James Macpherson - Wikipedia James Macpherson From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other people with similar names, see James Macpherson (disambiguation) and James McPherson (disambiguation). James Macpherson Born 27 October 1736 Ruthven, Inverness-shire, Scotland Died 17 February 1796 (aged 59) Belville, Inverness-shire, Scotland Occupation Poet, translator Alma mater Marischal College, University of Aberdeen; University of Edinburgh Literary movement Romanticism James Macpherson (Gaelic: Seumas MacMhuirich or Seumas Mac a' Phearsain; 27 October 1736 – 17 February 1796) was a Scottish writer, poet, literary collector and politician, known as the "translator" of the Ossian cycle of epic poems. He was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation.[citation needed] Contents 1 Early life and education 2 Collecting Scottish Gaelic poetry 3 Ossian 4 Later works 5 Time in Parliament 6 Death 7 Legacy 8 See also 9 References 10 Sources 11 Further reading 12 External links Early life and education[edit] Macpherson was born at Ruthven in the parish of Kingussie in Badenoch, Inverness-shire. This was a Scottish Gaelic-speaking area but near the Barracks of the British Army, established in 1719 to enforce Whig rule from London after the Jacobite uprising of 1715. Macpherson's uncle, Ewen Macpherson joined the Jacobite army in the 1745 march south, when Macpherson was nine years old and after the Battle of Culloden, had had to remain in hiding for nine years.[1] In the 1752-3 session, Macpherson was sent to King's College, Aberdeen, moving two years later to Marischal College (the two institutions later became the University of Aberdeen), reading Caesar's Commentaries on the relationships between the 'primitive' Germanic tribes and the 'enlightened' Roman imperial army;[1] it is also believed that he attended classes at the University of Edinburgh as a divinity student in 1755–56. During his years as a student, he ostensibly wrote over 4,000 lines of verse, some of which was later published, notably The Highlander (1758), a six-canto epic poem,[2] which he attempted to suppress sometime after its publication. Collecting Scottish Gaelic poetry[edit] On leaving college, he returned to Ruthven to teach in the school there, and then became a private tutor.[1] At Moffat he met John Home, the author of Douglas, for whom he recited some Gaelic verses from memory. He also showed him manuscripts of Gaelic poetry, supposed to have been picked up in the Scottish Highlands and the Western Isles; one was called The Death of Oscar.[1] In 1760, Macpherson visited North Uist and met with John MacCodrum, the official Bard to the Chief of Clan MacDonald of Sleat. As a result of their encounter, MacCodrum made, according to John Lorne Campbell, "a brief appearance in the Ossianic controversy which is not without it's humorous side." When Macpherson met MacCodrum, he asked, "A bheil dad agaibh air an Fheinne?" Macpherson believed himself to have asked, "Do you know anything of the Fianna?" He had actually said, however, "Do the Fianna owe you anything?"[3] In reply, MacCodrum quipped, "Cha n-eil agus ge do bhiodh cha ruiginn a leas iarraidh a nis", or in English, "No, and if they did it would be useless to ask for it now." According to Campbell, this, "dialogue... illustrates at once Macpherson's imperfect Gaelic and MacCodrum's quickness of reply."[4] Encouraged by Home and others, Macpherson produced 15 pieces, all laments for fallen warriors, translated from the Scottish Gaelic, despite his limitations in that tongue, which he was induced to publish at Edinburgh in 1760, including the Death of Oscar, in a pamphlet: Fragments of Ancient Poetry collected in the Highlands of Scotland. Extracts were then published in The Scots Magazine and The Gentleman's Magazine which were popular and the notion of these fragments as glimpses of an unrecorded Gaelic epic began.[1] Hugh Blair, who was a firm believer in the authenticity of the poems, raised a subscription to allow Macpherson to pursue his Gaelic researches. In the autumn,1760, Macpherson set out to visit western Inverness-shire, the islands of Skye, North Uist, South Uist and Benbecula. Allegedly, Macpherson obtained manuscripts which he translated with the assistance of a Captain Morrison and the Rev. Gallie. Later he made an expedition to the Isle of Mull, where he claimed to obtain other manuscripts. Ossian[edit] In 1761, Macpherson announced the discovery of an epic on the subject of Fingal (related to the Irish mythological character Fionn mac Cumhaill/Finn McCool) written by Ossian (based on Fionn's son Oisín), and in December he published Fingal, an Ancient Epic Poem in Six Books, together with Several Other Poems composed by Ossian, the Son of Fingal, translated from the Gaelic Language, written in the musical measured prose of which he had made use in his earlier volume. Temora followed in 1763, and a collected edition, The Works of Ossian, in 1765. The name Fingal or Fionnghall means "white stranger",[5] and it is suggested that the name was rendered as Fingal through a derivation of the name which in old Gaelic would appear as Finn.