e s p o n d b e t t e r w i t h D a r c e l ' s concept o f d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g , s i n c e t h e y have t h e a r c h i t e c t u r - a l s t r u c t u r i n g , w h i c h t h e c r i t i c r e g r e t f u l l y n o t i c e d was m i s s i n g 132 i n C a z i n ' s works. R e t u r n i n g t o t h e Bibemus p i c t u r e t a k e n as p r o t o t y p e , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t a n o t h e r f e a t u r e , c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e u n i t y and c l a r i t y o f the whole, i s t h e o u t l i n i n g o f t h e c o n t o u r s , w h i c h a l s o works t o a b o l i s h t h e e f f e c t s o r a e r i a l p e r s p e c t i v e . F o r example, t h e mountain, even though i t s b l u i s h c o l o r i n g a l l o w s f o r a " f e e l i n g o f a i r r , " i s b r o u g h t c l o s e r t o t h e v i e w e r by t h e d a r k b l u e o u t l i n e . ( i t i s a l s o made t o appear c l o s e r by a p l a y on shapes: t h e mountain s l o p e i s s y m m e t r i c a l w i t h t h e f o l i a g e p r o f i l e i n t h e r i g h t hand t r e e . ) The c o n t o u r s i n Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s a r e . n o t u n i n t e r r u p t e d , because he d i d not want h i s p i c t u r e t o be c o m p l e t e l y f l a t , but t o have t h e a s p e c t o f a bas- r e l i e f . The broken c o n t o u r s (which as I a l r e a d y mentioned ap- p e a r a l s o i n t a p e s t r y because of i t s s p e c i f i c method o f f a b r i - c a t i o n ) a l l o w f o r "passages" between d i f f e r e n t p l a n e s . There i s a l m o s t no depth i n t h i s p i c t u r e , and w i t h o u t t h e s e passages a l l o w e d by t h e openings i n t h e f i r m o u t l i n e s , t h e p l a n e s would " f a l l on t o p o f each o t h e r . " 1 3 3 I t seems t h a t i n t h i s p a i n t i n g Cezanne f o l l o w e d a sug- g e s t i o n Ch. B l a n c made f o r t a p e s t r y models, namely t o a v o i d t h e - 178 - e f f e c t o f l i n e a r p e r s p e c t i v e by u s i n g Chinese p e r s p e c t i v e 134 ( B l a n c even r e p r o d u c e d a C h i n e s e h a n g i n g i n h i s b o o k ) . I n C h i n e s e p a i n t i n g s and t a p e s t r i e s , mountains are p i l e d up i n o v e r l a p p i n g p l a n e s , the same way here S a i n t e - V i c t o i r e , r a i s e d h i g h e r t h a n i t s n a t u r a l p o s i t i o n , i s p i l e d up on t o p o f t h e c l i f f . L i l i a n e B r i o n Guerry n o t i c e d i n t h e 1940s t h a t i n t h i s p a i n t i n g (as w e l l as i n V.663, i n Moscow and V.666, i n C l e v e l a n a l s o p a i n t e d i n t h e 1890s), CSzanne used a s p a t i a l c o n c e p t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f C h i n e s e p a i n t e r s , but she d i d n o t t h i n k o f t h i s as t o be more t h a n a c o i n c i d e n c e , s i n c e she b e l i e v e d what 135 Gasquet s a i d . As i . i n d i c a t e d i n C h a p t e r I , P a r t 2, t h e l o o k o f t a p e s t r y , c a r p e t s , t h e i m i t a t i o n o f v a r i o u s t e x t u r e s and m a t e r i a l s i n p a i n t i n g was v e r y much i n f a s h i o n i n t h e l a s t y e a r s o f t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t now Cezanne (who, as we know, was i n t e r e s t e d i n what t h e young g e n e r a t i o n o f p a i n t e r s was doing) was r e c e i v i n g feed-back. The f a c t i s t h a t h i s p a i n t i n g s o f t h i p e r i o d d i s p l a y a v a r i e t y o f d e c o r a t i v e p a t t e r n s and t e x t u r e s , a l l v e r y c o l o u r f u l , m a r k i n g a change from t h e more s o b e r , more " c l a s s i c a l " ones o f t h e l a t e 1880s and e a r l y 1890s. F o r i n - s t a n c e , one can compare S t i l l L i f e w i t h Peppermint B o t t l e o f about 1890-92 (V.625) - F i g . 18, w i t h S t i l l L i f e w i t h A p p l e s and Oranges o f t h e p e r i o d 1895-1900 (V.732) - F i g . 19. The f i r s t one, p a i n t e d i n a " c o l d " t o n a l i t y d i s p l a y s s i m p l e , pure l i n e s ( i n c l u d i n g t h e arabesques on the c l o t h ) , more r e g u l a r , g e o m e t r i c a l shapes, more e q u i l i b r i u m . The second one a p p e a l s more t o the s e n s e s . A l s o , i t s O r i e n t a l p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e t i l t e d p l a n e s , are even more s u i t a b l e f o r d e c o r a t i o n . - 178 - Gauguin's comparison o f Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s w i t h " O r i e n t a l s i l k s " can be b e s t i l l u s t r a t e d , perhaps.,- w i t h a n o t h e r p a i n t i n g o f t h i s p e r i o d , The Red Rock (V.776, 1895-1900) - F i g . 20. I t l o o k s l i k e F r e n c h i m i t a t i o n o f C h i n e s e s i l k s - T a f f e t a s C h i n e s , o f t h e Rococo p e r i o d , and i t i s a good i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e method o f c o l o u r m o d u l a t i o n s Cezanne r e s e r v e d now f o r f o l i a g e o r f o r m o d u l a t i n g s l i g h t r e l i e f s o f r o c k s o r t e r r a i n . F o r backgrounds, f i g u r e s , f r u i t and v a r i o u s o b j e c t s he used t h e method s i m i l a r t o t h e one used i n the flamb6 c e r a m i c s (by C h a p e l e t f o r example, 136 who was i n s p i r e d by s i m i l a r C h i n e s e p o t t e r y ) . In f a c t many o f h i s f i g u r e s , such as i n C a r d p l a y e r s , Smokers (V.684, c.1895 i s a good example), B a t h e r s , o r f r u i t i n h i s S t i l l L i f e s t a k e t h e a s p e c t o f s o l i d c e r a m i c s , a f a c t p r a i s e d by h i s contempor- a r y c r i t i c s . A t t h e S a l o n d'Automne o f 1904 "pure p a i n t i n g " s e t t h e tone and Cezanne, as we have seen, was p r a i s e d or blamed, depending on t h e p o s i t i o n o f the c r i t i c , f o r t h e d i r e c t i o n p a i n t i n g was t a k i n g . As i f t o respond t o . c r i t i c i s m , between 1904-1906 (the l a s t y e a r s o f h i s l i f e ) Cezanne p a i n t e d a s e r i e s o f p a i n t i n g w i t h Mont S a i n t e - V i c t o i r e , w h i c h are more " a b s t r a c t " t h a n any- t h i n g he had p a i n t e d b e f o r e , and i n which the p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t e x t u r e i s v e r y pronounced.. I n some o f them' he r e i n t r o d u c e d t h e heavy impasto o f h i s much e a r l i e r p a i n t i n g s (which now were seen and a p p r e c i a t e d l a r g e l y because of. t h i s f e a t u r e ) . I be- l i e v e as V e n t u r i d i d t h a t t h i s l a t e s e r i e s o f S a i n t e - V i c t o i r e v i e w s were a l l p a i n t e d i n the l a s t c o u p l e o f y e a r s , even though l a t e l y some o f them have been a s s i g n e d t o t h e p e r i o d 1902-1906, 137 • • f o r no o b v i o u s r e a s o n . I am . r e f e r r i n g t o the e i g h t p a i n t i n g s l i s t e d i n V e n t u r i c a t a l o g a s : V. 79!8"-V.. 804 and V.1529, as w e l l as t o Mont S a i n t e - V i c t o i r e seen from Les Lauves i n the E s t a t e o f Henry Pearlman,' New York. These a r e ' t h e p a i n t i n g s f o r which Cezanne f e l t c o m p e l l e d t o j u s t i f y h i s " a b s t r a c t i o n s " t o 13 8 B e r n a r d , b l a m i n g them on h i s o l d age v i s i o n . The l e t t e r t o B e r n a r d was p r o b a b l y t r i g g e r e d by a p r e v i o u s e n q u i r y from the p a r t o f t h e younger p a i n t e r who was a g a i n s t t h i s m a t e r i a l i s t i c "pure p a i n t i n g , " and who may a l s o have f e l t t h a t Cezanne was n o t p r a c t i s i n g what he was p r e a c h i n g i n r e s p e c t w i t h t h e a r t / n a t u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p . The f a c t i s t h a t a p a i n t i n g l i k e t h e S a i n t e - V i c t o i r e now i n a p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n i n S w i t z e r l a n d (V.802) - F i g . 2 1 i s a k i n t o V u i l l a r d ' s p a i n t i n g s o f about t h e same p e r i o d , admired a t t h e S a l o n d'Automne i n 1904 f o r the " p r e c i o s i t y o f t h e w e f t , " f o r t h e a s p e c t o f e x p e n s i v e t i s s u e , and w h i c h were c o n s i d e r e d as very: s u i t a b l e ! f o r t h e d e c o r a t i o n 139 o f modern a p a r t m e n t s . No wonder t h a t M. D e n i s , who saw one o f t h e S a i n t e - V i c t o i r e p a i n t i n g s on Cezanne's e a s e l i n 1906 (the one w h i c h appears on t h e photograph he t o o k and used f o r h i s p a i n t i n g Cezanne "on the M o t i f " - F i g . 2 2 ; i t i s p r o b a b l y V.803), was f o r c e d t o admit t h a t Cezanne's work, j u s t l i k e 140 V u i l l a r d ' s , was "pure p a i n t i n g . " T h i s p a r t i c u l a r p a i n t i n g (V.803, Mount S a i n t e - V i c t o i r e Seen from:Les Lauves , c. 1906, P u s h k i n Mus., Moscow), w h i l e e m p h a s i z i n g t e x t u r e ( i n i m p a s t o ) , does not have t h e s t r u c t u r e d , o r d e r l y , t a p e s t r y - l i k e t e x t u r e o f o t h e r p a i n t i n g s o f t h e same " m o t i f , " such as f o r example t h e one i n Z u r i c h - F i g . 2 1 . . The p a i n t i n g i n Z u r i c h e x h i b i t s on a much l a r g e r s u r f a c e o f t h e p a i n t i n g t h e same p a t t e r n o f s q u a r i s h p a t c h e s Cezanne used e a r l i e r i n t h e m i d d l e ground - 180 - o f t h e M e t r o p o l i t a n S a i n t e - V i c t o i r e - F i g . 16. W i t h t h e p a i n t i n g seen by D e n i s i t would seem Cezanne became even more " a n a r c h i s t i c " (to use D e n i s ' own l a n g u a g e ) , no doubt t o t h e younger p a i n t e r ' s d i s a p p o i n t m e n t . I n f a c t ' b e - cause o f h i s p a i n t i n g , and p r e v i o u s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h Z o l a , ; - Cezanne was even l a b e l l e d as D r e y f u s s i s t I n 1903. x ^ x Cezanne d i d n o t h i n g t o e a r n t h i s l a b e l , as we a l r e a d y know. On t h e o t h e r hand i f we f i n d " c l a s s i c a l " o r d e r i n Cezanne's p a i n t i n g , i s n o t because o f h i s a l l e g i a n c e t o t h e r e a c t i o n a r y N e o - C l a s s i c i s t movement t o w h i c h D e n i s belonged.: In f a c t , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e G r e a t B a t h e r s i n P h i l a d e l p h i a , V.719, Cezanne p a i n t i n g s i n h i s l a s t decade e x h i b i t f a r l e s s c l a s s i c a l o r d e r t h a n the p a i n t i n g s o f the 1880s. Cezanne was always on the s i d e o f t h e a r t f o r a r t ' s sake, w i t h o u t l i t e r a t u r e , w i t h o u t m o r a l , w i t h o u t p r o p a g a n d i s t s ends. By t h e end o f h i s l i f e he was d i s i l l u s i o n e d w i t h C a t h o l i c p r i e s t s ("I t h i n k t h a t t o be a C a t h o l i c one must be d e v o i d o f a l l sense o f j u s t i c e , but have 142 good eye f o r one's i n t e r e s t s " ) as w e l l as w i t h t h e i n t e l - 143 l e c t u a l s o f h i s r e g i o n . He even wrote t o B e r n a r d i n 1905 t h a t "the humble and c o l o s s a l P i s s a r r o f i n d s .himself j u s t i f i e d i n h i s a n a r c h i s t i c t h e o r i e s , " when e x a s p e r a t e d by B e r n a r d ' s r e m i n i s c e n s e s o f museums (which P i s s a r r o would have l i k e d t o 144 see burned down). The c l a s s i c a l o r d e r Cezanne i n t r o d u c e d i n t o h i s p a i n t i n g s was r e l a t e d t o the concept o f " d e c o r a t i v e , " o r " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" p a i n t i n g o f t h e 1880s and e a r l y 1890s. C o n c l u s i o n s . I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e a v a n t - g a r d e ' s o r i e n t a t i o n toward - 181 - the " d e c o r a t i v e " (even toward " d e c o r a t i o n " ) , t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s F r a n c h p a i n t i n g from t h e 1860s u n t i l t h e appearance o f Cubism, i s r e l a t e d t o t h e a r t i s t s ' d e s i r e t o produce " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake." I n t h i s r e s p e c t , Cezanne was no e x c e p t i o n . In o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d b e t t e r Cezanne's p o s i t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e a v a n t - garde movements o f h i s t i m e : I m p r e s s i o n i s m (of t h e 1870s), Neo- I m p r e s s i o n i s m , Symbolism ("Symbolism-Synthetism"), "pure p a i n t i n g " ( l a t e 1890s - e a r l y 1900s), as w e l l as t o N e o - C l a s s i c i s m (which was not an a v a n t - g a r d e movement o r i g i n a l l y b u t , i n my o p i n i o n , l a t e r i n f l u e n c e d a v a n t - g a r d e p a i n t i n g ) , we have t o be aware t h a t t h e r e were e s s e n t i a l l y t w o . p a r a l l e l , a p p r o a c h e s toward t h e " d e c o r a t i v e " o r " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake," c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y t o a M a t e r i a l i s t o r an I d e a l i s t p h i l o s o p h y . I n a m a t e r i a l i s t i c framework, " d e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g i s " e x t e r n a l " , and i t s purpose i s t o g i v e p l e a s u r e t o t h e eye. I n an i d e a l i s t i c system o f r e f e r e n c e , " d e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g , w h i l e s t i l l " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" i n t h e sense t h a t i t d e n i e s the importance o f t h e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r (even though t h i s i s always o f s i g n i f i c a n c e ) , and e s p e c i a l - l y because i t does not " e x p r e s s " emotions t h r o u g h t h e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r , does c o n t a i n an " I d e a . " I t i s even " p a i n t i n g o f the s o u l , " and i t borrows t h e f o r m a l i s m o f . " d e c o r a t i o n " i n o r d e r t o p r o j e c t t h e i d e a l i s t c o n t e n t . S y m b o l i s t p a i n t i n g i s such " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" d e f i n e d i n an i d e a l i s t framework. Im- p r e s s i o n i s m was " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" d e f i n e d s o l e l y w i t h i n a p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y m a t e r i a l i s t system. I t was a l s o " d e c o r a t i v e " w i t h o u t b e i n g "decoration/"; a g a i n i n the. " m a t e r i a l i s t i c " a c - c a p t a n c e o f the term " d e c o r a t i v e . " Both I m p r e s s i o n i s m (I em- p h a s i z e a g a i n , I am r e f e r r i n g o n l y t o t h e I m p r e s s i o n i s m o f t h e - 182 - 1870s, t i e d t o N a t u r a l i s m ) and Symbolism were concerned w i t h " e x p r e s s i o n . " . They d i d n o t e x p r e s s by means o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r ( i . e . moving s t o r i e s , f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n , g e s t u r e s ) , but r e l i e d i n s t e a d upon t h e f o r m a l elements o f t h e p a i n t i n g . I m p r e s s i o n - ism allowed- f o r t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f - p e r s o n a l "temperatment" (which was a p h y s i o l o g i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d - c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ) t h r o u g h " t o u c h , " movement o f t h e p a t e . Symbolism used s y m b o l i c c o l o u r , e x p r e s - s i v e l i n e , d i s t o r t i o n s o f shapes, i n o r d e r t o e x p r e s s i d e a s , p e r s o n a l "dreams," t h e " s o u l . " S u c h ' d i s t o r t i o n s were added t o t h e n e c e s s a r y d i s t o r t i o n s r e q u i r e d by the. laws of d e c o r a t i o n . (As M a u r i c e D e n i s put i t , t h e y used " o b j e c t i v e " and. " s u b j e c t i v e " d e f o r m a t i o n s ; t h i s t h e s i s i s not concerned w i t h t h e "subjective'.' d i s t o r t i o n s . ) A p a r t from such movements, c l e a r l y on the s i d e o f M a t e r i a l - ism o r I d e a l i s m , t h e r e were o t h e r s , w h i c h took t h e r e a l , ex- t e r n a l w o r l d as o b j e c t o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , b u t r e j e c t e d a p u r e l y " m a t e r i a l i s t i c " approach t o p a i n t i n g . Such a movement was Neo- I m p r e s s i o n i s m w h i c h r e j e c t e d t h e e m p i r i c i s m o f N a t u r a l i s m , used t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s i d e o f s c i e n c e (as recommended by such I d e a l i s t a e s t h e t i c i a n s as C h a r l e s B l a n c ) , and e v e n t u a l l y adopted t h e f o r m a l i s m o f d e c o r a t i o n . Cezanne, i n my o p i n i o n , f i t s r o u g h l y i n t o the same c a t e g o r y ( t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t o f c o u r s e t h e d i f - f e r e n c e i n t e c h n i q u e r e f l e c t i n g Cezanne's c o n c e r n w i t h g r a d a t i o n o f c o l o u r and p r e s e r v i n g t h e l o c a l c o l o u r , r a t h e r t h a n o p t i c a l m i x i n g and recomposing l i g h t ) . He a l s o f o l l o w e d the same p a t h as such o l d " I m p r e s s i o n i s t s " as R e n o i r (or even P i s s a r r o ) i n t h e 1880s, i n h i s o r i e n t a t i o n toward c o m p o s i t i o n and. S t y l e . U n l i k e him, however, t h e y remained o n l y " d e c o r a t i v e " ( u s i n g t h e new - 183 - meaning o f t h e word, w h i c h a t t h e time had " c l a s s i c i s t " f l a v o r ) . T h i s t h e s i s p r o p o s e s t h a t Cezanne r e a c t e d more s t r o n g l y a g a i n s t N a t u r a l i s m , a d o p t i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f " d e c o r a t i o n . " I n t h i s r e s p e c t , t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r r a l l i e s w i t h Cezanne's contemporar- i e s who r e g a r d e d him ( t o g e t h e r w i t h . P u v i s de Chavannes) as' an " i n i t i a t o r " i n u s i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n i n e a s e l p a i n t i n g . Cezanne was n o t p a r t o f t h e r e a c t i o n a r y N e o - C l a s s i c i s t movement (to w h i c h E m i l e B e r n a r d and Maurice'.Denis belonged) a t t h e t u r n o f the c e n t u r y . The " C l a s s i c i s m " i n h i s work d a t e s from an e a r l i e r p e r i o d , and r e f l e c t s t h e concept o f the. "de- c o r a t i v e " predominant i n t h e 1880s and e a r l y 1890s. I n the l a s t y e a r s o f h i s l i f e , Cezanne was more a f f i l i a t e d w i t h the "pure p a i n t i n g " tendency, w h i c h was based on t h e " m a t e r i a l i s t i c " a c - ceptance" o f " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake," and i t was a "descendent" o f Cezanne's own p a i n t i n g o f the 1860s and e a r l y 1870s, as w e l l as o f I m p r e s s i o n i s m . The n o v e l t y was the c o n n e c t i o n o f t h i s p a i n t i n g w i t h t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s ( f l a t n e s s , i m i t a t i o n o f t e x - t u r e s , emphasis on p a t t e r n s ) . To c o n c l u d e , i f Cezanne i s p l a c e d i n h i s h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t , i t i s a p p a r e n t t o the p r e s e n t w r i t e r , t h a t t h e p a i n t e r o f A i x was p a r t , o f t h e movement t h a t i n t r o d u c e d t h e a e s t h e t i c s o f " d e c o r a t i o n " i n t o e a s e l p a i n t i n g . - 184 - NOTES I n t r o d u c t i o n . 1 Maurice Merleau-Ponty, "Cezanne's Doubt," Sense and Non- Sense, t r Hubert L.Dreyfus and P a t r i c i a A l l e n Dreyfus, Evanston 111.: Northwestern Univ. Press, 1961, pp.9-25. ('Translated from Sens e t non-sens, P a r i s , 1948.) Merleau-Ponty c o n s i d e r e d t h a t Cezanne's p e r s p e c t i v e i s one we a c t u a l l y p e r c e i v e , i t i s "the l i v e d p e r s p e c t i v e . " He r e l i e d h e a v i l y on Emile Bernard's f a b r i c a t e d "Conversation w i t h Cezanne," p u b l i s h e d f i r s t i n 1920. 2 A l b e r t G l e i z e s and Jean Metzinger, Cubism, 1912, i n Robert Herbert, ed., Modern A r t i s t s on'Art, Englewood C l i f f s , N.J.: P r e n t i c e H a l l , 1965, p.5. 3 Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, The R i s e of Cubism, i n H.B. Chipp, T h e o r i e s of Modern A r t , Univ. of C a l i f o r n i a Press, 1973, p.24 8. In 1908 or 1909, Braque was s t i l l s a y i n g : "Nature i s a mere p r e t e x t f o r a d e c o r a t i v e composition, p l u s sentiment." ( See Chipp, op. c i t . , p.260.) 4 See H.B. Chipp, T h e o r i e s of Modern A r t , pp.255-57. ~* See f o r example R i c h a r d A. Moore, "Academic Dessin Theory i n France a f t e r the R e o r g a n i z a t i o n of 1863," J o u r n a l of The S o c i e t y of A r c h i t e c t u r a l H i s t o r i a n s , 56, 1977, p.156 and pp.160-1. Both the d e s s i n geometral and the d e s s i n p e r s p e c t i f were p a r t of the t r a d i t i o n a l d e s s i n t e a c h i n g , which, as Moore p o i n t e d out, imposed i t s e l f a t a l l l e v e l s of a r t education, by l a t e 1890s - e a r l y 1880s i n France. The d e s s i n geometral' was important e s p e c i a l l y f o r a r c h i t e c t s , d e c o r a t i v e a r t i s t s , a r t i s a n s , craftsmen. I t enabled them to see the o b j e c t s "as they a c t u a l l y were," w i t h the help of the s c i e n c e of geometry. How can a draftsman g i v e us the i d e a of a lamp or a hat, asked the i n f l u e n t i a l a e s t h e t i c i a n and a r t h i s t o r i a n Charles Blanc i f he does not know h i m s e l f the " r e a l c o n s t r u c t i o n " of those o b j e c t s , t h a t i s t h e i r geometric form? He s t a t e d : "La geometrie f a i t c o n n a i t r e l e s o b j e t s t e l s q u ' i l s sont, e t l a p e r s p e c t i v e l e s f a i t v o i r t e l s q u ' i l s p a r a i s s e n t §tre." ( My emphasis.) Blanc added: S i l a r e a l i t e n'est pas sue, l'apparence s e r a fausse. La p e r s p e c t i v e n'etant au'une a l t e r a t i o n v i s u e l l e , independante de l ' o b j e t lui-m§me, l ' g l e v e ne saura pas se rendre compte de c e t t e a l t e r a t i o n e t l e f a i r e s e n t i r aux a u t r e s , s ' i l ne possede pas une idee p r e c i s e de l ' o b j e t non a l t e r e . - 185 - ( Ch. B l a n c , "L'Union C e n t r a l e des B e a u x - A r t s a p p l i q u e s a 1' i n d u s t r i e , " G a z e t t e des B e a u x - A r t s , S e r . l , V o l . 1 9 , 1965, p.211.) ^ See D.^H. K a h n w e i l e r , i n H.B. Chipp, T h e o r i e s ..., p. 255. 7 F o r t h i s "genealogy" see A l b e r t G l e i z e s and Jean M e t z i n g e r , Cubism, i n R. H e r b e r t , Modern A r t i s t s on A r t , pp.3-4. 8 W i l l i a m Rubin, "Cezannisme and t h e B e g i n n i n g s o f Cubism," Cezanne. The L a t e Work, M 0 M A, N.Y, 1977, pp.162-165. 9 George Heard H a m i l t o n , "Cezanne and H i s C r i t i c s , " Cezanne. The L a t e Work, p.147. More than t h i r t y y e a r s ago, Clement Greenberg remarked on Cezanne's p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h a " d e c o r a t i v e s u r f a c e e f f e c t , " b u t he, a l s o , c o n s i d e r e d " p l a s t i c i t y " and " d e c o r a t i o n " as t o t a l l y opposed. ( See Clement Greenberg, "Cezanne and the U n i t y o f Modern A r t , " P a r t i s a n Review, May-June 1951, p.327.) 1 X By " I m p r e s s i o n i s m " I mean o n l y the movement i n the 1870s. 12 A case i n p o i n t i s George L. Mauner, The N a b i s : T h e i r H i s t o r y and T h e i r A r t , 1888-1896, New York and London: G a r l a n d P u b l . I n c . , 1978. - 186 - Chapter I, I n t r o d u c t i o n See f o r example: John H. Neff, "Matisse and Decoration: an I n t r o d u c t i o n , " A r t s Magazine, May 1975, pp.59-61. Joseph Masheck, "The Carpet Paradigm: C r i t i c a l Prolegomena to a Theory of F l a t n e s s , " A r t s Magazine, Vol.51, Sept.1976, pp.81-109. Norma Broude, "Miriam Schapiro and Femmage : R e f l e c t i o n s on the C o n f l i c t Between Decoration and A b s t r a c t i o n i n Twentieth - Century A r t , " A r t s Magazine, Feb.1980, pp.83-87. Nancy J . Troy, " A b s t r a c t i o n , Decoration and C o l l a g e , " A r t s Magazine, Juhe 1980, pp.154-57. Avigdor A r i k h a , "On A b s t r a c t i o n , " A r t s Magazine, Oct.1980, p.154. 2 This i s not the only reason why Cezanne was excluded from t h e i r d i s c u s s i o n . One important reason i s the viewing of Cezanne as "perceptualT" • In the context of " f l a t n e s s " the r e l a t i o n s h i p between a b s t r a c t a r t and d e c o r a t i o n becomes s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . A "carpet paradigm" ( see Masheck, i n the above note) a p p l i e d to the a r t of the Nabis, or even Gauguin i s a l s o an appropriate a s s o c i a t i o n . Of course, the tension between 2-D and 3-D i n Cezanne's work does not f i t t h i s paradigm. Chapter I , P a r t 1 At f i r s t there was no d i s t i n c t i o n between the terms " i n d u s t r i a l a r t s " and " d e c o r a t i v e a r t s ^ " , between mass-produced o b j e c t s ( by machines) and i n d i v i d u a l l y c r e a t e d o b j e c t s ( manually) by a r t i s a n s or a r t i s t s . ( See a l s o P i e r r e V a i s s e , "La q u e r e l l e de l a T a p i s s e r i e au debut de l a I I I Republique," Revue de l ' A r t , No.22, 1973, p.74.) In 1875, Ed. Didron t a l k e d f o r example of "Ces expressions s p e c i a l e s du d e s s i n que l ' o n e s t convenue d'appeler l e s a r t s i n d u s t r i e l s , l a p e i n t u r e sur v e r r e , l a mosaique e t l a t a p i s s e r i e , par example..." ( E d Didron, "Du r o l e d e c o r a t i f de l a p e i n t u r e en mosaique," Gazette des Beaux-Arts, Vol.11, 1975, p.449.) In 1889, V i c t o r Champier I d i r e c t o r of the Revue des A r t s D e c o r a t i f s ) c o n s i d e r e d the use of the e x p r e s s i o n " i n d u s t r i a l works" as d e p l o r a b l e when employed to works done by renound p a i n t e r s and s c u l p t o r s , themselves. ( V. Champier, "Les A r t s D e c o r a t i f s au Salon de 1889," Revue des A r t s D e c o r a t i f s , Vol.9 1888/1889, p.348.) See n.73. - 187 - 5 See N i k o l a u s Pevsner, Pioneers of Modern Design, 1936; r p t . Penguin Books, 1979, pp.46^8, ^ See N i k o l a u s Pevsner, 'Academies1 of a r t , p a s t and present, Cambridge (.Engl.): The U n i v e r s i t y Press; New York: Macmillan, 1940, pp.253-5. 7 I b i d . , p.254. 8 See f o r example Robert Schmutzler, A r t Nouveau, New York, 1978, p.33. 9 Quoted i n E l i s a b e t h Gilmore H o l t , The A r t of a l l Nations: 1850-73. The Emerging Role of E x h i b i t i o n and C r i t i c s , Garden C i t y , New York: Anchor Books, 1981, p.477. 1 0 See M a r t i n B a t t e r s b y , A r t Nouveau, Middlesex, Paul Hamlyn Publ., 1969, p.7. For the 1851 e x h i b i t i o n see a l s o E.G. H o l t , The A r t of a l l Nations..., pp.49-59. X l Quoted i n A l b e r t Boime, "The Teaching Reforms of 1863 and the O r i g i n s of Modernism i n France," The A r t Q u a r t e r l y , New S e r i e s , V o l . 1 , No.1, Autumn 1977, p.32, n.79. 12 See the t e x t of the Decree i n "DECRET concernant 1'or- / . g a n i s a t i o n de l ' E c o l e i m p e r i a l e e t s p e c i a l e des Beaux-Arts," Gazette des Beaux-Arts, V o l . 1 5 , 1863, pp.569-72. 13 A l b e r t Boime, "The Teaching R e f o r m s " A r t Q u a r t e r l y , Autumn 19 77, pp.1-39. 14 Comte de Nieuwerkerke, "Rapport," Gazette des Beaux- A r t s , V o l . 1 5 , 1863, p.565. 15 Quoted i n A. Boime, 1977, p.19. 16 See a l s o f o r the d i s t i n c t i o n to be made between " O f f i c i a l " and "Academic," A l b e r t Boime, The Academy and French P a i n t i n g i n the Nineteenth Century, London, 1971, pp.15 f f . 17 Eugene V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , " F i r s t L e c t u r e a t the E c o l e des Beaux-Arts, 1864," A r c h i t e c t u r a l Design, Vol.50, No.3/4, 1980, p.20. In t h i s l e c t u r e V i o l l e t - l e - D u c d e a l t w i t h the i n f l u e n c e of r e l i g i o u s i d e a l s on Hindu and Greek a r t . V i o l l e t - l e - D u c was born i n 1814, the son of a c i v i l servant, whose job connected w i t h the r o y a l p a l a c e s compelled the f a m i l y to r e s i d e f o r a w h i l e i n the T u i l e r i e s , u n t i l the a b d u c t i o n of L o u i s - P h i l i p p e . His mother was the s i s t e r of the c r i t i c E t i e n n e D e l e c l u z e , who was a n t i - c l e r i c a l , and who had a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e on h i s nephew. E. V i o l l e t - l e - D u c him- s e l f was an a g n o s t i c and a g a i n s t the e s t a b l i s h e d church. His own p o l i t i c a l views brought him to the b a r r i c a d e s of J u l y 1830 ( he b u i l t one) i n h i s youth. In h i s mature l i f e he was asso- c i a t e d w i t h Napoleon I l l ' s c o u r t , was condemned to death by the Communards, and i n the f i r s t years of the T h i r d Republic he was an ardent Republican, u n t i l h i s death i n 1879. - 188 - See f o r example Rene B r i a t , " V i o l l e t - l e - D u c decorateur au ChSteau d'Eu," Connaissances A r t i s t i q u e s , No.335, Jan.1980, pp.40-45. 19 For E u g e n e Grasset see a l s o Ch.I, P a r t 2, n.127. For G a l l a n d see V i c t o r Champier, "M.P.-V. G a l l a n d e t 1 1 enseignement de l ' a r t d e c o r a t i f , " P a r t I i n Gazette des Beaux-Arts, Vol.37, 1888, pp.105-17 and P a r t I I i n Gazette..., Vol.38, 1888, pp.5-20. See a l s o A. Boime, "The Teaching Reforms...," A r t Q u a r t e r l y , Autumn 1977, p.34, n.114. G a l l a n d was a p a i n t e r - d e c o r a t o r who was a l s o a member of the comission f o r p e r f e c t i n g the Sevres manufactories and d i r e c t o r of the G o b e l i n s ' schools and a r t works. 20 C h a r l e s Blanc ( 1813-1882), who h e l d o f f i c i a l f u n c t i o n s , became a l s o a f r e e member of the Academie des Beaux-Arts i n 1868 and was e l e c t e d member of the Academie f r a n c a i s e i n 1876. His o f f i c i a l f u n c t i o n s were D i r e c t o r of Beaux-Arts i n two govern- ments: the p r o v i s i o n a l government of 1848, i n which h i s brother, the s o c i a l i s t L o u i s Blanc was M i n i s t e r of Labor, and a g a i n a f t e r the p r o c l a m a t i o n of the T h i r d Republic on September 4, 18 70 u n t i l T h i e r s ' r e s i g n a t i o n on May 24, 1873. He d i d not approve of T h i e r s ' p o l i t i c s ( a c c o r d i n g to Louis Fiaoux, C h a r l e s Blanc, 3^ v o l . i n the s e r i e s " P o r t r a i t s P o l i t i q u e s Contemporains," Marpon & Flammarion ed, P a r i s , 1882) s i n c e he had a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h i s b r o t h e r L o u i s Blanc and shared h i s views. I t i s s a i d ( op.cit.,p.50) he d e c l a r e d : " l i s ont eu beau : r ' m'elire academicien, je n'en s u i s pas moins s o c i a l i s t e r e v o l u t i o n - naire.'" A f t e r T h i e r s ' f a l l Ch. Blanc became the prey of the r e a c t i o n a r y p r e s s , and the new c o n s e r v a t i v e government ordered him to r e s i g n . The Marquis de Chennevieres took h i s p l a c e as D i r e c t o r of Beaux-Arts. During the Second Empire Ch. Blanc stayed away from any governmental p o s i t i o n s , even though i t has been suggested he c o u l d have e a s i l y h e l d one, because of h i s good r e l a t i o n s w i t h P r i n c e s s Mathilde Bonaparte and even w i t h L o u i s Napeleon. These r e l a t i o n s have been e x p l a i n e d by the f a c t t h a t the P r i n c e s s i n t e r v e n e d i n f a v o r of Blanc's w i f e who was a r r e s t e d a f t e r the events of June 1849 when she c o u l d not hide her sympathies. But i t was not j u s t out of g r a t i t u d e that the " s o c i a l i s t r e v o l u t i o n a r y " Blanc a c t u a l l y supported some of Napoleon I l l ' s p o l i c i e s , e s p e c i a l l y where i n d u s t r i a l a r t s were concerned. He b e l i e v e d t h a t h i s t o r y ( s o c i a l and a r t i s t i c ) i s accomplished by "great men" and probably hoped the Emperor (who a f t e r a l l once was a " r e p u b l i c a n " and a f t e r 1859 adopted more l i b e r a l p o l i c i e s ) was such a man. He b e l i e v e d i n "grandeur of a r t " and once s a i d : Les s e u l e s formes de gouvernement q u i a i e n t ete f a v o r a b l e s a l a grandeur de l ' a r t ce sont l e s monarchies pures ou l e s democracies vigoureuses, avec c e t t e d i f f e r e n c e que l e s premieres ont f a i t de l ' a r t un e s c l a v e ou un f l a t t e u r , t a n d i s que l e s a u t r e s l u i ont f o u r n i presque t o u j o u r s une 'esogne heroique. (Quoted i n L.Fiaoux, C h a r l e s Blanc, p.30) C h a r l e s Blanc was an i n f l u e n t i a l a r t h i s t o r i a n and a e s t h e t i c i a n . He was the author of the Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n t h a t was f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1867 and went through f o u r e d i t i o n s by the - 189 - time o f h i s d e a t h i n 1882. He a l s o p u b l i s h e d t h e s e q u e l , Grammaire des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s , as w e l l as s e v e r a l volumes o f t h e H i s t o i r e des p e i n t r e s de t o u t e s l e s e c o l l e s . He p u b l i s h e d e x t e n s i v e l y i n the •Gazette des B e a u x - A r t s , w h i c h he founded. B l a n c i s a p a r a d o x i c a l f i g u r e i n the h i s t o r y o f a r t . He was h a t e d by h i s f e l l o w - A c a d e m i c i a n s f o r h i s p o l i t i c a l v i e w s , and by the a v a n t - g a r d e f o r some o f h i s " r e t r o g r a d e " views on a r t . Y e t he i n d i r e c t l y i n f l u e n c e d the development o f modern a r t , because the a v a n t - g a r d e made use o f h i s w r i t i n g s , w h i c h were u p - t o - d a t e w i t h r e s p e c t t o the l a t e s t s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r i e s a p p l i c a b l e to a r t , as w e l l as o t h e r t o p i c s . B l a n c was an adept o f I d e a l i s t p h i l o s o p h i e s . He was a " f r e e - t h i n k e r " who was a " s p i r i t u a l i s t , " he used o f t e n the word "God" w h i l e s a y i n g "above a l l I don't want a p r i e s t a t my death- bed" and had a f u n e r a l w i t h o u t one i n 188 2. 21 . B l a n c was a l s o a p r o p a g a n d i s t o f the Acedemic t e a c h i n g methods o f d e s s i n , and i n h i s second term as D i r e c t o r o f Beaux- A r t s he r e i n t r o d u c e d the Prix-de-Rome c o m p e t i t i o n a b o l i s h e d by the Decree.of 1863. 22 See C h a r l e s B l a n c , " S a l o n de 1866," G a z e t t e des Beaux- A r t s , S e r . l , V o l . 2 0 , 1866, p.500. 23 I n t h e Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n ( 1867, p.616) B l a n c w r o t e : Le p e i n t r e peut t r a v a i l l e r pour l e s ' j o u i s s a n c e s e g o i s t e s d'un homme ou pour l e s p l a i s i r s de t o u t un p e u p l e . M a i s , a mesure que son ouvrage s'en-_ • n o b l i t par l e nombre, des s p e c t a t e u r s q u i en j o u i r o n t , l e s s u r f a c e s ou i l d o i t e x e r c e r son g e n i e d e v i e n n e n t p l u s v a s t e s e t p l u s s o l i d e s . . . La p e i n t u r e murale, c e l l e q u i decore l e s grands e d i f i c e s , e s t done par elle-melne l a p l u s haute d e s t i n a t i o n d e l ' a r t i s t e , c a r en l u i p r o m e t t a n t une longue duree, e l l e l u i commande une oeuvre q u i en s o i t d i g n e . 2 4 Ch. B l a n c , " S a l o n de 1866," p.512. 25 Ch. B l a n c , Grammaire des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s : D e c o r a t i o n i n t e r i e u r e de l a maison, P a r i s : Renouard, 1882. Most c h a p t e r s were p u b l i s h e d e a r l i e r ( i n the 1870s). i n t h e G a z e t t e des Beaux- A r t s . 26 See Ch. B l a n c , Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n , 4 t h ed., 1882, p.2. See a l s o A l b e r t Cassagne, La t h e o r i e de l ' a r t pour l ' a r t chez l e s d e r n i e r s romantiques e t l e s p r e m i e r s r e a l i s t e s , P a r i s : L u c i e n Dorbon, 1905, r e p r i n t e d i n 1959, pp.38-39 on V i c t o r C o u s i n . C o u s i n wrote i n the Revue des Deux Mondes i n 1845: " I l f a u t comprendre e t aimer l a morale pour l a m o r a l e , l a r e l i g i o n pour l a r e l i g i o n , l ' a r t pour l ' a r t . " .( Quoted i n Cassagne, op. c i t . , p.38.) 27 F o r Proudhon see Monroe C. B e a r d s l e y , A e s t h e t i c s from C l a s s i c a l Greece t o the P r e s e n t , The Univ. o f Alabama P r e s s , 1977 ( f i r s t i n 1966), p.301. For B l a n c see above, n.20. - 190 - 28 Blanc mentioned Lammennais, together w i t h Cousin, i n Grammaire ... d e s s i n , 1882, p.2. For more i n f o r m a t i o n on Lamennais, see A. Cassagne, La t h e o r i e de l ' a r t pour l ' a r t , pp.51-52. 29 51. 30 31 Quoted i n A. Cassagne, La t h e o r i e de l ' a r t pour l ' a r t , I b i d . , p.52. See Ch. Blanc, "L'Union C e n t r a l e des Beaux-Arts app- l i q u e s a 1 ' i n d u s t r i e , " Gazette des Beaux-Arts, S e r . l , Vol.19, 1965, p.193 and p.201. 32 In the methods of t e a c h i n g and the c u r r i c u l u m adopted i n a r t schools of a l l l e v e l s i n the 1870s and 1880s, even i n the p r o f e s s i o n a l ones, the Academic t r a d i t i o n was however perpetu- ated ( e s p e c i a l l y i n the t e a c h i n g of d e s s i n ) , due to the i n f l u e n c e of Ch. Blanc and another o f f i c i a l - A c a d e m i c i a n , the s c u l p t o r Eugene Guillaume ( 1822-1905, d i r e c t o r of the E c o l e des Beaux-Arts a f t e r the r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of 1963 - t h e r e f o r e when under d i r e c t Government c o n t r o l - and l a t e r , d i r e c t o r of the French Academy a t Rome). 3 3 See p r e v i o u s note. Because of t h i s s t r o n g academic i n f l u e n c e , i n d u s t r i a l a r t e d u c a t i o n was not p r a c t i c a l enough i n France, was encumbered w i t h a l o t of theory and h i s t o r i c i s m . In 1888, Marius Vachon, who j u s t conducted a t the request Of the French Government an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of a r t e d u c a t i o n ( e s p e c i a l l y i n d u s t r i a l a r t education) i n s e v e r a l European c o u n t r i e s , con- c l u d e d t h a t the i d e a s of V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , de Laborde, Merimee, were b e t t e r a p p l i e d i n other c o u n t r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n Belgium. He d e c l a r e d : "... the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f our a r t i s t i c and i n d u s t - r i a l e d u c a t i o n i s a work of n a t i o n a l defense of the same import- ance as the o r g a n i z a t i o n of our Army." ( Some I n d u s t r i a l A r t Schools i n Europe and t h e i r l e s s o n f o r the U.S., T r a n s l . F.N. Levy, Washington Govm. P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1923, p.23.) 34 See a l s o p.17 and pp.20-21. 35 For the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c tendency of French a r t i s t s to a s p i r e toward the l o f t i e r l e v e l s of a r t , see f o r example E r n e s t Chesneau, L'Education de 1 ' a r t i s t e , P a r i s : Charavay F r e r e s , 1881, p.245. Chesneau remarked t h a t i n h i s days, p a i n t e r s and s c u l p t o r s condescended to work f o r i n d u s t r y only when f o r c e d by m a t e r i a l n e c e s s i t y . See a l s o n.37. 36 Henry Nocq, Tendances N o u v e l l e s . Enqu§te sur 1'evolu- t i o n des i n d u s t r i e s d ' a r t , P a r i s : F l o u r y , 1896, p.196. 3 7 A s p e c i a l e f f o r t to a t t r a c t w r i t e r s and a r t i s t s was made f o r example by France's l e a d i n g anarchist-communist, Jean Grave and h i s La Revolte (1887-1894) or Les Temps Nouveaux (1895-1914). P i s s a r r o , Signac, Cross, Angrand, Luce, c o n t r i b u t e d to the l a t t e r . In 1893 L'Ermitage o r g a n i z e d an i n q u i r y , a s k i n g the f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n : " q u e l l e e s t l a m e i l l e u r e c o n d i t i o n du Bien - 191 - s o c i a l , une o r g a n i s a t i o n l i b r e e t spontanee, ou b i e n une o r g a n - i s a t i o n d i s c i p l i n e e e t methodique? v e r s l a q u e l l e de ces concep- t i o n s s o c i a l e s d o i v e n t a l l e r l e s p r e f e r e n c e s de 1 ' a r t i s t e ? " The answer i n d i c a t e d a p r e f e r e n c e f o r anarchy, because i t w a r r a n t e d the a r t i s t ' s freedom, and not f o r s o c i a l i s m - w h i c h meant t o o much o r g a n i z a t i o n and r e s t r i c t i o n s . (See M i c h e l Decaudin, La C r i s e des V a l e u r s S y m b o l ! s t e s, T o u l o u s e , 1960, p.21.) 38 R o b e r t L. H e r b e r t and E u g e n i a W. H e r b e r t , " A r t i s t s and A n a r c h i s m : U n p u b l i s h e d L e t t e r s o f P i s s a r r o , S i g n a c and o t h e r s , " P a r t I , B u r l i n g t o n e Magazine, V o l . 1 0 2 , Nov.-Dec.1960, p.481. 39 T r a n s l a t e d i n L. N o c h l i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s m and P o s t - I m p r e s s i o n i s m , P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1966, p.124. 40 Thus commenting on a b r o c h u r e by Gustave G e f f r o y who was a d v o c a t i n g c r e a t i o n o f s m a l l neighborhood museums t o educate t h e t a s t e o f the w o r k e r s , P i s s a r r o s a i d , T h i s G e f f r o y i s r i g h t , what i s needed i s a s m a l l s c a l e K e n s i n g t o n Museum i n each neighbor- hood. But I wonder whether t h i s would be enough t o educate the poor t o a t a s t e f o r a r t o r l o v e o f i t ! As l o n g as he has t h e c a p i t a - l i s t and w r e t c h e d wages t o contend w i t h , the worker w i l l r e g a r d t h e b e a u t i f u l w i t h d e r i s i o n . . . I t i s the b u y e r s we must e d u c a t e . ( C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o , L e t t e r s t o H i s Son L u c i e n , ed. J . Rewald, N.Y., 1972, p.259.) 41 E. Chesneau, L ' E d u c a t i o n de 1 ' a r t i s t e , p.425. Chesneau w r o t e : D i e u m e r c i , l ' a r t f r a n g a i s a de p l u s f i e r e s a l l u r e s , i l p l a n e d'un v o l p l u s haut e t p l u s l a r g e au-dessus des s t a t i s t i q u e s de l ' e x p l o r - t a t i o n commerciale. Voyez: i l n ' e s t s i p e t i t e l e v e de 1'Ecole n a t i o n a l e des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s q u i n ' a s p i r e a 1'Ecole des b e a u x - a r t s , au p r i x de Rome. 42 43 See H. Nocq, Tendances N o u v e l l e s , p.130. I n o r d e r t o demonstrate t h a t the d i f f e r e n c e i n s t a t u s between " d e c o r a t i v e a r t " and " f i n e a r t " s h o u l d n o t e x i s t , V i c t o r Champier argued t h a t Raphael was not "a l e s s e r a r t i s t when he e x e c u t e d the m u r a l d e c o r a t i o n i n V a t i c a n o r t a p e s t r y c o m p o s i t i o n s , t h a n when he p a i n t e d t h e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n . " He c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s r e q u i r e the same amount o f " c e r e b r a l " a c t i v i t y as h i g h a r t , and p r o t e s t e d "the a d j e c t i v e ' d e c o r a t i v e ' added t o the word ' a r t ' . . . , " because i t i m p l i e d a h i e r a r c h y among a r t s was n o t j u s t i f i e d . (See V. Champier, "M.P, -V. G a l l a n d . . , " P a r t I , 1888, pp.105-6.) See a l s o n.3 above. F o r t h e r o l e o f R. Marx i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e s e c t i o n o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s a t t h e S a l o n h e l d a t Champ de Mars, see f o r example C a m i l l e M a u c l a i r , "La reforme de l ' a r t d e c o r a t i f en F r a n c e , " La N o u v e l l e Revue, V o l . 9 8 , Jan.-Feb. 1896, p.737. The p r e s t i g i o u s j o u r n a l L ' A r t i s t e s u p p o r t e d t h e a n t i - - 192 - academic stand. Thus i n reviewing s c u l p t u r e and o b j e t s d ' a r t a t the Salon of Champ de Mars f L ' A r t i s t e , Vol.5, 1893, p.401) i t c r i t i c i z e d those e s t a b l i s h e d a r t i s t s opposed to the new p o l i c y of e x h i b i t i n g d e c o r a t i v e a r t s : "Ou l ' a r t f i n i t - i l ? Ou 1' i n d u s t r i e commence-t-elle? On d i r a i t que pour eux, l ' a r t depend du procede employe." 44 See A l f r e d D a r c e l , "Le Salon des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s , " Gazette des Beaux-Arts, Ser.2, Vol.25, 1882, pp.583-595. 45 I borrowed here an e x p r e s s i o n used by M.C. Beardsley i n h i s A e s t h e t i c s , p.2 89. On the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the avant- garde and the p r i n c i p l e of " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake," see a l s o Renato P o g g i o l i , The Theory of the Avant-Garde, trans.,. G. F i t z g e r a l d , Harvard Univ. Press, 196 8, p. 127. • °-- 46 E r n e s t Chesneau ( 1833-1890) was an a r t c r i t i c ( he wrote f o r L ' A r t i s t e and the C o n s t i t u t i o n n e 1 ) and a r t h i s t o r i a n ( see f o r example Les Chefs d'Ecole, 1862). He was concerned w i t h the r e l a t i o n s between a r t and s o c i e t y , a r t and nature - he was a g a i n s t h i s t o r i c i s m and t r a d i t i o n a l formulas, f o r a regen- e r a t i o n of a r t through d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n of nature. He p r a i s e d o r i g i n a l i t y , i n d i v i d u a l i t y and n a t i o n a l i s m and s t r o n g l y p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t academic t r a d i t i o n a l i s m and cosmopolitism. C See h i s L'Education de 1 ' a r t i s t e of 1881.) He was a protege of the Comte de Nieuwerkerke, Superintendent of the Beaux-Arts ( and P r i n c e s s M a t h i l d e ' s l o v e r ) , thus to a g r e a t extent on the " o f f i c i a l " s i d e . See a l s o E. Gilmore H o l t , The A r t of A l l Nations, 1981, pp.382-90, 486-90. Henry Havard was an o f f i c i a l of the Beaux-Arts adminis- t r a t i o n , c r i t i c and a u t h o r i t y on d e c o r a t i o n , as w e l l as a r t h i s t o r i a n ( l ' A r t h o l l a n d a i s ) . 