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LON HISTORIC ORNAMENT Treatise on DECORATIVE ART AND ARCHITECTURAL ORNAMENT TREATS OF PREHISTORIC ART'; ANCIENT ART AND ARCHI- TECTURE; EASTERN, EARLY CHRISTIAN, BYZANTINE, SARACENIC, ROMANESQUE, GOTHIC, AND RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. BY JAMES WARD AUTHOR OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ORNAMENT.” With Four Hundred and Thirty-Six Illustrations LONDON: CHAPMAN AND HALL, LIMITED 1909 1909 i LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S.E., AND GREAT WINDMILL STREET, W. PREFACE. The comprehensive nature of the subject of this work renders it impossible to deal with its various divisions and sub-divisions, except in a very condensed manner, within the limits of a handbook for students. I have endeavoured to present to the reader, and to the student of ornamental and decorative art, some of the salient features which characterize the historic styles of ornament, and those that seem to me to show themselves as landmarks in the wide domain of Historic Ornament. Realistic decoration was the earliest form of all art, as we find it in the etchings on the bones drawn by the pre- historic cave-dwellers; but ornamental design or pattern drawing is a kind of invention which implies the orderiy decoration of architectural forms and other objects, and is generally applied to such objects with the view of adding some enrichment that shall make them more pleasing to the sight. The former belongs more to pictorial art, while the latter is purely decorative. As the construction of ornament, in a great measure, ought to be based on the laws that govern the design of good architecture--this we gather from the design of the best ornament of the historic styles-it has been thought necessary to give a slight sketch of each of the principal 6 36523 vi PREFACE. orders and styles of architecture, placing them, as far as possible, in a chronological sequence in regard to the periods of their existence, and countries in which they flourished. In some cases I have also thought it desirable to give a brief account of the religion of those nations that have created distinct styles of architecture and ornament; for in many cases, such as in the art of the ancient world and of the Middle Ages, we find that the art of a country was so bound up with the religion of its people, that to understand the former it is indispensable to have some knowledge of their religious ceremonies and beliefs. I have here to express my indebtedness to various writers on ornamental art whom I have named in the pages of these volumes for some useful points of informa- tion, and to them and the publishers of this work for the use of the greater portion of the blocks of illustrations. I have also to thank Mr. T. M. Lindsay for the use of his drawing of the monument of Lysikrates, and the Science and Art Department for permission to use many of the illustrations of their excellent handbooks on deco- rative art. In a succeeding volume to this work, the various divisions of the Industrial Arts and Crafts will be treated in their historical developments of decoration and work- manship. In conclusion, I trust that the contents of these pages will be helpful to students in art schools, and to others who may desire to have an introduction to the fascinating study of Historic Ornament. J. WARD. CONTENTS. PAGR INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER I CHAPTER II. PREHISTORIC ORNAMENT-PALÆOLITHIC PERIOD OR EARLY STONE AGE-RIVER DRIFT AND CAVE-MEN 7 CHAPTER III. NEOLITHIC STONE Period . 14 CHAPTER IV. THE BRONZE AGE. 21 CHAPTER V. THE IRON AGE 35 CHAPTER VI. THE LAKE DWELLINGS OF SWITZERLAND AND OTHER PARTS OF EUROPE 48 viii CONTENTS CHAPTER VII. PAGE HISTORY ARCHITECTURE - INDUSTRIAL EGYPTIAN ART ARTS 55 CHAPTER VIII. CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ART-HISTORY-ARCHITECTURE- INDUSTRIAL ART II2 . CHAPTER IX. PHENICIAN ART – HISTORY TRADING – ARCHITECTURE INDUSTRIAL ART-ART IN CYPRUS 158 CHAPTER X. ART IN ANCIENT PERSIA HISTORY ARCHITECTURE DECORATION 183 CHAPTER XI. GRECIAN ART-PEOPLE-MYTHOLOGY 208 CHAPTER XII. TIRYNS ART IN PRIMITIVE GREECE MYCENÆ - TROY ARCHITECTURE-INDUSTRIAL ART 225 CHAPTER XIII. GREEK AND ROMAN ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE — LYCIAN TOMBS - GREEK ORDERS – ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE- ROMAN ORDERS 242 CONTENTS. ix CHAPTER XIV. PAGR GREEK AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURAL ORNAMENT– POMPEIAN ARCHITECTURE 262 CHAPTER XV. INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE 271 CHAPTER XVI. CHINESE AND JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE . 281 CHAPTER XVII. EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE - BYZANTINE ARCHITEC- TURE 285 CHAPTER XVIII. SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 301 CHAPTER XIX. ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 330 CHAPTER XX. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 348 CHAPTER XXI. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 369 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. . . . . . 99 Monument of Lysikrates 278. Alabaster Frieze 279. Alabaster Frieze Plan 343. Alhambra Diaper, Superposed Ornament . 331. Ambo or Pulpit from St. George's at Salonica . 83. Amen or Ammon 93. Amenophis III. Presenting an Offering to Amen 319. Ancient Panel, Florence . 193. Andro-Sphinx, Robe of Assurbanipal 162. Anou, or Dagon, Nimroud 314. Anthemion, Carved 71. Animal Ornamented Patterns, Corrupted Figures of Lions 72. 73 132. Antelope and Papyrus 270. Apollo Belvedere 341. Arabesque Ornament from the Wekāla of Kait Bey . 350. Arcades in the Mosque of Ibn-Tülün 352. Arches : a, Ogee; b, Horseshoe; c, Pointed 282. Architrave and Frieze, Mycenian Palace 161. Assyrian Standard 180. Assyrian Base in Limestone 163. Assurbanipal Attacked by Lions 181. Assyrian Capital 183. Assurbanipal and his Queen after his Victory over Teuman 185. Assyrian Stool 217. Astarte, Terra-cotta 263. Athene Polias (Villa Albani) 169. Babylonian Brick 62. Barbarian Copy of a Roman Medallion 253. Base of Pillar at Susa 254. Base and Capital from Persepolis, Propylæa 255. Base and Capital, from Hypostyle Hall of Xerxes, Persepolis 307. Bas-Relief on the Arch of Titus PAGE Frontispiece 227 227 305 287 58 67 267 144 120 264 44 44 44 97 218 302 312 313 229 I 20 136 121 137 137 139 164 216 129 40 196 198 199 . • . 258 xii LIST OF ILLI'STRATIONS. FIG. PAGE 341 361 176 176 178 382. Berkeley Castle, Gloucestershire 400A. Bishopstone Church, Wilts, Priests' Entrance 234. Bottle with Incised Ornament, from Cesnola 235. Bottle with Geometric Decoration 237. Bowl in the Piot Collection 196. Bouquet of Flowers and Buds 125. Border from Thebes 41. Breast-plate, with Spiral Ornaments . 28. Bronze Axes, Paalstabs, and Moulds 29. 30. 146 93 24 22 22 22 31. 22 22 22 ) 22 32. 33. 34. 35. Bronze Swords and Spear-head 36. 37. . 38. 39. Bronze Button for Sword Belt 40. 45. Bronze Bowl found in Sweden 47. Bronze Hatchet found in Sweden 50. Bronze Horn 54. 57. Bronze and Gold Buttons . . 58. . 23 23 23 23 24 24 26 27 29 32 33 33 40 41 140 153 151 155 157 275 129 298 211 135 135 168 168 It9 169 170 251 . 63. Bracteate, Golden 64. 186. Bronze Foot of a Piece of Furniture . 204. Bronze Platter 205. Bronze Cups 200. Bronze Cup, Border of 209. Bronze Bucket 326. Brahminical Rock Temple at Ellora 170. Brick from Erech 339. Byzantine Capital from Santa Sophia 264. Cameo of Athenion . 177. Capital of Temple, Assyrian 178. 221. Capital, Cypriot . 222. 223. Capital at Djezza, Limestone 224. Capital from Kition 225. Capital from Golgos 302. Capital of the Lysikrates Monument LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xiii FIG. PAGE · 297 297 297 335 338 338 108 161 161 349 92 401 402 376 107 107 IQI. 142 9 398 399 400 336. Capital from Santa Sophia 337. Capital from St. Demetrius at Salonica 338 Capital from St. Demetrius 372. Capital from Wartburg 378. Capital from Palace of Barbarossa 379. Capital from St. Cross, Winchester 148. Carpenters Vaking Chairs 212. Carthaginian Coin, Silver . 213. Carthaginian Coin, Electrum 388. Cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris 123. Ceiling Decoration at Thebes 431. Ceiling by Serlio 432. Ceiling by Sansovino 410. Certosa of Pavia, portion of 145. Chair, Egyptian 117 Chariot Horses 426. Cinquecento Ornament 428. 429. 430. 216. Coin of Byblos, Enlarged, with Sacred Cone 265. Coins of Elis, with the Phidian Zeus . 149. Coffer in Wood 55. Collar of Bronze 390. Cologne Cathedral, Window Gable 109. Column of Thothmes III., from the Ambulatory of Thothmes Column from Hypostyle Hall of the Ramesseum 118. Column from Bas-Relief . 252. Column with Volute Capital, Persepolis 189. Combat between a Lion and a Unicorn 33;. Cornice from Santa Sophia 69. Corrupted Figures of Lions 70. 397. Crockets, Lincoln 258. Crowing Wall of the Staircase, Palace of Xerxes, at Persepolis . 353. Cusped Inter-Arching, Mosque of Cordova 363. Cursive Writing from the Alhambra 207. Cylinder from Soldi 208. Cylinder, Assyrian. Worship of Sacred Tree 56. Danish Bronze Knives 317. Decorated Mouldings from Temple of Minerva, Polias 155. Demons, from the Palace of Assurbanipal 194. Detail from the Enamelled Archivolt, Khorsabad 238. Detail of the Decoration of a Cup 273. Diana of Versailles 400 163 212 108 33 352 83 84 I1O. 88 196 142 296 44 44 359 202 314 323 156 156 33 266 115 145 179 221 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. PAGE 408 • 441. Dietterlin's Architecture 75. Dionysus and the Lion 25. Dolmen at Hesbon. 359. Doorway of a Private House 381. Door of St. Gabriel's, South of France 190. Dog used for Lion Hunting 399. Dog's Tooth Ornament, Stone Church, Kent JA. Drawing of Human and Animal Forms by Bushmen . 7B. Drawing of Animals by Bushmen 157. Eagle headed Divinity from Nimrod, with Sacred Tree 233. Earring, Gold, from Cesnola Earthenware of the New Stone Age 223 20 320 342 142 360 I 2 21. 22. 9 13 117 175 18 18 18 18 307 IIO 99 192 123 124 125 125 204 102 102 . 220. . 23. 24. 345. East Colonnade of the Mosque of 'Amr 152. Egyptian Ship 248. Elevations and Sections of Doorways and Windows of a Palace at Persepolis 162A. Embroidery from a Royal Mantle, Assyrian 163A. Embroidery on the Upper Part of a King's Mantle 164. Embroidery Detail of Upper Part of King's Mantle . 163. 260. Enamelled Ornament on Bricks from Susa 140. Enamelled Earthenware Dish 141. Enamelled Earthenware Bowl Entablature from a Temple at Byblos 283. Entablature Restored, Mycenian Palace 281. Entablature of C. Selinous’ Temple . 301. Entablature, Capital, and Base of Greek Ionic Temple 306. Entablature of Jupiter Tonans 96. Entrance to Hypostyle, Hall of Temple Amen 4. Esquimaux Carving 5. Etching of Reindeer on Bone 6. Etching of Reindeer on Slate 7. Etching of Mammoth on a Piece of Mammoth Ivory 303. Etruscan Door 98. Façade of the Great Rock-cut Temple, Ipsamboul 192. Fantastic Animal 409. Farnese Palace, Upper Story of 187. Feast of Assurbanipal, Enlarged Detail 66. Fibula in Gilt Bronze 67 158. Figure of a Goddess in Act of Adoration 245. Fire Altars at Naksh-i-Rustem . 126. Flattened form of Lotus-Leaf Ornament 167 230 231 249 257 71 9 10 II II 252 73 143 375 138 43 43 118 189 93 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XV FIG. PAGE . 404. Flamboyant Panel 405. Flamboyant Panelling 8. Flint Implements of the Neolithic Period 9. 9 7 10. II. 12. 365 365 15 15 15 15 16 16 16 17 17 396 358 105 127 136 191 228 262 263 187 130 282 . 20 60 . 13. 14. 15. 16. 424. Floral Ornament, Italian 396. Florence Cathedral, Window Gable 144. Fragment of an Ivory Castanet 107. Fragment of Border of Fig. 166; from a Threshold of Khorsabad 179. Fragment of an Assyrian Building, from a Bas-Relief 247. Fragment of Door Frame, from Hypostyle Hall, Susa 281. Fragment of Frieze, Mycenæ 310. Frets, Greek 311. Fret, Greek, Carved 244. Funeral Tower at Naksh-i-Rustem 171. Gates of the Harum at Dur Sargini 330. Gateway of Temple of Confucius 27. Giant's Tomb, Sardinia 86. Goddess Bast or Pasht 53. Gold Bowl 59. Gold-plated Ornament 143. Golden Hawk, Egyptian 230. Gold Bracelet, from Tharros 291. Gold Pendant, from Troy. 292. Gold Ornaments, from Troy 293. Gold Plate, from Troy 294. Gold Disc, from Troy 295. 296. Gold Cup, from Troy 297. Gold Ewer, from Troy 101. “Gorge,” Egyptian 406. Gothic Arches . 407. Gothic Tracery . 401. Gothic Mouldings 102. General Appearance of an Egyptian Temple 87. Great Pyramid of Kheops 91. Great Sphinx 315. Greek Border with Fret Bands 316. Greek Ivy Meander Border 156. Griffin in Egyptian Style 32 38 104 174 237 237 . . . 238 238 . 239 240 241 . . 70 366 367 362 . . . 77 62 65 265 265 116 xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. PAGE 149 26; 264 254 42 85 89 207 214 220 385 8 94 96 8 52 321 182 . . 200. Guilloche Ornament on Enamelled Brick . 312. Guilloche, Treble Ornament 313. Guilloche, Ornament, Double 304. Half Capital, Mars Ultor . 65. Harness in Gilt Bronze, Fibula Decorations 114. Hathoric Pier. 120. Hathor-headed Campaniform Capital, Temple of Nectanebo, at Philæ 263. Head of one of the Lions from Frieze at Susa 267. Head of Hera 272. Hermes, Statue of 414. Holland House, Ancient Parlour of 1. Horse, Upper Cave Earth, Robin Hood Cave 127. Hunting in a Marsh, from a Bas-Relief in the Tomb of Ti 131. Hunting in the Desert 2. Ibex Carved on an Antler 80. Ideal Lake Settlement 360. Illuminated Korān of the Sultan Sha' Ban 241. Intaglio on Chalcedony 427. Italian Panel 172. Interior of a Temple aſter Layard's Restoration 329. Interior of the Palace at Delhi . 369. Intersecting Blind Arcade 82 Isis Nursing her Son Horus 145. Ivory Plaque 201. Ivory Plaque found at Nimroud 203. Ivory Fragment in British Museum 280. Ivory Plaque from Mycenze 308. Jewish Candlestick from Arch of Titus 97. Khita, Rout of the . 362. Kufic Writing, from the Alhambra 78. Lacustrine Habitation in Lake Mohrya, Central Africa 79. Lake Dwellings, Sections and Plans . 385. Landgrave's Room at Wartburg 81. Lake Dwellings, Objects fro 356. Lattice-work, Saracenic 357. . 398 131 279 333 56 106 150 151 152 202. 228 259 72 323 49 50 314 53 317 318 318 358. . IOI 138. Lion from a Theban Bas-Relief 187. Lion coming out of his Cage 188. Lion and Lioness in a Park 262. Lion from the Lion Frieze in Enamelled Bricks at Susa 277. Lion's Gate, Mycena 122. Lotus, Drawing from the Tomb of Ptah-Hotep 124. Lotus and Water-Leaf Ornament 106. Luxor, Plan of Temple 140 141 206 226 91 93 80 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xvii FIG. PAGE 81 . I 243 244 357 236 309 173 222 19 66 309 79 39 . 39 165 313 310 . 96 . 392 270 184 388 98 107. Luxor, as Restored, Bird's-eye View 298. Lycian Rock-built Tomb . 299. 395. Marienberg Town Hall 290. Marseilles Ewer 348. Mausoleum at Cairo 228. Medallion from a Cup from Griffi 274. Melpomene, Vatican 26. Menhirs, Sardinia 92. Memnon at Thebes, Statues of, Colossi of Amenophis III. 347. Minaret of the Mosque at Kaloum, Cairo . 103. Model of an Egyptian House 60. Mountings, Metal 61. 218. Model of a Small Temple in Terra Cotta . 331. Moorish Capital 349. Mosque of Kaīt Bey, Cairo 130. Mummy-Case, Painting on 420. Mural Painting, Pompeii . 323. Mural Painting, from Pompeii 242. Naksh-i-Rustem, General View of the Rock-cut Tombs 416. Nest of Scroll, Roman 133. Netting Birds, from a Tomb 381. Norman Doorway, Semperingham Church, Lincolnshire 121. Nymphæa Nelumbo . 104. Oblong Building, Egyptian 239. (Enochæ, New York Museum 240. 322. Ogee Decorated-Astragal, Jupitor Stator 324. Ornament from Asoka's Pillar. 361. Ornament from the Portal of Sultan Hasan 422. Ornament, Ghiberti Gates 363. Ornament on an Arch of the Wekāla Kait Bey 439. Ornament from Doorway, Crewe Hall 321. Ogee and Fluted Cavetto Moulding; Jupiter Tonans 83. Osiris 318. Ovolo with Egg and Tongue, from the Erectheum 320. Ovolo and Astragal Mouldings, Roman 334. Opus Alexandrinum Pavement 199. Painted Ornament on Plaster 332. Painting from the Catacombs of St. Agnese 269. Pallus Athene, Naples 119. Palm Capital from Sesebi 300. Parthenon; Greek Doric . 366. Panel from the Maristan of Kalaun 367. 340 90 78 180 181 269 272 322 393 326 407 268 60 266 268 293 148 289 217 88 247 328 328 9 xviii LIST OF ILLI'STRATIONS. FIG. PAGE . 99 . +36. . . 434. Panel, Carved, Henri II. Style . 135. French, Sixteenth Century 437. from Louvre 440. Elizabethan 438. Panelling, Elizabethan 227. Patera from Curium . 142. Pectoral; Egyptian 402. Pedestal, Henry VII.'s Chapel . 232. Pendant, Wild Goat ; Gold 150. Perfume Spoons 151. 243. Persepolis; Tomb on the North-east 246. Persepolis; Staircase of the Palace of Darius 249. Persepolis; Doorway to Royal Tomb 113. Pier with Capital 433. Pilasters, Louis XII. 421. Pilaster by Donatello 287. Pilgrim Bottle . 115. Pillar, Octagonal, Beni-Hassan . 116. Pillar, Sixteen-sided, Fluted 117. Pillar Osiride, from Medinet-Abou 328. Pillar and Bracket, Doorway of a Pagoda . 210. Phoenician Merchant Galley 211. Phænician War Galley 226. Phænician Silver Platter 51. Pinak or Plate, from Rhodes 139. Pitcher of Red Earth 403. Place House, Cornwall 168. Plan and Elevation of a part of a Façade at Worka 346. Plan of the Mosque of 'Amr 383. Pointed Arcading from the Cathedral of Palermo 17. Polished Stone Hammer and Celts, Neolithic Period 18. 19. 404 404 404 405 407 406 172 103 363 175 109 109 185 190 193 85 403 393 234 86 86 87 278 159 160 171 30 102 364 128 308 99 99 99 341 17 17 17 17 389 334 339 20. . 46 417. Pompeian Objects 371. Porch of the Heilsbronn Monastery 380. Porch of St. Zeno at Verona 76. Pottery of the Iron Age 3. Prehistoric Carving . 99. Principal Hall in the Great Temple . 108. Principal Façade of the Temple of Luxor 84. Ptah 354. Pulpit of the Sultan Kait Bey 364. Pulpit in the Mosque of Barkuk ; Stone 9. 74 82 58 315 328 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xix FIG. PAGE 84 85 98 IOO 100. 75 43 IIO 255 335 335 336 345 346 335 333 303 1.16 387 333 260 162 377 274 II. Quadrangular Pier 112. Quadrangular Pier, Tapering 134. Quadruped with Head of a Bird 136. Ram or Krisosphinx Rameses II., Louvre, Portrait of 68. Rim of Fig. 67, Part of 153. River Transport of a Mummy 305. Roman Corinthian, Pantheon 373. Romanesque Shaft and Base 375. Romanesque Ornament, late 376. Romanesque Moulding Ornaments 386. Romanesque Ornament from Hinge from “ Notre Dame” 387. Romanesque Panel from a Church at Bonn 374. Roof Cornice of Church at Alstadt 370. Rose Window 342. Rosette in Mosque of Suyurghatmish 195. Rosette of Lotus Flowers and Buds . 415. Rosette from Trajan's Scroll 368. Round-Arch Frieze. 309. Roman Composite Order; Arch of Titus 215. Sacred Emblems from Carthaginian Votive Stele 411. San Marco Library 325. Sanchi Tope; Bhopal, Central India 174. Sargon's Palace 175. Sargon's Palace, a Bedroom in the Harem 251. Sarvistan, Palace of, Principal Façade 88. Section through the Great Pyramid of Kheops . 95. Seti with Attributes of Osiris between Amen and Chnoum 166. Sill of a Door from Khorsabad. 231. Silver Pin; Cesnola . 52. Silver Brooch 74. Silver Goblet, with Gold-plated Decorations 90. Southern Pyramid of Dashour . 94. Solar-Disk, Adoration of, by Amenophis IV. 103. Square Building ; Egyptian 257. Staircase Wall of the Palace of Xerxes at Persepolis 344. Stalactite Vaulting 89. Stepped Pyramid 412. St. Paul and St. Louis façade 340. St. Nicholas at Moscow 408. Strozzi Palace, portion of 355. Street in Cairo 48. Sun Signs 49. Sun Snakes 400. Spandrel, Stone Church, Kent . 135. Sphinx, or Man-headed Lion; from Tanis 133 134 195 63 70 126 175 31 45 64 69 78 201 306 64 381 299 374 . 316 27 27 360 99 XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATION'S. FIG. PAGE 101 137. Sphinx with Human Hands 391. St. Lawrence, Porch of 392. St. Lawrence, Interior of . 393. St. Sebaldus, Shrine of 394. St. Sebaldus, Bride's Door of 197. Tabernacle from the Balâwât Gates 423. Tabernacle, Fifteenth Century . 176. Temple on the Bank of a River, Khorsabad 259. Temple in a Royal Park. 327. Temple of Biskurma at Ellora 398. Temple Church, From the 219. Tomb at Amrit, restored . 377. Towers and Round-Arch Frieze, Abbey of Komberg 199. Tree of Liſe, Upper Portion of 173. Triumphal Gate at Entrance of the Palace 288. Three-handled Amphora . 75. Under Side of a Fibula 42. Urns of the Bronze Age II 353 354 355 356 147 395 135 203 276 359 166 337 149 132 234 45 25 25 25 26 205 200 232 233 235 220 397 174 stud of th 43. cipa H for h Were 177 devel key to Oman 44. 46. Urn of the Stone Age, found in Swedish Dolmen 261. Upper Part of Parapet Wall of Staircase, Susa 256. Upright of Royal Throne, Naksh-i-Rustem 283. Vase in Woman's Form 286. 289. Vase with Geometric Decoration 271. Venus of Milo . 423. Venetian Panel 229. Vessels Figured in Tomb of Rekhmara 236. Vessel in Shape of a Goat 276. Victory, Figure of 230. View of a Group of Domed Buildings, from an Assyrian Bas-Relief 214. Votive Stele from Carthage, with Sacred Emblems 128. Vultures on a Ceiling 333. Wall Painting, from Catacombs of S. Calixtus . 418. Wall Painting, Pompeii 419. Wall Painting, Herculaneum 389. Westminster Abbey . 129. Winged Globe with Uræus 154. Winged Bull, Assyria 159. Winged Globe, with the Figure of a God . 160. Winged Globe 182. Winged Sphinx carrying Base of Capital 413. Wollaton House 77. Woollen Cloth with Gold and Silver Threads, Piece of 266. Zeus of Otricoli some waves that it 224 194 162 95 290 390 391 351 95 114 119 119 137 384 46 213 The decora droust conver . 1 Tết thì Wally VOL HISTORIC ORNAMENT. INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. It can hardly be doubted that, for the education of the student in ornamental design, or in architecture, a study of the history of ornament and a knowledge of the prin- cipal historic styles of architecture is indispensable. Historic styles of ornament remain for us, vast accu- mulations of tried experiments, for the most part in the character of conventional renderings of natural forms; for however remote from nature some of these may be, they can, as a general rule, be traced back without much difficulty to their natural origin, where in most cases they were used symbolically. Even the most arbitrary forms- for instance, those found in Saracenic ornament-were only developments from natural forms, and the innocent Greek key pattern, that has earned the reputation of being the ornament most unlike anything in nature, is supposed by some to be but a rectilineal development of the rippling waves; and, on the other hand, there is the hypothesis that it is developed from the fylfot, a sacred sign that is supposed to symbolize the rotary motion of the planets. There is no ornament more common or so universal in prehistoric, savage, Egyptian, Assyrian and Mediæval decoration than the ubiquitous zigzag, or chevron, and though extremely simple in itself, at least two-thirds of all conventional ornament is based or constructed on its lines : yet this simple ornament has been used as a symbol of totally opposite and different things, by nearly all the VOL. I. B HISTORIC ORNAMENT. various tribes and nations that have used it in decoration. With the Egyptians and Assyrians it has been a symbol of water, with some savage tribes it denotes lightning, with others it does duty for a serpent, with some others it represents a series of bats, birds, and butterflies; as with the original tribes of Brazil, with the magic-loving Semang tribes of East Malacca, it means a frog, and in some in- stances the branches of trees; and lastly, with the natives of the Hervey Islands, it symbolizes the human figure when placed in duplicate parallel rows. (For a fuller description, and illustrations of this and cog- nate savage ornament, the reader is referred to Haddon's “Evolution in Art,” 1895.) We can hardly think of an ornament more simple or more common than the zigzag, and yet how varied in different countries are the sources from which it springs. This may be taken as a warning that it is not safe to accept the same forms as always having the same origin, when we find them in the art of different countries. Apart from the symbolic origin of ornamental forms, students of to-day may learn, from examples of the past, how far they can go, in the converting of natural forms to conventional ornament, without absolutely adapting such examples to their present needs. The past styles in orna- ment have, in one sense, died out with the nations that created them, and can never be satisfactorily revived, although, as we have often seen, a new style may be built on their foundations. The tendency of to-day is to under- value the teachings of historic art, and, as a result, we see much work in which both fitness and beauty are con- spicuous by their absence. In any notice of the historical development of orna- mental art, the concurrent styles of architecture should, in their general features at least, be illustrated, for it is not always possible to divorce ornament from architecture, and it is hardly possible to design or construct good orna- ment otherwise than according to the laws that govern INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 3 more good architecture. Of course, we must admit that some very beautiful ornament, or rather decoration, has been designed otherwise than on architectural lines, but this kind of decoration has its beauty of technique and execu- tion to recommend it, rather than its constructive qualities. Chinese and Japanese ornament will occur to the reader as examples of this kind of work, but the best ornament the world has ever seen has been constructed and is based on the laws that govern good architecture. Some of these laws, such as stability, repose, variety, and proportion, are derived from nature. As all architec- tural styles, however, possess them or less in common, we must look elsewhere for the sources from which the peculiar characteristics that distinguish the styles are developed and derived. The causes and forces are so subtle and the developments so gradual, that it is almost impossible to arrive at a satisfactory explanation, as religions, inventive faculty, and symbolism play an important role in style development. It is rather to the inventive faculties of man, than to hints supplied by nature, that we must look for the origin and development of what is called style in architecture or ornament. In every case this is arrived at by a slow process, and by the extensive and persistent use of distinguishing features selected according to the needs and requirements of the time, to satisfy the prevailing tastes. “Style" is then the something that man has invented or created; it may be called the soul of architecture, without which, a building, however pretentious, ceases to exist as an artistic conception. Apart from the greatest or more striking features in the various divisions of historic architecture, such as the horizontal beam in Greek, the round arch in Roman and Romanesque, the pointed arch in Gothic and Moham- madan buildings, there are the mouldings that are so important in determining the period- they alone of them- selves will often determine the style or date of a building 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. -and these features, above all others, are the least derived from nature. On the other hand, the decoration of mould- ings, though suggested by their contours, is generally derived from natural forms. The “best period ” in the life of historic styles and its duration corresponds with that of the highest culture and religious thought of the people, at their settled and most flourishing epochs. When a change or revolution in the order of things sets in, we find generally the style of architecture changing also to adapt itself to the new laws and new thought. This illustrates, to a certain degree, the reason why the so-called Victorian Gothic has not developed to any great extent in England, although some of our best architects sought to revive the earlier Gothic some years ago. The Medieval mysticism, love for symbolism, and reve- rence are wanting in the mass of the people of this century, which characterized the people of Europe in the palmy days of Gothic architecture. It has always been found that whatever the people ask for the artist is generally able to give, although he may not be always willing; but he must satisfy the popular demand if he is to live by his work, otherwise he must make way for others who are willing to produce work that will reflect the taste of the period. We are handicapped in the development of anything new in the way of an architectural style by traditions of the past. Our knowledge of what has been done in the past, paradoxical as it may appear, has proved itself a great stumbling-block to the progress of new ideas. This partly accounts for the slowness of style-development in the present century. If fashion does not step in and dis- turb the march of events in the immediate future, we may hope for something distinct, if not exactly new, as an architectural style, in which a mixture of Gothic and Renaissance forms will be seen, the latter perhaps pre- dominating. It may happen that later generations will INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER 5 look back and be able to discern something distinct in the way of style in buildings erected in the last quarter of this century, in the midst of much that is somewhat chaotic and confused. In a book like this, which is intended chiefly as an introduction to the study of historic ornament, one cannot pretend to criticise the various styles of ornament, either from an artistic or scientific standpoint. It will be enough to attempt to point out the principal beauties or charac- teristics, to trace the history and overlapping of one style with another, and to trace, where possible, some units of ornamental forms to their symbolic ancestry. It is absurd to criticise the ornament of any period or country dog- matically, for we must remember, that although certain forms of art may not conform to the critics' idiosyncrasy, they may be quite orthodox and good art when judged by the artistic laws of their own country. The difference in race, religion, manners, and customs, must always be taken into account, before we begin to criticise the art of a nation to which we do not belong. As already remarked, we are hanipered by tradition in our attempts to produce originality in ornament, but there is very little tradition for the absolute copying of a par- ticular style, except from nations who have had no decided art of their own. As far as we know of the history and practice in the whole field of ornamental design, from its remote beginnings it has been mostly all along a series of systems of developments, sometimes for good and some- times for the opposite, but rarely, if ever, a system of copying. Some notable exceptions to this may be noticed, as when, for the expediencies known as “tricks of the trade,” the Phænicians made ivory carvings in exact imitation of Egyptian designs, and sold them to the Assyrians; and likewise bronze bowls and platters in both Assyrian and Egyptian imitations, and traded with them throughout the Ægean and Mediterranean, or when the Siculo-Arabian silks were made at Palermo in imitation 6 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. of Saracen designs, with mock-Saracenic inscriptions, and sold for the real articles. Other instances might be cited, but these were among the most successful. As regards the purity of styles it may be safely said, that, with rare exceptions, it is well-nigh impossible to find a well-designed and complete scheme of decoration, or a building that will stand the test of having perfect unity in style; in fact, it may be more artistic on account of its incompleteness in this respect, for any work of art that is designed by receipt, like the Egyptian temples or Mohammadan ornament, is rather wearisome. It is plea- sant to see at times a little bit showing here and there of the designer's individuality. When the monotonous repe- tition of the laws peculiar to any arbitrary style are broken by a wilful and, perhaps, sinful artist, we often get a refreshing and original rendering that is not by any means displeasing. In transitional design from one style to another, much beautiful work may be seen. In connection with this the Byzantine style may be mentioned, with its Classic and Oriental forms, Elizabethan, Jacobean, Lombard Gothic, and the French styles of Henri Deux and François jer, in most of which Gothic and Renaissance forms are happily blended; and in the beautiful Siculo-Arabian textiles, where Italian and Saracenic forms make an interesting union. We learn from these examples that the successful designer of ornament should have a thorough knowledge of the historic styles, not for the purpose of reproducing their forms, but in order to discover for himself the methods by which the old artists arrived at the successful treatment of nature and of former styles, so that by the application of his knowledge, derived from the study of nature and the works of former artists, he may be enabled to give to the world some original and interesting work. CHAPTER II. PREHISTORIC ORNAMENT PALÆOLITHIC PERIOD OR EARLY STONE AGE-RIVER DRIFT AND CAVE-MEN. The first indications of the presence of man in Britain was brought to light in the shape of a flint flake found by the Rev. O. Fisher, in the presence of Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, in the lower brick earth of the Stoneham pit at Crayford, in Kent, in the year 1872. In the year 1876 a second flake was found in a similar situation at Erith, in Kent, considerably worn by use. This form of implement was used in the late Pleistocene age, and also in the Neolithic (Newer Stone age) and Bronze ages. It was employed in the historic ages by the Egyptians, and by the Romanized Britons of Sussex, in whose tombs it has been found. This implement is the latest survival of the Palæolithic age. Geologists have proved that Ireland, England and Europe were united in the Palæolithic age, and this ac- counts for the similarity of stone implements and other remains found in the river-drift deposits, in caves, and other situations in the river valley over this vast area. The roughly chipped flint implements are termed Palæo- lithic, or of the Old Stone age, in contradistinction to the smoother, finer chipped, or polished implements of the Neolithic or Newer Stone age. It seems highly probable that the Asiatic Palæolithic man first swarmed off the great plateau of Central Asia, which in later times was the home of all those tribes that invaded Europe, India, and China, and certainly were of a race that is now as extinct as the prehistoric Mammoth 8 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. itself. The relation between the River-driſt men of Asia and Europe is doubtful. We may not be able to refer the Palæolithic Cave-men to any present branch of the human race, but as regards their artistic abilities, the only savage people that bear any analogy to them in the present day Fig. 1.