[6] The authenticity of these so-called translations from the works of a 3rd-century bard was immediately challenged by Irish historians, especially Charles O'Conor, who noted technical errors in chronology and in the forming of Gaelic names, and commented on the implausibility of many of Macpherson's claims, none of which Macpherson was able to substantiate. More forceful denunciations were later made by Samuel Johnson, who asserted (in A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland, 1775) that Macpherson had found fragments of poems and stories, and then woven them into a romance of his own composition. Further challenges and defences were made well into the nineteenth century, but the issue was moot by then. Macpherson's manuscript Gaelic "originals" were published posthumously in 1807;[7] Ludwig Christian Stern was sure they were in fact back-translations from his English version.[8] Later works[edit] In 1764, Macpherson was made secretary to the colonial governor George Johnstone at Pensacola, Florida. He returned to Great Britain two years later, and, despite a quarrel with Johnstone, was allowed to retain his salary as a pension. Macpherson went on to write several historical works, the most important of which was Original Papers, containing the Secret History of Great Britain from the Restoration to the Accession of the House of Hanover, to which are prefixed Extracts from the Life of James II, as written by himself (1775). He enjoyed a salary for defending the policy of Lord North's government, and held the lucrative post of London agent to the Nawab of Arcot. He entered parliament in 1780, as Member of Parliament for Camelford and continued to sit for the remainder of his life. Time in Parliament[edit] Despite his Jacobite roots, and in line with his Hanovarian sympathies, for a time Macpherson had desired a seat in Parliament and he finally received it in the 1780 general election. On 11 September 1780, he became junior member for Camelford. Later he became the senior member in the results of the April 1784 election. He stayed in this position until his death. Although there is not a lot recorded about his time in parliament, his name is in a list of confidential parliamentary pensions which suggest that his undocumented work was more of an under-the-table government scheme. This suggestion is more or less backed by letters corresponding with other suggested government scammers of the time such as Paul Benfield. In 1783 he also held a position as an agent working with Sir Nathaniel Wraxall,[9] and was noted since this time for being very wealthy, probably from his secret parliamentary pensions he was receiving. Death[edit] In his later years he bought an estate, to which he gave the name Belville or Balavil, in his native Inverness-shire, where he died at the age of 59.[10] Macpherson's remains were carried from Scotland and interred in the Abbey Church of Westminster.[11] The Highland MP and antiquarian, Charles Fraser-Mackintosh, appears to enviously comment on the success of James Macpherson in his second series of "Antiquarian Notes" (Inverness 1897, pp 369 et seq, public domain) as follows: "Mr James Macpherson of Ossianic fame, who acquired Phoiness, Etterish, and Invernahaven, began this wretched business and did it so thoroughly that not much remained for his successors.......Every place James Macpherson acquired was cleared, and he also had a craze for changing and obliterating the old names ... [including] ... Raitts into Belville. Upon this point it may be noticed that Mac Ossian, in making an entail and calling four of his numerous bastards [this comment has no support] in the first instance to the succession, declares an irritancy if any of the heirs uses any other designation than that of Macpherson of Belville." After calling Macpherson's children bastards, Fraser-Mackintosh also jealously asserts that Macpherson bought the right to be buried in Westminster Abbey. If it was for sale, why not? Recent commentators suggest Macpherson has become known as 'a descendent of a Jacobite clan who became a sycophantic Hanovarian toady, a man for the main chance'.