4 7 See n.37. Chesneau f e a r e d t h a t the commercial success of England w i l l r e s u l t i n an i m p o s i t i o n of the B r i t i s h " t a s t e " i n France, by Government decree. ( See L'Education..., p.424.) 48 But Chesneau p r a i s e d the " p r i v a t e i n i t i a t i v e " which c r e a t e d the Union C e n t r a i e des Beaux-Arts a p p l i q u e s a l ' i n d u s - t r i e and the Musee des A r t s d e c o r a t i f s . ( L'Education..., pp.86-87 and 122.) He a l s o advocated a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the g e n e r a l i n s t r u c t i o n i n d e s s i n . 49 In the e a r l y 1880s, even the complete t i t l e of Union C e n t r a i e was changed to Union C e n t r a i e des.Arts d e c o r a t i f s . C Compare to the t i t l e i n the n.4 8.) See a l s o n.3, above. 50 The d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , as Chesneau r e l a t e d , d i d not t r y to express "an emotion of a moral o r d e r , " but p l a y e d with "combin- a t i o n s of the form and c o l o r f o r the p l e a s u r e of the eye." ( See L'Education..., p.20.) T h i s was the d e f i n i t i o n of " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" i n a m a t e r i a l i s t ( p h i l o s o p h y c a l l y speaking) framework o n l y : an a r t a d d r e s s i n g i t s e l f only to the senses. , As I w i l l i n d i c a t e l a t e r , from an' i d e a l i s t stand, the formalism of " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" addresses i t s e l f to the " s p i r i t . " During the 1880s and e a r l y 1890s, the most common s l o g a n was t h a t the d e c o r a t i v e a r t s g i v e p l e a s u r e to the eye and to the s p i r i t . - 193 - 51 Henry Havard, La Decoration, Paris: Charles Delagrave, n.d. (. probably 1891 or 189.2) , p. 6. 52 Paul Gauguin, l e t t e r to his wife, 26 Dec. 1886, Letters to his Wife1 and Friends, ed. M. Malingue, t r a n s l . H.J. Stenning, London: Saturn Press, 1948, pp.72-73. 53 "Lettre de Paul Gauguin," i n H. Nocq, Tendancies Nou- v e l l e s , 1896, p.67. 5 4 See for example Henri Dorra, "Extraits de l a corres- pondance,d'Emile Bernard des debuts a ( l a Rose-Croix ( 1876- 1892)," Gazette des Beaux-Arts, Ser.6, Vol.96, pp.235-6. 5 5 See :Charles Chasse, Les Nabis et leur temps, Lausanne - Paris: B i b l . des Arts, 1960, p.164. See also Post-Impress- ionism, London 1979-1980, p.31. Bernard took courses at the Ecole des Arts Decoratifs before he entered Academy Cormon i n 1885. Many a r t i s t s considered this School of Decorative Arts as a stepping-stone on t h e i r way to the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, or as Marius Vachon put i t ( see o p . c i t . i n n.30, p.37), as "the hallway to the Ecole des Beaux-Arts." 56 See Henri Dorra, o p . c i t . ( see n.54 above), p.238. 5 7 See George L. Mauner, The Nabis..., 1978, pp.161-162. 5 8 - For a detailed account of the Nabis' decorations and of t h e i r patrons, see Roseline Bacau, "Decors d'appartements au temps des Nabis," Art de France, Vol.IV, 1964, pp.190-205. See also the chapter "Les Nabis et l ' a r t decoratif" i n Bonnard, V u i l l a r d et les Nabis, Paris, June 8-Oct.2, 1955. 59 For this early support, see Roger Marx, "L'Art decoratif et les Symbolistes ," Le V o l t a i r e , 23 Aug. 1892, n.pag. , 6 0 See P. Vaisse, "La querelle de l a Tapisserie...," p.72. See also A. Darcel, "Les tapisseries decoratives," Revue des arts decoratifs, 2, 1881-82, p.12. 61 See P. Vaisse, "La querelle...," p.72. 6 2 Ibid., p.172 and pp.77-80. 6 3 My t r a n s l a t i o n from the quote given by P. Vaisse, "La querelle...," p.72. 64 A l f r e d Darcel, "Exposition de l ' h i s t o i r e de l a tapiss- e r i e , " Gazette des Beaux-Arts, Ser.2, 14, 1876, pp.185-203; pp. 273-287; pp.414-437. ^ A. Darcel, "Exposition...," Gazette des Beaux-Arts, Ser. 2, Vol.14, 1876, p.185. My t r a n s l a t i o n . 6 6 Ibid., p.420. - 194 - 6 7 See f o r example Ch. Blanc," Grammaire des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s , pp.106-112 and 94. See a l s o A. D a r c e l , "Les t a p i s s e r i e s dec- o r a t i v e s ," p.12. A. D a r c e l , i n " E x p o s i t i o n de l ' h i s t o i r e de l a t a p i s s - e r i e , " 18 76, p.432, t a l k s about the p u b l i c ' s and a r t i s t s ' a d m i r a t i o n f o r the 18th c e n t u r y Rococo t a p e s t r i e s : C e r t e s , l e p u b l i c , comme l e s a r t i s t e s , e s t s e d u i t p a r l a t o n a l i t S g r i s e q u i etend son harmonie s u r t o u t e s l e s t e n t u r e s a n c i e n n e s , s u r t o u t s u r c e l l e s du X V I I I e s i e c l e . D a r c e l e x p l a i n s t h a t "ce g r i s dont on p a r l e t a n t au- j o u r d ' h u i " c o u l d be o b t a i n e d a l s o u s i n g o n l y b o l d c o l o r s , pure s a t u r a t e d hues, i n s t e a d o f u s i n g g r e y i s h tones ( c o u l e u r s r a b a t t u e s ) and v a r i o u s nuances o f g r a y . The p r o c e d u r e was based on the phenomenon o f o p t i c a l ( a d d i t i v e ) m i x t u r e o f c o l o r s . I t was the method d e v e l o p e d by the t a p i s s i e r D e y r o l l e around 1812, c o n s i s t i n g o f superposed w e f t s o f complementary c o l o r s . P i s s a r r o and Cezanne e x p r e s s e d a l r e a d y i n 1866 t h e i r i n t e r e s t i n t h i s grey t o n a l i t y . ( See P. Cezanne, l e t t e r t o P i s s a r r o , 23 Oct. 1866, L e t t e r s , N.Y. 1876, p.115.) Edouard Gerspach, D a r c e l ' s s u c c e s s o r a t the a d m i n i s - t r a t i o n o f the G o b e l i n s , between 1885-1893, made t h i s comment about the "Don Q u i c h o t t e " t a p e s t r y a f t e r the c a r t o o n s o f Charles C o y p e l : V o i l a done une t e n t u r e b i e n a nous; e l l e r e u n i t t o u t e s l e s s e d u i s a n t e s q u a l i t e s de n o t r e a r t d e c o r a t i f dans sa p l u s a i m a b l e e t p l u s d e l i c a t e p e r i o d e . ( E. Gerspach, La Manufacture N a t i o n a l e des G o b e l i n s , P a r i s : D e l a g r a v e , 1892, p.43.) Gerspach ( l o c . c i t . ) p r a i s e d b o t h the p a i n t e r s o f t h a t p e r i o d f o r t h e i r models, and the t a p i s s i e r s , who, ...ont compri l e modele a s o u h a i t , i l s o n t rendu l e c a r a c t e r e sans se l a i s s e r e n t r a i n e r dans des d e m i - t e i n t e s e t des s u b t i l i t e s i n u t i l e s , i l s se.. s o n t p l u s l e s l u m i e r e s e l a r g i e s ; en un mot, i l s o n t , comme l e s p e i n t r e s , f a i t oeuvre t r e s f r a n c a i s e . 103, 68 69 70 71 72 On the t o p i c o f " e f f e c t " , see l a t e r , p. 40. See Ch. B l a n c , Grammaire des a r t d e c o r a t i f s , pp.101, H. Havard, La D e c o r a t i o n , pp.10-11. I b i d . , p.10. On the s u b j e c t o f m o d e l l i n g i n t a p e s t r y , see a l s o C h . I I , P a r t 2, n.105. 73 Quoted i n P. V a i s s e , "La q u e r e l l e . . . , " p.71. My t r a n s l a t i o n . 74 For D a r c e l see A. D a r c e l , " E x p o s i t i o n . . . , " 1876, p.426, and f o r C a l m e t t e s , see Fernand C a l m e t t e s , "La l o i de l a t a p i s s - e r i e , " Lei Revue de l ' a r t a n c i e n e t moderne, Vol'. 16, 1904, p.118. - 195 - 75 The quote i s from Georg German/ Gothic R e v i v a l i n Europe and B r i t a i n , Tr, G. Onn, 1972/ p.135. For Didron's " p r i n c i p l e s , " s e e Edouard Didron, "Du r o l e d e c o r a t i f de l a p e i n t u r e en m o s a i q u e , G a z e t t e des Beaux-Arts, Vol.11, 1875, p.4 50. Didron c o n s i d e r e d Raphael's t a p e s t r i e s as examples of "bad t a p e s t r i e s , " because they were conceived as tableaux. 76 E. V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , D i c t i o n n a i r e r a i s o n n e de 1 ' a r c h i - t e c t u r e f r a n c a i s e , x i e - x v i e s i e c l e s , 10 volumes, 1858^-1868; r p t . P a r i s : L i b r . - Imprim. Reunies, n.d., V o l . V I I , p.58. 77 These movements were stronger i n 1830s and 1840s. S i m i l a r l y to Pugin, the C a t h o l i c L i b e r a l p o l i t i c i a n Montalam- b e r t ( 1810-1870) s a i d f o r example, t h a t the a r t i s t i c t a s t e had been " f a l s e , r i d i c u l o u s and pagan" ever s i n c e the Renaissance. ( Quoted from Charles-Rene Forbes de Montalambert, OEuvres, VI: Melanges d ' a r t e t de l i t t e r a t u r e , P a r i s , 1861, p.42, i n G. German, Gothic R e v i v a l , p.79.) One of the most important e a r l y f i g u r e s i n the French Gothic R e v i v a l movement ( the study of which, as German p o i n t e d out " i s s t i l l i n i t s i n f a n c y " - op. c i t . , p.78) was Alexandre ( Louis-Joseph) de Laborde ( 1761- 1839). Even though V i o l l e t - l e - D u c advocated Gothic R e v i v a l more f o r n a t i o n n a l i s t i c than r e l i g i o u s reasons, he was i n a c c o r - dance with L a c o r d a i r e and h i s Dominican R e v i v a l ( neo-Catholic) movement, e s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e s p e c t to r a t i o n a l i s m and s i m p l i c i t y , even a s c e t i s m . .( See Lucy MacClintock, "Monumentality versus s u i t a b i l i t y : V i o l l e t - l e - D u c ' s S a i n t Gimer a t Carcassone," J o u r n a l of the Soc. Arch. H i s t . , XL, No.3, Oct.1981, 218-235.) Michael Paul D r i s k e l has w r i t t e n a book on the r e l a t i o n of the i d e o l o g y Of the n e o - C a t h o l i c movement t o . t h e v i s u a l a r t s d u r i n g the 1830s and 1840s, which i s near completion. 7 8 See f o r example V. Champier, "M.P.-V. G a l l a n d . . . , " P a r t I I , 1888, p.10. 79 See Ch.I, P a r t 1, p.- 16. 80 For Havard, see Henry Havard, H i s t o i r e e t p h i l o s o p h i e des s t y l e s , P a r i s , 1900, pp.692-96. For V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , see h i s D i c t i o n n a i r e raisonne de 1 ' a r c h i t e c t u r e . . . , V o l . V I I , pp. 57-58. L a t e r he wrote: La p e i n t u r e monumentale reprendra l e rang q u ' e l l e a occupe & q u ' e l l e d o i t occuper dans 1 1 a r c h i t e c t u r e , l o r s q u e l e s abus d e c o r a t i f s de notre temps auront f a t i g u e l e s yeux, l o r s - qu'en b i e n d'autre choses,- car t o u t se t i e n t dans une s o c i e t e , - on en v i e n d r a a s'eprendre du v r a i , du j u s t e & du sense, a mepriser l e luxe i m p e r t i n e n t comme un signe de decadence. ( E. V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , . i n P e i n t u r e murales des c h a p e l l e s de Notre Dame de P a r i s , P a r i s , 1876, p.14.) By the " d e c o r a t i v e abuses of our time" ( " d e c o r a t i v e " . i n a " m a t e r i a l i s t " sense) he meant the c o l o r f u l , trompe-1'oeil d e c o r a t i o n of Baroque-Romantic t r a d i t i o n . He d e c l a r e d that, - 196 - " l e s e s p r i t s a i n s eprouvent l e b e s b i n de r e v e n i r aux formes v r a i e s , aux moyens simples,, aux e x p r e s s i o n s n e t t e s & d e f i n i e s . " V i o l l e t - l e - D u c wanted a d e c o r a t i o n i n which "the i d e a detaches i t s e l f c l e a r l y . " 81 E. V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , D i c t i o n n a i r e . . . , V o l . V I I , p.78. He a l s o s a i d (. o p . c i t . , p.62): Ce n ' e t a i t done pas sans r a i s o n que l e s p e i n t r e s du moyen age v o y a i e n t dans l a p e i n t u r e , s o I t qu 1 e l l e f i g u r a t des scenes, s o i t q u ' e l l e ne se com- posSt que d'ornements, une s u r f a c e q u i d e v a i t t o u j o u r s p a r a x t r e plane, s o l i d e , q u i e t a i t des- t i n e e non a p r o d u i r e une i l l u s i o n , mais une i l l - u s i o n , mais une harmonie. 8 2 E. V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , D i c t i o n n a i r e . . . , V o l . V I I , p.65. 83 I b i d . p.59. See a l s o pp.63, 69, 70. He g i v e s as best example the p a i n t i n g s i n the L i g e t Chapel. V i o l l e t - l e - D u c ' s own mural p a i n t i n g i n Notre Dame's chapels ( P a r i s ) i s done a c c o r d i n g to these p e r c e p t s . 84 H. Havard, L ' A r t dans l a maxson, Parxs: Rouveyre e t Blond, 1884, p.306. 8 5 Alphonse Germain, "Theorie des deformateurs. Expose e t r e f u t a t i o n , " La Plume, No.57, S e p t . l , 1891, p.290. My emphasis, and t r a n s l a t i o n . See a l s o Ch.I, P a r t 2, n.24 on Germain. 86 Ch. Blanc, Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n , 1867, p.631 and 632. My t r a n s l a t i o n . See a l s o H. Havard, La Decoration, p. 3 and p..7, and V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , D i c t i o n n a i r e . . . , V o l . V I I , pp.62, 65. 8 7 Ch. B.lanc, Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n , 18.82, p. 66. 8 8 E. V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , D i c t i o n n a i r e . . . , V o l . V I I , p.61. 89 Ch. Blanc, Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n , 1867, p.536. 90 On " e f f e c t " see a l s o A. Boime, The Academy..., pp.27-30, 150-153, 166-173. 9.1 See Ch. Blanc, Grammaire...dessin, 1867, pp.543-44. 9 2 I b i d . , p.590 and 586. 93 A l f r e d D a r c e l c o n t r i b u t e d to the Annales archeologxques ( see p.27) and was a f r i e n d of the Gothic R e v i v a l i s t a r c h i t e c t Lassus. Roujon, the d i r e c t o r of the Beaux-Arts, d e c l a r e d i n h i s eulogy, a t D a r c e l ' s death: A l'exemple des V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , des Lassus, des Merimee e t des Quicherat, i l c o n t r i b u a 5. remettre en honneur 1'archeologie du moyen Sge e t de l a Renaissance, e t s u r t o u t notre - 19 7 - 94 moyen Sge f r a n c a i s , s i mal connu, s i i n j u s t e - ment dedaigne. C See "La mort de M. A l f r e d D a r c e l , " Revue des Arts- D e c o r a t i f s , 13, 1892-1893, p.407.) A. D a r c e l , "Le Salon des A r t s D e c o r a t i f s , " Gazette des Beaux-Arts, Per.2, Vol.25, 1882, p.584. My emphasis. 95 Even f o r a t a b l e a u , by 1860s, a p a r t from such orthodox academicians as Ingres, the q u e s t i o n of f i n i s h was not a r i g i d c r i t e r i o n any more. I t was s t r i c t l y connected w i t h "the touch" t. l a touche)", which was c o n s i d e r e d a p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the p a i n t e r . There were no r i g i d r u l e s of " f i n i s h , " as they would i n t e r f e r e w i t h the concept of " o r i g i n a l i t y " ( see A. Boime The Academy..., p p . l 7 2 f f , and A. Boime, "The Teaching Reforms pp.20-22). La touche, s a i d Blanc, " c ' e s t l ' e c r i t u r e du p e i n t r e , c ' e s t l a frappe de son e s p r i t . " ( Grammaire...dessin, p.612.) As a very g e n e r a l r u l e , as a " l o i du goQt," he r e - commends "que l a touch d o i t @tre l a r g e dans l e s grands ouvrages, e t p r e c i e u s e dans l e s p e t i t s " (op. c i t . , p.613). / He c a u t i o n s though t h a t " I I n'est que l e s d e c o r a t i o n s de t h e a t r e ou l a brosse p u i s s e e t r e mahiee comme un b a l a i . " ( Op. c i t . , p.614.) A c c o r d i n g to Blanc, i n a s m a l l t a b l e a u , " F i n i r , c ' e s t p r e c i s e - ment d i s s i m u l e r l e f i n i , c ' e s t l'animer par quelques touches e x p r e s s i v e s q u i l u i p r g t e n t un a i r de f r a n c h i s e e t de l i b e r t e . " (Ibid.) 96 97 9 8 99 A. D a r c e l , "Le S a l o n . . . , " 1882, p.584. My emphasis, See a l s o Ch.I, P a r t 1, n.3 and n.43. V. Champier, "M. P.-V. G a l l a n d . . . , " P a r t I I , p.10. I b i d . , p.8 100 I b i d . , p.9. I b i d . T h i s d i d not mean i t should be a d i f f e r e n c e i n H. Havard, La Decoration, p.3. 101 s t a t u s . 102 103 E. Chesneau, L'Education..., p.271. ( T h i s s e c t i o n of the book was w r i t t e n i n 18 7 2.) My emphasis. 104 Chesneau p o i n t e d out t h a t " A r t f o r a r t ' s sake was the d o c t r i n e of the Romantic School." 105 See E. Chesneau, L'Education..., pp.350-51. The mat- e r i a l i s t i c c o n n o t a t i o n was t r a n s l a t e d i n a l l these elements t h a t , as Chesneau put i t , "simulate l i f e , " such as: ...un a d r o i t maniement de brosse, un h a b i l e t r i p o t a g e de c o u l e u r s , l e s s e d u i s a n t s a r t i - f i c e s de l a p a l e t t e , l e s harmonies du ton, l e s n o i r s profonds, l e s g r l s d e l i c a t s , l e s v i b r a t i o n s a l t e r n e e s de l a c o u l e u r dominante, - 198 - v a r i e e par m i l l e r a p p e l s de notes emises dans l a irieme t o n a l i t e , mais a d i f f e r e n t s degres de 1 ' e c h e l l e c h r o m a t i q u e . . . 106 Ch. B l a n c . " S a l o n de 1866," G a z e t t e des B e a u x - A r t s , S e r . l , V o l . 2 0 , 1866, p.501. He s a i d , Les v i e i l l e s q u e r e l l e s du romantisme c o n t r e l e s c l a s s i q u e s ne s o n t p l u s que de l ' h i s t o i r e , e t s ' i l r e s t e encore deux camps, c e l u i du s t y l e e t c e l u i du r e a l i s m e , - on d i t main- t e n a n t par euphonie n a t u r a l i s m e - l e s deux camps o n t a u t a n t de v o i x l ' u n que 1'autre dans l e t r i b u n a l q u i d o i t l e s j u g e r . . . My emphasis on " s t y l e . " ( The c o n c e p t o f " S t y l e " w i l l be d i s - c u s s e d more l a t e r - C h a p t e r I , P a r t 1, n.114.) 107 See Ch. B l a n c . "Les f r e s q u e s de Veronese au Chateau de Masere p r e s de T r e v i s e , " G a z e t t e des B e a u x - A r t s , S e r . 2 , 1878, pp.396-98. Compare w i t h V. Champier ( see n.43), o r Roger B a l l u , "Les d e r n i e r s t r a v a u x de p e i n t u r e d e c o r a t i v e a P a r i s , " •Gazette des B e a u x - A r t s , V o l . 1 7 , Jan.-June 1878, p.144. 10 8 Ch. B l a n c , Grammaire des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s , p.118. He a l s o s a i d , S i l ' a r t n ' e t a i t pas a u t r e chose qu'une s i m p l e c o p i e de l a n a t u r e , i l s e r a i t l e p l u s souvent une t e n t a t i v e i n u t i l e , un pleonasme. C'est s u r t o u t dans l ' a r t d e c o r a t i f que c e t t e v e r i t e 109 110 ce m a n i f e s t . ( Op. c i t , p.386.) I b i d . , p.3 86. I b i d . , p.387. For B l a n c ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f c o l o u r sym- b o l i s m , see "Grammaire des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s , " G a z e t t e des Beaux- A r t s , S e r . 2 , V o l . 3 , 1870, pp.524-528. 1 X 1 Roger B a l l u , "Les d e r n i e r s t r a v a u x de p e i n t u r e dec- o r a t i v e . . . , " p.150. 1 1 2 A. D a r c e l , "Le S a l o n . . . , " 1882, p.588. The c o n t r a r y o p i n i o n was h e l d by A n t o n i n P r o u s t , "Le S a l o n de 1882," G a z e t t e des B e a u x - A r t s , V o l . 2 5 , 1882, p. 53-4. A. P r o u s t was f o r a s h o r t time m i n i s t e r o f a r t s . 113 H. Havard, La D e c o r a t i o n , p.16. 114 " S t y l e " (. t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from "a s t y l e " ) was d e f i n e d i n B l a n c ' s Grammaire as " t y p i c a l t r u t h " : Le s t y l e , c ' e s t l a v e r i t e a g r a n d i e , s i m p l i f l e e , degagee de tous l e s d e t a i l s i n s i g n i f i a n t s , rendue a son essence o r i g i n - e l l e , a son a s p e c t t y p i q u e . ( Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n , 1882, p.532.) B l a n c c l e a r l y opposed " S t y l e " t o " i m i t a t i o n " ( o p . c i t . , pp.17-21). He c o n s i d e r e d r e a l i s m an " i m i t a t i o n w i t h o u t s e l e c - t i o n " and he h e l d the o p i n i o n t h a t "where t h e r e i s no s e l e c t i o n - 199 - made, t h e r e i s no a r t " ( o p . c i t . , p.18 and p.666, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . Academic p a i n t i n g used S t y l e ( l e s t y l e ) i n o r d e r t o " i d e a l i z e " (see Grammaire, 1882, p.469). But t h i s was the " i d e a l i z i n g " the S y m b o l i s t c r i t i c A u r i e r w i l l c r i t i c i s e (see C h . I , P a r t 2, Sec."B") as n o t b e i n g t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f an i d e a l i s t p h i l o s o p h y . Ch. B l a n c (who a c t u a l l y e x p r e s s e d i n many i n s t a n c e s h i s i d e a - l i s t i n c l i n a t i o n s ) p r e s e n t e d i n h i s book the Academic v e r s i o n o f the " i d e a l . " He d e c l a r e d t h a t i n p a i n t i n g , " f a r from b e i n g synonymous w i t h the i m a g i n a r y , the i d e a l i s the c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t r u t h , the essence o f t h e r e a l , " and d e f i n e d b o t h "beauty" ( l e beau)and " s t y l e " ( l e s t y l e ) as "the t y p i c a l t r u t h " ( l a v e r i t e t y p i q u e ) - o p . c i t . , p.65. I n p a i n t i n g , " S t y l e " meant a way o f drawing t h a t a b b r e v i a t e d and s i m p l i f i e d i n o r d e r t o e x p r e s s t h e " c h a r a c t e r " o f t h e s u b j e c t (and B l a n c emphasized t h a t as opposed t o s c u l p t u r e , i n p a i n t i n g e x p r e s s i o n i s more i m p o r t a n t t h a n b e a u t y , and t h a t a l l o w s even f o r e x p r e s s i n g some u g l i n e s s - o p . c i t . , p . 6 6 ) , u s u a l l y i n an i d e a l i z e d manner. P.V. G a l l a n d , who advocated t h e use o f m o t i f s t a k e n from N a t u r e , l o n g b e f o r e the appearance o f A r t Nouveau, emphasized t h e importance o f r e n d e r i n g t h e " c h a r a c t e r " i n t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s : Le p r i n c i p e de l ' a r t d e c o r a t i f c ' e s t l a s u b o r d i n a t i o n a 1 ' a r c h i t e c t u r e . Nous n'avons pas a donner 1 ' i l l u s i o n de l a v e r i t e ; . . . M a i s i l f a u t que l ' i n t e r p r e - t a t i o n que nous f a i s o n s s u b i r a ces d i v e r s elements s o i t t o u j o u r s i n s p i r e e p a r l a . l o g i q u e e t guidee p a r l e r e s p e c t , 1'amour de l a n a t u r e . Remplacons l ' a t t a i t de l a v e r i t e dans l e d e s s i n , p a r l e c a r a c t e r e de l a s i l h o u e t t e e t l a l a r g e u r de l a f a c t u r e . (Reproduced i n V. Champier, "M.P.-V. G a l l a n d e t 1'enseignement de l ' a r t d e c o r a t i f , " P a r t I I , G.B.A., V o l . 3 8 , 1888, p.19. G a l l a n d emphasized t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r " c l a r i t y " i n d e c o r a t i o n . ) I n 1882, A. D a r c e l enumerated t h e " c o n d i t i o n s o f dec- o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " (meaning p a i n t i n g as " d e c o r a t i o n " ) t h a t i n c l u d e d s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e t o " S t y l e . " (See Ch.I, P a r t 1, n.94.) 115 T h i s was Ch. B l a n c ' s p o s i t i o n . He h e l d t h e o l d academic t h e o r y about " l i n e " b e i n g r e l a t e d t o the i n t e l l e c t and " c o l o u r " t o t h e h e a r t (or as he p u t i t , "The drawing i s o f mas- c u l i n e s e x . " - see Grammaire...dessin, 1867, p.22). He a l s o b e l i e v e d i n the i r r e c o n c i l a b i l i t y o f S t y l e ( r e l a t e d t o L i n e ) and C o l o u r , w h i c h amounted t o the b e l i e f t h a t whenever the two elements a r e u n i t e d , one o f them i s always dominant. (See Ch. B l a n c , " S a l o n de 1866," G.B.A., V o l . 2 0 , 1866, pp.507, 508, 513.) C o l o u r was supposed t o be "the n a t u r a l enemy o f s t y l e , because i t has the tendency t o p a r t i c u l a r i z e t h a t w h i c h t h e s t y l e wants t o g e n e r a l i z e . " ( O p . c i t . , p.507.) T h i s was p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e when b o l d , b r i l l i a n t c o l o u r s were used; c o l o u r had the tendency ''to l e s s e n " and " t o m a t e r i a l i z e " t h a t w h i c h was " e l e v a t e d " and i d e a l i z e d by S t y l e . (See o p . c i t . , p.513.) Of c o u r s e , when S t y l e i s d e f i n e d as " t y p i c a l t r u t h , " w i t h the u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h i s i s e x t r a c t e d from t h e r e a l , - 200 - e x t e r n a l , w o r l d , t h e r e i s no a p p a r e n t r e a s o n why i t s h o u l d r e f t o drawing (. l i n e ) o n l y . I n f a c t , l a t e r i n the c e n t u r y , such p r e j u d i c e s w i l l d i s a p p e a r . A l r e a d y i n 1893 c r i t i c s such as R Bouyer s a i d : " C ' e s t une e r r e u r que de b o r n e r l e s t y l e aux c o r r e c t i o n s de l a l i g n e ; " o r v i c e v e r s a , "La l i g n e n ' e s t pas l ' e s c l a v e du ' s t y l e n o b l e ' ." ( Raymond Bouyer, "Le paysage dans l ' a r t , " L ' A r t i s t e , J u l y 1893, p.44.) 1 1 6 See Ch.I, P a r t 1, pp.34-35. 117 An a b s t r a c t o r n a m e n t a l d e s i g n , such as the "arabesque f o r example, was a d d r e s s e d " t o the s p i r i t , t o r e a s o n , w i t h o u t p a s s i n g t h r o u g h the h e a r t . " ( See Ch.I, P a r t 2, n.69.) 118 T h i s i s c l e a r l y e x p r e s s e d i n H. Havard, La D e c o r a t i o n P-19 : Nous avons d i t que l e r61e d'une d e c o r a t i o n b i e n comprise e t a i t , a v a n t t o u t , de c r e e r un p l a i s i r pour l e s yeux en m§me temps qu'un repos pour 1 ' e s p r i t . I l f a u t , par consequent, r e - noncer en p r i n c i p e a ces f i g u r a t i o n s q u i s i m u l e n t un e f f o r t p e r s i s t a n t , e t dont l a con- t e m p l a t i o n ne m a n q u e r a i t pas de d e v e n i r f a t i g u a n t e a l a longue. P r e v i o u s l y , B l a n c wrote ( Ch. B l a n c , Grammaire des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s , pp.96-98), S i quelque p a r t s o n t b i e n venues l e s f i c t i o n s du p o ^ t e e t l e s personnages de c o n v e n t i o n e t l e s c o u l e u r s de f a n t a i s i e , c ' e s t assurement s u r ces p a r o i s t i s s e e s q u i d o i v e n t t o u t ensemble r e p o s e r l a vue, i n t r i g u e r 1 ' i m a g i n a t i o n e t , sans imposer aucune f a t i g u e a 1 ' e s p r i t , l e charmer par l e vague m§me de l e u r s m o t i f s e t p a r 1 ' i n - d e c i s i o n de l e u r s c o n t o u r s . - 201 - Chapter I, P a r t 2 See Ch.I, P a r t 1, n.115, and a l s o n.114 on S t y l e . 2 At the time a l s o p a i n t i n g s , such as C o r o t ' s , were con- s i d e r e d " d e c o r a t i v e " because of t h e i r " a r c h i t e c t u r e . " A l f r e d D a r c e l , i n "Le Salon des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s , " Gazette des Beaux- A r t s , Vol.25, Per.2, 1882, p.591, s a i d (when t a l k i n g about Cazin's l a n d s c a p e s ) : "... mais e l l e s n'ont point, encore c e t t e a r c h i t e c t u r e des t e r r a i n s e t des p l a n t e s q u i rendent s i decora- t i v e s l e s moindres compositions de Corot." Raymond Bouyer C "Le Paysage dans l ' a r t , " L ' A r t i s t e , Aug.1893, p.119) a l s o c o n s i d e r e d Corot " d e c o r a t i v e , " which f o r him meant i n the same category w i t h Poussin. See a l s o n.75 below. 3 The e x p r e s s i o n " I d e a l i s t Renaissance" was used by the c r i t i c Georges Lecomte, "Salon des XX," L ' A r t Moderne, Vol.12, no.9, Feb. 1892, p.66. 4 In 1879 the Republicans achieved a m a j o r i t y i n the French Senate. T h i s year marks the end of the so c a l l e d "Monarchist R e p u b l i c , " t h a t i s the d e f e a t of the Right and the beginning of the "Republic of the Republicans." 5 See f o r example R.D. Anderson, France 1870-1914. P o l i - t i c s and S o c i e t y , 1977, p.16, or Gordon Wright, France i n Modern Times, 1974, pp.248-49. ^ C. P i s s a r r o , l e t t e r of 13 May 1891, L e t t e r s to h i s Son L u c i e n , 1972, pp.170-71. 7 On the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of the avant-garde i n t h i s " I d e a l i s t Renaissance" see f o r example Sven Loevgren, The Genesis of Modernism, 1971, Robert Goldwater, Symbolism, 1979, or H.R. Rookmaaker, S y n t h e t i s t A r t T h e o r i e s , 19 59. The reasons of t h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n v a r i e s from d i s g u s t with the m a t e r i a l i s m of the bourgeois s o c i e t y , to an a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h the C a t h o l i c Right because of p e r s o n a l c o n v i c t i o n . One reason which should not be overlooked i n the p a i n t e r s ' case i s what k i n d of a r t t h e i r patrons ( the e l i t e of amateurs) wanted, or they thought they wanted under the i n f l u e n c e of " o f f i c i a l " a u t h o r i t i e s i n the f i e l d of a e s t h e t i c s . The l a t t e r showed, as we have seen, a pronounced i d e a l i s t i c tendency. 8 A f t e r a l l , mysticism invaded the work of such "Salon N a t u r a l i s t s " as B a s t i e n Lepage and e s p e c i a l l y ( s i n c e he l i v e d longer) of h i s f r i e n d Dagnan-Bouveret. See f o r example G a b r i e l P. Weisberg, "P.A.J. Dagnan-Bouveret, J u l e s Bastien-Lepage, and the N a t u r a l i s t I n s t i n c t , " A r t s Magazine, A p r i l 1982, p.76. - 202 - 9. M e l l e r i o i n c l u d e d ; the "Chromo^Luminarists" by whom he meant the Neo^Impressionists, u s i n g t h e i r o l d names .as w e l l as the " N e o - I m p r e s s i o n i s t s b y whom he meant Schuffenecker, Tou- l o u s e - L a u t r e c , i b e l s , Anquetin and G u l i l a u m i n y the " S y n t h e t i s t s " - " S e r u s i e r , V u i l l a r d , Bonnard, Ranson, V a l l o t t o n , as w e l l as the " M y s t i c s " - Denis, Bernard, F i l i g e r . He added Puvis de Chavannes, Moreau, Redon, Gauguin, Cezanne and Van Gogh- as the a r t i s t s from whom t h i s I d e a l i s t Movement descended. i 0 Andre M e l l e r i o ( Le Mouvement I d e a l i s t e en P e i n t u r e , 1896, pp.9-10) gave the f o l l o w i n g d e f i n i t i o n of the " I d e a l i s t Movement" t h a t took p l a c e i n p a i n t i n g : La tendance d ' a r t i s t e s cherchant a echapper a l a contingence par 1' i n s p i r a t i o n e t l e mode : ; H d'expression. En d'autre termes - t a n d i s que l e r e a l i s t e prend pour but f i n a l de r e p r o d u i r e l a nature dans l a s e n s a t i o n d i r e c t e q u ' e l l e f a i t eprouver - 1 ' i d e a l i s t e ne veut y v o i r que l e p o i n t de depart e l o i g n e de son oeuvre. Tout r e s i d e pour l u i dans l a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n c e r e b r a l e , entierement sub- j e c t i v e , que l u i f a i t s u b i r notre e s p r i t . I l ne s ' a g i t p l u s de s e n s a t i o n , c ' e s t - a - d i r e de l a chose pere ue independamment de l a Volonte, mais de 1'idee que nous en degageons, pur concept que 1'.artiste cherchera a exprimer uniquement, sans se preoccuper des exactes o b j e c t i v i t e s q u i en ont ete l a cause. ± X There i s a s i m i l a r i t y w i t h the n e o - C a t h o l i c movement of the 1830 and 1840s with r e s p e c t to t h e i r e l a t i o n s h i p between i d e o l o g y and a r t . They demanded then, " m y s t i c a l composition," " e x p r e s s i o n of a Symbol, not a m a t e r i a l a c t i o n , " " i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the i d e a and not the r e p r o d u c t i o n of a f a c t , " and h i e r a t i c a r t . ( See the quote from L ' A r t i s t e of 1841, i n M.P. D r i s k e l , "Icon and N a r r a t i v e i n the A r t of Ingres," A r t s Magazine, Dec. 1981, p.104.) 12 Roger Marx, "Les Salons de 1895," Gaz. des Beaux-Arts, 3 d Ser., Vol.14, 1895, p.24. 13 I b i d . , pp. (22-23). 14 I b i d . , p.23. 1 5 Roger Marx, " L ' A r t D e c o r a t i f e t l e s ' Symbolistes; '". Le V o l t a i r e , 2 3 Aug. 1892,n.p. 16 Maurice Denis, T h e o r i e s , 1913, p.267, from h i s a r t i c l e "De Gauguin e t de van Gogh au C l a s s i c i s m e , ". L 'Occident, May 1909. Denis a t the time was i n t e r e s t e d i n p r o v i n g the c o n t i n - u i t y between Symbolism and C l a s s i c i s m , but he was not f a r from the t r u t h . A f t e r a l l a l r e a d y i n 1893 Bouyer c a l l e d Puvis de Chavannes the "neo-Poussin of the f r e s c o " ( L ' A r t i s t e , Aug.1893, p. 113) and©talking about "the dreams noted down by P a u l Gauguin," or about - 203 - ...ces " p e i n t r e s i d e i s t e s " qui. o n t l e s sympathies d'Alphonse Germain ou des F e l i x Feneon, ces de- c o r a t e u r s l a r g e s e t r a f f i n e s , comme a l e x a n d r i n s , q u i f o n t du Lac, de l a Mer ou du F l e u v e l ' e n v e l - ';• oppe d'un symbole. he..concluded: C'est encore l a s y n t h e s e q u i r g a g i t a son: t o u r e t a son heure c o n t r e l e trompe-1 ' o e i ' l ; quand l e s t o i l e s quelconques p u l l u l e n t , l e s t y l e r e d e v i e n t ce q u ' i l e s t : 1 ' e x p r e s s i o n du c h o i x , essence de l ' A r t . Le s o u c i du s t y l e dans l e paysage r a j e u n i r a l e paysage de s t y l e . ( X ' A r t i s t e , J u l y 1893, pp.37-38.) Bouyer a l s o d e f i n e d S t y l e as "a v o l u n t a r y c o n v e n t i o n r e l a t e d t o the I d e a " , ( " l e S t y l e , c o n v e n t i o n v o l o n t a i r e , >. - s ' a t t a c h a n t a l ' I d e e " ) . See L ' A r t i s t e , Aug. 1893, p.114." 17 See f o r example Gauguin's l e t t e r t o Ch. M o r i c e o f J u l y 1901 ( L e t t e r s , pp.226-227) i n w h i c h he d e s c r i b e s the d i f f e r e n c e between h i m s e l f and P u v i s de.Chavannes. Gauguin was s t i l l t a l k i n g i n 1901 i n the S y m b o l i s t language o f M a l l a r m e e , who a c c e p t e d o n l y " a l l u s i o n , " "the image emanating from the dream w h i c h the o b j e c t s e x c i t e , " ' and who a c c e p t e d o n l y the " s u g g e s t i o n " o f o b j e c t s , s i n c e " t o name an o b j e c t i s t o s u p p r e s s t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f the enjoyment o f the pOem." ( S e e the quote from J . H u r e t ' s Enquete s u r 1 ' e v o l u t i o n l i t t e r a i r e , 1891, p.60, i n P o s t - T m p r e s s i o n i s m , London, 1979-1980, p.17.) By comparison, the manuals o f d e c o r a t i o n such as Havard's La D e c o r a t i o n o f 1892, w h i l e s t i l l t a l k i n g about making c o n c r e t e "the i d e a " and "the thought" (as opposed t o an " e x t e r n a l , " s u p e r f i c i a l a r t o f d e c o r a t i o n t h a t i n a few y e a r s was to become the p r e p o n d e r a n t meaning o f "the d e c o r a t i v e " - see M a u c l a i r ' s a r t i c l e o f 1896 f u r t h e r on) b a n i s h e d a l l o b s c u r e a l l e g o r i e s t h a t c o u l d n o t be e a s i l y u n d e r s t o o d and r e q u i r e d from the v i e w e r an e f f o r t o f the i n t e l l i g e n c e o r a " t e n s i o n o f the s p i r i t . " ( See P a r t 1, n. 118 and Havard, La D e c o r a t i o n , p. 16. 18 I n 1891 M a l l a r m e , s a i d : " . . . i l n'y a pas de p r o s e : i l y a 1'alphabet e t p u i s des v e r s p l u s ou moins s e r r e s : p l u s ou moins d i f f u s . " (Stephane M a l l a r m e , Oeuvres Completes, P a r i s : 1945, p.867) 19 See n.16 above, and a l s o C h . l , P a r t 1, n.114, f o r " S t y l e . " I n h i s l e t t e r o f 8 October 1888 t o S c h u f f e n e c k e r , Gauguin w r o t e : " T h i s y e a r I have s a c r i f i c e d a l l , e x e c u t i o n and c o l o u r i n g , f o r S t y l e , i n t e n d i n g t o compel m y s e l f t o do something d i f f e r e n t from what I u s u a l l y do." (. M. M a l i n g u e ed., P a u l Gauguin, L e t t e r s t o h i s W i f e and F r i e n d s , 1949, p.105.) 20 From "Notes i n e d i t e s d'Emile B e r n a r d s u r l e Symbolisme," i n E. B e r n a r d , 1868-1941. P e i n t u r e s , D e s s i n s , G r a v u r e s , L i l l e - P a l a i s des. B e a u x - A r t s , A p r i l 12 - June 12 1967, p.10. The no- - 204 - t e s a r e n o t d a t e d , b u t s i n c e he mentioned D e n i s ' T h e o r i e s , they a r e w r i t t e n a f t e r 1913. 21 See C h . I , P a r t 1, p. and n.110. 22 M a u r i c e D e n i s , b e g i n n i n g i n 1890, s t r e s s e d p u r e l y forma- l i s t means o f e x p r e s s i o n , one o f the most e x p l i c i t i n s t a n c e s b e i n g h i s a r t i c l e o f 1895, "A propos de 1 ' e x p o s i t i o n d'A.Seguin," La Plume, March 1 s t (see T h e o r i e s , p . 2 2 ) , where he s a i d , r e - f e r r i n g t o the p a i n t e r s " S y n t h e t i s t s o r S y m b o l i s t s " : I l s p r e f g r a i e n t 1 ' e x p r e s s i o n p a r l e d e c o r , l a forme, l a c o u l e u r , l a m a t i e r e employee a l ' e x p r e s s i o n p a r l e s u j e t . Ce q u ' i l s e x p r i - m a i e n t , c ' e t a i t b i e n l e u r i d e a l , l e u r v i s i o n de l a v i e , l e u r emotion devant l e s c h o s e s ; m a i l i l s ne 1 ' e x p r i m a i e n t que p a r des moyens p i t t o r e s q u e s . I n h i s "Notes i n e d i t e s " (see n.20, above) B e r n a r d c l a i m e d t o have pronounced a t a much e a r l i e r time "the i d e a l i s t s e n t e n c e : see the s t y l e and not t h e ' o b j e c t . " He a l s o c l a i m e d t h a t i n an i n t e r v i e w i n t h e Echo o f 1892 ( a c t u a l l y o f the end o f 1891) he s a i d : "Je cherche un a r t q u i s e r a i t l ' e x p r e s s i o n de n o t r e epoque; un a r t q u i e m p l o i e r a i t l a forme pour e x p r i m e r l e s t y l e e t l a c o u l e u r pour d e t e r m i n e r l e s e t a t s . " What he a c t u a l l y s a i d t h e n was: Je r e v e r a i s de c r e e r un s t y l e h i e r a t i q u e q u i s ' e l e v e r a i t au-dessue de l a m o d e r n i t S , au-dessus de l ' a c t u a l i t e . Comme procedes e t comme i n s p i r a t i o n , i l f a u t r e v e n i r aux P r i m i t i f s : e t r e t r e s b r e f au p o i n t de vue t e c h n i q u e , ne se s e r v i r de l a l i g n e que pour d e t e r m i n e r l a forme e t de l a c o u l e u r que pour d e t e r m i n e r l e s e t a t s . I I f a u d r a i t , en un mot, c r S e r un s t y l e q u i s e r a i t c e l u i de n o t r e Spoque. (Cf. Jacques D a u r e l l e , "Chez l e s Jeunes P e i n t r e s , " L'Echo de P a r i s , 28 Dec. 1891, n. pag. ) 23 See M. D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , pp.22-23 ( w r i t t e n i n 1895) and p.260 ( w r i t t e n i n 1909). The " s e n s a t i o n " i s n o t u n d e r s t o o d here as a p u r e l y s e n s o r y , v i s u a l one (as t r a d i t i o n a l l y i s b e l i e v e d t o be the case f o r the I m p r e s s i o n i s m o f t h e 1870s), b u t as a f e e l i n g , an emotion. T h i s meaning o f the " s e n s a t i o n " i s t h e common one i n S y m b o l i s t c i r c l e s , and i s a l s o e q u i v a l e n t w i t h t h a t g i v e n t o the word " i m p r e s s i o n " by such e a r l i e r n o n - p o s i t i v i s t t h i n k e r s as B a u d e l a i r e and D e l a c r o i x , who a c t u a l l y d i d g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e t h e l i t e r a r y and a r t i s t i c S y m b o l i s t s . The words " s e n s a t i o n " and " i m p r e s s i o n " a r e i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e , e x c e p t when t a l k i n g about I m p r e s s i o n i s m , b o t h i t s p o s i t i v i s t d e f e n d e r s , as w e l l as i t s n o n - p o s i t i v i s t c r i t i c s who d e n i g r a t e d i t , equated t h o s e words w i t h a v i s u a l , p e r c e i v e d s e n s a t i o n . I n S y m b o l i s t c i r c l e s , " s e n s a t i o n " i s e q u i v a l e n t w i t h " i m p r e s s i o n " (a word l e s s used) and i s e q u i v a l e n t w i t h "emotion." Perhaps i t i s w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g t h a t i n 1881, P a u l Bourget p u b l i s h e d h i s E s s a i s s u r l a p s y c h o l o g i e f r a n c a i s e , i n w h i c h he argued f o r a l i t e r a t u r e based upon I m a g i n a t i o n and - 205 - F e e l i n g , a g a i n s t t h e n a t u r a l i s m and p o s i t i v i s m o f a Z o l a . I t i s l i k e l y t h a t Gauguin, who e x p r e s s e d h i s s t r o n g b e l i e f i n " f e e l i n g " i n 1885 (see h i s l e t t e r t o S c h u f f e n e c k e r o f 14 J a n u - a r y 1885, where he a l s o made i t c l e a r he u n d e r s t o o d " s e n s a t i o n " as " e m o t i o n " ) , had knowledge o f B o u r g e t ' s E s s a i s . A t any r a t e , i n the e a r l y 1880s, the i d e a s p r o p a g a t e d i n t h e c i r c l e o f B o u r g e t , Gustave Kahn, and t h e i r f r i e n d J u l e s L a f o r g u e (who d i e d i n 1887 and was i n f l u e n c e d i n h i s s t u d i e s i n a e s t h e t i c s , by Hartman's P h i l o s o p h y o f t h e Unconscious) as w e l l as C h a r l e s Henry's l e c t u r e s on e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y , c o n t r i b u t e d t o a concept o f " s e n s a t i o n " w h i c h was c l e a r l y d i s t i n c t from a p u r e l y s e n s o r y one. I n t u i t i o n , f e e l i n g , emotion, were i t s i n g r e d i e n t s . One problem which i t seems t o me i s s t i l l not f u l l y answered, i s t o what e x t e n t t h e I m p r e s s i o n i s t s themselves thought o f " s e n s a t i o n " as "emotion," and i f t h e y d i d , d i d t h e y u n d e r s t a n d i t as such o n l y b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e 18 80s? That i n a l e t t e r a d d r e s s e d t o h i s f a t h e r C a m i l l e / i n May 1891, L u c i e n P i s s a r r o equated e m o t i v i t y w i t h s e n s a t i o n , does not s o l v e t h e problem. L u c i e n wrote a f t e r r e a d i n g A u r i e r ' s a r t i c l e on Gauguin, "Le Symbolisme en p e i n t u r e " (see P i s s a r r o , L e t t e r s , 1972, p. 378) . And what a f a k e r Gauguin i s ! Come now, s e r i o u s l y , do you t h i n k he has a l l t h a t many i d e a s ? We've t a l k e d w i t h him and know t h e r e ' s not a chance t h a t we'd be t a k e n i n ! I n A u r i e r ' s a r t i c l e t h e r e ' s a p o i n t you d i d n ' t n o t i c e and t h a t shows how empty i t i s : a t one p o i n t , , a f t e r a l o n g p r o c e s s i o n o f words (words, n o t h i n g but w o r d s ! ) , he admits t h a t e v e r y t h i n g he has j u s t means n o t h i n g i f t h e a r t i s t i s n ' t endowed w i t h t h e g i f t o f e m o t i v i t y . But t h a t ' s what we c a l l s e n s a t i o n . So what d i d he p r o v e ? When L u c i e n t e l l s C a m i l l e t h a t " t h e r e ' s a p o i n t you d i d n ' t n o t i c e , " he r e f e r s t o the copy o f A u r i e r ' s a r t i c l e a n n o t a t e d by h i s f a t h e r ' s hand. (See B e l i n d a Thomson, " C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o and Symbolism: some t h o u g h t s promoted by the r e c e n t d i s c o v e r y o f an a n n o t a t e d a r t i c l e , " B u r l i n g t o n e Magazine, J a n u a r y 1892, p.19. I do not agree however w i t h her c o n c l u s i o n , w h i c h b r i n g s C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o ' s aims much t o o c l o s e t o t h o s e o f A u r i e r ' s . ) The f a c t i s t h i s p o i n t about " e m o t i v i t y " was m i s s e d by P i s s a r r o (who o t h e r w i s e made s e v e r a l comments). Why? There were b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e s between C a m i l l e and L u c i e n (an adept o f W i l l i a m M o r r i s , c o l l a b o r a t o r o f R i c k e t t s and Shannon). C a m i l l e always i n s i s t e d i n h i s l e t t e r s on p r e s e r v i n g the " f r e s h n e s s " and " s p o n t a n e i t y " o f " s e n s a t i o n " (see l e t t e r s o f Sept. 1888, May 13, 1891 f o r example) which he f e l t o u t d o o r s . T h i s was a c t u a l l y t h e r e a s o n he gave up t h e " d o t s " o f h i s s h o r t - l i v e d N e o - I m p r e s s i o n i s t phase (see l e t t e r o f May 29, 1891). L u c i e n / was not concerned w i t h p r e s e r v i n g " s p o n t a n e i t y , " he was i n v o l v e d i n d e l i b e r a t e , d e c o r a t i v e c o m p o s i t i o n s , as i s e v i d e n t from t h e same l e t t e r o f May 1891: I am o b l i g e d t o do t h i n g s t h i s way because i t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o p a i n t from n a t u r e when you l i v e i n the c i t y . There a r e d i s t a n c e s and changes o f e f f e c t s i n a c o u n t r y where t h e r e a r e n ' t two days i n a row t h a t a r e a l i k e . B e s i d e s , s i n c e my - 206 - i d e a i s to p a i n t emphasizing the d e c o r a t i v e aspect, I have no other c h o i c e , A u r i e r c o n s i d e r e d t h a t Gauguin was endowed with a " t r a n s - cendental e m o t i v i t y , " which meant not only t h a t the p a i n t i n g o b j e c t i f i e d a " s e n s a t i o n " (emotion! i n s t e a d of r e n d e r i n g a v i s u a l impression, but t h a t emotion i t s e l f was f e l t not i n con- templation of the r e a l world, but of the world of a b s t r a c t i o n s , of "pure Ideas." But f o r Ganguin, as f o r other Symbolists- S y n t h e t i s t s , the r e a l world remained a source of t h e i r sensa- t i o n s . Denis' " s e n s a t i o n " i s d e f i n i t e l y l e s s i d e a l i s t i n nature than A u r i e r ' s " t r a n s c e n d e n t a l e m o t i v i t y " i n f r o n t of the "drama of the a b s t r a c t i o n s . " C See A. A u r i e r , "Le Symbolisme en p e i n t u r e , " Mercure de France, March 1891, p.164.) See a l s o n.34 below. 24 Alphonse Germain, "Theorie des deformateurs. Expose e t r e f u t a t i o n , " La Plume, No.57, S e p t . l 1891, p.290. Germain was a r e a c t i o n a r y c r i t i c , supporter of the L a t i n t r a d i t i o n , and of Peladan and h i s Rose-Croix Salon. He wrote i n L ' A r t e t I'Idee. 2 5 See a l s o Ch.I, P a r t 1, p.., 29. 2 6 I am r e f e r r i n g here e s p e c i a l l y to the second phase of C l o i s o n i s m , the " C l o i s o n i s t - S y n t h e t i s t " phase i n Welsh- Ovcharov' s terminology ( see Bogomila Welsh-Ovcharov, V i n c e n t van Gogh and the B i r t h of C l o i s o n i s m , A r t G a l l , of O n t a r i o , 1981, p.41), as i l l u s t r a t e d f o r example i n Bernard's Breton Women i n the Meadow: Pardon a t Pont-Aven, 1888 ( Cat.No.104). The f i r s t phase of C l o i s o n i s m was i n i t i a t e d " by Emile Bernard and L o u i s Anquetin i n 1887. The name " C l o i s o n i s m " was c o i n e d by the Symbolist w r i t e r and c r i t i c Edouard Dujardin, not by the a r t i s t s themselves. He was a f r i e n d of Anquetin and a t t r i b u t e d the s t y l e , to him ( f r i e n d s h i p s and l o y a l t i e s were important i n 19th c. a r t c r i t i c i s m ) a f t e r the p a i n t e r e x h i b i t e d i n 1888 w i t h Les XX and w i t h the Independents, among o t h e r t h i n g s , Rue ( S o i r - 5 heures), or as i s b e t t e r known today, Avenue de C l i c h y : F i v e O'clock i n the Evening, p a i n t e d l a t e 1887, and which Anquetin l i s t e d as an "ebauche" ( see Catalogue de l a ye E x p o s i t i o n des XX, B r u x e l l e s , 1888, No.4 on Anquetin's l i s t ) . D u j a r d i n not o n l y compared Anquetin's s t y l e with c l o i s o n n e enamels ( which c o u l d have been French medieval, or O r i e n t a l c l o i s o n n e admired a t the time- see f o r example Ch. Blanc, Grammaire des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s , 1882, p.326), but a l s o to Japanese p r i n t s and f o l k a r t ("images of E p i n a l " ) - see the quote from D u j a r d i n ' s "Le C l o i s o n i s m e , " La Revue Independante, March 1888, i n Sven Loevgren, The Genesis of Modernism, 19 71, p. 13 2,' or the t r a n s l a t i o n ( b e t t e r than the one p r o v i d e d i n Loevgren) i n Welsh-Ovcharov, V i n c e n t van Gogh. ... , p. 23. Anquetin's Avenue de C l i c h y , a s opposed to C l o i s o n i s t - S y n t h e t i s t p a i n t i n g s , such as Bernard's Breton Women of 1888, p r e s e r v e s the "Western," post-Renaissance treatment of space. The f l a t n e s s of the p i c t u r e i s due mainly to the u n i t y of c o l o r (which was as i s w e l l known, Anquetin's main concern) and t h i c k o u t l i n i n g o f the shapes. Anquetin's p r i o r i t y i n developping the f i r s t phase of C l o i s o n i s m i s d o u b t f u l . T h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s not based o n l y on what Bernard wrote l a t e r C he i s not very r e l i a b l e ) , or even on the f a c t t h a t Van Gogh, a f t e r h e a r i n g about D u j a r d i n ' s -207 - a r t i c l e d e c l a r e d t h a t " i n the Japanese s t y l e young Bernard has perhaps gone f a t h e r than Anquetin. " (. Quoted i n J . Revald, Post-Impressionism,197 8, p,177; Rewald t h i n k s t h a t "the i n i t i a t i v e seems to have been B e r n a r d ' s i - o p . c i t . , p.175.) The f a c t i s t h a t the e a r l i e s t known " C l o i s o n i s t " p a i n t i n g by Anquetin i s The Mower a t Noon ( Welsh -'Ovcharov, cat.No.74), of summer 1887, w h i l e i n the s p r i n g of the same year Bernard already p a i n t e d Woman Tending Geese ('cat .No. 92) or Afternoon a t S t . B r i a c ( cat.No.93), which are a l s o more advanced i n the d i r e c - t i o n of C l o i s o n i s m than Anquetin's Mower. During the w i n t e r 1886-87, Anquetin and Bernard worked i n c l o s e c o l l a r b o r a t i o n . They were t r y i n g to p r o v i d e an a l t e r n a t i v e to Seurat and Signac's Neo-Impressionist p a i n t i n g , remaining w i t h i n the "mathematical a e s t h e t i c s " and s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r i e s . These t h e o r i e s were h a i l e d by the Symbolist avant-garde c r i t i c s such as G. Kahn, as "founded on t h i s p u r e l y i d e a l i s t p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r i n c i p l e t h a t makes us r e j e c t the r e a l i t y of matter and admits the e x i s t a n c e of the world o n l y as a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . " ( My t r a n s l . from G. Kahn, "Reponse des Symbolistes," L'Evenement, 28 Spet. 1886, reproduced i n S. Loevgren, The Genesis of Modernism, 1971, p.84.) Anquetin was i n t e r e s t e d i n a dominant c o l o r of l i g h t ( warm yellow-orange i n The Mower, c o l d b l u e - v i o l e t i n Avenue de Clichy) j u s t i f i e d by a p a r t i c u l a r time of the day. I t i s more l i k e l y he found h i s i n s p i r a t i o n , not l o o k i n g through a c o l o r e d p i e c e of g l a s s as Bernard much l a t e r r e l a t e d ( E. Bernard, "Louis Anquetin," Gaz. Beaux-Arts, Vol.11, 1934, p.114), but i n Blanc's Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n ( see t h i s t h e s i s , Ch.II, P a r t 2, n.38) which a t the time was very popular w i t h the avant-garde c i r c l e s . (Bernard l a t e r d e n i g r a t e d Blanc's w r i t i n g s - see Ch.II, P a r t 2, n.1'19; Anquetin's thorough knowledge of the Grammaire i s e v i d e n t i n h i s p e r s o n a l notes - see Anquetin, De L ' A r t , e d i t e d by C. V e r s i n i , . P a r i s , 1970; the Neo-Impressionist c i r c l e d i d not keep s e c r e t t h e i r use of the Grammaire. Seurat l i s t e d i t as one of h i s sources - the i n f l u e n c e of Blanc's Grammaire on Seurat i s d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l i n W.I. Homer, Seurat and the Science of P a i n t i n g , 1964 - and so d i d Signac i n h i s D'Eugene D e l a c r o i x aux neo-impressionnisme, f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1898. On Gauguin's and van Gogh's acquaintance w i t h the Grammaire ( see Mark R o s k i l l , Van Gogh, Gauguin and the Impre- s s i o n i s t C i r c l e , 1970, pp.91, 94 and 267.) Anquetin's Mower has the a s p e c t of an I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g seen through a y e l l o w g l a s s . In f a c t P i s s a r r o a l r e a d y i n 1880 i n Chaponaval Landscape ( P i s s a r r o & V e n t u r i , cat.No.509) or i n the Apple P i c k e r s ( P&V No.545) of 1881 showed s i m i l a r p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h the dominant c o l o r e d l i g h t , i n h i s case b l u e . The a r t i s t s i n t e r e s t e d i n a more s c i e n t i f i c approach to p a i n t i n g ( a g e n e r a l tendency among avant-garde a r t i s t s i n the e a r l y 1880s) might have used the source used by Blanc h i m s e l f , t h a t i s Chevreul's The Laws of C o n t r a s t of Colour. Chevreul formulated s e v e r a l p r i n c i p l e s of c o l o u r harmony, and grouped them i n two k i n d s , harmonies of analogous c o l o u r s , and harmonies of c o n t r a s t s . Among the harmonies of analogous c o l o u r s he l i s t e d the "harmony of a dominant c o l o r e d l i g h t . " Chevreul s t r e s s e d t h a t a p a i n t e r may exaggerate the c o l o u r s of nature, s i n c e i f he c o p i e s them e x a c t l y , the r e s u l t s might not be harmonious. P i s s a r r o acknow- ledged h i s acquaintance w i t h Chevreul's book only i n 1886, when - 208 - he j o i n e d Neo-Impressionism. ( See L. N o c h l i n , Impressionism and Post-Impressionism, 1966, p.55.) Bernard's " s c i e n t i f i c " i n t e r e s t focused on a b s t r a c t , g e o m e t r i c a l design, on what he c a l l e d "synthese geometrique," as i s e v i d e n t i n h i s Afternoon a t St. B r i a c ( Welsh-Ovcharov, cat.No.93), The Ragpickers: Iron Bridges a t A s n i e r e s (No.96), and View from the Pont d'Asnieres ( Welsh-Ovcharov, f i g . 1 1 5 , p.276), a l l of 1887, s t a r t i n g i n s p r i n g . He might have i n f l u e n c e d Anquetin i n o u t l i n i n g shapes w i t h g e o m e t r i c a l p r e c i s i o n , e s p e c i a l l y the houses i n the Mower, but the l a t t e r used very f i n e l i n e s , probably not being ready to make a t o t a l break with Impressionism ( which d i d not accept o u t l i n e s , because " l i n e s do not e x i s t i n n a t u r e " ) . The f i n e l i n e s , as w e l l as the f a c t t h a t there are no compartments of v a r i o u s c o l o u r s , h a r d l y q u a l i f y t h i s p a i n t i n g as an example of " C l o i s o n i s m . " Bernard was the one t h a t i n the s p r i n g of 1887 covered h i s windows w i t h i m i t a t i o n of Gothic s t a i n e d g l a s s ( Welsh-Ovcharov, p.263) i n St. B r i a c . As I a l r e a d y mentioned, about t h a t time he p a i n t e d h i s f i r s t C l o i s o n i s t p a i n t i n g s . Bernard f e l t he s u f f e r e d i n j u s t i c e twice, s i n c e Dujardin named Anquetin alone as i n v e n t o r of C l o i s o n i s m , and l a t e r he was accused of p l a g i a r i z i n g Gauguin's C l o l s o n i s t - S y n t h e t i s t s t y l e . Yet, he maintained a l l along, he produced Breton Women a t Pardon ( Welsh-Ovch. c a t . No.104) b e f o r e Gauguin's V i s i o n a f t e r Sermon (both of 1888). Most a r t h i s t o r i a n s agree today on Bernard's p r i o r i t y and on the f a c t he i n f l u e n c e d Gauguin. ( The most con- v i n c i n g argument i s p r o v i d e d - i n my o p i n i o n - i n V. J i r a t - W a s i u t i n s k i , Paul Gauguin i n the context of Symbolism, 1978, pp.83-96; see a l s o M.A. Stevens, Post-impressionism: Cross Currents i n European P a i n t i n g , Royal Acad, of A r t s Catalogue, London, 1979, p.41, and F. Orton and G. P o l l o c k , "Les Donnees Bretonnantes: La P r a i r i e de R e p r e s e n t a t i o n , " A r t H i s t o r y , Vol.3, No.3, 1980, p.337; Welsh-Ovcharov i s non-commital on the i s s u e of p r i o r i t y . ) The important c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t Bernard i n t r o - duced i n p a i n t i n g the f l a t n e s s of the medieval t a p e s t r i e s or s t a i n e d g l a s s windows which he a l r e a d y i m i t a t e d i n h i s decora- t i o n s . With r e s p e c t to s p a c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , h i s Breton Women was more "medieval" than Gauguin's V i s i o n , or than h i s own p a i n - t i n g s from the f i r s t C l o i s o n i s t phase. Bernard d e l i b e r a t e l y turned now to the a r t of the Middle Ages f o r i n s p i r a t i o n , w h i l e h i s f i r s t C l o i s o n i s t phase, as w e l l as Gauguin's V i s i o n are h e a v i l y indebted to the p e r s p e c t i v e used i n the Japanese p r i n t s . ( A c t u a l l y i n Hokusai's p r i n t s f o r example- the most popular ones with the French avant-garde- the p e r s p e c t i v e i s not the one Chinese and Japanese a r t adopted f o r g e n e r a t i o n s , but i t i s i n f - luenced by Western p e r s p e c t i v e . On t h i s Western i n f l u e n c e see f o r example Ch. S. T e r r y , Hokusai's 36 Views of Mt. F u j i , Tokyo, 1959, p.13.) 2 7 See t h i s i n t e r v i e w w i t h Bernard p u b l i s h e d by Jacques D a u r e l l e , "Chez l e s Jeunes P e i n t r e s , " L'Echo de P a r i s , 28 Dec. 1891. : ~ As Rookmaaker p o i n t e d out, Van Gogh's l e t t e r s to Bernard w r i t t e n i n the summer of 18 88 i n d i c a t e d Bernard's involvement w i t h "the a b s t r a c t and m y s t i c a l " medieval drawing and i t s "sym- b o l i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . " ( See H.R. Rookmaaker, S y n t h e t i s t A r t T h e o r i e s , 1959, p.125.) Bernard claimed t h a t B r i t t a n y made a C a t h o l i c out of him again, "capable of f i g h t i n g f o r the Church," as w e l l as transformed him i n t o a "man of the Middle Ages"; he admired there ( f i r s t time i n 1886) "the a n c i e n t s t a i n e d g l a s s windows, the h i e r a t i c t a p e s t r i e s . " ( See the quote from - 209 - B e r n a r d ' s " R e c i t s d'un p a s s a g e r voyageant au b o r d de l a v i e " i n Mary- Anne 'Stevens, " I n n o v a t i o n and C o n s o l i d a t i o n I n French. P a i n t i n g . , "' 'T'o's'tva^pYfe's:'s;iOTiii,"s-m, London, 1279, p. 23,1 2 g See Merete Bodelsen,' Gauguin's C e r a m i c s , 1964, p.184 and p. 220 Ch. 130.1'. Gauguin d e v e l o p e d a C l o i s o n n i s t i c s t y l e i n C h a p e l e t ' s workshop i n 1 8 8 6 - 1 8 8 7 , . i n s p i r e d by Japanese c l o i s o n n e vase. See a l s o Gauguin's d e s c r i p t i o n o f the p r o c e s s o f making Japanese c l o i s o n n g vases C f r o m Avant e t A p r e s ) , i n P a u l Gauguin's I n t i m a t e J o u r n a l s , t r a h s l . Van Wyck B r o o k s , 1949, pp. 63-67. . •, .. 29 See f o r example S t i l l L i f e w i t h P r o f i l e o f L a v a l (1886). For the "Western t r a d i t i o n " see Ch.I, P a r t 1, pp36-39 , and p.16. " C l o i s o n i s m " i s o n l y one form o f " S y n t h e t i s m , " w h i c h i s a more encompassing term. Gauguin was a S y n t h e t i s t b e f o r e and a f t e r b e i n g a " C l o i s o n i s t " ( C l o i s o n i s t - S y n t h e t i s t ) . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t Gauguin f i r s t used the term " s y n t h e t i q u e " i n s p i r e d by B a u d e l a i r e , s i n c e h i s "Notes S y n t h e t i q u e s " o f 1884-85 a r e i n tune w i t h the p o e t ' s t h e o r y o f " c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s . " Gauguin con- s i d e r e d f o r example t h a t "harmonious c o l o r s c o r r e s p o n d t o the harmonies o f sounds" and t h a t i n p a i n t i n g " a l l s e n s a t i o n s a r e condensed." He e n v i s a g e d p a i n t i n g as a s y n t h e s i s o f a l l o t h e r a r t s . ( T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the t i t l e "Notes S y n t h e t i q u e s " i s a l s o g i v e n by J i r a t - W a s i u t i n s k i , p.17 and p.19.) W h i l e Gauguin d i d n o t use the term " s y n t h e t i c " i n the t e x t , i t i s e v i d e n t he was t h i n k i n g a l s o i n terms o f " s c i e n t i f i c s y n t h e t i s m " ( u s i n g G o l d w a t e r ' s t e r m i n o l o g y ) - t h i s time r e f e r r i n g t o a s p e c i f i c method o f p a i n t i n g - as was S e u r a t . S i n c e Gauguin d i d n o t use t h e term " s y n t h e t i c " i n the t e x t , i t i s not c l e a r i f he used i t i n the t i t l e i n r e f e r e n c e t o the s y n t h e s i s o f a l l s e n s a t i o n s - f o r w h i c h the e q u i v a l e n t one word "synae s the s i a" e x i s t s - o r he r e f e r r e d t o the t h e o r y o f " e q u i v a l e n t s , " t h a t i s r e c r e a t i n g by s y n t h e t i c ( i n the sense o f a r t i f i c i a l l y c r e a t e d ) means i n p a i n t i n g t h a t w h i c h cannot be e x a c t l y i m i t a t e d anyway ( s i n c e as Gauguin s a i d , "you have fewer means than n a t u r e " ) . The " S y n t h e t i s m " p r o c l a i m e d a t the V o l p i n i e x h i b i t i o n o f 1889 ( the term was n o t e x p l a i n e d a t the time) has t o be u n d e r s t o o d i n the l a t t e r sense. I t means r e c r e a t i n g images o u t o f "syn- t h e t i c c o l o r " and " s y n t h e t i c l i n e s , " i n s t e a d o f i m i t a t i n g n a t u r e . A t the same t i m e , even i f the c o l o r c o u l d be t o t a l l y a r b i t r a r y and a r t i f i c i a l ( as Ch. B l a n c recommended i n d e c o r a - t i o n - see Ch.I, P a r t 1 ) , t h e l i n e a r S t y l e s y n t h e s i z e d forms e x i s t a n t i n the r e a l w o r l d . A l l S y m b o l i s t s w r i t e r s used the term " s y n t h e t i c " to i n d i c a t e a method, a s t y l e , t h a t a c h i e v e d a " s y n t h e s i s . " ( I n my o p i n i o n one s h o u l d make a s l i g h t d i s - t i n c t i o n between " s y n t h e t i s m " and " s y n t h e s i s , " s i n c e the l a t t e r does not n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l y a r t i f i c i a l i t y , b u t o n l y s i m p l i f i - c a t i o n , g e n e r a l i z a t i o n . A " s y n t h e s i s " i n p a i n t i n g p r e s e r v e s t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e o b j e c t i t r e p r e s e n t s . ) B a u d e l a i r e used the term " s y n t h e t i c " Cto q u a l i f y the a r t o f C. Guys), i n the sense o f a c h i e v i n g a s y n t h e s i s , t h a t i s g e n e r a l i z i n g and s e e i n g t h i n g s i n the " e f f e c t o f t h e i r ensemble" ( see Ch. B a u d e l a i r e , "Oeuvres c o m p l e t e s , 1954, p.1166, and M. R o s k i 1 1 , Van Gogh, - 210 - Gauguin and the Impressionist C i r c l e , 1970, pp.95-96). Aurier understood by synthesis, "the aesthetical and l o g i c a l simpli- f i c a t i o n s of formes," as i s done i n decorations such as monu- mental frescoes (see the quote i n n.46, from "Les Symbolistes"). Like Baudelaire, Aurier admired such "synthetic" art as that of ancient Egyptians, or primitive a r t . In his book on Gauguin, Charles Morice (who also equated Synthetism with "synthesis") exclaimed: "should we reduce Synthetism to the use of f l a t t i n t only?" ("nous re- duirons-nous a dire que l e synthgtisme se ramene tout entire a l a teinte plate?". Gauguin, 1919, p.165.) Morice pointed out that Gauguin was an " i d e i s t , " but he remained " p l a s t i c . " 31 As Bodelsen pointed out, Gauguin found i n the technique of stoneware glazes an answer to a problem that had interested him for sometime, the problem of color harmony. (See Merete Bodelsen, Gauguin's Ceramics, 1964, pp.190-191.) Chinese ceramics (which inspired Chapelet) were very much admired at the time, as Roger Marx t e s t i f i e d : L'influence grandissante de 1'extreme Orient a provoqui l a recherche des couvertes chinoises, qui prennent, sous 1'action d'un feu v i o l e n t , des colorations riches, marbrees ou heurtees a i n s i que des ondulations des flammes. Chapelet, whom Braquemond c a l l e d "an a r t i s t equal to the Chinese," t r i e d to imitate Chinese ceramics, quite successfully as i s evident also from R. Marx's description: . . . v o i c i pour procurer aux amateurs de flamSs leurs plus troublarites emotions et d'exquises surprises, l a v i t r i n e ou M. Chapelet triomphe sans contests. L ' o e i l . e s t fascine par ces meta- morphoses de l a porcelaine en matiere precieuse, par l a dissemblance des e f f e t s , dus a des com- binaisons de cuisson, a des courants d'oxigene .'• faisant passer le rouge de cuivre par le v i o - l e t , par l e bleu, le vert, l e l i l a s , en de nuances chatoyantes, voltigeantes' . (See R. Marx, "La decoration architecturale et les industries d'art a 1'Exposition Universelle de 1889," Revue des Arts Decoratifs, Vol.11,1890-1891, pp.35-36.) Gauguin himself described the synthetic color he used i n 1888 i n painting in'a s i m i l a r manner: The color i s a color remote from nature; imagine a confused c o l l e c t i o n of pottery a l l twisted by furnaces! A l l the reds and v i o l e t s streaked by flames, l i k e a furnace burning f i e r c e l y , the seat of the painter's mental struggles. (Gauguin, Letters to his Wife and Friends, 1948, p.105, l e t t e r of 8 Oct. 1888 to Schuffenecker.) Charles Blanc also praised Oriental (especially Chinese) ceramists. He p a r t i c u l a r l y admired and recommended t h e i r method of making the color "vibrate," i n order to avoid the monotony of an uniformly applied monochrome tone. (See Ch. Blanc, Grammaire des arts decoratifs, p.390; i n his Grammaire des arts du dessin, 1967, p.607, he referred to t h i s procedure - 211 - as to "modulate the tone on i t s e l f , " and i n h i s a r t i c l e on D e l a c r o i x in" Gaz.> :Beaiix>SAr1:s, 1864, p. 144, as u s i n g the p r i n - c i p l e of " c o l o r modulation"^ my emphasis.). C o l o r modulations i n s p i r e d . b y the stoneware g l a s s e s are to be found i n such " C l o i s o n i s t " p a i n t i n g s as' The" Breton C a l v a r y : The Green C h r i s t of 1889. 3 2 For Gauguin's "zebree p a i n t i n g " see Ch. Chassee, Gauguin e t son temp, 1955, pp.43-44. A c c o r d i n g to Signac, the express- i o n "zebrer" was used by Charles Blanc i n d e s c r i b i n g D e l a c r o i x ' s method of "optimal mixing" of c o l o r (. green and pink) used i n r e n d e r i n g women's f l e s h C see P. Signac, D'E. D e l a c r o i x . . . , p.76). The e x p r e s s i o n Blanc used was a c t u a l l y "sabrer" C Gramma i r e . . . d e ss i n, 1867, -p.604.) An example of p a i n t i n g i n which Gauguin, as D e l a c r o i x , used t h i s method of h a t c h i n g to render the nuances, as w e l l as to model a woman's body, i s Undine: In the Waves of 1889 ( c o l o r p l a t e No.l i n Welsh- Ovcharov, V i n c e n t van Gogh..., 1981). 3 3 On Gauguin's p o s i t i o n r e g a r d i n g m o d e l l i n g i n the deco- r a t i v e a r t s , see h i s l e t t e r to D a n i e l de Monfried of August 1892 ( H.B. Chipp, T h e o r i e s . . . , p.64). I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t Gauguin was s t i l l making the d i s t i n c t i o n between the f l a t n e s s r e q u i r e d i n d e c o r a t i v e a r t s ( b e s t to be s t a i n e d g l a s s window-like) and i n e a s e l p a i n t i n g . Perhaps o n l y i n Women a t A r i e s : The M i s t r a l of 1888 (Welsh-Ovcharov, c o l o r p l a t e No.24)- and even here, o n l y i n the two s m a l l e r f i g u r e s - d i d Gauguin approach Bernard's f a c e l e s s f l a t s i l h o u e t t e s of Three Brenton Women a t the Coast, May-June 1888 ( Welsh-Ovcharov, No.99) or of The Seawed Gatherers: Les Goemons ( 1888 or l a t e r , Welsh-Ovcharov, No.108), as w e l l as of Denis' Way to C a l v a r y of 1889 ( Welsh-Ovcharov, No.140). Even i n a s t i l l l i f e , c o n s i d e r e d as one of the e a r l i e s t " C l o i s o n i s t " p a i n t i n g s by Gauguin: S t i l l L i f e F§te Gloanec of e a r l y Aug.1888 ( Welsh-Ovcharov, c o l o r p l a t e No.31) he e x t e n s i v e l y used Cezanne's method of c o l o u r modulations i n s t e a d of the f l a t t i n t . 34 I r e f e r i n p a r t i c u l a r to Bernard, Denis, and S e r u s i e r , who were the f i r s t to break completely with Western type of p e r s p e c t i v e ( l i n e a r or c e n t r a l p o i n t , s c i e n t i f i c p e r s p e c t i v e ) , and t r e a t e d the s u r f a c e of the p a i n t i n g as a t r u l y two- dimensional one. In t h i s r e s p e c t medieval a r t (or f o r t h a t matter t r a d i t i o n a l O r i e n t a l a r t ) o f f e r e d even b e t t e r i n s p i r a t i o n than the Japanese p r i n t s , as I a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d . Bernard f i g u r e s seem to " f l o a t " i n p a i n t i n g s such as the w e l l known Breton Women a t Pardon (18 88), or The Apple Harvest ( 1890, Welsh-Ovcharov, No.110). Leaving a s i d e the q u e s t i o n of Bernard having any j u s t i f i c a t i o n to say t h i s , i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t he claimed: " . . . i t was t h i s g o t h i c B r i t t a n y which i n i t i a t e d me i n a r t and God" ( quoted i n Post-Impressionism, London, 1979, p.41). In other words, he i n t e n t i o n a l l y i m i t a t e d Gothic a r t , because ('. even i n l a i c scenes) t h i s formalism allowed him to p r o j e c t the mysticism and the i d e a l i s m he had chosen to p r o j e c t a t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r time. Both Bernard and S e r u s i e r (. the founder of the Nabi group), embraced n e o ^ P l a t o n i s t d o c t r i n e s a t the time, these d o c t r i n e s being a t the f o u n d a t i o n of l i t e r a r y Symbolism, - 212 - the avant-garde which, the painters wanted to p a r a l l e l . As Denis wrote i n the t e x t accompanying Serusier's book, Le Symbolisme e t a i t comme Serusier lui-meme, neo^platonicien.. Ecrivains et peintres tom- baient d'accord pour affirmer que les objets naturels sont les signes des idees; que le v i s i b l e est l a manifestation de 1 1 i n v i s i b l e ; (. In P. Serusier, A B C de l a peinture, 1942, f i r s t publ. 1921, p.64.) Denis claimed that Serusier revealed to the Nabis, "as Gauguin's message," the concept of the painting as a "plane surface covered with colours i n a c e r t a i n assembled order" ( which was the well-known d e f i n i t i o n of a painting Denis gave i n his a r t i c l e " D e f i n i t i o n of Neotraditionism," f i r s t published i n Art et Critique, Aug. 1890 ) - see A SC..., p.43 and p.105. In f a c t the small panel Serusier painted supposedly under Gauguin's guidance ( which guidance referred only to the use of a dominant color, but synthetic, of an object), known as The Talisman or The Bo i s d'Amour, of October 1888, was f l a t t e r than any of Gauguin's paintings, and quite "abstract." For the sources that more l i k e l y inspired Denis' d e f i n i t i o n of a painting see n.103, below. In l a t e r years, when Denis turned against "flatness," he blamed Gauguin ( a n d to a lesser extent Bernard's early work) for this trend i n painting. Denis him- s e l f did not appear to be a neo-Platonist, only an ardent Catholic with mystic tendencies. Together with Serusier, they were the leaders of the Nabi group, which i n the early 1890s were considered the Symbolists ( i n painting). However, the intent of becoming a "Symbolist" ( regardless of Denis' claiming for his a r t i c l e on "Neo-traditionism," the status of a "Sym- b o l i s t Manifesto" i n l a t e r years) manifested l a t e r for Serusier and Denis than for Bernard. There i s a delayed concern with "Style" ( related to the "Idea") i n the Nabis' work, but there i s an evident concern with "dematerialization" ( e s p e c i a l l y i n such works by Denis as Sunlight on the Terrace of 1890- Welsh- Ovcharov No.142- which was indebted to Serusier's Talisman), and anti-Naturalism (of the Salon variety, that i s photographic, n a t u r a l i s t i c representation, as taught at the Academie Julian; t h i s i s why Denis was not so outspoken against the Impressionists as Bernard and Gauguin were). Denis' a r t i c l e of 1890 was more a manifesto i n favor of formalism and a r t for art's sake, for "decorative" a r t i n an i d e a l i s t frame-work. He wanted works that emanate s p i r i t u a l i t y , not through the subject-matter, not through " l i t e r a t u r e , " but on the account of t h e i r formalism. During the late 1880s he thought he found answers i n the hieratism of the Hindu, Assyrian, Egyptian, Byznaritine, and Medieval art e s p e c i a l l y . He admired the I t a l i a n "Primitives" and Puvis de Chavannes ( e s p e c i a l l y for his "decorative" q u a l i t i e s - see Denis' Journal, Vol.1, p.67) and i n 1889 was favorably impressed by Gauguin's works at the V o l p i n i exhibition. He was concerned with the reform of the r e l i g i o u s art, which should avoid imitation of nature, "vulgar sensations," trompe- 1'oeil. Denis' symbolism manifested i t s e l f i n the use of an "icon" (. sacred image!.', as i s evident i n his "Neo-traditionism": "What i s great a r t C 'what we c a l l decorative', as Denis explained i n the previous sentence) i f not the disguise of - 213 - n a t u r a l objects with, t h e i r vulgar sensations- by icons t h a t are sacred, magical and commanding.?"' C'Trl, i n Chipp, p, 100.1» He was a c t u a l l y known i n h i s a r t i s t i c c i r c l e s as "the Nabi of the b e a u t i f u l i c o n s . " His m y s t i c a l Symbolism i s evident i n h i s J o u r n a l (. entry f o r January 1889, Vol.1, p.73, t r l . i n Post- Impressionism, London, pp.65-66): Lord, we are a group of young people, devotees of the symbol, misunderstood by a world which mocks us M y s t i c s ! Lord, I pray you, may our r e i g n come! Remember a l s o the g l o r y of Paul S e r u s i e r who has permited me to progress toward the best A r t ; When I s a i d Denis was not r e a l l y a "Symbolist" even i n 1890, I meant the s p e c i f i c k i n d of Symbolism, " i n t e l l e c t u a l " i n nature, a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Mallarme. This i s the Symbolism ("Ideism") f o r which A u r i e r found a counterpart i n the p a i n t i n g of Gauguin and h i s c i r c l e . ( See H.R. Rookmaaker, S y n t h e t i s t A r t Theories, 1959, pp.70-72, f o r the d i s t i n c t i o n -adopted from G. Michaud, Message poetique I I I , 1947- to be made among the movements a s s o c i a t e d r e s p e c t i v e l y w i t h Rimbaud, V e r l a i n e and Mallarme.) Denis' i n i t i a l "Symbolism" could be, i n my o p i n i o n , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h V e r l a i n e ' s "poesie a f f e c t i v e " and the movement t h a t held him as "grandmaster." This group ( i n which Rook- maaker i n c l u d e d G. Kahn) emphasized s u b j e c t i v i f y to a higher degree, personal emotions, and used "idea" i n Schopenhauer's sense. Denis ( who i l l u s t r a t e d V e r l a i n e ' s Sagesse i n 1889), as i s evident from h i s 1890 a r t i c l e , considered emotions, "the s t a t e s of s o u l , " as the most important i n g r e d i e n t s of a work of a r t t h e r e f o r e a t the time he used intense, b r i g h t c o l o u r s , yet vagueness i n d e f i n i n g forms ( j u s t as Blanc recommended f o r the d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , envisaged as. capable of t r a n s p o r t i n g the ^.viewer i n t o the i d e a l world). In accordance w i t h the a r t t h e o r i e s s t i l l p r e v a i l i n g a t the time ( c o l o r appealing to the sentiment, l i n e to the i n t e l l e c t ) , p a i n t i n g s such as the above mentioned S u n l i g h t on the Terrace, or The Orange C h r i s t ( Welsh-Ovcharov, No.143), both of 1890, d i d not address themselves to the i n t e l l e c t . I would p o i n t out t h a t Denis' w e l l known d e f i n i t i o n of p a i n t i n g of the same year, d i d not mention " l i n e " or " S t y l e , " only " c o l o u r s " and f l a t n e s s . I f t h i s k i n d of p a i n t i n g d e r i v e d u l t i m a t e l y ( through the intermediary of S e r u s i e r ' s Talisman) from Gauguin's teaching, as Denis claimed ( f i r s t time i n 1903, conveniently a f t e r Gauguin's death), i t could only mean t h a t Gauguin was not i n i t i a t i n g S e r u s i e r i n t o h i s l a t e s t s t y l e , because a t the time he was deeply Involved ( s a c r i f i c i n g "every- t h i n g , " i n c l u d i n g "colour") w i t h " S t y l e , " t h a t i s w i t h the " i n t e l l e c t u a l " l i n e . ( S e e n.19, above). The use of " s y n t h e t i c " colour could have been suggested by Gauguin i n 1888, but when S e r u s i e r was r e a l l y under the i n f l u e n c e of Gauguin, he painted f o r example Landscape a t Le Pouldu ( summer 1890, Welsh- Ovcharov, No.139) a t a p e s t r y - l i k e p a i n t i n g , r e f l e c t i n g as Gauguin's p i c t u r e s of 18 89-9 0, a strong debt to Cezanne's method of c o l o r modulation. C For the strong s p e l l c a s t by Cezanne on Gauguin.in t h a t p a r t i c u l a r p e r i o d see f o r example, J . Rewald, Post-Impressionism, 1978, p.286.) In h i s Mouvement I d e a l i s t e en Peinture of 1896, M e l l e r i o , who d i d not consider the l a b e l "Symbolist" as having any more r e a l s i g n i f i c a n c e than t h a t of - 214 - " I m p r e s s i o n i s t , " c l a s s i f i e d Denis.,-Bernard, and F i l i g e r as "Mystics,," and S e r u s i e r among th.e. "Synth.etis.ts." M e l l e r i o ref- l a t e d t h a t a c c o r d i n g to Serusier,, the genesis of a work of a r t takes p l a c e i n two s t e p s : a t f i r s t the s p e c t a c l e of nature p l a c e s us i n an " i n v o l u n t a r y s t a t e of s o u l " ( un e t a t d'Sme i n v O l o n t a i r e ) , and then, i n the mind the i d e a i s formed, which i s " s u p e r i o r " because of i t s " l o g i c and harmony" C o p . c i t . , p.45). The Idea i s b e s t expressed by s y n t h e s i s , by n e g l e c t i n g the d e t a i l s and r e t a i n i n g the " c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s " > a c c o r d i n g to S e r u s i e r . A l e t t e r of S e r u s i e r to Verkade, of 1892, i s i n accordance w i t h what M a l l e r i o s a i d (. see the quote i n Rookmaaker, p.168). S e r u s i e r i n s i s t e d there on a " f i r m and simple drawing," without d e t a i l s , but w i t h any l i n e being " v o l u n t a r y , " having i t s " e x p r e s s i v e and d e c o r a t i v e r o l e i n the ensemble." The f i r m l i n e was necessary i n order to d e f i n e form, the e x p r e s s i o n of the Idea, as A u r i e r i n d i c a t e d i n h i s a r t i c l e "Le Symbolisme en p e i n t u r e " of 1891. C He s t a t e d t h a t the new " I d e i s t " a r t was "Symbolist, f o r i t expresses t h i s Idea by means of form." A u r i e r adopted the P l o t i n i a n theory a c c o r d i n g to which the Idea was i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the "thought," was a c c e s s i b l e o n l y to " s u p e r i o r i n t e l l i g e n c e s . " ) Denis, not only i n 1890, but even l a t e r , d i d not t a l k about the "Idea," but o n l y about " s t a t e s of the s o u l , " emotions, f e e l i n g s . In f a c t , he never accepted A u r i e r ' s p h i l o s o p h y , and f o r him forms corresponded or were e q u i v a l e n t s of " s e n s a t i o n s " ( f e e l i n g s ) , even when w e l l d e f i n e d by l i n e s , as i n the s t y l e he l a t e r adopted. In the "Neo- t r a d i t i o n i s m " he d e c l a r e d : "Even a simple r e s e a r c h i n l i n e s , as the Femme en rouge by Anquetin ( a t the Champ-de-Mars) has a f e e l i n g v a l u e . " ( T r l . i n Chipp, p.99.) L a t e r , i n 1895 he w i l l t a l k about "emotion f e l t i n f r o n t of t h i n g s , " and i n 1909 about the " e x p r e s s i v e s y n t h e s i s " as the "symbol of a s e n s a t i o n . " ( See a l s o n.23.) His l a t e r w r i t i n g s do not g i v e u n f o r t u n a t e l y r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on the exact nature of the e a r l i e r a r t ( t h a t i s on the exact motives and i n t e n t i o n s t h a t generated t h a t a r t ) produced by him, or h i s group. In h i s w r i t i n g s over the y e a r s , Denis kept coming back to h i s beginnings, t h a t i s to "Symbolism," updating i t and r e v i s i n g i t a c c o r d i n g to the l a t e s t p r e v a i l i n g t r e n d . He d i d not always want to be a s s o c i a t e d with i d e a l i s m , and r e v i s e d h i s p o s i t i o n on the r e l a t i o n s h i p a r t / nature. But i n 1890 he d i d appear as a " p a i n t e r of the s o u l . " He c o n s i d e r e d t h a t a "motif d e r i v e d from nature" i n i t s e l f , should not be the source of emotion induced i n the viewer, but "the s t a t e of the a r t i s t ' s s o u l , " the "emotion" t h a t "emerges from the canvas i t s e l f , a plane s u r f a c e covered with c o l o u r s , " should be t h a t source. ( See M. Denis, T h e o r i e s , p.10.) Denis i s i n accord here w i t h Gustave Kahn's brand of Symbolism and i d e a l i s m , the essence of which was formulated by the l a t t e r i n L'Evenement of 1886. What i s important i s not when and i f these p a i n t e r s c o u l d be l a b e l l e d "Symbolists" ( which i s not a w e l l - d e f i n e d term), but the f a c t t h a t because of t h e i r commitment to i d e a l i s m , mysticism, C a t h o l i c i s m , on one hand, and " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" on the other, they i n t r o d u c e d i n p a i n t i n g the" f l a t n e s s u n t i l then accepted o n l y i n some d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . A l s o , a t the time, o n l y a r t i s t s of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r o r i e n t a t i o n i n t r o d u c e d i n t o p a i n t i n g a b s o l u t e f l a t n e s s , t h a t i s both l a c k of r e l i e f f o r o b j e c t s , as w e l l as no attempt to simulate depth. http://Synth.etis.ts - 215 - 35 Even i f i n i t s f i r s t phase, " C l o i s o n i s m " was n o t a p e r f e c t i m i t a t i o n o f the M e d i e v a l c l o i s o n n e , and most l i k e l y was not i n t e n d e d t o he, B e r n a r d ' s C l o i s o n i s m - S y n t h e t i s m seems to be a c o n s c i o u s e f f o r t t o f i t D u j a r d i n ' s l a b e l . A l s o , B e r n a r d met A u r i e r as e a r l y as the s p r i n g o f 1887 C n o t i n 1888, as he s a i d i n the open l e t t e r to M a u c l a i r ; f o r t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , see Welsh- Ovcharov, p.53) and k e p t i n touch w i t h him e v e r s i n c e , no doubt b e i n g i n f l u e n c e d by t h e young S y m b o l i s t p o e t toward Neo-Plato-'. nism, and a h i e r a t i c and s p i r i t u a l i z e d a r t , o r a t l e a s t r e i n - f o r c i n g h i s own i d e a s t h r o u g h t h e s e c o n t a c t s . A u r i e r ' s a r t i c l e o f 1891, w h i c h d e s c r i b e d Gauguin's ( and h i s group's) s t y l e as the Symbolism i n p a i n t i n g , c o n t r i b u t e d a l s o to c o n s o l i d a t e the a s s o c i a t i o n between p i c t o r i a l Symbolism and " t r u e " d e c o r a t i o n , as w i l l be e v i d e n t s h o r t l y . 36 The f a c t t h a t T o u l o u s e - L a u t r e c ' s p o s t e r s were " C l o i s o n i s t i c " d i d not have, f o r example, the same s i g n i f i c a n c e as i t would have had i n p a i n t i n g s ( where he a c t u a l l y r e t a i n e d m o d e l l i n g ) . I do n o t t h i n k h i s A t the C i r c u s Fernando ( c o l o r p l a t e No.28 i n Welsh-Ovcharov) can be c o n s i d e r e d an example o f C l o i s o n i s m , as Welsh-Ovcharov r e g a r d s i t . 37 R e a l i s m o r N a t u r a l i s m were s t i l l s u p p o r t e d by Z o l a ' s group ( such as f o r example by . T h i e b a u l t - S i s s o n ) , b u t they were i n a m i n o r i t y . The p r e v a i l i n g o p i n i o n , even among e x - N a t u r a - l i s t s , was t h a t s t r i c t R e a l i s m c o m p l e t e l y n e g l e c t e d " i n n e r l i f e , " o r any human emotion. 3 8 For " d e c o r a t i v e " v e r s u s " d e c o r a t i o n , " see the l a s t s e c t i o n o f Ch.I, P a r t 2. 39 A u r i e r ' s p o s i t i o n i s b e s t e x p r e s s e d i n h i s " E s s a i s u r une n o u v e l l e methode de c r i t i q u e , " Oeuvres Posthumes, ed. Mercure de F r a n c e , 1893. The quote i s from " E s s a i , " p.201. 40 G . - A l b e r t A u r i e r , "Le Symbolisme en p e i n t u r e , " Mercure de F r a n c e , March 1891, p.163. 41 I b i d : my t r a n s l a t i o n . Compare to D e n i s ' "Neo- t r a d i t i o n i s m " o f 1890, s e c t i o n XXIV. 42 4 3 44 45 A u r i e r , "Le Symbolisme...," p.160 See A u r i e r , " E s s a i . . . , " p.195. A u r i e r , "Le Symbolisme...," p.16 3, See A u r i e r , "Le Symbolisme...," pp.158-59, and A u r i e r , "Les S y m b o l i s t e s , " Revue E n c y c l o p e d i q u e , No.23, A p r i l 5 1892, pp.483-85. The young p a i n t e r s l e d by Gauguin, the "newly a r r i v e d " on the a r t scene were the group o f Pont-Aven and the N a b i s . 46 I n "Les S y m b o l i s t e s , " 1892, p.484, A u r i e r s a i d : Avec, comme dogmes foundamentaux, l e symbole e t l a syn these,' c ' e s t - a - d i r e 1 ' e x p r e s s i o n des i d e e s - 216 - e t l a s i m p l i f i c a t i o n . e g t h j i t i q u e e t l o g i q u e des f o r m e s , c ' e s t a run a r t de d e c o r a t i o n , a un a r t de f r e s q u e s monumentales, p l u t o t qu'a l a p e i n t u r e de c h e v a l e t , que d e v a i e n t , en e f f e t , a b o u t i r , s ' l i s en e u s s e n t e u l a p o s s i - b i l i t e m a t e r i e l l e , l e s a r t i s t e s de c e t t e e c o l e . 47 A u r i e r , "Les S y m b o l i s t e s . . . , " 1891, p.165. I n a l e t t e r t o D a n i e l de M o n f r i e d , of August 1892, Gauguin w r o t e ; To t h i n k t h a t I was b o r n t o do d e c o r a t i v e a r t and t h a t I have n o t been a b l e to a c h i e v e i t . N e i t h e r windows, nor f u r n i t u r e , nor c e r a - m i c s , nor whatever... There l i e my r e a l a p t i t u d e s much more than i n p a i n t i n g s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g . (. Quoted i n H.B. C h i p p , T h e o r i e s o f Modern A r t , 1973, p.64.) Gauguin b r o u g h t i n T a h i t i from P a r i s photographs o f f r i e z e s from E g y p t i a n tombs, w h i c h he used i n f r e s c o - l i k e p a i n t i n g i n tempera, The Market o f 1892 ( i n Kunstmuseum, B a s e l ) , no doubt i n f l u e n c e d by A u r i e r . 48 A. A u r i e r , " V i n c e n t van Gogh," Ouvres Posthumes, pp.261- 262. 49 A u r i e r , "Les S y m b o l i s t e s , " 1892, p.482. I b i d ^ X R i c h a r d S h i f t , ("The End o f I m p r e s s i o n i s m : A Study i n T h e o r i e s o f A r t i s t i c E x p r e s s i o n , " A r t Q u a r t e r l y New S e r i e s , V o l . 1, no.4, Autumn 1978, p p . 3 3 8 - 3 7 8 ) , ' t r i e d t o c l o s e the gap b e t - ween I m p r e s s i o n i s m and Symbolism, based m a i n l y on the " s u b j e c - t i v i s m " o f I m p r e s s i o n i s m . ( He n o t i c e d t h a t t h i s s u b j e c t i v i s m was not b e i n g t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t by modern s c h o l a r s , such as Rewald o r N o c h l i n . ) However, S h i f f does n o t make enough d i s - t i n c t i o n between the I m p r e s s i o n i s m o f the 1870s ( w h i c h i n my o p i n i o n i s the I m p r e s s i o n i s m p r o p e r , i f t h i s l a b e l i s t o be a p p l i e d a t a l l ) and the a r t p r a c t i c e d by the o l d " I m p r e s s i o n i s t s " i n t h e 1880s and 1890s. One c a n n o t r e a l l y s u p p o r t an argument r e g a r d i n g the a r t and i n t e n t i o n o f the a r t i s t s i n the 1870s, e i t h e r w i t h the p a i n t i n g s , o r w i t h the comments made by the a r t i s t s i n the 1890s, when Symbolism was the a v a n t - g a r d e move- ment. A t t h a t t i m e , the a r t o f the o l d I m p r e s s i o n i s t s had changed, depending on how much p e r s o n a l c o n v i c t i o n a l l o w e d v a r i o u s I n d i v i d u a l a r t i s t s t o "keep up w i t h t h e t i m e s . " A l s o , " p a r t i z a n " c r i t i c s t r i e d t o demonstrate t h a t the a r t i s t s they s u p p o r t e d were the t r u e i n n o v a t o r s (as Lecomte d i d f o r example). S h i f t ' s a t t e m p t t o e r a s e e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s between Impress- i o n i s m "even i n i t s p u r e s t o r i g i n a l form" ( o p . c i t . , p.342) and Symbolism i s somehow f a r - f e t c h e d . I n any e v e n t , what i s i m p o r t a n t i n d e f i n i n g a movement, i s not what the a r t i s t s C the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s o f 1870s i n t h i s case) r e a l l y b e l i e v e d , o r the methods they a c t u a l l y used, b u t the image they wanted t o p r e s e n t , the banner under w h i c h they - 217 - gathered, What they- r e a l l y - d i d and b e l i e v e d i s .something q u i t e d i f f i c u l t to prove.,;.: because' they purposely t r i e d to ma i n ta, i n a, " v e i l of mystery" C to use P i s s a r r o ' s expression)., s i n c e trends were changing r a p i d l y and a f i r m commitment a way or another c o u l d have been .regretted l a t e r . Thus Mallarme was r i g h t i n 1876, i n i m p l y i n g t h a t Manet's- technique was a " s k i l l e d a r t i f i c e c a l c u l a t e d to g i v e the" appearance of s p o n t a n e i t y , " as S h i f f p o i n t e d out (" o p . c i t . , p.361). The f a c t remains i and S h i f f admits i t ) t h a t i n the 187 0s, the avant-garde C a r t i s t s and c r i t i c s ) embraced a m a t e r i a l i s t philosophy, and i n p a r t i c u l a r the p o s i t i v i s m of Auguste Comte and h i s f o l l o w e r s . Consequently, the a r t i s t s d i d nothing i n . t h e i r a r t t h a t would contravene the appearance of u s i n g the e m p i r i c a l method of d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n . While s u b j e c t i v e C due to the d i f f e r e n c e s i n "temperament" -see Ch.II, P a r t 2, p.149 and n.28 on the " m a t e r i a l i s t i c , " p h y s i o - l o g i c a l d e f i n i t i o n of t h i s term), Impressionism d i d not accept " i d e a l i s m " or even "conceptualism." Because i t was based on "temperament," t h i s s u b j e c t i v i s m was of an " i n v o l u n t a r y " nature. 52 See A u r i e r , Mercure 1891, p.157. A u r i e r admits t h a t Impressionism i s more s u b j e c t i v e than Courbet's r e a l i s m , but as f o r Courbet, "Le substratum e t l e but d e r n i e r de l e u r a r t c ' e s t l a chose m a t e r i e l l e , l a chose r e e l e . " Impressionism, a c c o r d i n g to A u r i e r , t r a n s l a t e d an " e x c l u s i v e l y s e n s o r i a l impression." T h e r e f o r e , L'Impressionnisme, c ' e s t e t ce ne peut e t r e qu'une v a r i e t e du r e a l i s m e , un r e a l i s m e a f f i n e , s p i r i t u a l i s e , d i l e t t a n t i s e , mais t o u j o u r r e a l i s m e . Le but v i s e , c ' e s t encore 1 ' i m i t a t i o n de l a matiere, non p l u s p e u t - g t r e avec sa forme propre, sa c o u l e u r propre, mais avec sa forme pergue, avec. sa c o u l e u r pergue, c ' e s t l a t r a d u c t i o n de l a sen- s a t i o n avec tous l e s imprevus d'une n o t a t i o n i n s t a n t a n e e , avec toutes l e s deformations d'une r a p i d e synthese s u b j e c t i v e . A u r i e r was i n f a c t one of the f i r s t to p o i n t out the sub- j e c t i v i s m i m p l i e d i n Zola's d e f i n i t i o n of Naturalism, "nature seen through a temperament" ( see A u r i e r , "Van Gogh," p.260), and t h a t "a Symbolism" was " i m p l i c i t e l y admitted by the natura- l i s t s " ( see A u r i e r , "Les Symbolistes," p.480, as w e l l as p.476). I t i s not c o r r e c t to say though, as S h i f f d i d , t h a t A u r i e r d i d not d i r e c t h i s c r i t i c i s m to Monet, P i s s a r r o , or Renoir ( see S h i f f , "The End of Impressionism," p.340). 53 See A u r i e r , "Le Symbolisme...," p.15 8. 54 See A u r i e r ' s comments on P i s s a r r o ' s e x h i b i t s a t the Boussod e t Valadon i n 1890. (. A u r i e r , " C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o , " Oeuvres Posthumes, pp.241, 242, 244; o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d i n La Independante i n 189 0.) 55 A u r i e r was acquainted w i t h both of them. . M a u r i c e Denis used i n 189.0 the term " N e o ^ t r a d i t i o n i s m " (. which, he l a t e r had d e c l a r e d to be e q u i v a l e n t w i t h C l o i s o n n i s m , Synthetism, Symbolism or Tdeism) i n order to express a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t the photographic n a t u r a l i s m of the academies. He d i d - 218 - not s t r o n g l y r e a c t a t the time a g a i n s t Impressionism, as Bernard and Gauguin d i d , A u r i e r mentioned the term "Neo^Traditionism" i n his- 1892 a r t i c l e , S e r u s i e r was p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p r e c i a t i v e of P i s s a r r o . t See f o r example h i s d e c l a r a t i o n i n 1905, Ch.II, P a r t 1, n.144.) 5 6 A u r i e r , "Les Symbolistes," 189 2, p.483. 57 Georges Lecomte was a f r i e n d of Feneon, and he had e a r l y t i e s w i t h l i t e r a r y Symbolism as the e d i t o r of La Cravache i n 1888. L i k e Feneon, he was a defender of Neo-Impressionism, but e s p e c i a l l y of Impressionism, and P i s s a r r o i n p a r t i c u l a r . For more i n f o r m a t i o n on G. Lecomte see Hector T a l v a r t , B i b l i o g r a p h i e des auteurs moderns de langue f r a n c a i s e , (1801- 19 53), P a r i s , 1954, ed. de l a chronique des l e t t r e s f r a n c a i s e s . 5 8 The l e c t u r e s a t the Salon des XX are p u b l i s h e d i n : Georges Lecomte, "Des tendances de l a p e i n t u r e moderne," L ' A r t Moderne, Feb. 1892, Vol.12, No.7, pp.49-51; No.8, p.57-58; No.9, pp.65-67. B e l i n d a Thomson, " C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o and Symbolism...," 1982, p.23, suggested a l s o t h a t Lecomte might have f e l t compelled to r e d r e s s the " c r i t i c a l balance" ( a f t e r A u r i e r ' s a r t i c l e on Gauguin i n March) i n h i s a r t i c l e " C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o , " La Plume, No.57, Sept. 1891, pp.301-302, "prompted by c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h the i n f u r i a t e d P i s s a r r o , " "who we now know, d i d comment on Aur- i e r 1 s a r t i c l e . C See a l s o n.23, t h i s s e c t i o n . ) In La Plume, p.3 02, Lecomte wrote: Cet a r t , t r e s i n t e l l e c t u a l par l ' a u - d e l a q u ' i l suggere, l ' e s t p l u s encore par son mode d'expre- ssion...Son t a l e n t n'est pas r e a l i s t e . L ' i m i t a t i o n s e r v i l e , i r r e f l e c h i e ne l e s a t i s f a i t pas. I l c h o i s i t ses m o t i f s ou l e s r e c r e e personnellement, en vue d'un maximum d e c o r a t i f . I l elague e t syn- t h e t i s e ; i l compose, i l i n t e r p r g t e . Sensiblement i l l ' e s t l'homo a d d i t u s naturae de Bacon. 59 Lecomte used the e x p r e s s i o n "tendances n o u v e l l e s " i n L ' A r t Moderne, No.8, p.58. 60 Lecomte, L ' A r t Moderne, No.7, p.50. ^ X I b i d . , No.9, p.66. 6 2 I b i d . , p.65. Feneon was the c h i e f spokesman f o r the Neo-Impressionists and he d e s c r i b e d f o r example the a r t of Signac i n s i m i l a r terms. Signac's p a i n t i n g s were, "exemplary specimens of a h i g h l y developed d e c o r a t i v e a r t , which s a c r i f i c e s the anecdote to the arabesque, nomenclature to s y n t h e s i s , the f u g i t i v e to the permanent, and c o n f e r s on nature -weary a t l a s t of i t s p r e c a r i o u s r e a l i t y - an auth- e n t i c r e a l i t y . " (From Feneon, "Paul Signac," Les Hommes d'aujourd'hui, Vol.8, No.373, 1890, as t r a n s l a t e d i n J . Rewald/ Po s t-Impre s s i o n ism, 3d ed., New York: MOMA, 1978, pp.124-125.) - 219 - Compare to what Signa,a h i m s e l f s a i d a few years l a t e r • Ch.I, P a r t 2, n,135. g 2 . . . . . . Lecomte," L' Ar t Modern ,'6, No. 9 , p.66. 64 Lecomte, L ' A r t i m p r e s s i o n n i s t e d'apres l a c o l l e c t i o n p r i v e e de M. Durand-Ruel, P a r i s , 1892, p.261. 6 ^ See Lecomte, L ' A r t Moderne, No.9, p.66. R e f e r r i n g to the I d e i s t p a i n t e r s , Lecomte s a i d : L'examen a t t e n t i f que nous avons f a i t de c e t t e r e n a i s s a n c e i d e a l i s t e me f a i t c r a i n d r e que ces a r t i s t e s , guides par ce t r e s haut s o u c i de syn- thase e t de d e c o r a t i o n , n'en v i e n n e n t a annuler, pour l ' a t t e i n d r e , l a r e a l l t e des apparences e t l e c a r a c t e r e . 66 67 s a i d : 68 69 I b i d . See Lecomte, L ' A r t Impress i o n n i s t e , p.260. Lecomte T e l l e aurone de M. P i s s a r r o , t e l l e marine de M. Claude Monet nous semblent, en e f f e t , a u s s i s u g g e s t i v e s que r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . De l e u r chaudes armonies se degage l a Pensee; l e r§ve s'en e s s o r e . Le grand mystere de l a nature e s t par e l l e rendu. Lecomte, L ' A r t Moderne, No.9, p.66. On the d e f i n i t i o n of the arabesque see Henry Havard, D i c t i o n n a i r e de 1'ameublement e t de l a d e c o r a t i o n , not dated, but i n p r e p a r a t i o n i n ! 8 8 4 ( l i s t e d as such i n h i s L ' a r t dans l a maison of 1884), pp.116-117. V i c t o r Champier, i n h i s a r t i c l e on P.-V. G a l l a n d (Gazette des Beaux-Arts, 1888, Vol.37, p.114) commented on the f a c t t h a t the a r t of the ornament uses a c t u a l l y a f a i r l y l i m i t e d number of cominations o f forms, the arabesque b e i n g one of them: Les anciens nous ont l a i s s e c e t t e r e p e t i t i o n de l i g n e s b r i s e e s qu'on a p p e l l e une grecque; l e s Orientaux on emprunte l e u r i n e p u i s a b l e v a r i e t e de decors a l a geometrie ou a l a f l o r e n a t u r e l l e . Les arabesques decouvertes a Pompei e t r e h a b i l i t e e s par Raphael sont aujourd'hui encore l e r e p e r t o i r e u s u e l ou vont p u i s e r nos a r t i s t e s s o i - d i s a n t nova- t e u r s . En France, l e s B e r a i n , l e s Le.pautre, l e s Audran, se sont i l l u s t r e s r i e n que par l a noblesse e t l'harmonie d'un s t y l e auquel i l s ont a t t a c h e l e u r nom. C'est done que l a chose e s t d i f f i c i l e . C e t t e s o r t e d ' a r t qu'on a p e l l e ornemental, n'ayant guere pour moyen d'expression que l a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n de chosees inanimees, r e s t e t o u j o u r s a b s t r a i t . C'est un langage t r e s vague, un peu f r o i d , axiquel rarement v i e n n e n t s ' a j o u t e r une image ou une formule n o u v e l l e , que I'on emploie malaisement et. q u i d o i t s'adresser a 1 ' e s p r i t , a l a r a i s o n , sans passer par l e coeur. - 220 ••- Th.e ornamental l i n e , (.as f o r example the arabesque) was thus a b l e to r e l a t e to the i n t e l l e c t through i t s ; a b s t r a c t s t y l i z a t i o n . The o l d academic theory- about l i n e being r e l a t e d to the i n t e l l e c t and c o l o r to the h e a r t C or as Charles Blanc put i t i n the Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n , 1867, p.22, "The drawing i s of the masculine sex; c o l o r i s of feminine s e x . " ) , was s t i l l widely h e l d . See a l s o a d i s c u s s i o n on the t o p i c of the arabesque i n a r t and music c r i t i c i s m and theory i n the 19th century, i n Joseph. Masheck 1 s a r t i c l e , "The Carpet Paradigm: C r i t i c a l P r o l e - gomena to a Theory of F l a t n e s s , " A r t s Magazine, 1976, Vol.51, pp.88-89. Georges Lecomte h i m s e l f connects the d e c o r a t i v e tendency i n p a i n t i n g w i t h the one i n music and a l s o p o e t r y . He s a i d , D ' a i l l e u r s toutes l e s oeuvres grandes, en dehors m§me des a r t s p l a s t i q u e s , n ' a p p a r a i s s e n t - e l l e s pas r e v i t u e s d'une s p e c i a l e beaute, comme d e c o r a t i v e ? Les a l l i t e r a t i o n s de s y l l a b e s dans un v e r s , l e s e v o l u t i o n s e t l e s r a p p e l s de c e r t a i n s v e r s dans une strophe, pour completer l a pensee e t l e rythme, l a r e p e t i t i o n de strophes dans un poeme, c o n s t i t u e n t des a s t r a g a l e s e t des d e n t e l l e s q u i d e s s i n e n t l e u r s arabesques sur l a trame c o l o r e e des mots, o r i e n t par l e u r s c i r c u i t s d'un s i g r a - c i e u x d e s s i n des harmonies d'ensemble e t r e l i e n t l e s d i v e r s aspects de l ' i d e e . Mais c ' e s t s u r t o u t en musique que 1'arrangement d e c o r a t i f e s t e v i d e n t . . . ( Lecomte, L ' A r t Moderne, No.7, pp.50-51.) Octave Mirbeau a l s o saw "a g r e a t d e c o r a t i v e p o e t r y " i n C. P i s s a r r o ' s p a i n t i n g . ( See Mirbeau's comments on P i s s a r r o ' 189 2 e x h i b i t i o n a t Durand-Ruel, quoted by Ralph E . S h i k e s and Paula Harper, P i s s a r r o , His L i f e and Work, New York, Horizon Press, 1980, p.262.) s 70 71 72 73 Lecomte, L ' A r t Moderne, No.8, p.58. I b i d See Ch.I, P a r t 1, pp. 40-41. For example, d e s c r i b i n g I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g , the c r i t i c Armand S i l v e s t r e s a i d , "C'est un e f f e t d'impression qu' e l l e p o u r s u i uniquement, l a i s s a n t l a recherche de 1'expression aux passionees de l a l i g n e " ("L'Exposition des r e v o l t e s , " L'Opinion N a t i o n a l e , 22 Apr. 1874, quoted i n Jaques Letheve, I m p r e s s i o n i s t e s e t Symbolistes devant l a presse, P a r i s : Armand C o l i n , 1959, p.63), or "Peu soucieuse de l a forme, e l l e e s t exclusivement d e c o r a t i v e e t c o l o r i s t e " (L'Opinion N a t i o n a l e , 2 Apr. 19 76, quoted i n L i o n e l l o V e n t u r i / Les A r c h i v e s de '-;.•'" 1'Impressionnisme, Paris-New York, 1939, Vb1,II, p.2 86). Both q u o t a t i o n s were a l s o mentioned by Steven Z. Levine i n h i s doc- t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , Monet' and h i s C r i t i c s , New York-London, Garland Publ.Inc., 1976, p.14. On p.29, Levine comments on the c r i t i c i s m of I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g s i n g e n e r a l : "Whether - 221 - t h e i r p a i n t i n g s were roost f r u i t f u l l y to.be seen as t r a d i t i o n a l tableaux or as a new k i n d of. d e c o r a t i v e a r t was a q u e s t i o n t h a t would become a c r u c i a l i s s u e of c r i t i c i s m i n the years ahead," Levine d i d e x t r a c t from h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n the t o p i c "Decor/ D e c o r a t i v e / D e c o r a t i o n i n Claude Monet's A r t , " p u b l i s h e d i n A r t s Magazine, Vol.51, No, 6, Feb. 1977, pp. 136-142, but one wisheg,=he had d e f i n e d those terms Cthe t i t l e of the a r t i c l e would have r e q u i r e d i t ) . , e s p e c i a l l y the d i f f e r e n c e between " d e c o r a t i v e " and "decoration," a t a l l times. He covered a long p e r i o d of time, d u r i n g which those concepts underwent v a r i o u s changes. 74 In f a c t some of Monet's " d e c o r a t i o n s " were blown-up v e r s i o n s of h i s tableaux ( f o r example No.420- L'Etang a Montgeron" i n D a n i e l W i l d e n s t e l n , Claude Monet, Lausanne-Paris, 1974, was p a i n t e d a f t e r the s m a l l e r p a i n t i n g No.419) and even when they d i d not have a s m a l l e r c o u n t e r p a r t , they were no d i f f e r e n t i n p r i n c i p l e from h i s e a s e l p a i n t i n g s , admittedly, of a " d e c o r a t i v e e f f e c t . " His " d e c o r a t i o n s " c o u l d e x h i b i t a pro- nounced i l l u s i o n of depth ("see f o r example W i l d e n s t e i n No. 433, La Chasse, one of the f o u r d e c o r a t i o n s he d i d for. Hoschede), atmospheric p e r s p e c t i v e , i n other words the "window" concept. A l s o , h i s or other I m p r e s s i o n i s t s ' p a i n t i n g s of the 1870s c o u l d not be seen as d e c o r a t i o n s even when intended as such, s i n c e they l a c k e d an ordered composition and " S t y l e " ( a s s o c i a t e d with i'ihe) i Compare w i t h Darcei-rs-:-def i n i t i o r i of " d e c o r a t i v e painting" "(-that i s "'painting."Which is.i decoration) , P a r t 1, p.41. 75 So d i d Octave Maus., as i s e v i d e n t from h i s Preambule f o r the Catalogue de l a Ve E x p o s i t i o n des XX, B r u x e l l e s , 1888, which he e n t i t l e d "La recherche de l a lumiere dans l a p e i n t u r e . " The t r a n s i t i o n from the concern w i t h l i g h t ( a s s o c i a t e d w i t h " t r u t h " and c o l o r ) to a concern w i t h S t y l e ( a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the decor, l i n e ) i n French landscape p a i n t i n g was welcomed i n 189 3 by the c r i t i c Raymond Bouyer i n L ' A r t i s t e , h a r d l y an avant- garde j o u r n a l . Bouyer, who saw i n the h i s t o r y of landscape an antagonism between what he c a l l e d l e paysage r u s t i q u e (best example to be found i n the " v e r a c i t y of the modern p l e i n - a i r " ) and l e paysage de s t y l e , or l e paysage compose ( e x e m p l i f i e d by N i c o l a s P o u s s i n ) , c o n s i d e r e d the new tendency toward the l a t t e r as a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t the former. I t i s i n the sense of " l a n d - scape of S t y l e , " t h a t he r e f e r s to the " d e c o r a t i v e landscape" ("entrevu comme fond l i n e a i r e dans une f r e s q u e " ) , when he says, On s ' o r i e n t e de p l u s en p l u s v e r s l e Paysage d e c o r a t i f c ' e s t - a d i r e v e r s l a composition, p l e i n e d ' a t t i r a n c e s , de n o b l e s s e s , - e t d ' e c u e i l s . P i t t o r e s q u e e t eurythmie se d i s p u t e n t desor- mais 1 ' a t e l i e r du p l e i n - a i r : deux v o l o n t e s r i v a l e s . Apres l e s e f f l u v e s documentaires de l ' o p t i q u e i m p r e s s i o n i s t e e t du reportage n a t u r a l i s t e , l ' a r t r e v i e n t au s t y l e par l e q u e l debuta Corot, p r e c u r s e u r des douces lumieres amies des melodieux songes, (. Raymond Bouyer, "Le Paysage dans l ' a r t , " L ' A r t i s t e , Aug. 189.3, p. 113. For the dichotomy LIGHT/STYLE see e s p e c i a l l y I b i d . , p.114 and L ' A r t i s t e , J u l y 1893, p.37.1 http://to.be - 222 - As Lecomte,..Bouyer advocates an a r t t h a t balances the two p o l e s Cwhich were a l s o r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of other dichotomies; c o l o r / l i n e , truth/beauty, r e a l i t y / d r e a m , e t c . ) , " . , , e t l e m i r a c l e d'une p e i n t u r e n o u v e l l e ne s e r a i t - i l pas d'§tre-moderne en r e s t a n t a r t i s t e , de s e n t i r l a lumiere en degageant l e s t y l e ? " C Bouyer, L ' A r t i s t e , , J u l y 1893, p.46.) A l s o , s i m i l a r to Lecomte's comments are Bouyer's remarks on the d e c o r a t i v e tendencies of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . On Monet of 189.0s he s a i d : A u s s i d i s c u t e e que l a S e r i e de Meules (.1891) , l a S e r i e de P e u p l i e r s (1892) d'une l a r g e u r p l u s sobre, v i e n t de nous d e c o u v r i r un r e e l p l e i n de r§ve, s i n o n de s t y l e , l a v a r i e t e dans 1'unite, un m i l i e u exact q u i veut d e v e n i r un ambitieux decor; On C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o ( r e f e r r i n g to the r e c e n t e x h i b i t i o n a t Durand-Ruel i n February 1892), Renoir (Durand-Ruel, May 1892) and Degas (Durand-Ruel, November 189 2), he s a i d : . . . c e t t e s u i t e h i s t o r i q u e d 1 impressions aeriennes O .Pissarro' s] , s i logiquement p r o g r e s s i v e depuis l e s Sapins a Louveciennes ( n o . l , 1870) encore t r e s homogenes e t c l a s s i q u e , procedant de Corot, jusqu'a"1'harmonieuse audace d'un S o l e i l C o u c h a n t amethyste e t or (no.40, 1891), - nous r e v e l a i t , au d e c l i n d'un s i e c l e l a s , une s o r t e d'Old Crone L p r e c u r s e u r renouant avec une l a b o r i e u s e e n e r g i e r u r a l e l e passe d'un a r t a son double a v e n i r . Apres Diaz, apres W h i s t l e r , l e s r e a l i s t e s Renoir e t Degas recherchent deja. 1'harmonie, l a synthese, dans de simple o p p o s i t i o n s " d e c o r a t i v e s " de l i g n e s e t de t e i n t e s . E t s i 1 ' e x t e r i o r i t e v i b r a n t e e s t deja temperee par l a p r e o c c u p a t i o n de "l'arabesque ornementale,"- l e nouveau s t y l e ou p l u t o t l a v e l l e i t e d'un nouveau s t y l e r e s t a u r e l a l i g n e en h e r i t a n t de l a lumiere a c q u i s e . . . Bouyer p o i n t e d out t h a t the young a r t i s t s found Impress- ionism d e f i c i e n t : . . . l e s jeunes eux-m@mes accusent l ' i m p r e s s - ionnisme d ' i n s u f f i s a n c e . Le r e e l e t l e r§ve l i v r e n t b a t a i l l e sur son nom; l a pensee d e c l a r e p a r t o u t l a guerre a toutes l e s b a n a l i t e s : l e Beau r e d e v i e n t a l a mode... ( See Bouyer, L ' A r t i s t e , Aug. 1893, pp.117-18.) 7 6 See Lecomte, L ' A r t Moderne, No.7, 1892, p.50, where he s a i d : ...ces recherches de lumiere nous a p p a r a i s s e n t , non comme un r e s u l t a t d e f i n i t i f , non comme un sommet a t t e i n t , mais p l u t S t comme un moyen p r o p i c e a l a r e a l i s a t i o n de p l u s i n c o n t e s t a b l e s tendances; permettant de r e s t i t u e r l e s complexes elements des harmonies n a t u r e l l e s , e l l e s permettent a i n s i d'en mieux rendre l a magnificence d e c o r a t i v e . 2 7 See a l s o L ' A r t Moderne No.8, p.58. - 223 - 77 See. Lecomte, L < Art... Moderne,: No, 8 , p.58. Lecomte des^ crib.es such, " b e a u t i f u l compositions" • (whose beauty was not only ornamental, but a l s o due to the p r e s e r v a t i o n of the. " c h a r a c t e r " of things), i n which h i s " f r i e n d and m a i t r e " C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o uses l i n e i n an ornamental way; . . . f i t voguer dans see c i e l s l i m p i d e s des nuages gracieusement arabesques, completa par 1'incur- v a t i o n de l a croupe des b§tes ou par l ' i n f l e x t i o n du dos de ses paysannes l a courbe d e c r i t e par l e u t r o n c d'un arbre, a s s o c i a aux o n d u l a t i o n s du s o l l e s j o l i e s v o l u t e s des ramures e t des f r o n d a i s o n s . Lecomte's comments on P i s s a r r o ' s a r t were very s i m i l a r i n f a c t with A u r i e r ' s . The l a t t e r was f a v o r a b l y impressed by P i s s a r r o ' s l a t e s t e x h i b i t s a t Boussod e t Valadon i n 1890 ( e x h i - b i t i o n o r g a n i z e d by Theo van Gogh), and remarked on the "rhythm of the contours" (to which he r e f e r r e d a l s o as to "mysterious l i n e a r music"), g i v i n g a l s o a d e s c r i p t i o n s i m i l a r to Lecomte's. A u r i e r , a l s o , c o n s i d e r e d the p a i n t i n g Berger sous une averse, "d'une synthese de d e s s i n s i m a g i s t r a l e , e s t , a ce p o i n t de vue de s i m p l i f i c a t i o n technique, un v r a i - c h e f - d ' o e u v r e . " ( A u r i e r , Oeuvres Posthumes, pp.242 and 244; see a l s o n.54, above.) 78 I b i d . Lecomte e x e m p l i f i e s t h i s with the a r t of Monet: . . . q u i p l u s longtemps se borna, mais avec q u e l l e puissance d'evocation I a rendre en l e u r i n t e n s i t e fugace l e s r a p i d e s e f f e t s n a t u r e l s , semble de p l u s a b s t r a i r e des complexes apparences l e c a r a c t e r e durable des choses, en accentuer, par un rendu p l u s s y n t h e t i q u e e t p l u s r e f l e c h i , l a s i g n i f i c a t i o n e t l a beaute d e c o r a t i v e . At the time, l i n e was supposed to render what i s perma- anent ( c o l o r what i s f u g i t i v e ) . Monet i s seen as u s i n g l i n e to t h i s purpose, as w e l l as i n an ornamental way, f o r i t s own sake. See a l s o Ch.I, P a r t 2, n.58 f o r s i m i l a r comments on P i s s a r r o , i n La Plume. 79 80 See a l s o , p. Lecomte, L ' A r t Moderne, No.9, p.66. Lecomte exlaimed: Ce ne sont p l u s des s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s de formes, mais b i e n des a b l a t i o n s de formes. Or, de t e l l e s syntheses, d e s t r u c t i v e s du v r a i , de t e l l e s i n t e r - p r e t a t i o n s s i d i s t a n t e s de l a r e a l i t e , ne peuvent p l u s s e d u l r e plastiquement, m§me s i e l l e s a b o u t i - s s e n t a des ensembles harmoniques. See a l s o L ' A r t Moderne, No.9, p.67 81 Lecomte, L'Art Moderne, No.9, pp.66-67. Compare w i t h the tapes t r y - t a b l e a u versus t a p e s t r y - d e c o r a t i o n d i s c u s s i o n (Part 1) . The I d e i s t s to whom Lecomte r e f e r r e d d i d nothing e l s e but f o l l o w the p r i n c i p l e s of d e c o r a t i o n to the l e t t e r , L' A r t Moderne, No, 9., p. 67. I b i d . http://crib.es - 224 - I b i d . 85 In the s e t of r u l e s formulated, by Josgphin (Sar) Peladan on the o c c a s i o n of the f i r s t Salon de l a Rose-Croix i n 1891, the . subject-matter d e a l i n g w i t h the " C a t h o l i c I d e a l " and "Mysticism" occupied the p l a c e of honor, f o l l o w e d by "Legend, Myth, A l l e g o r y , the Dream, the Paraphrase of g r e a t p o e t r y . . . " Peladan a l s o pre- f e r r e d "work which has a m u r a l - l i k e c h a r a c t e r . " (Quoted by Mary Anne Stevens i n Post-Impressionism, C r o s s - C u r r e n t s i n European P a i n t i n g , London, 1979-1980, p.24.) Maurice Denis, the t h e o r e t i c i a n of the Nabis, p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t Lecomte's a t t a c k : Nous nous Stonnons que des c r i t i q u e s renseignes, comme M. Georges Lecomte (Georges Lecomte: L ' A r t impressionniste,-Revue d e l ' E v o l u t i o n , 15 Mars 1892) se s o i e n t p l u a confondre l e s tendances mystiques e t a l l e g o r i q u e s , c ' e s t - a - d i r e l a r e - cherche de l ' e x p r e s s i o n par l e s u j e t e t l e s tendances s y m b o l l s t e s , c ' e s t - a d i r e l a recherche de l ' e x p r e s s i o n par 1'oeuvre d ' a r t . ( M. Denis, "Le Salon de Champ-de-Mars. L ' E x p o s i t i o n de Renoir," Revue Blanche, 25 June 1892 (signed P i e r r e L. Maud), or M. Denis, T h e o r i e s : 1890-1910, P a r i s : B i b l i o t h e q u e de 1'Occident, 1913, p.17.) Denis i n s i s t e d t h a t i t i s i r r e l e v a n t where the p a i n t e r s f i n d t h e i r m o t i f s , or i f they express r e l i g i o u s emotions i n s t e a d of other emotions. But he acknowledges t h a t there i s a g e n e r a l i n f a t u a t i o n w i t h r e l i g i o u s s u b j e c t s a t the time, a f a d t h a t a c t u a l l y e n t i c e d many a r t i s t s to g i v e a mystic p r e t e x t to t h e i r s t u d i e s done from nature. Lecomte might have been i n f l u e n c e d by P i s s a r r o , who was w e l l aware of the mystic tendencies, "the b u s t l i n g of r e l i g i o u s s y m b o l i s t s , r e l i g i o u s s o c i a l i s t s , i d e a l i s t a r t , o c c u l t i s m , Buddhism, e t c . , e t c . " claimed t h a t "Gauguin has sensed the tendency." ( C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o , l e t t e r of 13 May 1891, L e t t e r s to h i s son L u c i e n , N.Y., 1972, p.171.) In an e a r l i e r l e t t e r ( A p r i l 20, 1891), i n which he c r i t i c i z e d A u r i e r ' s a r t i c l e on Gauguin, he wrote: Gauguin i s not a seer, he Is a schemer who has sensed t h a t the b o u r g e o i s i e are moving to the r i g h t . . . - The s y m b o l i s t s a l s o take t h i s line.' What do you t h i n k ? They must be fought l i k e the p e s t ! 86 I want to p o i n t out t h a t I do not understand by "Natura- l i s m " simply n a t u r a l i s t i c , trompe-1'oeil, photographic rendering, coupled with a r e a l i s t s u b j e c t - m a t t e r . T h i s was the "Salon N a t u r a l i s m . " I t goes without s a y i n g t h a t such n a t u r a l i s m i s i n c o m p a t i b l e with the p r i n c i p l e s of " t r u e " d e c o r a t i o n . I am not r e f e r r i n g to J u l e s Antoine Castagnary's d e f i n i t i o n of naturalism, which, was q u i t e encompassing C i n c l u d e d Velasquez, Zurbaran, Ribera, T i t i a n , Veronese), and d i d not r e f e r to any s c h o o l i n p a r t i c u l a r . CSee J.A. Castagnary, "186 8; N a t u r a l i s m F u r t h e r Defined," i n L. N o c h l l n , 'Realism and T r a d i t i o n i n A r t , 1848-1900, P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1966, pp.66-68.) In f a c t , i n some r e s p e c t s , s i n c e Castagnary allowed f o r " i n v e n t i o n " and "composition" - 225 - ( p r o v i d e d t h a t i t was concealed)., he was d e p a r t i n g from the p o s i t i v i s t , empirical method of d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n , ..' But .this p o s i t i v i s m and e m p i r i c i s m c o n s t i t u t e d the main i n g r e d i e n t s of Z o l a ' s N a t u r a l i s m (.Zola, was a f o l l o w e r of Taine)., which d i d not a l l o w f o r "composition," v o l u n t a r y , conceptual, a l t e r a t i o n s of the observed r e a l i t y . I t was a g a i n s t t h i s N a t u r a l i s m (which was a movement) t h a t c r i t i c s l i k e A u r i e r Cwho s p e c i f i c a l l y r e - f e r r e d to Z o l a and Taine) and the Symbolists i n g e n e r a l r e a c t e d . T h i s N a t u r a l i s m d i d not even c a l l f o r n a t u r a l i s t i c r e p r e s e n t - a t i o n , but i t s p h i l o s o p h y was a l s o i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h d e c o r a t i o n , and with the concept of " d e c o r a t i v e " d e f i n e d i n an i d e a l i s t framework. 8 7 N e i t h e r Monet nor Renoir were w i l l i n g to g i v e up the independent s t a t u s of p a i n t i n g , y e t l i k e a l l I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , from the s t a r t they intended t h e i r p a i n t i n g s to serve a d u a l purpose: as tableaux and as d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g s . ( See a l s o n.73 and l a t e r , n.143.) As tableaux, t h e i r p a i n t i n g s had a chance of being e x h i b i t e d a t the Salon. As d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g s they c o u l d decorate the homes of an e l i t e of amateurs (mostly bourgeois) a b l e to a p p r e c i a t e an a r t t h a t shocked the crowds a t the Salon. They were not however w i l l i n g to accept the p r i n - c i p l e s of " t r u e d e c o r a t i o n , " even when they d i d not care much about p r e s e r v i n g the " N a t u r a l i s t image," because they were not w i l l i n g to accept the l e a d ' o f a r c h i t e c t u r e . In the 1870s, Renoir had a l r e a d y expressed i n t e r e s t i n monumental d e c o r a t i o n , but he i s the t y p i c a l example of the p a i n t e r who would r a t h e r see the a r c h i t e c t u r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o n l y as a c o n t a i n e r f o r h i s p a i n t e d work. He thought t h a t D e l a c r o i x ' p a i n t i n g s i n the chapel of S a i n t - S u l p i c e : "sont l'oeuvre c a p i t a l e , l a C h a p e l l e n' e s t que l e p r e t e x t e a f a i r e de l ' a r t . " ( P i e r r e Auguste Renoir, " L ' A r t d e c o r a t i f . e t contemporain," L ' I m p r e s s i o n n i s t e , no.4, 28 A p r i l , 1877, reproduced i n L. V e n t u r i , Les A r c h i v e s de L'Impress- i o n n i s te , 1939, p.326.) While c r i t i c i z i n g contemporary monu- mental d e c o r a t i o n as being nothing e l s e than l a r g e s c a l e acade- mic tableaux, nowhere d i d he mention the subservience of the p a i n t i n g to the s u r f a c e t h a t i s supposed to decorate. Renoir was i n t e r e s t e d i n the harmony of the ensemble o n l y i n terms of c o l o r and mood, and d e f i n e d p a i n t e d d e c o r a t i o n o n l y i n terms of c o l o r i s t i c e f f e c t : L'oeuvre p e i n t e dans l a d e c o r a t i o n n'a de v a l e u r que parce q u ' e l l e e s t polychrome; p l u s l e s tons s e r o n t v a r i e s dans l e u r harmonie, p l u s une p e i n t u r e s e r a d e c o r a t i v e . (Ibid) Renoir expressed the o p i n i o n t h a t the p a i n t e r s , not the a r c h i t e c t s , should be i n charge of the monuments i n c o n s t r u c t i o n . ( I b i d . , p.329) As I a l r e a d y p o i n t e d out, Monet's intended "dec- o r a t i o n s " were no d i f f e r e n t from h i s s m a l l s c a l e d e c o r a t i v e tableaux, and l a t e r he demonstrated t h a t he shared Renoir's o p i n i o n on r e v e r s i n g the r o l e s of a r c h i t e c t and p a i n t e r : , an a r c h i t e c t u r a l s t r u c t u r e was b u i l t f o r h i s monumental" Nympheas d e c o r a t i o n s , not the other way around. See a l s o n,73 and n.74, above. For example C a r r i e r e , an a r t i s t concerned w i t h the s o c i a l r o l e of a r t , who was a l s o r e a c t i n g a g a i n s t N a t u r a l i s m , d i d - 226 - not choose the same path, as the Pont Ay en or Nabf groups to ex- p r e s s t h i s r e a c t i o n . He d i d not want h i s p a i n t i n g to. he under- stood o n l y by a few,.therefore he d i d not eschew the n a r r a t i v e , the- " l i t e r a t u r e " i n p a i n t i n g as a Ttieans of e x p r e s s i o n . I t i s n o t . t h a t C a r r i e r e , who begun h i s a r t i s t i c c a r e e r as a l i t h o - grapher, b e l i e v e d l e s s than A u r i e r i n the r o l e of a r t to decorate our "banal w a l l s " Che a c t u a l l y was one of the f i r s t to be p r e - occupied w i t h the ornamental r o l e of l i n e i n p a i n t i n g ) , but he a l s o b e l i e v e d i n the s p e c i a l s t a t u s of p a i n t i n g and i n the t a b l e a u :. A r t i s t s C l i k e C a r r i e r e ) and c r i t i c s C I ike Geffroy) who were v e r y much concerned with the r o l e of a r t i n s o c i e t y were w e l l aware t h a t only mass produced d e c o r a t i v e a r t s c o u l d e m b e l l i s h the w a l l s of o r d i n a r y people. 89 90 91 See a l s o Ch.I, P a r t 1, n.45. . See a l s o Ch.I, P a r t 1, pp.17-18 and Ch.II, P a r t 2,n.49 Ch. Blanc, "Salon de 1866," Gaz. des Beaux-Arts, S e r . l , Vol.20, 1866, p.500. ' , ~ ' 92 93 See a l s o Ch.I, P a r t 1, pp v4 6~ 47 • and p.. 50. See f o r example Zola's "Salons" of 1879, 1880, and es- p e c i a l l y of 1896 (. Emile Z o la, Le bon combat. De Courbet aux I m p r e s s i o n i s t e s , ed. J-P. B o u i l l o n , Hermann, 1974, pp.205-6 and 264, i n p a r t i c u l a r ) . 94 I f the a r t i s t s ' patrons, the amateurs of a r t , thought t h a t " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" was supposed to emphasize now a l s o l i n e , S t y l e , composition, not o n l y the " m a t e r i a l i s t i c " aspects of p a i n - t i n g (they were i n f l u e n c e d i n t h i s by avant-garde as w e l l as " o f f i c i a l " c r i t i c s , a l s o o f t e n they were the c r i t i c s ) , a r t i s t s who d i d not comply with the l a t e s t trend, w i t h what was c o n s i d - ered "modernity" a t the time, r i s k e d to l o s e t h e i r patrons and t h e i r d e a l e r s , as w e l l as t h e i r s t a t u s . The avant-garde " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" of the e a r l y 1890s was a n t i - N a t u r a l i s t . 95 Even a r t i s t s l i k e Bernard and S e r u s i e r , adopted i n the e a r l y 1890s the " t a p e s t r y - l o o k , " probably because they became s e n s i t i v e to the c r i t i c i s m concerning the l a c k of "Western t r a d i t i o n " i n t h e i r works ( see f o r example A. Germain's c r i t i - cism i n La Plume of 1891). In f a c t , Bernard, as we s h a l l see l a t e r , w i l l j o i n Peladan and h i s c i r c l e i n 1891. In any event, the f l a t p a i n t i n g (lack of depth, as w e l l as f l a t t i n t s , l a c k of modelling) was to be i n t e r p r e t e d as an i d e a l i s t statement o n l y u n t i l the mid-1890s, as I w i l l d i s c u s s i t i n the next s e c t i o n . 96 V i n c e n t van Gogh, l e t t e r ho,512, to h i s b r o t h e r Theo, The Complete •Letters' of V i n c e n t van' Gogh, Greenwich, Conn., 1959, Vol.11, p.617. 9 7 See C. P i s s a r r o , l e t t e r of 14 May 1887, L e t t e r s to h i s son L u c i e n , p.107. In a l e t t e r of 20 October 1892 C o p . c i t . , - 227 - p.204, or i n the French ed., A l b i n M i c h e l , 1950, p.294), he f l a t l y d e c l a r e d : "Le 'tableau - d e c o r a t i o n e s t absurde." 98 .A.M. Hammacher, i n "The Changing Values of Light-Space- Form between 1876 and 1890," Problems o f the 19th and 20th C e n t u r i e s S t u d i e s i n Western A r t , Acts of the XX i n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress o f the H i s t o r y of A r t , IV, P r i n c e t o n , 1963, p.105, s t r e s s e d the e x i s t e n c e of the two "non-academic" c u r r e n t s a t the time. He p o i n t e d out t h a t i f one does not o v e r s t r e s s the importance of Impressionism i n the 19th c , "The i d e a of d i s - c o n t i n u i t y i n the development of a r t i n the second h a l f of the century d i s a p p e a r s . " So does the i d e a of a " r e a c t i o n " a g a i n s t Impressionism, a c c o r d i n g to him. ; A c c o r d i n g to Maurice Denis, P u v i s ' p a i n t i n g was " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake." A l r e a d y i n 1890 when he f i r s t formulated h i s well-known d e f i n i t i o n of a p a i n t i n g , Denis s t r e s s e d the s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y of l i n e s and c o l o r s , the formal elements. T a l k i n g about P u v i s ' Hemicycle a t the Sorbonne, "which f o r the v u l g a r .[my u n d e r l i n i n g ] n e c e s s i t a t e s a w r i t t e n e x p l a n t i o n , " he s a i d : C'est une b e l l e forme, esthetes.' n'est-ce pas? E t l a profondeur de notre emotion v i e n t de l a s u f f i s a n c e de ces l i g n e s e f de ces c o u l e u r s a s ' e x p l i q u e r elles-m§mes, comme seulement b e l l e s e t d i v i n e s de beaute. ( Denis, T h e o r i e s , p.9.) 99 See Aimee Brown P r i c e , "The D e c o r a t i v e A e s t h e t i c i n the Work of P i e r r e Puvis de Chavannes," i n Puvis de Chavannes (1824- 1898), The N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y of Canada, Ottawa, 1977, pp.21-26. Puvis d i d t h i s a t a time when e a s e l p a i n t i n g and decora- t i v e p a i n t i n g (mural d e c o r a t i o n s ) obeyed two separate s e t s of laws, as was shown In P a r t 1. P i s s a r r o ' s r e a c t i o n , as l a t e as 1895, was t h a t P u v i s ' p a i n t i n g s c o u l d not be c o n s i d e r e d as i n - dependent p a i n t i n g s : "On a g r e a t stone w a l l i t i s admirable... but i t i s not p a i n t i n g , " t h e r e f o r e they should not be e x h i b i t e d as such. ( C. P i s s a r r o , l e t t e r of 21 Nov. 1895, L e t t e r s , p.275.) P i s s a r r o ' s r e a c t i o n was s i m i l a r to Ch. Blanc's almost t h i r t y years e a r l i e r . X ^ Paul F l a t , "La p e i n t u r e . Au Salon de Champ-de-Mars," L ' A r t i s t e , Vol.5, 1893, p.415. See A u r i e r , "Le Symbolisme en p e i n t u r e , " 1891, p.165. 102 Jacques D a u r e l l e , "Chez l e s jeunes p e i n t r e s , " L'Echo de P a r i s , 28 Dec. 1891. 103 I b i d . Only a year e a r l i e r Denis p u b l i s h e d h i s by now famous (used and misused) d e f i n i t i o n of a p a i n t i n g ( i n t h i s g e n e r a l sense one should i n t e r p r e t h i s use of the word t a b l e a u ) : Se r a p p e l e r qu'un•tableau- avant d'§tre un c h e v a l de b a t a i l l e , une femme nue, ou une q u e l - quonque anecdote- e s t e s s e n t i e l l e m e n t une s u r f a c e plane r e c o u v e r t e de c o u l e u r s en un c e r t a i n ordre assemblies. ( S i g h e d - P i e r r e L o u i s , " D e f i n i t i o n du Neo-Traditionnisme," A r t - 228 - e t c r i t i q u e , 23 Aug. 1890; r e p r i n t e d i n T h e o r i e s , 1913, p . l . ) T h i s d e f i n i t i o n , together w i t h the d e c l a r a t i o n from L'Echo, r e - p r e s e n t a h y b r i d of Charles Blanc's d e f i n i t i o n of p a i n t i n g (. t h i s c o n n e c t i o n was a l r e a d y made by H.B. Chipp, T h e o r i e s o f Modern A r t , Univ. C a l i f . , 1973, p. 9 4:;-';.;hev wrongly t r a n s l a t e d the c r u c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s u r f a c e unie, as " s i n g l e s u r f a c e . " ) , with i d e a l i s t and f o r m a l i s t overtones, and V i o l l e t - l e - D u c ' s comments on Medieval p a i n t i n g (which was ornamental i n i t s f u n c t i o n ) . Ch. Blanc d e f i n e d p a i n t i n g (Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n , 4th ed., 1882, p.480): La p e i n t u r e e s t l ' a r t d'exprimer toutes l e s conceptions de l'ame au moyen de toutes l e s r e a l i t e s de l a nature, representees sur une s u r f a c e unie dans l e u r s formes e t dans l e u r s c o u l e u r s . V i o l l e t - l e - D u c s a i d ( D i c t i o n n a i r e raisonne de 1 ' a r c h i t e c t u r e f r a n g a i s e , x l e - x v i e s i e c l e s , Vol.7, p.62), Ce n ' e t a i t done pas sans r a i s o n que l e s p e i n t r e s du moyen Sge v o y a i e n t dans l a p e i n t r e , s o i t qu' e l l e f i g u r S t des scenes, s o i t q u ' e l l e ne se com- pos§t que d'ornements, une s u r f a c e q u i d e v a i t t o u j o u r s p a r a i t r e plane, s o l i d e , q u i e t a i t d e s t i n e e non a p r o d u i r e une i l l u s i o n , mais une harmonie. P i e r r e Bonnard expressed i n L'Echo of 1891 an o p i n i o n s i m i l a r to Denis': La p e i n t u r e , nous d i t , d ' a i l l e u r s , M. P i e r r e Bonnard, d o i t @tre s u r t o u t d e c o r a t i v e . Le t a l e n t se r e v e l e r a dans l a fagon dont l e s l i g n e s s e r o n t disposees (Nota bene the emphasis on the l i n e s . ) 104 Dom W. Verkade, Le tourment de Dieu, etapes d'un moine p e i n t r e , P a r i s , 1923, p.94, quoted i n R o s e l i n e Bacou, "Decors d*appartements au temps des Nabis," A r t de France, Vol.IV, 1964, p.190. 1 0 5 See M. Denis, "A propos de 1 ' e x p o s i t i o n d'A.Seguin," T h e o r i e s , p.23 ( r e p r i n t e d from La Plume, March 1, 1895). Denis wrote: ~~ E t comme i l f a l l a i t que l a r e a c t i o n f u t v i o l e n t e contre l'ambiance n a t u r a l i s t e , ces jeunes p e i n t r e s e n t r e p r i r e n t de t o u t recommencer. l i s penserent ramener l ' A r t a l a simplesse de son debut, a l o r s que sa d e s t i n a t i o n d e c o r a t i v e e t a i t encore i n c o n t e s t e e . As I mentioned b e f o r e , Denis r e a c t e d e s p e c i a l l y a g a i n s t the academic n a t u r a l i s m , of the type he had to absorb a t the Academie J u l i a n . 106 Naturism was however i n the p e c u l i a r p o s i t i o n of having something to o f f e r to both "enemy camps," thus a t t r a c t i n g sym- p a t h i s e r s among Dreyfusards, R a d i c a l s or even S o c i a l i s t s , as w e l l as among C a t h o l i c r e a c t i o n a r i e s of the Right, such as C h a r l e s Maurras or Joachim Gasquet. The e x p l a n a t i o n r e s i d e s probably i n the f a c t t h a t Naturism was not only an a e s t h e t i c movement per se. I t was a g a i n s t the " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" - 229 - dictum, as Le Blond made c l e a r i n h i s E s s a i sur l e naturisme of 1 8 g 6 : Dans l ' e t r e i n t e u n i v e r s e l l e , nour voulons r e j e u n i r notre i n d i v i d u . Nous revenons vers l a Nature. Nous recherchons 1'emotion saine e t d i v i n e . Nous nous moquons de l ' a r t pour l ' a r t . . . (Quoted i n Marcel Raymond, De B a u d e l a i r e au Surrgalisme, new and r e v i s e d ed., P a r i s : L i b r a i r i e Jose C o r t i , 1966, p.66.) Saint-Georges de B o u h e l i e r ( he and Le Blond were the main p r o t a g o n i s t s of Naturism) d e c l a r e d : "ce qu'on a p e l l e l e naturisme e s t b i e n p l u s une morale qu'une d o c t r i n e d ' a r t . " ( I b i d . , p.67.) Naturism was not o n l y an a e s t h e t i c d o c t r i n e , but a l s o a moral and s o c i a l one. The N a t u r i s t s b e l i e v e d t h a t a r t has a s o c i a l m i s s i o n , but e x a c t l y what t h i s m i s s i o n was, was i n t e r p r e t e d d i f f e r e n t l y by w r i t e r s and a r t i s t s of the l e f t and of the r i g h t . ( See a resume of the main ideas of Le Blond and B o u h e l i e r i n M i c h e l Decaudin, La c r i s e des v a l o u r s s y m b o l i s t e s . V i n g t ans de p o e s i e f r a n g a i s e , 1895-1914, Toulouse: P r i v a t E d i t e u r , 1960, p.65. Decaudin d i s c u s s e s i n d e t a i l the N a t u r i s t movement and i t s consequences i n t h i s book, but he has the tendency to downplay the importance of the Dreyfus A f f a i r . T h i s book i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i l l u m i n a t i n g i n r e s p e c t to r e l a t i o n s h i p between Gide and the N a t u r i s t s . Other books recommended f o r the t o p i c of Naturism (and Romanic School) are the above mentioned one by M. Raymond, as w e l l as Kenneth C o r n e l l , The Symbolist Movement, New Haven: Y a l e Univ. Press, 195.1, r p t . Archon Books, 1970. 10 7 Denis had a long l a s t i n g f r i e n d s h i p w i t h Gide, t h a t began around the time he i l l u s t r a t e d with twenty nine l i t h o - graphs the w r i t e r ' s Voyage d'Urien i n 1893. ;;> Gide, who was a d i s c i p l e of Mallarme (as i s e v i d e n t i n h i s T r a i t e du N a r c i s s e of 1891) i n h i s Voyage d'Urien of 1893 r i d i c u l e d the e x c l u s i v e p r e o c c u p a t i o n of Symbolists w i t h the s p i r i t u a l and metaphysics. During the winter 1894-1895 he worked a t h i s book Les N o u r r i t u r e s T e r r e s t r e s , fragments of which appeared i n the f a l l of 1895 and beginning of 1896 i n L ' A r t jeune and i n L'Ermitage. The book was f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 189 7 by Mercure de France and "shook Symbolism i n the name of L i f e " (see Auguste Angles, Andre Gide e t l e premier groupe de l a Nouvelie Revue F r a n g a i s e , P a r i s : G a l l i m a r d , 1978, p.327). Gide was not a c t u a l l y a N a t u r i s t ; even though he s e r i o u s l y c o u r t e d them f o r a w h i l e , he d i d not want to be c o n s i d e r e d as one of the N a t u r i s t s , e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r B o u h e l i e r ' s "manifesto" of the N a t u r i s t s c h o o l was p u b l i s h e d i n January 1897 i n the F i g a r o with the help of Z o l a . Yet c r i t i c s p e r s i s t e d i n con- s i d e r i n g Gide a N a t u r i s t , as f o r example Leon Blum who wrote i n h i s column "Les L i v r e s " i n La Revue Blanche: S i l e naturisme, comme je l e c r o i s , n'est qu'une r e v e n d i c a t i o n du d r o i t au l y r i s m e , un r e t o u r aux conceptions l e s p l u s l a r g e s de l a nature e t de l a v i e , e t , par o p p o s i t i o n aux t h e o r i e s i n d i v i d u a l i s t e s ou mystiques, 1 ' a f f i r - mation d'un pantheisme romantique e t c o n c r e t , l e s N o u r r i t u r e s t e r r e s t r e s sont b i e n un l i v r e n a t u r i s t e , e t , quand un j o u r on cherchera l e s - 230 - i n s p i r a t e u r s e t l e s chefs de c e t t e r e n a i - ssance inattendue, i l faudra nommer M. Gide. (L. Blum, "Les L i v r e s . Andre Gide: Les Nourritures T e r r e s t r e s , La Revue Blanche, Vol.13, No.98, J u l y 1, 1897, 0. 78.) In September 189 8 In h i s L e t t r e & Angele, Gide i r r i t a t e d by the so c a l l e d "Jammes a f f a i r e " p r o t e s t e d t h a t " i l l - i n f o r m e d c r i t i c s " i n c l u d e d him i n the N a t u r i s t s c h o o l . For both Gide and M. Denis, 1898 marked the t u r n i n g p o i n t i n t h e i r o r i e n t a t i o n toward c l a s s i c i s m . They were t o - gether i n Rome t h a t year, and Denis, by h i s own admission ( l e t t e r to V u i l l a r d , 22 Feb. 1898, J o u r n a l , I, p.138) found h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h Gide "very u s e f u l . " Gide was very much admired by r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the M e r i d i o n a l School, such as Emmanuel S i g n o r e t , Edmond Jaloux, or Joachim Gasquet. 10 8 See M. Decaudin, La C r i s e des V a l e u r s Symbolistes, p. 109 Roger Marx, i n "Les Salons de 1895," Gazette des Beaux- A r t s , 3d Ser., Vol.14, 1895, p.22, r e f e r r e d to the young Sym- b o l i s t s as "an a c t i v e ferment of the contemporary a r t , " and d e c l a r e d t h a t they, "do not p r o f e s s the h a t r e d of nature, no more than the p u p i l s of M. Gustave Moreau do;" (Marx mentioned b e f o r e Moreau's p u p i l s , such as f o r example D e s v a l l i e r e s ) . They simply r e f u s e to be " f a c - s i m i l i s t e s , " and, . . . i l s opposent a 1'exactitude e n f a n t i n e des images photographiques, l e s a b r e v i a t i o n s eloquentes des syntheses d e c o r a t i v e s . ...mais, parce que l e p r i n c i p e de l e u r d o c t r i n e l e s a c o n d u i t s aux sources v i v e s de l a t r a d i t i o n medievale, c e r t a i n s i n c l i n e n t a l e s accuser d'archaisme ou meme d'ignorance. ( I b i d . , pp.22-23.) X X ° M. Denis, "A Propos de l ' E x p o s i t i o n d'A. Seguin," T h e o r i e s , p.22 ( f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n La Plume, March 1 s t , 1895. At the b e g i n n i n g of 1895, even the main p r o t a g o n i s t s of Naturism were not completely f r e e of i d e a l i s m ; they were even tempted to choose the name " i d e o - r e a l i s m " (already used by M a u c l a i r and other c r i t i c s ) , i n s t e a d of "Naturism," name adapted o n l y a t the end of 1895. 