--Horse, Upper Cave Earth, Robin Hood Cave. 1. is the South African tribe of Bushmen. These people, however, are much inferior as artists to the early Cave- men, which may be seen by comparing the work of both (Figs. 7A and 7B). From the drawings of animals which have been found Fig 2.- Ibex Carved on Antler. etched and carved on bone, horn, and stones, we can judge. of the high qualifications of the Cave-men as artists. Their work in animal drawing ranks higher than that of any historic savage race, and as artists they were infinitely of PREHISTORIC ORNAMENT. 9 a higher order than their more scientific successors, the Neolithic men, or the men of the Bronze age. It was owing to the discovery of these bone and ivory etchings that geologists were able to definitely connect the Cave-men of the Thames Valley with those of France, Belgium, and Switzerland. At Cresswell Crags, in Derby- Fig. 3.-Prehistoric Carving. shire, in the caves, caverns, and fissures known as the Pin Hole, Robin Hood's Cave, Mother Grundy's Parlour, a great quantity of bones have been found, some of which were broken by the hand of man, and amongst these some flint implements in the lower cave earth. Above this in the stalagmatic breccia more bones were found and imple- Fig. 4.- Esquimaux Carving. ments made of quartzite and flint, together with fragments of charcoal. Lance heads, flint borers, a bone awl, and a fragment of bone ornamented with a zigzag or chevron pattern-probably the oldest bit of ornament known-were found together with the most important find of all, namely, a piece of rib bone with an etching of a horse's head and neck with a hogged mane (Fig. 1), the first instance of an PREHISTORIC O.RNAMENT. II and the Cave-men lived in caverns in this country and in France, as some savages do now. Implements of the Fig. 6.--Etching of Reindeer on Slate. Palæolithic age have been found in Europe, North Africa, Asia Minor and India. The earlier River-drift man was a Fig. 7.-Etching of Mammoth on a piece of Mammoth Ivory. savage and lived by hunting, as no evidence of culture has been found that can be ascribed to him. After unknown ages perhaps had elapsed the Cave-men appear with more 12 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. perfect instruments, and at least cultured in the knowledge of drawing and carving, which they did, as can be judged by the illustration given, with astonishing ability. The accurate forms of animals, as horses, mammoths, bears, aurochs, elks, reindeers, fish, seals, &c., and even attempts at the human figure, are evidences of this. Some authors see a certain analogy between the Cave- men and the Esquimaux of the present day. In artistic culture, however, the Cave-men are immeasurably supe- Fig. 7A: – Human and Animal Form, drawn by Bushmen of South Africa. rior to the latter, as may be seen by comparing their respective efforts (Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5). The Cave-men disappeared from Britain after it became an island. Similar discoveries of implements and other remains in Europe and Britain prove that the Cave-men of both countries were in the same stage of culture. Pottery has never been found in connection with the remains of these people. In France many important finds have been brought to light illustrating the art work of the European Cave-men. In the caves at Perigord, at Bruniquel on the Aveyron, at PREHISTORIC ORNAMENT. 13 Le Moustier, at La Madelaine in the Dordogne, and in the Duruthy cave at Laugerie Basse, in the Western Pyrenees, have been found many engravings of animals, and carv- ings on bone, smooth teeth, and antlers, also on sandstone, slate, and schist. Evidences of the Cave-men using skins for clothing is inferred from the engraving of skin-gloves and other things found incised on the teeth of the great cave-bear in the Duruthy caves. Hunting scenes were Fig. 7B.—Animal Forms, drawn by Bushmen. often engraved with great fidelity, and carved dagger- handles made from the antlers of deer, with the animal itself sometimes carved on them. One of the highest art examples yet found is that of a reindeer grazing, and is the only object on which an attempt is made to represent herbage, and perhaps water (Fig. 5). This interesting relic was found in the Kesslerloch Cavern. CHAPTER IÏI. NEOLITHIC STONE PERIOD. This period is divided from the Palæolithic Stone age by a great unknown gap. It is sometimes called the Later or Newer Stone age. In this period the flint implements were better shaped, many of them were ground and polished (Figs. 17, 18). Some of the flint and other stone implements were very like in form to those of the Bronze period, and as these implements were made, and continued to be used, in Northern Europe after the Bronze periods of the East had developed, it is quite possible that they were copied from the bronze objects (Figs. 10, 11, 17, 18). A remarkable sickle or knife fourteen inches long is seen at Fig. Il; a flint saw (Fig. 12), semicircular knives or saws at Figs. 15, 16, and a bone and flint harpoon at Fig. 9. Some of the stone hammers or axes are of great beauty in shape and in workmanship (Figs. 17, 18); also pottery slightly burnt, but well decorated by incised straight lines and zigzags (Figs. 21 to 24). The cultivation of land, the breeding and rearing of domestic animals, plaiting, and weaving was known and practised by these people. Amber, bone beads, and shells were used as personal adornments. Their burials were with or without cremation. The burial-places of these people are found all over the world, in Europe, Japan, India, and other parts of Asia, and in North America. They are named “Cromlechs" (stone circles), “Dolmen" (stone tables) (Fig. 25), “Menhir" (long stone). The burial-place, called a “Tumulus," is a great mound of NEOLITHIC STONE PERIOD. 15 Fig. 8. Fig. 1o. Fig. 11. Fig. 9. Figs. 8 to 11.-Flint Implements of the Neolithic Period (From Danish Arts.) 16 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. Fig. 12. Fig. 13. Fig. 14. Figs. 12, 13, 14.-Flint Implements of the Neolithic Period. (From Danish Arts.) NEOLITHIC STONE PERIOD. 17 Fig. 15. Fig. 16. Figs. 15, 16.–Flint Implements of the Neolithic Period. (From Danish Arts.) Fig. 17. Fig. 19. Fig. 18. Fig. 20. Figs. 17 to 20.- Polished Stone Hammers and Celts, Neolithic Period. (From Danish Arts.) VOL. I. с Fig. 23. Fig. 21. Fig. 24. Fig. 22. Figs. 21 to 24.--Pottery of the Neolithic Age. (From Danish Arts.) 20 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. which they turned to good account by devoting some of it to their artistic culture; while the Neolithic men were more Fig. 25.—Dolmen at Hesbon (P. & C.). of a race of mechanics and farmers, who had neither time nor inclination for the cultivation of art, but were alto- BE w!!!! the Unite Menu 他​用 ​www Fig. 27. - Giants’ Tomb, Sardinia (P. & C.). gether more scientific and mechanical than the men of the Palæolithic period. CHAPTER IV. THE BRONZE AGE. THE people of the Bronze age introduced a higher civilisa- tion into the world than their predecessors of the Stone ages. There appears to be a great overlap between the Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron ages of Central and Northern Europe, and the historic periods of the Eastern countries bordering on the Mediterranean. We have evidence that great periods of time must have marked the epochs of the prehistoric ages, and that the Bronze age, like the Stone and Iron ages, began at different times in different coun- tries. The tribes who brought with them the age of Bronze into Europe composed the Celtic van of the Aryan race. The earliest productions of this period were the simple wedges resembling flat stone axes, the sides of which are slightly thickened to form ridges or flanges; the centres are also raised, which produces a ridge to prevent the head from going in too far in the handle; in some the flanges are much developed, and have also a loop cast on the side for the purpose of tying it on to the haft. Some are made with a socket and loop; these have been called “Paalstabs," and have a flat chisel-like shape (Figs. 28, 30). These earlier implements are often made of pure copper. Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin, generally from two to four per cent. of tin, and is consequently harder than copper. Knives, hammers, gouges, sickles, daggers, spears, swords, shields, many kinds of vessels, and articles of personal adornment made in bronze, belong to the earlier time of the Bronze period, and similar articles were made 1 Fig. 28. Fig. 30. Fig. 29. Fig. 32. Fig. 31. Fig. 34. Fig. 33. Figs. 28 to 30.—Bronze and Paalstabs. (From Danish Arts.) Figs. 31 to 34.—Bronze Axes, Paalstabs, and Moulds. (From Danish Arts.) THE BRONZE AGE. 23 QUILL BE TO இப்பயாமாமா DURUESE Fig. 37 VUVI Fig. 35. Fig. 36. Fig. 38. Figs. 35 to 38.-Bronze Swords and Spear-Head. (From Danish Arts.) 2+ HISTORIC ORNAMENT. in this material in the prehistoric Bronze ages all over the known world (Figs. 35 to 40). An interesting object is a breast- plate, belonging to this early Bronze period; it is decorated with zigzags in bands, and a well-ar- ranged scheme of spiralornamenta- tion (Fig. 41). Urns of earthenware, sometimes decorated with zigzags and sacred signs, have been found in graves. These urns contained ashes of the dead (Figs. 43, 44). Many of the bronze implements and other articles have been found in tombs, in caves in great quantities, both finished and un- Figs. 39 and 40. - Bronze finished, in “Kitchen Middens," Button for Sword Belt. or refuse heaps, in river-beds, and (From Danish Arts.) in bogs. Some of the objects found in North Germany, and par- I cor 8 Fig. 41.-Breast-plate, with Spiral Ornaments. (From Danish Arts.) THE BRONZE AGE. 25 ticularly in Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, are exceedingly beautiful in their shape and decoration. From nowhere else in the world come so many objects, and so much that is characteristic of the prehistoric Bronze age. This period has been ably treated, and at great length, by Mr. J. US VH Fig. 42. Fig. 43. Fig. 44. Figs. 42, 43, and 44.—Urns of the Bronze Age (From Danish Arts.) J. A. Worsaae, in his “Danish Arts,” and by Mr. Hans Hildebrand, in his “Arts of Scandinavia," to which books we are indebted for the accompanying illustrations. 26 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. It may be noticed that much of the decoration on these objects consists of a few simple elements with much geo- metric repetition. The varied forms are chiefly spirals interlocking at regulated distances, concentric rings, tri- Fig. 45 – Bronze Bowl found in Sweden. (Scand. Arts.) angles, zigzag lines, and bands formed of lines which are reminiscences of the earlier withy lashings, with which the stone celts were fastened to their hafts. The raised, as well as the flat twisted - like bands, are derivatives from the twisted strings that would naturally be tied around COMO DESIGN MOUNT the pottery of an early date to carry it by (Fig. 45). The spirals, zigzags, ring-crosses, wheels, tri- skeles, reciprocal mean- ders, semicircles, &c., are Fig. 46.-Urn of the Stone Age found in Swedish Dolmen. (Scand. Arts.) geometrical develop- ments of sun-snake, light- ning, the sun itself, cloud-forms, moon-forms, star-forms, and the sacred fylfot or swastika, all of which had their THE BRONZE AGE. 27 origin in Egypt, India, Central Asia, or Greece. At first they were used as isolated signs, or pictographs, to Fig. 47.–Bronze Hatchet found in Sweden. (Scand. Arts.) represent physical phenomena, that were objects of o + Y ② * 아 ​us Y A B С D E Fig. 48.–Sun Signs. A, Wheel Cross or Wheel; B, Sun God Signs; C, Fylfot, or Swastika; D, Triskele; E, Stars or Sun Signs. Nature-worship with almost all the nations of the world s s s 8 § S SS F G H I Fig. 49.–Sun Signs. (From Danish Arts.) F, Sun-snakes ; G, Swastika; H, Triskele; I, Star or Sun. N.B.—The Swastika here is evidently a double Sun-snake. after the dawn of civilisation, and when these signs migrated into the art of other nations or later peoples, 1 28 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. “many or who were either ignorant of their meaning or understood them in an imperfect way, they ceased to be employed as isolated signs of the various divinities they originally represented, and were copied, and repeated, as required, to fill in a geometrical way the space at hand to be orna- mented. A beautiful piece of workmanship is the bronze horn (Fig. 50). Worsaae thinks that this horn was used in the worship of the gods in the early Bronze age, owing to the great number of sacred signs engraved on it. Sun-wheels, sun-snakes, and sun-boats, developed into spiral orna- ment, may be seen on it. There is one ornament that plays an important part in the Bronze and Iron periods, of which much has been written, the “ fylfot” or “swastika.” It has been found in nearly every quarter of the ancient world, except Egypt and Assyria, both in savage ornament and in the art of cultured races. The “fylfot” or « full- footed” cross in Anglo-Saxon, it is also known by the names of "gammadion," “croix gammée," “croix cram- ponée," “ tetraskele," &c. The Indian name for it is the “swastika” or “svastika,” which means “good luck," or “it is well.” The fylfot, according to the opinion of many archæologists, was originally the sign of the sun, and used as a sacred symbol in the worship of the sun ; others think it was a sign used to symbolize the rotatory motion of the planets; it is quite likely it has been used by different early peoples for both. It has been associated with other sun signs, as the circle, concentric circles, with the S-shaped sun-snakes, as on the prehistoric whorls from Hissarlik, and very frequently with the solar divinities, as the horse, boar, ram, lion, ibex, and goose, &c. It is found on Cyprian and Rhodian pottery and on the "geometric pottery of Greece. Its appearance on many objects of early Christian art can be accounted for. In these cases the Christian missionaries permitted the continued use of it to their pagan converts, but they themselves attached a THE BRONZE AGE. 29 14/14144 ANAZIM VMA mm 22122 U ALAAADADISA يې ۷۷۷۷۷۷۰/ IN2 U ca). Dance WATATE . *12 Fig. 50.-Bronze Horn or Trumpet, found at Wismar, in Mecklenburg. (From Danish Arts.) 30 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. new meaning to it, regarding it as merely a substitute for the symbol of the cross. Some writers have argued, with a good deal of plausi- bility, that the Greek fret pattern, Chinese and Japanese frets, were only developments from the fylfot. This is purely conjectural, for as regards the Greek fret, it is more likely that it had an Egyptian source, as so many of 2010 onlalam DICATE 鼎 ​CUIN Fig. 51.--Pinak or Plate, Archaic Period, from Camiros, Rhodes, showing Fylfot, and Sun Signs, and Sacred Boar. (British Museum.) the Greek ornaments are but developments of Egyptian and Assyrian forms. The fret used by the Greeks has been found in Egypt in the ceiling ornament of tombs more than a thousand years before it appeared in Greece. The Chinese frets may have in some instances a fylfot origin, but at present this is doubtful, as it has not yet been proved. The drawing of the archaic Greek plate (pinak), in the British Museum, given at Fig. 51, from the Greek colony of Rhodes, is very interesting, as it shows a well- THE BRONZE AGE. 31 developed fylfot between the legs of the boar, and an early Greek fret band; the fret here may only be a water-sign, or a river-edge representation. The spaces around the boar (animal sacred to the sun) are filled up with sun-signs and star-signs; even the large segment of radiating lines, and the form over the animal's back may typify the sun. The whole decoration has a high religious meaning in Fig. 52.- Silver Brooch, Plated with Gold, in the form of a Double Sun-sriake or Swastika ; found in Iceland. (Danish Arts.) reference to sun-worship, and is evidently a copy by a Greek artist of an oriental embroidery motive. The fylfot has been found stamped on the pottery of the lake dwellings of the Zuni, Yucatan, and other American pottery, and on objects from Iceland, Ireland, and Scandi- navia. A circular form of it is seen on the gold Scandi- navian ornament (Fig. 52). Whether it originally was a pure sun-sign, or whether it signified the axial rotation of the earth round the North 32 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. Pole, it is full of remarkable interest, and enters more than any other symbolic sign into historic ornament generally. In India, China, and Japan, it has been much 10000 Fig. 53.-Gold Bowl, with Bronze Handle and Sacred Horse's Head. (Danish Arts.) 0 Fig. 54.--Bronze Horn found in Denmark. (Danish Arts.) used; this was owing to the spread of the Buddhist religion in these countries. It is found on the toes of the “Foot- print” of Buddha, at the Amaravati Tope, India; and owing to its great religious significance in China, Japan, THE BRONZE AGE. 33 0.00 692 830 Hoid Fig. 56.—Danish Bronze Knives, decorated with Sun-ships and other Sacred Figures. (Danish Arts.) I Fig. 57. Fig. 58. Fig. 55.-Collar of Bronze found in Sweden. (Scand. Arts.) Figs. 57 and 58.-Bronze and Gold Buttons found in Women's Graves, with the Triskele, Moon-Signs, and Sun Snakes. (Danish Arts.) VOL. I. D 34 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. and Ceylon, we find it stamped on the account books, coins and dresses of both the living and the dead, as a universal sign of good luck. The swastika, both straight and curved-armed variety, was used indiscriminately in the decoration of objects of the Iron age, whether in bronze, iron, gold, silver, wood, or stone. It was the sign among the Romans of Jupiter Tonans, who wielded the thunder and lightning ; was the sign used for Thor, the god of thunder and lightning, with the early German peoples, and the curved variety of it was used as a symbol of their highest divinity by the northern nations of Scandinavia. From this widespread use of the swastika it is conjectured that it is an Aryan symbol, brought by the people of the Bronze age from their primi- tive home in the plateau of Central Asia. CHAPTER V. THE IRON AGE. THE age of Iron, like the Bronze ages, varies very much in point of time in Europe as compared with Asia, and also there is a great overlapping between the times of the Iron age in the northern, middle, and southern parts of Europe. It is safe to say that the early part of this age belongs to prehistoric times as far as Central and Northern Europe is concerned, and although the Grecian Archi- pelago and Western Asia were in a high state of civilised culture five or six centuries before the Christian era, and were acquainted with the use of iron, it is clear that the extensive employment and decoration of iron implements and arms were chiefly in Switzerland, Northern Italy, and in the Valley of the Danube. This iron culture soon spread over to Gaul and Spain, and to the British Islands in the West, and Scandinavia in the North. The Romans, under their first emperors, imported their swords and other arms from Spain and the West on account of their good workmanship. From the many “finds” that have been brought to light in the above countries it is evident that, for five or six centuries before the commencement of the Christian era, there was a great activity going on in the manufacture of iron objects in these countries, principally swords and other warlike arms. The two most important “finds" are the “Halstaat” in Austria, and the La Têne "finds” near Marin, Lake Neuchâtel. The Halstaat find was composed of many gold and bronze articles, pottery, and a few iron weapons. The place where these things 36 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. were found was a Celtic tomb, and the iron articles found in it are among the earliest known in Europe, which proves them to have been made at the transition period from the Bronze to the Iron ages. Besides the purely geometric work the decoration on these articles consists of sun and moon signs, wheel crosses, half moons, the sacred ship, the swastika, triskele, &c.; crude representations of men and animals, as horses, oxen, stags, he-goats, and geese, all of which have a religious and symbolic meaning. All these forms were used in the Bronze and Iron ages alike. The find at La Têne, near Marin, Lake Neuchâtel, belongs to a later period and is more important from an art point of view, for besides the usual sacred decorations engraved on the objects, some of the sword handles and sheaths are beautifully sculptured or chiselled in iron, with well- designed ornament and animal forms. (See Fig. 81, D, of Gaulish or late Celtic workmanship.) The shapes and materials of the weapons found at La Têne, or of what is called the “La Têne Period,” do not bear much resemblance to the weapons of the Bronze age, and the sheaths of the swords and daggers are sometimes bronze and sometimes iron, but the blades are of iron. Communication with the Etruscans and the Greeks by the people of Central Europe is proved by the coins, vases, and objects of personal ornament, and by the imitations of Greek and Macedonian coins found in great quantities in Middle and Western Europe and in Britain, that belong to this late Celtic period. This accounts for the more "advanced” nature of the decoration on the Marin swords and daggers of the “ La Têne Period,” and this particular culture-wave brought with it the beginnings of that orna- ment which, in later centuries, developed into the peculiar Celtic and Runic twistings and interlacings that are so common to Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Anglo-Saxon and Irish phases of decorative art, that was practised so largely from the first to the twelfth centuries of our era. This Celtic interlacing, though often more distressing than THE IRON AGE. 37 a Chinese puzzle, and in some instances barbarous in the extreme, yet is often very interesting and beautiful in exe- cution. Most of it can be traced to its origin in sacred signs and animal forms in classical ornament. It will be interesting to trace briefly some of these deve- lopments of the Northern Runic and Celtic art of the Iron age. In the development of nearly all historic art, we find that the religious aspirations of man were the chief factors. In Egypt, Asia, Europe, or America, wherever art had an individuality, the greatest monuments were erected, and the finest works of art were created for the honour of the nation's gods. We have seen how the forms of ornament were generally derived from the figurative signs of sacred animals, plants, and other mystic symbols of a religious meaning, and were in the end converted in meaningless but æsthetic ornament. This is the history of nine-tenths of historic ornament that has survived the decay of nations. The ancient religion and beliefs of the pre-Christian peoples were those which they had brought with them when they first migrated from their Asiatic home, namely, the worship of the sun, moon, and lightning. Cæsar mentions in his “De Bello Gallico," VI., 21, that the “ Germani people worshipped the visible helping gods, the sun, moon, and fire, and knew nothing whatever of other divinities.” The symbolic signs and animal forms sacred to these phenomena, already mentioned, are found more or less on the utensils and weapons of the Gallic- German peoples of the Iron age, and in addition to these we see the representation of the Northern gods, the Trinity of the North, Thor, Odin and Frey, with and without the sacred animals peculiar to each. In the earlier times close intercourse with the Romans brought about a high degree of culture to the barbarian people of the Rhine Valley and more northern places; many statuettes of bronze inlaid with gold and silver, representing Roman gods, have been dug up in Denmark and other places in the north. These statuettes were transformations of the Roman and THE IRON AGE. 39 riveted on the ornament or brooch itself, remind us of the sun-god Frey." The Figs. 60 and 6ı are metal mountings decorated with the triskele formed of sun-snakes, the swastika with straight arms, and the compound variety of the fylfot on the larger mounting. These illustrate a tran- sition of the sacred sun form to more purely ornamental designs. The imitation of Roman coins and medallions of the time of Constantine to ornaments that have been called “ bracteates was extensively carried on by the Germanic people. These bracteates have the design on one side only, with a loop or ring at the top to suspend them 正 ​2. 5 Fig. 60. Fig. 61. Figs. 60 and 61.-Metal Mountings from Thorsberg. (Danish Arts.) around the neck as an amulet. These golden bracteates have been found in great numbers in Scandinavia and Denmark, and scarcely anywhere else, which proves they were indigenous to these countries. It is interesting to notice how they have been trans- formed from their Roman and Byzantine originals to purely sacred Celtic amulets of a new national type of orna- ment. Fig. 62, from Hildebrand's “Scandinavian Arts," is a barbaric copy of a Roman medallion. It is a poor attempt to copy the Imperial head, and the inscription is badly and meaninglessly copied. On the reverse is a figure of Victory, with signs of the cross, surrounded by a wreath and legend. 40 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. BOCZCI 1146 DROSTED . It appears that after the age of the Constantines, the intercourse of the Germanic people with the Romans was Ιζζ ΣΟ GGIO COCHT A 20 ДПІ Wullin ar Fig. 62.-Barbarian Copy of a Roman Medallion fo ind in Sweden. (Scand. Arts.) broken, owing to the invasion of the Huns, and for a long time afterwards they were left to themselves without es QLIQLI Fig. 63.—Golden Bracteate from Scandinavia. (Danish Arts.) foreign influence, and were enabled to develop their national art on the foundation of Roman culture, at the same time substituting their own emblems of their national THE IRON AGE. 40 gods in place of the classic ones in their decorative work. We can safely gather from this that the Hunnic invasion of the Roman Empire was the indirect means of giving to Northern Europe a distinct national style of art. The illustrations of the golden bracteates here given (Figs. 63, 64) partly show how this development began. On Fig. 63 is Thor's head with his tiara or helmet, the he- OUSSE OOD 000 GERALA Fig. 64.—Golden Bracteate from Scandinavia. (Danish Arts.) goat sacred to Thor, the triad three dots, and the swastika. On the border is the triskele (Odin's sign), Frey's cross, and the zigzag or lightning. The larger bracteate (Fig. 64) has Thor with the he- goat surrounded by the swastika, triskele, and the cross (four suns forming the cross), the signs for Thor, Odin, and Frey. The inner border has the three dots, or triad; next border, Thor's head; and the outer border is composed of 42 HISTORIC ORN'AMENT. 2000 2030999, estir not : 315 39 43 Fig. 65.—Parts of Harness in Gilt Bronze, Gotland. (Scand. Arts.) he-goats. On the loop are signs of the sun and moon, and under it sun-snakes (developed into spirals). The above THE IRON AGE. 43 descriptions of the bracteates are chiefly taken from the “ Danish Arts." Characteristic ornament of this period is shown at Fig. 65, which are parts of a harness in gilt bronze from a tomb in A Fig. 66.–Fibula in Gilt Bronze, Gotland. (Scand. Arts.) Fig. 67.-Fibula in Gilt Bronze, Gotland. (Scand. Arts.) 200 000 0000000 000000 000) 0o Gotland; the patterns are composed of corrupted animal and bird forms. Figs. 66 to 68 are fibula decorations of the interlacing animal forms, which are characteristic of the more attenu- ated and later development of Scandinavian art. The series of designs, Figs. 69 to 73, are of great interest in showing the de- velopment of patterns from Fig. 68.–Part of Rim of Fig. 67. lion forms to the twisted snake ornament. The figures are taken from Hilde- brand's “Scandinavian Arts." According to that author, Fig. 69 is a Scandinavian copy or adaptation of a Roman design, which consists of two lions couchant. The other patterns (Figs. 70 to 73) are further developments of corrupted lion forms. It is quite possible that the peculiar 44 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. interlacings of Scandinavian ornament may have been the result of imperfect copying of lion and bird forms. They Fig. 69. Fig 70. Figs. 69 and 70.-- Corrupted Figures of Lions. (Scand. Arts.) Fig. 71. Fig 52. Fig. 73. Figs. 71, 72, 73.—Animal Ornamental Patterns, Corrupted Figures of Lions. (Scand. Arts.) were never intended for snake forms, as many of these have legs and feet, and serpents and snakes were unknown in the north. Many stranger derivatives of ornament have THE IRON AGE. 45 20 coo 30 Fig. 74.- Silver Goblet, with Gold-plated Decoration, found in Zeeland. (Danish Arts.) Fig. 75.- Under Side of a Fibula. (Scand. Arts.) 46 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. existed in the ornament of savage tribes.* When the Gotlandic artist had reduced his lion forms to snakes he 00000000000 Fig. 76.–Pottery of the Iron Age. (Danish Arts.) KUR mi ALU Fig. 77.-Piece of Woollen Cloth with Gold and Silver Threads, Viking Period. (Danish Arts.) carried his work to the verge of monotony with inter- minable interlacings. The decoration on the goblet (Fig. 74) is the sun god See Haddon's “Evolution of Ornamental Art," 1895. THE IRON AGE. 47 Frey, with his horse and geese; the masks are intended for those of Thor; his he-goat and sun signs are also seen. This goblet was evidently used in the sun-worship festivals. A restrained and agreeable design is seen on the under side of a fibula (Fig. 75); a well-shaped earthen pot is decorated with zigzag work, and has the symbolical triad mark impressed on it (Fig. 76); and a remnant of woollen cloth, woven with silver and gold threads, has the swastika and the hammer of Thor as decoration. This was found in a grave at Randers of the tenth century. It belongs to the Viking period of the Iron age (Fig. 77). CHAPTER VI. THE LAKE DWELLINGS OF SWITZERLAND AND OTHER PARTS OF EUROPE. In Switzerland and in Upper Italy evidences have been found of numerous lake dwellings, and in Ireland and Scotland analogous dwellings on islands in lakes and morasses have been found, to which the name of cran- noges” (“wooden islands ") has been given. The exact age of these dwellings has not been accurately defined, but an approximate date has been assigned to them. From the nature, kind, and decoration of the numerous articles that have been dug up from the foundation relic beds in the lakes of Switzerland, it appears that the duration of the “lake dwellings” period was from about the time of the later Stone age to the early Iron age; it therefore em- braces portions of the Stone age, the Bronze age, and early Iron ages of Europe. The lake dwellings were erected by certain tribes of the early inhabitants of Europe, for the better security of themselves and their property from the savage animals of the mainland, and from their enemies, the still more savage fellow-men. As far as can be made out from the remains found in the lakes, the lake dwellers were more civilised and less warlike than their neighbours that lived on land. The lake dwellings are the most ancient evi- dences of man's first constructive capabilities in the art of building. Herodotus tells us of a settlement on Lake Prasias (Tachyus), in Rumelia, where “men live on plat- forms supported by tall, piles.” Some tribes of the LAKE DWELLINGS. 49 Papuans of New Guinea still live on pile dwellings. The lacustrine habitation (Fig. 78), from “Les Races Sau- vages,” by M. Bertillon, is a representation of a pile dwelling on the I.ake Mohrya, in Central Africa, of the present day. The substructures, Fig. 79, A, B, and c, taken from ATBadia DIETRICHE 78.- Lacustrine Habitation in Lake Mohrya, Central Africa. (From Les Races Sauvages, by M. Bertillon.) Keller's “Lake Dwellings," will give general ideas of the foundations of the dwellings in Switzerland and Upper Italy. At A is seen the earliest type, which reveals the section of the piles, upper flooring, water-line, and sloping bank of the lake. The piles were sometimes composed of split trees or stems, but more often of stems with the bark on, and were of various kinds of wood ; they were VOL. I. E jo HISTORIC ORNAMENT. sharpened at the end by stone hatchets, and in later times by bronze or iron axes, and were driven into the sand or mud at a short distance from the shore. The heads of the B С E 7 Monfoot Peat 24 feet nento nes Floolit Allshlles G F HREE Blea Alshe's Lake Tsainak Fig. 79.