[1] Legacy[edit] After Macpherson's death, Malcolm Laing, in an appendix to his History of Scotland (1800), concluded that the so-called Ossianic poems were altogether modern in origin, and that Macpherson's authorities were practically non-existent.[12] Despite the above, some critics claim that Macpherson nonetheless produced a work of art which by its deep appreciation of natural beauty and the melancholy tenderness of its treatment of the ancient legend did more than any single work to bring about the romantic movement in European, and especially in German, literature. It was quickly translated into many European languages, and Herder and Goethe (in his earlier period) were among its profound admirers. Goethe incorporated his translation of a part of the work into his novel The Sorrows of Young Werther. Melchiore Cesarotti's Italian translation was reputedly a favourite of Napoleon.[13] Macpherson's legacy indirectly includes the naming of Fingal's Cave on the island of Staffa. The original Gaelic name is "An Uamh Bhin" ("the melodious cave"), but it was renamed by Sir Joseph Banks in 1772 at the height of Macpherson's popularity.[14][15] See also[edit] Iolo Morganwg References[edit] ^ a b c d e f Riach, Alan (8 May 2020). "Living Legends of a Lost World (print copy); This is why James Macpherson's tales of Ossian are so controversial (online)". The National. Retrieved 11 May 2020. ^ Baines, Paul; Ferraro, Julian; Rogers, Pat (2010). "Macpherson, James". The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Eighteenth-Century Writers and Writing 1660–1789. Wiley. pp. 227–228. ISBN 9781444390087. Retrieved 6 October 2014. ^ Campbell (1971), Highland Songs of the Forty-Five, page 246. ^ Campbell (1971), Highland Songs of the Forty-Five, pages 247-247. ^ Mike Campbell (2008). "Name: Fingal". Behindthename.com. Retrieved 16 November 2008. ^ Mary Ann Dobratz (2000). "The Works of "Fiona MacLeod" Notes to First Edition". SundownShores. Archived from the original on 16 October 2013. ^ Macpherson, James; M'Arthur, John; Ross, Thomas; Cesarotti, Melchiorre; Macfarlan, Robert (1807). The poems of Ossian in the original Gaelic. London: Printed by W. Bulmer. Retrieved 27 November 2019. ^ Ní Mhunghaile, Lesa (2017). "Ossian and the Gaelic World". In Moore, Dafydd (ed.). The International Companion to James Macpherson and the Poems of Ossian. Glasgow: Scottish Literature International. p. 9. ^ Bailey, Saunders. "The Life and Letters of James Macpherson". WebArchive. Retrieved 6 May 2015. ^ Lewis Namier; John Brooke (1985). The House of Commons, 1754-1790. Boydell & Brewer. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-436-30420-0. ^ "James Macpherson". www.westminster-abbey.org. Retrieved 5 February 2018. ^ A "somewhat merciless exposure"; "Laing, Malcolm" . Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900. ^ Zamoyski, Adam (2001). Holy Madness: Romantics, Patriots and Revolutionaries. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 45. ISBN 1-84212-145-6. ^ Elizabeth A. Bray (1999). Discovery of the Hebrides. Birlinn Publishers. p. 268. ISBN 1-874744-59-9. ^ Haswell-Smith, Hamish (2004). The Scottish Islands. Edinburgh: Canongate. p. 544. ISBN 978-1-84195-454-7. Sources[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Macpherson, James". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 267–268. Further reading[edit] Gaskill, Howard; Macpherson, James (1996). The poems of Ossian and Related Works. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 573. ISBN 0-7486-0707-2. Gaskill, Howard (2002). The Reception of Ossian in Europe. Continuum International Publishing Group – Athlone. p. 400. ISBN 0-485-80504-9. Stafford, Fiona J. (1988). The Sublime Savage: A Study of James Macpherson and The poems of Ossian. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 200. ISBN 0-85224-609-9. Gaskill, Howard (1991). Ossian Revisited. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 256. ISBN 0-7486-0247-X. Saunders, Thomas Bailey (1895). The Life And Letters of James Macpherson: Containing a particular account of his famous quarrel with Dr. Johnson, and a sketch of the origin and the influence of the Ossianic poems. London: Swan Sonnernschein & Co. pp. 327. ISBN 978-1103168255. External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Macpherson, James. Works written by or about James Macpherson at Wikisource Quotations related to James Macpherson at Wikiquote Media related to James Macpherson at Wikimedia Commons James Macpherson at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA) Digitised version of Fingal, an ancient epic poem. : In six books: together with several other poems, composed by Ossian the son of Fingal. / Translated from the Galic language, by James Macpherson.., 1762 edition at National Library of Scotland Literary Encyclopedia: Ossian Significant Scots Popular Tales of the West Highlands by J. F. Campbell Volume IV (1890) The Poetical Works of Ossian at the Ex-Classics Web Site Works by James Macpherson at Project Gutenberg Works by or about James Macpherson at Internet Archive v t e Age of Enlightenment Topics Atheism Capitalism Civil liberties Counter-Enlightenment Critical thinking Deism Democracy Empiricism Encyclopédistes Enlightened absolutism Free markets Haskalah Humanism Human rights Liberalism Liberté, égalité, fraternité Methodological skepticism Nationalism Natural philosophy Objectivity Rationality Rationalism Reason Reductionism Sapere aude Science Scientific method Socialism Universality Weimar Classicism Thinkers France Jean le Rond d'Alembert René Louis d'Argenson Pierre Bayle Pierre Beaumarchais Nicolas Chamfort Émilie du Châtelet Étienne Bonnot de Condillac Marquis de Condorcet René Descartes Denis Diderot Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle Claude Adrien Helvétius Baron d'Holbach Louis de Jaucourt Julien Offray de La Mettrie Georges-Louis Leclerc Gabriel Bonnot de Mably Sylvain Maréchal Jean Meslier Montesquieu Étienne-Gabriel Morelly Blaise Pascal François Quesnay Guillaume Thomas François Raynal Marquis de Sade Anne Robert Jacques Turgot Voltaire Geneva Firmin Abauzit Charles Bonnet Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui Jean-Louis de Lolme Pierre Prévost Jean-Jacques Rousseau Antoine-Jacques Roustan Horace Bénédict de Saussure Jacob Vernes Jacob Vernet Germany Justus Henning Böhmer Carl Friedrich Gauss Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Johann Gottfried von Herder Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel Wilhelm von Humboldt Immanuel Kant Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Gotthold Ephraim Lessing Georg Christoph Lichtenberg Moses Mendelssohn Samuel von Pufendorf Friedrich Schiller Christian Thomasius Gabriel Wagner Christian Felix Weiße Christoph Martin Wieland Thomas Wizenmann Christian Wolff Greece Neophytos Doukas Theoklitos Farmakidis Rigas Feraios Theophilos Kairis Adamantios Korais Ireland George Berkeley Robert Boyle Edmund Burke John Toland Italy Cesare Beccaria Gaetano Filangieri Ferdinando Galiani Luigi Galvani Antonio Genovesi Francesco Mario Pagano Giovanni Salvemini Pietro Verri Giambattista Vico Netherlands Balthasar Bekker Pieter de la Court Petrus Cunaeus Hugo Grotius François Hemsterhuis Christiaan Huygens Adriaan Koerbagh Frederik van Leenhof Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Bernard Nieuwentyt Baruch Spinoza Jan Swammerdam Hendrik Wyermars Poland Tadeusz Czacki Hugo Kołłątaj Stanisław Konarski Ignacy Krasicki Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz Stanisław August Poniatowski Jędrzej Śniadecki Stanisław Staszic Józef Wybicki Andrzej Stanisław Załuski Józef Andrzej Załuski Portugal Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo Romania Ion Budai-Deleanu Dinicu Golescu Petru Maior Samuil Micu-Klein Gheorghe Șincai Russia Catherine II Denis Fonvizin Mikhail Kheraskov Mikhail Lomonosov Nikolay Novikov Alexander Radishchev Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova Serbia Dositej Obradović Avram Mrazović Spain José Cadalso Charles III Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro Leandro Fernández de Moratín Valentin de Foronda Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos Martín Sarmiento Diego de Torres Villarroel United Kingdom (Scotland) Joseph Addison Francis Bacon James Beattie Jeremy Bentham Joseph Black Hugh Blair James Boswell James Burnett, Lord Monboddo Anthony Collins Adam Ferguson Edward Gibbon Robert Hooke David Hume Francis Hutcheson Samuel Johnson John Locke John Millar Isaac Newton William Ogilvie Richard Price Joseph Priestley Thomas Reid Shaftesbury Adam Smith Dugald Stewart Mary Wollstonecraft United States Benjamin Franklin Thomas Jefferson James Madison George Mason Thomas Paine Category v t e Romanticism Countries Denmark England (literature) France (literature) Germany Norway Poland Russia (literature) Scotland Spain (literature) Sweden (literature) Movements Bohemianism Coppet group Counter-Enlightenment Dark romanticism Düsseldorf School Gesamtkunstwerk Gothic fiction Gothic Revival (architecture) Hudson River School Indianism