1 x 1 M. Denis, T h e o r i e s , p.3 3 ( from "Notes sur l a p e i n t u r e r e l i g i e u s e , " L ' A r t e t l a V i e , Oct. 1896). Denis s a i d : J ' a i t o u j o u r s a t t a c h e beaucoup d'importance a l ' i d e e s y m b o l i s t e . C ' e t a i t vraiment une lumiere pour des e s p r i t s navres de n a t u r a l i s m e , e t en m§me temps t r o p e p r i s de p e i n t u r e pour donner dans l e s r e v e r i e s i d e a l i s t e s . . Une f o i s encore e t q u o i q u ' i l se f a s s e un peu' t a r d , dans c e t t e revue p r o p i c e , j ' i n s i s t e sur l e c a r a c t e r e meconnu d'un mouvement c e l e b r e . C e r t e s non ce n ' e t a i t pas une t h e o r i e i d e a l i s t e . 112 I b i d . - 231 - 113 See M. Denis, T h e o r i e s , p.21 (from La Plume, March 1, 1895). Denis d i d not mention Cezanne i n the i n t e r v i e w i n L'Echo of Dec.1891, i n f a c t avoided then i n g i v i n g a s t r a i g h t answer to the q u e s t i o n about the most admired master. In f a c t Denis was not d i r e c t l y influenced by Cezanne i n ' h i s Symbolist p e r i o d , as Gauguin and Bernard were. There are no s i g n s of such i n f l u e n c e i n h i s p a i n t i n g s , nor,does he mention Cezanne i n h i s J o u r n a l or other w r i t i n g s , i n t h a t p e r i o d . He d i d mention Cezanne's name o n l y together w i t h Monet's, Degas', P i s s a r r o ' s and Renoir's, when i n d i c a t e d they were i m i t a t e d a t the Salon de Champ-de-Mars by the young p a i n t e r s . ( See T h e o r i e s , p.15.) 114 See M. Denis, T h e o r i e s , p.28 ( from "Preface de l a I X e E x p o s i t i o n des P e i n t r e s T m p r e s s i o n n i s t e s e t Symbolistes," a t Le Bare de B o u t e v i l l e , i n 1895), and p.23 ( see quote i n n.IQ5, above). 115 T h e o r i e s , p.28. 116 See Andre Gide, Les N o u r r i t u r e s T e r r e s t r e s , 97th ed., L i b r a i r i e G a l l i m a r d , 1937, p.118. 117 A f t e r r e j e c t i n g the concept t h a t a p a i n t i n g i s a "window open to nature" ("qu'un t a b l e a u e s t une f e n i t r e ouverte sur n a t u r e " ) , Denis gave t h i s d e f i n i t i o n : ...un t a b l e a u avant d'etre une r e p r e s e n t a t i o n de quoi que ce s o i t , c ' e s t une s u r f a c e plane r e c o u v e r t e de c o u l e u r s en un c e r t a i n ordre assemblies, e t pour l e p l a i s i r des yeux. (M. Denis, T h e o r i e s , p.26, from "Preface de l a I X e E x p o s i t i o n des P e i n t r e s Impressionhistes e t Symbolistes," a t Bare de B o u t e v i l l e , 1895.) Compare t h i s d e f i n i t i o n w i t h the one g i v e n i n 1890 ( see n.103, above). 118 Mauner c o n s i d e r e d t h a t i n the year 189 5 the Nabis r e - examined t h e i r p r i n c i p l e s ( Denis' w r i t i n g s p r o v i d i n g a proof of t h i s ) , and t h a t a f t e r 189 6 there i s a d e f i n i t e break with Symbolism i n t h e i r a r t . ( See George L. Mauner, The Nabis: T h e i r H i s t o r y and T h e i r A r t , 1888-1896, Garland Publ., 1978, Ch.VITI and Ch.IX.) 119 See Mary Anne Stevens, i n Post-Impressionism..., Royal Acad, exh., London, 19 79, p.14 7. 120 See f o r example M i s i a ( Natanson) au Piano, c.1894, r e - produced i n A. Gold and R. F i z d a l e , M i s i a . The L i f e of M i s i a S e r t , N.Y., 1981. 121 I f there i s symbolism i n the p a i n t i n g s , i t i s expre- ssed now i n the subject-matter, not i n the formal elements, as i t was claimed to be i n the Symbolist p a i n t i n g . I t has been suggested ( See M.A. Stevens, Post-Impressionism, London, 1979, p.148) t h a t V u i l l a r d ' s i n t i m i s t e scenes have an a f f i n i t y w i t h Ibsen's and M a e t e r l i n k ' s p l a y s . 122 See f o r example The B a r r e l Organ Grinder of 1895 (Cat. Post-Impr. No.32), which has some s p a t i a l r e c e s s i o n . Madamme - 232 - V u i l l a r d Sewing a l s o of 1895 (No.237, c o l o r p l a t e on p.110, op. c i t . ) , or even b e t t e r , •Mother and S i s t e r o f the A r t i s t (given as c.1892*;,No.236) by V u i l l a r d , show t h a t h i s space a l s o , w h i l e shallow, i s not completely two-dlmentional (as i t was f o r example i n L i t t l e G i r l s Walking, c.1891.No.233). 123 P. Ranson was born i n Limoges, attended the School of D e c o r a t i v e A r t s there, then t r a n s f e r r e d to the one i n P a r i s i n 1886. He a l s o attended Academie J u l i a n l i k e Denis and S e r u s i e r . His p a i n t i n g Woman Standing Beside a Balustrade--^ w i t h a Poodle (cat. Post-Impr. No.164, c.1895) i s very A r t Nouveau i n s t y l e . Mauner ( The Nabis, p.202) considered, him "the o n l y genuine A r t Nouveau p a i n t e r i n the group." A r t Nouveau ( the i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t y l e t h a t began i n Belgium) was born from the d e s i r e to c r e a t e a modern s t y l e ( as opposed to i m i t a t i o n of o l d e r s t y l e s ) i n the d e c o r a t i v e a r t s and a r c h i t e c t u r e . As a f a i r l y r e c e n t annotated b i b l i o g r a p h y of A r t Nouveau s t a t e s , " P a i n t i n g has l i t t l e to do w i t h A r t Nouveau. What i s o f t e n c a l l e d A r t Nouveau p a i n t i n g i s more a c c u r a t e l y Symbolist p a i n t i n g . " ( see Richard Kempton, A r t Nouveau, Los Angeles, 19 77, p . x v i i . ) 124 Compare f o r example The A n n u n c i a t i o n of 1890 ( see Goldwater, Symbolism, fig.90) w i t h The Sacred Wood of 1893 (Goldwater, f i g . 8 9 ) . Compare a l s o the l a s t one w i t h Procession Under the Trees of 189 2 ( Cat. Post-Impr.No.67, reproduced i n c o l o r op. c i t . , p . 1 0 9 ) . I n the P r o c e s s i o n the l e a v e s ' shadows form an arabesque p a t t e r n , c o n t r a s t i n g w i t h the sober l i n e s of the f i g u r e s gathered i n a r e l i g i o u s p r o c e s s i o n . In the Sacred Wood ( signed, and dated 1893) there i s o n l y a s l i g h t suggestion of something mysterious and s a c r e d . Here the l i n e becomes sensuous because i t o u t l i n e s and emphasized the s e n s u a l i t y of female bodies, m a t e r i a l i t y , not s p i r i t u a l i t y . A u r i e r would not have approved of t h i s p a i n t i n g . T h i s l i n e a l s o l o s t the awk- wardness of the Symbolist e x p r e s s i v e d i s t o r t i o n s . 125 Mauner (. The Nabis, p.122) has suggested t h a t Ranson's three p a i n t i n g s e x h i b i t e d i n 189 3 a t the Antwerp A s s o c i a t i o n popr l ' A r t had a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e on the development of A r t Nouveau i n Belgium. M.A. Stevens a l s o i m p l i e d t h a t the p a i n t i n g s e x h i b i t e d by French a r t i s t s ( such as Denis) a t the L i b r e E s t h e t i q u e i n B r u s s e l s , had a r o l e to p l a y i n the emer- gence of A r t Nouveau. ( Post-Impressionism, London, 19 79, p.66.) The b i r t h d a y of A r t Nouveau { the i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t y l e which w i l l be known a l s o as " J u g e n d s t l l , " " S t y l e L i b e r t y , " "Modern S t y l e , " etc.) i s c o n s i d e r e d to have occured i n 1893, i n Belgium, w i t h V i c t o r Horta's T a s s e l House i n B r u s s e l s . The n o v e l t y of t h i s " d e c o r a t i v e s t y l e " owes a g r e a t debt to French i n f l u e n c e s . F i r s t of a l l Horta was i n f l u e n c e d by V i o l l e t - l e - Duc ' s work. A l s o , s t y l i s t i c developments of the French avant- garde were a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o A r t Nouveau, an important r o l e i n t h i s process being p l a y e d by the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of French p a i n t e r s a t the e x h i b i t i o n s h e l d by Les XX and La L i b r e E s t h e t i q u e . A r t Nouveau ( e s p e c i a l l y through Van de Velde) was a l s o i n f l u e n c e d by E n g l i s h design and W i l l i a m M o r r i s . - 233 - See Robert Goldwater's d i s c u s s i o n of the d i f f e r e n c e s between Symbolism and A r t Nouveau, i n Symbolism, 1979, pp.17-24 and 69-70. 1 2 7 On V.P. G a l l a n d see Ch.I, P a r t 1, n;.19. Eugene Grasset (1841-1917) was a prominent f i g u r e i n the development of A r t Nouveau. He was i n f l u e n c e d by V i o l l e t - le-Duc, and d e c l a r e d t h a t one should r e t u r n to the Middle Ages, "pas pour l e c o p i e r , mais pour reprendre l e mouvement l a ou l a Renaissance l ' a interrompu." ( Nocq, Tendances N o u v e l l e s , 1896, p.14.) He a l s o s t u d i e d Japanese a r t , and was very i n s i s t e n t on u s i n g ornamental m o t i f s d e r i v e d from nature. Grasset s a i d , On t r o u v e r a dans l a nature tous l e s elements d e ; d e c o r a t i o n qu'on pourra d e s i r e r . La nature, v o i i a l e l i v r e d ' a r t ofnemental q u ' i l f a u t c o n s u l t e r . (Nocq, p.15) In 1896 C a m i l l e M a u c l a i r formulated t h i s " p r i n c i p l e of decora- t i v e a r t , " on which the new "modern s t y l e , taken from the l i f e t h a t surrounds us," was supposed to be based: . . . l a deformation ornamentale des o b j e t s e t des §tres, l'emploi des formes e t des cou- l e u r s a l a composition d'une harmonie ne r e p r e s e n t a n t r i e n , ne donnant pas d'emotion de pensee comme l'oeuvre d ' a r t , mais simple- ment un p l a s i r d'aspect, un contentement e t un accompagnement a 1 ' e s p r i t , toutes ces a n t i q u e s n o t i o n s du t a p i s , de l a robe, de l a t e n t u r e connues s i genialement par l e s brodeuses arabes ou persanes, par l e s a r t i - sans de t a p i s s e r i e de l i c e du moyen §ge, r e n a i s s a i e n t e t s ' a p p r i t a i e n t pour l a decou- v e r t e d'un s t y l e moderne, t i r e de l a v i e q u i nous entoure, e t tuant 1 ' i m i t a t i o n des vieux s t y l e s dont se c o n t e n a i e n t l e s magasins jusqu'alors.90 (. C. M a u c l a i r , " L ' a r t d e c o r a t i f en France," La Nouvelle Revue, Vol.98, Jan.-Feb., 1896, p.736.) T h i s " p r i n c i p l e " makes an i n t e r e s t i n g comparison w i t h Emile Bernard's f o r m u l a t i o n of Symbolism. ( See p.56 ) I t emphasizes o n l y the "ornamental d i s t o r t i o n " ( t h a t which Denis c a l l e d " o b j e c t i v e d i s t o r t i o n " ) , and not the d i s t o r t i o n s a c c o r d i n g to what Idea was to be ex- pressed ("selon ce q u ' i l veut d i r e , " as Bernard s a i d ) . In the same a r t i c l e , M a u c l a i r emphasized c l e a r l y the meaning of t h i s d e c o r a t i v e a r t , which can be p l a c e d i n 180 degrees o p p o s i t i o n to A u r i e r ' s : L ' a r t d e c o r a t i f , c ' e s t un a r t ou l a concep- t i o n i n t e l l e c t u e l l e de l ' a r t i s t e , au l i e u d'exprimer ou de s u s c i t e r une emotion i n t e r - i e u r e , d o i t tendre avant t o u t v e r s une • e x p r e s s i o n v i s i b l e , c ' e s t - a - d i r e beaucoup p l u s semblable a c e l l e des s p e c t a c l e s n a t u r e l s qu'a c e l l e q u i n a i t de l a pensee de l'homme. (. C. M a u c l a i r , o p . c i t . , p.726.) 128 Bing's Maison de l ' A r t Nouveau opened p r a c t i c a l l y sim- u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h a museum ot "new a r t " i n B r u s s e l s , by the - 234 - s o c i e t y of Maison d'Art. ( See C. M a u c l a i r , " L ' a r t d e c o r a t i f en France," pp.740-42 on Bing's e n t r e p r i s e . ) I t h e l d i t s f i r s t e x h i b i t i o n December 1895- January 1896, when Ranson e x h i b i t e d t a p e s t r i e s , Denis a bedroom f o r a young g i r l , V u i l l a r d panels, and Bonnard screens. Many Nabis made designs f o r s t a i n e d g l a s s , which were executed by T i f f a n y i n the United S t a t e s . ( On the Nabis' involvement w i t h Bing's A r t nouveau see a l s o Peter S e l z ed., A r t Nouveau, 1975, p.11, and Mauner, The Nabis, p.176.) H e n r i van de Velde was-also s t r o n g l y i n v o l v e d w i t h Bing's Maison. 1 3 0 C. M a u c l a i r , " L ' A r t d e c o r a t i f en France," 1896, p.730. M a u c l a i r touched upon an important i s s u e here, namely t h a t the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s intended t h e i r works to be seen as deco- r a t i v e p a i n t i n g s . As Levine p o i n t e d out, e a r l y c r i t i c s of Impressionism, i n the e a r l y 1870s, saw t h e i r p a i n t i n g s as deco- r a t i v e ( see Ch.I, P a r t 2, n.73). In the h i s t o r y of the " d e c o r a t i v e r e v o l u t i o n " t h a t M a u c l a i r c o n s i d e r e d as s t a r t e d by the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , he claimed t h a t Degas d i d f o r l i n e what Monet d i d f o r c o l o r : M. Degas f i t pour l e s l i g n e s un t r a v a i l documentaire analogue, en e t a b l i s s a n t des r a p p o r t s d'une s u b t i l i t e i n c r o y a b l e entre l e s l i g n e s mouvantes d'un personnage e t c e l l e s , immuables, du m i l i e u ou i l se meut, ce q u i e s t encore un p r i n c i p e d e c o r a t i f . ( M a u c l a i r , o p . c i t . , p.732.) 131 I b i d . , p.733. From what P i s s a r r o s a i d with regard to the d i s t i n c t i o n he wanted to m a i n t a i n between " d e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g s and " d e c o r a t i o n s " ( see Ch.I, P a r t 2, n.97), i t appears t h a t M a u c l a i r was r i g h t . The c o n f u s i o n i n terminology of which we must be aware i s e v i d e n t i n the d i a l o g u e between two g e n e r a t i o n s of p a i n t e r s , r e p r e s e n t e d by C a m i l l e and L u c i e n P i s s a r r o . They a l s o r e p r e - sented the d i f f e r e n c e between B r i t i s h and French concepts of d e c o r a t i o n a t the.time. L u c i e n understood the " d e c o r a t i v e " i n the sense of " d e c o r a t i o n , " which i n h i s case i m p l i e d a s t y l i - z a t i o n i n s p i r e d by the P r e - R a p h a e l i t e group i n which he was working. He understood the " d e c o r a t i v e " the same way the Sym- b o l i s t s d i d ( even though he admitted to not being "symbolic enough f o r the decadents" — l e t t e r of May 5, 1892, L e t t e r s , p.378). For C a m i l l e , i n p a i n t i n g , " d e c o r a t i v e " meant s t i l l a d e c o r a t i v e , polychrome " e f f e c t , " and " e x t e r n a l " a r t , above a l l , i n the sense Blanc, Chesneau, S i l v e s t r e , understood i t . I t i s not s u r p r i s i n g then t h a t he welcomed the new t w i s t i n the meaning of " d e c o r a t i v e " ( used without a p e j o r a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n by many i n f l u e n t i a l c r i t i c s now, as opposed to the 1870s) i n the mid-1890s i n France, and even became i n v o l v e d w i t h Bing's Maison de 1'Art Nouveau, to L u c i e n ' s d e s p a i r . In January 1896, L u c i e n wrote to h i s f a t h e r : What are you doing i n t h a t beer-garden? You shouldn't have shown there.'!! Your a r t i s n e i t h e r d e c o r a t i v e nor new. Your presence makes i t look as i f you're running a f t e r "shocking" t h i n g s i n order - 235 - to get n o t i c e d . On February 18, 1895 L u c i a n had w r i t t e n to C a m i l l e : Abroad ( i n Germany, H o l l a n d , Belgium, etc.) they are beginning to abandon the i n f l u e n c e of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s to l i n e up under the banner of E n g l i s h a r t , e s p e c i a l l y because of i t s d e c o r a t i v e t e n d e n c i e s . C a m i l l e d i d not e x h i b i t a t Bing's o n l y to get a t t e n t i o n ; the A r t Nouveau philosophy, w i t h i t s c a l l f o r i n s p i r a t i o n i n nature and conscious r e v o l t a g a i n s t i m i t a t i o n of o l d s t y l e s appealed to him. At v a r i o u s o c c a s i o n s he expressed the d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n with Lucien's Gothic r e v i v a l : I do not doubt t h a t M o r r i s ' books are as b e a u t i f u l as Gothic a r t , but i t must not be f o r g o t t e n t h a t the Gothic a r t i s t s were i n v e n t o r s and t h a t we have to perform, not b e t t e r , which i s i m p o s s i b l e , but d i f f e r e n t l y and f o l l o w i n g our own bent... With t h i s i n view you w i l l have to d i s - regard f r i e n d R i c k e t t s , who i s of course a charming man, but from the p o i n t of view of a r t seems to s t r a y from the t r u e d i r e c - t i o n , which i s the r e t u r n to nature. C L e t t e r of Aug.19, 1898, L e t t e r s , p.329. On May 23, 1895, C. P i s s a r r o had d e c l a r e d t h a t "nature i s our o n l y hope i n order to a r r i v e a t an a r t a t once r e a l and d e c o r a t i v e " - my t r a n s l a t i o n from the French e d i t i o n of L e t t e r s . ) S i m i l a r l y , on A p r i l 26, 1900, C, P i s s a r r o wrote: A c c o r d i n g to y o u , • s a l v a t i o n l i e s w i t h the p r i m i t i v e s , the I t a l i a n s . A c c o r d i n g to me, t h i s i s i n c o r r e c t . S a l v a t i o n l i e s i n nature, now more than ever. On "Bing's e n t r e p r i s e " he had t h i s to say: While I was i n P a r i s t h i s l a s t time, I had an o p p o r t u n i t y to d i s c u s s d e c o r a t i v e a r t w i t h Vandevelde s e v e r a l times. How- ever one may c r i t i c i z e Bing's e n t e r p r i s e , i t has a c e r t a i n value as a p o i n t of departure. ( L e t t e r of Jan.5, 1896, L e t t e r s , p.279) 132 C. M a u c l a i r , " C r i t i q u e de l a p e i n t u r e , " 1895, p.320. M a u c l a i r wrote: Le gofit meme qu'on a des d i v e r s e s matieres va jusqu'a d e s i r e r l e s confondre, l e s i m i t e r l e s unes par l e s a u t r e s . On f a i t c e t eloge d'un t a b l e a u : "C'est un j o l i ton de t a p i s d ' O r i e n t . " On d i t : "Voyez done c e t t e chose a l ' h u i l e , c ' e s t charmant, on j u r e r a i t v o i r un crepon j a p o n a i s e ! " On i m i t e l e l a i n a g e par des empatements r e p r i s avec des martes dures; on i m i t e l e s tons des anciennes t o i l e s a n g l a i s e s , i v o r i n e s e t mordorees, en se s e r v a n t de jaune de Naples au l i e u de - 236 - b l a n c ; on i m i t e l ' h u i l e en peignant a 1 ' a q u a r e l l e sur une t o i l e sans e n d u i t s ; on i m i t e l ' a q u a r e l l e avec l e s v e i n e s d'un panneau de b o i s s p e c i a l ; on i m i t e l e s s e p i a s avec un l a v i s d'encre sur p i e r r e l i t h o g r a p h i q u e ; on i m i t e l a l i t h o g r a p h i e avec l e pyrographe; on i m i t e l ' a q u a t i n t e avec l e v e r n i s mou, on meTe tous l e s moyens, on augments j o u r n e l l e m e n t 1 ' i n t r u - s i o n de l a chimie e t de l ' i n d u s t r i e dans l ' a r t . On tend de p l u s en p l u s , - e t c ' e s t encore un prodrome c e r t a i n de decadence,- a rendre un envoi i n t e r e s s a n t par l e procede. Tout s o l i c i t e l e connaisseur par l a facon dont c ' e s t f a i t . Avant de r e g a r d e r ce que c e l a r e p r e s e n t e , on regarde en quoi c ' e s t , comment c ' e s t obtenu. 133 See A. A u r i e r , "Vincent van Gogh," Oeuvres Posthumes, pp.260-262. In h i s l e t t e r to A u r i e r , Van Gogh expressed h i s i n t e r e s t i n i m i t a t i n g the a s p e c t of the " b e a u t i f u l S c o t t i s h t i s s u e s " ("ces j o l i s t i s s a g e s e c o s s a i s c a r r e l e s v e r t , b l e u , rouge, jaune, n o i r . . . " - l e t t e r reproduced i n Oeuvres Posthumes, p.268). He d i d not however go as f a r as Bonnard and V u i l l a r d i n i m i t a t i n g a checkered p a t t e r n . 134 In the l e t t e r of January 4, 1895, C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o wrote to L u c i e n , i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h h i s B e l g i a n f r i e n d , Theo van Rysselberghe: I should r e a l l y l i k e to see Theo r i d him- s e l f of these shackles t h a t make h i s p a i n t i n g s c o l d and inanimate, when he has such r e a l t a l e n t as a p a i n t e r and draftsman ...But.I am a f r a i d t h a t h i s f r i e n d s h i p f o r Signac makes him l i g h t - h e a d e d ; i t i s strange t h a t the technique doesn't bother them! The method, as I t o l d him, i s good only f o r mosaics, and thus there would be no reason to s t r i v e f o r modeling, i t would be a p u r e l y d e c o r a t i v e a r t , w i t h what b e a u t i f u l matiere! ( L e t t e r s , p.255.) 135 P. Signac, D'Eugene D e l a c r o i x . . . , 1964, pp.111-112. 136 See M. Decaudin, La C r i s e des V a l e u r s Symbolistes, p.65, f o r the q u o t a t i o n s . I want to emphasize t h a t I w i l l use the term "pure p a i n t i n g " o n l y i n r e f e r e n c e to " p a i n t i n g f o r p a i n t i n g ' s sake" i n the m a t e r i a l i s t i c sense. 137 Denis c o n g r a t u l a t e d h i m s e l f t h a t h i s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h A d r i e n Mithouard and A l b e r t Chapon p r o v i d e d him w i t h a long c o l l a b o r a t i o n a t L'Occident," a revue t h a t r e p l a c e d the a r t s and the l e t t e r s i n the atmosphere of t r a d i t i o n . " ( See T h e o r i e s , p.124, n . l ) . L'Occident was founded i n December 1901 by A. Mithouard, who a l s o had founded Le Spectateur C a t h o l i q u e i n 1897. L i k e Denis, he used to Joe a Symbolist, - 237 - and h i s p o e t r y was a c t u a l l y compared a t the time w i t h Denis' p a i n t i n g . Mithouard was a defender of C a t h o l i c i s m , and as Denis s a i d , together w i t h Barres and Maurras he " c o u n s e l l e d us to look f o r a r u l e i n the p a s t of our r a c e " ( see T h e o r i e s , p.264). Mithouard h i m s e l f d i d not r e s t r i c t t r a d i t i o n s t r i c t l y to a G r e c o - L a t i n c l a s s i c i s m as Denis d i d now, as he was an ardent admirer of the Gothic c a t h e d r a l . For him t h i s c a t h e d r a l was the embodiment of harmony and o r d e r . On the s o c i a l p l a n , as i n a r t , Mithouard d i s t i n g u i s h e d two c a t e g o r i e s : the harmonious and the e x p r e s s i v e . In the Dreyfus A f f a i r e , the a n t i - D r e y f u s a r d s - the p a r t i s a n s of order were the "harmo- nious" ones, the Dreyfusards - obsessed w i t h the i n j u s t i c e , were the " e x p r e s s i v e " ones. ( See Decaudin, La c r i s e des v a l e u r s s y m b o l i s t e s , p.147). In May.1905, Denis p u b l i s h e d i n L'Ermitage the a r t i c l e "La r e a c t i o n n a t i o n a l i s t e , " d e d i c a t e d to h i s f r i e n d Mithouard, "who had the boldness to found L'Occident d u r i n g the f u l l - f l e d g e d D r e y f u s i s t c r i s i s . " ( Denis, T h e o r i e s , p.181.) In t h i s a r t i c l e Denis r e a c t e d a g a i n s t M a u c l a i r , who c r i t i c i z e d N e o - C l a s s i c i s m and the " N a t i o n a l i s t i c P e r i l , " a c c u s i n g t h e i r exponents of being r e a c t i o n a r y and r e t r o g r a d e . Denis exclamed: N a t i o n a l i s t e s , ceux q u i v e u l e n t que c e t enseignement s'appuie s u r t o u t sur l e v i e u x fond n a t i o n a l , developpe l e s q u a l i t e s f r a n c h i s e s de gout, de c l a r t e e t de mesure, e t nous f a s s e r e t r o u v e r aupres des s t a t u e s de C h a r t r e s ou des tableaux de Poussin, c e t t e c o n c i l i a t i o n q u i f u t chez nous, a nos bonnes epoques, i n s t i n c t i v e e n t r e l a nature e t l ' i d e e . (Theories, p.18 4.) He a l s o added (p.186): I I e s t n a t u r a l que des p e i n t r e s q u i ont du gout de l a beaute d e c o r a t i v e e t un c e r t a i n i d e a l de p e r f e c t i o n , en v i e n n e n t a demander aux chefs-d'oeuvre du Louvre 1 ' e x c i t a t i o n que l e s s p e c t a c l e s de l a v i e ne l e u r donnent p l u s . 138 "Order" becomes a key word f o r Denis. ( See f o r example T h e o r i e s , p.191 and 25 8.) Commenting on the f a c t t h a t the p a r t i s a n s of "pure p a i n t i n g , " a c c o r d i n g to him, took from Cezanne, and " g l o r i f i e d " h i s "negligences and i m p e r f e c t i o n s , " he s a i d ( T h e o r i e s , p.247): Essayons d'echapper aux prejuges qu'engen- d r e n t l e dreyfusisme e t l a neurasthenie; ne soyons pas dupes de 1 ' e s p r i t de para- doxe, de desordre e t de s u b t i l i t e . Le f a i t e s t qu'on juge avec mepris une oeuvre d'ex- e c u t i o n p a t i e n t e ; on n'admire p l u s que l e s ebauches e t c e l l e s - l a s u r t o u t dont 1'inven- t i o n sommaire e t l a f a c t u r e r a p i d e i m p l i q u e n t une s o r t e de n i h i l i s m e d ' a r t : c ' e s t l a super- s t i t i o n de l ' i n a c h e v e . The c o n n e c t i o n made by Denis between "pure p a i n t i n g " and "an- archy" was commonplace among the p a r t i s a n s of c l a s s i c i s m . - 238 - ( See f o r example F r . Monod, "Le Salon d'Autpmne," A r t e t Decoration, Vol.18, 1905, pp.189-99.) Emile Bernard h e l d s i m i - l a r views, as w i l l be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r , i n Ch.II, P a r t 1. 139 See Denis,, l e t t e r to V u i l l a r d , 22 Feb.1898, J o u r n a l , Vol.1, pp.139-140, and Denis, T h e o r i e s , p.86 ( f r o m "Les e l e v e s d'Ingres," L'Occident, 1902). 140 As Marcel Raymond r e l a t e s (From B a u d e l a i r e to S u r r e a l i s m e , t r a n s l . from the French, London, 1961, p.53), Charles Maurras c r i t i c i z e d the w r i t e r s f o r " t r a c i n g the con- tours of every t i n y s e n s a t i o n , " f o r renoucing " s t y l e , " f o r not imposing "order" on t h e i r i d e a s . He emphasized "harmony, form, s t y l e . " He c r i t i c i z e d Romanticists and Symbolists a l i k e , f o r being content o n l y with "expressing themselves," but l a c k i n g the knowledge "how to compose works." Denis a l s o c r i t i c i z e d Symbolists' p r e o c c u p a t i o n with the " e x p r e s s i o n of o n e s e l f , " and l a c k of r e a l knowledge of com- p o s i t i o n . He was even harsher then ( l e t t e r to V u i l l a r d , 1898, J o u r n a l , Vol.1, p.140) with the Symbolists than toward the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , because he thought t h e i r "stenography of d a i l y s e n s a t i o n s " was even more r a p i d than of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s . See a l s o T h e o r i e s , p.51 ( from "Les A r t s a Rome ou l a Methode C l a s s i q u e , " Le Spectateur C a t h o l i q u e , Nos.22,. 24, 1898, wrongly l i s t e d as 1896 i n Theories) and J o u r n a l , Vol.1, p.120 ( e n t r y f o r Sept. 1897) . L a t e r Denis w i l l t r y to connect Symbolism w i t h C l a s s i c i s m . 141 Denis, T h e o r i e s , p.27. Denis d i d not a c t u a l l y name the l i t t e r a t e u r s to whom he r e f e r r e d , n e i t h e r d i d he name those who "are i n v o k i n g the Laws of nature and the Norm of Harmony" ( T h e o r i e s , p.21). T h i s was however the language used by Moreas now, as w e l l as by Alphonse Germain ( who d i d c r i t i c i z e the Nabis' d i s t o r t i o n s , and was a supporter of Rose-Croix and of c l a s s i c i s t t r a d i t i o n - see the quotes i n Post-Impressionism, London, 1979, pp.24 and 49). Germain was the one who advocated "to chose b e a u t i f u l l i n e s and b e a u t i f u l forms a c c o r d i n g to the laws of nature," and to cover the w a l l s w i t h f r e s c o e s which f e a t u r e d "harmonious p a t t e r n of c o l o u r bounded by the know- ledgeable l i n e s of the masters!" Denis d i d not want to e x h i b i t w i t h Rose-Croix ( as Bernard and F i l i g e r did) i n the e a r l y 1890s. In some r e s p e c t the a t t a c k s of the N a t u r i s t s and of the C l a s s i c i s t s on Symbolism were s i m i l a r , because both groups wanted a c l o s e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between A r t and Nature, and con- demned Symbolist " d i s t o r t i o n s . " 1 4 2 See Denis' l e t t e r to V u i l l a r d , of 22 Feb. 1898, J o u r n a l , Vol.1, p.139. Denis seemed to have f o r g o t t e n t h a t . i n 1895 he a l s o favoured "sensualism." 143 Denis d i d w r i t e i n June 1892 an a r t i c l e i n the Revue Blanche, which he signed P i e r r e L. Maud ( see T h e o r i e s , pp.14- 2Q) i n which he p r o t e s t e d Lecomte's c r i t i c i s m of the Symbolists. - 239 - 144 T h e o r i e s , p. 28 (.from "Preface de l a I X e e x p o s i t i o n des p e i n t r e s I m p r e s s i o n n i s t e s e t Symbolistes," 1895). 1 4 5 Denis, T h e o r i e s , p.84 ( 1901). 146 Denis complained t h a t a t the Salon of the S o c i e t e des A r t i s t e s F r a n c a i s he "met" J u l i a n ( of Academy J u l i a n ) i n s t e a d of Ingres. The academies, a c c o r d i n g to Denis ( who s t u d i e d a t J u l i a n ' s ) , taught "Bastien-Lepage or the Empiricism." ( See T h e o r i e s , pp.83 and 86.) Denis, u n l i k e Gauguin, d i d t a l k about " S t y l e " only a f t e r h i s c o n v e r s i o n to N e o - C l a s s i c i s m , and c r i t i c i z e d Nabis' Symbolism f o r l a c k of s u f f i c i e n t r e f l e c t i o n and method. His c r i t i c i s m of the Nabis i s i l l u m i n a t i n g , because i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n many r e s p e c t s t h e i r Symbolism was s i m i l a r to Impressio- nism: to r e c o r d a f l e e t i n g s e n s a t i o n : only the nature of t h i s s e n s a t i o n was d i f f e r e n t , due to d i f f e r e n t p h i l o s o p h i e s . A l s o , the main instrument i n w r i t i n g down these "emotive s t a t e s , " i n the Nabis' case was t h e . " l i n e . " Denis d i d admit l a t e r t h a t Gauguin's Symbolism was more connected with C l a s s i c i s m , and l e s s s u b j e c t i v e . ( See T h e o r i e s , pp.166, 263, 258.) 147 Denis w i l l w r i t e i n 1905 i n L'Ermitage: "Mais pourquoi l ' i d e a l i s m e a - t - i l cesse d ' e t r e p o s i t i f , de s'appuyer sur des r e a l i t e s ? " ( T h e o r i e s , p.183.) In 1909 he wrote: Langage de l'homme, signe de l ' i d e e , l ' a r t ne peut pas ne pas §tre i d e a l i s t e . Toute c o n f u s i o n sur ce p o i n t e s t , esperons- l e , d e f i n i t i v e m e n t e c a r t e e . ( T h e o r i e s , p.2 68, from "De Gauguin e t de Van Gogh au C l a s s i c i s m e , " L'Occident, May 1909.) 148 As i t appears from h i s l e t t e r s to Denis ( see Denis, J o u r n a l , V o l . 1, p.138, f o r example), V u i l l a r d p r e f e r r e d vinin- volvement. The avant-garde as a whole adopted an " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" p o l i c y , which meant keeping a r t "pure," without i n v o l v e - ment with moral or p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s , as w e l l as without " l i t e r a - t u r e . " Even those a r t i s t s concerned, w i t h s o c i a l i s s u e s , d i d not openly use t h e i r " A r t , " t h a t i s p a i n t i n g , as a means of f i g h t i n g i n j u s t i c e . For example P i s s a r r o d i d not p a i n t h i s T u r p i t u d e s S o c i a l e s . M a x i m i l l i e n Luce might be c o n s i d e r e d an e x c e p t i o n , but t h i s i s because he came from a working c l a s s back- ground. At the most, they choose subject-matter such as "Stevedores" ( as V u i l l a r d d i d i n the e a r l y 1890s), but without making any statement on the working c o n d i t i o n s , or other prob- lems. In V u i l l a r d ' s p a i n t i n g the emphasis i s on the Neo- Impressionis t "dots" used i n a more o v e r t l y d e c o r a t i v e manner, human f i g u r e s are f l a t and f a c e l e s s ( see the c o l o r p l a t e i n Post-Impressionism, London, 1879, p. 109).. 149 See Denis, T h e o r i e s , p.261. On "temperament" and i t s p h y s i o l o g i c a l nature, see a l s o Ch.II, P a r t 2, n.28. "Tempera- ment" does not account f o r " v o l u n t a r y , " d e l i b e r a t e , c o n c e p t u a l aspects of p a i n t i n g , a c c o r d i n g to the i d e a l i s t - o r i e n t e d c r i t i c s . "Pure p a i n t i n g " upholds the " d e c o r a t i v e tendency," but - 240 - e v e n t u a l l y gains "independence" and s e l f - s u f f i c e n c y ( concern w i t h the s u r f a c e of the p a i n t i n g , not of the w a l l , as we can see a l r e a d y i n C a r l o s de Castera's comments on Cezanne i n 1904 - see Ch.II, P a r t 1, p.114). Thus the s t a t u s of " d e c o r a t i o n " w i l l be dropped. - 241 - C h a p t e r I I , P a r t 1. M. D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , p. 165. Among the "gens.du monde" we s h o u l d count o f c o u r s e , the amateurs o f a r t , the c o n n o i s s e u r s , the main p a t r o n s o f t h e avant-garde a r t i s t s . The word " d e c o r a t i v e " l o s t i t s p e j o r a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n and g a i n e d r e s p e c t a b i l i t y , when a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c l a s s i c i s m , r e a s o n , i d e a l i s m . But even when r e v e r t e d t o i t s " m a t e r i a l i s - t i c , " s e n s u a l i s t i c , meaning by l a t e 1890s, i t was s t i l l a most d e s i r a b l e q u a l i t y i n a work o f a r t , a c c o r d i n g t o amateurs, c r i t i c s , and a v a n t - g a r d e a r t i s t s . 2 F o r example, Alphonse Germain ( " T h e o r i e des Dgforma- t e u r s , " La Plume, 1 Sept. 1891, p. 290) d e c l a r e d t h a t "Cezanne p e i n a en d y s p h o f i e n , " and t h a t Cezanne, Gauguin and Van Gogh were "temperaments i n t e n s i f s , mais d e s i q u i l i b r e s e t n u l l e m e n t l a t i n s . " He r e p r o a c h e d E m i l e B e r n a r d and t h e N a b i s t h e i r " d i s t o r t i o n s " i n s p i r e d by t h e s e o l d e r a r t i s t s , whom he c o n s i d e r e d as s u f f e r i n g from v a r i o u s m a l a d i e s . 3 W h i l e a N a t u r a l i s t b e l o n g i n g i n Z o l a ' s group, Huysmans d e s c r i b e d t h e I m p r e s s i o n i s t s as m e d i c a l cases ( see J.K. Huysmans, " L 1 . E x p o s i t i o n des Independants en 1880, " L ' A r t Moderne, P a r i s : C h a r p e n t i e r , 1883, pp. 103-104.) I n h i s l e t t e r t o P i s s a r r o i n 1883 he s p e c i f i c a l l y r e f e r r e d t o Cezanne as an "eye c a s e " and c o n s i d e r e d h i s works more a p p r o p r i a t e f o r a m e d i c a l museum t h a n any o t h e r ( see J . Rewald, H i s t o r y o f I m p r e s s i o n i s m , 4 t h ed., New York: M.O.M.A., 1973, p. 474.) Even a f t e r h i s d e f e c t i o n from t h e N a t u r a l i s t camp, when he came t o a p p r e c i a t e Cezanne, he s t i l l s a i d t h e a r t i s t had " d i s e a s e d r e t i n a s " ( see J.K. Huysmans, " P a u l Cezanne," La Plume, No. 57, 1 Sept. 1891, p. 301), b u t i m p l i e d t h i s d e f e c t l e d him t o the d i s c o v e r y o f a "new a r t . " I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t Huysmans compared t h e f r u i t i n Cezanne's s t i l l l i f e s w i t h the c e r a m i c f r u i t e x h i b i t e d by C h e r e t : "des f r u i t s d e s t i n e s aux v i t r i n e s des C h e r e t . " ( J.K. Huysmans, " P a u l Cezanne," La Plume, No. 57, 1 Sept. 1891, p. 301.) J . C h e r e t , who was known e s p e c i a l l y f o r h i s p o s t e r s , p r o v i d e d a l s o models f o r c e r a m i c s made w i t h new p a s t e s and g l a z e s a t S e v r e s . ( See f o r example Ph. Garner ed., The E n c y c l o p e d i a o f D e c o r a t i v e A r t s , 1890-1940, New York: Van N o s t r a n d R e i n h o l d Comp., 1978, p. 86.) Huysman's a r t i c l e on Cezanne was p u b l i s h e d a l s o i n h i s C e r t a i n s , b u t t h e r e C h e r e t ' s name was m i s s p e l l e d as "Chevet." ( See f o r example J.K. Huysmans, C e r t a i n s , 3^ ed., P a r i s : P.V. S t o c k , 1898.) T h i e b a u l t - S i s s o n ( i n Le Temps, Oct. 25 1906, quoted i n V o l l a r d , Cezanne, p. 124) d e c l a r e d : " I t i s n o t so much from - 242 - n e g l i g e n c e o r w i l l f u l n e s s as i s due t o t h e c o n f o r m a t i o n o f h i s eye which w i l l n o t p e r m i t him t o push t h e most p r o m i s i n g s k e t c h t o a c o n c l u s i o n , " o f f e r i n g t h i s as an e x p l a n a t i o n f o r Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s b e i n g a r r e s t e d i n t h e s t a g e o f " s k e t c h e s . " I n 1904 he d i d mention "the superb d e c o r a t i v e f e e l i n g " o f a s t i l l l i f e e x h i b i t e d by Cezanne a t t h e S a l o n d'Automne. ( See George Heard H a m i l t o n , "Cezanne and H i s C r i t i c s ; " Cezanne. The L a t e Work, 1977, p. .147. I was unable t o o b t a i n t h e o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e from Le P e t i t Temps.) 4 Jacques D a u r e l l e , "Chez l e s Jeunes P e i n t r e s , " L'Echo de P a r i s , 2 8 Dec. 1891. A n q u e t i n , who d e c l a r e d he was not i n t e r e s t e d i n such c a t e g o r i e s as Symbolism o r I m p r e s s i o n i s m , a l s o mentioned R e n o i r . B e r n a r d added Redon. Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s were a c t u a l l y named as a s o u r c e o f t h e C l o i s o n i s t s t y l e ( t h a t i s t o say, t o g e t h e r w i t h c l o i s o n n e enamels, s t a i n e d - g l a s s windows, Japanese p r i n t s , o r p o p u l a r woodblock p r i n t s known as Images d ' E p i n a l ) by C h a r l e s Chasse. I n h i s books, Le Mouvement s y m b o l i s t e dans 1 ' a r t du X I X e s i e c l e , P a r i s : L i b r a i r i e F l o u r y , 1947, p. 103, o r Les N a b i s e t l e u r temps, Lausanne- P a r i s : La B i b l i o t h e q u e des A r t s , 1960, p. 104, he wrote on E m i l e B e r n a r d : "... l e s c e r n e s de Cezanne 1 ' i n t e r e s s e r e n t t o u t s p e c i a l e m e n t ; avec A n q u e t i n , i l c r e a l e c l o i s o n n i s m e . " Chasse had a l r e a d y i n 19 21 p u b l i s h e d a book on Gauguin and t h e Pont-Aven group, and a n o t h e r one i n 1955. H i s r e s e a r c h i n c l u d e d d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h many e y e - w i t n e s s e s , i n c l u d - i n g a r t i s t s such as B e r n a r d , b u t he was w e l l aware t h a t such i n f o r m a t i o n c o u l d not be t a k e n a t f a c e v a l u e . Chasse i s a t odds w i t h t h e post-Cubism c r i t i c s and a r t h i s t o r i a n s who p e r - s i s t e n t l y t r i e d t o b u i l d up a b i g gap between Cezanne and Gauguin. They emphasized Cezanne's " a r c h i t e c t i o n i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n " v e r s u s Gauguin's " d e c o r a t i v e f l a t n e s s . " Chasse emphasized t h e i r "common p o i n t s " and t h e f a c t t h a t Gauguin a s s i m i l a t e d Cezanne's " s y n t h e t i s m . " ( See Le Mouvement s y m b o l i s t e , Ch. V: "Gauguin et. Cezanne," o r Les N a b i s , Ch. I l l : " L ' i n t e r v e n t i o n de Gauguin e t de Cezanne.") E m i l e B e r n a r d wrote i n "La methode de P a u l Cezanne," Mercure de F r a n c e , V o l . 1 3 8 , 15 Feb. 1920, p. 290: M o r s que Claude Monet, R e n o i r , e t c . , s ' e f f o r c a i e n t de p e r d r e l e s c o n t o u r s des o b j e t s e t l e s s o u m e t t a i e n t a l ' a i r e t a l a l u m i e r e , Cezanne c o n t o u r n a i t d'un t r a i t h a r d i , s t y l i s e e t v o l o n t a i r e l e s o b j e t s r e p r e s e n t e s , e t s ' a t t a c h a i t p l u s a l e u r l o c a l i t e qu'a l ' a i r e t a l a l u m i e r e . Chasse's s u g g e s t i o n t h a t c o n n e c t s Cezanne's dark o u t l i n e s w i t h C l o i s o n i s m was more r e c e n t l y r e p e a t e d by Mary Anne Stevens i n t h e c a t a l o g u e o f t h e R o y a l Academy e x h i b i t i o n , P o s t - I m p r e s s i o n - i s m , C r o s s - C u r r e n t s i n European P a i n t i n g , London: W e i d e n f e l d and N i c o l s o n , 1979, p. 21 and p. 31. 5 . Quoted i n Chasse, Le Mouvement s y m b o l i s t e , p. 121. I b i d . Quoted by Chasse ( p. 121) from E. B e r n a r d , - 243 - " J u l i e n Tanguy," Mercure de F r a n c e , 16 Dec. 1908. Gauguin f i r s t met Cezanne i n t h e summer o f 1881, when t h e y a l l were i n P o n t o i s e w i t h P i s s a r r o . 7 See a l s o M.A. S t e v e n s , op. c i t . i n n.4. An even b e t t e r example o f Cezanne's " C l o i s o n i s m , " i s Q u v e r t u r e t o Tannhauser ( V.90, 1869-71) - F i g . 1. See a l s o Ch. I I , P a r t 2, n.34 on ; t h i s p a i n t i n g . B e r n a r d ' s i n t e r e s t i n Cezanne's e a r l y works i s e v i d e n t i n h i s own p a i n t i n g s o f t h e p e r i o d on w h i c h C l o i s o n i s m was b o r n , as f o r example i n A t t h e C a b a r e t ( 1887) - s t y l i s t i c a l l y s i m i l a r t o Cezanne's The Orgy ( 1 8 6 4 - 6 8 , V.92), o r i n S t i l l - l i f e w i t h c h e r r i e s and f i g s ( 1 8 8 7 ) - a k i n t o e a r l i e r s t i l l - l i f e s o f Cezanne. B e r n a r d ' s p a i n t i n g s mentioned here a r e r e p r o d u c e d i n t h e L i l l e e x h i b i t i o n c a t a l o g u e ( E. B e r n a r d , 1868-1941. A p r i l 12-June 12, 1967), l i s t e d as #5. Au C a b a r e t , #9. N a t u r e morte aux c e r i s e s and f i g u e s . The a u t h o r o f the c a t a l o g u e remarked upon t h e resemblance t o Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s , b u t he c o n t i n u e d t o p r o p a g a t e t h e myth ( t o w h i c h , as w i l l be shown h e r e , B e r n a r d ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n was e s s e n t i a l s i n c e 1904) t h a t Cezanne does not o u t l i n e forms, t h a t h i s forms a r e b r o u g h t about o n l y by t h e " i n t e r p l a y o f c o l o r " ( see the c a t a l o g u e ' s e n t r y f o r #9). Cezanne's p i c t u r e s a r e i n d i c a t e d by t h e i r number i n V e n t u r i ' s c a t a l o g u e , L i o n e l l o V e n t u r i , Cezanne: son a r t - s o n o e u v r e , P a r i s : P a u l Rosemberg, 1936. A l s o Cezanne's p o r t r a i t s , s p a t i a l l y i n t e g r a t e d w i t h t h e d e s i g n of t h e w a l l p a p e r back- grounds, no doubt i n f l u e n c e d B e r n a r d ' s P o r t r a i t o f Pere Tanguy ( 1887, C a t . P o s t - I m p r e s s i o n i s m , London, 1979, #13), and The A r t i s t ' s Grandmother ( 1887, C a t . L i l l e , #6) - F i g . 2. I n t h e p e r i o d when C l o i s o n i s m was e l a b o r a t e d , B e r n a r d i m i t a t e d a l s o Cezanne's s t y l e o f h i s e a r l y 1880s, such as i s e v i d e n t i n S t i l l ^ l i f e w i t h a t o b a c c o p o t ( 1887, C a t . L i l l e #10) - F i g . 3. I t i s o b v i o u s from t h i s p a i n t i n g t h a t B e r n a r d was more i n t e r e s t e d i n Cezanne's o u t l i n e s t h a n i n h i s " c o l o u r modula- t i o n s ." 8 E m i l e B e r n a r d , " P a u l , C e z a n n e , " L e s Hommes d ' A u j o u r d ' h u i , V o l . 8 , No.387, 1981, n.pag. E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n i n L i n d a N o c h l i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s m and P o s t - I m p r e s s i o n i s m ( 1874-1904), 1966, pp. 100-102. There was some c o n f u s i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e e x a c t d a t e o f t h i s a r t i c l e , because the y e a r i s not I n d i c a t e d on t h e p u b l i - c a t i o n ( w h i c h has not been p u b l i s h e d w i t h r e g u l a r i t y ) , . J o h n . Rewald ( P o s t - I m p r e s s i o n i s m , 1978, p. 522) g i v e s t h e y e a r 1890 f o r t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n . More r e c e n t l y , H e n r i D o r r a ( " E x t r a i t s de l a correspondance d'Emile B e r n a r d des debuts a l a Rose- C r o i x , " Gaz. des B e a u x - A r t s , S e r . 6 , V o l . 9 6 , Dec. 1980, p. 238), on t h e b a s i s o f B e r n a r d ' s l e t t e r s , e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e a r t i c l e was a l r e a d y w r i t t e n i n J a n u a r y 1891, and p u b l i s h e d i n February-March 1891. C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o mentioned t h e a r t i c l e i n t h e l e t t e r o f May 8, 1981 ( s e e L e t t e r s , p. 167). B e r n a r d d i v i d e d Cezanne's oeuvre i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s : " e a r l y , " "the l i g h t p e r i o d " ( l'epoque c l a i r e ) - w h i c h i s t h e - 244 - " I m p r e s s i o n i s t " one, and c o n s i d e r e d by t h e younger p a i n t e r as "Cezanne's most u n s u c c e s s f u l , " and t h e " l a t e s t manner." 9 I n f a c t t h i s p a i n t i n g can be h a r d l y i n c l u d e d i n t h e " l a t e s t manner." The o r d e r e d p a r a l l e l s t r o k e s a r e not c o v e r - i n g t h e whole p i c t u r e , they a r e o n l y i n c i p i e n t . The " I m p r e s s i o n i s t " manner i s s t i l l e v i d e n t . What a t t r a c t e d B e r n a r d was t h e n o n - n a t u r a l i s t s u b j e c t - m a t t e r . L. N o c h l i n ' s t r a n s l a t i o n , p. 102. ± ± Merete B o d e l s e n , "Gauguin's Gezannes," B u r l i n g t o n Magazine, V o l . 1 0 4 , 1962, p. 207. B o d e l s e n mentioned t h a t Jean Leymarie suggested t h a t t h i s (. V.490) i s t h e p a i n t i n g Gauguin had i n mind when wrote t o S c h u f f e n e c k e r about Cezanne and h i s a r t . I n t h i s l e t t e r o f 14 J a n u a r y 1885, Gauguin w r o t e : Look a t Cezanne, t h e m i s u n d e r s t o o d , an e s s e n t i a l l y m y s t i c E a s t e r n n a t u r e (. he l o o k s l i k e an o l d man o f t h e L e v a n t ) . I n h i s methods, he a f f e c t s a m y s t e r y and t h e heavy t r a n q u i l i t y o f a dreamer; h i s c o l o u r s a r e grave l i k e t h e c h a r a c t e r o f o r i e n t a l s ; a man o f t h e South, he spends whole days on the mountain t o p r e a d i n g V i r g i l and l o o k i n g a t t h e sky. So h i s h o r i z o n s are l o f t y , h i s b l u e s most i n t e n s e , and w i t h him r e d has an amazing v i b r a t i o n . V i r g i l has more t h a n one meaning and can be i n t e r p r e t e d as one l i k e s ; t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f h i s p i c t u r e s has a p a r a b o l i c meaning w i t h two c o n c l u s i o n s ; h i s backgrounds a r e e q u a l l y i m a g i n a t i v e and r e a l i s t i c . To sum up: when we l o o k a t one o f h i s p i c t u r e s , we e x c l a i m " S t r a n g e . " But he i s a m y s t i c , even i n d r a w i n g . ( P. Gauguin, L e t t e r s , op. c i t . , p. 34.) Gauguin used Cezanne t o e x e m p l i f y h i s o p i n i o n t h a t " l i n e s and c o l o r s r e v e a l a l s o . t h e more o r l e s s grand c h a r a c t e r o f t h e a r t i s t , " a p a r t from o t h e r s y m b o l i c meanings. Gauguin was l e s s i n t e r e s t e d t h a n B e r n a r d i n Cezanne's l i n e s , b u t more i n h i s " v i b r a n t " c o l o r , and h i s r a i s e d h o r i z o n s . A t t h e time Gauguin was i n t e r e s t e d i n harmony o f c o l o r s (. making a n a l o g y w i t h music) and saw d r a w i n g and c o l o r i n g as one p r o c e s s ( "Can you r e a l l y make me b e l i e v e t h a t drawing does not d e r i v e from c o l o r , and v i c e - v e r s a " ) , as i s e v i d e n t from h i s "Notes S y n t h e t i q u e s " w r i t t e n i n 1884-1885 (. see I , P a r t 2, n.65). Gauguin a l r e a d y u n d e r s t o o d Cezanne's " s y n t h e t i s m " o f t h e 1880s, b e f o r e B e r n a r d . I f he a p p l i e d i n 1888 t o p a i n t i n g h i s C l o i s o n i s t s t y l e a l r e a d y d e v e l o p e d i n c e r a m i c s , i t was under the i n f l u e n c e o f B e r n a r d . Y e t l a t e r B e r n a r d w i l l accuse Gauguin o f " f l a t n e s s " and o f n o t u n d e r s t a n d i n g Cezanne. 12 -B e r n a r d s a i d : " I c i pas d'ombre p o s i t i v e , une c l a r t e e g a l e b a i g n e , i r i s e chaque chose; on d i r a i t d'un b a s - r e l i e f - 245 - t r e s v i e u x , . . . " 13 See H e n r i D o r r a , " E x t r a i t s de l a c o r r e s p . . .," 1980, p. 239. B e r n a r d e x h i b i t e d i n 1892 w i t h R o s e - C r o i x . x 4 A u r i e r ' s a r t i c l e (. w h i c h B e r n a r d persuaded t o w r i t e ) i s g i v e n by Rewald as t h e most l i k e l y cause o f B e r n a r d ' s break w i t h Gauguin, and a l s o as a p r o b a b l e cause, the Gauguin's a u c t i o n i n F e b r u a r y 1891. I n a l e t t e r t o S c h u f f e n e c k e r , o f August 1891, B e r n a r d w i l l c r i t i c i s e A u r i e r and the young S y m b o l i s t s . ( C f . H. Dorra., 1980, p. 239.) 15 See G o l d w a t e r , Symbolism, p. 186. 1 ft See H. D o r r a , 1980, p. 240. R o s e - C r o i x had s t a r t e d a campaign f o r L a t i n t r a d i t i o n , p a r a l l e l w i t h L ' E c o l e Romane i n l i t e r a t u r e . 17 18 19 20 21 o f a r t : 22 L. N o c h l i n , Impress, and P o s t - I m p r e s s . , p. 100. I b i d . , p. 101. See G o l d w a t e r , Symbol!sm, p. 186. I b i d . , p. 187. L. N o c h l i n , p. 100. My emphasis on " s t y l e . " B e r n a r d d e s c r i b e d Cezanne's l a s t manner as a new k i n d D'une p a t e s o l i d e , t r a i t e e s ,par touches l e n t e m e n t f r a p p e e s de d r o i t e a gauche, l e s oeuvres de l a d e r n i e r e maniere a f f i r m e n t l e s r e c h e r c h e s d'un a r t nouveau, e t r a n g e , i n c o n n u . Des l u m i e r e s ponderees g l i s s e n t mysterieusement dans des pSnombres t r a n s - paremment s o l i d e s ; une g r a v i t e a r c h i t e c t u r a l e p r e s i d e a 1'ordonnance des l i g n e s , p a r f o i s des empatements i n c i t e n t a des s c u l p t u r e s . H. D o r r a , l e t t e r t o S c h u f f e n e c k e r , 16 Aug. 1891, p. 239, 23 • R o s e - C r o i x a l s o wanted works t h a t were m u r a l - l i k e , o r d e c o r a t i o n s . (. See the quote from J . Peiadan., S a l o n de l a R o s e - C r o i x : r e g i e e t m o n i t o i r e , 1891, i n P o s t - I m p r e s s i o n i s m , London, 1979, p. 24.) 24 L. N o c h l i n , p. 100, o r i n F r e n c h : S t y l e . Ton. - P e i n t r e avant t o u t quoique - 246 - penseur, grave a u s s i , i l ouvre a 1 ' a r t c e t t e s u r p r e n a n t e p o r t e : l a p e i n t u r e pour elle-meme. The i s s u e o f " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" and e l i t i s m was c e n t r a l f o r B e r n a r d , who s i g n i f i c a n t l y used as a motto a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e a r t i c l e , t h i s q u o t a t i o n from Hamlet: C a r , j e m'en s o u v i e n s , l a p i e c e ne p l a i s a i t pas a l a m u l t i t u d e ; c ' e t a i t un mets q u i n ' e t a i t pas du gout de t o u t l e monde, mais c ' e t a i t une p i e c e e x c e l l e n t e . 25 I n September 1891 he wrote t o Bonger: "...chacun a son m a i t r e decidement, e t s;'y conforme au p o s s i b l e , moi j ' a i Cezanne." ( H. Dorra,~19 80, p. 239.) See Ch. I , P a r t 2, pp. 64-70. 27 H i s use o f " d e c o r a t i v e " i n e a s e l p a i n t i n g i s not d i f f e r e n t from B o u y e r ' s . V 2 8 G. Lecomte, L ' A r t Moderne., No.8, 1892, p. 58. 29 I b i d . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t t h i s c o r r e s p o n d - ence o f shapes between v a r i o u s elements i n l a n d s c a p e , as w e l l as between l a n d s c a p e shapes and human shapes, was a l s o r a i s e d t o t h e s t a t u s t o P r i n c i p l e by b o t h P u v i s de Chavannes and Eugene C a r r i e r e . T a l k i n g about C a r r i e r e ' s n o t i o n o f "arabesque," Ch. Chasse, ( Les N a b i s , p. 42) s a i d i t was c l o s e t o t h e P u v i s ' c o n c e p t i o n o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t , . . . l e q u e l non seulement h a r m o n i s a i t ses f r e s q u e s aux l i g n e s du mouvement q u ' e l l e s o r n e n t mais q u i e t a b l i s s a i t un e q u i l i b r e e n t r e l e s c o n t o u r s de l a l i g n e d ' h o r i z o n e t l e s s i l h o u e t t e s humains ou a n i m a l e s q u ' i l a v a i t t r a c e e s . Chasse a l s o r e p o r t e d what C a r r i e r e t o l d G. S e a i l l e s : Dans l a n a t u r e . . . l e s formes s o n t sympathiques, d'une meme f a m i l l e , l e s e x p r e s s i o n s d'une meme i d e e q u i peu a peu s ' a f f i r m e e t se p r e c i s e . . . j ' a d m i r a i s l ' o n d u l a t i o n des c o l l i n e s a l a q u e l l e se m a r i a i t l a courbe des f e u i l l a g e s ; . . . e t dans c e t t e bouche o f a woman , comme r e p e t e c l a i r e m e n t , t o u t ce que j e v e n a i s de v o i r e t d'admirer. Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s o f S t e . V i c t o i r e , o f 1885-1887, such as V. 454 ( London, C o u r t a u l t ) and V.455 ( Washington D.C., P h i l l i p s C o l l . ) are examples o f such p a r a l l e l i s m o f shapes, here between t h e branches o f p i n e s and t h e o u t l i n e o f t h e mountain. These p a i n t i n g s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e C o u r t a u l t one, a r e f i n e examples o f Cezanne's "arabesques" e v i d e n t i n t h e shapes o f t h e b r a n c h e s . S t i l l - l i f e s a l l o w e d Cezanne t h e p r e t e x t f o r even more o b v i o u s p l a y o f arabesques, such as i n S t i l l - L i f e w i t h P e p p e r m i n t B o t t l e ( V.625, 1890-92, N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y o f - 247 - A r t , Washington) - F i g . 18. Lecomte, L ' A r t Mod., No.9, p. 67. Lecomte w r o t e : La c o n s t a n t e i n v o c a t i o n de ce nom t u t e - l a i r e nous f e r a i t c r o i r e v o l o n t i e r s que ce q u i l e s s e d u i t dans l ' o e u v r e de Cezanne, ce ne s o n t pas l e s t o i l e s b e l l e s par l a l o g i q u e ordonnance e t l a t r e s s a i n e harmonie des t o n s , q u i p r o u v e h t l e r a r e i n s t i n c t e t l a v i s i o n s i p e r s o n n e l l e de ce grand p e i n t r e , mais b i e n d ' i n c o m p l e t e s c o m p o s i t i o n s que ' chacun s ' a c c o r d e , avec 1'assentiment de M. Cezanne lui-meme, a j u g e r i n f e r i e u r e s , en r a i s o n de l e u r arrangement d e s e q u i l i b r e e t d'un c o l o r i s v r a i m e n t t r o p c o n f u s . 3 1 See Ch. I , P a r t 2, p. 69 and n.81. 32 Lecomte, L ' A r t Mod., No.9, p. 67. He w r o t e : Les p r o t a g o n i s t e s de c e t a r t un peu d e c o n c e r t a n t se r e c l a m e n t des i n t e r p r e t a - t i o n s s y n t h e t i q u e s , e x p r e s s i v e s de M. P a u l Cezanne. Sans doute ses s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s de c o u l e u r s e t a i e n t extremes e t ses v a l e u r s i n f i n i m e n t proches l e s unes des a u t r e s , mais l e p l u s souvent l e s p e r s p e c t i v e s e t l e s p l a n s a p p a r a i s s e n t .dument e t a b l i s . Les champs e t l e s v i l l e s g a r d e n t l e u r c a r a c t e r e , s ' e n v e l o p p e n t des l i m p i d i t e s d'une atmosphere i m m a t e r i e l l e e t se p r o l o n g e n t en des h o r i z o n s l o i n t a i h s d'une p r o f o n d e u r e v i d e n t e . L a n a t u r e e t l'homme, l e c i e l e t 1'eau s o n t i n t e r p r e t e r s eri douces harmonies d'ensemble, mais t o u s l e s elements de ces c o m p o s i t i o n s g a r d e n t l e u r a u t h e n t i c i t e e s s e n t i e l l e . Ces t o i l e s , denuees de beaute ornementale e t de c a r a c t e r e , qu'on p r e t e n d l e g i t i m e r p a r l e s r e a l i s a t i o n s de M. Cezanne, en a p p a r a i s s e n t comme 1'incomprehensive c a r i c a t u r e . 33 J I b i d . 34 Gustave G e f f r o y ( 1855-1926) began h i s c a r e e r as a j o u r n a l i s t . He c o l l a b o r a t e d a t Georges Clemenceau's La J u s t i c e s i n c e i t s f o u n d a t i o n , i n 1880. H i s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h Clemenceau l a s t e d f o r t y y e a r s . As a w r i t e r , l i k e Lecomte, he can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d b e s t as an independent. He was, l i k e Huysmans, d e s c r i b e d by Andre F o n t a i n a s ( Mes s o u v e n i r s du symbolisme, P a r i s : E d i t i o n s de l a N o u v e l l e Revue C r i t i q u e , 2nd ed. , 1928, p. 20) as a " d i s s i d e n t from N a t u r a l i s m . " However i t i s more c l o s e l y t o t h i s movement t h a t he remains a t t a c h e d . Between 1892-1903 he p u b l i s h e d the e i g h t volumes o f La V i e - 248 - a r t i s t i q u e , w h i c h assembled h i s w r i t i n g s as an a r t c r i t i c , s i n c e 1883. G e f f r o y was a b e l i e v e r i n s o c i a l a r t , and i n a r t i s t i c e d u c a t i o n o f t h e worker. I n 1895 he p u b l i s h e d Musee de s o i r aux q u a r t i e r o u v r i e r s . . . w i t h a c o v e r by C a r r i e r e , i n s p i r e d by t h e K e n s i n g t o n system. ( See P i s s a r r o ' s comment on i t , Ch. I , P a r t 1, n.40). He a d v o c a t e d an a l l i a n c e o f a r t and i n d u s t r y and a r e v i v a l o f t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s t h a t would c o n t r i b u t e t o r e t u r n t o a r t i t s l o s t p l a c e i n everyday l i f e . L i k e Nocq ( see Ch. I , P a r t 1, p. 23) f o r whose Tendences N o u v e l l e s . Enquete s u r 1 ' e v o l u t i o n des i n d u s t r i e s d ' a r t , o f 1896 he wrote t h e p r e f a c e , he d i d not b e l i e v e i n e l i t i s t d e c o r a t i v e a r t s done f o r amateurs, b u t f o r t h e masses. He c o n s i d e r e d "the a n n e x a t i o n o f t h e u s u a l o b j e c t s by a r t " a q u e s t i o n o f l i f e and death f o r t h e i n d u s t r i a l a r t s " ( L a V i e a r t i s t i q u e , P a r i s : F l o u r y , V o l . V , 1897, p. 304). From 1905 u n t i l h i s d e a t h , G e f f r o y was t h e d i r e c t o r o f t h e M a n u f a c t u r e N a t i o n a l e des G o b e l i n s . G e f f r o y c o n s i d e r e d t h e work o f a r t as one o f t h e b e s t means o f propaganda, and he d e c l a r e d : ... que l'on.songe aux masses p r o f o n d e s q u ' i l e s t n e c e s s a i r e d ' a p p e l e r a l a v i e de l a pensee pour p a r f a i r e l a c o n s c i e n c e u n i v e r s e l l e . Ce s o n t ces masses q u ' i l f a u t v i o l e n t e r par 1 ' a c t i o n c o n t i n u e , q u ' i l f a u t a l l e r s a i s i r jusque dans l'ombre ou e l l e s s u b i s s e n t l e u r s o r t , ou e l l e s s t a g n e n t e t c r o u p i s s e n t , e t d'ou e l l e s s o r t e n t p a r f o i s avec des f u r e u r s s o u d a i n e s . ( L a V i e a r t i s t i q u e , V o l . V , 1897, p. 34) F o r g e n e r a l i n f o r m a t i o n on G e f f r o y , see H e c t o r T a l v a r t and Joseph P l a c e , B i b l i o g r a p h i e des a u t e u r s modernes de langue f r a n c a i s e ( 1801-1936), P a r i s : ed. de l a c h r o n i q u e des l e t t r e s f r a n c a i s e s , V o l . V I , 1937, pp. 381-389, and t h e c a t a l o g u e o f t h e e x h i b i t i o n Gustave G e f f r o y e t l ' a r t moderne, B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e , P a r i s , 1957. 35 G e f f r o y s a i d : Les e t i q u e t t e s , r e e l l e m e n t , ne s i g n i f i e n t pas grand'chose, e t v o u l o i r enfermer l ' a r t dans un code q u e l c o n q u e , i d e a l i s t e , romantique, i m p r e s s i o n n i s t e , s y m b o l i s t e , e s t un j e u b i e n p u e r i l , s i l ' o n v e u t se donner l a p e i n e d ' o b s e r v e r dans l e temps e t dans l ' e s p a c e . ( La V i e a r t i s t i q u e , V o l . V , p. 285.) and a l s o : I I s e r a i t p e u t - e t r e p l u s s i m p l e d'admettre que r e a l i s m e e t i d e a l i s m e se c o n c i l i e n t , chez l e s v r a i m e n t g r a n d s . . . q u i e s t simplement l ' a r t , e x p r e s s i o n humaine de l a n a t u r e , de l a v i e . ( I b i d . , p. 286.) I n h i s own l i t e r a r y work, G e f f r o y has been compared t o t h e p a i n t e r Eugene C a r r i e r e whom he h i g h l y p r a i s e d , because "he mixes a s o r t o f m e l a n c h o l y t e n d e r n e s s w i t h t h e r e a l i s t t r u t h . " - 249 - ( T a l v a r t . and P l a c e , B i b l i o g r a p h i e , V o l . V I , p. 381.) 36 See G e f f r o y ' s c r i t i q u e o f H e n r i M a r t i n ' s f r i z e f o r t h e H o t e l de V i l l e , L a V i e a r t i s t i q u e , V o l . V , p. 235. I n f a c t , l i k e f o r Lecomte o r M a u c l a i r , p a i n t i n g had a h i g h e r s t a t u s t h a n t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s f o r G e f f r o y as w e l l . He a c c e p t e d , even r e q u i r e d i n t h e " i n d u s t r i a l a r t s " s i m p l i f i - c a t i o n s ( " r e v e n i r aux formes s i m p l e s , l o g i q u e s , r e n d r e a 1 ' o u v r i e r 1'amour de son m e t i e r " - L a V i e a r t i s t i q u e , V o l . V , p. 304), b u t t h e s e were r e a l i z e d by " s i m p l e a r t i s a n s , " o n l y " a i d e d by t h e a r t i s t s . " ( I b i d . , p. 306.) What G e f f r o y was a d v o c a t i n g was a d v o c a t e d t h r e e decades b e f o r e by C h a r l e s B l a n c . ( See Ch. I , P a r t 1.) Most avant-garde a r t i s t s , as I i n d i c a t e d i n Ch. I , P a r t 1, were not i n t e r e s t e d i n " i n d u s t r i a l a r t s , " b u t i n c r e a t i n g " a r t o b j e c t s " f o r t h e amateurs. These o b j e c t s were not i n t e n d e d f o r m a s s - p r o d u c t i o n , t h e y were one o f a k i n d , j u s t as a t a b l e a u o r a s t a t u e , and n o t v e r y "use- f u l . " I n p a i n t i n g G e f f r o y d i d not f a v o r " s y n t h e t i c l a n d - scapes," f o r example. He complained: On a abuse des paysages d i t s s y m t h e t i q u e s [ s i c ] , f a i t s de c h i c a 1 ' a t e l i e r avec t r o i s l i g n e s e t q u a t r e c o u l e u r s , sous l e p r e t e x t e < q u ' i l e t a i t d'un e t r o i t r e a l i s m e de p e i n d r e d'apres n a t u r e . ( L a . V i e a r t i s t i q u e , V o l . V , p. 387.) G e f f r o y had not c o n s i d e r e d a p p r o p r i a t e s i m p l i f i e d forms and c o l o r even f o r t a p e s t r y , and e x p r e s s e d h i s a d m i r a t i o n f o r Raphael's P a r n a s s e t h a t d e c o r a t e d t h e h a l l w a y o f t h e S a l o n o f Champs-Elysees. ( I b i d . , p. 327.) T h i s e x p l a i n s why d u r i n g h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a t t h e G o b e l i n s , t h e p r a c t i c e o f t a p e s t r y - t a b l e a u c o n t i n u e d . 37 See M. D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , p. 18, where he p r o t e s t e d Lecomte's c r i t i c i s m o f t h e S y m b o l i s t s ' h i e r a t i s m . 38 G. G e f f r o y , " P a u l Cezanne," L a V i e a r t i s t i q u e , V o l . I l l , P a r i s : Dentu, 1894, t r a n s l a t e d by L. N o c h l i n i n i m p r e s s i o n i s m and P o s t - I m p r e s s i o n i s m , p. 104. 39 L. N o c h l i n , I m p r e s s i o n i s m and P o s t - I m p r . , p. 106. 40 I b i d . I n any. e v e n t , a c c o r d i n g t o G e f f r o y , Cezanne was " t r u t h f u l " i n t h e t r a n s p o s i t i o n o f t h e " s e n s a t i o n o f t h i s i n t o x i c a t i o n " e x p e r i e n c e d by t h e p a i n t e r i n f r o n t o f n a t u r e , " o r o f t h e "dream t h a t i n v a d e s him b e f o r e t h e s p l e n d o r o f n a t u r e . " ( See L. N i c h l i n , p. 104 and p. 107.) The " s e n s a t i o n " o f o b v i o u s l y u n d e r s t o o d here i n t h e sense o f "emotion," not as a p u r e l y v i s u a l one; t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e "dream," i t I n f r i n g e d i n t o S y m b o l i s t t e r r i t o r y . 41 N o c h l i n , p. 106. As example o f a p a i n t i n g r e s e m b l i n g - 250 - t a p e s t r y , r e p r e s e n t i n g a r o c k y bay and t h e s e a , one c o u l d g i v e Rocks a t I''Est ague ( V.404, 1882-1885) - F i g . 12. 4 2 TK-/I I b i d . 4 3 See Ch. I , P a r t 1, p. 33. 44 . Compare w i t h what was s a i d I n Ch. I , P a r t 2, pp. 81- 83. 4 5 See Ch. I I , P a r t 1, n.3. . 46 N o c h l i n , p. 106. Even i n " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " ( he r e f e r s t o m u r a l s ) , G e f f r o y d i d not a c c e p t such p r o j e c t i o n s o f p l a n e s f o r w a r d . He wrote i n L a V i e a r t i s t i q u e , V o l . V , p. 173: Sous l e r a d i e u x s o l e i l comme dans 1'ombre du s o i r , i l y a une p r o f o n d e u r e t des p l a n s que l a l o i l a p l u s e l e m e n t a i r e i n t e r d i t de p r o j e t e r en a v a n t . 4 7 G. G e f f r o y , " P a u l Cezanne". ( 16 Nov. 1895), L a V i e a r t i s t i q u e , V o l . V I , P a r i s : Dentu, 1900, p. 217. 48 I b i d . , pp. 216-17. 49 The Orgy: V.92, a s c r i b e d by V e n t u r i t o t h e p e r i o d 1864-1868, 130 x 81 cm. G e f f r o y d e s c r i b e d t h e p a i n t i n g w i t h o u t g i v i n g i t s name, b u t the d e s c r i p t i o n i s q u i t e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . V e n t u r i a l s o mentioned t h a t G e f f r o y commented on t h i s p a i n t i n g . 50 . . La V i e a r t i s t i q u e , V o l . V I , pp. 217-18. F o r A u r i e r see Ch. I , P a r t 2, p. 63. 51 B l a n c r e q u i r e d w e l l - d e f i n e d "forms," b u t a l l o w e d f o r c o n c e s s i o n s , i n r e g a r d t o p e r s p e c t i v e , c h i a r o s c u r o , e t c . ( see Ch. I , P a r t 1, p. 39). G e f f r o y promoted t h e t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o t h e medium o f t a p e s t r y o f modern p a i n t i n g s , b u t w i t h no r e g a r d whatsoever f o r t h e s p e c i f i c i t y o f t h i s medium.and f o r t h e laws o f d e c o r a t i o n . . Under G e f f r o y ' s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h e l i t e r a l copy.of p a i n t i n g s "was a t i t s apogee." (See P i e r r e V a i s s e , "La q u e r e l l e de l a T a p i s s e r i e au debut de l a I I I e R e p u b l i q u e , " Revue de l ' A r t , No.22, 19 73, p. 81.) G e f f r o y r e q u e s t e d e x a c t c o p i e s o f p a i n t i n g s by Monet, i n a l l t h e i r s u b t l e t i e s , by R a f f a e l l i , F l a n d r i n , o r used c a r t o o n s by A n q u e t i n , done i n h i s "Rubenesque" p e r i o d . See a l s o G u i l l a u m e ' s Janneau's c h a p t e r i n F r e n c h T a p e s t r y , e d i t e d by Andre L e j a r d , ( t r a n s l . from La T a p i s s e r i e , P a r i s : Ed. du Chene, 1942), London: P. E l e k P u b l . , 1946, p<. 20. - 2 5 1 - 52 He d i d p r a i s e h i s f r i e n d Monet ( on whom he wrote a b o o k ) , and c o n s i d e r e d h i m s e l f t o be a s u p p o r t e r o f modern a r t ( as c r i t i c and c o l l e c t o r ) , b u t he was a c t u a l l y a " j u s t e m i l i e u c r i t i c . " 53 G e f f r o y , L a V i e a r t i s t i q u e , V o l . V I , p. 219. 54 Thadee Natanson, " P a u l Cezanne," Revue B l a n c h e , V o l . 9 , No.60, 1 Dec. 1895, p. 497.. 5 5 See Ch. I I , P a r t 1, p. 96. Natanson, p. 49 8. I n o p p o s i t i o n w i t h Natanson, was F r a n g o i s T h i e b a u l t - S i s s o n ' s comment, from a N a t u r a l i s t ( he was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Zola) p o s i t i o n . He d e c l a r e d i n Le Temps o f 22 Dec. 1895 t h a t Cezanne was " t o o i n c o m p l e t e " t o r e a l i z e f u l l y h i s own d i s - c o v e r i e s . Z o l a h i m s e l f , w i l l r e f e r t o Cezanne i n h i s l a s t " S a l o n " o f . 1 8 9 6 , as a " g r e a t a b o r t i v e p a i n t e r " : J ' a v a i s g r a n d i presque dans l e meme b e r c e a u , avec mon ami, mon f r e r e , P a u l Cezanne, dont s ' a v i s e seulement a u j o u r d ' h u i de d e c o u v r i r l e s p a r t i e s g e n i a l e s : d e grand p e i n t r e a v o r t e . ( E m i l e Z o l a , Le Bon Combat. De C o u r b e t aux I m p r e s s i o n i s t e s , P r e f . G~ P i c o n , ed. P a u l B o u i l l o n , P a r i s : Hermann,' C o l l e c t i o n S a v o i r , 1974, p. 260.) Z o l a never c o n s i d e r e d t h a t Cezanne r e a l i z e d h i m s e l f as a p a i n t e r . L e a v i n g a s i d e t h e q u e s t i o n o f h i s n o v e l L'Oeuvre, s i n c e i t s main c h a r a c t e r was not m o d e l l e d o n l y a f t e r Cezanne, we might r e c a l l t h a t i n 18 70 he t o l d Th. D u r e t , "Wait u n t i l he has found h i m s e l f " ( Z o l a , p. 242, n.68), and i n 1877: "Le j o u r ou M. P a u l Cezanne se p o s s e d r a t o u t e n t i e r , i l p r o d u i r a des oeuvres t o u t a f a i t s u p e r i e u r e s . " ( Z o l a , p. 188.) 5 7 See Ch. I I , P a r t 1, p. 100. 5 8 Natanson, p. 498. I b i d . 60 Natanson, p. 499. T h i s p a i n t i n g c o u l d have been V.179 o r V.183. 6 1 I b i d . , p. 500. 6 2 Andre M e l l e r i o , Le Mouvement i d e a l i s t e en p e i n t u r e , P a r i s : F l o u r y , 1896, p. 13. F o r t h e quote from D e n i s see T h e o r i e s , p. 70. - 252 - D J Ch. I , P a r t 2, pp. 53-54. M e l l e r i o i s a l s o v e r y c r i t i c a l o f R o s e - C r o i x . 64 M e l l e r i o , p. 26. L i k e G e f f r o y though, he adds Cezanne's p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h " t r u t h " : On d i r a i t qu'a chaque o b j e t i l a v o u l u r e s t i t u e r i n t a c t , cans sa f o r c e p r i m i t i v e non a v e u l i e par des p r a t i q u e s d ' a r t , son e c l a t v r a i e t e s s e n t i e l . U J I b i d . , p. 27. M e l l e r i o added: Chez Cezanne, l e v o u l o i r de se r e m e t t r e d i r e c t e m e n t en r a p p o r t avec l a n a t u r e , l ' a r d e u r a s'en s a i s i r p l e i n e m e n t avec un i n g e n u i t e maintenue j u s q u ' a l a g a u c h e r i e . ^ L i k e D e n i s , he c a l l e d most o f t h e N a b i s p a i n t e r s , > " S y n t h e t i s t s . " 6 7 See M e l l e r i o , p. 25. 6 8 F e l i c i e n Fagus, "Quarante t a b l e a u x de Cezanne," L a Revue B l a n c h e , V o l . 2 0 , Sept.-Nov. 1899, p. 627. 69 Fagus, pp. 627-28. I was not a b l e t o i d e n t i f y t h e s m a l l P i c n i c by t h e Sea about which Fagus was so e n t h u s i a s t i c , b u t i t p r o b a b l y was a p r e l i m i n a r y s t u d y t o e i t h e r one o f t h e l a r g e B a t h e r s : V.720 ( Barnes F o u n d a t i o n , M e r i o n , Pa.) o r V.721 ( N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y , London). Fagus a l s o mentioned t h e Maison l e z a r d e e ( The House w i t h C r a c k e d W a l l s ) , V.657 (.1892-94), which we know was l i s t e d as No.3 i n t h e 1899 e x h i b i t i o n ( see L. V e n t u r i , Cezanne, V o l . 1 , p. 206) and a Jeune B a i g n e u r . The l a t t e r , compared by Fagus w i t h t h e c r o s s i n 1'Enterrement d'Ornans by C o u r b e t , because o f t h e way t h i s f i g u r e w i t h s t r e t c h e d arms p r o f i l e d i t s e l f a g a i n s t t h e s k y , i s p r o b a b l y V.549 ( 1885-87). 70 ;-• See D e n i s , J o u r n a l , V o l . 1 , p. 149 ( C h r i s t m a s 1898). I don't know how V u i l l a r d a r r i v e d a t t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n ( maybe t h r o u g h V o l l a r d , o r Cezanne's s o n ) , b u t we know t h a t Cezanne admired "the g r e a t d e c o r a t i v e masters Veronese and Rubens." ( Cezanne, l e t t e r t o Camoin, 3 Feb. 1902, L e t t e r s , 1976, p. 282.) Georges Lecomte, " P a u l Cezanne," Revue d'Art,Vol-. 1, Nov. 4, 1899, p. 86. He - s a i d : I I en t r a d u i t l ' i n t i m i t e e t l a g r a n d e u r , mais i l echoue dans l ' a r t d'espacer l e s p l a n s , de donner 1 ' i l l u s i o n de l ' e t e n d u e . - 253 - 72 Son maigre s a v o i r l e t r a h i t . Cezanne n'a pas l e s moyens de r e n d r e t o u t ce q u ' i l p e r g o i t . . . B i e n de f o i s i l a r r i v e que ses etudes de n a t u r e s o n t sans p r o f o n d e u r . E l l e s donnent 1 ' i m p r e s s i o n d'une somptueuse t a p i s s e r i e sans l o i n t a i n . Ce s o n t des harmonies e x q u i s e s , de v a l e u r s t r e s r a p p r o c h e e s , p a r t o n s p l a t s t r e s s i m p l e s , q u i augmentent 1 ' i m p r e s s i o n de douceur e t de charme. Mais l e s d i v e r s e s l i g n e s du paysage ne s'espacent p o i n t dans 1 1 atmosphere. I b i d . Lecomte w r o t e : ...au beaux j o u r s - s i v i t e r e v o l u s - du symbolisme m y s t i q u e , on s ' e p r i t s u r t o u t de c e t t e absence de p r o f o n d e u r . C e l a f i t e c o l e . Comme i l e t a i t de mode de recommencer, p a r systeme, l e s n a i v e t e s des P r i m i t i f s , Cezanne f u t s a l u e comme un p r e c u r s e u r . On l ' a i m a pour ses i m p e r f e c t i o n s , que, de t o u t son e f f o r t , i l c h e r c h e a e v i t e r , comme s ' i l l e s a v a i t d e l i b e r e m e n t c o n s e n t i e s . Mais l e symbolisme y t r o u v a i t sa p r o p r e j u s t i f i c a t i o n . 73 See M. D e n i s . O r a n g e r i e s , p. 56. The p a i n t i n g was bought by Andre G i d e . ( See D e n i s , J o u r n a l , I , pp. 16 8-69.) 74 P. Cezanne, L e t t e r s , p. 275. ( A i x , June 5, 1901.) F o r D e n i s ' s answer, i n w h i c h he e x p r e s s e d a g a i n h i s a d m i r a - t i o n f o r Cezanne ( as w e l l as t h e a d m i r a t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e "group o f young p e o p l e t o w h i c h I b e l o n g and who can r i g h t l y c a l l t h e m s e l v e s your p u p i l s " ) , see I b i d . , pp. 275-76. 75 A f t e r t h e death o f Gauguin, i n 190 3, D e n i s wrote f o r L ' O c c i d e n t an a r t i c l e , "The i n f l u e n c e o f P a u l . G a u g u i n . " There he d e s c r i b e d Gauguin as " s o r t o f P o u s s i n w i t h o u t c l a s s i c a l c u l t u r e , " because l i k e P o u s s i n , he l o v e d s i m p l i c i t y , c l a r i t y , and f o r him " s y n t h e s i s and s t y l e were a l m o s t synonymous." ( D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , p. 166.) 76 See T h e o r i e s , p. 185, from "La R e a c t i o n N a t i o n a l i s t e , " L ' E r m i t a g e , 15 May 1905. 7 7 See my d i s c u s s i o n on B e r n a r d ' s a r t i c l e o f 1891. 78 See a l s o n.226. 79 B l a n c ( Gramm. des a r t s du d e s ' s i r , 1882, p. 666) d i d not c o n s i d e r t h e " i m i t a t i o n " o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r , o f t h e a c c i d e n t a l ( such as i n N a t u r a l i s m ) , as " a r t . " He r e q u i r e d from a r t t o e x t r a c t from r e a l i t y t h e " t y p i c a l " and t h e - 254 - "beauty." See a l s o Ch. I , P a r t 1, n.106. 80 E m i l e B e r n a r d , " P a u l Cezanne," L ' O c c i d e n t , No.32, J u l y 1904, p. 23. A good p a r t o f t h i s a r t i c l e i s t r a n s l a t e d i n E n g l i s h i n Judy Wechsler ed., Cezanne i n P e r s p e c t i v e , New J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 19 75, pp. 39-45. However, i n t h e p r e s e n t paper, when t h e quotes are i n E n g l i s h t h e y a r e my t r a n s l a t i o n . 81 See Ch. B l a n c , H i s t o i r e des p e i n t r e s des t o u t e s l e s e c o l e s : , E c o l e V e n i t i e n n e , P a r i s : Renouard, 1868, p. 16 and p. 12. / ; B e r n a r d , even i n h i s " c l a s s i c i s t " p e r i o d , was opposed t o academism, and e x p r e s s e d t h e o p i n i o n t h a t B l a n c ' s books were "mediocre." 82 I n t h e l e t t e r o f F e b r u a r y 3, 1902, Cezanne a d v i s e d t h e young p a i n t e r C h a r l e s Camoin: S i n c e you a r e now i n P a r i s and t h e masters o f t h e Louvre a t t r a c t you, i f i t a p p e a l s t o you, make some s t u d i e s a f t e r t h e g r e a t d e c o r a t i v e masters Veronese and Rubens, b u t as you would do a f t e r n a t u r e - a t h i n g I m y s e l f was o n l y a b l e t o do i n a d e q u a t e l y . ( Cezanne, L e t t e r s , p. 282) Cezanne's o p i n i o n on M i c h e l a n g e l o was e x p r e s s e d a l s o i n a l e t t e r t o Camoin: ...- what you must s t r i v e t o a c h i e v e i s a good method o f c o n s t r u c t i o n . Drawing i s m e r e l y t h e o u t l i n e o f what you see. M i c h e l a n g e l o i s a c o n s t r u c t o r , and Raphael an a r t i s t who, g r e a t as he may be, i s always t i e d t o t h e model. - When he t r i e s t o become a t h i n k e r he s i n k s below h i s g r e a t r i v a l . ( L e t t e r o f 9 Dec. 1904, L e t t e r s , p. 309) 8 3 B e r n a r d , "P. Cezanne," 1904, p. 22. 84 E. B e r n a r d , " L ' E r r e u r de Cezanne," Mercure de F r a n c e , 1 May 1926, p. 513. 5 I b i d . , p. 522. ^ I b i d . , p. 525. 7 B e r n a r d ( "P. Cezanne," 1904, p. 22) s a i d : Les s y n t h e s e s e x p r e s s i v e s de Cezanne s o n t de m i n u t i e u s e s e t soumises e t u d e s . P r e n a n t l a n a t u r e comme p o i n t d ' a p p u i , i l se conforme aux phenomenes e t l e s t r a n s c r i t l e n t e m e n t , - 255 - a t t e n t i v e m e n t , j u s q u ' a ce q u ' i l a i t d e c o u v e r t l e s l o i s q u i l e s p r o d u i s e n t . A l o r s , avec l o g i q u e , i l s'en empare, e t acheve son t r a v a i l p a r une imposante et. v i v a n t e s y n t h e s e . Sa c o n c l u s i o n , d ' a c c o r d avec s a n a t u r e m e r i d i o n a l e e t e x p a n s i v e , e s t d e c o r a t i v e ; c ' e s t - a - d i r e l i b r e e t e x a l t e e . 8 8 B e r n a r d , 1904, p. 21. 89 I b i d , pp. 29-30. B e r n a r d s a i d : Quoique pense d ' e l l e l e m a i t r e , t r o p s e v e r e pour lui-meme, e l l e domine t o u t e l a p r o d u c t i o n contemporaine, e l l e s'impose p a r l a s a v e u r e t 1 ' o r i g i n a l i t e de sa v i s i o n , l a beaute de sa m a t i e r e , l a r i c h e s s e d e son c o l o r i s , son c a r a c t e r e s e r i e u x e t d u r a b l e , son ampleur d e c o r a t i v e . I t i s p o s s i b l e Cezanne a c t u a l l y s a i d : I I f a u t e t r e o u v r i e r dans son a r t . S a v o i r de bonne heure sa methode de r e a l i s a t i o n . E t r e p e i n t r e par l e s q u a l i t e s memes de l a p e i n t u r e . Se s e r v i r de m a t e r i a u x g r o s s i e r s . ( B e r n a r d , "P. Cezanne," 1904, p. 24.) 90 I b i d . , p. 25. On Cezanne's r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h I m p r e s s i o n i s m , B e r n a r d w r o t e : ... Comme on l e v o i t , i l se d i f f e r e n c i e e s s e n t i e l l e m e n t de 1 ' i m p r e s s i o n n i s m e , dont i l d e r i v e , mais dans l e q u e l i l ne peut emprisonner sa n a t u r e . L o i n d ' e t r e un spontane, Cezanne e s t un r e f l e c h l , son g e n i e e s t un e c l a i r en p r o f o n d e u r . I I r e s u l t e done que son temperament t r e s p e i n t r e l ' a c o n d u i t a des c r e a t i o n s d e c o r a t i v e s n o u v e l l e s , a des s y n t h e s e s i n a t t e n d u e s ; e t ces s y n t h e s e s on e t e en v e r i t e l e p l u s grand p r o g r e s j a i l l i des a p e r c e p t i o n s modernes;... 9 1 See Ch. I , P a r t 2,. "B," and Ch. I I , P a r t 1, p. 96. 92 See f o r example B e r n a r d , "La methode de P a u l Cezanne," Mercure de F r a n c e , V o l . 1 3 8 , 1 March 1920, p. 291: Quant a l ' e s t h e t i q u e d e s i m p r e s s i o n n i s t e s e t c e l l e de Cezanne, on ne peut y ; r e c o n n a i t r e aucune d i f f e r e n c e : e l l e s t e n d e n t t o u t e s deux a 1 ' e x p r e s s i o n des choses que nous, voyons, au mepris de 1' i n v e n t i o n , p a r un s t y l e soumis ;',: :. - 256 - a l a n a t u r e . C'est l e n a t u r a l i s m e . B e r n a r d emphasized h e r e , t h a t w h i l e f o r t h e I m p r e s s i o n i s t s the manner ( l a maniere) o f p a i n t i n g was o f no i m p o r t a n c e , s i n c e t h e y were not concerned, w i t h "the beauty o f t h e means" ( l a beaute du moyen), Cezannes' a p p l i q u a i t a t r o u v e r une maniere de p e i n d r e q u i f u t v r a i m e n t p i c t u r a l e , e t dans l a q u e l l e un d e l i c a t p o u r r a i t p u i s e r l a s a t i s f a c t i o n de son gout pour l a f a c t u r e . From B e r n a r d ' s l e t t e r t o h i s mother, 5 Feb. 1904 ( "Un E x t r a o r d i n a i r e Document s u r P a u l Cezanne," A r t s - d o c u m e n t s , Nov. 1954, p. 4 ) , quoted i n R i c h a r d S h i f t , " S e e i n g Cezanne," C r i t i c a l I n q u i r y , V o l . 4 , Summer 1978, p. 798. S h i f f i s r i g h t i n p o i n t i n g out t h a t B e r n a r d ' s " o f f i c i a l " statement i n L ' O c c i d e n t o f 1904 d i d not q u i t e match h i s p e r s o n a l o p i n i o n , and t h a t R e f f was i n n a c u r a t e i n t h i s r e s p e c t . But S h i f f d i d not c l a r i f y what d i d B e r n a r d mean by " n a t u r a l i s m . " B e r n a r d ' s d e f i n i t i o n was q u i t e encompassing and i n f a c t r e f e r r e d t o any work t h a t was p a i n t e d I n f r o n t o f a " m o t i f " i n s t e a d o f u s i n g one's i m a g i n a t i o n ( h e l p e d by memories o f " c l a s s i c a l " a r t ) . I do not i n t e n d t o d i s c u s s S h i f f ' s a r t i c l e , but I would l i k e t o p o i n t out t h a t he l o o k e d a t Cezanne o n l y from t h e p o i n t o f view o f two p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s : Symbolism o r I m p r e s s i o n - ism; he a r r i v e d a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e I m p r e s s i o n i s t p o i n t o f view c o r r e s p o n d s b e t t e r w i t h Cezanne's own i n t e n t i o n s . L a t e r S h i f f wrote an a r t i c l e i n w h i c h he demonstrated t h a t Symbolism and I m p r e s s i o n i s m were not so a n t i t h e t i c a f t e r a l l i n t h e 1890s, b u t he d i d n o t m o d i f y h i s views on Cezanne. By p a i n t i n g n a t u r e " a c c o r d i n g t o a r t i t s e l f , " B e r n a r d meant c u l t i v a t i n g o n e s e l f i n t h e museums, s t u d y i n g t h e works o f t h e g r e a t c l a s s i c s ( o r o f t h e g r e a t M a s t e r s ' t o be c o r r e c t , s i n c e he used t h e word " c l a s s i c " more i n t h a t sense, i n c l u d i n g Rubens and t h e V e n e t i a n s among them), e x t r a c t i n g from them t h e "laws o f n a t u r e , " i n s t e a d o f p a i n t i n g d i r e c t l y .from a model o r m o t i f . The N a t u r e - A r t r e l a t i o n s h i p was i n f a c t t h e bone o f c o n t e n t i o n between Cezanne and B e r n a r d , as i s o b v i o u s i n Cezanne's l e t t e r s . ( See a l s o Ch. I I , P a r t 2.) On May 26, a f t e r r e a d i n g t h e a r t i c l e B e r n a r d was t o p u b l i s h i n L ' O c c i d e n t , Cezanne wrote t o B e r n a r d : On the whole I approve o f t h e i d e a s you a r e t o expound i n your n e x t a r t i c l e f o r ' O c c i d e n t ' . But I must always come back t o t h i s : p a i n t e r s must devote t h e m s e l v e s e n t i r e l y t o the s t u d y o f n a t u r e . . . ( Cezanne, L e t t e r s , p. 303.) 94 E. B e r n a r d , "Paul Cezanne," 1904, p. 26. 95 I b i d . , p. 24. B e r n a r d i n s i s t e d on t r a d i t i o n , b u t not n e c e s s a r i l y F r e n c h t r a d i t i o n . He p r e f e r r e d I t a l i a n a r t . I n 1926 he d e s c r i b e d P o u s s i n as t h e most c l a s s i c a l o f t h e F r e n c h , but w i t h o u t t h e " l y r i s m " o f M i c h e l a n g e l o . ( See E. B e r n a r d , " L ' E r r e u r de Cezanne," MerGure.de F r a n c e , May 1, 1926, pp. 518-19.) Cezanne's " e r r o r , " a c c o r d i n g t o B e r n a r d , was i n f a c t http://MerGure.de - 257 - t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n o f terms i m p l i e d i n t h e w e l l - p o p u l a r i z e d d i c t u m " c l a s s i c a l by t h e way o f n a t u r e " ( o r a l s o " P o u s s i n r e - done from n a t u r e , " as B e r n a r d now c l a i m e d Cezanne a l s o added). I t meant l e a v i n g a s i d e t h e b e s t p a r t o f P o u s s i n and l e a d i n g him t o r e a l i s m , " t h a t i s t o t h e f u r t h e s t p o s s i b l e p o i n t away from c l a s s i c a l a r t . " 96 B e r n a r d , 1904, p. 24. Compare t o Cezanne, L e t t e r s , p. 301. V e n t u r i remarked i n 1936: Comme a p r e s l a mort de Cezanne on a i n v e n t e l e cubisme, on a c r u t r o u v e r dans ce passage une j u s t i f i c a t i o n du Cubisme par Cezanne. C'est une e r r e u r e v i d e n t e . Cezanne a v o u l u p a r l e r de 1 1 a c c o r d en p e r s p e c t i v e de l a c o m p o s i t i o n comme en e u t p a r l e un I t a l i e n de l a R e n a i s s a n c e , e t non pas un p r e c u r s e u r de cubisme. ( L. V e n t u r i , Cezanne, 1936, p. 36.) B e r n a r d and Denis were though:: t h e ones t h a t f i r s t o v e r - emphasized and t o o k . o u t o f / c o n t e x t Cezanne's q u o t e , and t h e y were not t r y i n g t o j u s t i f y Cubism e i t h e r . But t h e y wanted t o make propaganda f o r c l a s s i c i s m , which r e q u i r e d an emphasis on "volumes." Maybe t h i s p r o v e s what Gustave Kahn n o t i c e d a l r e a d y i n 1913, namely t h a t even though G l e i z e s and M e t z i n g e r i n t h e i r Cubisme p r e s e n t e d Courbet and Cezanne as t h e i r a n c e s t o r s , t h e y were i n f a c t i n f l u e n c e d by t h e " c l a s s i c i s t s . " ( See G. Kahn, " L ' e x p o s i t i o n des Independents," Mercure de F r a n c e , V o l . 1 0 2 , No.380, 16 Apr. 1913, pp. 864-865.) Th. R e f f a l s o remarked t h a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r quote was t a k e n out o f c o n t e x t , b u t he a f f i r m e d t h i s happened o n l y a f t e r B e r n a r d p u b l i s h e d Cezanne's l e t t e r i n 190 7, i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e development o f Cubism. I n f a c t a l r e a d y , i n 190 4, i n h i s a r t i c l e i n t h e O c c i d e n t , B e r n a r d h i m s e l f used t h i s quote and s w i t c h e d i t s meaning from a l e s s o n i n p e r s p e c t i v e t o one i n m o d e l l i n g . ( See Th. R e f f , Cezanne. The L a t e Work, pp. 46-48 and Th. R e f f , "Cezanne on S o l i d s and Spaces," A r t f o r u m , V o l . 1 6 , Oct. 1977, pp. 34-35.) 9 7 See E. B e r n a r d , "Note r e l a t i v e au symbolisme p i c t u r a l , " L e t t e r s a E m i l e B e r n a r d , B r u s s e l s , 1942, pp. 253-57. B e r n a r d was a g a i n s t d e c o r a t i v e s t y l i z a t i o n ( e s p e c i a l l y G a u g u i n ' s ) , as w e l l as a g a i n s t "academism" ( D a v i d , I n g r e s ) . The l a t t e r recommended t h e use o f a model ( and f o r B e r n a r d t h i s was e q u i v a l e n t w i t h " r e a l i s m " ) and o n l y a subsequent l i n e a r c o r r e c - t i o n ( " l a c o r r e c t i o n " ) o f what amounts t o a "copy." ( See a l s o " L ' e r r e u r de. Cezanne," pp. 522-25.) Cezanne d i d not l i k e I n g r e s ( see Cezanne, L e t t e r s , p. 305) e i t h e r , t h u s i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e o p i n i o n " I n g r e s e s t un c l a s s i q u e n u i s i b l e , " ( B e r n a r d , 1904, p. 23) g i v e n by B e r n a r d as coming from Cezanne was not f a r from a u t h e n t i c . F o r t h e r e b u t t a l o f t h e myth t h a t i n Cezanne's p a i n t - i n g s " l i n e does not e x i s t , " see E r i e L o r a n , Cezanne's - 258 - C o m p o s i t i o n , B e r k e l e y , 1963 ( f i r s t ed. 1943), pp. 10-14, and a l s o Th. R e f f , Cezanne. The L a t e Work, p. 49. F o r B e r n a r d ' s o p i n i o n i n 1891, see Ch. I I , P a r t 1, p. 75. B e r n a r d d i d remember s i x t e e n y e a r s l a t e r though, t h a t Cezanne o u t l i n e d t h e o b j e c t s r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h a s t r o n g , " s t y l i s e d " c o n t o u r . ( See Ch. I I , P a r t 1, n.4.) 99 See B e r n a r d , 1904, pp. 23-24. Compare t o P. Gauguin, "Notes S y n t h e t i q u e s , " t r a n s l . H. C h i p p , T h e o r i e s o f Modern A r t , p. 64. ( N.B. t h e more a c c u r a t e date f o r t h e m a n u s c r i p t i s 1884-85.) 1 0 0 See a l s o Ch. I I , P a r t 2, p..179. ± 0 ± T h i s time t h e r e a s o n was d i f f e r e n t t h a n t h e I m p r e s s i o n i s t s ' one; t h e " p a t c h " was used t o c o n s t r u c t c o l o u r - ed p a t t e r n s . I t i s my o p i n i o n t h a t the. emphasis on "the p a t c h " ( l a tache) was a consequence o f t h e p o p u l a r i t y t h e 18th c e n t u r y p a i n t i n g ( Rococo) was e n j o y i n g a t the t u r n o f the c e n t u r y i n F r a n c e . T h i s p a i n t i n g was "French par e x c e l l e n c e " and t h e i n t e r e s t i n i t c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e r i s e o f F r e n c h n a t i o n a l i s m a t t h e t i m e . M a r c e l N i c o l l e wrote i n "Les p e i n t r e s f r a n g a i s au X V I I I e s i e c l e " ( a r e v i e w o f t h e book w i t h the same t i t l e by Lady E m i l i a F.S. D i l k e , London, 1899) , La Revue de l ' A r t A n c i e n e t Moderne, V o l . 7 , 1900, p. 149: L'ec,0jl,e f r a n g a i s e de p e i n t u r e du X V I I I e s i e c l e j o u i t a l ' h e u r e a c t u e l l e aupres des amateurs d'une vogue remarquable; l e s noms des p l u s p e t i t s m a i t r e s s o n t r e p e t e s a s a t i e t e , l e u r s o e u v r e s , meme i n s i g n i f i a n t e s , se vendent aisement des p r i x e l e v e s . F r a g o n a r d i s e s p e c i a l l y p r a i s e d a t t h e time because he knew t h e v a l u e o f t h e " p a t c h o f c o l o r . " ( I b i d . , p. 154.) Lady D i l k e ( p. 72) s a i d t h a t F r a g o n a r d had, i n common w i t h o t h e r s o f t h e same s c h o o l , a f i n e p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e v a l u e o f l a t a c h e and a s t r o n g f e e l i n g f o r what i s c a l l e d p a t t e r n i n c o l o u r . She a l s o remarked t h a t , "La t a c h e " i n c o l o u r , f u l f i l s p r e c i s e l y t h a t o f f i c e which an i s o l a t e d ornament may p e r f o r m i n p a t t e r n ; Thus a d e c o r a t i v e p a t t e r n c o u l d be o b t a i n e d w i t h o u t t h e l i n e , which was e x t e n s i v e l y used i n t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s ( A r t s Nouveau). The p a t c h o f c o l o r was a f t e r a l l b e t t e r s u i t e d f o r "pure p a i n t i n g . " Cezanne's i n t e r e s t i n t h e 18th c. F r e n c h p a i n t e r s i s w e l l known, and i n h i s l e t t e r t o B e r n a r d o f 27 June 1904 ( L e t t e r s , p. 304) he e x p r e s s e d h i s a d m i r a t i o n f o r C h a r d i n . Cezanne, l e t t e r t o B e r n a r d , 23 Oct. 1905, L e t t e r s , pp. 316-17. To make s u r e t h e r e are no m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s ( t h e l e t t e r i s n o t v e r y c l e a r l y w r i t t e n ) I w i l l quote t h i s l e t t e r - 259 - i n F r e n c h ( Cezanne, Correspondance, P a r i s , 1937, p. 277): Or v i e u x , s o i x a n t e - d i x ans e n v i r o n , l e s s e n s a t i o n s c o l o r a n t e s q u i donnent l a l u m i e r e s o n t cause d ' a b s t r a c t i o n s q u i ne me p e r m e t t e n t pas de c o u v r i r ma t o i l e , n i de p o u r s u i v r e l a d e l i m i t a t i o n des o b j e c t s quand l e s p o i n t s de c o n t a c t s o n t t e r i u s , d e T i c a t s ; d'ou i l r e s s o r t que mon image ou t a b l e a u e s t i n c o m p l e t e . D'un a u t r e c o t e l e s p l a n s tombent l e s uns s u r l e s a u t r e s , d'ou e s t s o r t i l e neo- i m p r e s s i o n n i s m e q u i c i r c o n s c r i t l e s c o n t o u r s d'un t r a i t n o i r , d e f a u t q u ' i l f a u t . c o m b a t t r e a t o u t e f o r c e . Or l a n a t u r e c o n s u l t e e nous donne l e s moyens d ' a t t e i n d r e ce b u t . I would l i k e t o p o i n t out t h a t t h e r e f e r e n c e t o N e o - I m p r e s s i o n - ism, "which c i r c u m s c r i b e s t h e c o n t o u r s w i t h a b l a c k l i n e , " t h a t p u z z l e d a r t h i s t o r i a n s o f t h e 20th c e n t u r y , can be under- s t o o d i f we remember t h a t a t t h e t i m e Feneon's c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was not y e t w i d e l y a c c e p t e d . S e u r a t and h i s group c a l l e d themselves a t f i r s t , "Chromo-Luminarists," and i n A. M e l l e r i o ' s book Le Mouvement i d e a l i s t e en p e i n t u r e o f 1896, f o r example, t h e y a r e l i s t e d under t h i s name. Under t h e t i t l e o f Neo- I m p r e s s i o n i s t s were l i s t e d a r t i s t s t h a t , , " t o u t en t e n a n t a 1'Impressionnisme p a r des l i e n s e t r o i t s , ont p a r u i n c l i n e r en quelque p o i n t s v e r s l a f o r m u l e i d e a l i s t e . " Such a r t i s t s were c o n s i d e r e d t o be: S c h u f f e n e c k e r , T o u l o u s e - L a u t r e c , I b e l s , A n q u e t i n . 10 3 See E r n e s t Chesneau, Les C h e f s d ' E c o l e , P a r i s : 1862, pp. 282-83. See a l s o Cezanne's l e t t e r t o P i s s a r r o , o f 24 June 1874 ( L e t t e r s , p. 141), i n w h i c h Cezanne acknowledged t h a t P i s s a r r o " r e p l a c e d m o d e l l i n g by t h e s t u d y o f t o n e s . " 104 E. B e r n a r d , " P a u l Cezanne," 1904, p. 24. There i s no r e a l p r o o f t h a t Cezanne used t h e word "modulate." I f Cezanne d i d use t h e term " t o modulate" as a s u b s t i t u t e f o r " m o d e l l i n g , " most l i k e l y he d i d not have i n mind t h e m o d e l l i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l "forms," b u t what was c a l l e d t h e " m o d e l l i n g o f t h e t a b l e a u . " ( See I , p..'.81.) T h i s i s because t h e c o l o r m o d u l a t i o n s a c h i e v e a c o l o r l s t i c " e f f e c t " t h a t r e p l a c e s t h e c h i a r o s c u r o e f f e c t t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d t h e " m o d e l l i n g o f a t a b l e a u . " 105 See C h a r l e s B l a n c , "Eugene D e l a c r o i x , " Gaz. des B e a u x - A r t s , 1864, p. 114, where he s a i d t h a t D e l a c r o i x used t h e p r i n c i p l e o f " c o l o u r m o d u l a t i o n , " o r h i s Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n , 1867, p. 60 7, where he r e f e r r e d t o t h i s p r o - cedure as t o "modulate t h e tone on i t s e l f , " o r t h e Grammaire des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s , where he p r a i s e d O r i e n t a l c a r p e t makers and c e r a m i s t s a g a i n , and recommended t h e i r method o f making c o l o u r " v i b r a t e " ( s e e op. c i t . , p. 390). See a l s o Grammaire des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s , p. 40 7, where B l a n c d e s c r i b e d how - 260 - O r i e n t a l s a c h i e v e d harmony w i t h v e r y b r i g h t c o l o u r s , by "passages" between c o n t r a s t i n g hues. B l a n c ' s Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n has been suggest- ed as a s o u r c e o f t h e above mentioned quote from Cezanne, r e f e r r i n g t o t h e academic t e a c h i n g o f p e r s p e c t i v e u s i n g s i m p l e g e o m e t r i c a l volumes. The s u g g e s t i o n was made by C h r i s t o p h e r Gray ( C u b i s t A e s t h e t i c T h e o r i e s , B a l t i m o r e , 196 7, p. 4 9 ) , who d i d not f i n d any l i n k between B l a n c ' s t e x t and Cezanne's " c o l o u r m o d u l a t i o n s , " perhaps because he was l o o k i n g f o r t h e meaning g i v e n by B e r n a r d , t h a t i s , p r i m a r i l y a s u b s t i t u t e f o r " m o d e l l i n g form." He s a i d : On t h e o t h e r hand, h i s c o n c e p t i o n t h a t c o l o r modulates form appears t o be h i s s y n t h e s i s o f t h e i d e a s o f I m p r e s s i o n i s m w i t h h i s i n t e r e s t i n form. 1 0 6 I n h i s "Methode de P. Cezanne" ( 1920, p. 294) men- t i o n e d b e f o r e , B e r n a r d d i d say t h a t Cezanne r e t a i n e d t h i s p r i n c i p l e from D e l a c r o i x : "Tout champ s ' e n r i c h i t du nuancement de s a c o u l o u r p r o p r e . " 107 C a r l o s de C a s t e r a ( s i g n e d " S o l r a c " ) , " R e f l e x i o n s s u r l e C a l o n d'Automne," L ' O c c i d e n t , Dec. 1904, pp. 303-311. The S a l o n d'Automne was founded by a young g e n e r a t i o n o f p a i n t e r s : D e s v a l l i e r e s , P l o t , R o u a u i t , J o u r d a i n . A c c o r d i n g t o some s o u r c e s ( D i e N a b i s und i h r e f r e u n d e , K u n s t h a l l e Manheim, Oct. 1963-Jan. 1964), V u i l l a r d was one o f t h e co- f o u n d e r s . A t t h e F a l l S a l o n o f 1904 Cezanne had a room w i t h 33 p a i n t i n g s . A t t h e same S a l o n were e x h i b i t e d 43 p a i n t i n g s by P u v i s , as w e l l as 3 3 by R e n o i r , 6 2 by Redon and 2 8 by L a u t r e c . 1 0 8 " S o l r a c , " p. 305. 1 0 9 I b i d . , pp. 305-06. 1 1 0 I b i d . , p. 306. Compare t o B e r n a r d ' s a r t i c l e o f 1904 ( see p. 109 and n.88). " S o l r a c " d i d use B e r n a r d ' s t e r m i n - o l o g y , b u t h i s concept o f "pure p a i n t i n g " i s c l o s e r t o t h e u s u a l one i E x c e p t he d i d riot c o n s i d e r t h i s p a i n t i n g as b e i n g " o n l y s e n s o r i a l , " as he c o n s i d e r e d I m p r e s s i o n i s t a r t was. 1 1 1 I b i d . V e n t u r i d i d not mention t h i s s t i l l - l i f e as e x h i b i t e d a t t h i s S a l o n , o n l y a t L i b r e E s t h e t i q u e ( where Cezanne s e n t n i n e p a i n t i n g s ) , t h e S p r i n g 1904. 112 I n f a c t P u v i s d i d use t h e same p r i n c i p l e s borrowed from f r e s c o p a i n t i n g i n h i s e a s e l p a i n t i n g s , which c o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d as d e c o r a t i o n s . T h e i r c o l o r s were such t h a t harmonized w i t h any environment. Cezanne's o r i g i n a l i n t e n - t i o n s were, i n my o p i n i o n , s i m i l a r t o P u v i s ' . - 261 - "Pure p a i n t i n g " showed i t s e m a n c i p a t i o n by employing s t r o n g c o l o r s , f o r example. 1 1 3 " S o l r a c , " p. 30 7. 114 115 116 I b i d . Of c o u r s e , t h i s was o n l y w h i s t f u l l t h i n k i n g . See Ch. I , P a r t 1, pp. 25-26. See Roger Marx, "Les S a l o n s de 1895," Gaz. des Beaux- A r t s , V o l . 1 4 , 1895, p. 22. See a l s o Ch. I , P a r t 2, p. 77. 117 See Roger Marx, "Le S a l o n d'Automne," Gaz. des Beaux- A r t s , V o l . 3 2 , Dec. 1904, p. 462. 1 1 8 I b i d . , p. 459. 119 R e f f , "Cezanne and P o u s s i n , " p. 162, s a i d t h a t t h i s c o n n e c t i o n was f i r s t made by M. D e n i s . R. S h i f f i n " S e e i n g Cezanne," even though he mentioned Marx', a r t i c l e , a l s o m i s s e d t h i s p o i n t and d e c l a r e d t h a t Camoin was t h e f i r s t t o connect Cezanne w i t h P o u s s i n . F o r Marx's c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f Cezanne, see "Le S a l o n d'Automn," pp. 462-63. 120 F o r t h e " d e c o r a t i v e " P o u s s i n and C o r o t , see Ch. I , P a r t 2, rt.2 and n.75. I n 1901 t h e E c o l e des B e a u x - A r t s mounted a Daumier e x h i b i t i o n w h i c h was v e r y s u c c e s s f u l and emphasized Daumier as a p a i n t e r , not o n l y as a c a r i c a t u r i s t . As t h e c r i t i c f o r Revue B l a n c h e put i t , " l e c a r i c a t u r i s t e ne s o u f f r e pas du t r i o m p h e de p e i n t r e . " ( See Claude A n e t , " L ' E x p o s i t i o n Daumier," L a Revue B l a n c h e , v.25, May-Aug. 1901, p. 216.) R e v i e w i n g t h e i n d e p e n d a n t s ' e x h i b i t i o n o f 1901, Thadee Natanson w r o t e : ...qu'a l a f i n p r e y a u t 1'Importance de Daumier e t de Cezanne chez q u i l e s d e r n i e r venus ont t a n t a apprendre e t t o u t a d m i r e r . ( Th. Natanson, "Les A r t i s t e s Independants. D'un p e i n t r e du x i x e f r a n g a i s i n c o n n u , e t de quelques-uns q u i i n a u g u r e n t l e x x e , " L a Revue B l a n c h e , V o l . 2 5 , May-Aug. 1901, p. 52.) 121 Roger Marx, 1904, p. 463. T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e f o r Cezanne's B a t h e r s done around 1900, such as f o r example V.387, o r V.724. The l a t t e r ( now i n t h e B a l t i m o r e Museum o f A r t ) was a c t u a l l y e x h i b i t e d i n Cezanne's r e t r o s p e c t i v e o f t h e 190 4 S a l o n d'Automne. 1 2 2 R. Marx, 1904, p. 464. - 262 - I b i d . 124 Cezanne, L e t t e r s , p. 313. 125 . D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , p. 181. I n t h i s a r t i c l e Denis r e a c t e d a g a i n s t C. M a u c l a i r who c r i t i c i z e d N e o ^ C l a s s i c i s m and t h e " N a t i o n a l i s t i c P e r i l , " a c c u s i n g t h e i r exponents o f b e i n g r e a c t i o n a r y and r e t r o g r a d e . - 126 See D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , p..181 and p. 185. 12 7 M. D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , p. 138 ( from "A propos de 1 ' e x p o s i t i o n de C h a r l e s G u e r i n , " L ' O c c i d e n t , March 1905). G u e r i n was a n o t h e r example o f young p a i n t e r c o n s i d e r e d ( t h i s time by D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , p. 140) t o be i n d e b t e d t o b o t h Moreau and Cezanne. 12 8 See D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , p. 1. 129 F r a n c o i s Monod, "Le S a l o n d'Automne," A r t e t D e c o r a t i o n , J u l y - D e c . 1905, V o l . 1 8 , p. 198. 1 3 0 Monod, "Le S a l o n d'Automne." 131 Monod, p. 200. 132 , I b i d . 133 T. . , I b i d . 134 _.. , I b i d . 135 T. . , I b i d . 1 3 6 See Th. R e f f , Cezanne. The Late: Work, p. 28. 137 M. D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , p. 197 ( from L ' E r m i t a j e , 15 Nov. 1905). 13 8 Denis d i d connect Cezanne w i t h c l a s s i c i s t t e n d e n c i e s e a r l i e r when f o r example he c l a i m e d Cezanne, l i k e I n g r e s , was concerned w i t h s t y l e . See D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , p. 56 ( from "Le S a l o n de l a S o c i e t e N a t i o n a l e des B e a u x - A r t s , " L a Depeche de T o u l o u s e , 1901). 139 C h a r l e s Camoin, "Equete s u r l e s tendances a c t u e l l e s - 263 - des a r t s p l a s t i q u e s , " Mercure de F r a n c e , V o l . 5 6 , 1 Aug. 1905, p. 353. Camoin w r o t e : I I e s t profondement c l a s s i q u e , e t i l r e p e t e souvent q u ' i l n'a cherche qu'a v i v i f i e r P o u s s i n s u r n a t u r e . I I ne v o i s pas o b j e c t i v e m e n t e t p a r l a t a c h e comme l e s i m p r e s s i o n n i s t e s ; i l d e c h i f f r e l a n a t u r e l e n t e m e n t , p a r 1'ombre e t l a l u m i e r e , q u ' i l exprime en des s e n s a t i o n s de c o u l e u r . Cependant, i l n'a pas d ' a u t r e b u t que c e l u i de f a i r e image Camoin proceeded t h e n t o g i v e q u o t a t i o n s from Cezanne's l e t t e r s a d d r e s s e d t o him, b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e a d v i c e : "Puisque vous v o i l a a P a r i s e t que l e s M a i t r e s du Louvre vous a t t i r e n t , f a i t e s d'apres l e s grands m a i t r e s d e c o r a t i f s , Veronese e t Rubens, des etudes comme vous f e r i e z d'apres n a t u r e , ce que j e n ' a i su f a i r e qu'incompletement." ( See a l s o Cezanne, l e t t e r o f 3 Feb. 1902, L e t t e r s , p. 282.) 140 D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , p. 196. D e n i s ' own answer i n t h e Mercure i s j u s t as e v a s i v e as t h e one i n L'Echo o f 1891. 141 Denis ( T h e o r i e s , p. 193) d i d not f o r g e t t o remind t h e r e a d e r s t h a t he c a l l e d t h e movement o f 1890 "Neo- t r a d i t i o n i s m , " and t h a t i n f a c t "no o t h e r movement was more c l e a r l y t r a d i t i o n a l i s t . " 142 See T h e o r i e s , p. 192. I n 1903, Denis c a l l e d Gauguin a " P o u s s i n w i t h o u t c l a s s i c a l c u l t u r e " ( T h e o r i e s , p. 166). I n f a c t Gauguin was not " w i t h o u t c l a s s i c a l c u l t u r e , " and e x p r e s s e d h i s a d m i r a t i o n f o r R a p h a e l . ( See Gauguin's 1889 l e t t e r t o E. B e r n a r d i n w h i c h he d e c l a r e d t h a t as opposed t o Van Gogh, he admired I n g r e s , Raphael and Degas: L e t t r e s a E m i l e B e r n a r d , 1942, p. 99.) 143 D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , p. 22 7. 144 „ Enquete...," Mercure de F r a n c e , 15 Aug. 1905, p. 544. 145 E. Bernard ( s i g n e d " F r a n c i s Lepeseur"), "De M i c h e l Ange a Paul Cezanne," La Renovation E s t h e t i q u e , March 1906, p, 253. P i e r r e Hepp, "Sur l e choix des m a i t r e s , " L'Occident, Dec. 1905, p. 265. 147 I b i d . , p.. 264. 148 . . . I b i d . The emphasis on m a t e r i e l l e m e n t i s mine. - 264 - 149 150 151 152 E. B e r n a r d ; "De M i c h e l Ange...," p. 253, I b i d . , p. 257. See Ch. I I , P a r t 1, p. 96 and n.24. B e r n a r d , "De M i c h e l Ange...," p. 258. I n h i s a r t i c l e "La methode de P a u l Cezanne," Mercure de F r a n c e , 1 March 19 20, p. 314 he w i l l c o m p l a i n about t h e " i n u t i l i t y " o f t h e " p a i n t i n g f o r i t s own sake" o r "pure p a i n t i n g . " A l r e a d y i n 1905, i n a more obscure p u b l i c a t i o n , Le P e t i t D a u p h i n o i s , B e r n a r d e x p r e s s e d h i s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h Cezanne. ( See V o l l a r d , P a u l Cezanne, p. 121.) 153 M. D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , p. 203. ( "Le renoncement de C a r r i e r e . La s u p e r s t i t i o n du t a l e n t , " L ' E r m i t a g e , 15 June 1906.) Denis e x p l a i n s t h a t t h i s concept appeared out o f t h e n e c e s s i t y o f not c o n f u s i n g p a i n t i n g w i t h l i t e r a t u r e , and as a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t n a t u r a l i s m , b u t one s h o u l d not emphasize o n l y the m a t e r i a l q u a l i t i e s o f an work o f a r t . ( T h e o r i e s , p. 207.) 154 D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , p. 20 8. 155 M. D e n i s , " L 1 I n f l u e n c e de Cezanne," L'Amour de l ' A r t , Dec. 19 20, r e p r i n t e d i n NouveTles T h e o r i e s , p. 118. Hugo d ' A l e s i ( 1849-1906) was a p a i n t e r b o r n i n Romania, known e s p e c i a l l y f o r h i s c o l o r l i t h o g r a p h s p o s t e d i n t h e r a i l w a y s t a t i o n s , r e p r e s e n t i n g p i c t u r e s q u e s i t e s from France o r abroad. I n 1901 he had a p a i n t i n g e x h i b i t i o n a t t h e G a l e r y Georges P e t i t , h i s s m a l l - s c a l e m o u n t a i n - l a n d s - c a p e s r e c e i v i n g f a v o r a b l e comments. ( See t h e column " E x p o s i t i o n e t Concours," Le B u l l e t i n de l ' A r t A n c i e n e t Moderne, V o l . 3 , No. 115, 23 Nov. 1901, pp. 276-77.) 157 See M. D e n i s , T h e o r i e s : "Le S " : o l e i l " ( f i r s t i n L ' E r m i t a g e , 15 Dec. 1906), pp. 212-15. See a l s o T h e o r i e s , p. 154. 15 8 C a m i l l e M a u c l a i r , "Le S a l o n d'Automne," A r t e t D e c o r a t i o n , V o l . 1 9 , Jan.-June 1906, p. 147. 159 See Gustave Kahn, " L e t t r e a un exposant" ( S a l o n dAAutomne), La P h a l a n g e , Nov. 1906, p. 369. 1 6 0 C. M a u c l a i r , A r t e t D e c o r a t i o n , 1906, p. 144 r - 265 - M a u c l a i r , 1906, p. 150. M a u c l a i r admitted t h a t i n h i s youth he was c r i t i c a l of Gauguin, but a f t e r a l l , he s a i d , the T a h i t i a n p a i n t i n g s were b e t t e r than the ones i n B r i t t a n y . 16 2 C h a r l e s Morice, " A r t Moderne" ( i n "Revue de l a q u i n z a i n e " ) , Mercure de France, V o l . 7 0 , Dec. 1907, p. 547. See M. Denis, "Cezanne," T h e o r i e s , p. 253 ( f i r s t i n L'Occident, Sept. 1907). Denis f i r s t mentioned t h i s "quota- t i o n " i n 1906, J o u r n a l , I I , p. 46, Mirbeau h i m s e l f embelished i t even more i n the p r e f a c e of the volume put t o g e t h e r by 0. Mirbeau, Th. Duret, L. Werth and F r . J o u r d a i n , Cezanne, P a r i s : Bernheim-Jeune ed., 1914, p. 9. See a l s o G. G e f f r o y , Monet, 1922, p. 198. 164 165 166 See a l s o Ch. I, P a r t 2, n. 26. Ch. Morice, Mercure, 1907, p. 547. Ch. Morice, Mercure de France, Nov. 1, 1907, "Le V e Salon d'Automne," p. 165. 16 7 I b i d . , p. 164. C h a r l e s Morice i n h i s book Gauguin, P a r i s : F l e u r y , 1919, p. 166, made c l e a r he c o n s i d e r e d Cezanne's s y n t h e t i s t method as b e l o n g i n g together with the g e n e r a l pro- cedure used b y . a l l g r e a t d e c o r a t o r s , which method Puvis de Chavannes, b e f o r e him, and b e f o r e Gauguin and h i s p u p i l s , a p p l i e d t o e a s e l p a i n t i n g . 16 8 Ch. Morice, "Paul. Cezanne," Mercure de France, V o l . 65, p. 591, 15. Feb. 190 7, or Ch. Morice, Quelques Malt/res Modernes, P a r i s : S o c i e t e des T r e n t e , A l b e r t Messein ed., 1914, p. 115. 169 In the Avertissement of h i s 1914 book ( see the above n o t e ) , Morice d e c l a r e d t h a t he c o n s i d e r e d C a r r i e r e , Gauguin and Rodin as the t h r e e e s s e n t i a l " p l a s t i c i n i t i a t o r s " s i n c e Puvis and Manet. Not f a r behind those three he p l a c e d W h i s t l e r , P i s s a r r o , F a n t i n - L a t o u r , C o n s t a n t i n Meunier, Cezanne, Redon, Degas, Monet, Renoir. 170 See Ch. I I , P a r t 1, p. 126 and n.162. 171 See Morice, "P. Cezanne," Mercure, pp. 591-93. 172 I b i d . , pp. 593-94. T h i s Tendresse Raisonne was a somehow "fuzzy" concept, i m p l y i n g a " p r i n c i p l e of humanity" ( which he no doubt found i n C a r r i e r e ) . - 266 - 173 M. Denis, "Cezanne," T h e o r i e s ( f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n L'Occident, Sept. 1907), p. 238. 174 See the same a r t i c l e , T h e o r i e s , p. 247. In the a r t i c l e w r i t t e n i n L'Occident two years l a t e r ( May 1909) , "De Gauguin e t de Van Gogh au C l a s s i c i s m e , " Denis d e c l a r e d t h a t s i n c e 1890 an e v o l u t i o n i n f a v o r of "order" took p l a c e i n p a i n t i n g . ( T h e o r i e s , p. 258.) On the p o l i t i c a l - i d e o l o g i c a l l e v e l he mentioned the c a l l f o r t r a d i t i o n a l i s m launched by people from o p p o s i t e camps, such as the monarchists of the A c t i o n F r a n g a i s e ( Maurras) and s y n d i c a l i s t s r e p u b l i - cans ( B a r r e s ) . ( See T h e o r i e s , p. 259 and p. 264.) Denis' own brand of " c l a s s i c i s m " i s a k i n to Mithouard's, t h a t i s a "modern c l a s s i c i s m " t h a t o n l y borrows g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s from the past ( the sense of "order" being the most important one), without a s k i n g f o r c l a s s i c a l " p e r f e c t i o n . " ( See T h e o r i e s , pp. 265-66.) 1 7 5 See T h e o r i e s , p. 171 (: 1904) and p. 267 ( 1909) . For " S t y l e " see'-".:I, P a r t i ; , n. 114. Denis' l a t e s t d e f i n i t i o n of S t y l e was "order achieved by means of s y n t h e s i s " ( " l e S t y l e , c ' e s t - a - d i r e l ' o r d r e par l a synthese," T h e o r i e s , p. 239) . 176 177 178 See T h e o r i e s , p. 26 2. See Ch. I, P a r t 1, p. 16 and pp. 38-39;, 41-43, The t r a n s l a t i o n i s mine. I d i d not use R.E. F r y ' s t r a n s l a t i o n ( B u r l i n g t o n Magazine, V o l . 1 6 , 1910). I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note though t h a t i n h i s " I n t r o d u c t o r y Note," Roger F r y d e c l a r e d t h a t the "new t e n d e n c i e s " i n Franch a r t , " T h i s new c o n c e p t i o n of a r t , i n which the d e c o r a t i v e elements preponderate at the.expense of the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , " was a c t u a l l y "the d i r e c t outcome of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t movement." He added: " I t was among I m p r e s s i o n i s t s t h a t i t took i t s r i s e , and yet i t i m p l i e s the d i r e c t c o n t r a r y of the I m p r e s s i o n i s t conception of a r t . " F r y confirmed Denis' c l a i m t h a t Cezanne was the i n i t i a t o r of the 1890 movement: I t i s g e n e r a l l y admitted t h a t the great and o r i g i n a l genius, - f o r recent c r i t i c i s m has the courage to a c c l a i m him as such - who r e a l l y s t a r t e d t h i s movement, the most promising and f r u i t f u l of modern times, was Cezanne. ( B u r l . Mag., V o l . 1 6 , 1910, p. 207.) Two years e a r l i e r , F r y ( " L e t t e r s to the E d i t o r : The L a s t Phase of Impressionism," The B u r l i n g t o n Magazine, March 1908, p. 375) t a l k e d about the " p u r e l y d e c o r a t i v e elements of design" i n Cezanne's work and d i d not see any s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between him and Gauguin. He s a i d : Two other a r t i s t s , M. Cezanne and Paul - 267 - Gauguin, a r e n o t r e a l l y I m p r e s s i o n i s t s a t a l l . . . They have a l r e a d y a t t a i n e d t o t h e c o n t o u r , and a s s e r t i t s v a l u e w i t h keen emphasis. They f i l l the c o n t o u r w i t h w i l f u l l y s i m p l i f i e d and unmodulated masses, and r e l y f o r t h e i r whole e f f e c t upon a w e l l - c o n s i d e r e d c o - o r d i n a t i o n o f the s i m p l e s t e l e m e n t s . Only mUch l a t e r was F r y t o make the d i s t i n c t i o n between "the d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t e r whose main o b j e c t i s the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f h i s d e s i g n upon t h e s u r f a c e " and " p a i n t e r s [such as Cezanne! t o whom t h e p l a s t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n i s a l l - i m p o r t a n t . " ( See R. F r y , Cezanne: A Study o f h i s Development, New York: Hogarth P r e s s , 1927, p. 50.) 179 M. D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , p. 239. I b i d . , p. 246. See a l s o pp. 266-67 ( 1909). 180 181 182 I b i d . , p. 244 I b i d . , p. 170 ( from "De l a gaucherie des P r i m i t i f s , " Les A r t s de l a V i e , J u l y 1904). Denis r e f e r r e d t o t h i s a r t i c l e when he e x p l a i n e d the "gaucheries" of Celzanne and h i s d i s c i p l e s and i m i t a t o r s ( see T h e o r i e s , p. 246). Denis d i s - t i n g u i s h e d between " h i e r a t i c " p a i n t e r s ( Byzantine) and P r i m i t i v e s ( G i o t t o ) . See n.3, above. 184 See a l s o Verkade's comments i n Denis, J o u r n a l , I I , 1907, p. 62. 185 186 Denis, T h e o r i e s , p. 171. I t i s t r u e t h a t even then, he d i d not want to " p i e r c e the w a l l s " with h i s p a i n t i n g s , s i n c e always avoided a look i n t o the f a r d i s t a n c e . In V.4 5 f o r example, a house a t the end of the s t r e e t b l o c k s the view. In h i s a r t i c l e , C h r i s t o p h e r Gray, "Cezanne's use of P e r s p e c t i v e , " C o l l e g e A r t J o u r n a l , Vol.19. N o . l , 1959, pp. 54- 64, demonstrated Cezanne's use of p e r s p e c t i v e on a l a t e r p a i n t i n g : La Route Tournante a l a Roche-Guyon, V.441, 1885. He p o i n t e d out t h a t the l i b e r t i e s ( from the p o i n t of view of l i n e a r p e r s p e c t i v e ) t h a t Cezanne took were l i c e n c e d by contem- porary manuals, one of them being Ch. Blanc's Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n . Gray however d i d not p o i n t out t h a t Blanc e s p e c i a l l y recommended such m o d i f i c a t i o n s f o r the purpose of d e c o r a t i o n . - 268 - 18 7 See " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " n.5. 18 8 I b i d . I n h i s " C o n v e r s a t i o n " w i t h Cezanne, f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1920 ( see Souvenirs....Une c o n v e r s a t i o n avec Cezanne, P a r i s : M i c h e l , 1926, pp. 94-95), E. B e r n a r d w h i l e r e l a t i n g Cezanne's a d v i c e : "One s h o u l d s t u d y f i r s t on geo- m e t r i c a l f i g u r e s : t h e cone, t h e cube, the c y l i n d e r , t h e sphere" i n t e r c a l a t e d h i s own knowledge on t h e s u b j e c t o f l e geometrique, l e g e o m e t r a l and l e p e r s p e c t i f . B e r n a r d i m p l i e d t h a t t h e y formed t h e b a s i s o f i n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e o l d days, but not a t t h e time o f h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h Cezanne. 189 See Ch. I , P a r t 1, p. 33. 190 See D e n i s , "Cezanne," T h e o r i e s , p. 243 and p. 251. 191 See f o r example T h e o r i e s , p. 165. 192 T h e o r i e s , p. 251. 1 9 3 See Ch. I I , P a r t 1, pp. 111-12. 194 T h e o r i e s , p. 248. 195 T h e o r i e s , p. 249 ( n o t u n d e r l i n e d i n D e n i s ' t e x t ) . 196 T h e o r i e s , p. 171. See a l s o 182, above. 197 T h e o r i e s , p. 171. Denis a l s o s a i d : "Le s c u l p t e u r de 1'Ecole de P h i d i a s n'esquive pas un modele; en s i m p l i f i a n t i l ne supprime r i e n . . . " 198 See T h e o r i e s , p. 246 and 252. 1 9 9 T h e o r i e s , p. 249. 2 ^ I b i d . See a l s o D e n i s ' d e f i n i t i o n o f a p a i n t i n g i n 1890, T h e o r i e s , p. 1. 201 T h e o r i e s , p. 249. Denis c l a i m s Cezanne t o l d him he wanted " t o do w i t h c o l o r what i s done i n b l a c k and w h i t e w i t h t h e stump ( t o r t i l l o n ) " and t h a t he s u b s t i t u t e d " c o l o r " f o r " l i g h t . " I n a l e t t e r t o B e r n a r d ( 2 3 Dec. 1904, L e t t e r s , p. 310), Cezanne d e c l a r e d t h a t " L i g h t ... does not e x i s t f o r t h e p a i n t e r " and t h a t "the p l a n e s r e p r e s e n t e d by c o l o r s e n s a t i o n s " can be c l a s s i f i e d as " l i g h t , h a l f tone o r q u a r t e r tone." Denis c l a i m e d though t h a t Cezanne never used t h e word " v a l u e s , " - 269 - because " h i s system" e x c l u d e d " r e l a t i o n s o f v a l u e s i n the sense used i n s c h o o l s " ( T h e o r i e s , p. 250). Yet i n a l e t t e r t o B e r n a r d ( 27 June 1904, L e t t e r s , p. 305) Cezanne used t h e word " v a l u e s " w h i l e e x p l a i n i n g t o B e r n a r d C h a r d i n ' s method. D e n i s , J o u r n a l , I , Sept. 1897, p. 121. See T h e o r i e s , pp. 205-06, n . l . Cezanne, l e t t e r t o C. P i s s a r r o , 24 June 1874, L e t t e r s , 202 203 204 p. 141. ~- 205 I d i s a g r e e w i t h R i c h a r d S h i f f ( " S e e i n g Cezanne," C r i t i c a l I n q u i r y , Summer 1978, pp. 769-808) who argued f o r an " I m p r e s s i o n i s t " Cezanne ( as opposed t o a " S y m b o l i s t " one) and c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e f l a t n e s s o f h i s p a i n t i n g s i s due t o t h e a t m o s p h e r i c l i g h t e f f e c t . Cezanne d i d use t h i s e f f e c t i n t h e f o l i a g e only,, b u t h i s method o f o r d e r e d h a t c h i n g i s d i f f e r e n t from t h e I m p r e s s i o n i s t d i v i s i o n o f t o n e . To n e g l e c t t h e e f f e c t o f r e f l e c t e d l i g h t i n Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s a l t o g e t h e r , though as Denis d i d ( because he d i d not want t o p r e s e n t Cezanne as r e p r o d u c i n g " l i g h t " o r b e i n g a n a l y t i c a l as the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s ) i s wrong. Cezanne h i m s e l f , who wrote i n one l e t t e r t o B e r n a r d t h a t " l i g h t does not e x i s t f o r t h e p a i n t e r " ( see n.201, a b o v e ) , wrote t o him i n a n o t h e r one: "Draw, b u t i t i s t h e r e f l e c t i o n which e n v e l o p s ; l i g h t , t h r o u g h t h e g e n e r a l r e f l e c t i o n , i s t h e e n v e l o p e . " ( L e t t e r s , p. 316.) 206 D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , p. 250. 207 I b i d . T h i s q u o t a t i o n was a l s o used by de Goncourt b r o t h e r s i n t h e i r a r t i c l e on C h a r d i n . See E. and J . de Goncourt, " C h a r d i n , " G a z e t t e des B e a u x - A r t s , V o l . 1 6 , 1864, p. 166, as w e l l as L ' A r t du X V I I I e s i e c l e , second ed., 1873, P a r i s : R a p i l l y , V o l . 1 , pp. 173-74. Cezanne's s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i n C h a r d i n , as w e l l as h i s a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h G o n c o u r t s ' w r i t - i n g s i s e v i d e n t from h i s l e t t e r s . 208 209 112-13. 210 D e n i s , ( T h e o r i e s , p. 250) s a i d : Le volume t r o u v e done chez Cezanne son e x p r e s s i o n dans une gamme de t e i n t s , dans une s e r i e de t a c h e s : ces t a c h e s se succedent par c o n t r a s t e s ou a n a l o g i e s s e l o n que l a forme s ' i n t e r r o m p t ou se c o n t i n u e . C ' e t a i t ce q u ' i l l u i p l a i s a i t d ' a p p e l e r moduler p l u t o t que modeler. See a l s o my d i s c u s s i o n o f B e r n a r d ' s a r t i c l e , on pp. D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , p. 251. - 270 - In such a b i n d were f o r example the a r t i s t s R.P. R i v i e r e and J.F. Schnerb ( the second one was a l s o an a r t c r i t i c ) , who v i s i t e d Cezanne i n A i x i n January 1905, and pub- l i s h e d an a r t i c l e on him i n 1907. They b e l i e v e d t h a t Cezanne's whole oeuvre i s " a n a l y s i s w i t h a view to s y n t h e s i s " and " o b s e r v a t i o n d i r e c t e d to a purpose t h a t i s s c i e n t i f i c r a t h e r than d e c o r a t i v e . " ( R.P. R i v i e r e and J.F. Schnerb, " L ' A t e l i e r de.Cezanne," Grande Revue, V o l . 4 6 , 25 Dec. 1907, p. 816.) They a l s o wrote ( p. 813): Cezanne ne c h e r c h a i t pas. a r e p r e s e n t e r l e s formes par une l i g n e . Le contour n ' e x i s t a i t pour l u i qu'en t a n t que l i e u ou une forme f i n i t e t ou une autre forme commence...Les t r a i t s n o i r s q u i cernent souvent ses p e i n t u r e s n ' e t a i e n t pas pour Cezanne un element d e s t i n e a s'ajouteur a l a c o u l e u r , mais simplement une maniere de reprendre p l u s f a c i l e m e n t 1'ensemble d'une forme par l e contour avant de l a modeler par l a c o u l e u r . The emphasis on avant i s mine. Denis s a i d t h a t Cezanne out- l i n e d "the form" a f t e r i t was modelled by c o l o r g r a d a t i o n s ( see T h e o r i e s , p. 251). In any event, Denis as w e l l as R i v i e r e and Schnerb wanted t o minimize the s i g n i f i c a n c e of the dark o u t l i n e s . Recent a r t h i s t o r i a n s c o n s i d e r R i v i e r e ' s and Schnerb's testimony as "unbiased." Th. R e f f ( "Cezanne and Poussin," p. 158) t h i n k s t h a t t h e i r s i s "the most r e l i a b l e o f a l l accounts" because they were "Unbiased by t h e i r own a e s t h e t i c programme, y e t competent to d i s c u s s t e c h n i c a l problems." But why would " i m p r e s s i o n i s t print-makers," as Reff d e s c r i b e s them, be l e s s b i a s e d than o t h e r s ? R e f f a l s o remarked i n a note: "Although f a m i l i a r w i t h Bernard's s o u v e n i r s , they i n s i s t upon t h e i r independence." Indeed they claimed ( p. 812, n.l) to have a l - ready w r i t t e n t h r e e q u a r t e r s of t h e i r a r t i c l e when E. Bernard's "Souvenirs sur Paul Cezanne e t l e t t r e s i n e d i t e s " were p u b l i s h e d i n Mercure de France ( V o l . 6 9 , Sept.-Oct. 190 7 ) , but they a l s o admitted having read Bernard's a r t i c l e of 1891, as w e l l as the one i n L'Occident of 1904. R i v i e r e and Schnerb c o n s i d e r e d Bernard's judgement to be " i n c r e a s i n g l y c l a i r - v o y a n t . " Indeed, there i s no doubt from the a r t i c l e t h a t they were i n f l u e n c e d by Bernard, and a l s o by Denis. They d i d have the language to d i s c u s s " t e c h n i c a l problems," t h i s i s t r u e , but i n f a c t they repeated the same t h i n g s Bernard and Denis s a i d . At l e a s t they d i d not use the n o t i o n "modulation of volumes" as a s u b s t i t u t e f o r a l l "modelling" i n Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s , but o n l y the e x p r e s s i o n s "modelling w i t h c o l o r " or " r e l i e f i n c o l o r . " They used i n t e n s i v e l y Bernard's concept of the n e c e s s i t y f o r the p a i n t e r to e x t r a c t "the laws of nature," and a l s o combined i t w i t h Bernard's s a y i n g about Cezanne ( "Souvenirs," Mercure, 16 Oct. 1907, p. 395): L ' i d e e de beaute n ' e t a i t pas en l u i , i l n ' a v a i t que c e l l e de v g r i t e . I I i n s i s t a i t sur l a n e c e s s i t e d'un o p t i q u e . e t d'une l o g i q u e . - 271 - Thus t h e y a r r i v e d a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n mentioned b e f o r e ( p. 816 o f t h e i r a r t i c l e ) . 212 Cezanne, L e t t e r s , p. 351. 213 • • Cezanne, Correspondance, p. 265. See t r a n s l a t i o n i n L e t t e r s , p. 306. Cezanne i n s i s t e d t h a t each o b j e c t had t o be m o d e l l e d , b u t n o t a f t e r a r e g u l a r g e o m e t r i c a l s o l i d . 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 Denis d e s c r i b e d Cezanne as such ( T h e o r i e s , p. 252) C 1 e s t l e P o u s s i n de 1 1 i m p r e s s i o n n i s m e . I I a l a f i n e s s e de p e r c e p t i o n d'un p a r i s i e n e t i l e s t f a s t u e u x e t abondant comme un d e c o r a t e u r i t a l i e n . I I e s t ordonne comme un f r a n g a i s e t f i e v r e u x comme un e s p a g n o l . C'est un C h a r d i n de decadence, e t p a r f o i s i l depasse C h a r d i n . I I y a du Greco en l u i , e t souvent i l a l a s a n t e de Veronese. D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , pp. 246-47. D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , p. 246. I b i d , p. 251. I b i d . See D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , pp. 246-47. Denis ( T h e o r i e s , p. 247) s a i d : Les oeuvres des a r t i s t e s . d ' a u t r e f o i s r e s t e n t pour nous un c r i t e r i u m c e r t a i n : n'en cherchon pas d ' a u t r e . C'est p a r c e que des c r i t i q u e s e n t h o u s i a s t e s ont p r e f e r e Cezanne a C h a r d i n e t a Veronese, q u ' i l c o n v i e n t de r e c o n n a i t r e en l u i des l a c u n e s , e t d'avouer avec s i m p l i c i t e q u ' i l a s u b i l e c o n t r e - c o u p du d e s o r d r e du n o t r e temps. E. B e r n a r d , " S o u v e n i r s . . . , " Mercure de F r a n c e , 16 Oct. 1907, p. 396, o r S o u v e n i r s . . . Une C o n v e r s a t i o n . . . , P a r i s : M i c h e l , 1926, p. 24. 222 "Tonal v a l u e s " are t h e ones o b t a i n e d by m i x i n g v a r i o u s hues w i t h b l a c k and w h i t e . " C o l o r v a l u e s " r e s i d e s o l e l y on the i n t r i n s i c d i f f e r e n c e s i n v a l u e between d i f f e r e n t c o l o u r s . - 272 - 223 E- B e r n a r d , " S o u v e n i r s s u r P a u l Cezanne," Mercure de F r a n c e , 16 Oct. 1907, p. 626 o r S o u v e n i r s . . . , 1926, p. 70. 224 " S o u v e n i r s . . . , " M e r c u r e , p. 626 o r S o u v e n i r s . . . , p. 71. 2 25 I b i d . B e r n a r d p r o b a b l y based h i s t h e o r y on Cezanne's l e t t e r o f 23 Oct. 1905 ( see Ch. I I , P a r t 1, n.102). He a l s o mentioned Cezanne's c o n s t a n t p r e o c c u p a t i o n t o f i n d a way t o see t h e " v a l u e s " b e t t e r . I n t h e l e t t e r o f 27 June 1904, Cezanne was s i m p l y r e l a t i n g t o him C h a r d i n ' s method. ( S e e Cezanne, L e t t e r s , p. 305.) E. B e r n a r d , " S o u v e n i r s . . . , " M e r c u r e , p. 627 o r S o u v e n i r s . . . , p. 72. B e r n a r d i n s i s t e d on d e f i n i n g what " c l a s s i c a l " meant s i n c e t h e word was used and abused a t t h e t i m e : C l a s s i q u e s i g n i f i e I c i : q u i e s t en r a p p o r t avec l a t r a d i t i o n . A i n s i Cezanne d i s a i t : "Imaginex P o u s s i n r e f a i t e n t i e r e m e n t s u r n a t u r e , v o i l a l e . c l a s s i q u e que j ' e n t e n d s . " I I ne s ' a g l t pas en e f f e t de t e r r a s s e r l e s Romantiques, mais de r e t r o u v e r ce que l e s Romantiques eux-memes a v a i e n t : l e s r e g i e s s o l i d e s des grands m a i t r e s . 22 7 E. B e r n a r d , S o u v e n i r s . . . , p. 31. 22 8 ... I b i d . 229 The f a c t t h a t asquet ( Cezanne, p. 75) r e l a t e d t h a t Cezanne spoke w i t h sympathy o f Gauguin and van Gogh p r o b a b l y does not c a r r y much w e i g h t . But a l o o k a t Gauguin's p a i n t i n g s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e from T a h i t i w h i c h were a p p r e c i a t e d even by G e f f r o y ( see' " P a u l Gauguin," L ' A r t .Moderne, No. 8, 21 Feb. 1895, p. 62) who c o u l d d i s c e r n i n them "the m o d e l l i n g o f a form," r e v e a l s t h e p l a i n t r u t h t h a t t h e y were n o t a l l t h a t " f l a t . " Only a f a i r l y s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e o f Gauguin's p a i n t i n g s were s t r i c t l y C l o i s o n i s t , and t h e y were done a f t e r a l l under t h e i n f l u e n c e o f B e r n a r d h i m s e l f , as t h e l a t t e r o f t e n p r e v i o u s - l y s a i d . D i d he not c l a i m f o r h i m s e l f t h e t i t l e o f i n v e n t o r o f C l o i s o n i s m ? 230 E. B e r n a r d , " S o u v e n i r s . . . , " M e r c u r e , 1907, p. 626 o r S o u v e n i r s , p. 70. 231 E. B e r n a r d , " R e f l e c t i o n s a propos du S a l o n d'Automne," L a R e n o v a t i o n Es t h e t i q u e , . Dec. 1907, p. 62. -273 - I b i d . , p. 60. Now B e r n a r d uses the word " d e c o r a t i v e " i n a p e j o r a t i v e sense. 233 E. B e r n a r d , "La Technique de P a u l Cezanne," L'Amour de l ' A r t , Dec. 1920, p. 278. Thus B e r n a r d a r r i v e d a g a i n a t s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n s w i t h t h e 1891 ones, o n l y t h i s time w i t h a p e j o r a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n . - 2.74 - C h a p t e r I I , P a r t 2 1 See Ch. I , P a r t 1, p. 27 and n.45. 2 See E m i l e Z o l a , S a l o n s , ed. F.W.J. Hemmmgs and Robert J . N i e s s , Geneve, P a r i s : L i b r . M i n a r d , 1959, pp. 148-49, and p. 123. 3 See f o r example Z o l a ' s comments on P i s s a r r o i n E m i l e Z o l a , "Mon S a l o n ( 1868)," r e p r i n t e d i n Le Bon Combat. De C o u r b e t aux I m p r e s s i o n n i s t e s , ed. J e a n - P a u l B o u i l l o n , P a r i s : Hermann, 19 74, p. 10 7. 4 Z o l a even c o n s i d e r e d t h a t C o r o t ' s "foggy e f f e c t s " b r o u g h t him c l o s e t o t h e "dreamers and i d e a l i s t s . " See Le Bon Combat, p. 118. 5' F o r a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s theme i n Cezanne's work see Th. R e f f , "Cezanne, F l a u b e r t , S t . Anthony, and t h e Queen o f Sheba," A r t B u l l e t i n , V o l . 4 4 , 1962, pp. 113-125. 6 See Ch. I I , P a r t 1, p. 94. F o r example Ch. B l a n c recommended: . . . l e s f i g u r e s f a b u l e u s e s , h e r o i q u e s ou romanesques, dont l e s a c t i o n s ne s o n t pas b i e n d e f i n i e s , dont l e costume e s t a r b i t r a i r e , e t q u i h a b i t e n t l e s c o n t r e e s de l a m y t h o l o g i e , l e pays des a v e n t u r e s c h i m e r i q u e s . ( Ch. B l a n c , Grammaire des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s , p. 96.) 8 E r n e s t Chesneau, Les Chefs d ' e c o l e , P a r i s : D i d i e r e t c L i b r a i r e s - E d i t e u r s , 1862, e s p e c i a l l y pp. 164-65. Chesneau d i d not approve o f t h e complete e l i m i n a t i o n o f the " i d e a l " i n R e a l i s t p a i n t i n g . He c o n s i d e r e d t h a t a dose o f i d e a l i z a t i o n was n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e a e s t h e t i c needs o f t h e human s o u l , and d e c l a r e d : Le r e a l i s m e , au c o n t r a i r e , t e l qu'on essaye de 1'imposer a u j o u r d ' h u i , e n . r e j e t a n t f o r m e l l e m e n t t o u t e i n s p i r a t i o n i d e a l e , se condamne p a r c e l a s e u l a une p a r a l y s i e p a r t i e l l e . ( E. Chesneau, Les C h e f s , p. 307.) 9 See Ch. I , P a r t 1, p. 45 and n.104. - 275 - E. Chesneau, L ' E d u c a t i o n de 1 ' a r t i s t e , 1881, p. 276. A c c o r d i n g t o Chesneau, Theodule R i b o t had b o t h "temperament" and " e s p r i t . " 1 1 E. Chesneau, L ' E d u c a t i o n . . . , p. 273. 12 R e c e n t l y , M. V i r g i n i a B. B e t t e n d o r f , ( "Cezanne's E a r l y R e a l i s m : ' S t i l l L i f e w i t h B r e a d and Eggs' Reexamined," A r t s Magazine, J a n . 1982, pp. 138-141), a l s o argued f o r Cezanne's S t i l l L i f e s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e " R e a l i s t s " such as R i b o t and B o n v i n , as w e l l as w i t h t h e C h a r d i n r e v i v a l , e m p h a s i z i n g t h e l a c k o f l i t e r a r y a s s o c i a t i o n s , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f "'pure' p a i n t i n g , " and t h e " c l a s s i c a l s i m p l i c i t y and geometry o f C h a r d i n " i n a l l t h e s e p a i n t i n g s . 13 14 15 16 17 E. Chesneau, L ' E d u c a t i o n . . . , p. 283, I b i d . , pp. 26-27. P. Cezanne, L e t t e r s , p. 142. E. Chesneau, L ' E d u c a t i o n . . . , p. 54. I b i d . , pp. 120-21. Chesneau i s a g a i n s t t r a d i t i o n a l i s t a e s t h e t i c s ( p. 7 3 ) , a g a i n s t academic i n s t r u c t i o n a t t h e E c o l e , "where t h e a n t i r e a l i s t t h e o r i e s were p r o f e s s e d and even pushed t o t h e extreme where beauty was concerned" ( p. 22 3 ) . A t t h e same t i m e , t h e c r i t i c , w h i l e s t r e s s i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f o b s e r v a t i o n o f r e a l i t y , p r a i s e d " i m a g i n a t i o n " ( p. 226). 18 I b i d . , p. 46. 19 Cezanne, l e t t e r t o B e r n a r d , 12 May 1904, L e t t e r s , p. 302. T h i s was a c t u a l l y a w a r n i n g t o B e r n a r d h i m s e l f , who d e l i g h t e d i n s p e c u l a t i o n s and t r i e d t o h a n d l e b o t h w r i t i n g on a r t and p a i n t i n g . Cezanne's a d v i c e a f t e r he r e a d B e r n a r d ' s a r t i c l e on h i m s e l f i n L ' O c c i d e n t was: "Don't be an a r t c r i t i c , but. p a i n t , , t h e r e l i e s s a l v a t i o n . " ( L e t t e r t o B e r n a r d , 25 J u l y 1904, L e t t e r s , p. 306). 20 Cezanne, l e t t e r t o B e r n a r d , 25 J u l y 1904, L e t t e r s , p. 306. 21 Cezanne, l e t t e r t o Z o l a , 24 Sept. 1878, L e t t e r s , p. 168. 22 Cezanne, l e t t e r t o B e r n a r d , 12 May 1904, L e t t e r s , p. 302. - 276 - 23 Cezanne, l e t t e r to Bernard, 26 May 1904, Letters, p. 30 3. 24 Ibid. For Mallarme see Paula G i l b e r t Lewis, The Aesthetics of Stephane Mallarme i n Relation to His Public, New Jersey, London: Associated Univ. Press, Inc., 1976, pp. 58-59. Chesneau also deplored the separation between Art and people at the time; he did not believe that art should normally addressed only to an e l i t e ( see L'Education..., p. 8). 25 Camille Mauclair, "La Reforme de l ' A r t Decoratif en France," La Nouvelle Revue, Vol.98, Jan.-Feb., 1896, p. 737. Mauclair, pointing out that the opening of the section of decorative and i n d u s t r i a l arts at the Salon at the Champ de Mars was due mainly to Roger Marx's e f f o r t s , described him as "the most perspicacious and the most i n t e l l i g e n t of the amateurs of modern a r t . " 7 fi See Ch. I I , Part 1, p. 117 and ri.124. In a l e t t e r to Bernard ( 27 June 1904, Letters, p. 304) he wrote: "...I ought to make ten good studies and s e l l them at a. high p r i c e , as amateur c o l l e c t o r s are speculating on them." 27 See also Chapter I, Part 2, e s p e c i a l l y Mellerio's com- parison between a r e a l i s t and an i d e a l i s t painter ( n.10). Charles Morice, r e f e r r i n g to Impressionism, said that i n t h i s system that excludes the process of s e l e c t i o n , the thought, the sentiment, "the a r t i s t renounces, by p r i n c i p l e , the composition, decoration, expression, s t y l e . " ( Ch. Morice, Gauguin, Paris: H..Floury, 1919, p. 136.) 2 8 The subject of "temperament" i s a thesis topic i n i t - s e l f ( one such thesis was written by Eustathia Costopoulos at Univ. of Chicago - mentioned i n R. S h i f f , iri"The End of I m p r e s s i o n i s m . p . 376, n.64.) The fact that the "temperament" was a concept used i n a m a t e r i a l i s t i c framework, and was p h y s i o l o g i c a l l y determined, was expressed by Serusier: Aux epoques materialistes, on a attache une grande importance aux causes physiologiques resumes dans l e mot "temperament," qui devait tout expliquer, puisqu'on e c a r t a i t systematiquement toute influence psychique. ( Paul Serusier, A B C de l a peinture, Paris: Floury, 1942, f i r s t published i n 19 21, written much e a r l i e r , p. 11.) Cezanne's d e f i n i t i o n of "temperament" was: "creative force" ( see for example Cezanne, l e t t e r to Zola, 1878, Letters, p. 156). 29 P. Cezanne, l e t t e r to Roger Marx, 23 Jan. 1905, Letters, p. 313. The emphasis i s mine. - 277 - 30 F o r example, i n a l e t t e r t o L o u i s Aurenehe ( 25 J a n . 1904), Cezanne w r o t e : Because, i f t h e s t r o n g f e e l i n g [ s e n s a t i o n i n t h e F r e n c h o r i g i n a l ] f o r n a t u r e - and c e r t a i n l y I have t h a t v i v i d l y - i s t h e n e c e s s a r y b a s i s f o r a l l a r t i s t i c c o n c e p t i o n on which r e s t s t h e grandeur and beauty o f a l l f u t u r e work, t h e knowledge o f t h e means o f e x p r e s s i n g our emotion i s no l e s s e s s e n t i a l , and i s o n l y t o a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h v e r y l o n g e x p e r i e n c e . ( Cezanne, L e t t e r s , p. 299; my emphasis.) See a l s o n.47, below. 31 Cezanne, L e t t e r s , p. 172. Compare t o B a u d e l a i r e ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f Romanticism as "a mode o f f e e l i n g . " ( See Ch. B a u d e l a i r e , "The S a l o n o f 1847," t r a n s l a t e d i n E l i s a b e t h G i l m o r e H o l t , From t h e C l a s s i c i s t s t o t h e I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , New Y o r k , 1966, p. 175). As I w i l l i n d i c a t e l a t e r , Cezanne admired B a u d e l a i r e v e r y much, e s p e c i a l l y as an a r t c r i t i c . Z o l a h i m s e l f borrowed from B a u d e l a i r e s e l e c t i v e l y , d i s c a r d i n g whatever was i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n w i t h p o s i t i v i s m . 32 Cezanne, L e t t e r s , pp. 173-74; my emphasis. See a l s o C h a p t e r IT, P a r t 1, p. 125 and n.156, on M. D e n i s ' i n s i s t a n c e t h a t Cezanne d i d not " r e p r o d u c e , " b u t " r e p r e s e n t e d " l i g h t . 33 See Cezanne, l e t t e r t o h i s son, 3 Aug. 1906, L e t t e r s , p. 321. See a l s o Leo L a r q u i e r , Le Dimanche avec P a u l Cezanne, P a r i s , 1925, p. 54 and pp. 59-61. 34 T h i s p a i n t i n g , which i s i n Moscow, i s V.90, d a t e d by V e n t u r i 1869-71. A c c o r d i n g t o D o r i v a l i t c o u l d not have been p a i n t e d b e f o r e 1868; t h e o t h e r two e a r l i e r v e r s i o n s were p a i n t e d i n 1866 and 1867, r e s p e c t i v e l y , as i s e v i d e n t i n l e t t e r s from M a r i o n t o M o r s t a t t . ( B e r n a r d D o r i v a l , Cezanne, P a r i s , 1948, p. 29.) The f i r s t v e r s i o n i s mentioned a l s o m Cezanne, L e t t e r s ( L e t t e r w r i t t e n by A. G u i l l e m e t w i t h a P o s c r i p t by Cezanne, 2 Nov. 1866), p. 117. ( Rewald w r o n g l y i d e n t i f i e d t h i s p a i n t i n g i n t h e f o o t n o t e as V.90.) On Cezanne's l o v e f o r Wagner see a l s o Cezanne, L e t t e r s , p. 103 and p. 121. 35 See Theodore R e f f , "Cezanne, F l a u b e r t , S t . Antony, and t h e Queen o f Sheba," A r t B u l l e t i n , V o l . 4 4 , 196 2, p. 115 and p. 123. 36 F o r Cezanne's a d m i r a t i o n f o r Redon.see Cezanne, l e t t e r t o E. B e r n a r d , 12 May 1904, p. 302. F o r Redon's l i t o g r a p h s i l l u s t r a t i n g F l a u b e r t ' s T e m p t a t i o n , see Andre M e l l e r i o , O d i l o n Redon, P a r i s , 1913, r e p r i n t e d by Da Capo P r e s s , N.Y., 1968. - 278 - M e l l e r i o a l s o s i n g l e d p u t Redon and Cezanne as two " s o l i t a r y s p i r i t s , " who d i d not b e l o n g t o t h e N a t u r a l i s t - I m p r e s s i o n i s t movement, y e t e x h i b i t e d w i t h them and fought the academism. 3 7 Th. R e f f , "Cezanne's C o n s t r u c t i v e ' S t r o k e , " The A r t Q u a r t e r l y , V o l . 2 5 , No.3, Autumn 1962, p. 219. 3 8 R e f f ( "Cezanne, F l a u b e r t . . . , " p. 122) commented on t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c o l o r i n g i n t h i s p a i n t i n g i s " e x p r e s s i v e , " " f r e e l y i n v e n t e d . " He p o i n t e d out t h a t , . . . i n f i g u r e c o m p o s i t i o n s done from the i m a g i n a t i o n - w i t h e r o f Romantic s u b j e c t s l i k e t h e T e m p t a t i o n o r o f t h e b a t h e r s that, g r a d u a l l y r e p l a c e them - b l u e r e t a i n s i t s p r i m a c y as an e x p r e s s i o n o f pure f a n t a s y d i v o r c e d from t h e b a l a n c e d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c o l o r s i n n a t u r e . On Cezanne's b l u e , see a l s o K u r t Badt, The A r t o f Cezanne, t r a n s l . S h e i l a Ann A g i l v i e , London: Faber and F a b e r , 1965, pp. 58-72. Compare Cezanne's use o f " i m a g i n a r y " c o l o r i n compo- s i t i o n s such as t h e T e m p t a t i o n o r t h e B a t h e r s , w i t h Ch. B l a n c ' s recommendations. ( See C h a p t e r I , P a r t I , p. 49 and n.109.) I would add t h a t Cezanne's c o l o r i n g i s never as u n n a t u r a l as G a u g u i n ' s . f o r example. He always p r e s e r v e s a note o f p l a u s i b i l i t y . F o r i n s t a n c e , i n t h e case o f a l l - o v e r b l u e t o n e , w h i c h g i v e s p a i n t i n g u n i t y , which can be r e l a t e d w i t h Symbolism, and t h e 18th c e n t u r y b l u e , t h e r e i s a l s o a " n a t u r a l " e x p l a n a t i o n , t o be found a l s o i n B l a n c ' s w r i t i n g s . I n t h e Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n ( 1867, pp. 607-08), B l a n c t a l k s about t h e dominant c o l o r o f t h e l i g h t , depending on c l i m a t e , t i m e o f day, e t c . , such as f o r example a " c o l d b l u e l i g h t " and a "warm and orangy" one. 3 9 Cezanne, l e t t e r to. Z o l a , 24 May 1883, L'Estaque, L e t t e r s , p. 209. The emphasis on " d e c o r a t i v e e f f e c t " i s mine. 40 See P a u l S i g n a c , D'Eugene D e l a c r o i x aux Neo- I m p r e s s i o n n i s m e , f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n La Revue B l a n c h e i n 1898, P a r i s , 1964, p. 95. F o r an example o f P i s s a r r o ' s p a i n t i n g t h a t i n s p i r e d t h e N e o - I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , see La Cote du Chou a P o n t o i s e i n L.R. P i s s a r r o and L. V e n t u r i , Carni1le P i s s a r r o : Son A r t - Son Oeuvre, P a r i s : P. Rosenberg, 19 39, c a t . No.568. W i t h r e g a r d t o P i s s a r r o ' s c o n c e r n f o r " o r d e r , " I w i l l quote from t h e l e t t e r he wrote J a n u a r y 9 t h , 1887 t o h i s son L u c i e n ( L e t t e r s t o h i s son L u c i e n , 1972, p. 9 1 ) : he d i s - approved o f "the d i s o r d e r w h i c h r e s u l t s from a type o f r o m a n t i c f a n t a s y which d e s p i t e t h e t a l e n t o f t h e a r t i s t , i s not i n a c c o r d w i t h t h e s p i r i t o f our t i m e . " From May t o O c t o b e r 1881, P i s s a r r o and Cezanne worked t o g e t h e r i n P o n t o i s e . - 279 - This topic w i l l be discussed l a t e r i n connection with his paintings, i n section "B." 42 Cezanne, l e t t e r to Zola, 27.Nov.. 1884, Letters, p. 213. 43 See H.B. Chipp, Theories of Modern Art, 1973, pp. 63-64. See also Chapter I , Part 2, n.30. See f o r example Gauguin's l e t t e r t o P i s s a r r o , o f t h e summer 1881, quoted i n J . Rewald, The H i s t o r y o f I m p r e s s i o n i s m , M.O.M.A., 1973, p. 458. 4 5 C. P i s s a r r o , l e t t e r o f May 1 3 t h , 1891, L e t t e r s t o H i s Son L u c i e n , p. 171. 46 ^ On Cezanne's r e l i g i o s i t y see J . Rewald, Cezanne e t Z o l a , P a r i s , 1936, pp. 100-01, o r C h a r l e s Camoin, " S o u v e n i r s s u r P a u l Cezanne," L'Amour de l ' A r t , J a n . 1921, p. 25. A c c o r d i n g t o Camoin, Cezanne c o n s i d e r e d r e l i g i o n as a "moral h y g i e n e . " See a l s o F i g . 9 . 4 7 F o r Cezanne "emotion".was e q u i v a l e n t w i t h " s e n s a t i o n " ( as i t was i n S y m b o l i s t c i r c l e s - see Chapter I , P a r t 2, n.23), as i s e v i d e n t f o r example from t h e l e t t e r t o L o u i s Aurenche o f 1904. ( see n.30, above). I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e t a i n t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n when r e a d i n g Rewald's E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n o f Cezanne's l e t t e r s , because he sometimes t r a n s l a t e s " s e n s a t i o n " as " s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n " ( see f o r example L e t t e r s , p. 304). From t h e l e t t e r t o Aurenche i s a l s o e v i d e n t t h a t Cezanne c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e emotion f e l t i n f r o n t o f n a t u r e s h o u l d be t h e most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n a r t . He c r i t i c i z e d E m i l e B e r n a r d f o r not b a s i n g h i s a r t on t h e " e m o t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f n a t u r e , " c o n s i d e r i n g he produced " n o t h i n g b u t o l d - f a s h i o n e d r u b b i s h . " ( See L e t t e r s , p. 328.) To L o u i s L e y d e t he wrote i n t h e l e t t e r o f 17 J a n . 190 5: A r r i v e r a f o r m u l e r suffisamment l e s s e n s a t i o n s que nous eprouvons au c o n t a c t de c e t t e b e l l e nature-homme, femme, n a t u r e morte - e t que l e s c i r c o n s t a n c e s vous s o i e n t f a v o r a b l e s , c ' e s t ce que j e d o i s s o u h a i t e r a t o u t e sympathie d ' a r t . ( Quoted i n Jean Royere, " L o u i s L e y d e t , " L'Amour de 1 ' A r t , V o l . 6 , Nov. 1925, p. 444; t h e emphasis i s mine.) Rewald ( L e t t e r s , p. 313) t r a n s l a t e d here s e n s a t i o n as " i m p r e s s i o n , " w h i c h i s c o r r e c t , i f we keep i n mind a g a i n t h a t we are not d e a l i n g w i t h p u r e l y s e n s o r y i m p r e s s i o n s . When Cezanne r e f e r r e d t o t h e l a t t e r , he s p e c i f i e d t h i s , such as f o r example/ " c o l o u r s e n s a t i o n s " ( L e t t e r s , p. 310, o r p. 316). A n o t h e r example o f Cezanne's i n s i s t a n c e on r e n d e r i n g p e r s o n a l "emotion" i s t h e a d v i c e g i v e n t o t h e young p a i n t e r C h a r l e s Camoin. Cezanne a d v i s e d him t o not t r y t o i m i t a t e any - 280 - "master," b u t t o use h i s own " f e e l i n g f o r n a t u r e , " and he added: " . . . b e l i e v e me, as soon as you b e g i n t o f e e l v i v i d l y , your own emotion w i l l always emerge and w i n i t s p l a c e i n t h e sun,...." ( Cezanne, L e t t e r s , p. 309; my emphasis.) 4 8 See Andre F o n t a i n a s , Mes S o u v e n i r s du Symbolisme, P a r i s , 1928, p. 34. 49 See Ch. B l a n c , " S a l o n de 1866," G a z e t t e des Beaux-Arts, S e r . l , V o l . 2 0 , 1866, p. 500. B l a n c was r e f e r r i n g t o t h e k i n d o f a r t ( i n t e n d e d f o r p r i v a t e use, not t h e "grand a r t " which a c c o r d i n g t o him was t h e monopoly o f t h e S t a t e ) t h a t p a i n t e r s c o u l d e x h i b i t i n a second t y p e o f S a l o n , w h i c h s h o u l d be e s t a b l i s h e d i n o r d e r t o " s a t i s f y t h e m a t e r i a l i n t e r e s t s o f t h e a r t i s t s . " He saw t h e u s u a l S a l o n as an i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t had t h e purpose t o show t h e " g r e a t e s t g l o r y o f F r e n c h a r t . " F o r B l a n c , l a n d s c a p e was low i n t h e h i e r a r c h y o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r , b u t a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e d e c o r a t i o n o f p r i v a t e homes. i Compare t o Van Gogh's i n t e n t i o n s f o r example - see C h a p t e r I> P a r t 2, pp. 73-74.) 50 A c h i l l e P i r o n , Eugene D e l a c r o i x : Sa v i e e t ses oeuvres, P a r i s : I m p r i m e r i e de J u l e s C l a y e , 1865, p. 421. D e l a c r o i x s a i d : Tout e s t s u j e t ; l e s u j e t c ' e s t toi-meme; ce s o n t t e s i m p r e s s i o n s , t e s emotions devant l a n a t u r e . C ' e s t en t o i q u ' i l f a u t r e g a r d e r , e t non a u t o u r de t o i . The a d v i c e Cezanne gave t o C h a r l e s Camoin ( 1 3 Sept. 1903, L e t t e r s , p. 298) i s q u i t e s i m i l a r : "...we must h a s t e n out and by c o n t a c t w i t h n a t u r e r e v i v e w i t h i n o u r s e l v e s t h e i n s t i n c t s , t h e a r t i s t i c s e n s a t i o n s which l i v e i n us." 51 333. Cezanne, l e t t e r t o h i s son, 28 Sept. 1906, L e t t e r s , F o r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p C e z a n n e - D e l a c r o i x , see a l s o : - S a r a L i c h t e n s t e i n , "Cezanne and D e l a c r o i x , " A r t B u l l e t i n , V o l . 4 6 , 1964, pp. 55-6 7.-. - K u r t B a d t , The A r t o f Cezanne, pp. 278-296. 52 C h a r l e s B a u d e l a i r e , t h e o b i t u a r y he wrote a t D e l a c r o i x ' s d e a t h , i n L o r e n z E i t n e r , N e o c l a s s i c i s m and Romanticism, 1750-1850, V o l . 1 1 , P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1970, p. 128. ( T h i s a r t i c l e was r e p r i n t e d i n B a u d e l a i r e ' s A r t Romantique.) See a l s o Ch. I , P a r t 2, n.23 on " s e n s a t i o n , " "emotion," and " i m p r e s s i o n . " 5 3 Cezanne, L e t t e r s , p. 313. See a l s o n.47 f o r t h e F r e n c h o r i g i n a l . 54 E. D e l a c r o i x , J o u r n a l s , i n N e o c l a s s i c i s m and - 281 - Romanticism, p. 121. 55 See n.30; my emphasis. See a l s o Cezanne, L e t t e r s , p. 303, and p. 315. B a u d e l a i r e quoted D e l a c r o i x : S i n c e I c o n s i d e r t h e i m p r e s s i o n t r a n s - m i t t e d t o t h e a r t i s t by n a t u r e as t h e most i m p o r t a n t t h i n g o f a l l t o t r a n s l a t e , i s i t n o t . e s s e n t i a l t h a t he s h o u l d be armed i n advance w i t h a l l t h e most r a p i d means o f t r a n s l a t i o n ? Then B a u d e l a i r e added: "... t h e day was never l o n g enough f o r h i s s t u d y o f t h e m a t e r i a l means o f e x p r e s s i o n . " ( See Neo- c l a s s i c i s m and Romanticism, p. 128.) 5 6 Cezanne.most l i k e l y r e a d D e l a c r o i x ' s a r t i c l e s on P i r o n ' s book o f 1865, where some o f h i s a r t i c l e s , as w e l l as e x c e r p t s from h i s J o u r n a l s and l e t t e r s were r e p r o d u c e d ( t h e J o u r n a l s were p u b l i s h e d i n e n t i r e t y i n 189 3 ) , as w e l l as w r i t i n g s on D e l a c r o i x by B a u d e l a i r e , Chesneau, B l a n c , o r Th. S i l v e s t r e . 57 See N e o c l a s s i c i s m and Romanticism, p. 109. B a u d e l a i r e a l s o p o i n t e d out t h a t " I n c o l o u r are t o be found harmony, melody, and c o u n t e r p o i n t . " ( See Ch. B a u d e l a i r e , "The S a l o n o f 1846," i n E l i z a b e t h G i l m o r e H o l t , From the C l a s s i c i s t s t o t h e I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , N.Y. , 1966, p.. 178.) 58 • F o r . B a u d e l a i r e , see E. H o l t , From t h e C l a s s i c i s t s . . . , p. 175. On B a u d e l a i r e Cezanne w r o t e : "One o f t h e s t r o n g i s B a u d e l a i r e , h i s ' A r t Romantique' i s a s t o u n d i n g , and he doesn't go wrong i n t h e . a r t i s t s he admires." ( See Cezanne, l e t t e r t o h i s son, 13 S e p t . ,1906, L e t t e r s , p. 328.) The S y m b o l i s t s were i n d e b t e d t o D e l a c r o i x , among o t h e r t h i n g s , f o r t h e concept o f " e q u i v a l e n t s , " as W a s u i t y n s k i p o i n t e d o u t . ( S e e V . J i r a t - W a s u i t y n s k i , P a u l Gauguin i n t h e c o n t e x t o f Symbolism, New York and London: G a r l a n d P u b l . , 1978, pp. 110-13.) D e l a c r o i x w r o t e : Le b u t de 1 " a r t i s t e n ' e s t pas de r e p r o d u i r e exactement l e s o b j e t s , i l s e r a i t a r r e t e . a u s s i t o t p a r 1 ' i m p o s s i b i l i t e de l e f a i r e . I I y a des e f f e t s t r e s - communs q u i echappent e n t i e r e m e n t . a\ l a p e i n t u r e e t q u i ne peuvent se t r a d u i r e que p a r des e q u i v a l e n t s . : c ' e s t a 1 ' e s p r i t q u ' i l f a u t a r r i v e r , e t l e s e q u i v a l e n t s s u f f i s e n t pour c e l a . ( P i r o n , Eugene D e l a c r o i x . . . , 1865, pp. 405-06; my emphasis.) As J i r a t - W a s u i t y n s k i has shown, Gauguin had c o p i e d t h i s f r a g - ment o f P i r o n ' s book. Denis o f t e n t a l k s , as we have seen, o f t h i s t h e o r y o f e q u i v a l e n t s , i n s i m i l a r terms. ( See C h a p t e r I I , P a r t 1, p. 125 and n.157.) - 282 - 5 9 Cezanne, l e t t e r t o Ch. Camoin, 22 Feb. 1903, L e t t e r s , p. 294. N e o c l a s s i c i s m and Romanticism, p. 109. 61 See E . Chesneau, L ' E d u c a t i o n . . . , pp. 54-59. 6 2 I b i d . , p. 59. 6 3 Cezanne, l e t t e r t o Gasquet, 26 Sept. 1897, p. 261: my emphasis. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t P u v i s de Chavannes h e l d s i m i l a r c o n c e p t s . He s a i d , " p a i n t i n g i s not m e r e l y an i m i t a t i o n o f r e a l i t y , b u t a p a r a l l e l w i t h n a t u r e . " ( Quoted i n Arsene A l e x a n d r e ' s I n t r o d u c t i o n t o P u v i s de Chavannes, London, G. Newnes L t d . , 1905, p. x v i i . A l e x a n d r e c l a i m e d t o have used c o n v e r s a t i o n and correspondance f o r h i s q u o t e s , not anecdote.) 64 Cezanne, l e t t e r t o E. Bernard,,. 1905, L e t t e r s , p. 315. Cezanne, l e t t e r t o Ch. Camoin, 3 Feb. 190 2, L e t t e r s , p. 282; my emphasis. 66 Cezanne, l e t t e r t o h i s son, 13 Oct. 1906, L e t t e r s , p. 335. 6 7 Cezanne, l e t t e r t o B e r n a r d , 1905, L e t t e r s , p. 315. 6 8 . See C h a p t e r I , P a r t 2, pp. 76-77, and n.106 on N a t u r i s m . 69 . M. D e c a u d i n , L a C n s e des v a l e u r s s y m b o l i s t e s , p. 128. 70 On t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p Cezanne-Gasquet see J . Rewald, Cezanne, G e f f r o y . e t Gasquet, as w e l l as t h e correspondence between t h e two i n Cezanne, L e t t e r s . Rewald has t h e tendency t o p l a y down t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p . F o r i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e Romanic S c h o o l , as w e l l as on Gasquet and t h e " P r o v i n c i a l R e n a i s s a n c e , " see t h e same books recommended i n t h e note on N a t u r i s m ( C h a p t e r I , P a r t 2, n.106), t h a t i s D e c a u d i n ' s , Raymond's and C o r n e l l ' s . 71 On Cezanne b e i n g an a n t i - D r e y f u s a r d see J . Rewald, Cezanne, s a v i e - s o n o e u v r e , son a m i t i e pour Z o l a , P a r i s : A l b i n M i c h e l , 19 39, p. 36 5. 72 Cezanne, l e t t e r t o J . Gasquet, 26 Sept., 1896, L e t t e r s , p. 254. Cezanne ends t h e l e t t e r t o Gasquet o f 30 J a n u a r y 1897 - 283 - w i t h " l o n g l i v e Provence" ( L e t t e r s , p. 258). 7 3 Cezanne, l e t t e r t o H e n r i Gasquet, 23 Dec. 189 8, L e t t e r s , p. 267. 74 p. 94. 75 See M a r c e l Raymond, De B a u d e l a i r e au S u r r e a l i s m e , Quoted i n M i c h e l Decaudin, La C r i s e . . . . , p. 133. Cezanne was a l s o p r a i s i n g "Reason, t h i s c l a r i t y w h i c h p e r m i t s us t o p e n e t r a t e t h e problems s u b m i t t e d t o us," i n t h e l e t t e r o f 20 Nov. 1901 t o t h e young w r i t e r L o u i s Aurenche ( who met Cezanne t h r o u g h G a s q u e t ) , L e t t e r s , p. 278. 76 Decaudin, L a C r i s e . . . , p. 133. 77 See C o r n e l l , The S y m b o l i s t Movement, p. 178. 78 I n t h e l e t t e r t o t h e young p a i n t e r C h a r l e s Camoin, o f 13 S e p t . 1903, Cezanne w r o t e : Couture d i s a i t a ses e l e v e s : "Ayez de bonne f r e q u e n t a t i o n s , " s o i t : " A l l e z au ; L o u v r e . " Mais apres a v o i r vu l e s grands m a i t r e s q u i y r e p o s e n t , 11 f a u t se h a t e r d'en s o r t i r e t v i v i f i e r en s o i , au c o n t a c t de l a n a t u r e , l e s i n s t i n c t s , l e s s e n s a t i o n s d ' a r t q u i r e s i d e n t en nous. ( Cezanne, Correspondance, P a r i s : B e r n a r d G r a s s e t , 19 37, p. 255.) A c o u p l e o f y e a r s l a t e r , i n 1905, Camoin d e c l a r e d t h a t Cezanne o f t e n s a i d he wanted t o " v i v i f y P o u s s i n from n a t u r e " ( v i v i f i e r P o u s s i n s u r n a t u r e ) - see "Enquete s u r l e s tendences a e t u e l l e s des a r t s p l a s t i q u e s , " Mercure de F r a n c e , Aug. 1905, p. 353. We w i l l never know f o r s u r e i f Cezanne a c t u a l l y mentioned P o u s s i n , o r not ( I do not want t o reopen t h i s d i s c u s s i o n h e r e ; see Th. R e f f , "Cezanne and P o u s s i n , " 1960). What i s i m p o r t a n t i s t h a t Cezanne, w h i l e a c c e p t i n g t h e need t o l e a r n from t h e " g r e a t m a s t e r s , " recommended a " v i v i f y - i n g " by t h e way o f n a t u r e . 79 327. 80 Cezanne, l e t t e r t o h i s son, 8 S e p t . 1906, L e t t e r s , Cezanne, l e t t e r t o Gasquet, 22 June 1898, L e t t e r s , p.. 265. F o r Cezanne's r e a c t i o n t o G e f f r o y ' s a r t i c l e , see t h e l e t t e r he wrote to.Gasquet on A p r i l 30, 1896, L e t t e r s , p. 245. On Gasquet's c l a i m t h a t Cezanne r e n d e r e d " t h e s o u l o f Provence" see Rewald's t r a n s l a t i o n from Les Mois P o r e s o f 189 8 i n Cezanne, L e t t e r s , pp. 264-65. Rewald admits he does n o t u n d e r s t a n d why Cezanne speaks "so s l i g h t i n g l y about G e f f r o y - 284- whose a r t i c l e shows so much more u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a n Gasquet's e f f u s i o n . " He does suggest as a p o s s i b l e r e a s o n the p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s between G e f f r o y and Gasquet, w i t h Cezanne b e i n g i n t h i s r e s p e c t on Gasquet's s i d e . T h i s i s v e r y p l a u s i b l e o f c o u r s e , b u t i t i s a l s o t r u e t h a t Cezanne d i d not agree w i t h G e f f r o y on a r t i s t i c m a t t e r s . I t i s o b v i o u s t o me he c a l l e d G e f f r o y " v u l g a r " because o f h i s s t a n d v i s - a - v i s " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" and because he wrote f o r the g e n e r a l p u b l i c . Cezanne was not p l e a s e d G e f f r o y a t t r a c t e d t h e p u b l i c ' s a t t e n - t i o n on him, and o b v i o u s l y d i d not c o n s i d e r t h a t the. c r i t i c u n d e r s t o o d him. 81 M. Raymond, De B a u d e l a i r e au S u r r e a l i s m e , p. 94. On L o u i s B e r t r a n d ' s p r e f a c e t o Gasquet's Chants s e c u l a l r e s see "La r e n a i s s a n c e c l a s s i q u e : L o u i s B e r t r a n d " i n M. Decaudin, L a C r i s e des v a l e u r s s y m b o l i s t e s , pp. 137-140. 82 Cezanne, l e t t e r t o Gasquet, 25 June 1903, L e t t e r s , p. 296. 8 3 See Decaudin, La C r i s e . . . , p. 138. Gasquet wrote: Les a s s i s e s de Cezanne f u r e n t t o u t e s f r a n g a i s e s e t l a t i n e s . Ce ne f u t que p a r l e Flamand Rubens, au f o n d s i l a t i n l u i - meme, que l e s H o l l a n d a i s e u r e n t quelque p r i s e s u r l u i , e t t o u t e de s u r f a c e . ( J . Gasquet, Cezanne, P a r i s , 1926, p. 70.) q c See a l s o Ch. I I , P a r t 1, pp. 108.-109. 86 Cezanne, l e t t e r t o h i s son, 13 S e p t . 1906, L e t t e r s , p. 328. 8 7 Cezanne, l e t t e r t o h i s son, 15 Oct. 1906, L e t t e r s , p. 337. 88 See Th. R e f f , Cezanne. The L a t e Work, p. 20. 89 Th. R e f f , "The P i c t u r e s W i t h i n Cezanne's P i c t u r e s , " A r t s Magazine, June 1979, pp. 95-98, 100, 102. 90 J . Gasquet, Cezanne, p. 53. 91 See Ch. I I , P a r t 2, p. 155 and n.65. 92 The t e r m " d e c o r a t o r " i s used i n t h e t r u e sense o f t h e word, which i m p l i e s t h e s u b s e r v i e n c e o f p a i n t i n g t o a r c h i t e c - t u r e ; whether t h e p a i n t i n g i s done f o r a s p e c i f i c d e s t i n a t i o n - 285 - o r not i s l e s s r e l e v a n t - 93 J . and G. Bernheim-Jeune, "Notes des E d i t e u r s , " Cezanne, 1914, p. 14. 94 Cezanne d i d t r y h i s hand a t l i t h o g r a p h y , b u t h i s i n t e r e s t i n t h i s " l o w e r " form o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t was m i n i m a l . See Douglas D r u i c k , "Cezanne's L i t h o g r a p h s , " i n Cezanne. The L a t e Work, pp. 119-137. 95 See Ch. B l a n c , "Grammaire des a r t s d e c o r a t i f i s , " Gaz. des B e a u x - A r t s , Sep.2, V o l . 3 , 1870, p. 315 and p. 298. 96 Ch. B l a n c , Gaz. des B e a u x - A r t s ,• V o l . 3 , 1870, p. 325. 9 7 Th. R e f f , "Cezanne's C o n s t r u c t i v e S t r o k e , " p. 214. See a l s o C h a p t e r I I , P a r t 2, p. 151. 9 8 Th. R e f f , " P a i n t i n g and Theory i n t h e F i n a l Decade," Cezanne. The L a t e Work, p. 28. 99 The d e c o r a t i o n o f t h e apartments w i t h t a p e s t r y hang- i n g s became p o p u l a r , b u t t h i s form o f d e c o r a t i o n c o u l d not be a f f o r d e d by many p u r s e s , s i n c e t a p e s t r i e s were v e r y c o s t l y . A compromise s o l u t i o n m a t e r i a l i z e d i n t h e form o f " p a i n t e d t a p e s t r y , " t h a t i s , canvases p a i n t e d i n l i q u i d c o l o u r s , i m i t a t i n g t a p e s t r y . I n 1877 a book i n t e n d e d f o r t h e use o f a r t i s t s and " e n l i g h t e d ; a m a t e u r s " was p u b l i s h e d , e n t i t l e d L a P e i n t u r e s u r t o i l e i m i t a n t l e s t a p i s s e r i e s e t . s o n a p p l i c a t i o n a l a d e c o r a t i o n i n t e r i e u r e : Lecons p r a t i q u e s s u r T'emplol des c o u l e u r s l i q u i d e s . ( P a r i s : Mary, ed.) The a u t h o r was J u l i e n Godon, a d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t e r who h i m s e l f used t h i s p r o c e d u r e h i g h l y recommended by V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , f o r example i n t h e G a l e r i e M a z a r i n e a t t h e B i b l i o t h g q u e N a t i o n a l e i n P a r i s . ( J e a n - J o s e p h - J u l i e n Godon was a p a i n t e r o f s t i l l l i f e , and a d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t e r b o r n i n t h e same y e a r as Cezanne, t h a t i s 1839. He made h i s debut a t t h e S a l o n o f 186 8.) The book was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h two y e a r s l a t e r , under t h e t i t l e P a i n t e d T a p e s t r y and i t s A p p l i c a t i o n t o I n t e r i o r D e c o r a t i o n : P r a c t i c a l Lessons i n T a p e s t r y P a i n t i n g w i t h L i q u i d C o l o u r J I n h i s " T r a n s l a t o r Note" t h e a r c h i t e c t B u c k n a l l ( who a l s o t r a n s - l a t e d some o f V i o l l e t - l e - D u c w r i t i n g s i n t o E n g l i s h ) , quoted words o f p r a i s e f o r p a i n t e d t a p e s t r y from V i o l l e t - l e - D u c ' s book How t o B u i l d a House, i n w h i c h e c o n o m i c a l advantages were c l e a r l y p o i n t e d o u t . F o r example V i o l l e t - l e - D u c s a i d , . . . i t i s c l e a r t h a t everybody c o u l d not have F l e m i s h o r G o b e l i n t a p e s t r y , any more t h a n Cordova l e a t h e r . Those t h i n g s were v e r y c o s t l y ; whereas p a i n t e d canvas hangings do not c o s t much more t h a n w a l l p a p e r s . . . ( o p . c i t . , p. v i i . ) - 286 - The p a i n t e d t a p e s t r i e s were q u i t e v e r s a t i l e . They were not o n l y b e t t e r , more " a r t i s t i c " s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e mass-produced w a l l p a p e r s , o r cheaper s u b s t i t u t e f o r t a p e s t r y , b u t f i x e d t o t h e w a l l , o r s t r e t c h e d on wood.frames as p a n e l s , t h e y were " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g s . " Godon saw i n t h i s new t e c h n i q u e , "a new avenue which opens f o r t h e d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " ( op. c i t . , p. 2 ) . The p a i n t e d t a p e s t r i e s . w e r e p a i n t e d on a s p e c i a l c a n v a s , c a l l e d canvas B i n a n t . As Godon e x p l a i n s , B i n a n t was one o f t h e founders o f t h e Union C e n t r a l e , and he e x h i b i t e d h i s new p r o d u c t f o r - t h e f i r s t t i m e i n 1861. Godon's book might have been prompted by t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e p a i n t e d t a p e s - t r i e s a t t h e e x h i b i t i o n o r g a n i z e d i n 1877 by t h e Union C e n t r a l e des b e a u x - a r t s a p p l i q u e s a 1 ' I n d u s t r i e a t t h e P a l a i s de Champs-Elysees ( mentioned by Godon on page 5 o f t h e b o o k ) . x ^ A i x - e n - P r o v e n c e was ( and s t i l l i s ) t h e p l a c e where some o f t h e b e s t p r e s e r v e d F r e n c h ( Beauvais) 18th c e n t u r y t a p e s t r i e s c o u l d be found. They a r e p r e s e r v e d i n t h e A r c h - b i s h o p ' s P a l a c e , which s i n c e 1910 became The Museum o f T a p e s t r y and A n t i q u e F u r n i t u r e . See i n v e n t a i r e G e n e r a l des R i c h e s s e s d ' A r t de l a F r a n c e , P a r i s : P l o n , 1905, V . l l , pp. 22-23 ( e n t r y by H. G i b e r t , 1891), Henry A l g o u d , Les T a p i s s e r i e s du Musee de i ' a n c i e n Areheveche a A i x - e n - P r o v e n c e , M a r s e i l l e : D e t a i l l e , n.d., as w e l l as t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n s i n M i c h e l - F r a n c o i s B r a i v e and J.-G. M a r t i a l , A i x - e n - P r o v e n c e , P a r i s : L a Nef, 19 55, pp. 91-9 7 and t h e c o v e r . Cezanne d i d some c o p y i n g from t a p e s t r y c a r t o o n s , such as an o i l p a i n t i n g ( w h i c h was on t h e London a r t market i n I960) r e p r e s e n t i n g J.F. de T r o y ' s c a r t o o n o f The C a p t u r e and S e n t e n c i n g o f Haman ( Louvre) f o r t h e S t o r y o f E s t h e r t a p e s t r i e s , o r a drawing r e p r e s e n t i n g a f i g u r e from G i u l i o Romano's c a r t o o n o f The C a p t u r e o f a C i t y ( Louvre) f o r t h e F r u c t u s B e l l i t a p e s t r i e s . ( See Th. R e f f , " G e r t r u d e B e r t h o l d , Cezanne und.die a l t e n M e i s t e r . . . , " The A r t B u l l e t i n , V o l . 4 2 , June 1960, p. 149 and p. 148.) 101 102 See C h a p t e r I I , P a r t 1, p. 134 and n.207. See Cezanne, L e t t e r s , p. 320 ( f o r t h e Goncourts) and p. 305 ( f o r C h a r d i n ) . 103 Chesneau wrote: L a p e i n t u r e murale n'a pas l e s memes l o i s que l a p e i n t u r e a l ' h u i l e . E l l e e s t un ornament e t ne d o i t pas provoquer 1 ' i l l u s i o n . Ce qu'on a p e l l e l e t r o m p e - 1 ' o e i l n ' e s t dans un t a b l e a u a l ' h u i l e qu'un s o l e c i s m e g r o s s i e r ; dans l a p e i n t u r e m u r a l e , c ' e s t un b a r b a r i s m e sans excuse. I I f a u t que l a s u r f a c e r e s t e e t p a r a i s s e p l a n e ; l a p e i n t u r e murale joue un r o l e p l u s e l e v e , mais analogue a . c e l u i q u i e t a i t r e s e r v e a u t r e f o i s - 287 - aux t a p i s s e r i e s de t e n t u r e , dans 1 1 ameublement des chateaux e t des p a l a i s r o y a u x . 2 2 ^ ( E. Chesneau, Les Chefs d ' e c o l e , 1862, p. 359.) 104 See f o r example C a l m e t t e s ' p r a i s e o f t h e Rococo t a p e s t r i e s , such as Boucher's Aminte e t S y l v i e , i n Fernand C a l m e t t e s , "La L o i de l a T a p i s s e r i e , " La Revue de l ' A r t A n c i e n e t Moderne, V o l . 1 6 , 1904, pp. 107-09. 105 See A. D a r c e l , " E x p o s i t i o n de l ' h i s t o i r e de l a t a p i s s e r i e , " Gaz. des B e a u x - A r t s , S e r . 2 , V o l . 1 4 , 1876, pp. 428-29. See a l s o P. V a i s s e , "La q u e r e l l e . . . , " p. 75. On m o d e l l i n g by h a t c h i n g see G u i l l a u m e Janneau, " T a p e s t r y Technique," i n Andre L e j a r d , ed., F r e n c h T a p e s t r y , London, 1946, p. 13. 106 Such p r e c e p t s were not a c t u a l l y f o l l o w e d i n p r a c t i c e a t t h e G o b e l i n s , p a r t l y due t o t h e l a c k o f "good" models, t h a t i s p a i n t e r s ' c o o p e r a t i o n . 107 108 109 110 Th. R e f f , "Cezanne's C o n s t r u c t i v e S t r o k e , " p. 223. See n.40, above. Ch. B l a n c , Grammaire des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s , p. 113.. M.E. C h e v r e u l , The Laws of C o n t r a s t o f C o l o u r . . . , London, 1 8 8 3 , p. 10 3. . 1 x 1 See Chapter I I , P a r t 1, p. 137 and n.221. •i ' . . . . . 112 Compare f o r example t o House i n Provence - Fig.13. 113 See M.E. C h e v r e u l , The Laws of C o n t r a s t of C o l o u r . . . , P l a t e XI, f o r example. 114 See Ch. B l a n c , Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n , 186 7, p. 605. See a l s o Blanc, Grammaire' des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s , pp. 385-86. Seurat's method i s a c t u a l l y s i m i l a r to D e y r o l l e ' s procedure, developed f o r t a p e s t r y at the b e g i n n i n g of the 19th century. ( S e e Ch. I, P a r t 1, n.6 7.) P. Signac p o i n t e d out t h a t Cezanne, as w e l l as the I m p r e s s i o n i s t s and the Neo- I m p r e s s i o n i s t s , used the o p t i c a l mixing of c o l o u r : De meme, l a touche de Cezanne e s t l e t r a i t d'union e n t r e l e s modes d'execution des i m p r e s s i o n n i s t e s e t des neo- i m p r e s s i o n n i s t e s . Le p r i n c i p e - commun, mais a p p l i q u e differemment - du , melange optique u n i t ces t r o i s generations de - 288 - c o l o r i s t e s . . . ( P . S i g n a c , D'Eugene D e l a c r o i x au neo- i m p r e s s i o n n i s m e , 1964, p. 106.) 115 I n t a p e s t r y o n l y t h e v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n i s p o s s i b l e . 116 Even h e r e t h e r e a r e some v e r t i c a l s t r o k e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e p o p l a r s , h o r i z o n t a l i n t h e w a t e r , and t h e houses are p a i n t e d almost i n f l a t t i n t s . See a l s o Th. R e f f , "Cezanne's C o n s t r u c t i v e S t r o k e , " pp. 220-21. 117 See P a u l Gauguin's I n t i m a t e J o u r n a l s , t r . Van Wyck B r o o k s , New York: L i v e r i g h t , 1949, p. 246. Gauguin c o u l d n o t have w i t n e s s e d t h e a c t u a l p a i n t i n g o f t h i s p i c t u r e , s i n c e he met Cezanne o n l y i n 1881 i n P o n t o i s e . 118 See P. S i g n a c , D'.Eugene D e l a c r o i x . . . , p. 97 and p. 116. T h i s " O r i e n t a l t r a d i t i o n " does not r e f e r t o m o d e l l i n g , b u t t o t h e c o l o r i n g o f a smooth s u r f a c e , monochrome i n appearance. See a l s o C h a p t e r I , P a r t 2, n . 3 I , where I d i s c u s s e d Gauguin's i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h flambe c e r a m i c s , i n s p i r e d by C h i n e s e v a s e s , i n C h a p e l e t ' s workshop. 119 See a l s o S i g n a c ' s q u o t a t i o n from B l a n c i n D'Eugene D e l a c r o i x . . . , pp. 115-16. R i v i e r e and Schnerb n o t i c e s t h a t Cezanne a p p l i e d t h i s method o f c o l o r m o d u l a t i o n s a l s o t o " f l a t s u r f a c e s " ( " L ' A t e l i e r de Cezanne'" pp. 813-14), b u t t h e y i n t e r p r e t e d t h i s as " m o d e l l i n g o f p l a n e s u r f a c e s " i n s t e a d as a means o f a v o i d i n g monochrome c o l o r i n g and o f making t h e c o l o r " v i b r a t e . " Y e t when t h e y wanted t o be more t e c h n i c a l i n t h e i r e x p l a n a t i o n , t h e y a r r i v e d t o t h e r i g h t c o n c l u s i o n , w h i c h i s t h e a v o i d a n c e o f monochromism: Une s u r f a c e ne nous semble u n i e de t o n e t de. v a l e u r que p a r c e que n o t r e o e i l se meut pour l a p e r c e v o i r t o u t e n t i e r e e t s i l e p e i n t r e , pour l a r e p r e s e n t e r , e t e n d une couche monochrome s u r s a t o i l e , i l l a r e p r o d u i r a sana v e r i t e . R e f f ( Cezanne. The L a t e Work, p. 4 8) f o r example, took R i v i e r e ' s and Schnerb's" m o d e l l i n g o f f l a t s u r f a c e s " a t f a c e v a l u e , and d e c l a r e d t h a t Cezanne saw " c o n v e x i t y " everywhere. 120 Both E. B e r n a r d and J . Gasquet t e s t i f y t h a t Cezanne owned volumes by C h a r l e s B l a n c , and b o t h b e l i t t l e d t h e a r t h i s t o r i a n ' s works. See E. B e r n a r d , S o u v e n i r s s u r P a u l Cezanne. Une c o n v e r s a t i o n avec Cezanne, P a r i s : R.G. M i c h e l , ed., 1926, pp. 39, 107. ( T h e " S o u v e n i r s " f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 190 7 i n Mercure de France.) B e r n a r d s a i d Cezanne owned volumes o f B l a n c * s H i s t o i r e des p e i n t r e s , which he a s s i d o u s l y c o n s u l t e d , b u t he made t h i s comment: "Malheuresement c e t ouvrage e s t m e d i o c r e , e t l e s r e p r o d u c t i o n s en s o n t p l u s que - 289 - mauvaises." Gasquet made s i m i l a r comments and added: " . . . i l n'y a pas a repondre a ceux q u i c r o i e n t ou p r e t e n d e n t que l e s mediocres volumes de C h a r l e s B l a n c f a i s a i e n t t o u t son bagage [Cezanne's,]...." .-.(. Gasquet, Cezanne, pp. 109-10.) Gasquet a l s o r e l a t e d t h a t Cezanne o f t e n skimed t h r o u g h h i s c o l l e c t i o n o f volumes by Ch. B l a n c , t h a t he r e a d L ' H i s b o i r e des p e i n t r e s and sometimes even c o p i e d some r e p r o d u c t i o n from them. ( Gasquet, Cezanne, pp. 109-10.) We know t h a t Cezanne i n d e e d c o p i e d from t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n s i n B l a n c books, f o r example t h e C h r i s t i n Limbo, a t t r i b u t e d by B l a n c t o N a v a r e t t e , i n h i s L ' E c o l e E s p a g n o l e . ( See G. B e r t h o l d , Cezanne und d i e a l t e n M e i s t e r , S t u t t g a r t , 1958, p. 130, #273.) U n f o r t u n a t e l y , as Th. R e f f p o i n t e d o u t , almost a l l Cezanne's books were removed by h i s f a m i l y . ( Th. R e f f . " R e p r o d u c t i o n s and Books i n Cezanne's S t u d i o , " Gaz. Beaux- A r t s , V o l . 5 6 , 1960, p. 30 3.) I t i s not p o s s i b l e t h u s t o prove he owned t h e two Grammaires f o r example, b u t i t i s v e r y l i k e l y . 121 C h a r l e s M o r i c e , Gauguin, P a r i s : F l o u r y , 1919, p. 166. 1 2 2 See n.99. 123 See f o r example E. L o r a n , Cezanne's C o m p o s i t i o n , p. 35, where he d i s c u s s e s "Cezanne's M a t e r i a l s and Method." 124 J . Godon, L a P e i n t u r e s u r t o i l e i m i t a n t l e s t a p i s s e r i e s . . . , p. 85. 125 On t h e s u b j e c t o f Cezanne's "shadow-paths" see K. B a d t , The A r t o f Cezanne, pp. 49-56. Badt ( p p . 164-65) r e - marked a l s o on t h e c a r p e t - l i k e c h a r a c t e r o f Cezanne's p a i n t - i n g s , on t h e u n i f y i n g f e a t u r e o f t h e i r " f a c t u r e , " t h e "detached p a t c h e s o f c o l o u r f r e q u e n t l y b u t not i n v a r i a b l y a p p l i e d i n one d i r e c t i o n , " w h i c h resemble t h e t e x t u r e o f woven m a t e r i a l s . He s p e c i f i c a l l y r e f e r r e d , t o G o b e l i n t a p e s t r y e f f e c t ( pp. 166-67). 1 OG. Raymond Bouyer, "Le Paysage dans, l ' a r t , " L ' A r t i s t e , J u l y 1893, p. 39. See a l s o Chapter. I , P a r t 2, n.75 on Bouyer's a r t i c l e s . On Cezanne's e a r l i e r c o n n e c t i o n w i t h L ' A r t i s t e , see G u i l a B a l l a s , . " P a u l Cezanne e t l a revue ' L ' A r t i s t e ' , " Gaz. des B e a u x - A r t s , S e r . 6 , V o l . 9 8 , Dec. 1981, pp. 223-232. C o n s i d e r - i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f Bouyer's a r t i c l e s f o r a l a n d s c a p e p a i n t e r , i t . i s not l i k e l y he would have m i s s e d them. 127 R. Bouyer, "Le Paysage...," L ' A r t i s t e , Aug. 1893, p. 12 3. My emphasis on v i v i f i a n t . 128 E. L o r a n , Cezanne's C o m p o s i t i o n , p. 29 remarked on - 290 - the " i n n e r l i g h t " i n Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s , " t h a t emanates from t h e c o l o r r e l a t i o n s i n t h e p i c t u r e i t s e l f , w i t h o u t r e g a r d f o r t h e mere c o p y i n g o f r e a l i s t i c e f f e c t s o f l i g h t and shade." See a l s o Ch. IT, P a r t 1, p. 137, and Ch. I I , P a r t 2, 129 p. 169. 130 See f o r example Ch. B l a n c , "Grammaire des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s , " G a z e t t e des B e a u x - A r t s , V o l . 3 , 1870, p. 320: " T i t i e n , Veronese, Rubens, l e s grads c o l o r i s t s , ont f a i t consonner l e u r s t o n s p a r l a r e p e t i t i o n de l e u r s harmonies." He added: Le c o l o r i s de Rubens, a y r e g a r d e r b i e n , n ' e s t s i harmonieux, s i v i b r a n t , s i e n t r a i n a n t que p a r l ' h a b i l e t e q u ' i l a mise a r a p p e l e r l e s c o u l e u r s chaudes parmi l e s tons f r o i d s , e t l e s c o u l e u r s f r o i d e s parmi l e s t o n s chauds. A l s o , B l a n c m a i n t a i n e d , S ' . i l y f a u t un c o n t r a s t e , qu'on l ' y m e t t e , a l a c o n d i t i o n que l e c o n t r a s t e s o i t t o u j o u r s un moyen de r e n d r e 1 ' u n i t e p l u s f o r t e , p l u s b r i l l a n t e , p l u s s a i l l a n t e . S i 1'orange d o i t e c l a t e r dans une d e c o r a t i o n , que l e b l e u s'y mele, mais a p e t i t e s doses,... ( I b i d . , p. 321.) On t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e u n i t y o f e f f e c t , see a l s o H. Havard, L a D e c o r a t i o n , pp. 28-29. 131 A. D a r c e l , "Le S a l o n des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s , " Gaz. B e a u x - A r t s , S e r . 2 , V o l . 2 5 , 1882, p. 591. 132 See a l s o C h a p t e r I , P a r t 2, n . 2. 133 T h i s was something t h a t Cezanne wanted t o a v o i d - see l e t t e r t o E. B e r n a r d , 23 Oct. 1905, L e t t e r s , p. 317. 134 Ch. B l a n c , Grammaire des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s , pp. 10 4-05, and p. 101. B l a n c ( op. c i t . , p~. 101) s a i d t h a t t h e C h i n e s e " f o n t v o i r dans l e haut de l e u r d e c o r a t i o n ce qu'un p e i n t r e mis dans l e l o i n t a i n de son t a b l e a u . " As a g e n e r a l r u l e f o r a v o i d i n g t h e l i n e a r p e r s p e c t i v e e f f e c t , B l a n c recommended u s i n g a h i g h v i e w p o i n t , o r i n l a n d s c a p e s t h e a v o i d a n c e o f t o o much sky exposure ( see C h a p t e r I , P a r t 1, p. 26) ; such d e v i c e s were e x t e n s i v e l y used by Cezanne. As Gauguin n o t i c e s , " h i s h o r i z o n s are l o f t y . " ( See P. Gauguin, l e t t e r t o S c h u f f e n e c k e r , 14 J a n . 1885, L e t t e r s t o h i s W i f e and F r i e n d s , p. 34.) 135 L i l i a n e B r i o n - G u e r r y , Cezanne e t 1 ' E x p r e s s i o n de - 291 - 1'Espace, P a r i s : Ed. A l b i n M i c h e l , 1966 ( f i r s t ed. 1950; w r i t t e n between 1943-45), pp. 152-160. B r i o n - G u e r r y was p u z z l e d by t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s w i t h C h i n e s e p a i n t i n g m o s t l y because she b e l i e v e d Gasquet when he s a i d Cezanne d i d not have knowledge o f Japanese and C h i n e s e a r t . ( Op. c i t . , p. 254, n.115). Gasquet s a i d : On a p a r l e des J a p o n a i s e t des C h i n o i s . Quand j'amenais l a c o n v e r s a t i o n s u r eux: "Je ne l e s c o n n a i s pas, d i s a i t - i l . Je n'en a i j a m a i s vu." I I n ' a v a i t l u que l e s deux volumes de Goncourt s u r Outamaro e t H o k o u s a i , mais dans 1 1 i n t e l l i g e n c e c r e a t r i c e d'un p e i n t r e c e n t pages de t e x t e ne p o r t e n t pas l e tcmoinage d'un t r a i t ou de deux coups de p i n c e a u . S ' i l y e u t r e n c o n t r e , ce que j e s u i s l o i n de s u g g e r e r , d e t e s t a n t t o u s ces rapprochements de h a s a r d a l ' u s a g e des snobs, comme ces fameuses comparisons e n t r e l e s paysages de Cezanne e t l e s paysages des t a p i s s e r i e s , s ' i l y eut r e n c o n t r e , e l l e f u t f o r t u i t e , e t en t o u t cas purement c e r e b r a l e . I I n'y eut pas echange, i n f l u e n c e v i r t u e l l e . Les a s s i s e s de Cezanne f u f e n t t o u t e s f r a n c a i s e s e t l a t i n e s . ( J . Gasquet, Cezanne, p. 70.) Gasquet d i s m i s s e d h e r e , i n one sweep, b o t h O r i e n t a l i n f l u e n c e s on Cezanne and t h e comparison o f h i s l a n d s c a p e s w i t h t a p e s t r y l a n d s c a p e s . He d i d not l i k e t h e O r i e n t a l i n f l u e n c e s because he was a g a i n s t any i n f l u e n c e s t h a t were not F r e n c h o r a t l e a s t L a t i n . He d i d not l i k e t h e comparison w i t h t a p e s t r i e s because, as he put i t , t h e y were " f o r t h e use o f snobs," t h a t i s t h o s e t h a t f a v o r e d "pure p a i n t i n g . " 136 See R. Marx's d e s c r i p t i o n o f C h a p e l e t ' s c e r a m i c s i n C h a p t e r I , P a r t 2, n.31. 137 See t h e " C a t a l o g " i n Cezanne. The L a t e Work. 138 See Cezanne, l e t t e r t o E. B e r n a r d , 23 O c t . 1905, L e t t e r s , p. 317. 139 C a r l o s de C a s t e r a ( " S o l r a c " ) , " R e f l e c t i o n s s u r l e S a l o n d'Automne," L ' O c c i d e n t , Dec. 190 4, p. 30 7: Une s a l l e , presque e n t i e r e , e s t a l l o u e e aux e n v o i s de 1'adorable c o l o r i s t e M. V u i l l a r d . Tous ses t a b l e a u x s o n t de dimensions r e s t r e i n t e s e t ont l e charme de coupons d ' e t o f f e s p r e c i e u s e s que 1'on r e g a r d e non seulement pour l a beaute du t o n mais a u s s i pour l a p r e c i o s i t e de l a trame; comme e l l e s , i l s c o n t r i b u e n t a 1'embellissement des appartements modernes. - 292 - 140 D e n i s , T h e o r i e s , p. 208 141 See J . Gasquet, Cezanne, pp. Cezanne e t Z o l a , 1936, pp. 161-62. 116-17, and J . Rewald, 142 3221. Cezanne, l e t t e r t o h i s son, 12 Aug. 1906, L e t t e r s , 143 326 Cezanne, l e t t e r t o h i s son, 8 Sept. 1906, L e t t e r s , 144 145 Cezanne, l e t t e r t o B e r n a r d , 1905, p. 316 On the t o p i c o f Cezanne's c o n c e r n w i t h c o l o u r g r a d a t i o n s , l o c a l c o l o u r , and t h e o r i e s o f c o l o u r and l i g h t , see a l s o R o b e r t W. 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