–Section and Plans, Lake Dwelling Substructures from Keller. A, General idea of arrangement of Piles; B, shows the Piles driven into the mud, with stones thrown between them; C, Section of Fascine Dwelling; D, Diagram of Floor Fascine Construction from Niederwyl; E, Section of Irish Crannoge in Ardakiilin Lough; F, Con- struction of Wooden Form (Niederwyl); G, Section of Lake Dwelling Beds at Roben- hausen. piles were brought to a level, and planks or whole trees were fastened on them as beams; sometimes they were fastened on by wooden pins, and sometimes were “notched" into the heads of the piles. Cross-beams LAKE DWELLINGS. 51 were often forced in between the uprights under the plat- form to steady the structure, and outside there was often fastened a clothing of wattle-work to act as a fender from various accidents. If it were found difficult to drive the piles into the bed of the lake to any great depth, artificial raising of the bottom was resorted to, by bringing cargoes of stones in boats and dropping them between the piles, thereby securing a perfectly secure substructure (Fig. 79, B). These artificial risings are called "stein-bergs.” Another and later variety of substructure is known as “fascine-work” (Fig. 79, c). Probably this fascine con- struction was the safest when the water of the lake rose in height. It consisted of layers of small trees or stems laid lengthwise, built from the bottom of the lake; these sticks or trees were interwoven, and at intervals upright piles were driven in to keep them in position, and on the top of this structure, above high-water mark, the flooring platform was laid. The “crannoges or “wooden islands," of Ireland and Scotland, resemble very much the Swiss fascine dwellings. The Irish “crannoges were often placed on natural islands, or on shallows or loughs, but sometimes were built up, like those in Switzerland, from the bottom of the lake. These “crannoges” were used as chieftains' fast- nesses or places of retreat. They were built chiefly in the Stone age, and were used long after the age of Iron. At Fig. 79, E, may be seen a section of an Irish "crannoge” in Ardakillin Lough. At Fig. 79, F and D, are shown diagrams of platform and floor construction respectively of a lake dwelling at Niederwyl, Switzerland. On the top of this floor a plaster made of mud, loam, and gravel, was laid and beaten firmly down. As far as can be ascertained from the remains of upright corner posts that have been found in position, the houses were rectangular, though some may have been round like the huts of the contem- porary people on the mainland. The walls of the houses are supposed to have been built of wattle-work plastered 52 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. over with mud and thatched, as evidences of this are seen in the large pieces of burnt clay with wattle impression on it that have been found ; this also points out the fact of the houses or settlements being burnt down. In some cases the walls were of fascine construction. Every hut was pro- vided with its hearth, which consisted of three or four large flat stones. Clay weights used for the loom have been MW e UND 10 TITT MONT W*... Fig. 80.-An Ideal Lake Settlement or Town. (From Keller's Lake Dwellings.) found in great quantities, which proves, together with many fragments of flax cloth and woven “ bast” which have come to light, that weaving was known and practised by the lake dwellers (Fig. 81, K). Pottery has been found in the relic beds, but is usually of a very coarse descrip- tion. Many broken bits of pottery have been found orna- . mented with lines, chevrons, or zigzags, and often with the “rope" ornament, raised or impressed by a twisted string or rope; this kind of decoration is evidently sug- LAKE DWELLINGS. 53 gested by the band of string tied around the primitive vessels of clay to keep them together, or for carrying pur- poses. See Fig. 81, B, F, G, H, I, and J. B А с D $ E COCCO IIII F Fig. 81.-Objects from the Lake Dwellings (from Keller). A, Bronze Knife (Lake of Bienne); B, Ornamented Pottery; C, Moon Image of earthenware; D, Part of an Iron Sword (Gaulisb work); E, Moon Image of bronze; F, G, H, I, J, Earthenware Vessels; K, Embroidered Cloth. The builders of the lake dwellings are supposed to have been a branch of the Celtic population of Switzerland, belonging to prehistoric times, and was in its last stage of decadence before the Celts took their place in the history 54 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. of Europe. Although many remains of bronze and iron implements have been brought to light from the relic beds of the lake dwellings, this does not prove that the inhabitants were acquainted with their manufacture, for most of the articles were probably obtained by barter from the people of the mainland. A beautiful bronze knife is seen at Fig. 81, A, found in the lake of Bienne, and part of a sword in iron, of Gaulish, or “late Celtic” workmanship, from Marin, Lake Neu- châtel (Fig. 81, D). Highly interesting are the “moon-stones” and “moon- images” of this period, made in stone, earthenware, and bronze. These crescent moon-images have a religious sig- nificance, and have doubtless been used to decorate the tops of their entrance doors (Keller) or other conspicuous places in their dwellings, as emblematic images of their worship of the moon. The figure at c represents an earthenware moon-image with a flat base for standing purposes. The decoration on this is peculiarly interesting, as showing one of the earliest fascine patterns, doubtless derived from the floor construc- tion of the dwellings, or from the lashings of withy bands used to fasten the stone axes and celts to their hafts. This kind of ornament has been used very much in the Bronze age weapons, implements, and other objects. The moon- image at E is made of bronze, with a handle and a ring to hang it by. It was probably worn as an amulet or decora- tion suspended from the neck of a Celtic priest. Remains of many kinds of plants, seeds, corn, and fruit have been found, usually in coarse earthen pots; also cakes and loaves of bread, and mill-stone "crushers” for grinding corn. Domestic animals, such as cows, goats, and dogs, were kept by the lake dwellers. Fishing and fish-curing, as may be easily inferred, was an important industry with these interesting people. CHAPTER VII. EGYPTIAN ART. ACCORDING to their most ancient traditions, the Egyptian race descended from a point high up on the Nile, or the land of Ethiopia, but modern science proves them to belong to a Caucasian race, and not of the Negro type. The name Egypt has been derived from “Het-ka-Ptah,” one of the titles of the city of Memphis, which means “The Temple of the Genius of Ptah,” and has been interpreted by the Greeks as “Aiguptos,” the latter being the old name for the Nile. On the south of Egypt dwelt the Nubians or Ethiopians ; on the west the Libyans, a fair-skinned race, who, being a warlike people, were employed by the Egyptians as mer- cenary troops; and on the north-east the nomadic Semitic tribes of Edom and Southern Syria. The latter people often wandered west to feed their flocks in the Delta of Lower Egypt, and in course of time formed, with the Phænician traders, a large proportion of the population of the lower kingdom of Egypt. It was on the north-east frontier, on the Isthmus of Suez, that Egypt had most to fear from her foreign enemies. Nearly all the art of the various peoples and nations of the world was developed in relation to their religion, and most of it-as elsewhere stated-originated in symbolic signs that represented, under various forms, human or otherwise, the original objects or phenomena which they worshipped. This was the case especially so in Egypt; 1100 , AN rompt Fig. 82.-Isis nursing her Son, Horus. (P. & C.) Height, 19 ins. EGYPTIAN ART. 57 and this must be our plea to describe here briefly the principal outlines of the Egyptian religion. The religion of the Egyptians had two developments, one tending towards Monotheism, and the other to Poly- theism. They believed in one god, who was the king of all gods; and, on the other hand, they had their mythical gods, who personified whatever was permanent in natural phenomena, such as the sun, moon, sky, stars, earth, light, darkness, floods, the seasons, the year, and the hours. The goddess Nut represented the sky, and was known also under the names of Neith, Isis, Hathor, Sekhet, &c., which were the names of the sky at sunrise or sunset (Fig. 82). The sun had names without number, as Rā, Horus, Ptah, Tmu, Setek, Amen, &c. (Figs. 83, 84). Osiris and Sekru are names of the sun after he has set, or is “dead and buried” (Fig. 85). Osiris is king of the dead, and, in mythological language, he is slain by his brother Set, who personified night, who in his turn is slain by Horus (Fig. 82), who is the heir of Osiris. Horus signifies the “one above," and Amen-Rā, the great king of all the gods, signifies “the one who hides himself.” The great Amen-Rā was the mightiest god in all the Egyptian pantheon. He was the great god of Thebes. The gods were represented in human shape, and also in animal form. The animals, or animal combinations, were simply symbolical of the gods on account of certain attributes common to each, or in some cases because they bore the same name. The Egyptians were intense believers in a future state, hence the great care bestowed on their dead, for they believed that the body should be preserved in order to insure a state of bliss for the soul in the future world. Every human being had its "double," or ghost “Ka," as well as its ghost “Ba," which we often find represented under the form of a human being with a hawk's head. Sometimes the image of a man was buried with him. This was to represent his “double," and is, therefore, called a ADYAN 20120 onin SEL Fig. 83.--Amen, or Ammon, bronze. (P. & C.) Fig. 84.-Ptah, from a bronze Actual Size. (P. & C.) EGYPTIAN ART. 59 “Ka” statue, or image. The “Ba,” or soul, was sup- posed to be “luminous." It is supposed that many of the animals and animal forms buried with and painted on the coffins of the Egyptian dead were, in remote times, the sacred animals or “Totems” belonging to the dead man's family. “ Totem worship" may have been the most ancient form of the Egyptian religion. The Temple of Bubastis (in the Delta) was sacred to the goddess Bast, or Pasht, the cat-headed goddess (Fig. 86). The cat was, therefore, a sacred animal or a “Totem,” in ancient Egypt, like the ibis, hawk, asp, beetle, &c., totems; and so in the district or town of Bubastis the Cat Clan, or worshippers of the cat-headed goddess Pasht, built the rock-cut temple called Speos Artemidos, near Beni-Hasan, and dedicated it to her worship. The writing of the Egyptians is classified under three heads : the “ Hieroglyphic," or the form in which it appears on the monuments; the “Hieratic,” or priestly writing, as used on the papyrus documents; and the “Demotic,” a cursive or running kind of writing similar to the Hieratic, and a later development of it. In the year 1798 the famous “Rosetta Stone," now in the British Museum, was found near the Rosetta mouth of the Nile by a French officer. It passed into the hands of the British in 1802. On this stone is inscribed a decree of the priests of Memphis con- ferring divine honours on Ptolemy V., King of Egypt, B.C. 195 The inscription is in three forms, the Hiero- glyphic, the Demotic, and in Greek characters. From this inscription was first obtained the key to the decipherment of the hieroglyphics, and interpretation of the ancient lan- guage of Egypt, and the names of the kings which in the hieroglyphics are enclosed in cartouches or oblong rings. Thus the clue was obtained to the identification of the letters of the Egyptian alphabet, which had hitherto baffled all the attempts of Egyptologists to find out. The credit of the identification is chiefly due to the French 1 1 bo HISTORIC ORNAMENT. jest be BAO 71 Ft homes Fig. 86.— The Goddess Bast, or Pasht. Actual Size. (P. & C.) Fig. 85.-Osiris. (P. & C.) EGYPTIAN ART. 61 savant, Champollion, but a considerable share of the honour must be given to Thomas Young, who was the first to find out the correct value of many of the phonetic signs. The Egyptians, from the earliest period known, were acquainted with and skilled in medicine, in astronomy, in mathematics, philosophy, poetry, and fiction. The oldest literary papyrus at present known dates from the Third to the Fifth Dynasties (3966 to 3333 B.C.). Egyptian art was at its best in the earliest Dynasties. The Fourth Dynasty was the great pyramid-building period, and the statues of this great epoch were more natural and artistic, and altogether were less conventional than those of later times. It is notable that in the Eighteenth and Twenty-sixth Dynasties, after a long period of art depression, the artists went back for inspiration and better models to the work of the men of the Fourth and Twelfth Dynasties. The history of Egypt can be traced back from 4,400 years before the Christian era, and is divided into thirty Dynasties, whose succession was the result of failure in any of the original lines of marriage, or marriage with a female of lower rank, or of a revolution. The thirty Dynasties are divided into three groups Dynasties 1.-XI. (B.C. 4400—2466) XI.-XIX. (B.C. 2466--1200) XX.-XXX. (B.C. 1200– 340) The Ancient Empire. The Middle Empire. The New Empire. These dates and arrangements are formulated chiefly on the basis of a work written in Greek, and compiled by Manetho, an Egyptian priest who lived in the third century B.C. The kings of Egypt have been named Pharaohs from the title “ Peraa' great house.” The seat or centre of the government shifted its position according to dynastic reasons, or from policy. During the ancient empire it was first at Memphis, and then moved to Abydos and other places in the south as the empire extended. When 62 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. Egypt was in the height of its glory the centre of govern- ment was chiefly at Thebes, but moving often according to revolution or foreign oppression. Rameses and his near successors held their court at the northern city of San, or Tanis. The time of the New Empire was chiefly a period of foreign rule and slow decadence, the seat of the aధం పరమపదపదవడ it CONUE Fig. 87.-The Great Pyramid of Kheops, and Small Pyramids; from Perring. (P. & C.) empire shifted to nearly all the former places or capitals and to Bubastis or Sais with each political change. Menes was the first historical king of Egypt, and was supposed to have founded Memphis, where the worship of the god Ptah, “Creator of gods and men,” was first instituted, as well as that of Apis or Hapi, the sacred bull—the Serapis of the Greeks. For the next six hun- dred years we know scarcely anything of Egyptian history except the names of the kings, until we come to the great period of the Fourth Dynasty (B.C. 3766-3566), 1 EGYPTIAN ART. 63 Seneferu was the founder of this Dynasty. He conquered the peninsula of Sinai, and worked the valuable mines of copper and turquoise found in that country. His son and successor, Khufu, better known as Kheops (B.C. 3733-3700), was the builder of the Great Pyramid at Gizeh (Fig. 87), which he erected for his tomb. The king Kha-f-Rā (Kephren) (B.C. 3666-3600), built the Second Pyramid, and his son, Men-kau-Rā (Mykerinos) was the builder of the Third Pyramid. Men-kau-Rā was Huuhniitäkin PODOOD CC 10 Toom lo sto Fig. 88.--Section through the Great Pyramid of Kheops. (P. & C.) a wise and humane sovereign, and it is recorded to his honour, as an exceptional qualification, that “he did not oppress his people." In this he was different to most of the Pharaohs. His mummified remains are now in the British Museum. The Sphinx, or man-headed lion, carved out of the solid rock, is near the Great Pyramid, and is supposed to be the work of a much earlier period (Fig. 91). The Fifth Dynasty (B.C. 3566-3300) is not an important one as far as art is concerned. The Sixth (B.C. 3300-3100) was noted for the erection of 64 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. its pyramid tombs and for the religious texts that were inscribed on their interior walls. LE ri: 89.---The Stepped Pyramid. (P. & C.) Supposed to be the most ancient building in Egypt. I'rom the Seventh to the Eleventh Dynasty (B.C. 3100- 2466) is a period whose history is almost lost. It meant 3 Fig. 90.—The Southern Pyramid of Dashcur. (P. & C., to the Egyptians a period of more than six hundred years of tribal jealousies and fighting, at the end of which Egypt 1. EGYPTIAN ART. 65 was consolidated from north to south, and a powerful Dynasty succeeded these internal struggles. The Twelſth Dynasty was a brilliant one for the arts, and for great works of engineering skill. The names of the Pharaohs of this dynasty, Amenemhāt and Usertsen, are among the most renowned in Egyptian history. Great temples were restored or newly built at Thebes, Heliopolis, Tanis, and Fig. 91.–The Great Sphinx. (P. & C.) Abydos. The great artificial lake, Mauur (Moeris of the Greeks), or “great water," was constructed to receive the surplus waters of the Nile, and to control its floods. The Arabs call this lake “El-Fayyum,” from another of its Egyptian names “Phiom,” the sea. It was completed in the reign of Amenemhāt III. (B.C. 2300-2266). The same king built the celebrated Labyrinth, the “Erpa-re-hent," or “Temple at the entrance of the Lake,” in which the king himself was interred. His successor was the last king of the Twelfth Dynasty. The Thirteenth and Four- VOL. I. F 66 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 1 1 Eshoes Fig. 92.-Colossi of Amenophis III. Statues of Memnon at Thebes. (P. & C.) EGYPTIAN ART. 67 ! 24 0:1 teenth Dynasties are dark periods in which the invasion of the Elamites and the Nomad tribes from Syria and Western oll Asia took place. The Fifteenth and Six- teenth Dynasties are the “Hyksos” dynas- ties. The Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings, were LA the chief of the above Nomad Asiatic tribes, and consequently UNI usurpers of the native rule. A revolt took place in the reign of one of these kings of the Seventeenth Dy- nasty, and under Amāsis I., the founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty, the Shepherd Kings were finally driven out of Egypt. About the end of the. Hyksos rule the patriarch Joseph was sold into Egypt. King Nubti (B.C. 1750) is supposed to have been the Pharaoh of that time, and the Hyksos king, Apepa II., is supposed to have been Fig. 93:----Amenophis III. Presenting an Offering to Amen. (P. & C.) the king that raised Joseph to power. The explorer, M. Jacques de Mor- gan, expresses the opinion that the Shepherd Kings = {}}} 68 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. were the tomb-robbers, who, either from cupidity, or a wish to annihilate the last traces of a conquered race, pillaged every pyramid of its dead, and the treasures there concealed, for not a single pyramid has been found unviolated that was built before the Hyksos Dynasty. Thothmes III. (B.C. 1600) was a powerful and warlike king who compelled Assyria to pay him tribute. In the Eight- eenth Dynasty, Egypt was more powerful than at any other period of her history. The great Temples of Thebes, Karnak, and Luxor were built during this dynasty. A later monarch of this dynasty, Amenophis III., erected on the west of the Nile at Thebes two colossal statues of himself, that the Greeks haye named the statues of Memnon, the fabled king of Egypt that was supposed to have been slain in the Trojan wars (Fig. 92). Another king of this dynasty, Amenophis IV., made himself exceedingly notorious by trying to introduce a new religion, and for this he had his memory execrated, and was deeply cursed as a heretic by priests and people of the succeeding generations. It appears he had imbibed from his mother, Ti, who was an Assyrian princess, certain religious opinions which he determined to force on his own people. In order to do this he removed his capital from Thebes, where the national worship of the great god Amen was celebrated, to Khu-en-aten, the modern Tell-el- Amarna, which name he took for himself, and which means the “ splendour of the sun-disk"; there he set up the sun- disk god, Aten (the radiant sun). The new religion, how- ever, was obnoxious to the conservative Egyptians, and soon died out (Fig. 94). The Nineteenth Dynasty (B.C. 1400-1200) was founded by Rameses I. He was a successful king, but his son Seti (Fig. 95) was a greater one, and had the reputation of being a great builder. It was he who built the great “Hall of Columns," at Karnak, which joins the pylon of Amen- ophis III. (Fig. 96). He also built the temple at Kůrnah, and remains of his EGYPTIAN ART. 69 work is seen at Abydos, Memphis, and Heliopolis. He was succeeded by his famous son Rameses II., the Sesostris of the Greeks, the supposed oppressor of the Israelites. He was a very powerful monarch, and, from all accounts, . 1 19550•4010:4 Dec 100114 TIN2 CIAL? DIID Coleiro go TOD 9D18D.Co !010 IM acolo Fig. 94.—The Adoration of the Solar-disk by Amenophis IV. (P.) DIDIEU A APEN داد ایا:۱۰۱/۰ Solo in order to glorify himself in the eyes of posterity, did not scruple to erase the names of former kings from off their cartouches on their monuments and inscribe his own in their place. That he has accomplished the end he had in 70 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. view by so doing there is not the slightest doubt, for no monarch of Egypt is better known than he. But apart ամայելակյլից: ուալ Fig. 9;. - Seti with Attributes of Osiris between Amen and Chuoum. (P. & C.) from this he was certainly a mighty chieftain, who “en- riched the land with memorials of his name.” The greatest of his many battles (he was always fight- ing) was fought with the Khita (Hittites), under the walls EGYPTIAN ART. 71 of Kadesh, in the valley of the Orontes. His forces were AUCHERGwain Fig. 96.-Entrance to the Hypostyle Hall of the Temple of Amen at Karnak. (M.) almost defeated when by his personal valour he turned the tide of the battle and entirely routed the Khita (Fig. 97). The most famous building of his time is the rock-hewn 72 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. temple, the “Great Temple,” that he built and dedicated to Amen, Ptah, and Harmachis, which faces the Nile at Ipsamboul, in Nubia. On the façade of this temple are sculptured in situ four seated colossal figures of Rameses, two on each side of the doorway. From the soles of the feet to the top of Fig. 97.-- The Rout of the Khita ; Egyptians to the left, the Khita to the right. (M.) the pschent on the head measures sixty-five feet; they are the largest statues in Egypt, and the workmanship is careful in finish. Over the entrance is carved in relief on the rock a colossal figure of the god Rā, and on either side of it are single figures in low-relief of Rameses in the act of adoration (Fig. 98). EGYPTIAN ART. 73 Menephthah (B.C. 1300 — 1266) was the successor of Rameses II. and his successor was Seti II. The latter Fig. 98.–Façade of the Great Rock-cut Temple at Ipsamboul. was the last king of the Middle Empire. With the com- mencement of the Twentieth Dynasty the New Empire EGYPTIAN ART. 75 of the Delta, afterwards capturing Memphis and Thebes, which he pillaged. The Assyrian king died suddenly, and Taharka, a native usurper, succeeded in driving out the Assyrians, but soon after Egypt was again conquered by RELME CAJTER RUH FEL sce Fig. 100.-- Portrait of Rameses II. (Louvre; P. & C.) Ashurbanipal, a powerful Assyrian King (B.C. 666). The Assyrians, however, after a short time of occupation with- drew from Egypt, owing to their troubles at home with the Medes, who were laying siege to Nineveh, and Egypt 76 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. again revived. Under Amāsis the country enjoyed peace for about forty years (B.C. 572—528). The Egyptians pos- sessed a fleet at this time with which they advanced to the Phoenician coast and took the city of Sidon, and also annexed the island of Cyprus to Egyptian rule. Egypt submitted to the Persian army under Cambyses in B.C. 527, and was for more than one hundred years aſter- wards a mere vassal of Persia. The Twenty-seventh Dynasty (B.C. 527—424) was composed solely of Persian kings. A successful revolt broke out in the last Persian king's reign, Darius II., when Egypt was free once more. Fig. 101.—The Egyptian “ Gorge." Amenrut was the only king of the Twenty-eighth Dynasty, and after the Twenty-ninth and Thirtieth Dynasties were ended, the latter, by the conquest of Egypt once more by the Persians under Artaxerxes III. (B.C. 340), we find the country under Persian rule for the space of eight years. About this time the Persian monarch was defeated by Alexander the Great, which brought Egypt under the Greek rule. At the death of Alexander Egypt was governed by the Macedonian kings, the Ptolemies, from 330 to 30 B.C. After the Roman wars and the death of Cleopatra, Egypt found itself a Roman province. In A.D. 638 the Arabs under Omar conquered the country, EGYPTIAN ART. 77 and it was ruled by them till 1517, when it passed into the hands of the Turks. The Pyramids of Egypt have doubtless derived their SUNGGU TAKDA REAR RUUBE MUSTAVA BESTFA13857| TOTO 2013 பாபா CH 7. ETIJNT Fichovirala nr. VITRIN!16 Blo!!!!KLEINAS1500 JT FINS I TERESULTS MO NDATETOONT POCO Fig. 102.--General Appearance of an Egyptian Temple. OPA EDASIE AMUEL ETORRIKALANDU PENDIENDO DAN CUETES THAT ITT shape from the prehistoric grave mounds. Although elabo- rately and ingeniously contrived for the concealment of the remains of the kings, and are stupendous monuments of building skill, they are not examples of architecture in the true sense of the word. Perhaps the earliest examples 78 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. of Egyptian architecture, properly speaking, are seen in the ancient shrines, with sloping walls and flat roof, and hav- ing the peculiar cavetto cornice moulding called the TULA 2 Hour BiMHARIBAS 16 SAN 31 ini 1 Fig. 103.-Square Building Egyptian “Gorge” (Figs. 101 and 109). Horizontality is the great feature of Egyptian architecture, which is typi- cally expressed by the illustration Fig. 102, an ideal generalisation of an Egyptian temple. As hardly any, or no, rain falls in most parts of Egypt, GB Here tu Croid PTE 90LT HOLIHITIL) I. * FUT TUTTI JITUTILTINTILOR TENIDO TITOM I DUO : وام .ހޮޅު=.ދ. = Fig. 104.--Oblong Building. a sloping roof was not a necessity. The external walls in the case of a square building are in the form of a trape- zium, making the whole edifice of the shape of a truncated pyramid, and pyramid-like in either the square or rectan- gular-planned buildings (Figs. 103 and 104), except when EGYPTIAN ART. 79 the end walls are vertical (Fig. 104), then it tends toward the ridge-form. In regard to the scarcity of voids and narrow slop- ing doorways, the similarity in Egyptian buildings of every kind is very striking (Fig. 105). This absence of voids gives a dark and gloomy character to the buildings, when compared with the architecture of other countries. The horizontal element and solidity of construction impart a look of powerful strength and of deep repose to the Egyp- tian temple. Even the tall and slender obelisks placed in front of the mighty pylons have little, if any, effect in le Fig. 105.-Model of an Egyptian House. (P. & C.) removing the horizontal appearance of the whole building We give the ground plan, perspective view, and front elevation of the great Temple of Luxor, as a typical illus- tration of an Egyptian temple from restorations by Chipiez (Figs. 106, 107, and 108). Its construction is described by Champollion as the “ Architecture of giants." This double-temple was the work of two kings. From the second pylon to the further end of the Temple is the portion built first, by the King Amenophis III. The other portion, from first to the second pylon, is the part built by 1 HA:::| 80 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. : 0] 1 Rameses II. The sanctuary is placed in the centre of a hall, surrounded by small chambers. It has two doors, one at either end, and on the axis of the building it has a vestibule in front and a hall beyond, supported by twelve columns. Another hall in front of the Naos (or interior apartment) is sup- ported by thirty-two lofty columns. In front of this again is a large square open court. This court is con- nected to the larger front peristylar court by a grand and lofty gallery, similar to a hypostyle hall. It is 276 ft. long, enclosed and covered, and richly deco- rated like the hypostyle hall at Karuak (Fig. 96). Four colossal seated statues are in front of the first pylon, and two obelisks, one on each side of the door-way. Four large flagstaffs and a double row of sphinxes in front of the temple complete the accessories to this great edifice. The whole building and obelisks were covered over with bas-reliefs and inscriptions. The typical Egyptian columns or supports are of 1 3 JO 20 toll Fig. 106.—Plan of the Temple of Luxor. (P. & C.) VOI.. I. G ET DU DI ASMITTERS . TRINN LUTURA HINIHA TAILS داود Fig. 107.— Bird's-eye View of Luxor, as restored hy Chipiez. (P. & C.) ME ILL CC Fig. 103. - Principal Façade of the Temple of Luxor, restored by Chipiez. (P. & C.) CCC Fig. 109.—Column of Thothmes III. ; from the Ambulatory of Thothmes at Karnak. (P. & C.) 83 84 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. two distinct and well-marked kinds, the lotus-headed and the campaniform or bell-shaped. The former is so called from its resemblance to a closed lotus-bud (Fig. 109), and the latter from its re- semblance to a bell with the mouth uppermost (Fig. 110). An earlier and simpler form of column or support is the quadrangular pier (Fig. 111), and the next development is the tapering quadrangular pier (Fig. 112), both undeco- rated. Next we have the pier with a capital which, in profile, is a simple cavetto gorge," and square abacus (Fig. 113). Between the abacus and the entablature or beam is 10.41 or “ 4205 AA 1 3 Fig. 110.- Column of the Hypostyle Hall of the Ramesseum ; from Horeau. (P. & C.) Fig. 111.-Quadrangular Pier (P. & C.) a square thickness of stone; this is the great defect in the Egyptian orders, and distinguishes the latter from the EGYPTIAN ART. 85 COM Greek orders. This space between the abacus and the architrave is bad, both from a scientific and artistic point of view. It robs the capital of its legitimate appearance as a sup- porting member. This pier, with capital and the Hathoric pier (Fig. 114), with the head of the goddess Hathor, are both deco- rated. We next come to the octagonal (Fig. 115), and the sixteen-sided pillars (Fig. 116), which are almost Greek in their classic simplicity; the latter is fluted. All forms of Egyptian columns have either square slabs or cir- Fig. 112.— Tapering Quad- rangular Pier. (P. & C.) cular discs as bases, on which the column rests. The two latter mentioned pillars are 5 1 2 3 0 5 3 3 Fig. 113.—Pier with Capital. (P. & C.) Fig. 114.-Hathoric Pier, (P. & C.) exceptional, and therefore not typical Egyptian, in having the abacus directly under the architrave; the sixteen-sided 86 HISTORIC ORVAJENT. pillar is especially Doric-like in this respect, and also in its fluted shaft (Fig. 116). The supports known as “Osiride” pillars are chiefly of the date of the Nineteenth Dynasty. They have a kind of analogy to the caryatid Grecian pillars, but are unlike them in respect that they do not support the entablature, பட்ட 0 5 0 1 x 2 Fig. 115.-Octagonal Pillar, Beni- Hassan. (P. & C.) Fig. 116.-Sixteen-sided Pillar ; Fluted. (P. & C.) as they are only placed in front of the quadrangular sup- porting pier for purposes of decoration, and are usually meant as representations of the kings who erected the temples they decorate, with a head-dress ornament con- sisting of the attributes of Osiris (Fig. 117). Another variety of column has a fanciful combination of floral forms for its capital (Fig. 118). This and others of EGYPTIAN ART. 07 fanciful design are from the bas-reliefs and wall-paintings, and remind us of similar creations of the artist's pencil, as. seen in the Pompeian wall decorations. The upp er parts of the capital are developments from 1507 WWW Lidia 0 3 6 눌 ​!, Fig. 117.-Osiride Pillar from Medinet-Abou. (P. & C.) the calyx of the lotus, with the sepals curled outwards, and look very much like the first notions of the Greek Ionic capital, as indeed we shall find the Ionic volute to be a development of the lotus calyx more than anything else. An example of the faggot-shaped column, with its base, lotus-capital, and entablature, is given at Fig. 109. 88 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. The ornamental parts of this column were painted in bright yellow and blue, and, as a rule, the sculptured ornament of the Egyptian columns, architrave, and cornices were relieved by the painter in bright colours. The illustration at Fig. 119 is that of the palm-shaped capital from Sesebi. This type of capital is a frank imitation of a bunch of palm-leaves tied by the circular bands around the top of a column. A later development of the palm capital shows the bell shape with a more complicated decoration, Fig. 118.-Column from Bas Fig. 119.—Palm-Capital from Sesebi. Relief. (P. & C.) (P. & C.) and has the Hathor-headed abacus, surmounted by a Naos (Fig. 120) EGYPTIAN ART. 89 SELMAN MATT EGYPTIAN ORNAMENT AND INDUSTRIAL ART. A great part of Egyptian ornament and decoration is composed of symbolic forms, the remainder is made up of geometrical ornament, such as checkers, meanders, frets, rosettes, diapers of lotus and other forms. Natural forms of flowers and foliage were not copied direct, but only used in shape of geometric abstractions, and their arrangement as diapers in surface decoration was de- rived, in the first instance, from the older arts of weav- ing and matting. The old Egyptians were skilled in weaving both plain and figured fabrics, chiefly from flax and hemp fibre. The lotus form was pre-emi- nently the leading motive in Egyptian floral ornament. The papyrus (from which our word paper is derived) and the palm are next in importance as motives from which Egyptian ornament is derived. The lotus-plant (Nymphæa nelumbo), the variety in Fig. 120.– Hathor-headed Campani- which the leaves grow up Philæ. (P. & C.) form Capitals, Temple of Neetanebo, at out of the water and do not lie on its surface, is shown at Fig. 121, and drawings, evidently from nature, at Fig. 122, from the tomb of Ptah- Hotep. The lotus flower in ornament may be seen in the ceiling i ICC 90 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. decorations from tombs at Fig. 123, Nos. 3 and 5; at Figs. 118, 124; and in the painted frieze from Thebes (Fig. 125), where the similarity between this and the Assyrian lotus, fir-cone and daisy may be noticed (see Fig. 167). Fig. 121.—The Nymphea nelumbo; Flower, Leaf, and Fruit. (P. & C.) . COM The bi-lateral rendering of the lotus plant is not com- mon in Egyptian ornament, though it is the oldest form of the lotus known, as it occurs on the prehistoric pottery of Koptos, and on tombs of the Fourth Dynasty (Fig. 126), EGYPTIAN ART. 91 and earlier. Two lotus flowers are here seen tied together; the general outline of the flower is only rendered which would enclose the sepals and petals when seen in a side view. The lotus flower and bud alternating in a border orna- ment may be regarded as the prototype of the Greek palmate borders. We are inclined to believe in Professor Goodyear's theory, that the egg and tongue decoration on the Greek ovolo moulding is nothing more than a disrupted lotus and bud ornament developed in transition through WA IA Fig. 122.- Drawings of the Lotus from the Tomb of Ptah-Hotep. (P. & C.) the Rhodian pottery decoration. The shells and the tongue were originally the lotus calyx, and the egg or pebble the lotus bud. Other plants, as the thistle, convolvulus, daisy, vines, and grapes, &c., were used very much in decoration, especially during the Akhenaten period (Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties), when the decoration was of a florid kind. The papyrus is seen in the ceiling ornament Fig. 123, No 6, at Fig. 127, and on the perfume spoon of carved wood (Fig. 151). The ceiling decorations (Fig. 123), from the Theban tombs, show the fine sense and feeling the Egyptians had for the appropriate decoration of flat 민 ​1 1 2 MONU 3 4 VIE SVPE ANIE AVVE AMVP) 5 6 COME 7 8 Fig. 123.-Specimens of Ceiling Decoration at Thebes; from Prisse. (P. & C.) 92 EGYPTIAN ART. 93 surfaces, and the judicious balance maintained in the contrasting units of the ornament. Fig. 124.–Lotus and Water Orna- ment. Fig. 125.---Painted Border ; from Thebes, after Prisse. (P. & C.) In animal forms found in Egyptian decoration there are a few distinct and typical varieties, that have been used Fig. 126.-Flattened Form of Lotus-leaf Ornament; Front View and Section 1. (P. & C.) times without number, both in painting and in carving in the round; and in the bas-reliefs of stone, wood, and in 94 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. gold, silver, ivory, and bronze. Among the most frequent is the vulture, with outstretched wings, having sacred symbols in his claws. It has been used appropriately in Wha >>>>>>> Fig. 127.- Hunting in a Marsh ; from a Bas-Relief in the Tomb of Ti. (P. & C.) this form as ceiling decoration in the great temples at Thebes, on a blue ground diapered with golden stars; the ceilings thus are symbolic representations of the heavens at night (Fig. 128). EGYPTIAN ART. 95 Similar outstretched wings have been added to the scarabs or sacred beetles. These winged scarabs, together with similar winged-globe and uræus creations, have been MXXXXXXXXX 0TL Fig. 128.–Vultures on a Ceiling. (P. & C.) used as ceiling decorations in tombs and on mummy- cases, and sometimes the goddess Isis, or Nepththys, was furnished with these wings as guardian of the tomb (Figs. 129 and 130). MUMUM TIL X Х DownLULUI ZINAVINVINNU Fig. 129.– Winged-Globe with Uræus. (P. & C.) The Uræus and winged-globe was a favourite decoration for cornices and for heads of doorways (Fig. 108). The colouring of the winged-globe decoration was generally, in the case of the globe, a red colour, as the emblem of the sun; the wings green, and the striped ground behind the 96 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. figure was painted in alternating stripes of red, blue, and white, which produced an effective arrangement of colour. 12 上市​1 EAN 4.40 USE COMER Fig. 1zu.- Painting on Mummy-Case. (P. & C.) . 11.11. 11 Tauchersona Fig. 131.—Hunting in the Desert. (M.) The Egyptians excelled in the drawing of animals and birds in outline, and in bas-relief carvings of them, some examples of which are given at Figs. 131, 132, 133- EGYPTIAN ART. 97 Many chimerical animals or monsters were used in Egyptian decoration, as sphinxes, or imaginary animals of the desert, which were really fanciful creations of the artist's pencil (Figs. 134, 135, 136, 137). Their representations of iions always have an expression of dignity, though more mild in aspect than the Assyrian lion in art (Fig. 138). Pottery, glass, and earthenware were manufactured in Egypt from the earliest times. The country was well supplied with good potter's clay; bricks were made and dried in the sun, not burned, and were used very much in E.W. Fig. 132.-Antelope and Papyrus. (P. & C.) building. The common pottery was unglazed, and their decorated pottery was in glazed earthenware, but not so highly decorated as many other objects of industrial art. Fig. 139 is a common pitcher of fairly good form, in red earth. The decoration on the enamelled earthenware dish (Fig. 140) is composed of bouquets of lotus flowers; and that on the larger basin or bowl is a design of lotus and mystic signs (Fig. 141). The three objects are in the British Museum. Rosettes and plaques have been found enamelled in colours, and probably used for floor or wall tiles. The doorway to the stepped pyramid at Sakkarah is decorated with rows of convex-shaped rectangular plaques of VOL. I. H 98 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. enamelled earthenware of a greenish-blue glaze. Some are black in colour. The Egyptians were particularly skilful in glass making, á المو) Tron Fig. 133.-Netting Birds ; from a Tomb. (P. & C.) Fig. 134.- Quadruped with Head of a Bird. (P. & C.) but they never produced quite a clear glass; it was always slightly opaque, but generally bright and rich in colour. Vases, cups, pateræ, statuettes, necklaces, goblets, brace- lets, and, above all, enormous quantities of beads, which OD GBenedite Fig. 135.-Sphinx or Man-Headed Lion, in Black Granite, from Tanis. (P. & C.) 100 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. they used to make a network of to cover their dead. Great quantities of glass objects were exported in trade with the Phoenicians. The Venetians during the Middle Ages imported soda Kriosphinx, from Karnak. (P. & C.) Fig. 136.-Ram, or in large quantities from Alexandria, for purposes of glass making, the soda of Egypt being famed for this purpose, as it was prepared from the many marsh-loving plants that grew luxuriantly in the Delta. Fig. 140.– Enamelled Earthenware Dish, British Museum. (P. & C.) Fig. 139.—Pitcher of Red Earth, British Museum. (P. & C.) Fig. 141.-Enamelled Earthenware Bowl, British Museum. (P. & C.) EGYPTIAN ART. 103 of Kha-em-uas, son of Rameses II. (Fig. 142), and the golden hawk (Fig. 143). The former is a splendid and unique specimen of a w IWAS Yu tillin STELE.G. PIMTE Fig. 142.--Pectoral; Actual Size. (P. & C.) pectoral, or breast ornament for the dead. These pectorals have been found in great numbers, made of wood, metal, and earthenware. The general shape is that of a naos, or 104 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. little temple. The Kha-em-uas pectoral is made of gold inlaid with lapis lazuli, and is thus described by M. Pierret : JUUUUUU Luonnor Untut do now Fig. 143.—Golden Hawk; Actual Size. (P. & C.) UT LUUUUUULA STEIGE " Jewel in the form of a naos, in which a vulture and an uræus are placed side by side ; above them floats a hawk 2 n Fig. 144.- Fragment of an Ivory Castanet, Louvre. 106 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. with extended wings, in his claws are seals, emblems of eternity. Under the frieze of the naos an oval, with the prenomen of Rameses II., is introduced. Two tet (or dad, symbol of stability) are placed in the lower angles of the frame.” The golden hawk is a similar kind of ornament, with crescent wings and seals in its claws, emblems of Fig. 145.—Ivory Plaque ; Late Work. (P. & C.) reproduction and eternity. The workmanship in these articles looks like that of cloisonné enamels, but they are not enamels. The thin ribs of gold that surround the lapis lazuli stones in the pectoral and hawk are cloisons, but the stones are cut to fit into the spaces accurately, and are therefore inlaid, while in the true enamels the enamel EGYPTIAN ART. 107 is put in the cells and fused to the metal by fire afterwards. Enamelling as known to the Chinese was not practised in Egypt. As ivory could be obtained from Ethiopia in great quan- tities, it was natural that the Egyptians would make good use of it. It was a favourite material with the sculptors, V Fig. 146.- Egyptian Chair. (I'. & C.) Fig. 147.—Chair or Throne. (P. & C.) and many fine examples of ivory carvings and incised work have been found in the tombs. The incised outlines on the ivory were usually filled in with black (Figs. 144 and 145). Gold, silver, ivory, and ebony were worked in usually by the same Egyptian artist, as we learn from an inscription on a stele of Iritesen, an Egyptian sculptor, thus translated ma பொம் STELMEG. SIELME.C Figs. 150-51.–Perfume Spoons, Louvre. (P. & C.) ITO HISTORIC ORNAMENT. the wall paintings and bas-reliefs that give representations of tables, chairs, and couches. Some of the chairs or thrones are of special beauty (Figs. 146 and 147). A oo Fig. 152.--An Egyptian Ship, Sailing and Rowing. (M.) carpenter's shop showing the workmen making chairs is seen at Fig. 148, and a coffer (Fig. 149). The feet of chairs and thrones were usually imitated from those of animals. Fig. 153.—The River Transport of a Mummy from Maspero. In wood-carving nothing could be daintier than the perfume spoons with figures and water plants decoratively treated (Figs. 150, 151). EGYPTIAN ART. I11 The Egyptian ships were singularly beautiful in their outlines, with their prows and sterns ending usually in a metal stalk and carved lotus flower or ram's head (Figs. 152, 153). The “bari,” or sacred boat which transported the dead, decorated at each end with the carved metal lotus, and pavilion or chapel in the centre, with its freight of the mummy and the mourners (Fig. 152), is represented as it sails off towards Abydos, the city of the dead, to the west of Thebes, and the crowds of friends on the banks of the river will salute the dead, saying: “In peace, in peace towards Abydos ! Descend in peace towards Abydos, towards the Western Sea!” CHAPTER VIII. CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ART. THE Chaldeans or Babylonians and the Assyrians came from one great stock, the Assyrians being mostly colonists from Babylonia. The original inhabitants of Chaldea spoke a Semitic dialect. At an early date Eastern Chaldea was invaded by the Sumerians or Accadians, a Turanian race which is supposed to have come from the plateau of Central Asia. The two languages were used side by side, the Semitic as the common tongue, and the Accadian as a literary language. The earliest known king of Chaldea was named Eannadu (B.C. 4500). The Chaldeans advanced slowly along the Tigris and pushed their kingdom towards Assyria in the north, where they built the cities of Ashur (Kal’at Sherkât), Calah (Nim- roud), and Ninua (Nineveh). The northern portion of the Chaldeo-Assyrian empire asserted its independence about 1700 B.C., and Assyria became a separate kingdom. From B.C. 1275, when Tukulti-Adar I., the Assyrian king, conquered Babylonia, down to the destruction of Nineveh, B.C. 609, the Chaldean kingdom took a place of secondary importance, while Assyria became the greatest power of Western Asia. Tiglath-Pileser I. (B.C. 1 100), and Ashur-nasir-pal (B.C. 885), were amongst the greatest kings of Assyria. The latter was a great builder. He built the great palace at Calah (Nimroud), the place to which he removed his seat of government from Ashur. Assyrian art reached a high state of development in his reign. His son and CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ART. 113 one successor, Shalmaneser II. (B.C. 860-825) was no less powerful; he extended his kingdom by wars from the Persian Gulf to the Armenian mountains, and from Media to the Mediterranean. Jehu, King of Israel, sent him tribute. After his death Assyria declined and shrank within its borders, but under Tiglath-Pileser III. regained its lost ground again (B.C. 745). Sargon, the “Son of no (B.C. 722-705), usurps the throne, makes great wars, is the first King of Assyria that comes in contact with the Egyptians. He built the great palace at Khorsabad, which in late years has been excavated. Sennacherib, his son, succeeded him, whose wars with Hezekiah, King of Judah, are recorded in the Bible in the Book of Kings. He built a great palace at Nineveh, many of the wall slabs of which are now in the British Museum. The death of the succeeding monarch, Esarhaddon, took place before he had completed his great palace at Calah (Nimroud). Another palace supposed to be his has lately been excavated at Nineveh. It lies buried under the mound of Nebi Yunus. The Assyrian kings were great builders of palaces. Each one, it appears, thought it his duty either to add a large portion to a palace of his predecessor, or to build a new one for himself. Ashur-bani-pal, who reigned for forty-two years (B.C. 668-626), was one of the most powerful and most cruel of all the Assyrian monarchs. His victory over the Elamites is depicted on the sculptured slabs that enrich the Ninevite gallery of the British Museum. At his death the Assyrian power was broken up, partly by the Scythian hordes that swept over that part of Asia, and partly by the Medes. Nineveh was besieged by Cyaxares of Media, and by Nabopolassar, an Assyrian general who held command in Babylonia. It was at length captured and destroyed (B.C. 609). The whole empire was then divided between the Medes and the Babylonians. The new Babylonian empire lasted seventy years, and in the reign of its last king, Nabonidus, when under the command of Belshazzar, his son, Babylon was VOL. I. I 114 HISTCRIC ORNAMENT. captured by Cyrus of Persia (B.C. 539). From this time until its subjugation by Alexander the Great Babylon was under the Persians. The religion of the Chaldeo-Assyrian nation was the worship of the sun, moon, stars, and the various powers of nature. Their chief gods were Shamash, the sun ; Sin, the moon ; Marduk, a sun-god, the carrier of prayers from earth to heaven; Anum, the sky god; Bel, the god of the Taucber Gud Fig. 154.-A Winged Bull, Assyria. (M) earth ; and Ea, the god of great knowledge: the last three were the Trinity. Other gods were Dagon, the fish-god; Ishtar, their Venus; Nabu, their Mercury and scribe of the gods; Rammánu, the god of wind and thunder; and Negral, the god of war and hunting. The Assyrian and Babylonian people have a proverbial name for being a warlike and cruel race, in opposition to their contemporaries, the more peaceful and gentle Egyp- CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ART. 115 tians. At the same time they have the reputation of being highly skilled in arts and sciences. G400 Cliy FEMALE SIELNE GAUTIER Fig. 155.- Demons, from the Palace of Assurbanipal, British Museum. (P. & C.) COATE SC The greatness of the Chaldeans in astronomy, in astrology, and as wise men generally, is too well known to be repeated. Their skill in the arts of building, sculpture, 116 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. in the use of metals, in pottery, tiles, gem cutting, painting, embroidery and weaving, excites our wonder and admiration. The art of the Assyrians is intensely earnest and full of realism, vigorous in the highest degree, and true art of its kind. It is the art of a people who were brave and powerful, and of princes that were despotic and stern. The keynote of their art was force, whether displayed in its physical and realistic aspects, in the sculptural repre- sentations of ferocious animals, as their lions and dogs, or embodied in their mysterious and wonderful creations of human - headed bulls, and other monsters and demons (Figs. 154, 155), or in the haughty self-consciousness of strength and power, with which their sculptors scught to invest the representations of the monarchs going forth Fig. 156.- A Griffon in the Egyptian Style. (M.) to battle or to the lion hunt (Fig. 163); everywhere, in the higher aspects of Assyrian art, physical force, or personal force of will, is the culminating point of expression aimed at in all their efforts. The sculptured lion of the Egyptians is couchant, half slumbering; the Assyrian lion is rampant and roaring for his prey. The simile may be used to illustrate the cha- racteristic difference of the Art of both countries The Assyrian made his art minister to his worldly uses and delights, the Egyptian lavished his on the tomb and for the hereafter. The Assyrian religion and the Chaldean magicians' and astrologers' exposition of its mysteries, doubtless gave the subject-matter for the creation of those strange combina- tions of chimeras, monsters, and bi-form deities that are so common in Assyrian art. The griffons and other curious hybrid creatures of the CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ART. 117 Middle Ages, and those that adorn the Gothic buildings of Q1039) Time VIT ano """""ill SELMES Fig. 157.—Eagle-headed Divinity from Nimioud, with the Sacred Tree. (P. & C.) our own days, can be traced to their birthplace in Assyrian art. The great god of the Assyrians was named Assur, the 118 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. all-powerful god of battles. In his name all kinds of cruelty and torture were practised on heretics and apostates, and in his name, and to extend his kingdom of Assyria, Wallet delo Fig. 158. -Figure of a Goddess in Act of Adoration, British Museum. (P. & C.) the Ninevite kings found their excuses to make war with nations far and near. He seems to have been a later creation of the Assyrian gods, but became supreme as 1 CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ART. 119 Nineveh rose in power. He was supposed to have de- scended from Sin, the moon-god. The winged-globe, رزر: 17 Zero juillll Fig. 159.-- The Winged Globe with the Figure of a God. (P. & C.) with the god in the centre holding the bow and arrow, or thunder-bolt (Fig. 159), is by some thought to be a representation of Assur. A similar figure is seen at the .:):)) ra Ches 11? 47:// Fig. 160.– The Winged Globe ; from Layard. (P. & C.) top of the Assyrian standard, as the “Director of Armies” (Fig. 161). This figure in the centre of the ring or solar disk, who is evidently divine, by reason of his feathered I 20 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. lower garment, and his wings that raise him in mid-air, above all humanity, is quite likely to be the original type of the later Persian supreme god, Athura-Mazda (see Fig. 243), and the emblematic symbol of his divinity is quite likely to have been designed and adapted from the winged disk or “globe" of the Egyptians. ce ikli Fig. 161.--The Assyrian Standard. (P. & C.) Fig. 162.- Dagon, the Fish-God. (P. & C.) The winged globe (Fig. 160) of the Assyrians is an imi- tation of that of Egypt; this emblem having found its way into Assyria on many carvings in ivory and on articles in bronze, carried hither by the trading Phoenicians from Egypt, and the emblem in question was, according to Perrot, appropriated by the Assyrians. CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ART. ) 21 மாயாவையார் ALERINYANVAI TADA 12 ROKY (3 023 GANTAR COMTE Fig. 163.- Assurbanipal Attacked by Lions, British Museum. (P. & C.) I 22 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. In their ornament and decoration they were more free and natural than the Egyptians, and the execution was careful and refined, as witnessed by their bronze bowls, gem-engraving, and the patterns on the enamelled bricks. The bronze gates from Balâwât in the British Museum are examples of highly skilful repoussé work. Their palaces must have presented a gorgeous and glittering appearance in their rich colouring and enamelled brilliancy. Although not a single specimen of Assyrian weaving has been discovered, we have abundant and sufficient evidence from the sculptured patterns of textiles and embroideries the kings' robes and wall decorations that both weaving and embroidery must have been one of their most glorious arts. The Asiatic love of colour would lead us to suppose that these embroideries were excessively rich in colour (Figs. 162A, 163A, 164, 165) as they were in design. The details of this embroidery design (Fig. 162A) are well drawn, and the design is full of rich variety without heaviness or too much crowding. The king is seen twice represented in the circle doing homage to the sacred tree and to the winged disk; and in other places he is between two genii or deities; combats of lions and bulls, palmate borders, fir-cones, and spirals, with bands that divide the work in varied spaces, complete these rich designs in embroidery, which are among the very finest efforts of Assyrian decorative art. Details of embroidery patterns are shown at Figs. 164, 165. The sills or thresholds of the doors of the palaces were sometimes sculptured in low relief on large slabs of alabaster stone. The design is evidently copied from an embroidered carpet; perhaps the central part of the one given (Fig. 166) is a copy from a fabric woven in the loom, and the border, enlarged at Fig. 167, would have its original in embroidery. The figure of the plan and elevation of part of a Chal- CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ART. نيا 123 /: ( ۱ . دار و سرکاری نظره II .../ ..... * ccccccccer اررر از 00 eeeeee فر 2ر ::مر 1/7K ((۱۰ .) د ۱ #a/ : Fig. 162A.—Embroidery upon a Royal Mantle; from Layard. (P. & C.) 12+ HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3) well KK TE IN WOTE 42MDEN.CZ Fig. 163A.-Embroidery on the upper part of a Royal Mantle; from Layard. (P. & C.) CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ART. 125 dean façade in enamelled bricks, from Warka, is decorated with patterns that, no doubt, had their origin in weaving and matting (Fig. 168). The surface of this façade is Fig. 164.–Detail of Embroidery; from Layard. (P. & C.) composed of terra-cotta cones, with their bases turned out- wards. These bases were previously dipped in enamelled (۴۰ Fig. 165.—Detail of Embroidery; from Layard. (P. & C.) colours before they were inserted into the clay cement; so they form a kind of terra-cotta mosaic work (Loftus). The land of Chaldea was devoid of stone for building 125 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. purposes, but extremely rich in immense banks of clay, which was used for brick making from the carliest times in Chaldea. The Chaldean brick is rather more than one Fig. 166.--Sill of a Door from Khorsabad ; Length, 40 ins. (P. & C.) A DO jau English foot square, and about four inches in thickness; of a dark red colour to light yellow. Nearly all of them have an inscription with the name of the king, &c. (Fig. 169). CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ART. 127 The brick from Erech, or ancient Warka, gives a good idea of one of the oldest forms of Chaldean writing known (Fig. 170). It consists of an abridgment of the repre- sentation of natural objects, as all alphabets in their criginal state were merely pictures or pictographs. This inscription shows the stage of conventional signs or solut Miera in Fig. 167.-- Fragment of Border of Fig. 166 ; from a Threshold of Khorsabad. (P. & C.) ideographic writing before it underwent the change into the cuneiform, or wedge-shaped writing of the Assyrians. Some of the bricks were made wedge-shaped, for use in the building of arches and vaults. The common bricks were sometimes used in the crude state, or unburnt, and burnt. Enamelled bricks were greatly used in Chaldea, 128 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. but the clay of which they were made was softer and more friable. This was used purposely, so that the enamel would sink deeper into the soft material, and thereby make a more lasting surface protection. o DO W9 o Fig. 168.—Plan and Elevation of Part of a Façade at Warka; from Loftus. (P. & C.) osio Assyria copied most of her art and sciences from her older sister in civilisation, and had the advantage over Chaldea in a good supply of building stone, that formed the substructural bed for the clay deposits. This was a CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ART. 129 sulphate of chalk known as alabaster, grey in colour, and easy to work. The great wall slabs used for the bas- "Il Hita Fig. 169.—Babylonian Brick, 16 ins. square, 4 ins. thick. (P. & C.) reliefs and the winged bulls and other statuary, were carved out of this material; but the Assyrians used bricks for the DET LA WELT. PEED Fig. 170.-Brick from Erech. (P. & C.) main structure of their buildings, like the Chaldeans. Timber was scarce in Assyria, but was used very much VOL. I. K 130 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. in the palaces. It was brought from the mountains of Upper Mesopotamia, on the left bank of the Tigris, and, later, cedar and other woods were transported from the forests of Lebanon for the beams of the palaces and temples. All kinds of metals, burnished and unburnished, were used as decorative accessories, especially by the Chaldeans. The historians' descriptions, the foundations that have been excavated, and the sculptured buildings on the bas- reliefs, are the materials, together with well-preserved Wysbergen Fig. 171.–One of the Gates of the Harumat, Dur-Sarginu. (M.) fragments of architecture, which archæologists and archi- tects have used to enable them to restore some of the wonderful temples and palaces of ancient Assyria (Fig. 172). The bird's-eye view of the palace of Dur-Sarginu will give a good idea of the typical Assyrian palaces (Fig. 174), and the triumphal gate with its man-headed winged bulls at the base and sides (Fig. 173), and also the other gate at Fig. 172, both with their crenallated battlements, serve to show the imposing character of these edifices. It will be noticed from the bird's-eye view and the gateways that the general character of Assyrian architecture was rectan- CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ART. 131 gular in the highest degree. The arch and vaulted struc- tures were known to the Assyrians, who used them to great Fig. 172.-Interior of a Temple, after Layard's Restoration. OOOOOOOO advantage (Figs. 175 and 250), and much more so than the Egyptians, although the latter people occasionally employed them. 132 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. The Chaldeans, as would naturally be expected, used the arch construction very much in their brick buildings, as it would be the only means of carrying roofs and upper floors, where stone and timber could not easily be obtained (Fig. 175). The use of the column in Chaldea is proved by the bas- reliefs before it developed itself in Assyria ; but in either country it was not an important feature in the architec- ture, being mostly used for awnings supporting light tents பெபபெடெடெடெயி Fig. 173.—Triumphal Gate at the entrance of the Palace. (M.) or tabernacles; sometimes, indeed, used in a disengaged way, as proved by the views of small temples on the bas- reliefs (Figs. 176, 177, 178). The use of the column was not in accord with the principles of their architecture, and was only to be found in small porches, or in an engaged way against outer walls and piers (Fig. 179). The only capital found in a fragment, and restored by Place, is shown at Fig. 181, and two bases (Figs. 180 and 182). From these remains it is assumed that the shaft was smooth and cylindrical. An incipient form of the Ionic volute is seen at Fig. 177 CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ART. 13} in the capital of the small columns to the little temple (Fig. 176). WA Fig. 174.—The Royal Palace of Dur-Sarginu (Sargon's Palace); restored by Chipiez. (M.) The kings of Assyria had in their palaces a great deal of luxurious furniture. The couches, chairs, and tables 134 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. were made of wood, with bronze fittings, and decorated with ivory, gold, and lapis lazuli. The bas-relief in the British Museum representing Assurbanipal and his queen at a banquet (Figs. 183 and 184) will give a good idea of MGOGO, Fig. 175.—A Bedroom in the Harem at Dur-Sarginu (Sargon's Palace). (M.) the extreme richness in design and decoration of these sumptuous articles of furniture (Fig. 185). Bronze sockets (Fig. 186) and all kinds of fragments in metal and ivory fittings, and decorations correspond- ing to the designs on the bas-reliefs, all indicate that the anathemas of the prophet Nahum (Nahum ii. 9) gave CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ART. 135 a good picture of Nineveh's richness in the sumptuary arts. “Take ye the spoil of silver," he exclaims, “take the // Fig. 177.- Capital of Temple at Fig. 176. (P. & C.) Fig. 178.-Capital. (P. & C.) CHI Fig. 176.--Temple on the bank of a river, Khorsabad, from Batta. (P. & C spoil of gold; for there is none end of the store and glory out of all the pleasant furniture.” 136 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. Animals have been represented with such faithfulness, especially in their most vigorous and ferocious aspects, by the sculptors of Assyria, that in any notice of Assyrian art Fig. 179.–Fragment of an Assyrian Building from a bas-relief, B.M. (P. & C.) Fig. 180.-Ornamented Base of Limestone. (P. & C.) WA they must have a place. Lions especially were rendered in all their ferociousness, and were the favourite game for kingly sport (Figs. 187, 188, 189). Lions were kept in cages, WII pumpign puri Fig. 182.-Winged Sphinx carrying Base of Capital. Layard. (P. & C.) Fig. 181.- Assyrian Capital compiled from Place. (P. & C.) Fig. 183.-Assurbanipal and his Queen feasting in the gardens of the Harem after the battle. The head of Teuman, the Elamite King, hangs on the left on the sacred tree. (M.) Maula 01900 FH armu Niz IIIIII. TITLE BUDDR3 mum TILAUKUT TO GO ST ELMEG AV TIER JUMTE.IT Fig. 184.—The Feast of Assurbanipal. (B.M.) (P. & C.) Enlarged detail of Fig. 183, showing the Assyrian Furniture. Drawn by Gautier- CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ART. 139 and let out when the monarch decided to have a day's hunting (Fig. 187). Dogs were specially trained for lion- hunting (Fig. 190). We add two illustrations of the sphinx variety of fan- tastic animals; one is the most remarkable creation of all the fantastic animals of Assyria (Fig. 192). It has the horns of a ram, a bull's head, a bird's beak; body, tail, and ll!!! .!! De elo مریم 1 M's ? Fig. 185.-Assyrian Stool; from Layard. (P. & C.) fore-legs of a lion; and the hind-legs and wings of the eagle. The Andro-Sphinx (Fig. 193) from the robe of Assurbanipal foreshadows the fabulous centaurs of Grecian art. Other bi-form creations have been found in Assyrian art bearing a close resemblance to the Greek centaur. The purely ornamental forms from the vegetable world that have been used in Assyrian and Chaldean art are limited in number. The daisy or rosette is the commonest 140 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. WAV DUN MONT 11 ) Ilu: Fig. 186.—Bronze Foot of a Piece of Furniture. 20 S.CME CARTIER Fig. 187.–Lion coming out of his Cage. (B.M.) (P. & C.) CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ART. 141 (Figs. 194 and 198). In the illustration of the “Lion and Lioness in a Park” (Fig. 188) the daisy is beautifully though conventionally rendered; the large leaves at the COMTEG 0,50 Fig. 188.-Lion and Lioness in a Park. (B.M.) (P. & C.) bottom are typically the common daisy leaves; the vine is no less well executed, and the lioness on the same bas- relief is treated with consummate skill. The vine is also - What l/IF ৫. Fig. 189.—Combat between a Lion and a Unicorn; from Layard. (P. & C.) I/?.. . *ং, ! Hit @Jন্যান্ট " Fig. 190. - Dog used for Lion Hunting. (M.) ")))). Fig. 191. -- Chariot Horses; from Layard. (P. & C.) CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ART. 143 seen to great advantage in its conventional treatment at Figs. 184 and 188. There is an Assyrian ornament called the “knop and Fig. 192.- Fantastic Animal, drawn by Gäüiier. (P. & C.) WW SHELME. flower” ornament, which occurs in various forms and in endless profusion in Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian, and Greek, and even is copied down to Indian and Roman 144 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. ornament. It may be native, or some forms of it at least, to Assyrian ornament, but is undoubtedly Egyptian in its earliest source; we have spoken of it before in our notice of Egyptian ornament as being derived from the lotus (page 90). It appears on the rich border of the carved threshold (Fig. 167); the flower there is undoubtedly a lotus, and the bud or "knop" may be a representation of a “fir-cone,” or may be meant for the closed lotus-bud. Another form of the same elements occurs at Fig. 195, in a beautiful design enclosed in a square, forming one of the central patterns of a similar sill or threshold, and this form Fig. 193.-Andrɔ-Sphinx, Robe of Assurbanipal; from Layard. (P. & C.) of it would doubtless also be used for a ceiling decoration of the palaces. A bouquet of similar flowers is seen at Fig. 196 of the date of Assurbanipal (885-860 B.C.). It is very difficult to say whether this bouquet represents the lotus or not, as, according to the testimony of Layard, the lotus flower is only to be found on the most recent of Assyrian monuments dating from the eighth and seventh centuries B.C., at the time when Assyria had invaded and occupied the Delta of Egypt. If not the lotus flower, some- thing very like has been found on monuments in Assyria much older than these dates. As the result of some recent scientific examinations into the origin of pattern, some investigators have decided that CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ART. 145 the “knop and flower” patterns of Assyrian ornament (Figs. 167, 195, and 198) are but evolutions of tassels, and knotted fringes of matting and embroideries, just because Zwas 0,50 Fig. 194.-Detail from the Enamelled Archivolt, Khorsabad ; from Place. (P. & C.) pen they bear a not very clear resemblance to such trimmings as we see on the tabernacle on the Balâwât gates (Fig. 197), &c. We admit that there is a fancied resemblance in- L VOL. I. Friwwers ... ;-)!!! Fig. 195.-- Rosette of Lotus Flowers and Buds. (P. & C.) Fig. 196.-Bouquet of Flowers and Buds; from Layard. (P. & C.) CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ART. 147 many ornamental forms to patterns that have been evolved from constructed articles, especially from woven and matted examples, but it is an insult to the intelligence of an artist to ask him to believe that the beautiful and clearly dis- tinctive floral, bud and palmate borders in Egyptian, .. ;":77 Lin - KO Untire uw பராமாப்பயறு 'Tilýsin Pulit Fig. 197.—Tabernacle from the Balâwât Gates. (B.M.) (P. & C.) Date, B.C. 859 to 824. Assyrian, and Greek art have resulted from tyings and knottings of the fringed ends of mats, when one can clearly see the daisy-in some cases turned to a disk—the palm, and, above all, the lotus, almost naturally drawn and modelled; even the connecting lines of flower and buds, where scientific connection with the fringed-end idea seems the strongest in the eyes of the evolutionist, will be found on examination to be always used in the exact reverse way 148 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. os KKKKKKKK as <<<<<<< O to that which is formed by the constructive joinings of the knotted fringe. (See Figs. 198 and 167.) It will require an amazing quantity of scientific proof to get rid of the lotus in Egyp- tian ornament, and much also to turn it and the daisy into tassel knots in Assyrian ornament, when we have overwhelming evidence as to the natural representa- tions of such floral forms, as well the conventional designs derived from them, on the very oldest monu- ments in both countries. The “Sacred Tree," or “Tree of Life," is often represented in Assyrian art, and under different forms, but generally with a king or some divinity on either side of it, paying homage (Figs. 157, 162A, 208). An enlarged portion of it is seen at Fig. 199. The exact meaning of the “ Sacred Tree ” has not yet been satisfactorily explained, but, at any rate, it seems likely enough that it repre- sents a palm-tree, shown by the palmate head and by the conventional markings on the trunk, no doubt meant for the bark roughening lines. The surrounding palmates may be meant to represent a leafy enclosure for the sacred tree in the centre, or the whole thing may be a conventional picture of a sacred grove. < HISTORIC ORNAMENT, Fig. 271.-Venus of Milo. Fig. 272.-Statue of Hermes, Capitol. lime-tree, were sacred to her, but varied according to the locality and times. GRECIAN PEOPLE AND MYTHOLOGY. 221 Hermes (Mercury) is the god of shepherds and of N filling Fig. 273.—Diana of Versailles. pastures, and also of commerce and trade. When a child he invented the lyre from a tortoise-shell which he was GRECIAN PEOPLE AND MYTHOLOGY, 223 Hadrian, now in the Louvre, she is represented as the protectress of wild animals. Mnemosyne (Memory) is the mother of the Muses. The nine Muses are - Clio (history), Melpomene (tragedy) (Fig. 274), Terpsichore (dancing), Polyhymnia (religious service), Thalia (comedy), Urania (astronomy), Euterpe (lyric poetry), Erato (erotic poetry and geometry), and Calliope (epic poetry and science generally). Dionysus or Bacchus is, with both Greeks and Romans, the god of wine, of vineyards, and of autumn blessings. Naxos was the chief seat of his worship. It was on this Fig. 275.-Dionysus and the Lion, from the Monument of Lysikrates. island that he met and married Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, King of Crete, who had been deserted here by Theseus, her former lover. The story of Dionysus punishing the Tyrrhenian pirates who took him prisoner, intending to sell him as a slave, and of his changing him- self to a lion and so terrifying the sailors, who jumped overboard and were changed into dolphins, is the subject of the fine relief on the frieze of the Lysikrates monument (Fig. 275 and Frontispiece). The lion, tiger, bull, and ram are his favourite animal attributes Among plants, the vine, the ivy, and the laurel were sacred to him. 224 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. Bacchanalian subjects and festivals of Dionysus occupy a large and important place in the art of Greece, Rome, and Pompeii. Nice, Victoria, or Victory is always represented with M Fig. 276.–Victory, Munich Collection. wings, a palm branch, and holding a laurel wreath, and, as would be expected, was more extensively venerated at Rome than in Greece. In the latter country her statues are generally of a small size, and she is an accompanying goddess to Athene and Zeus (Fig. 276). Fig. 277.--Perspective View of the Lion's Gate. (P. & C.) ART IN PRIMITIVE GREECE. 227 1000 PAROD DOIDDODOODOO DOO DOO ń w 0,10-31 lik, in the Trojan plain, in the north-west corner of Asia Minor. The character of the stone, clay, wood, and lime og AROOL UDODOC noha qu40 Wolonte UUTUUDIO MUUUU עוונםםםם JER ARHEOL dominohen 0010101111001100011001 DOIDDE TIT mum ano gada 200 பப்பப்படODUNI 21117-1010 Fig. 273.- Alabaster Frieze, Tiryns. (P. & C.) it -- 0,17 - - 0.56 004 ---0,68----- *------0,43 Fig. 279.—Plan of Fig. 278, Alabaster Frieze. (P. & C.) materials, and similarity of the construction, enable the archæologi-t to place the rernains found at these three places as belonging to the same epoch of time and style 228 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. ! 1 of art which has been called Mycenian. The oldest monument of Greek sculpture yet discovered is supposed 2 Fig. 280. - Ivory Plaque from Mycenæ. (P. & C.) NOVO U mbi Fig. 281.–Fragment of Frieze from Mycenæ. (P. & C.) ITDCINI to be the Lion's Gate of the Mycenian Acropolis (Fig. 277). ART IN PRIMITIVE GREECE. 229 Pausanias thus alludes to Mycenæ and Tiryns :-"A portion of the enclosure wall still remains, and the prin- cipal gate, with the lions over it. These (the walls) were Fig. 282.- Mycenian Palace, Second Epoch. Architrave and Frieze. (P. & C.) co built by the Cyclops who made the wall at Tiryns for Præteus. Among the ruins at Mycenæ is the fountain called Perseia, and the subterraneous buildings of Atreus and his children, in which their treasures were stored.” HISTORIC ORNAMENT. . 230 The sculptured lions are still there, so is the spring Perseia, and the wonderful treasure-house of Atreus is still the best preserved of all the domed tomb buildings of Mycenæ. OOO ON м AP . 0 Her M F BE G H С E A Fig. 283.—Mycenian Palace, Second Epoch. Restoration of Entablature. (P. & C.) From the remains of Mycenian architecture, Messrs. Perrot and Chipiez have ingeniously restored some of the wooden construction of the palaces of that early period, and have assumed that, from these early wooden construc- 232 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. here again the stone-cutter has borrowed from the car- penter. To go back for some of the supposed beginnings of the Doric frieze, the alabaster frieze, shown in plan and elevation at Figs. 278 and 279, has been found in the ruins of a palace at Tiryns. The pattern of this frieze is the same as that which has been frequently found on other fragments from Mycenæ. Cececcecoooccer ME Fig. 285.–Vase of Woman's Form, Troy. (P. & C.) It resembles the Doric triglyphs and metopes in con- sisting of a double design ; two semicircles back to back, divided by a vertical rectangular band, which is sub- divided by a vertical central division, having rosettes arranged vertically on either side. Two similar designs are seen on the ivory plaque (Figs. 280 and 281) and frag- ment of frieze from Mycenæ. The same design appears ART IN PRIMITIVE GREECE. 233 also on the red porphyry fragments of the façade decora- tion on the Mycenian beehive tombs. An illustration from Perrot and Chipiez shows an assemblage of the component parts of this frieze pattern, with a portion of the architrave in wood (Fig. 282). Fig. 286.– Vase from Troy. (P. & C.) We refer the reader for a fuller description of the tran- sition of the Doric entablature from the Mycenian wood construction to Perrot and Chipiez' “ Art in Primitive Greece," Vol. II. We extract a portion in explanation of the illustrations (Figs. 282 and 283), where the 234 -2 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. analogy between the wooden construction of the former and the stone construction of the latter is clearly estab- lished. 5 Fig. 288.– Three-Handled Amphora, Ialysos. (P. & C. 1 Fig. 287.–Pilgrim's Bottle, Ialysos. (P. & C.) In Fig. 284 we have the entablature of the C. Temple of Selinous (one of the oldest examples of Doric architecture), ART IN PRIMITIVE GREECE. 235 rendered famous by the archaic sculptures embellishing its metopes. There is not one of all the members we have passed in review but which appears in it. Thus, a pair of stone beams, corresponding with the like number of timbers in the Mycenian wood frame, constitute the architrave; and under listel c surmounting it, peers, flush with the triglyphs, the small plank B. Its lower section is adorned by the ornament known as guttæ, the origin and meaning of which had hitherto been unsatisfactorily explained. The guttæ are cylindrical in shape detached from the walls, and in every respect V Fig. 289.--Vase with Geometric Decoration. (P. & C.) identical with the wooden pegs which occur in this situa- tion below the timber entablature. These same pegs again appear above the frieze in the semblance of another ornamental form, the “mutules” which, until lately, had seemed every whit as strange and problematical as the guttæ. The stone table n, in the lower surface of which the guttæ are carved, is no other than our old wood-plate, which in the Mycenian carpentry work exhibits these same saliences or pegs, and served to fix the lining of the joists below. If the Selinous mutules are sloped, it is because they are associated with a ridged roof; but as a flat covering has been assumed for Mycenæ, it involved- without prejudice to the system-a horizontal position for the mutules. As regards the frieze, both here and in 236 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. every Doric building, it invariably consists, like the alabaster frieze, of pillars D alternating with slabs E. The function of the pillars (triglyphs) is to maintain the slabs (metopes) in place. SIEMEG Fig. 290.– The Marseilles Ewer. (P. & C.) Comparison between these two figures will further show all the details, with slight modifications, to be practically similar. Thus, the whole of the Doric order, the basis of all Greek architecture, including the column, longitudinal ART' IN PRIMITIVE GREECE. 237 5 3 2 .4. Fig. 292.-Gold Ornaments, from Troy. (P. & C.) Fig. 291.- Gold Pendant, from Troy. (P. & C.) 238 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. beams, and joists supporting the roof, as well as the secondary decorative construction, had its origin in wooden construction, and there is hardly any doubt but that the Fig. 293.-Gold Plate Ornament, from Troy. Mycenian palace was its prototype. The Greeks of later days forgot the borrowing of the timber construction, and PEM. Fig. 294.-Gold Disc. (P. & C.) have given names to some parts, such as “guttæ" (drops), which ought to be more correctly pegs. Great quantities of pottery and objects of industrial art in metal—more especially in gold—have been found in ART IN PRIMITIVE GREECE. 239 the excavations at Mycenæ, Tiryns, and Troy. The earthenware pottery is generally decorated in colours of brown, red, and greyish white. The patterns are very simple, bands and squares arranged in rows, some animal forms, leaves with wavy stems, and spirals; some of the pottery is decorated with marine animals, such as the octopus, cuttle-fish, argonaut, and with seaweed. Some curious shaped vases of woman forms (Figs. 285, 286) have been found by Dr. Schliemann. PE 17 Fig. 295.-Gold Disc. (P. & C.) A pilgrim's bottle from Ialysos decorated with circular bands, and an amphora with three handles, from the same place, decorated with bands and lily forms with curled- back petals, are very beautiful, and a small vessel with geometric ornament are all of the same character (Figs. 287, 288, and 289). The most beautiful form of Mycenian pottery is the Marseilles vase or ewer, in the Borély collec- tion (Fig. 290). The decoration is a brown-black on a light ground, and 240 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. consists of the argonaut shellfish and seaweed. It is likely to have been a copy from a metal object owing to its shape, which is characteristic of metal. In metal-work generally, and in the inlaying of gold and electrum in a bronze ground, the Mycenian artists have produced some splendid work. There are six chromo- Pif Pars caja Fig. 296.—Gold Cup, Troy. (P. & C.) lithographs in Messrs. Perrot and Chipiez's “Art in Primitive Greece" of bronze Mycenian daggers inlaid with gold and electrum of various shades: one has the representation of panthers hunting birds on a river- bank—the river is stocked with fish ; another has a lion hunt by armed men; a third, lions hunting gazelles; a fourth has running lions; a fifth, spiral ornamentation ; and the sixth a free rendering of lilies both on handle and ART IN PRIMITIVE GREECE. 241 blade. The art and workmanship of them all are of a high order. Some gold ornaments from Troy (Figs. 291 and 292) show their skill in hand-wrought jewellery. The golden butterfly (Fig. 293) and the two gold discs (Figs. 294 and 295) are stamped on the metal, and were Fig. 297.-Gold Ewer, Troy. (P. & C.) used as dress decorations; they were found in great quantities in the tombs of the women at Mycenæ. One is an octopus design, and the other a butterfly. The gold cup (Fig. 296) and ewer (Fig. 297), found at Troy along with many others in silver, gold, and bronze, give a fair idea of the beauty of shape and design of such articles of this period. They show marks of injury by fire VOL. I. R CHAPTER XIII. THE GREEK AND ROMAN ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. ALTHOUGH Egypt and Assyria are justly credited with the creation of the models and the invention of the methods that subsequently aroused to life the artistic genius of the Greeks, yet the fact remains that, from all the wealth of artistic forms bequeathed to succeeding ages by the nations of hoary antiquity, prior to the Grecian period, nothing has survived except those forms which Greece has selected from her predecessors, and after remodelling them by her own standards of beauty and fitness, has left them as imperishable models of art for all nations that follow her. All historic art and architecture, whether classic or what not, since the days of Pericles, is based on Greek art, notwithstanding the many modifications which we see in Byzantine, Saracenic, Romanesque, and their offshoots. All of them owe their life and vitality to Greek traditions and to Greek principles. We have seen that in the earlier Greek buildings, such as Mycenian palaces, timber construction must have largely entered into the architecture of that period, and it is quite likely that timber was used for the greater part of the Greek domestic dwellings, which may account for no remains of them having been found. The rock-cut tombs of Lycia, in Asia Minor, atford to us a further proof of timber construction which may have been in use in the Early Greek period in Europe, and these tombs of Lycia tend to throw a side light on the probable forms of Greek construction that existed between the date of the Mycenian buildings and that of the oldest Doric GREEK AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 243 remains that are at present known, for the Lycians had free intercourse with the Ionians and European Greeks. The . Fig. 298.-Lycian Rock-built Tomb at Pinara. (P. & C.) earlier Lycian tombs are of a great antiquity, and the same form of tomb has been used in Lycia down to periods when Greece was far advanced in art (Figs. 298 and 299). 244 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. The Lycians formed a connecting link with the Anterior Asiatics and the Ionian Greeks. Their origin and their language were Asiatic, but the greater part of their art was the product of Hellenic artists from Ionian Greece, and, therefore, the Lycians must have been intimately connected with the Greeks, and must have played an important part in the development of Hellenic culture. r. Fig. 299.-Lycian Rock-built Tomb at Pınara. (P. & C.) The Greek temples were in some respects related to the Egyptian temple. The pillar and beam construction was copied from Egypt, and also the rectangular plan. The great distinction between the two was that rows of columns were placed outside the temples of the Greeks, which gave to them a light and airy appearance, while in contra- distinction the Egyptians had their rows of columns inside GREEK AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 245 the great hypostyle halls and galleries of their temples which gave to them the effect of oppressive gloominess. Broadly speaking, the Greek temple was something of the model of an Egyptian temple turned inside out. The interior of a Greek temple was simply a rectangular cella or cell where the statue of the god or goddess was set up, and sometimes a smaller chamber behind called the treasury. The smaller temples consisted of the cella only. A row of lighter columns sometimes supported the roof of the cella, as in the case of the Parthenon. It was only in the case of the larger temples that we find more than one cell, while the Egyptian temple was often a maze of large and small chambers, the multitude adding to the mystery sought for in all Egyptian architecture. The Greek temples were usually placed on a basement of steps, , and built on elevated positions. The Greeks sought all publicity in the honouring of their deities, and in pleasing the passer-by with the sight of their beautiful buildings, on which their best decoration was shown on the outside. Greek architecture dates from the end of the Archaic age down to the death of Alexander the Great, from about B.C. 600 to B.C. 333. It is usually divided into three Styles or, as they are called, “Orders," namely, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. The Doric represents the European phase of the Greek style, the Ionic and Corinthian having more of the Asiatic features. The three orders were in use in Greece at the same time, that is to say, a more severe and correct phase of the Doric—the older order-was used after buildings in the newer orders had appeared. Thom- son, in his “Ode to Liberty," has alluded to the orders in the lines First, unadorn'd And nobly plain, the manly Doric rose; The Ionic then, with decent matron grace, Her airy pillar heaved ; luxuriant last, The rich Corinthian spread her wanton wealth.” 246 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. The Greeks made use of the vertical and horizontal line in their architecture; the curved line was not used, except, of course, in decoration. The half-diameter of the column was the module or unit by which the whole building was measured, and the column was limited in height according to the diameter of its base. This did not preclude freedom in design; on the contrary, freedom was allowed and practised to such an extent that hardly two Grecian buildings of any one order were alike in proportion or design. Even the mouldings were varied in curve and proportion; these members that were with the Romans merely segments of circles, were in section with the Greeks either parts of the curve of the ellipse or parabola, and in many cases were designed by freehand. Some very subtle devices to overcome natural optical effects when viewing the buildings have been discovered by Mr. Pennethorne and Mr. Penrose, more especially in the Parthenon. It is well known that the entasis, or slight swelling made in Greek columns, which makes a convex line of their profiles, is done to prevent the column from looking hollowed in the centre, which it would do if it were perfectly straight; but in addition to this the architects above named have discovered in the Parthenon a correc- tion in the vertical lines, to prevent the apparent tendency which all high vertical lines have to spread out at the top, in the making of the columns to incline slightly inwards; and the steps of the basement and horizontal lines of the architraves are found to be slightly curved upwards in the middle to prevent the tendency that all long horizontal lines have to droop in the middle. Thus we learn how admirably painstaking, and how well the Greeks applied their profound knowledge to their architecture, as they did in everything else. The joints of their marble masonry were as a rule so fine and accurate in the fitting together, that it has been said a razor edge could not be inserted between them. The Greek Doric order (Fig. 300) is without a base; the عا م کی ( mutace creer of top trabon è ce fellet qutlane on 'toops ala coad A echince A. Fig. 300.—The Parthenon. Greek Doric, enlarged Section of Annulets at A. 278 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. shaft of the column has twenty flutings; sunk lines or rings encircle the shaft a little below the moulding of the capital. This moulding—the echinus—is of the best possible profile that a supporting member could have; it is divided from the shaft by three or five annulets. Above the echinus rests the square tile-like cap—the abacus—which carries the architrave. The latter is a marble beam with square ends, and above the architrave is the frieze separated by a band (taenia). The frieze has triglyphs alternating with metopes. The former consists of channelled pier-like forms one over and one between each column, and the metopes are square panels between two triglyphs on which are usually found sculptured subjects. At the bottom of each triglyph, separated by a fillet, is a row of pegs, cylin- drical or conical in shape, called “guttæ” or drops. Above the frieze the cornice projects, which in profile consists of a flat band-the corona--and the crowning member, an ovolo moulding. Under the projecting eave of the cornice are slanting slabs of marble-parallel to the roof tiles--placed one over each triglyph, and one over each metope. These are called mutules, and they have rows of guttæ on their under surface. The crowning members of the cornice are carried around the sloping lines of the triangular pediments at each end of the building. On the pediments were sculptured the figure subjects that had usually some relation to the divinity to whom the temple was dedicated; as, for example, on the Parthenon pediment the story of the birth of Athene was the subject executed and designed by Phidias, who also was the sculptor of the celebrated Panathenic frieze that adorned the outer part of the cella of the Parthenon. Ictinus was the architect of the Parthenon and also of the temples of Apollo Epicurius at Bassæ and at Phigallia, both in Arcadia. The Parthenon was finished about B.C. 438. The Greek Ionic order in its capital and ornaments is quite distinct from the Doric, and has more mouldings. DAR muutuu Fig. 301.— Temple on the Ilissus; Greek Ionic. 250 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. The general plan of the temple is the same as in the Doric, but the proportions of the various parts are more slender. It has been generally thought that the Ionic volute was a development of the volutes from the Persian capital at Persepolis, but it is more likely, as before stated on page 87), that their prototype is found on capitals derived from the Egyptian lotus. The architrave is sometimes plain and sometimes divided into three facias. The frieze was usually occupied with sculpture, and the base of the column was composed of a double torus, with a hollow between; the lower torus was plain, and the upper one fluted (Fig. 301). The Temple of Diana at Ephesus, the Erectheum, and the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus were among the finest examples of the Ionic order. The Corinthian order was more Roman than Greek, though of Greek invention, and was a rich type of archi- tecture that suited the growing vanity for love of display with the Romans, who eagerly appropriated it in the second century B.C., and erected many fine buildings in this order; but often enriching the mouldings and all plain spaces almost beyond recognition. The most perfect and truly beautiful example of the Greek Corinthian is the small Choragic monument of Lysikrates at Athens (Frontispiece). Its praises and merits have been spoken and written of by almost every architect of eminence; it may be said of it and of the Parthenon that for proportion, and for marvellous unity of parts, and also for the perfect marriage of sculpture with architecture, no buildings have ever been erected to equal them. The bell of the Corinthian capital, as in the Lysikrates monument, is surrounded at the base by a row of water- plant leaves; acanthus leaves spring from these, and out of the latter spring volutes (cauliculi), the larger ones of which meet at the upper corners; the four smaller ones meet in the middle, and from the junction of the upper GREEK AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 251 ! mumu Fig. 302.- Capital of the Lysikrates Monument; Greek Corinthian. middle ones an upright palmate appears; rosettes are placed between each of the eight acanthus leaves. The abacus is moulded and curved in plan. The capital, as a 252 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. whole, is designed in a masterly way, so as to give the utmost variety and contrast of beautiful forms (Fig. 302). The frieze is sculptured with figures which illustrate the story of Dionysus and the Tyrrhenian pirates (Frontis- piece). The Etruscans were a race of people who settled in the west of Italy, between the Arno and the Tiber, at a very early date. Their origin is uncertain, but they are sup- posed to have come from Asia Minor. They were known as great builders, and were well skilled in all the arts. In their larger works of fortifications and great walls they used stones of an enormous size (Cyclopean). Many places in Italy still attest to the presence of the Etruscans by the remains of these Cyclopean walls. They were considerably advanced in architecture and the minor arts at the time when Rome was first beginning to show its signs of power, and were the architects and builders who executed all the works for the early Romans. The Etruscans used the arch very much in building, a 6 TOTOMOTOT feature that the Greeks, although they were acquainted with its use, did not think it necessary in their trabeated system of building. It was, on the other hand, a very favourite feature with the Etruscans, from whom the Romans learnt the use of it. The Tarquins were an Etruscan family who were masters Fig. 303.-Etruscan Door from Perugia. of Rome in the sixth century B.C., and it was under these Emperors that the great sewer, known as the Cloaca Maxima, was built, part of which is still in existence. This work consists of an arched waterway built in three concentric rings of large wedge-shaped stones (voussoirs). The Etruscans constructed temples, palaces, and dwelling- היה THUITULT GREEK AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 253 houses, all of which have perished or have been destroyed, and only a few remains of their walled cities survive. The gate of Perugia (Fig. 303) is the remains of a characteristic Etruscan building. The arch is seen in perfect construc- tion, and the Doric frieze; above is seen a little Ionic column. Etruscan architecture was mostly a kind of Doric with a round shaft. According to Vitruvius the Etruscan temple consisted of three cells, with one or more rows of columns in front, the distance between the columns, or intercolumniation, being much greater than in Greek temples. Sometimes the temple consisted of a circular only and a porch, like the later development of this form in the Roman temple at Tivoli, and the Mausoleum of Hadrian. Many Etruscan tombs have been found, consist- ing of rock-built and detached structures. Some of the rock-built tombs at Castel d'Asso have beams and rafters cut out of the rock in imitation of wooden construction, and also figures cut out in high relief all around the chambers. Great quantities of vessels in pottery and metal-work objects, and also jewellery, have been found in recesses of the walls and roofs of these chambers. The temple of Jupiter Capitolinus at Rome was an Etruscan building. The Etruscan religion was dark and full of superstition ; their gods were mostly deities of the thunder and lightning and subterranean spirits rather than divinities of comfort and mercy, and the Romans adopted most of them in their mythology. The Romans having mastered the principle of the arch, made very good use of it. The greater number of their principal buildings were erected in a mixture of the arch and trabeated system. The Roman Doric and Ionic orders were ill-proportioned in their various members, bad in profiling, and also very heavy in appearance. The Theatre of Marcellus is an example of the former in its lower columns, and the Temple of Fortuna Virilis an example of the latter. The Tuscan order is noted for a more elegant develop- ment of the Etruscan smooth column, and a great SEE Com Fig. 305.-Roman Corinthian, Entablature, Capital, and Base of the Pantheon. 256 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. The Corinthian order received better treatment at the hands of the Romans; some of their buildings are fine examples of this order. Some of the Roman Corinthian capitals are well designed, and have a very grand and imposing effect, as that of the Mars Ultor (Fig. 304) and the Pantheon. The Mars Ultor capital is undoubtedly fine and rich in the extreme; that of the Pantheon is more restrained ; and in both of them is used the olive-leaf variety of acanthus, each tine or leaflet of which is hollowed out; and thus the whole capital in a full light would have a sparkling effect of light and shade, so that even at a great height and distance from the eye none of the modelling would be lost to sight. The Roman Corinthian has more mouldings, and has modillions or brackets in the cornice instead of the usual Greek dentils (Fig. 305). The entablature from the Temple of Jupiter Tonans (Fig. 306) is an example of the inordinate love of over-richness and display that was so characteristic of the Romans. The Baths of Caracalla and of Diocletian are the only ones that have remained to us in any state of preservation, and show from the remains what splendid examples of public buildings they must have been. They were built of brick mostly, and lined with stucco on which frescoes were painted. The Baths of Caracalla, at the foot of the Aventine Hill, were erected A.D. 217. They covered a rectangular piece of ground about 1,150 feet each way, and were a great assemblage of bath-rooms, public and private, of cold, vapour, and hot baths; swimming and other kinds of bath, gymnasium hall, libraries, reading-rooms, assembly halls, &c., all comprised under the one roof, surrounding the open courtyard in which was the principal swimming bath, in a building 730 ft. by 380 ft. in dimension. In the centre and at the back of this group of buildings was a circular hall, with a domed roof, called the Solar cell, the GREEK AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 257 walls of which were lined with brass. Some of the finest of Roman statuary adorned these halls. The principal hall of the Baths of Diocletian, erected at the beginning of the fourth century A.D is called the Ephebeum, and is still OOO OK 1 DE VIDA 2 VER Fig. 306. --Roman Corinthian, Entablature of Jupiter Tonans. used as the Church of Santa Maria Degli Angeli. It is almost 300 ft. long by go ft. wide, and was restored by Michelangelo. Its roof consists of three great cross vaults supported by eight granite columns, 45 ft. in height. VOL. I. S 258 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. Another class of buildings that the Romans were fond of was the amphitheatres. Remains of them have been found throughout the Roman Empire, the most stupen- dous of which was the Coliseum or Flavian Amphitheatre. Fig. 307.–Bas-relief on the Arch of Titus. (P. & C.) It was begun by the Emperor Vespasian and finished by his son Titus, and its ruins still attest to its greatness. It is elliptical in plan, is four stories in height; the three lowest are pierced with eighty openings, semi- GREEK AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 259 circular arched, with columns and piers between. The first story is Doric, the second Ionic, and the third Corin- thian. Each column and pier is raised on a stylobate, and the columns carry entablatures continuously around the building An almost solid wall is the feature of the fourth story, which has a series of Corinthian pilasters, and projecting brackets for carrying the awning poles. The façade is 103 Fig. 308.-Jewish Candlestick, Arch of Titus. (P. & C.) built of stone quarried from the neighbouring hills, and the interior portions are built of brick. The dimensions are 620 ft. in length, 513 ft. wide, and 162 ft. in height. Double corridors run around the building on each floor, and it had seats for more than 80,000 spectators. Chariot races, mimic sea-fights, when the arena would be flooded artificially with water, gladiatorial combats, and fights with wild animals and bulls, were among the amusements of the Romans that were performed in the amphitheatres. Other monuments, such as triumphal columns and 29900044 TONER 2010 2011 00C T 1 On Fig. 309.-Roman Composite Order, from the Arch of Titus GREEK AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 261 arches, were erected by the Emperors to commemorate their victories, and these were of the most elaborate and rich description. The column of Marcus Aurelius, known as the Antonine column, and the column of Trajan set up by that Emperor in Trajan's Forum at Romne in commemoration of his victory over the Dacians, are the two best known of these commemorative monuments. The latter column has been reproduced, and a cast of it may be seen in the South Kensington Museum. The original is nearly 133 ft. high, and is richly sculptured with bas-reliefs on marble slabs fastened together in a spiral form around the central structure. The order is Doric, the shaft being set up on a large pedestal with very fine sculptures of figures, armour, and inscriptions. The triumphal arches are rectangular masses of masonry with arched openings, sometimes with one arch and some- times three, a large one and two smaller ones, as the arches of Constantine and Septimus Severus ; and some- times smaller ones had piers and pilasters with a lintel entablature instead of an arch, as in the Goldsmith's Arch in Rome. The arch of Titus (erected to commemorate the taking of Jerusalem A.D. 70), which is one of the finest of these monuments, is interesting for two reasons: one is that it has reliefs on it recording the capture of Jerusalem, with the representation of the seven-branched golden candlestick of the Temple (Figs. 307, 308), and the other is that the arch itself is one of the finest examples of the architectural order that was created by the Romans—the Composite—(Fig. 309), which is a grafting of the Ionic on the Corinthian. The decoration of this order is extremely rich in character: the lower half of the capital has the Corinthian leaves, while the upper half is almost the whole of the Ionic voluted capital added; the cornice has both the Ionic dentils and the Corinthian modillions. The arch of Septimus Severus and the Baths of Diocletian are of the Composite order. CHAPTER XIV. GREEK AND ROMAN ORNAMENT. GREEK ornament-as found on the carved mouldings, friezes, acroteria, antifexes, and capitals, or, as in the painted variety, found on vases, plain mouldings, bands, plates, and other surface decorations, or incised on the bronze cista and mirrors—was of a severe and refined order, almost all of which had its birthplace in Egyptian and Assyrian forms, that in the first instances were used 0 SUSUG155 JULIJ Fig. 310.-Greek Frets. in a symbolic sense, but under the hands of Greek artists had lost all their former meaning, and were developed and partly transformed into a wealth of purely æsthetic forms. The simplest forms were frets or the so-called key pattern (Figs. 310, 311, and 315). The word meander is sometimes applied to the Greek GREEK AND ROMAN ORNAMENT. 263 frets; this is not correct, as the word implies a curved line, not a rectangular one. The guilloche, snare-work, or cable ornament, is used 097452 Fig. 311.-Greek Carved Fret. on flat bands, and also as the decoration of torus mouldings (Figs. 312 and 313). The Greeks used the honeysuckle pattern in an endless variety of forms both in carving and in painting, examples of which are at Figs. 314 and 315. Fig. 312.-Treble Guilloche Ornament. The ivy was used very much in borders of their painted vases (Fig. 316). The ogee moulding was usually decorated with the water-leaf and tongue ornament, and the ovolo with the characteristic egg and tongue, and the round fillets with 264 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. beads and reels. A fine example of this group of deco- rated mouldings comes from the Temple of Minerva Polias at Athens (Fig 317). Fig. 313.—Double Guilloche. An elongated type of the egg and tongue comes from the Erectheum (Fig. 318). The Greeks seldom used large scrolls in ornament; an exception is the scroll ornament from the roof of the ge Fig. 314.-Anthemion (carved), from Apollo Epicurius. Lysikrates monument, and in the Corinthian cauliculi or volutes (see Fig. 302). The Greek variety of acanthus foliage is seen in the capital from the same monument, GREEK AND ROMAN ORNAMENT265 NAMENT. . Roman architectural ornament was simply Greek with a few variations, not always improvements. It was less refined, but in some cases, especially in the examples OL JOLLC Fig. 315.-Greek Border with Fret Bands. of large acanthus scrolls on friezes, panels, and pilasters (Fig. 319), and in their large capitals, the ornament was designed with great skill and virility. They used the Fig. 316.—Greek Ivy Meander Border. softer-leaved variety of acanthus—the mollis—while the Greeks used the spinosus, or prickly-leaved variety. The decorations of the Roman mouldings were less elegant than those of the Greeks, owing to the contours being segments of circles where the Greeks used forms 266 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. like conic sections, and the execution was less artistic in the Roman mouldings (Figs. 320, 321, 322). The domestic architecture of Greece is guessed at by ws Fig. 317.—Decorated Mouldings from the Temple of Minerva Polias ; Ogee Ovolo, and Beads. UUU WALT LLAVU ODLNwl Fig. 318.–The Ovolo, with Egg and Tongue, from the Erectheum, the remains of Pompeii and Herculaneum, which, though Roman provincial cities, were in style and decoration a fair reflection of Greek art. The remains of the art found LEDNICU.DA... Fig. 319.–Ancient Roman Panel, Florence. 268 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. in these cities have been styled Greco-Roman. The destruction of Pompeii was in the year A.D. 79. The general arrangement of a Roman house was rectangular in plan, with, and sometimes without, a OOON Opinin J.9.3 Fig. 320.–Ovolo and Astragal Mouldings; Roman. vestibule in front. The front door opened on a passage called the prothyrum which led to the atrium, an open court partly roofed; the opening was in the centre, and was called the impluvium ; exactly under it in the floor was a A.FINDEN. Fig. 321.-Ogee and Fluted Cavetto Moulding; Jupiter Tonans. tank called the compluvium; this received the rain water. In large houses the atrium roof was supported by columns, then the atrium was sometimes called the cavædium, at the end of which opened out three rooms · GREEK AND ROMAN ORNAMENT. 269 ! the larger and central one was called the tablinum, and the two side ones ale ; these were the rooms where the family records, documents, histories, deeds, &c., were kept. A passage led from the atrium to the principal private reception-room, called the peristylium, which had a roof partly open to the sky. This room was the finest in the house, and was richly decorated with rare marbles, bronzes, and fresco paintings where the owner was wealthy. Round the perisiyle were arranged the smaller rooms, such as the parlours called exedra, the chapels lararia, and the picture galleries pinacothecæ. Kitchens and other offices Siltinimo WYN Pr! Fig. 322.-Ogee Decorated, and Astragal; Jupiter Stator. were behind, as also were the various sleeping-rooms. Some of the rooms were badly lighted, and had to depend for the light from the doors or artificial light, but in some cases windows, rather small in size, were placed high up in the walls. The walls of the Pompeian houses were richly decorated in strong colouring, where vermilion, black, green, and orange predominated. The subjects were figure groups, animals, birds, and grotesques of all kinds, encased in fantastic architectural framings (Fig. 323). Sometimes a dead wall of the yard would be painted elaborately to represent a garden. Sculpture also decorated the apart- 270 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. ments, the floors were in mosaic, and the ceiling richly panelled and decorated. Roman, Greek, and Pompeian ka o it tot OOOOOO WNGOS ܠ ܘ ܢ Fig. 323.-Mural Painting from Pompeii. ornament will again be noticed in the second volume under the minor arts of these countries. CHAPTER XV. INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE. An Aryan race of people came into India about B.C. 2000 across the Upper Indus. They settled in the first instance in the Punjab, in the watershed of the Sutlej and the Jumna, and finally in Oude and the east. After one thou- sand years they lost their purity of race by mixing with the aboriginal natives. About this time the prophet Sakya Muni, or Buddha, arose, and apparently succeeded in converting nearly the whole of Northern India to Buddhism. He died in B.C. 543, and three hundred years after his death, or about B.C. 250, King Asoka proclaimed Buddhism as the state religion, and for about one thousand years after it con- tinued as the state religion of India, although at the present day there are said to be no native Buddhists in India. Historic art in India began in Asoka's reign. The earlier rock-tombs and other architecture of Asoka's time are evidently stone copies of still earlier wooden construc- tions. Monuments consisting of edict columns or lats, peculiar to this period, have been found in isolated positions erected to the honour of Buddha in the neighbourhood of Allahabad and Delhi; they are above thirty-three feet in height, and have a curved, inverted, bell-shaped capital on which probably stood a wheel, the emblem, or a lion, the symbol, of Buddha. This capital is similar in form to the INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE. 273 priests, and are sometimes erected alone to the honour of Buddha. One of the most important is the Sanchi Tope in Bhopal, Central India (Fig. 325). Mr. Ferguson, in his “Study of Indian Architecture,” describes this remarkable monument as follows: “It was built probably (the tope) B.C. 500, the stone railing B.C. 250, and the gateways A.D. 19 to 37. The principal part of the building consists of a dome 106 feet in diameter and 42 feet in height. The fence by which this tope is surrounded is extremely curious. It consists of stone posts 8 feet 8 inches in height, and a little more than 2 feet apart, surmounted by a plain archi- trave, and between every two uprights three horizontal cross-pieces of stone are inserted. Still more curious are the four stone torans or gateways, one of which—the eastern-is shown at Fig. 325. It con- sists of two square pillars covered with sculptures, and with bold elephant capitals, rising to a height of 18 feet 4 inches. Above these are four lintels slightly curved upwards in the centre, and ending in Ionic scrolls; they are supported by continuations of the columns, and three uprights are inserted between the lintels. All this construction is covered over with elaborate sculpture, and surmounted by emblems. The total height is 33 feet 6 inches." Sir G. Birdwood says: “The symbols are the trisula, the wheel, and the lion, representing the Buddhistic triad, Buddha, the law, and the congregation. The ground plan of the stupas or topes, with the return railings and the projecting doorways or entrances, form a gigantic swastika (“aus- picious ’), the mystic cross (fylfot) of the Buddhists." Ferguson says the Buddhist dagoba is a direct descendant of the sepulchral tumulus of the Turanian races, like those found in Etruria, Lydia, and among the Scyths of the Northern Steppes. It is plainly seen that the details of Buddhistic ornament are derived from Greek and Assyrian sources mixed with Buddhist emblems; a few native ideas may be seen in the construction, and in the substituting of the Indian elephant VOL. I. T 274 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. ON T URIKIO FI 2213 39 BILE Fig. 325.—The Sanchi Tope, Bhopal, Central India. for the Assyrian or Persian bull. A fine cast of the Sanchi gateway may be seen in the South Kensington Museum, 276 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. temples of the earliest type exhibit a marked imitation of timber construction in almost every detail (Fig. 327). Brahminical architecture has three varieties – the Dravidian, which is common to the Dakhan, south of the Kistna; the Chalukyan, between the Kistna and the Mahanuddi; aad the Indo-Aryan, which prevails in MO THINK hn Fig. 327. --Temple of Biskurma at Ellora. Hindustan. The Dravidian temple is characterized by a horizontal system of storied towers, and has a grand and imposing look of solemnity. Examples of Dravidian architecture occur in the temples at Seringham, Tinnevelly, Madura, Perin, Vellore, &c. The Chalukyan is distinguished by its star-like plan and pyramidal tower. The great double temple of Siva at INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE. 279 present city of Delhi, which city contains the finest examples of the Mohammedan style in India. The Dewanne Khas, or principal hall of the palace of Delhi (Fig. 329), is a very rich and ornate example of this style. It is vaulted like a Gothic cathedral and is inlaid throughout with rich marbles and mosaic work. It has a niche inlaid Date 03 Fig. 329.-Interior of the Palace at Delhi; Seventeenth Century. with precious stones in which once stood the famous peacock throne of Delhi. The throne was made in enamelled work, in the shape of a peacock with a spread- out tail, and was set with diamonds and precious stones to imitate the natural colours of the peacock. It was carried off by Nadir Shah at the sacking of Delhi, A.D. 1738. Around the frieze of one of the halls of this palace runs CHAPTER XVI. CHINESE AND JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE. The architecture of China does not possess what we might call a serious character. Founded mainly on Buddhistic elements, as far as the more important efforts of their temple architecture is concerned, the only original development that marks the Chinese structural design is the pagoda tower—in itself really a Buddhistic idea—but the Chinese have the credit of carrying it further in their Taas or Pagodas by placing story upon story until some- times a great height was attained ; as, for example, in the great porcelain tower at Nankin, which is 200 feet in height, consists of nine stories, and is 40 feet in diameter at the base. Each story diminishes in size, and the concave roof of every lower story is in front of the receding one above. Varnished pillars, resting on a deep stone base- ment, support the verandah-like roof of the lowest story, and a fence of gilded trellis-work surrounds the lower half of the pillars. The eaves of the roofs curl upwards and end in points from which bells are suspended. Carved dragons peer out from under the rafters, and the whole building, inside and out, as well as the roof tiles, is faced with white porcelain slabs or tiles fastened to the inner brick struc- ture; some parts—the roofs especially-are painted in alternating bands of green, yellow, and red. The greater part of the Chinese houses are wooden constructions, and have movable walls of various materials, which slide in framework. The walls do not support the 282 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. roof, which is, as a rule, supported on posts, independent of them. In the gateways to the Confucian temples some attempts at architectural construction are seen, where a column would have a proper capital and a base, and a lintel or arched opening would appear. These Pae-lus or trium- phal gates have the usual fantastic curled roofs so peculiar to Chinese architecture (Fig. 330). The genius of the Chinese as great builders and engineers is expressed better in their works of public Fig. 330.–Gateway of the Temple of Confucius, Shanghai. utility, as in their finely-constructed bridges, their canals, and more particularly in the Great Wall, built to protect their country from the incursions of the Northern hordes, and which is a monument at the same time to their native love of exclusiveness from surrounding nations. The Great Wall was built about B.C. 200, is 1,400 miles long, 15 to 30 feet in height, 25 feet thick at the base, and slopes upwards to 20 feet in width at the top. It has bastions or towers of defence at intervals, which are 40 feet square at the base, and the wall is carried over hills and CHINESE AND JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE. 283 mountains regardless of all obstacles. Their country is a network of canals, some of which are 700 miles in length. Notwithstanding all this, they are no further advanced in architecture than they were two thousand years ago, or, indeed, in hardly any of the arts. At the same time the Chinese are remarkably skilled in porcelain manufacture, silk weaving, embroidery, colour printing, ivory and jade carving, enamelling, metal-working, casting, and decora- tive painting. Their ornament is very conventional and rich in colouring, but their ornamental forms are limited, and their decoration so full of repetition that it becomes very monotonous when judged by a European standard. The architecture of Japan differs very slightly from that of China, as it is either an offshoot from the older civilisa- tion of China, or has been derived from the same sources, through the Buddhist religion. Some changes have occurred in the architecture of Japan in recent years owing to the more extended use of stone in their buildings, which has been brought about by their interchange of ideas with Western nations. Their Buddhist temples are similar to the Chinese, with their curious turned-up roofs, but the Shinto temples are usually covered with roofs that have great projecting eaves, which do not turn up at the angles. The porches or gateways (Torii) to the temples are built in stone, but in imitation of their earlier wooden construction; they are of the pillar-and-beam order, and recall somewhat the construction, on a smaller scale, of the “torans" or gate- ways of the Sanchi Tope in India (Fig. 325). The Japanese carve their wooden rafters, beams, posts, lintels, and stringcourses very skilfully, with conventional ornament, dragons, and grotesque animals. The better class of Japanese dwellings are usually of two stories; the lower story has a verandah, and the upper one is recessed back, and is smaller than the lower, which produces a pleasing effect. Their walls are, like the Chinese, more or less movable partitions. CHAPTER XVII. EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. FOR the first three centuries after the birth of Christ the early Christians suffered much persecution and martyr- dom. The new religion was ridiculed and despised, and the converts of the new faith were obliged to hold their meetings and to worship in secret, which they did in the narrow but extensive catacombs in which they secretly buried their dead. The catacombs are found chiefly in the neighbourhood of Rome and Naples, and are cut in the dark soft tufa stone, in the nature of long passages, wind- ing and doubling in their labyrinthine twistings. Some of these passages are so narrow as to barely admit of one person to pass in height or width. in height or width. On either side of these narrow ways are cut out openings just large enough for the bodies of deceased persons to be deposited. The body of the deceased was thus thrust into the narrow tomb, and with it was buried a flask of sacred oil. The entrance was then closed with a stone, on which would be engraved the name or initials of the dead. Some of the catacombs were hollowed out in places into lofty and capacious chainbers and niches. These were used as chapels for the early Christian worship, the walls and ceilings of which were decorated with paintings of a very primitive character. The more important of these catacombs in which chapel- like rooms are found are those of S. Calisto, S. Sebastiano, S. Lorenzo, and S. Agnese, at Rome; and at Naples those of S. Mario della Sanita, S. Gennara de Poveri, and S. Maria della Vita. CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 287 story, in the walls of which were the windows that lighted the church. In the oldest type of the basilica there was no window in the apse, so this portion of the church was bathed in a mysterious twilight, adding a poetic charm to the gold mosaics with which the roof of the apse was decorated. Sometimes windows were introduced into the low walls of the aisles; the aisles were covered with shed like wooden roofs, which were supported on trussed frame- work. Sometimes the trusses were ceiled, and on the ceilings were painted scriptural subjects. The wall spaces of the second story in the nave were also occupied with painting's of sacred subjects. The floor of the apse was ND raised higher than that of the nave, and was ap- proached by steps; seats were placed around the wall of the apse for the priests, and in the centre was the elevated throne for the bishops. A portion of the nave space was sometimes appropriated for the choir, screened off by a marble structure, and at either end of the choir were placed the “ ambos” or pulpits (Fig. Fig. 331.-Ambo or Pulpit from St. George's at Salonica. 331). The altar was in the centre of the apse, generally over the tomb of a Christian martyr, and underneath all, or sometimes a portion only of the church, was the crypt. The nave usually had three entrance doors, and the aisles one or more each. As the heathen religions, and consequently the ancient temples, fell into disuse, there 288 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. was plenty of building materials ready formed and dressed, which the architects of the new buildings appropriated for their own purposes in the erection of the basilicas. This accounts for the great number of Roman Corinthian and Ionic columns found in the buildings of the early Christian architecture, and we often find that when an ancient column was too short, it was simply raised on a higher base, and if too long it was cut down to fit its new position. It was generally in the later basilicas that this occurred, as might be expected, for the earlier basilicas are richer and better decorated in their beautiful details, seeing that the early Christian builders had the first choice of the rich orna- mental work of architectural sculpture that had belonged to the ancient Roman temples. The church of S. Apolli- nare in Classe at Ravenna may be cited as one of the most finished and most beautiful of the early basilicas, which was erected with much of this old material. Although the Christian architects and artists were slow in producing new forms of plastic art, as long as they could adapt the existing fragments of architectural sculpture to their uses; on the other hand, the art of painting and decorating by mosaic pictures on the great spaces of the walls and ceilings of the basilicas was developed to a high degree of monumental splendour, and brilliant effects were gained by the use of gold and bright colours. Mosaics as wall decoration in the basilicas were sug- gested by the paintings in the catacombs. These primitive paintings were borrowed in their form and essence from ancient mythological works. At first, some of the earliest efforts at decoration in the catacombs consisted merely of monograms and symbols, such as the Greek letters Alpha and Omega, and the initials or monogram of Christ. The use of these doubtless arose from the desire to de- precate anything that savoured of the images of heathen- dom, but evidently the early Christians soon arrived at the idea that painting might be admissible in a church where sculptured images could not be tolerated the latter re- 1 290 HISTORIC ORNAMENT, jects, after the manner of the Roman Consular diptychs. These ivory carvings, that exhibit a true spirit of the antique in their design, are not to be confounded with the later Byzantine diptychs that were executed in a more archaic style. During the fifth century, and even in the latter part of the fourth, we see the more cheerful spirit of the antique MOV000g 00000000 000000000000 000000 ODO 2000 Fig. 333.—Wall Painting from the Catacombs of S. Calixtus. character dying out, and the art of the time exhibits a greater importance and attention which is given to large masses, while smaller or minor surfaces are left empty, and decorative detail suppressed. There is an apparent striving to render the figure of the Redeemer—the chief personage -larger and more important in the scale of the decoration, and at the same time to give him more individuality. As the technical qualities of the Christian art diminished, the 1 CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 291 majesty and sublimity of the Great Teacher was expressed in a more spiritual conception of his divinity. Several examples of decoration illustrating this phase of Christian art occur in the wall paintings in the catacombs of S. Ponziano at Rome. The face of Christ in these repre- sentations is full of earnest and mild serenity; the right hand is raised as if in blessing, and the left holds the book of life. In the fourth century, mosaic was used in the basilicas as a means of decorating the apse and walls, as the Romans before had used it in their floors and dados. In the hands of the early and inexperienced artists, the character of the material in mosaic had a great deal to do, but not all, in the creating of the type of angular and rigid forms of the figures, which was transmitted to all subse- quent Christian mosaics. At the same time there was the intense desire to make the figures of Christ and of other sacred personages of a sorrowful and austere character. We can, however, trace in these figures the magisterial dignity that invests the sculptured figures of the Emperors and Senators of Roman art. In Italy, the Christian mosaics assumed more and more v a decided breaking away from the traditions of the antique. Large masses as single figures were symmetrically arranged, ornamental details were suppressed, and bands with inscriptions framed the large spaces of the walls and the apse. The figures were more isolated, attenuated, severe of expression, and leaving much to be desired in their anatomical construction or in the natural movement of the body; but all this tended to give them that ex- pression of devotional simplicity aimed for by those early mystics, who only looked on the world as a “vale of tears.” In the vaulted roof of the funeral chapel erected to the memory of the daughter of Constantine at Rome- Sta. Costanza-some of the earliest mosaic work is to be found, consisting of an antique treatment of the vine and tendrils used in a symbolic sense; and in another chapel, CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 293 form of early Christian architecture was developed, called a “baptistery,” which generally took the form of a detached building, with a circular or polygonal plan. In some cases the baptistery adjoins the atrium of the basilica, but often is a detached building of considerable impor- tance. The structure is supposed to have been suggested by the circular portion of the Roman haths, and consists Fig. 334.—Opus Alexandrinum Pavement, San Marco, Rome. of a circular row of columns supporting the upper struc- ture; the central portion is surrounded by a low cloister- like aisle, and the fountain is in the middle of the building. The circular building known as the Church of Santa Costanza in Rome—the funeral chapel before men- tioned--the octagonal baptistery of Constantine, and the fine baptistery at Ravenna, are examples of this kind of 294 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. building. Another beautiful example is the octagonal baptistery of the Lateran, belonging to the fifth century; it has eight large antique columns, which support an archi- trave, upon which rest another series of eight smaller columns, carrying another architrave and the domed roof. The whole building has a pleasant and agreeable effect of extreme airiness. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. The ancient town of Byzantium, the modern Constanti- nople, was mostly in ruins when Constantine the Great selected it for the new capital of the Roman Empire. He rebuilt the old town and named it after himself, and in the year A.D. 330 the inauguration of the new capital was cele- brated. Later on, under Theodosius, the Roman Empire was divided, and Constantinople became the capital of the Eastern portion. It was the great connecting-point between the countries. of the East and the West. The inhabitants of the new city being mostly Greeks, the native artists and architects employed by Constantine imparted a decided Grecian character to the ornament and decoration, especially of the churches and other buildings that were erected by this emperor. The occasion of the new political change and the rapid spread of the Christian religion served to give a great impetus to the building and lavish decoration of churches and public edifices. Although the new architecture was founded on the Roman originals, yet in the hands of the Greeks both architecture and ornament assumed a new and original character. From the time of the founding of Con- stantinople to the date of Justinian's reign (A.D. 527-565), when the great church of Santa Sophia—holy wisdom- was built, on the ruins of an older church that was said to have been burnt down, we can guess that it must have been a time of experiments and developments from the CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 295 basilica type of building to the well-defined domed style of architecture known as the Byzantine. The timber-roofed and vaulted style of structure now gave place to the dome, which resulted also in a change of the plan to the square form, instead of the rectangle. During the two hundred years previous to the building of Santa Sophia, the problem of dome construction, with others of a difficult nature in building, had been success- fully solved by the Greek architects of the Eastern Empire. Justinian employed the Greeks, Anthemius of Thralles and Isidorus of Miletus, as the architects of Santa Sophia,y and they succeeded in erecting a marvellous structure fue that may justly be reckoned as one of the wonders of the world. Four vast piers, arrangeá on a square plan, support four solid arches of masonry, semicircular in shape, and 100 feet span each. The four triangular spaces at the corners and the spaces formed by the angles, the semicircular arches and portions of the ring of the dome, are filled with “pendentives,” which may be described as continuations of the dome. These pendentives partly support the dome, and the other points of support are on the backs of the great arches. The four pendentives meet in the circular ring from which the dome springs. The dome is 46 feet) in height from the level of its base, and 107 feet in dia- meter, and is rather fiattish in shape. On the side of the dome, east and west, are two half- domes, which crown apsidal walls. Other small apses are domed over at lower levels, and vaulted aisles of two stories run round the higher portions of the building, the whole forming almost a cube-like shape. After Constantinople was captured by the Turks (A.D. 1453), Santa Sophia was converted into a mosque and four minarets, or Moslem towers, were added to its outer angles. The interior of this church, besides the stupendous effect of its unrivalled architectural construction, has its added beauties and splendour in its inlaid marbles, its richly 296 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. carved cornices and arcades (Fig. 335), and its vaults and domes glittering with gold mosaics of cherubim, and dignified though gaunt and archaic figures. In the capitals of the columns was used the sharply-edged and undercut acanthus foliage, more in accordance with the old Greek type than the Roman, but have a distinctly Byzantine character of its own. Sacred signs, emblems, and birds were often introduced into the capitals; the general shape of the latter was a cubical form, the four 000000000 OO00000000 SUUN MUMMUU Fig. 335.—Corni from Santa Sophia. faces slanting inwards from above, this form giving a de- cided appearance of great supporting and sustaining power (Figs. 336 and 338). Sometimes they were bossed out, and often contained the elements of the Ionic and Corin- thian orders (Figs. 336, 337, 339). The wedge-shaped portion on the top of the capital is an ugly but distinctive feature of the Byzantine style (Fig. 338). The splendour and magnificence of the decoration in Byzantine churches is proverbial: the columns were often of CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 297 porphyry and serpentine marble, and the supports to the altar canopy (baldacchino), the screen (iconostasis) and the pulpit CD gitron Fig. 336.–Capital from Santa Sophia, showing the bossing-out of the ornament. BE Fig. 337.-- Capital from St. Demetrius at Salonica. Fig. 338.- Capital from St. Demetrius. (ambo) were often inlaid with gold, silver, and precious stones. The altar itself was a gorgeous piece of workmanship, CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 299 by the early Christians, and so painting which led to the mosaic picture, which in its turn led to enamelling on metals, was favoured to a great extent by the Byzantine artists. Even flat bands with inscriptions and ornament were used instead of mouldings in relief. The city of Ravenna being situated between Constan- tinople and Rome possessed some remarkable buildings, that do not belong exactly to the Eastern or Western type of architecture ; but on the other hand have strongly marked in- fluences of each. The most important is that of the Church of St. Vitale; it is octagonal in plan, and is like Santa Sophia in having a prin- cipal central dome, half-domes, and vaulted aisles. It is re- splendent in elaborate decora- tion and carvings. The cathe- dral of St. Mark's at Venice is so well known from illustrations and photographs that it re- quires very little description. It was built in the years A.D. 977 — 1071, and its plans are said to have been drawn by Greek architects at Constanti- Fig. 340.-St. Nicholas at Moscow. nople. Originally it possessed all the features of a genuine Byzantine edifice, but has been altered externally, and in some places internally in both Gothic and Renaissance periods. The Byzantine domes have had bulbous coverings placed over them in later times. St. Mark's like Santa Sophia is square in plan, but has five principal domes, one in the centre, and one at each angle or end of the Greek cross plan. The aisles, with their series of low-level dome roofs, make the whole 300 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. building nearly square. The surrounding countries of Bulgaria, Servia, Roumania, Armenia, and Russia, which embraced the Christian religion of the Greek Church, pos- sess examples of Byzantine architecture. The Russian type in its later developments has distinctive character- istics of its own, particularly in the use and shape of the dome. Russian churches consist usually of a storied tower on which is placed five sınall domes of a bulbous shape; these are built on the tops of elongated drums. The bulbous tops of the domes grow into points, on which are placed tall crosses. These and other fantastic ele- ments are derived from the timber edifices of Persia and other Asiatic countries (Fig. 340). 4 1 4 1 CHAPTER XVIII. SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. THE architecture of the Saracens in its most perfect examples has a thoroughly distinctive style of its own, and their ornament in its pure form is unlike the ornament of any style that has hitherto existed. The originality of the latter arose from the experiment- ing in ornamental patterns that should have no likeness to plants, animals, or other natural forms. This prohibition of the use of objects from nature in their ornament was one of the articles of the Moslem religion; but to get any pleasing variety in ornament and leave out all natural reminiscences in the designs is out of human power, so consequently we have, even in Saracenic ornament, natural forms put through a geometrical pro- cess of draughtsmanship. Saracenic ornament in what is sometimes called Arabian has leaf and bud-like forms interlaced with strap-work, which is often very beautiful and is known under the name of “Arabesque" (Figs. 3+1, 342). The Saracens were originally composed of Arab herds- men, nomadic wanderers of the desert, carriers or mer- chants, and dwellers in villages, who cultivated the land around them. The earliest building of any importance that can be called Saracenic is the “ Kaaba or Moslem temple at Mecca, which contained the sacred brownish- black stone placed by Mahomet in the south-east angle of this square temple. This black stone is supposed to be a meteorolite, hemispherical in shape, and about 6 by 8 302 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. inches in the widest dimension. Some hundreds of stone images or “gods” used to be worshipped at Mecca by the Mohammedans in their early days, or in what they call their « “ days of ignorance," but these were destroyed by the prophet's orders. Mohammed himself was a fanatic that could neither read nor write; he made up the Korân from many sources, such as the Bible, the Apocryphal Dla Fig. 341.-Arabesque Ornament from the Wekāla of Kāit Bey. (L.-P.) 1 gospels, the Talmud, and possibly a good many original passages of his own, which he says he received from the mouth of the angel Gabriel in visions. The Mohammedan creed contains its essence in the words “ There is no God, but God, and Mohammed is his Prophet.” This text is found very frequently as a decorative legend on the walls of the mosques and on painted tiles. At first Mohammed's new religion was not favourably received, 304 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. when they became convinced that Islâm was to conquer the whole world by the sword. His army, however, was nearly annihilated by the Byzantine emperor, Heraclius, in a battle at Muta, but he recovered himself, and marched on to Mecca, where he put to the sword all those that did not embrace his religion, and destroyed all the remaining idols in the city. He allowed his army all the plunder they could get, after he had a tithe to himself, but it is said that he led a very abstemious life, dressed poorly, and resided with his wives in the shabbiest type of dwellings. He died in A.D. 632, or ten years after the Hegira, from which event is dated the Mohammedan era. After his death many of the converts became backsliders, but his successor, Abu-Bekr, and more especially the renowned Omar—the second caliph-brought the Saracens to a great power. They were very warlike, and capable of enduring great hardships, and as they had everything to gain and nothing to lose, they made war their sole trade, and car- ried their successful arms to India, Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. The islands of the Mediterranean, the northern coast of Africa, Spain, and the south-east of France, were by them also invaded, ravaged, and partly conquered. In the youthful days of Saracenic power, as early as the second caliphate, Persia and Asia Minor had been plun- dered and pillaged of their costly and valuable objects in silver, gold, embroidered carpets, and silken goods. The wealth of the Moslem conquerors was now considerable, and was accumulating fast; the sight of so much that was fine and striking in the arts and architecture of the coun- tries they had conquered, in the eyes of these people—who were no better than barbarians or banditti-began to have a more civilising effect on them. Add to this the influence of the Byzantine architecture, especially at Constantinople, with the Saracens, whose religion was in some respects not unlike the Christian, especially as in both cases there was the stern prohibition of idols or graven images; and SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 305 E CCCCC AWE all CECG Fig. 343.--Alhambra Diaper, Superposed Ornament. so it was quite natural that the Moslem mosque should be built and decorated on the main lines of the Byzantine Christian church. The dome and the niche (mehrab) came VOL. I. Х 306 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. as from the Byzantine; the minarets—which are not strictly essential in Moslem architecture-probably from the Per- seopolitan columns. The Moslem dome, however, may have had its origin in the domed palaces of Persia, of the Achæmedian dynasty. Saracenic ornament is mostly, however, derived from the geo- metric Byzantine with a strong dash of Indian forms in its mix- ture. The super-posing in their ornament of different planes (Fig. 343), the class of ornament known “mnemonic" (Figs, 362, 363), Fig. 344.–Stalactite Vaulting. and the stalactite decoration of vaults and domes (Fig. 344)-all these three classes deserve the credit of being distinctly Saracenic, although some say that the stalactite ornament was known in Persia before the days of Mahomet. Among the earliest mosques we may mention that of Omar at Jerusalem, which was supposed to be a small wooden mosque, now destroyed. Ferguson says it was the Mosque of El Aksah. The Mosque of 'Amr at Old Cairo was built A.D. 641 by Amru-Ibn al-Aās, the general and governor who con- quered Egypt, A.H. 21 (after the Hegira). It has been frequently restored and enlarged. The columns which support the arcaded arches are classical in character, the arches are slightly horseshoe in the curve, and are tied together. The building is nearly square in plan (Figs. 345, 346). The mosque of Ibn-Tūlūn (Son of Tūlūn) in Old Cairo was built by Ahmad ibn-Tülin, founder of the house of the Tūlūn governors of Egypt, A.H. 263-5. This mosque and that of 'Amr are what are known as cloistered mosques. The plan of the latter (Fig. 346) gives a general idea of a cloistered mosque. The essential requirements of a mosque are very few and simple. Mahomet's mosque at Medina was a small square brick-built structure, with a SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 307 r *** Fig. 345.—East Colonnade of the Mosque of 'Amr. (L.-P.) 308 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. wooden roof plastered over: the chief thing required was retirement from the public for meditation and prayer. It was not essential that all the rectangular or square court that forms the mosque should be covered with a roof, provided there was sufficient shelter for the number of worshippers, which was generally small at a time, and if ::8::::: *......: WHICH:MM:::::8::::8:::1:1 OPEN N 1.1::.......... W- f -E ...::.. I . UL.:::: Kibleh 0.0 orthimi Dikkeh Mimbar The Two Test Columus COURT. ..:.:: Entrance 119.9... Lil: Y............................. T!!::::.........::1:::8::: 0...0....1 ::::8::::::::::::....:::::..:::8....3:56.:: ..::::8::::8:::.C.:: Fig. 346.—Plan of the Mosque of ‘Amr. (L.-P.) a larger space were required, a portion or all of the open court could be roofed in. What we would call the east end of a church corresponded to that part of a mosque where the kibla, or line of direction, would be indicated- towards Mecca—there the mihrab or niche would be fixed. Close to the mihrab is the mimbar, or pulpit, for the sermon, and in close vicinity the dikka or tribune, a raised SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMĖNT. 309 NUO KIKUU UM platform, from which the imām intones the prayers and reads passages from the Korān. The minaret is a later addition, but is seen on every mosque; it is used by the Muezzin, who ascends to its galleries and calls 'the faithful to prayer five times a day (Fig. 347). A fountain is necessary for the lawful ablutions before prayer. The dome is not a necessary feature to a mosque; it only occurs over the tomb of some sultan or other digni- tary, and may be used as a chapel, but only when it covers a tomb. The majority of mosques, however, have a dome, either as a principal feature, or attached to some part of the build- ing. Cairo is particularly rich in domed mausoleum structures (Fig. 348). The domes or cupolas in Moslem Fig. 347.–Minaret of buildings generally swell up beyond the Mosque of Kaloum at Cairo. the semicircle, and are raised con- siderably by having their lower parts straight-sided or cylindrical ; this part is sometimes pierced with a row of small windows, and is recessed back on a pyramid-like story, with a square or polygonal base, which in its turn rests on the top of a square embattled tower. The dome is usually built of brick, the courses projecting roughly one Fig. 348.—Mausoleum over the other, diminishing towards at Cairo. the top, and thickly plastered over inside and out to get an even surface; sometimes the mortar is thicker than the bricks in Saracen buildings. מפרח 310 HISTORIC ORNAMENT 2 Fig. 349. – Mosque of Kāit Bey, Cairo. (L.-P.) Wooden frames are often used in the construction of domes which support the plaster work. Some domes are SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 311 built with slabs of stones on which a geometric pattern is carved on the outside (Figs. 348, 349); these are generally of a late period, as the tomb mosque of Kāit Bey, built about A.D. 1468 (Fig. 319). The oldest mosque in Cairo is that of Ibn Tūlūn (Fig. 350). It is a cloistered mosque, is built in a massive style, and has a high plain wall around it; it covers about four hundred square feet of ground. In the centre of the inner courtyard is a square stone building surmounted by a dome, one of the earliest carried on stalactites. This building is a century later than the cloisters, and is built over a well or fountain. The great court is surrounded by arcades of pointed arches, that have a slight tendency to turn inwards at the base, and are built as piers of plastered brick; it is said to be the first mosque built on piers, instead of the usual round columns. The Saracens did not make columns themselves, but took them from the ruins of Roman buildings, or even from existing Christian churches, and as often as not used the capitals turned upside down as bases. The Saracens have a form of capital of Moorish design which harmonizes with their architecture; it has a slightly tapering, smooth, long neck, a heavy projecting head, and is well covered with characteristic foliated work (Fig. 351). In the mosque of Ibn-Tūlūn there are only two columns; these are placed at the niche or mihrab. Three sides of this mosque have two rows of arches, and the fourth-the side towards Mecca—which is the liwān or sanctuary, has five. The architect of this mosque was a Coptic Christian, who received £ 5,000 and a costly dress of honour as his fee. The total cost of the building was 4,60,000 (Lane- Poole). Around the arches and the windows, which were placed high up between the arches, are bands of palmated ornament. These borders, according to Mr. Stanley Lane- Poole, are the earliest examples of geometrical design and scroll-work that afterwards became so characteristic of Saracenic ornament. 312 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. They were made in plaster or stucco-work by hand, while the plaster was wet, and not cast in moulds, which was the case of later Moorish plaster ornament. MUUTUSMUSIC OOC Pogba Fig. 350.-- Arcades in the Mosque of Ibn-Tūlūn. (L.-P.) The arcades were roofed over with sycamore planks resting on heavy beams, and the whole structure was crowned with crenellations or embattlements. One of the SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 315 AL Fig. 357.--Pulpit of the Sultan Kāit Bey: Fifteenth Century. (L.-P) 316 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. plentiful—at least, of any examples of the best period of the Saracen style. The main idea in the design of the AWAG Fig. 355.-A Street in Cairo. (L.-P.) houses was to have them built so that people outside should see as little as possible of the inmates or inside, and that the women especially should see as little of street 318 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. liarly Arabian in design. It is composed of many pieces of turned and carved pieces that are ingeniously fitted into each other to form the pattern (Figs. 356-7-8). In the Fig. 357.-Lattice-work, S.K.M. (L.-P.) museum at Kensington many examples of these lattice patterns may be seen, and also some of the meshrebiyas. In the illustration of a “Street in Cairo” (Fig. 355), two Fig. 358.—Lattice-work, S.K.M. (L.-P.) of these meshrebiyas project on brackets from a house front. A richer style of the lattice-work decoration was used SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 319 in open panels and balustrades of the pulpits, where the triangles and hexagons that form part of the design are carved on the surface, and inlaid back and front with ivory or ebony. The houses in Cairo of the purest Saracen style have the best part of the carvings and decoration in the inside ; they are generally two or three stories in height, but were much higher in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The lower parts are built of stone, and the upper stories of brick and wood, plastered white. The lower story has the stones coloured in alternate courses of red ochre and white limewash. The doorways are sometimes decorated by having peculiar voussoirs and interlaced ornament (Fig. 359). There is an illustration of a shop-front in M. Bourgoin's “Eléments de l'Art Arabe” which is an exquisite ex- ample of Saracen work of good proportion and design in its doors and windows. Saracenic ornament, as it appears in plaster, stone, wood, and mosaic decoration, of the mosques, pulpits, and wekālas or khans, deserves special notice on account of its extreme originality of design and treatment, inasmuch as, whatever may be its true origin, we must certainly admit that there is a marked difference between it and the ornament of any other historic style. The mosques built anterior to that of Suyurghatmish (A.D. 1356) were decorated in plaster. The rosette (Fig. 342) shows a transitional piece of work of great beauty, that looks like a copy in stone of low-relief plaster-work, and has every sign of a Byzantine-like origin, seen more especially in the leaf-like markings and general treatment of the six large central fowers; the interlacing and other details are also Byzantine. It is quite likely that this example was designed by a Christian Coptic artist, as, indeed, nearly all the Saracen art in Egypt of this period was designed by Coptic Egyptians. Compare with this the illuminated Korān of the Sultan Sha' Ban, of a year or two later (A.D. 1368). All the floral work in this is 320 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. distinctly Persian in character, without any reminiscence of Byzantine, but shows rather a Chinese or Indian in- fluence (Fig. 360). It is probably copied from a Persian embroidery. Another example of Saracenic ornament is the stone Fig. 359.-Doorway of a Private House. (L.-P.) sculptured decoration from the portal of the mosque of Sultan Hasan, in Cairo (A.D. 1358), (Fig. 361). From being carved in stone the ornament is much stiffer than the two previous examples, but it is more thoroughly Sara- SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 32 i cenic or Arabian than either of them; the large flower- like forms in elevation are evidently developments of the 2002 ODPOLE 200OOOO QODEROSOS CORTECH 02 Fig. 360.—Illuminated Korān of the Sultan Sha' Ban; Fourteenth Century. (L.-P.) Assyrian form of the lotus, and have here almost the form of the fleur-de-lis. This type of design was successfully VOL. I. Y •ueses urins jo period əy1 wo.J juəweu10–19€ 8! ว่าหาทนา / al, 101: 2 7.0.Lollecti๕เห็น: ไม่ ,8:/12 9/4|2113962_121 - R: : : : : : : : : lliะ 2 744 ปีเป็น พ เd” HUIRIN เทโIBuilแพรนวทางเหt1Bs5uramitrategiture SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 323 developed in the Moresque diapers of the Alhambra, where the conventional leaves and flower forms were mixed with Saracenic inscriptions, and were redeemed from their aridity by the almost sensuous character of the colouring, which has a combination of red, blue, white, and gold, and further by the superimposed planes of the ornamental Fig. 362.- Kufic Writing, from the Alhambra. composition (see Fig. 343). It may be noticed that some of the leaf-work in these diapers have a feather-like decoration, which gives richness and variety to the orna- ment: these markings are evidently derived from the parallel veining of Byzantine acanthus leaf-work. The larger strap-work running through is interlaced in the form Fig. 363.- Arabian Cursive Writing, from the Alhambra. of pointed and horseshoe arches, which makes the orna- ment in appropriate harmony with the Moorish architec- ture, while the flat treatment of the whole is distinctively characteristic of all Saracenic ornament. Two examples of Mnemonic ornament are given at Figs. 362 and 363. The former is a Kufic inscription 324 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. arranged so as to form a band ornament. This is in the angular and older form of writing. The latter is an example of the cursive Arabian hand which was more generally adopted, and is termed the Vaskhy : it is more round and flowing than the Kufic. The typical feather ornament forms a background to most of these inscrip- tions. Some of the finest specimens of purely Saracenic orna- ment are found on the singularly ornate mimbars or pulpits (Figs. 354 and 364). The simplicity of their straight-lined silhouettes is in restrained contrast to the extreme elaboration of their carved surfaces. The stone pulpit from the mosque of Barkuk is early fifteenth cen- tury work. It is made of solid stone slabs, with doorway, staircase, and canopy raised on small pillars and sur- mounted by the usual pear-shaped cupola. The stone slabs are elaborately carved with geometrical patterns, arabesques, and inscriptions, and are said to be the finest examples of stone carving in Cairo. Another pulpit (Fig. 354) of the fifteenth century, made by order of the Sultan Kāit Bey, is built in wood; it is now in the South Ken- sington Museum, and bears the name of this Mamlūk Sultan, who was the ruler of Egypt at the end of that century. The folding doors and the niche of this pulpit are decorated with stalactite ornament; the cupola is copper; the carving is most elaborate, and is also inlaid with ebony and ivory. Some of the carved panels from the building known as the wekāla or khan of Kāit Bey, show Saracenic ornament in its purest form-both the geome- trical variety and arabesques. This Sultan and his artists have shown the most refined taste of all the great Saracen builders. The wekāla or khan is a rectangular building with an open court in the centre, and consists of numerous chambers that were occupied by merchants for a short season when they came to buy and sell in Cairo, and was, in fact, a sort of Eastern hotel. The stabling was placed behina on the ground floor, and SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 325 Fig. 364.--Stone Pulpit in Mosque of Barkuk; Fifteenth Century. 326 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. Go Fig. 365.-Ornament on an Arch of the Wekāla Kāit Bey. (L.-P.) the exterior consisted of a row of small shops. The wekāla of Kāit Bey had thirteen of these shops on one exterior, and between the seventh and eighth was placed a splendid arched gateway. It is a pointed arch of eight feet in width, the edge of which is decorated with three tiers of stalactites that are carved on the sides of the archway, and has a fine band of carved scroll - work running round the face of the archway and spandrels. One of the most beautiful examples of alter- nating interlacing and ara- besque ornament is that which forms an arch over a horizontal panel of carved ornament. This arch is shown at Fig. 365. A fine characteristic piece of carved ornament from the same building is the subject of the illustration Fig. 341. Figure and animal repre. sentation, though prohibited by the Moslem religion, was in many cases practised by the Saracen sculptors; for instance, in the Baptistery of St. Louis is a large copper bowl inlaid with silver figures (Mosil work made at Mosil in the thirteenth century. SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 327 These figure and animal designs are from Mesopotamian sources, as may easily be seen in the examples given- from the Maristan of Kalaun (Figs. 366 and 367), where on the last a centaur is shooting an arrow at a unicorn, balanced by a similar animal on the opposite side; and on the other example is a peacock in the centre, with figures of men on either side having drinking vessels and musical instruments, an evident representation of a concert and dances. The scroll borders around this panel, and the execution of the work, are in the Saracenic manner, but the motives of the designs are Persian. Other similar carvings in which animals figure and birds are introduced are to be seen in the same building, and are of late thirteenth cen- tury work. These illustrations are taken from Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole's “ Saracenic Art in Egypt,” after “Prisse d'Avennes," to which the student is referred for an exhaus- tive account of the Saracen art in Egypt. We extract the following summary of this art from the above author, who quotes from Franz Pasha, the architect to the Govern- ment of the Khedive. “ While bestowing their full meed of praise on the wonderfully rich ornamentation and other details of Arabian architecture, one cannot help feeling that the style fails to give entire æsthetic satisfaction; want of symmetry of plan, poverty of articulation, insufficiency of plastic decoration, and an incongruous mingling of wood and stone are the imperfections which strike most Northern critics. The architects, in fact, bestowed the whole of their attention on the decoration of surfaces; and down to the present day the Arabian artists have always displayed far greater ability in designing the most complicated orna- ment and geometrical figures on plane surfaces than in the treatment and proportioning of masses. Although we occasionally see difficulties of construction well overcome these instances seem rather to be successful experi- ments than the result of scientific workmanship. The real excellence of the Arabian architects lay in their skill SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 329 in masking abrupt angles by the use of stalactites, or brackets," &c. This architect is right, generally speaking, in his admir- able remarks, but we think, although it is admitted that Saracenic architecture lacks the cohesion and unity of parts that is the chief beauty in Greek and best examples of the Gothic, that in some instances, in the mosques and more particularly in the wekālas and in domestic archi- tecture, the Saracen architects have proved themselves masters in the creation of architectural works second to none in point of beauty, while in their architectural appli- cation of ornament to the decoration of the various sur- faces and other features of their buildings they are un- rivalled. They have not only invented a new style of ornament, but in their correct application of it they have scarcely ever been equalled. The decoration of surfaces, which is the chief glory of all Saracenic art and architecture, was the first and last lesson they learnt from their Persian masters in art, for Persian art, like the manners and customs of the people, has all its beauty and politeness on the surface. CHAPTER XIX. ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. ROMANESQUE is the name given to the architectural style developed by the Western barbarians who overran the Roman Empire, after their partial civilisation, when they had learned the art of building. The style arose chiefly from the copying of Roman buildings and their remains, with some added features of Byzantine buildings. Out of this Romanesque, in its turn, there sprang another style which was founded on the Romanesque and on the architecture of the Saracens. Towards the end of the eleventh century the new masters of the Roman Empire, in the course of their military expeditions to Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine, were brought in contact with the Saracens and their architecture, and in coming back to Europe they brought with them new ideas of building, such as the pointed arch of the Saracens, which feature together with new forms of ornament were added by them to the prevalent Romanesque style, the mixture producing an entirely new style, which has been curiously named after the early Northern barbarians—the Gothic. The subsequent Crusades against the Mohammedans had the effect, among others, of extending the knowledge of mathematics and geometry among the Crusaders, sciences in which the Saracens excelled; and in coming home again to the West, they applied their geometrical knowledge to the development of Gothic architecture to such an extent that, towards the end of the fourteenth century, this archi- tecture could show examples of the most lofty and daring 3 ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 331 constructions in stone that were marvels in the science of building. Some Gothic buildings present with their fretted pinnacles, spires, flying buttresses, intersecting and pierced work, in flamboyant tracery, daring vaulting, and inter- penetrating mouldings, a worked-out solution of some intricate mathematical problem. In its complicated phases Gothic construction is more scientific than artistic, how- ever much one may admire the grouping or design of the Gothic pile as a picturesque conception. Returning to the Romanesque style, we find that in the sixth century Theodoric the Ostrogoth had, in the erec- tions of churches, palaces, and of his tomb in Ravenna- his capital-sown the first seeds of the future develop- ments of the German Romanesque, and in some degree of the later German Gothic style. In producing these works his ambition was to emulate the grandeur of Imperial Rome. The Longobards, the successors of the Ostro- goths, continued this building activity through the Middle Ages, and have left to us monuments their genius in the early and rude Duomo Vecchio of Brescia, and amongst many others of their noblest works were Sant' Ambrogio at Milan, and San Zeno at Verona. Prior to the Carlovingian era, the Germanic people began to cultivate the fine arts in a tentative manner. This was brought about by the contact of German chiefs and warriors with Italian pomp and splendour, which also bred in them a love for personal adornment, that strongly marked the nobles and warriors of this period. Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of Germany at Rome, on Christmas Day in the year A.D. 800. The dream and ambition of this great German Prince was to establish a mighty Christian Empire in the West of Europe that should rival pagan Rome itself, not only in military power, but in a widespread culture of literature, science, and artistic excellence. These were the days of Chivalry, of the Crusaders; the days when men were rich in high and lofty ideals; when 332 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 those knightly mystics, Wolfram von Eschenbach and Vogelweide, sang of the Parsival and the Quest of the Holy Graal, of songs of love and chivalry, of deliverance from wrongs, and of many stirring and tuneful themes. Though Charlemagne never learned to read or write, he thoroughly appreciated the value of learning. He gathered together learned men, architects, and artists, and established a school of religious music. He built many churches, palaces, and bridges, and collected many statues from Rome and elsewhere for the adornment of his great church at Aix-la-Chapelle; he organized and encouraged the professions and trades of his towns and cities. The great tomb-church at Aix-la-Chapelle-or Aachen was built by Charlemagne, and became the prototype of all subsequent churches erected in the Romanesque style in Germany. It was in the region bordering on the Rhine that the great church building activity was developed in Germany. The cities of the powerful bishoprics rivalled each other in pomp and splendour, as we see in such buildings as the Doms of Spiers, Mayence, and Cologne, and in the Roman- esque churches of Swabia, Franconia, Westphalia, and Lower Saxony. The Romanesque style is also found in the churches or Doms of Bamberg, Brunswick, and Osna- bruck; the Godehardi and Michael's churches at Hildes- heim, the carving in which excels that in the churches of the Rhineland. The distinctive characteristics of the German Roman- esque are the great octagonal dome-like towers that arise from the crossing of the nave and transept, and the flank- ing towers at each end that are sometimes united to the central tower by an outside western gallery or façade. A fine modern church, built in the Romanesque style, is that of the Cathedral of Fourvière, on the hill overlooking the city of Lyons in France. Some German Romanesque churches have a western as well as an eastern apse, and the church known as the 3 1 ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 333 Apostelkirche in Cologne has the transept, both of which features are disturbing elements in any church where the chief attention should be directed to the culminating point 2. Fig. 368.-Round Arch Frieze. Fig. 369.-Intersecting Blind Arcade where the choir, reredos, or altar are usually found in the apse or chancel, and at the eastern end only. The church architecture of the West—the Romanesque AAAAA Fig. 370.-Rose Window. followed closely the requirements of the Western ritual, while the churches which observed the Eastern ritual kept to the Greek or Byzantine models. Romanesque churches of the tenth century are distin- 33+ HISTORIC ORNAMENT. guished by the basilica plan, the apsidal east end, round- headed arches, and single or double-light windows. The walls have generally a decoration, consisting of a series of flat pilasters—reminiscences of classic architecture, and the roofs in many cases were vaulted. Arcaded deco- ration, with or without small columnar supports (Figs. 368 and 369) and rose windows (Fig. 370) are features of the con un LUMI .cube Fig. 371.-Porch of the Heilsbronn Monastery, near Nüremberg. Romanesque. Some of the round-headed doorways are especially rich in character, and have often five or six recessed columns (Fig. 371) that carry richly inoulded heads, and carved capitals of quaint animal and bird deco- ration (Fig. 372). The shafts of the columns are usually plain, though in some instances, for the sake of contrast, they are twisted ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 335 or imbricated, and the bases are copies of the classic orders (Fig. 373). Above the lintel and under the round arch mouldings is the lunette or tympanum; this space TRUIR luces Fig. 373.- Romanesque Shaft and Base. Fig. 372.-Capital from Wartburg. often has rich decoration of figures and ornament; some- times it is divided into two spaces, when the entrance doorway is divided by a central pillar. vo al Fig. 374.-Roof Cornice of Church at Alstadt-Rottweil. Fig. 375.-Later Romanesque Ornament. The details and motives of Romanesque decoration are derived from classic ornament-mostly Roman-and are, as a rule, debased forms of the latter. 338 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. Romanesque architecture, and especially its decorative ornamentation, was never quite free from Byzantine or Fig. 378.-Capital from Palace of Barbarossa, Gelnhausen. Saracenic influences. It was of itself an incongruous mixture, out of which, when the pointed arch of the Sara- cens was adopted, and the ornamental features modified to conform with it, the new ogival or Gothic style arose. In every part of Europe in which the Romanesque took root, there may be noticed so many distinct varieties. The VUUR style in Rome and Central Italy naturally followed, as we have seen, the antique Roman forms. In the cathe- dral of Pisa the capitals are Fig. 379.-Capital from St. Cross, Winchester. Corinthian, and there is a greater display here of mo- saics and coloured marbles, both on the exterior and in the interior, than in most Romanesque buildings. ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 339 11 The style in Lombardy and Upper Italy is, on the other hand, different to that of Central Italy, as it there inherited the German traditions. The columns had in their capitals leafage of a different character to that of the classic orders, and had birds and animals carved amongst it, and the bases of the columns rested on animals. Door- ways were square-headed, and had also a circular arch, over which was a pedimented canopy (Fig. 380). One of the finest examples of Lombardic Romanesque is the St. Zeno Church at Verona, which has a doorway of this descrip- tion. The Church of Monreale in Sicily (A.D. 1174), and the Cathedral of Palermo, exhibit a mixture in which Byzantine and Saracenic influences are well defined; this was owing to the successive powers that were at different periods masters of that country The Normans at a later date made changes in the architec- ture of Sicily, and Norman archi- tecture was developed to a great extent in this place. It was in Sicily that Norman Fig. 380.--Porch of St. Zeno at Verona. architecture first developed the characteristic zigzag feature that is seen so much in the Norman portals and window-heads in England (Figs. 381 and 382). The pointed arch of the Saracens was added to the Norman Romanesque in Sicily. The Cathedral of Cefalu (1132), and the palace of La Ziza at Palermo, are examples. Nowhere else was the Romanesque of so mixed a character. The illustration from Palermo (Fig. 383) clearly shows the pointed Saracenic arch, used after the manner of the Romanesque round arching, while some other portions of ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 341 the details are distinctly Byzantine. In the south of France Romanesque architecture is far more ornate than that of the Norman style in Normandy, or other parts of the North; in fact, the latter style in France has its ornament confined to purely linear decoration ; but the churches that were built at the end of the eleventh and beginning of the twelfth centuries, which represent Norman architecture in Fig. 382.-Berkeley Castle, Gloucestershire. Fig. 383.—Pointed Arcading from the Cathedral of Palermo. its purest phases, were noble edifices, plain and solidly built, of which the church of St. Etienne is a good example. Its arcades rest on piers, it has a vaulted nave and aisles, and has a fine transept. The gable of the nave is flanked by two western towers, the western front is built in three stories, and has two ranges of five-light windows. The Cathedrals of Bayeux and Evreux may be mentioned as two other fine examples of Norman architecture. ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 343 vaulting still remain, but the rest of the original church has disappeared. On the Continent and in England, just after the year 1000, a great building period set in, as for many years prior to this date a corresponding period of an opposite kind, or a lethargy in the life of the Christian peoples, and consequently an inactivity in all building operations, was manifested, owing to the prophecy that the end of the world would come in the year 1000. When this was found to be a delusion, a building craze spread over Europe, and the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries were the great building ages, when both Christian and Saracenic architecture advanced with leaps and hounds. The Normans in England after the Conquest, no doubt, hastened the advancement of architecture; for the rule seems to have been that wherever they found a small or old church of the Anglo-Saxon type or period, they invariably pulled it down, re-dressed the stones, and built a much larger and better church on the same site, using up the old material when available, besides building many churches on new sites. The Normans were also much better builders than the Saxons, and at this time great numbers of Norman masons were brought over from France. The strongholds, or castles, with their massive keeps, were built at this period by the new Norman barons, in order not only to have stately dwellings for themselves, but to protect their newly-acquired honours and posses- sions from their Saxon foemen. Remains of many of these strongholds, especially of the keeps, are still to be seen at Hedingham Castle at Rochester; Gundulph's Tower—the oldest-at Malling, Kent; Newcastle, Guildford, Colchester, Richmond, and Conisborough in Yorkshire, &c. One of the earliest is the great White Tower of London, in which is found the beautiful little Norman Chapel, one of the best and most perfect examples of Norman architecture in England. The Norran keeps, or towers, are uniform in 344 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. design, having a square plan, with a square projecting turret at each angle, and a flat, thin buttress in the centre of the walls; windows were small, and were round or ANAL CH Fig. 385.- The Landgrave's Room at the Wartburg. square-headed. The doorways were round-headed, re- cessed, and were generally ornamented. Portions of Canterbury Cathedral, as indeed, of almost all the principal English cathedrals, and many old churches, were built in the Norman period, which shows how extensively church building must have been carried ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 345 on from the Conquest (1066) to the commencement of the reign of Richard I. (1189). The Norman and oldest parts Fig. 386.-Romanesque Ornament, Iron Hinge from Notre-Dame, Paris. of Canterbury Cathedral, built by Archbishop Lanfranc (1070-1089), are the towers forming the choir transepts. 350 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. unfinished, but they had at one time wooden spires. Chartres (1260), Rheims (1250), and Rouen (1280) are other typical examples of this period. The period of the Early English style lasted from about A.D. 1190 to 1270, embracing the reigns of Richard I., John, and Henry III. This style is distinguished from the Norman transitional by the light and lofty pillars used singly or in groups and clusters, lancet windows, pointed arches, and by the additional use made of buttresses and pinnacles. The slope or pitch of the roof is in harmony with the pointed arches and lancet windows, and also the pyra- midal towers or spires. The greatest possible difference is thus exhibited between the Norman Romanesque and the Early English Gothic. Although the ground plan is hardly altered in the latter style, the general lightness and soaring vertical character of almost every detail, and the multiplication of buttresses and pinnacles, give to the Gothic erections of this period a triumphal look of mastery over the material that in the science of building was hitherto unknown. The Early Pointed style in England is seen at its best in Lincoln, York, and Salisbury Cathedrals and in West- minster Abbey (Fig. 389), The Cathedral of Cologne founded by Conrad von Hochstaden -that wonderful and huge pile of Gothic architecture—belongs partly to the thirteenth but more properly to the fourteenth century, having its foundations laid in 1248 and consecrated in 1327. It has been added to considerably even until modern days. It presents a slightly wearisome repetition of parts, especially in the buttresses, pinnacles, and other vertical forms of the exterior, that in a measure robs it of some part of the grandeur and sublimity which we should naturally expect in an edifice of its size and proportions. It is based partly on the design of the great Cathedral of Amiens in France. The very rich canopies and windows of geometrical 35+ HISTORIC ORNAMENT. Another interesting church in Nüremberg is that of St. Sebaldus, more from its association with the name and works of Adam Kraft, who carved the figure work on the exterior, and Peter Vischer, whose celebrated work is the em AWS Fig. 392.-Interior of St. Lawrence, at Nüremberg. chief glory of this church-the Shrine of St. Sebaldus (Fig. 393), one of the most important works of the fif- teenth century-than from its merits as an architectural work. The plan of this church is bad in having its nave and aisles of equal width, which is at utter variance with GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 355 all ideas of good proportion and of the Gothic style. The shrine of St. Sebaldus is modelled and cast in bronze; Peter Vischer and his five sons laboured on it for twelve years before it was completed. It is Gothic entirely in 00004 PM JAWATUHULT G DES Fig. 393.—Shrine of St. Sebaldus, at Nüremberg. construction, but most of the forms and details of the orna- ment and figure work are purely Italian ; for at this time -the beginning of the sixteenth century-Germanic artists were fascinated and strongly influenced by the art that GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 357 arcades under the first story, picturesques balconies, and corner turrets ending in corbels, which were often richly carved. The Gothic style was introduced into Italy in the twelfth EEEE Fig. 395.— Town Hall, Marienberg. USD and thirteenth centuries, but it never took any great root in that country. In Rome there are no Gothic buildings of this period : there is one of the fifteenth century, the Church of Minerva, but is a bad example of the style. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 359 The Cathedral of Milan is the finest example of a church in the Gothic style in Italy, though it is by no means pure Fig. 397.- Crockets, Lincoln. JFSVVALLAW. Fig. 398.–From the Temple Church. Gothic. It is built of white marble and has some remark- ably good stained-glass windows. The Palazzo Publico 1 A B2 с H E к J Fig. 401.- Norman and Gothic Mouldings. a b c, Norman; def, Early English ; g h, Decorated; i j k, Perpendicular. LEXX S A WHEELER.DEL.SC Fig. 402.-Pedestal, Henry VII.'s Chapel, 364 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. built with lozenge-shaped slabs of pink marble, and pierced with a row of large pointed windows, and has smaller circular openings above these. A richly designed battle- ment crowns the walls of the upper story. The caps of the columns are beautifully carved, and sculptured figure h 9 Fig. 403.- Place House, Cornwall. subjects decorate the corners of the building. This palace was a long time in building ; before it was completed the style had perceptibly changed, so in consequence the portico in some parts belongs to the fourteenth and some to the fifteenth century. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 365 Throughout Venice the architecture with Gothic pre- tensions is mixed very much with fifteenth and sixteenth Venetian or Renaissance forms. The ogee arch was used very much, and the Decorated style of windows and door- ways, arcadings, and balconies with Italian forms made a quaint mixture that gives a very pleasing appearance to some of the Venetian palaces. Gothic architecture in England has been divided into TON Fig. 404.-Flamboyant Panel. French, Fifteenth Century. Fig. 405.– Flamboyant Panelling. French. three styles ; the Early English, which lasted from about A.D. 1189-1272, in the reigns of Richard I., John, and Henry III.; the Decorated, A.D. 1272-1377, in the reigns of Edward I., II., and III. ; and the Perpendicular style, A.D. 1377-1547, from the time of Richard II. to Henry VIII. After this it became debased, and finally merged into the Tudor or English Renaissance, sometimes called the “ Elizabethan." A still later mixture of English Gothic with Italian or Flemish Renaissance details was developed in the reign of James I., which has been called “ Jaco- GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 367 The Decorated style is a rich and more ornate phase of the preceding style, and is further marked by the exten- sive use of the ogee arch in doorways and windows (see Fig. 400A), and by the greater profusion of sculptured foliage, flowers, and ornament in the decoration. The ball flower used in the hollow mouldings is characteristic of this style, as the tooth ornament is of the Early English. The Perpendicular style, as its name denotes, is charac- terized by its long and narrowly divided windows and similar panellings. Instead of the flowing lines of tracery 3 b f Fig. 407.- Forms of Gothic Tracery. a, 'Trefoil; 6, Quartrefoil; c, Cinquefoil; d, Çusped Quartrefoil; e, Pointed and Cusped; f, Flamboyant. in the windows, the mullions are of a straight lined and vertical character, and are divided at intervals by tran- soms, or horizontal divisions. The pedestal (Fig. 402) from Henry VII.'s Chapel is of Perpendicular panelling. The beautiful fan tracery seen in Henry VII.'s Chapel in Westminster Abbey and in Gloucester Cathedral is a variety of this panelling. The doorways in this style have pointed but depressed arches, and as a rule are enclosed with square-headed mouldings or labels. The spandrels formed by this arrangement are filled with tracery and shields. Towers and cornices have battlements, &c. (Fig. 403). A general squareness is given to all the ornaments, 368 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. and a more severe and dry character is the chief feature of the Perpendicular decoration. The Flamboyant Gothic style of the Continent is contem- poraneous with the English Perpendicular. The panels at Figs. 404 and 405 are very good examples of Flam- boyant panel decoration. Forms of Gothic arches and tracery are given at Figs. 406 and 407. CHAPTER XXI. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. MANY things tended to bring about the art of the Renaissance. The great impulse given to learning by the study of the writings of the Greek and Roman poets, lawyers, and philosophers, and the keen study of the rich legacy of art and architecture left by Greece and Rome, may be reckoned among the chief causes which led to the development during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries of the Re-Birth or Renaissance both of literature and art. Dante, and his successors Petrarch and Boccaccio, were called “Humanists," for the reason that they studied and advocated the knowledge that was needful to man in his progress and in relation to his life in this world, and did not confine themselves wholly to theology, which was the case with those who devoted themselves to learning in the Middle Ages. This led to a wider spread of knowledge among the people, which was greatly stimulated by the invention of printing. The rulers of the people also encouraged learning and promoted the arts to an extent unknown before. In Florence, especially, under the powerful and beneficent rule of the Medici family, art and literature received every attention, and made rapid progress in every department of cultured knowledge and skilful handicraft. Great artists like Niccola Pisano, Brunellesco, Donatello, Giotto, Alberti, and others of the early period, whose individuality and great personality did more than any- VOL. I. BB 372 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 2 Vasari—that in Pisa there had been accumulated a great collection of antique sculpture—the spoils of war-and among them a sarcophagus, on which the “Hunt of Meleager and the Calydonian boar” was wrought with great skill, which was placed for ornament on the façade of the Cathedral: this and other antique remains in the city were studied to great advantage by Niccola, to the great improvement of his style. One fine work of his, , executed in the spirit of the antique, was the pulpit for the Church of San Giovanni in Pisa, on which are great numbers of figures, representing the Universal Judgment. For the Cathedral of Siena he also executed a similar work with subjects from various passages in the life of Christ. On this pulpit he had the assistance of Arnolfo and Lapo, his pupils, and probably also that of his son Giovanni. These works proved the great turning point in sculpture, from the archaic productions of the Middle Ages to an era of better things, although in execution they left much to be desired. Giotto was not only the great painter who first invested his works with poetry, feeling, and expression, but was also a skilful architect, as his fine Campanile, or bell-tower, in his native city of Florence bears witness. Dante and Petrarch were his friends, the former especially so; the portrait of Dante by Giotto still exists in the Chapel of the Podesta at Florence. Brunellesco, as we learn from Vasari, was one of the most interesting of men, and one of the most capable artists of his time, a man of acute genius and ready resource. In the early Renaissance period architecture was studied by nearly all sculptors and painters, and many, as we have seen, were apprenticed in their youth as gold- smiths. Brunellesco was no exception to this rule, for we find that he was a clever goldsmith and worker in niello. The greatest work of his life was the building of the cupola or dome of the Cathedral of Florence--he was the only architect of his day that was found able to do it. The Cathedral was the work of the Florentine architect, I 1 374 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. ito'' PIL at the "rusticated,” like so many of the Italian palaces (Fig. 408). This is a roughened form of stonework, and was copied from Roman buildings, which, together with the heavy cornices and symmetrical repetition of windows, gave these palaces a heavy and imposing look. Another palace of the Rucellai type is the Cancelleria at Rome, which was built by Bramante (1444-1514), a native of Castel-Durante, in Urbino, who also built St. Peter's at Rome, and who was the greatest architect of the Renaissance, of whom Michelangelo testified “that Bramante was equal to any architect who has appeared from the time of the ancients to our own, can by no means be denied.” Michelangelo himself was the archi- tect of the dome of St. Peter's, and his sublime works in sculpture and fresco adorn the interior. The Cancelleria Palace is a master- piece of elegance and good propor- tion. It has two imposing doorways, and the plainness of its lower story contrasts agreeably with the upper two, which have rows of round- headed windows enclosed in flat or Fig. 408.–Portion of the Strozzi Palace. square-headed architraves, and are placed at agreeable distances above the entablatures of the lower stories. The two upper stories are divided alternately into wide and narrow divisions by pilasters, the windows being placed in the wide'divisions. This building is a marked improvement in point of beauty on the Pitti and Rucellai palaces. The Farnese Palace is another typical building of the Renaissance. The design of it is attributed to Antonio Picconi, who took the surname of San Gallo (148 ?-1546). It is built in three stories, without pilasters, with a widely projecting cornice, and has rather a monotonous look with RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE AND ORVAMENT. 375 its numerous windows of equal size. Michelangelo is said to have designed some of the windows and the cornice (Fig. 409), though some say that the architect Vignola was the designer of the cornice, The central doorway is "rusticated” and arched, and the angles of the building are of dressed stones. The celebrated building known as the Certosa (Charter- house) of Pavia was begun by Borgognone in the year 1473, is an example of the most ornate phase of the Renaissance, and offers a widely-marked contrast to the almost bald simplicity of the palace just described (Fig. 410). As a whole, the facade of this building cannot be called a model of good architectural composition, but it is easier to criticise its faults in this respect than to sug- gest improvements. It contains, how- ever, many striking elements of beauty, and is full of useful suggestions to the architect and decorative artist. The plan and shell of Renaissance buildings were usually of the Roman- esque or Gothic types; the dome, columns, and ornament generally were Fig. 409.-Upper Story all borrowed from the Roman remains. of the Farnese Palace, Rome. Designed The column, round arch, and hori- partly by M. Angelo. zontal lintel or architrave feature were extensively used in the palaces and other buildings of Venice (Fig. 411), though the Renaissance style had a difficult task to make headway in Venice against the strong Byzan- tine and Gothic traditions that had hitherto prevailed. The general type of the Venetian palaces is a solid panelled wall and pier arrangement or rusticated lower story, which supports a central loggia, or arcaded second story, that has circular-headed windows and heavy cornices and balconies. The whole façade is richly decorated with engaged columns and pilasters. 376 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. Kla V The Cornaro, now the Mocenigo Palace, the Grimani on the Grand Canal, now the Post Office, and the Spinelli Palace, are said to have originally been built from the designs of the great military architect, San Michele, of Verona (1484-1588), to whom the Signori of Venice owed so much as the designer of their forti- fications. Jacopo Sansovino, who built the Library of San Marco at Venice (Fig. 411); Palladio (1518 - 1580), the well-known writer on COJO architecture; Scamozzi, and the Lombardi family, may be mentioned as other celebrated architects and ornamentists, who executed many works in Venice and in Verona, Florence, Padua, Vicenza, Rome and Milan, etc., during the sixteenth cen- 630 tury. It was the tendency of the Renaissance period to build palaces and castles, and in the later BioIQIQITEDigo a tomaia times municipal and pri- vate dwellings, as learning Fig. 410.–Portion of the Certosa of Pavia. and the arts were getting into the hands of the lay- men, in contrast to the days of the Middle Ages, when the clergy and monks were the architects and master-builders: in those days hardly anything but churches had archi- tectural pretensions; but the case was different in the Renaissance times, when the architects were not bound by 022016 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 379 name of “François Premier” (Ier) has been given. This style was chiefly brought about by the employment of the Italian sculptors and architects, Serlio, Vignola, Prima- ticcio, Il Rosso, Cellini, and others who had been invited by Francis I. to build and decorate his châteaux and palaces. Primaticcio was also entrusted with the task of collecting a series of antique casts and copies of antiques from Rome for the gardens of the palace at Fontainebleau. This, no doubt, had the effect of helping to form the taste for classic art among French artists. Owing to all the above circumstances, French art began to show more of the influence of the Italian style. The Roman orders were henceforth invariably used, but still the new style was modified in a great measure to suit the French taste. What is known as the Henri Deux (Henry II.) style is another French development of the Cinquecento, in which there is a preponderance of strap-work, with figures, masks, grotesques, cartouches of all kinds, and much of the con- ventional Saracenic ornament. The monogram of Henry II. and the arms of Catherine de' Medici often appear in this ornament, as seen in the decorations of the Château d'Anet (1548) and on the Oiron or Henri Deux pottery. Pierre Lescot (1510-1578) designed the western façade of the Louvre, in Paris, and Jean Buillant designed the oldest parts; these two architects and another, Philibert Delorme, brought the Renaissance to such a head in France that it became immediately the national style. The great names in architectural sculpture of the early French Renaissance were Jean Goujon and Paul Ponce, who carved the principal figures of the façades of the Louvre. Towards the early part of the seventeenth century the architecture began to assume a more florid character, under the hands of Lepautre and Du Cerceau. It became richer, but less pure in style, an example of which is the Apollo Gallery of the Louvre, designed by Lepautre. By the time of the latter half of the seventeenth century the desire for show and the expression of magnificence, 380 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. E especially brought about by the “Grand Monarque,” Louis XIV., assisted by the efforts of his architects, Mansard, Perrault, Lemercier, and Blondel, who ministered to the whims of the powerful King, speedily laid the founda- tions for the loose and unrestrained Baroque or Rococo style which subsequently followed. The name of “ Louis Quatorze" has been given to the style developed in the reign of this king. “Louis Quinze” and “Louis Seize" are names of subsequent French styles, which will be considered under the head of Renaissance Ornament. The tame and spiritless palace of Versailles was designed by François Mansard, who invented the Mansard roofs which have been used together with this style for nearly all the palatial buildings of Europe. The purity of the Italian Renaissance was forgotten or ignored by the nations of Europe, and the stiff and pompous buildings of Louis XIV. were accepted as the patterns that all civiliza- tion was eager to copy. Even old churches and mediæval castles were transformed in some portions of their interiors into Louis XIV. imitations. In Windsor Castle the great ballroom has been vilely treated with the meaningless incrustations of this period, by the way of decorations, endeavouring, however, to make amends for its tasteless poverty of invention by the arrogant display of its rich covering of gold leaf. In the late seventeenth and during the eighteenth centuries, the Rococo or Baroque phase of the Re- naissance was in vogue in Italy and France, and indeed everywhere in Europe. The main characteristic of the Baroque style is the undue prominence given to the ornament and decoration, which arose from a gradual forgetfulness of the Roman and Greek principles of con- struction, and a want of order in the arrangement of the principal forms in the architecture. By degrees these forms took a secondary position : columns supported nothing or only a few mouldings, cornices and pediments were broken, brackets and consoles were inverted, mould- . 382 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. In Spain the Renaissance, mixed with some Saracenic features, produced some very good work; the typical example of Spanish Renaissance is the Escurial, the great palace of the Spanish kings. In Germany the Italian Renaissance made but a tardy advance, and was never thoroughly at home in that country. German Renaissance is far less refined than that of other countries which were influenced by the Italian style. It is chiefly in painting, furniture, book illustration, and in goldsmiths' work that it appears at its best, and not in architecture. This was owing to the art of Germany being at that time in the hands of the burghers when the advent of the Renaissance took place, and also that the mass of the people were more concerned in the study of ethics and philosophy than the arts. Another reason may be added, that the nation was unsettled, and occupied with the great religious upheaval of the Reformation. All these things proved to be sufficient to retard the advancement of the Renaissance in Germany for more than a hundred years. One of the best examples of the Renaissance we can point to in Germany is the Castle of Heidelberg, built by the Elector Otto Heinrich (1556-1559). The two façades of this castle, which are now in ruins, have engaged columns and pilasters; the windows have rather heavy- headed features, and are richly carved; statues are placed in the niches between the windows. The portico of the Town Hall at Cologne is another example, and the Cloth Hall at Brunswick is a very interesting specimen of German Renaissance. It is deficient in proportion, how- ever, by the extreme horizontality of its eight series of low stories in the principal façade, but is otherwise very picturesque. The German Renaissance towards the later periods was characterised by its elaborate carving of ornament, figures, and animals in wood and stone; armorial bearings, escutcheons, shields, and cartouches or ornamental labels were very common in German work, and in most other 384 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. piazza in Covent Garden, and Crewe Hall in Cheshire were built from his designs. The Cathedral of St. Paul's is too well known to need description. It may be mentioned as the most important example of the late Renaissance in England. thirty-five years in building (1675-1710), and although POLIulia JULHOS WILDLANDIRI Wer Fig. 413.-Elizabethan, North Entrance, Wollaton House. some details and the ornament generally incline to the Baroque, the building as a whole is one of the finest and most impressive works ever produced in any country. Wren built a great many churches in London during the time that was occupied in the building of St. Paul's, St. Stephen's, Walbrook, being one of his finest. Chelsea Hospital, the Royal Exchange, together with some City RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 385 Halls and twenty-five churches, were built from his designs or under his directions. The architecture of the present day in France leans mostly to Renaissance traditions. In Germany, Greek and Roman styles find favour, but 1060 MENU Fig. 414.-The Ancient Parlour, Holland House. Gothic and Renaissance, and sometimes Romanesque style of buildings are now erected. In England about one hundred years ago there was a Greek revival, due in a great measure to the publication of Stuart and Revett's works in connection with their close VOL. I. СС RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 389 subjects that were painted on the walls, which were often divided into friezes, panels, and dados. These decorations w UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUNN wwwinni Fig. 417.- Objects of Art handiwork, from Pompeii. were executed in tempera colours of bright reds, greens, yellows, blues, and black. The antique grotesques, so 392 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. examples of the style, as they appear in architectural decoration, for under the heads of the various historic O 167 B D $ $ $0 $ dopopoo Dotari . Fig. 420.-Mural Painting. Pompeii. industrial arts many examples of Renaissance ornament will come under our notice in a succeeding volume. 1 an 17111 Se Fig. 427.- Candelabra and Vase Panel. H. M. SPARI ING. DEL Fig. 426.-- Cinquecento; from the Martinengo Tomb, Brescia, 402 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. the crescent arms of Diana of Poitiers are seen very often on the shields. Jean Goujon and Jean Cousin were employed on the decoration of this castle. An extremely rich example of French carved wood is Ercrucicu للللل RELIQUIS 264 VICTOR rr Fig. 432. – Ceiling Decoration, from San Spirito, Florence. By Sansovino. the panel from the Château Gaillon, in Normandy (1515) (Fig. 436). The above examples, and the chimney-piece panel by Germain Pilon (1560) (Fig. 437), another sculptor em- ployed by Catherine de' Medici, are a few of the best specimens of the Cinquecento period in France. -- RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT. 405 Elizabethan ornament, or that of the Renaissance in England, is characterized by a preponderance of strap- work, and has animals, masks, rosettes, half-lion or half- human terminals, debased class of mouldings, and very little foliage. The example given-the panelling from the Old Guard Chamber, Westminster (1600), exhibits a strong influence of Saracenic tracery that was prevalent in much of the later furniture and textiles of the Renais- sance (Fig. 438). Shield-work was not so prominent in the pure Elizabe- than as in the Jacobean (James I.) style; the carved stone hoc Fig. 437.–Panel from Chimneypiece; Louvre. By Germain Pilon. escutcheon-like work from Crewe Hall, Cheshire, attri- buted to Inigo Jones (Fig. 439), shows the beginning of the Jacobean shield-work. This style is best seen in the carved-wood furniture of the period, and both it and the Elizabethan are generally speaking offshoots of the Flemish and German phases of the Renaissance. Eliza- bethan ornament is of great variety, the panelling and other arrangements are sometimes composed purely of strap-work of a rectangular flat perforated appearance, sometimes seen in the doorways and chimney fronts, as at Hardwick Hall, Haddon Hall, Speke and Crewe Halls. Another kind is of a more curved variety, with figures and 408 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. PAVALA SERRES SE. Fig. 441.-Example of Dietterlin's Architecture; German, Sixteenth Century. 1 ART PUBLICATIONS- continued. STATHAM-Architecture for General Readers. A Short Treatise on the Principles and Motives of Architectural Design. By H. H. STATHAM. 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This magnificent work contains seventy-two Coloured Plates. In Twelve Parts, 88. net per part. LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LTD.