Jena Romanticism Lake Poets Nazarene movement Ossian Romantic hero Romanticism and Bacon Romanticism in science Romantic nationalism Romantic poetry Opium and Romanticism Transcendentalism Ultra-Romanticism Wallenrodism Writers Abovian Abreu Alencar Alfieri Alves Andersen A. v. Arnim B. v. Arnim Azevedo Baratashvili Baratynsky Barbauld (Aikin) Batyushkov Baudelaire Bécquer Beer Bertrand Blake Botev Brentano Bryant Burns Byron Castelo Branco Castilho Chateaubriand Chavchavadze Clare Coleridge Cooper De Quincey Dias Dumas Eichendorff Emerson Eminescu Espronceda Fouqué Foscolo Frashëri Fredro Freire Garrett Gautier Goethe Grimm Brothers Günderrode Gutiérrez Gutzkow Hauff Hawthorne Heine Heliade Herculano Hoffmann Hölderlin Hugo Kostić Irving Isaacs Jakšić Jean Paul Karamzin Keats Kleist Krasiński Küchelbecker Lamartine Landor Lenau Leopardi Lermontov Longfellow Lowell Macedonski Macedo Mácha Magalhães Malczewski Manzoni Maturin Mérimée Mickiewicz Mörike Musset Nalbandian Nerval Njegoš Nodier Norwid Novalis Oehlenschläger O'Neddy Orbeliani Poe Polidori Potocki Prešeren Pushkin Raffi Saavedra Sand Schiller Schwab Scott Seward M. Shelley P. B. Shelley Shevchenko Słowacki Southey De Staël Stendhal Tieck Tyutchev Uhland Varela Vörösmarty Vyazemsky Wergeland Wordsworth Zhukovsky Zorrilla Music Adam Alkan Auber Beethoven Bellini Bennett Berlioz Bertin Berwald Busoni Brahms Bruch Bruckner Cherubini Chopin Czerny Félicien David Ferdinand David Donizetti Dvořák Elgar Fauré Field Franck Franz Glinka Grieg Gomis Halévy Hummel Joachim Kalkbrenner Liszt Loewe Mahler Marschner Masarnau Medtner Méhul Fanny Mendelssohn Felix Mendelssohn Méreaux Meyerbeer Moniuszko Moscheles Moszkowski Mussorgsky Niedermeyer Onslow Paganini Paderewski Prudent Rachmaninoff Reicha Rimsky-Korsakov Rossini Rubinstein Saint-Saëns Schubert Clara Schumann Robert Schumann Scriabin Sibelius Smetana Sor Spohr Spontini Richard Strauss Tchaikovsky Thalberg Verdi Voříšek Wagner Weber Wolf Theologians and philosophers Barante Belinsky Berchet Chaadayev Coleridge Constant Díaz Emerson Feuerbach Fichte Goethe Hazlitt Hegel Hunt Khomyakov Lamennais Larra Mazzini Michelet Müller Pellico Quinet Ritschl Rousseau Schiller A. Schlegel F. Schlegel Schleiermacher Senancour De Staël Tieck Wackenroder Visual artists Aivazovsky Bierstadt Blake Bonington Bryullov Chassériau Church Constable Cole Corot Dahl David d'Angers Delacroix Friedrich Fuseli Géricault Girodet Głowacki Goya Gude Hayez Janmot Jones Kiprensky Koch Lampi Leutze Loutherbourg Maison Martin Michałowski Palmer Porto-Alegre Préault Révoil Richard Rude Runge Saleh Scheffer Stattler Stroj Tidemand Todorović Tropinin Turner Veit Ward Wiertz Related topics German idealism Historical fiction Mal du siècle Medievalism Neo-romanticism Preromanticism Post-romanticism Sturm und Drang  « Age of Enlightenment Realism »  Authority control BIBSYS: 90135028 BNE: XX1387620 BNF: cb11913832m (data) CANTIC: a12158707 GND: 118781154 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\007190 ISNI: 0000 0000 8078 3068 LCCN: n50042738 LNB: 000093907 MBA: aba03ae8-ce89-4d26-91fd-66bde02c3ad3 NKC: mzk2003202484 NLA: 35320719 NLI: 000602558 NTA: 069390096 PLWABN: 9810649411805606 RERO: 02-A026815124 SELIBR: 313827 SNAC: w6th8nh2 SUDOC: 027000648 Trove: 910698 ULAN: 500443156 VcBA: 495/32411 VIAF: 100201047 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50042738 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Macpherson&oldid=1000270274" Categories: 1736 births 1796 deaths Alumni of the University of Aberdeen Alumni of the University of Edinburgh Epic poetry collectors Literary forgeries Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for constituencies in Cornwall Romantic poets Scottish politicians People from Aberdeen People from Inverness People from Kingussie People of the Scottish Enlightenment 18th-century Scottish writers 18th-century Scottish poets Clan Macpherson British MPs 1780–1784 British MPs 1784–1790 British MPs 1790–1796 Scottish folk-song collectors Scottish folklorists Hidden categories: Articles incorporating Cite DNB template EngvarB from August 2014 Use dmy dates from August 2014 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2018 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Commons category link from Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles containing French-language text Articles containing Hebrew-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego Italiano ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 January 2021, at 12:01 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement