A manual of historic ornament, treating upon the evolution, tradition, and development of architecture & the applied arts '4 -"- I M / .. -V /// II7-S" .-u m. • * ** Historic Ornament. MONUMENT TO CONTE UGINO, BY MINO DA FIESOLE, CHURCH OF THE BADIA, FLORENCE. Printed by S. CLARKE 41, Granby Kw, Manchester ONTENTS. PAGE Ornament of Oceania ... 3 Egyptian Ornament.... 5 Assyrian Ornament 7 Greek Architecture .... 9 Greek Ornament . . . . 13 Roman Architecture. . . . . .21 Roman Ornament . . . . . .25 Pompeian Ornament ..... 29 Byzantine Ornament . . . . .31 Romanesque Architecture and Ornament . . . 33 Celtic Ornament . . . . . -35 Scandinavian Ornament ..... 37 Norman and Gothic Architecture . . . .38 Norman Ornament ...... 45 Early Gothic ...... 47 Decorated or Geometric Gothic .... 49 Perpendicular Gothic . . . . .51 French Gothic . . . . . -53 Renascence Architecture and Ornament . . . 55 French Renascence ...... 69 English Renascence ...... 73 Mahometan Ornament ..... 79 Persian Ornament . . . . . .81 Indian Ornament ...... 85 Chinese Ornament ...... 87 Japanese Ornament ...... 89 THE APPLIED ARTS. Mosaics ....... 93 Greek Ceramics ...... 95 Ceramics ....... 97 Maiolica . . . . . . .105 Terra Cotta . . . . . . .107 Glass . . . . . . .1n Stained Glass . . . . . .113 Enamels . . . . . . .117 Gold and Silver . . . . . .121 Wrought Iron . . . . . . .125 Bronzes . . . . . . .127 Decorative Furniture . . . . .131 Wood Carving . . . . . 135 Ivories . . . . . . 137 Bookbindings . . . . . 139 Textile Fabrics . . . . . .141 Terms Used in Ornamental Art . . . .150 Printed Initial Letters . . . . .151 Frets . . . . . . .153 The Architectural Capital . . . . . 154 LIST OF PLATES. PLATE PAGE PLATE PAGE I Ornament of Oceania . 2 30 Indian Ornament 84 2 Egyptian Ornament 4 31 Chinese Ornament 86 3 Assyrian Ornament 6 32 Japanese Ornament 88 4 Greek Architecture 8 33 Roman Scroll .... 9° I >- Greek Ornament 12, IS 6 1 7 Roman Architecture 20 THE APPLIED ARTS. 8 ^ V Roman Ornament 24, 26 34 Mosaics ..... 92 9/ 35 Greek Ceramics .... 10 Pompeian Ornament . 28 36 Ceramics ..... 06 II Byzantine Ornament . 3° 37 Maiolica ..... y 104 12 Romanesque Ornament 32 38 Glass no 13 Celtic Ornament . 34 39 Stained Glass .... 1 12 14 Scandinavian Ornament 36 4.O \ 15 The Triforium and Clearstory 4' '} Gold and Silver . . . 120, 4 / 122 16 Norman Details .... 17 Early Gothic Details . 44 46 42 Wrought Iron .... 124 18 Decorated Gothic Details . 48 44 1 Bronzes . . . .126, 128 19 Perpendicular Details . 5° 45 Furniture ..... I3O 20 French Gothic .... 52 46 Wood Carving .... 134 22 ) \ Renascence Ornament 54, 59 47 Ivories ..... 136 48 Bookbindings .... 138 ~ > French Renascence 68, 70 491 24 | 25 } .J [-Textile Fabrics . 140, 143, 146, 148 25A [-English Renascence . . 72, 74, 76 52J 1 26 J 78 53 Frets I C2 27 Mahometan Ornament 54 Plans of Historic Buildings . 159 [ Persian Ornament 80, 83 55 Illuminated Manuscript 1 60 'ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT. PAGK PAGE Arabesque Ornament .... 62 Palaces — The Farnesc, Rome 65 Arch of Septimus Severus . 21 The Vendramini, Venice 66 Capitals ..... 154- 5-6-7-8 The Verzi, Verona 67 Caryatide from the Erectheum 9 Casa del Diavolo 67 Celtic Ornament .... 35 Ancien Hotel d'Kcoville 71 Chairs ...... 131-2 Parthenon — the Elevation . H Chinese Pagoda .... 87 Peruvian Potterv .... 103 Chalice ...... 121 Peruvian Textiles .... 149 Console Table . . . ... I TT Persian Plate 81 Corinthian Order from the Pantheon . 22 Plan of Roman House 23 Coffered Ceiling .... 25 Plan of Lincoln Cathedral . 38 Crockets 47 Polynesian Ornament 3 Decorated Gothic .... 49 Poppy-heads ..... 51 Doric Frieze from the Parthenon 14 Relief from Nike Apteros . 16 Early Gothic Window 39 Roman Scroll ..... 2S Engraved Panel by Aldegrever . 91 Roman House — Plan. 23 Enamels ...... 119 Sibyl, by Michel Angelo . 60 Frieze from the Parthenon . 15 Sicilian Fabric ..... 142 Frieze from Susa .... 17 Singing Gallery, by Donatello . 57-8 Frieze from Tivoli .... 27 Spitalfields Silk .... '45 Frieze by Mantegna .... 63 S. George, by Donatello . 58 Frieze from Phigaleia 15 Stained Glass — Gothic Borders ..... 47 Early Jesse Window . "3 Gothic Piers ..... 39 Early Grisaille .... 114 Gothic Doorway, Amiens . 53 Quarries ..... »4 Golden Candlestick .... 121 Canopies ..... US Greek Coins ..... 19 Terra Cotta — Greek .... 107-8 Ilaria di Carretto .... 56 Lucca della Robbia 108 Ionic Order from Ilyssus II Andrea della Robbia . 109 Japanese Key Pattern i53 Theatre of Marcellus .... 22 Lancet Window .... 39 Tomb of Lorenzo de Medici 6i Lismore Crosier .... 35 Tomb of Ilaria di Carretto . 56 Metopes of the Parthenon . I Cl Monument of Lysicrates II Woodcut from the Grotesque Alphabet 1 Jj Palace — The Strozzi, Florence . 64 of 1464 ..... 93 Part I. The History and Development of Architecture & Ornament. RNAMENT OF OCEANIA. The ornamentation of the people of the Pacific Isles is full of interest, and is remarkable for the evolution and perfecting of an ornamental style by a primitive people, with myths and traditions purely local, and in no way influenced by other nations. It is a style of ornament full of meaning and symbolism, yet simple in detail and arrangement, not founded upon the beautiful vegetation and flora of their islands, but upon abstract forms derived from the human figure, and arranged with a pleasing geometrical precision remarkable for a primitive people. The ornamental art of these people may be broadly divided into provinces, each with its distinct ornamental characteristics and tradi- tions,. New Zealand showing the highest development and Australia the lowest in the ornament of Polynesia and Melanesia. Much of the ornament is purely linear, consisting of parallel and zig-zag lines; that of Australia consists almost entirely of these lines incised in the ground and occasionally filled in with colour. In New Guinea a higher development is reached, the ornament, of straight and curved lines, being carved in flat relief. In the pro- vince of Tonga-Samoa, the surface is divided into small fields, and the linear ornament runs in a different direction on each of the fields. The Hervey and Austral Islands are distinguished by their remarkable adaptations of the human female figure, the illustrations given here showing the original type and its ornamental development. These ex- amples, together with the circular form the elements of 'OMiAAICTiT I FROM A CLUB. SAMOA. eye pattern, the Hervey province, of which the Heape collection contains many fine examples. In the Solomon Island the linear ornament is occasionally interspersed with an inlay of angular pieces of mother of pearl. The New Zealand province is distinguished by its skilful pierced carving, the beauty of its spiral forms adapted from the human figure (figs. 1-12), and the con- stant use of the border here given. 3 EGYPTIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 2. HATHOKIC CAPITAL MOUrtTCD BY A MA05- PHILf w1nGED GLOBE APID A5P5 THC 3CARABCEU3 O(V3ACR£0 BEETLE COLUAM15 THEBES 5 C THE ECYPTIAH LOTUS OM~1AJ-VEMT IdOC B C GYPTIAN ORNAMENT. The history of Egypt, extending from 4400 B.C. to 340 B.C., during which thirty dynasties existed, is usually divided into three groups: (1) The Ancient Empire, I.-XI. dynasties, 4400-2466 B.C.; (2) The Middle Empire, XII.-XIX., 2466-1200 B.C.; and (3) the New Empire, XX.-XXX. dynasties, 1200-340 B.C. The capitals of the Ancient Empire comprised Memphis and Abydos; of the Middle Empire, Thebes, Luxor, and Tanis; and of the New Empire, Sais and Bubastes. The remarkable civilization of these early dynasties is attested by the many fine remains of architecture, sculpture, and decorative arts that enrich our national museums. The Great Pyramids were built during the 4th dynasty, the largest by Kheops, 3733-3700 B.C., is 756 ft. by 756 ft, and 480 ft. high; the second, by Kephren, 3666-3633 B.C., is 707 ft. by 707 ft. and 454 ft. high; and the third, 333 ft.by 330 ft., and 218 ft. high, was erected by Mykerinos, 3633-3600 B.C. The Sphinx, half animal and half human, is the oldest sculpture known, and is probably of the 1st and 2nd dynasties, yet it is singular that all the earliest sculptures of the 3rd and 4th dynasties with which we are acquainted were realistic portraiture, remark- able for fidelity to nature. Kings, queens, and individuals of note were finely sculptured, frequently of a colossal size. But the Deities, Amen Sckhet, Horus, Hathor, Iris, and Osiris were represented in the later dynasties by small votive statuettes, noticeable for their number rather than for their artistic qualities, never reaching the excellence or vitality of the earlier period. Much of the architectural enrichment was in Cavo Relievo, a peculiarly Egyptian mode of ornamentation, the outline of the figures, birds, or flowers being sunk into the surface of the granite or basalt, and then carved within this sunk outline, leaving the ground or bed raised, these reliefs being invariably painted red, blue, green, and yellow. The frieze which in the hands of the Greeks, at a later period, became their principal ornamental field, was used by the Egyptians in superposed bands, showing, in cavo relievo, the industrial arts and pursuits—weaving, glass blowing, and the making of pottery; ploughing, sowing, and reaping; also hunting and fishing. The composition and sculpture of these incidents was simple, refined, and purely decorative, with a naivete and unaffectedness so appropriate to the architectonic condi- tions. Mingled with these incidents were the beautiful hieroglyphs, or picture writing of the Egyptians. Figs. 7-13 are examples of painted decorations showing the spiral construction of lines, together with the symbolic treatment of the Lotus, the latter being regarded by the Egyptians as a symbol of fertility and of a new life, hence the profusion with which it was used in their decorative work. Great fertility of invention was displayed in enriching their architectural capitals with the Lotus, the Papyrus, and the Palm. A singular feature introduced during the 18th dynasty was the Hathor Capital, surmounted by a small Naos. During the Ptolemaic period— B.C. 300—the Hathor Capital was placed upon the vertical bell- shaped capital (fig. 3). 5 ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 3. ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT. The early history of Babylonia and Assyria is one long series of wars and conquests. Originally one nation, they became divided, and the younger Assyria in the north became the most powerful empire of that period, under Tiglath-Pileser I., B.C. 11oo, Ashur-nasir-pal, B.C. 885-60, Shalmaneser II., B.C. 860-25, Tiglath- Pileser III., B.C. 745-27, the Great Sargon, B.C. 722-705, Senna- cherib, B.C. 705-681, Esarhaddon, B.C. 681-668, and Ashur-ban-pal, B.C. 668-626. In B.C. 609 the capital, Nineveh, was destroyed by Cyaxares the Mede, and Babylon arose again to power under Nebuchadnezzar, B.C. 604-562: this city was destroyed by Cyrus the Persian, B.C. 539. Assyrian art, with its racial influences, religious beliefs, and climatic conditions, differs in a remarkable degree from Egyptian art. Though stone is found in Assyria, the great cities were built of brick, no doubt owing to the fact of the arts and civilization coming from Chaldea, where stone was scarce and clay plentiful. Both at Babylon in Chaldea and Nineveh in Assyria the traditional type of building was rectangular, with arched openings and vaults, built of sun-dried bricks. The lower part of the wall was covered with large alabaster slabs, carved in low relief with scenes representing the king and his warriors engaged in hunting or fighting (fig. 1). The upper part of the wall was in enamelled brick, or in coloured stucco, with details of the Lotus and the bud, together with the rosette, which was often carried round the archivolt. The representa- tion of the industrial arts and the pursuits of agriculture, which is so admirably illustrated upon the Egyptian reliefs, is entirely absent in Assyria. The enamelled bricks of Chaldea were modelled in low relief, with enamels of turquoise blue, yellow, white, and black, of fine quality and colour—one splendid example is the Frieze of Archers from the Palace of Susa. The enamelled bricks of Assyria were usually flat, or modelled but slightly, and the enamels were less pure. The external walls were similar to the internal ones, but with larger friezes and bolder reliefs, and usually with religious subjects (fig. 9). The portals were enriched with colossal winged and human-headed bulls, of alabaster, finely carved in relief. Typical examples of Assyrian ornament are the Lotus and the bud (figs. 2 and 3), the Patera or Rosette (figs. 6 and 7), and the Hom, or Tree of Life (fig. 8). The Lotus enrichment shows Egyptian influence, and only came into use during the 7th century B.C., when intercourse between the two nations was established. It is differentiated from the Egyptian Lotus by its vigorous growth and curved profile, and the geometrical form of the calyx of the flower and bud (fig. 2). The Anthemion or Hom, with its alternate bud and fir-cone, and with strong lateral markings, is beautiful in line and proportion of mass (fig. 3). The Horn is frequently used as a flower on the sacred tree, a form of enrichment that influenced much of the later Persian and Sicilian textile fabrics. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. Plate - HEIGHT Or COLUMM3, U.74 OR. ao MODULES. REEK ARCHITECTURE. Classic or columnar architecture is divided into the Greek and Roman styles, and each style comprises several orders of architecture: the Grecian orders are the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian, and many examples of each of these orders are still extant in Greece and her colonies—Asia Minor, Southern Italy, and Sicily. From a comparison of these buildings, certain constructive and decorative features are observed to be present, and thence they are considered as the characteristics of the style or order, which comprises the base (except in the Grecian Doric, which has no base), column and capital, and the Entablature, which consists of the" Architrave, Frieze, and Cornice. The proportions of these orders are generally determined by the lower diameter of the column, which is divided into 2 modules or 60 parts, the height of the column always including the base and capital. The DORIC order was used for the early Greek temples from B.C. 600, and cul- minated in the Parthenon, B.C. 438. The COLUMNS in this order are 4^ to 6 diameters in height, with 2O shallow flutings with intermediate sharp arrises; the CAPITAL is half a diameter in height, and is composed of an echinus or ovolo moulding with annulets or deep channellings below, and a large square abacus above. The ARCHITRAVE is plain; the FRIEZE is enriched by rectangular blocks, with 3 vertical channellings in the face, termed triglyths, alternately with square metopes which were fre- quently sculptured. The CORNICE, composed of simple mouldings, projects considerably beyond the face of the frieze. The IONIC order has columns of from 9 to g% diameters in height, with 24 flutings divided by narrow fillets; the base is half a diameter in height, and composed of a plinth, torus, fillet, cavetto, fillet, torus, and fillet. The CAPITAL is TV of a diameter high, and consists of a pair of double scrolls or volutes, supported by an echinus moulding enriched with the egg and tongue, with an astragal below. The ENTABLATURE is one quarter the height of the columns, the ARCHITRAVE of one or more fascias, the FRIEZE continuous and frequently enriched with sculpture in low relief; the CORNICE has simple and compound mouldings supported by a dentil band. Caryatides were occasionally introduced into this order; they were female figures clad in drapery having vertical folds which re-echoed the flutings of the Ionic column. These Caryatides supported the entablature in place of the columns; a beautiful example is in the south portico of the Erechtheum at Athens. CARYATIDE, ERECHTHEUM. 9 The CORINTHIAN order was not much used by the Greeks; the examples, however, show considerable refinement and delicacy of details. The COLUMNS are 10 diameters in height, with 24 flutings; the BASE is half a diameter high; the CAPITAL is a little greater than a diameter in height, and is enriched with acanthus foliations and spiral volutes. The ENTABLATURE is richer and the CORNICE deeper and more elaborate than those of the other orders. The principal Doric buildings in Greece are:—The Temples at Corinth2'8, B.C. 650, yEgina2'8, B.C. 550, the Parthenon2'9, and the Theseum2'8, B.C. 438; the Temples of Jupiter at Olympia2'8, B.C. 436, Apollo Epicurius at Bassse2-8, B.C. 436, Propyla^a at Athens, B.C. 431, and the Minerva at Sunium, B.C. 420. Ionic buildings are:— Temples at Ilyssus1'7, B.C. 484, Nike Apteros1'7, B.C. 420, and the Erechtheum, B.C. 420 (see plan, plate 54), North Portico7, East Portico8, at Athens. In Asia Minor there are the Temples of Samos3, Priene8, Teos8, Diana at Ephesus9 (with 36 of its columns sculptured), and of Apollo at Miletos. Corinthian buildings are:— The Monument of Lysicrates, B.C. 335, the Tower of the Winds (octagonal in plan), and Jupiter Olympius2'8, B.C. 200. During the 5th century B.C. the Doric order was extensively used in the Greek colonies at Sicily. At Agrigentum there are the remains of six fine Doric temples, of which the Temple of Zeus2, B.C. 450, is the largest, being 354 by 175 ft. In this Temple were found the Telemones, or Atlantes, male figures, 25 ft. in height, with their arms raised, probably supporting the roof. This Temple is also remarkable for its portico of seven columns, 60 ft. in height, and having the peristyle walled up. At Selinus there are five large Doric temples2-8, and one5'9 with columns 57 ft. in height, with an entablature of 19 ft. At Segesta there is a Doric temple2'8 with only the peristyle complete and the columns unfluted, and at Paestum, in southern Italy, there are two Doric temples2'8 and a basilica5 with its porticos of nine columns each. All these buildings in Sicily and Prestum date between 500 and 430 B.C. CLASSIFICATION OF CLASSIC TEMPLES. ARRANGEMENT OF COLUMNS AND WALLS. 1 Apteral - - When the side walls have no colonnade. 2 Peripteral - - When there is a colonnade standing apart from the side walls. 5 Pseudo-peripteral When the colonnade is attached to the side walls. * Dipteral - - When there is a double colonnade standing out from the walls. 5 Pseudo-dipteral - When the inner row of columns are attached to the side walls. THE RELATION OF THE ENDS OF THE TEMPLE. /;; Antis - - When the columns do not project beyond the ends of the side walls. Prostyle - - When a portico stands in front of the temple. 0 Amphi-prostyle - When there is a portico at each end. Mono-prostyle - If the portico is one column in depth. Di-prostyle - If the portico is two columns in depth. THE NUMBER OF COLUMNS IN THE PORTICO. 7 Tetrastyle - - If of four columns. 9 Hexastyle - - If of six columns. 0 Octastyle - - If of eight columns. 10 MONUMENT OF DT5ICJJATE5. ATHEn5.BC.355. PROPORTIONS OF THE ENTABLATURE, IN PARTS. Archi- trave. Frieze. Cor- nice. Total Enta- blature.] 441A 4°/4 26 "\ Theseus 5° 555^ '31 IONIC - I Erechtheum "\Priene- i% 29 37^ 55% 137^ / Ly.sicrates - CCRIN-I HIAN-I fupiter 51 39* 5° I4°H ^ Olympius 4'« 27M 48 117 IONIC ORDER, TEMPLE OF ILYSSUS. I I GREEK ORNAMENT. Plate 5, AriTHEMIon ORjiAI*m TOMBS ATHENS BC. 3GO OK.MAI^CMT FfVOn THE MOnUMEMT OF LYSICfVATCS ATHEM5 6.C. 33O. THE EAST OF THE PARTHCnOM -4-38 poKTIon or THE DOORWAY. EIGHTH EUn. ATHEn5 5.C 4-O9 FUM ERA L STELE,WITH THE REEK ORNAMENT. Greece, or Hellas, consisted of a number of small states, speaking the same language, and worshipping the same gods. Almost the whole of the Aegean coast of Asia Minor was occupied in early times by Greek Colonies, which supplanted those of the Phoenicians of Tyre and Sidon. The southern portion of this seaboard was occupied by the Dorians, and the northern by Ionians. In the course of time other Greek settlements were made on the Black Sea and Medi- terranean Coast of Asia Minor, as well as at Syracuse, Gela and Agrigentum in Sicily, and in Etruria and Magna Grecia in Italy. These colonies appear to have reached a higher state of art at an early period than Greece itself. The ascendency in art in Greece was en- joyed by the Dorians circa, 800 B.C.; after which Sparta took the lead, but was in turn excelled by the Ionians, when Athens became the focus of Greek art, and attained a degree of perfection in that respect that has remained unequalled to this day. Athens was des- troyed by the Persians under Xerxes, 480 B.C.; but under Pericles (470-429 B.C.) Greek art reached its culmination. The abundant, although fragmentary, remains of Grecian architec- ture, sculpture, and the industrial arts, show most vividly the artistic feeling and culture of the early Greeks, with their great personality and religious sentiment, in which the personal interest of the gods and goddesses was brought into relation with the life and customs of the people. Their myths and traditions, their worship of legendary heroes, the perfection of their physical nature, and their intense love of the beautiful, were characteristic of the Greek people, from the siege of Troy to their subjection by Rome, B.C. 140. The almost inexhaustible store of Greek art, now gathered in the British Museum, and in other European museums, furnishes one of the most valuable illustrations of the many glorious traditions of the past. The vitality of con- ception, the dignity and noble grace of the gods, the consummate knowledge of the human figure, and the exquisite skill ofcraftmanship, are here seen in the greatest diversity of treatment and incident. The work of Phidias, the most renowned of Greek sculptors, is largely represented in the British Museum by noble examples, showing his great personality, wonderful power, and his remarkable influence upon contemporary and later plastic art. The Parthenon, or temple of the goddess Athene, which was built upon the Acropolis at Athens by Ictinus and Callicrates, B.C. 454-438, was enriched with splendid works of sculpture by Phidias. Many of the originals are now in the British Museum forming part of the Elgin Marbles, which were purchased from the Earl of Elgin, in 1815. The two pediments of the temple contained figure sculpture in the round, larger than life size. The Eastern group represents the birth of Athene, and the western group the contest of Athene and Poseidon 13 ELEVATIOrl OF THE BXRTHENQN. ATHENS. for the soil of Attica. The fragments of these pedimental groups are now in the British Museum, and, though sadly mutilated, show the perfection of sculpture during the Phidian age. Of the 92 square metopes sculptured in high relief, that enriched the Doric frieze, 15 are included in the Elgin Marbles. The subject represented on these metopes was the battle between the Centaurs and Lapithae, or Greeks, —a fine example of composition of line and mass, and dramatic power of expression. DOMC FRIEZE . (THE PAKTHEMOM . ATHEM5. The continuous frieze upon the upper part of the cella wall, under the colonnade or Peristyle, was 40 feet from the ground, 40 inches in height, and 523 feet in length. It was carved in low relief, the subject being the Panathenasic procession, the most sacred and splendid of the religious festivals of the Ancient Greeks. This frieze, with its rhythm of movement and unity of composition, its groups of beautiful youths and maidens, sons and daughters of noble citizens, ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Plate 7. 20 OMAN ARCHITECTURE Is differentiated from that of Greece by the extensive use of the arch and of superposed orders. The many fine remains of Roman temples and public buildings show the extraordinary versatility and conception of the Roman architects, their constructive skill, and their remarkable power of assimilating the arts of other nations. The Roman temples were somewhat similar in plan to their Greek prototypes, but usually without the side colonnade, larger in scale, and with an ostentatious display of mouldings and ornaments, less refined in contour and detail. 1 OPTIM'S roRTIsyMI;, yvf PRINCIPI&VS io INSICMBV3 URTVrIBV* EQHVM DOM 1 FOR. ISO VE 5- P Q B.. 1n 1 U I i j r APvCH OF SEPTI^IUS 5EVEZRU5 AT A typical example is given here of a triumphal arch, namely, that of Septimus Severus, A.D. 203. Other examples are the Arch of Titus, A.D. 83, and the Arch of Constantine, A.D. 326, all near the Forum at Rome. Trajan's Arch, A.D. 114, was destroyed by Con- stantine, who used many of the reliefs for the building of his own arch. The superposition of columns and arches is seen in the Theatre of Marcellus, B.C. 20, where the lower order is of the Doric and the upper of the Ionic, and, like the early Greek Theatre, was semi-circular in plan. The Colosseum, commenced by Vespasian, A.D. 72, and completed 21 PLAH OF THE HOUSE OF PAnSA-fcMPEII THE OAM)CM , and splendour of embellishment. The skilful planning and appro- priateness of decorative treatment in their basilicas and amphitheatres are evidences of the practical nature of the Romans. The Basilica or Hall of Justice was an important architectural feature, rectangular in plan, with a semi-circular apse at one end, where the Tribunal was placed; roofed with timber framing, or vaulted with concrete, and supported with rows of columns or piers. The remains of two typical Roman basilicas are still in existence: the Basilica of Trajan, A.D. 114, rectangular, 180 by 160 ft., five aisles, the centre aisle with a semi-circular wooden roof, and enriched with bronze plates, is typical of one class; and the Basilica of Maxentinus, A.D. 310, with a width of 195 ft, and a length of 260 ft, is typical of a vaulted Basilica, the two side aisles with an arched roof, and the centre aisle with an intersecting vaulted roof. These Roman basilicas were adopted by the early Christians to their service, and the basilica church became the typical form used up to the 12th century in the Romanesque provinces. The Roman houses were of two types: the Domus, or houses clustered together, and the Insular, houses which were surrounded by streets. Most of the finest Pompeian houses were of the Insular type. The usual plan of a Roman house consisted of the Ostium, an entrance or Vestibule, which opened into the Atrium, a large room or court partly roofed over, with an opening in the centre called the Conpluvium, under which was the Impluvium, or cistern of water, placed below the level of the ground. Small chambers surround- ed the Atrium, and at the further end was the Tablinum or private room, frequently leading to the Peristylium or private part of the house, an open court, with a colonnade surrounding a marble fountain,with flowers, shrubs, and trees, forming a Viridarium. Sur- rounding the Peristylium were private rooms, one of which was the Tri- clinium, or dining room. From the Peristylium, fauces or passages led to the Porticus, a colonnade which overlooked the garden. 23 ROMAN ORNAMENT. Plate 8, FK.IE7e.rOR.UM OF TRAJAM. LATEIVAn MUSEUtt. FIG I TWAMGULAR. BASE OrA/"VW,LC CAriDELABMJM . BMTISH c nr-, A n MO AD lOMAN ORNAMENT. Rome, founded by Romulus, B.C. 783, became by successive wars and conquests the mistress of the world, absorbing the arts and the architecture of the Etruscans B.C. 567, the Samnites B.C. 340, and of Corinth and Carthage B.C. 146. From these varied sources arose the style termed Roman, assimilating and adopting the column and the horizontal entablature of the Greeks; the arch, the vault, the mural paintings, and the decorative use of bronze and terra- cotta of the Etruscans, with the sculpture, ornament, mosaics and coinage of the Greeks and Carthaginians. These varied arts were assimilated and perfected by the Romans during the period B.C. 100 to 337 A.D. Roman ornament is the continuity of the Greek and Etruscan styles, consisting of the anthenHenr the acanthus and the scroll; the Romans using these forms with greater exuberance and elaboration, together with bold and vigorous carving, yet lacking the simplicity, refinement, and graceful contour of the Greek and Etruscan forms. Roman ornament consists largely of continuous spiral lines, clothed with cups and sheaths of acanthus foliage, the various spirals ter- minating in a rosette. These main spirals are frequently interwoven with fine curved or spiral lines, clothed with acanthus or other foli- ation, such as the vine, olive and ivy. Birds and reptilesandcupids, and the chimera or griffin (fig. 1) are often interspersed with the ornament, thus giving that large- ness of mass, and contrast of form, which is so characteristic of Roman art. The Thermae, or baths and public buildings, dis- played fine decorative ceilings, having deep sunk panels called Lacunaria, or coffers; square, hexagonal or octagonal in form, with a centre rosette in high re- lief and the border mouldings of the coffers being enriched with the egg and dart, or the water leaf. These exhibit an effective treatment of moulded surfaces. The ceilings of the tombs and palaces were in many cases ornamented 25 OMPEIAN ORNAMENT. Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabia, Roman cities, were buried by an eruption of Vesuvius, A.D. 79. These cities had already suffered from an earthquake, A.D. 63, and were being rapidly rebuilt when they were finally destroyed by the eruption. The Younger Pliny, the historian, was a spectator of the event at Pompeii, and wrote two letters to his friend Tacitus, describing the event and his flight from the doomed city, which remained buried for seventeen centuries, with the treasures of gold and silver, bronzes of rare work- manship, mural paintings on a most magnificent scale, and floors of mosaics of marvellous execution and design; everything affording a vivid glimpse of the domestic and public life of the Romans of the 1st century A.D. Herculaneum was discovered in 1709, and Pompeii 1748, and from these cities many valuable remains of art have been taken. In the museum at Naples there are over 1,000 mural paintings, some 13,000 small bronzes, over 150 large bronzes of figures and busts, and 70 fine large mosaics. A plan of a Roman house is given on page 23 showing the arrange- ment and use of the rooms. The floors covered with mosaics (see plate 33), those of the vestibule, corridors, and small rooms having simple patterns enclosed with borders of the key pattern, or the Guilloche in black, red, grey, and white tesseriae. The floor of the triclinium, or dining room, was often a magnificent mosaic representing some mythqlogical or classical subject. The walls were painted in colour, usually with a dado ^th the height of the wall, with pilasters dividing the wall into rectangular panels and a frieze above (plate 10). The general scheme of colour was, the dado and pilasters black, the panels red, and the frieze white; or black dado, red pilasters and frieze, with white or yellow panels. The decorations upon these various coloured grounds was light and fanciful, and painted with great delicacy. Representations of architectural forms, such as columns and entablatures, are often rendered in perspective upon the painted walls. The painted ornament has somewhat the same characteristics as the Roman relief work, but is usually much more delicate in treat- ment. The spiral form and the sheath are always prevalent, and from these sheaths and cups grow the finer tendrils or delicately painted spray of foliage, upon which birds are placed. Stucco enrichments, such as ornamental string courses and mould- ings, were frequently combined with the painted ornament; they consist of small details, such as the water-leaf, the egg and dart, and the anthemion, and are repeated in a regular series. Herculaneum differed considerably from Pompeii, for the finest works of art and innumerable MSS. have been found, shewing that a higher intellectual life existed than that at Pompeii, where not a single MS. has been found. It is probable that Herculaneum was equal to Athens itself in the wealth of its art treasures. 29 BYZANTINE ORNAMENT. Plate 11 LILY CAPITAL. ST7HARKS. PIERCED f MARBLE SCREEn Sf MARKS. VITALE RAVENNA SAHCOPHAOI OF THEOD51US 7"CEMTUKr'. S APOLLtNARt. KAVETtMA . IERCED MARBLE. CAfWED PAMEL5 IM ALADA5TEK nvj^ STAVARKS . VEMICE 107I YZANTINE ORNAMENT. The decline of the Roman empire, in the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D., had its inevit- able influence upon contemporary art, but perhaps a more potent influence was that of Christianity, which, under the reign of Constantine, received state recognition and support; and when this Emperor removed the seat of government from Rome to Byzantium, the traditional Greek and Roman arts were assimilated with those of Persia and Syria, but moulded and influenced by the new religion, giving that strong vitality, deep significance, and symbolism which is so remark- able a feature of the Byzantine style. The change of style did not take place immediately, for most of the buildings erected by Constantine were in the traditional Roman style, but the arts were gradually perfected until they culminated in the building of S. Sophia, by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, during the reign of Justinian, A.D. 538. This building is remarkable for its splendid dome, supported by semi-domes and pendentives on a square plan (see plate 54), its embellishment with mosaics of glorious colours, and the great inventiveness and symbol- ism of the detail. The traditional sharp acanthus foliage of the Greeks was united with the emblems of Christianity, such as the circle, the cross, the vine, and the dove: the peacock also is fre- quently seen. Figure sculpture was rarely used, but groups of figures were used in great profusion in the gold-ground mosaics that covered the upper part of the walls and the vaults and domes of the magnifi- cent Byzantine buildings. The churches of Ravenna, in Italy, have somewhat similar characteristics: S. Vitale, A.D. 535, the basilica churches of S. Apollinare Nuovo, A.D. 493-525, S. Apollinare in Classe, A.D. 535-45, together with the Baptisteries, are rich in mosaics and sculptured capitals of the 6th and 7th centuries. In the cathedrals of Torcello, A.D. 670, and Murano, and the beautiful S. Mark's at Venice, marbles and mosaics were used in great pro- fusion to enhance the architecture. The sketch plans given on plate 53 are typical of Byzantine planning, in which the symbolism of the circle and cross are used as constructive features. This sym- bolism is a marked feature in Byzantine ornament; interlacing circles and crosses mingle with the acanthus or the vine, and are cut with a peculiar V-shaped section. The circular drill is largely used at the sinking of the leaves, and but little of the background is visible in the sculptured ornament of this period. Pierced marble screens of interlaced foliage, or the fret in combina- tion with the circle, were frequently used (see plate 53). A large number of pierced parapets in S. Mark's are carved in low relief, with various modifications of the interlacing Guilloche, or circles. 31 ROMANESQUE ORNAMENT. Plate 12. 32 ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE &P ORNAMENT. Romanesque architecture differs from Roman chiefly in the universal use of the arch, the absence of the classic entablature, and in the imagery and symbol- ism of its sculpture and ornament, doubtless due to Northern influence. One of the earliest existing buildings of this style is the church of S. Ambrogio, Milan (nth century), which has a nave and aisles, three eastern apses, and a western atrium, surrounded by an open arcade, enriched with vigorous reliefs of interlaced orna- ment and animals. Contemporary in date is S. Michele, Pavia, with a nave and transepts and central cupola: there is a single eastern apse, having an open external gallery and bands of sculptured orna- ment. This and the frequent use of the lion or griffin as a support for pillars, are characteristic of the Lombardic style, and are seen at S. Michele, Lucca, and the Cathedral, Baptistry, and the Campanile of Pisa. It was, however, in France and Germany that the Romanesque reached its highest development, principally in the south and south- west of France, where the churches are distinguished for the richness of the west fronts. S. Trophime, Arles (12th century), has a fine low semi-circular pro- jecting porch, resting upon a sculptured frieze and pillars. A cloister, with arcading of coupled columns richly sculptured, is attached to this church; while S. Gilles (1076) has a low projecting porch of three arches, enriched with vigorous sculpture and ornament (plate 12). The Cathedral at Angouleme has a vaulted nave, with three cupolas, and a west front with recessed arcading and figures: two square towers, with open arcading and conical spires, rise from the angles of the facade. Notre Dame, Poitiers, is even more rich in its gabled west front, having a fine doorway with two tiers of arcading above. The facade is flanked by two circular turrets, with massive columns attached, having an open arcade above, with a conical spire; enriched corbel tables are carried across the front, over the door, the upper arcade and window, and round the turrets. Saint-Front, Perigueux, has a richly sculptured west front and nave of the nth century, to which was added in 1150 a larger church similar in plan to S. Mark's at Venice (a Greek cross, see plate 54), and roofed with five cupolas in stone. In central France there was the magnificent Abbey Church of Cluny, with its range of six towers; and in Germany this number of towers is found at the great Roman- esque churches of Speyer, Worms, and Laach, with their singular western apse and external clearstory gallery. Plate 12 illustrates a few of the chief features of Romanesque ornament. The upper frieze is similar to the Roman scroll, but less vigorous in modelling, and with a rounder form of serration of leaf form. The Laon capital has rich interlacing ornament and animals that suggest Scandinavian influence. The portal of Saint-Gilles shows the exuberant carving and storiation that characterized many of the churches of south-west France. 33 C CELTIC ORNAMENT. Plate 13. InITIAL THE GOSPELS OF LII-tDl5FAIV1E cnDOr/'-CEniuRr, CELTIC InTOU.ACCIno 3 InrrHLACCD AHIMALS. rxon THE BOOK BMTISH / SPIRAL SHIELD CnMCHED WITH *ED THE 5OOK OF 34 ELTIC ORNAMENT. No period in the history of art is more remarkable than the Celtic. The carved stone architecture and crosses, the bronzes, enamels, and silversmith's work, the splendid illuminated books and manuscripts with capitals and borders, full of imagery and intricacy of detail, and the clear and accurate writing of the text are all indications of the culture and love of ornament of the early Irish people, showing a remarkable preference for the spiral and interlacing forms. The bronze shield (fig. 6), with its spirals and bosses of enamel enriched with the northern " Fylfot " is a typical example of the 2nd or 3rd century, A.D. Then comes the trumpet pattern or divergent spiral, which, seen in its infancy on the bronze shield, reached a great degree of elaboration in the 8th and 9th centuries, A.D. (figs. 2 to 7), being typical of Celtic work up to the middle of the 1 1th century when all trace of this spiral is lost. The interlacing bird and animal forms used from the 8th to the 14th centuries are doubtless derived from Byzantine and Lombardic sources. The serpent or dragon, which is such a marked feature from the 7th to the 15th century must have been borrowed from the north, as Ireland had no traditions of snakes or dragons, and it is to Scandinavia, with its legend of Fafni, that we must look for the origin of the dracontine treatment. It is this Zor- morpic character that distinguishes the Celtic from all other styles of ornament except Scandinavian. The obverse of the magnificent processional Cross of Cong (a.D. 1123), is divided into 46 panels of decorations, and convoluted snakes occupy 38 of them. The illustrations given here from the Lismore crosier are typical examples of this Celtic dracontine treatment. The early or Pagan period is noted for its bronze work, cast and wrought, and enriched with Champleve enamels. The fine chalice of Ardagh (page 116) and the Tara Brooch (plate 40) 7th century, are splendid examples of the Christian period dating from St. Patrick, A.D. 440-460. The beautiful Book of Kells, the Book of Armagh, the Book of Durrow, manuscripts of the early part of the 9th century (Trinity College, Dublin), and the Book of Durham, called the Lindisfarne Gospels, A.D. 689-721, written by Eadfrith, and illuminated by Ethelwald, are a tribute to the vitality, assimilation of ideas, and the culture and wonderful craftmanship of the early Irish people. In Irish manuscripts gold is not used, except in the Lindisfarne Gospels, where a minute quantity is used. 35 ORMAN ftP GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. English Gothic architecture has been broadly divided into periods for the purpose of classifying the styles, the following being the most generally accepted :— By Sharpe.1 A.D. Roman-/Saxon esque \ Norman - 1066 1066-1145 Gothic JLancet - /"Transitional 1145-1190 1190-1245 | Curvilinear 1245-1360 I Rectilinear 1360-15 50 Bv RlCKMAN.2 A.D. Norman - I066-1 189 Early English - 1189-1307 Decorated - 1307-1379 Perpendicular - 1379-1483 Tudor - - 1483-1546 Most of our magnificent cathedrals were founded, a.D. 1066-1170, by Norman bishops, some upon the old Saxon foundations, such as Canterbury and York, or near the original Saxon buildings, as at Winchester, or upon new sites, such as Norwich and Peterborough; and were without exception more magnificent erections than those of the anterior period, portions of the older style still existing in many cathedrals, showing the fusion of Roman and Byzantine archi- tecture with the more personal and vigorous art of the Celtic, Saxon, and Scandinavian peoples. Lincoln is a typical English plan, showing no trace of the semi- circular apsidal arrangement so universal in Norman and French cathedrals. Each vertical division in the nave, the choir, and transept is termed a bay. On plate 15 is an illus- tration of four typical bays of English cathedrals, showing the development of style from the 12th to the 15th century. The general characteristic of each bay is given separately, but obviously it can only be approximate, as the building of each cathedral was influenced by local considera- tions, each period necessarily overlapping its predecessor, thus forming a transitional style. For instance, in the choir of Ripon Cathedral the aisle and clearstory have semi-circular Norman windows, and the nave arcading has pointed arches. In the triforium and clearstory arcading, round arches are seen side by side with the pointed arch. The PIERS —sometimes termed columns—of these bays have 1 "The Seven Periods of Church Architecture," by Edmund Sharpe. 2 "Gothic Architecture," by Thomas Rickman. 38 EARLY ENGLISH OR LANCET PERIOD. The Lancet or pointed arch universal. CAPITALS, of three lobed foliage and circular abacus. The pier arch mouldings, alternate rounds and hollows deeply cut and enriched with the characteristic dog's tooth ornament. A hood moulding which terminates in bosses of foliage or sculptured heads invariably surrounds the arch mouldings. This moulded hood when used ex- ternally is termed a " Dripstone," and when used horizontally over a square headed window, a " Label." The TRIFORIUM has a single or double arch, which covers the smaller or subordinate arches, the spandrels being enriched with a sunk or pierced trefoil or quatrefoil. The Triforium piers are solid, having delicate shafts attached to them, carrying arch mouldings of three orders, and enriched with the dog's tooth ornament or trefoil foliage. The CLEARSTORY lancet windows are in triplets, with an arcading on the inner face of the wall. The vaulting shaft occasionally springs from the floor, but more usually from a corbel above the nave capitals, and finishes under the clearstory string with an enriched capital, from which springs the simple vaulting usually quadripartite or hexapartite in form. Early windows in small churches were arranged in couplets, and at the east end, usually in triplets, with grisaille stained glass. The example given on the previous page from the east end of Rievaulx Abbey shows a finely proportioned window and its arrange- ment. Figure sculpture, beautiful and refined in treatment, was fre- quently used upon external walls. The figures of Saints and Bishops were placed singly under triangular pediments and cusped arches, of which there are fine examples at Wells, Lichfield, Exeter, and Salisbury (fig. 5, plate 18). Splendid examples of circular rose windows are to be seen in the north and south transepts of Lincoln Cathedral, also at York, but they are comparatively rare in England, while France possesses over 100 of the finest and most important examples of this type. They are to be seen in the Cathedrals of Notre Dame, Rouen, Chartres, and Rheims. DECORATED OR GEOMETRIC PERIOD. In this, the piers have engaged shafts, with capitals having plain mouldings, or enriched with finely carved foliage of the oak, maple, or mallow, seen in perfection at Southwell Minster, which contains the finest carving of this period—1280-1315 (plate 18). The pier arches have mouldings of three orders, also enriched, usually with the characteristic ball, flower, or foliage, similar to that upon the capitals. The TRIFORIUM consists of double arches, with subordinate cusped arches adorned with Geometric tracery. The inner arcading of the Clearstory is absent, the one large window being divided by mullions 40 THE TRIFORIUM & CLEARSTORY. Plate 15. r?OR.0D/qr> fl • direct 3 V ©ecxDemlc 4 peRPercDiCL1uflR- FOUR QflYB OPTYPICflli ef?©LiISH CflTHeDRHLI5 12™ to we IST" Cer?TO RY and geometrical tracery, or by equilateral triangles enriched with circular and bar tracery (fig. 3, plate 15). Above the pier capitals an enriched corbel is usually placed from which springs the vaulting shafts, terminating with a richly carved capital under the Clearstory string. The aisle arcading, as a rule, is very beautiful, having geo- metric tracery and finely proportioned mouldings, the aisle windows with mullions and bold geometric tracery. The circular rose windows of the transepts are typical of this period. PERPENDICULAR AND TUDOR. The PIERS of this style are lofty and enriched with shallow mouldings carried round the pier arch, where capitals are introduced. They frequently resemble a band round the pier at the springing of the arch, or occasionally they are octagonal in form, and decorated with an angular treatment of the vine. In some instances the upper part of the plain octagonal capital is relieved with an embattlement. The latter is also frequently used as a cresting for the elaborate per- pendicular screens, or for relieving the clearstory strings, or on the transoms or the lofty windows. The TRIFORIUM is absent in this period, the bay consisting of two horizontal divisions only. The CLEARSTORY, owing to the sup- pression of the Triforium, becomes of more importance. The windows are large and often in pairs, with vertical mullions extending to the arch mouldings of the window head. The aisle windows are similar, and when lofty have horizontal transoms, on which the battlement ornament is displayed. The aisle arcading being also suppressed, all plain wall space was covered with perpendicular surface tracery. Enrichment of this type was used in the greatest profusion upon walls, parapets, buttresses, and arches, also upon the jambs and soffits of doorways. This, together with the use of the four-centred arch, forms the characteristic feature of the Perpendicular or Tudor period. The remarkable growth of the Gothic style during the 13th and 14th centuries was contemporary in England, France, Flanders, Germany, and in a less degree in Italy. One of the most beautiful churches in Italy is S. Maria della Spina, at Pisa, with its rich crocketed spires and canopies, features which were repeated a little later at the tomb of the famous Scaligers at Verona. Gothic is differentiated by the use of the ogee arch with cusps and pierced quatrefoils. At Venice there are many magnificent examples of Gothic archi- tecture, remarkable for the beautiful central grouping of the windows, arcades, and balconies and the prevalence of the ogee arch, with cusps and pierced quatrefoils and rich foliated capitals. The facade of the Doge's Palace, with its great colonnade of 36 pillars with rich foliated capitals (see Ruskin's "Seven Lamps of Architecture," plate V.), and the Porta della Carta, or entrance, with its magnifi- 42 cent doorway flanked by figures and canopies and surmounted by a traceried window, and gable enriched with exquisitely carved crockets and finials of foliage and figures, are by Bartolommeno Buon (1420-71), who also built the Foscari Palace. Other examples are the Casa, or Ca d'oro, and the Palazzi Pisani, Conterini Fasan, and Danieli, each with beautiful grouping of windows, pierced quatrefoil, and rich balconies. It was in France and England that Gothic architecture reached its culmination. The abbeys and cathedrals, with spires and towers enriched with vigorous and beautiful sculpture, arcadings and cano- pies, with cusps, crockets, and finials, and the splendid traceried windows, filled with glorious stained glass, are all tributes to the religious zeal and splendid craftsmanship of the middle ages. The west fronts of the larger cathedrals of France have deeply- recessed triple porches, covered with figure sculpture (page 53), magnificent towers with lofty open tracery, as at Amiens and Rheims, and splendid rose windows, as those of Chartres (an early example of plate tracery), Rheims, Amiens, and the Cathedral and S. Ouen at Rouen, the two latter with rich flamboyant tracery. French cathedrals are invariably of the periapsidal plan, with the semi-circular eastern ambulatory, surrounded by three or five radia- ting chapels. Aisle chapels also are frequently introduced between the bases of the flying buttresses, giving a greater width across the church. In early cathedrals, the triforium chamber, or upper aisle and its arcade, was similar to English examples; but early in the 13th century the triforium gallery was reduced to the thickness of the nave wall, and the outer arcading glazed. Later, the triforium, with its glazed arcading, became merged into the great clearstory windows, with their wealth and glory of coloured glass. English cathedrals show a marked contrast in scale to contem- porary French buildings. The English nave and choir are less in height and width but greater in length than French cathedrals. For instance, Westminster is the highest of our English cathedrals, with its nave and choir 103 ft. from floor to roof, 30 ft. wide, and 505 ft. in length. York is next with 101 ft. from floor to roof, 45 ft. wide, and 486 ft. in length. Salisbury is 84 ft. from floor to roof, 32 ft. wide, and 450 ft. in length; and Canterbury 80 ft. from floor to roof, 39 ft. wide, and 514 ft. in length. Lincoln with 82 ft. and Peter- borough with 81 ft. are the only other examples reaching 80 ft. in height: York, with 45 ft, being the only one reaching above 40 ft. in width of nave. The measurements of contemporary French cathedrals, on the other hand, being as follows:—Chartres, 106 ft. from floor to roof, 46 ft. wide, and 415 ft. in length; Notre Dame, 112 ft. from floor to roof, 46 ft. wide, and 410 ft. in length; Rheims, 123 ft. from floor to roof, 41 ft. wide, and 485 ft. in length; while that at Beauvais reaches the great height of 153 ft. in the nave, 45 ft. in width, and only 263 ft. in length. 43 I ORMAN ORNAMENT. Norman Architecture was distinguished by the use of the traditional semi-circular arch, superseded by the pointed arch of the early Gothic period. These semi-circular arches in the earlier dates were decorated with rudely executed carvings, cut or worked with the axe. Later Norman work is very rich, the mouldings being well carved with enrichments of the Chevron, the Cable, Pallet, Star, Fret or Key Patterns; the lozenge and the beading or pearling. Characteristic features of this period also are the beakhead (fig. 5), and the corbel-table, which was a series of heads of men or animals, from which spring small arches supporting the parapet. Many rich examples of Norman surface ornament are still extant; at Christ- church, Hants, a beautiful intersecting arcading of semi-circular arches occurs, the enrichment above being a scale or imbricated pattern; at St. Peter's, Northampton, a very rich example of surface ornamenta- tion may be seen (fig. 6). Floral forms are but rarely used in Norman ornament; instances are known of the use of the rose and the fir-apple, but they are the exception and not the rule. Early doorways usually have a square head recessed under semi- circular arch mouldings, decorated with the Chevron, Key, or Beak- head. The semi-circular Tympanum over the door was plain or enriched with rude sculpture in low relief. Later doors show a great profusion of ornament in the archivolt and arch mouldings, which are often carried down the jamb mouldings. The recessed columns are also enriched with the Chevron, or diagonal lines of pearling (fig. 1), and have sculptured capitals showing a classical tendency in the arrangement of acanthus foliage and the volute. Fine examples of this period may be seen in the west front of Lincoln Cathedral (fig. 1), the Galilee porch at Durham, and the west door of Iffley Church, Oxfordshire. A fine, deeply recessed semi-circular Norman doorway is at Tutbury Church, having a richly recessed window over, now filled with flamboyant tracery. Early Norman Capitals are usually cubical or cushion-shaped, with a square or cruciform abacus, or occasionally octagonal as at Durham, or circular as at Gloucester, and enriched with the Chevron, Star, or Anthemion. The capitals being escalloped with segments of circles, or enriched with Volutes or the Anthemion. Early examples are in the White Tower, and St. Bartholomew, London. Later Capitals, usually rich in ornamentation, are found at St. Peter's, Northampton and Wooton, or more frequently that have interlacing bands of orna- ment and animals; others with figures or " Storied Capitals," as in the North Porch, Wells. In the transition period—end of 12th century—Capitals were con- cave or bell-shaped, with foliage of the serrated water-leaf type clinging to the bell and turning up under the abacus, forming a Volute. This foliage was varied in type and vigorous in technique. Fine examples are at Christ Church, Oxford, and at Canterbury Cathedral. 45 ARLY GOTHIC. The NORMAN style was succeeded by the pointed, or GOTHIC style, remarkable for its variety, its beauty of proportion, and the singular grace and vigour of its ornament. Showing no traditions, beyond Sicilian and Arabian influence, it grew rapidly, and reached a high degree of perfection in France and England. The massive and barbaric character of the Norman style gave place to the light clustered shafts and well-proportioned mouldings of the early English Gothic, with its capitals characterised by a circular abacus, and the typical three-lobed foliage growing upwards from the necking of the shafts, thence spreading out in beautiful curves and spirals under the abacus. This tendency to the spiral line is peculiar to the early Gothic, and differentiates it from the Decorated and Perpendicular Period. The diagrams of the three crockets here given show the distinctive character of English Gothic ornament. CR.OCK.ei; 12ATC ©OTh Early Gothic, three-lobed leaves arranged in spiral lines. Decorated Gothic, with natural types of foliage, such as the oak and maple, with a flowing indulating line. Perpendicular Gothic, showing the vine and leaves as elements, and arranged in a square and angular manner. The same features and characteristics are observed in the borders here given. The beautiful carved span- dril from the Chancel Arcade, Stone Church, Kent (fig. 1), is one of the most beautiful examples of English ornament, remarkable for the vigour and flexibility of curve, its recurring forms of ornamen- tation, and admirable spacing, typical of much of our early Eng- lish foliage from about 1170-1280. The type of foliage in early English stained glass is somewhat similar to contemporary carved work, but showing more of the profile of the leaf, and it has a geometric or radiating arrangement in addition to the spiral forms of foliage (plate 39), and the admir- able spacing of the ornament shows the skill in design that the mediaeval craftsman possessed. 47 DECORATED GOTHIC DETAILS. Plate 18. 4s PERPENDICULAR DETAILS. Plate 19. COP.N1CE FP.Cn B15HOP BECKIHGTOPI'5 5HRIMC WELL} CATHEDRAL TUDOR FLOWtR WESTMIMSTER FROM UFTORD CHURCH .5UFFOLK 5CRCEM TO lAW CHAPEL MAnCHESTER. CATHEDRAL 9 7 UPPER PACT orSOUTH PORCH. LAVEMHAH CHUfcCH.SUrfOLK Q netPlACt 1n TATTER5HAU. CA5TLP LinCdnSHIRC 1433-55 ERPENDICULAR GOTHIC. Late or rectilinear Gothic is characterized by a rigidity of line in construction and ornament. The one exception is the beautiful fan-vaulting, such as that in the cloisters at Gloucester Cathedral, and in Henry .VI1I. Chapel at Westminster, which are not approached by any Continental example for beauty of craftsmanship or the scientific precision of their masonry. The many splendid towers, having elaborate panelled tracery, and capped with pinnacles, open parapets, and battlements, such as those at Wrexham and S. Mary's, Taunton, are also characteristic of this period. The windows, with vertical mullions running to the window-head, which is frequently a four-centred arch, have one or more transoms, enriched with battle- ments or Tudor flowers, to divide the lofty windows horizontally (plate 15). The many choir screens and stalls, with their canopies, have panels, friezes, crestings, and finials, and are frequently carved with an angular treatment of the vine and its tendrils, more or less conventionalized (figs. 1-7), the Tudor flower being perhaps the most prevalent. The freedom and flexibility of the modelling and carving of the middle period of Gothic, was replaced by a stiff symmetrical arrangement of foliage, and the painted diapers succeeded the carved ones of the earlier period. The terminals of the ends of pews were frequently en- riched with foliated "Poppy-heads," often of great beauty. Heraldic forms, such as shields, with their supporters, together with badges and crests, were largely associated with the ornament in the richer buildings of this per- iod, such as King's College Chapel at Cambridge, and Henry VIII.'s Chapel at West- minster. The piers of the nave are usually rectangular or lozenge in section, consisting of a few rounds and double ogee moulds, which are fre- quently carried round the arch without the intervening capital; or an octagonal capital, with the typical square foliated ornament, is carried by some of the round members of the pier; or a series of moulded capitals, without enrichment, is employed. The only enrichment in the hollows of the strings and arch-mouldings is a four-petalled flower, alternate square and circular (figs. 7 and 8). 51 RENASCENCE ORNAMENT. Plate 21, E r*Dn TMT BROMZE G*TC3 Or THt evWTISTtlW 14-23-521. OUATTIVOCEMTO PACE rR(,M THE BOOK Of HOURJ.Of BOnA SPOIVXV,DUCHC53 OrMILAH ONTI3H -COTTA ON DELLAIV36olAWA/,£ 6Y LUCA DELIA W5BBIA, I4-5O In TW; CHUKCM or s onorwo (ftlMTED OrVIAMEMT TRon THE DUCAL PALACE MAMTUA BY GIOVANnI DA UDINE ANOJULIO ROMANO I53O 54 ENASCENCE ARCHITECTURE ORNAMENT. Lombardy, in the north of Italy, had witnessed a singular blending of the old classic art with the vigorous traditions and myths of the Longobards, and the symbolisms of the old Byzantine; thus producing the architecture known as Lombardic, with its multiplicity of small columns and arches, quaint imagery of sculpture, and the frequent use of a lion or dragon as a support for the columns. These are features of the early art at Lucca, and at Bergamo, Padua, Verona, and other towns in Lombardy (see Romanesque, page 33); a beautiful illustration from Lucca is given in the appendix to Ruskin's " Stones of Venice," Vol. 1. Contemporary with this period came the Gothic influence with its clustered columns, pointed arches, its cusps and crockets, and its strong vitality, impressing the arts and architecture with a lasting influence; hence, during the 12th and 13th cen- turies in Italy, this intermingling of styles, traditions, religious beliefs and myths, produced an art barbaric and vigorous in character, the imagery full of suggestiveness, and the detail rich and varied in con- ception. Yet it was but the herald of a style which culminated in the glorious epoch of the Renascence, a style where symmetry was to play an important part, as in classic art, where refinement of line and detail, of culture and craftsmanship, are found; and which, though beautiful in proportion, unity of parts, and perfect adaptability, yet lacked that symbolism, suggestiveness, inventiveness and rugged strength of the early Byzantine, Lombardic, and Gothic styles. Italian Renascence is broadly divided into three periods, viz. :— The tre-cento, or transitional, A.D. 1300-1400; the quattro-cento, 1400-1500; and the cinque-cento, 1500-1600. In the tre-cento period the sculpture and decorative arts are marked by dignity of conception, and a mingling of Gothic and classic tradi- tions. One of the earliest examples is the hexagonal pulpit in the Baptistery at Pisa, and in the Cathedral at Siena, by Nicolo Pisano (1206-76), where sculptured panels distinctly classic in treatment, are associated with cusped Gothic arches. Nicolo also executed the beautiful octagonal fountain at Perugia, and was assisted in much of his work by his son Giovanni Pisano, who also executed the pulpit in the Cathedral at Pisa. A fine monumental work of this period having similar characteristics, is the tomb of S. Peter the Martyr, in the Church of S. Eustovgio, at Milan, by Balducco di Pisa (1308-47). In the architecture of this period, Gothic forms prevail, together with the use of panelling of white and grey marble, lofty pilasters, pinnacles and gables, enriched with a geometric patterning of marbles or mosaic, and a frequent use of the slender twisted pillar. 55 The Cathedral at Florence, with its panelling, pointed arches, and rich tracery, was by Arnolfo di Cambio (died 1300), and Francesco Talenti, who completed the nave, choir, and apses in 1321. Arnolfo and Talenti were also the architects for the Church of Santo Croce (1294-1442), and the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, (1290), where, in 1434, Michelozzo added the beautiful cortile, and C. Salviati and De Faenza, pupils of Vasari, enriched the circular and octagonal pillars with beautiful stucco ornamentation (fig. 2. plate 22), in 1565. The beautiful campanile by Giotto (1336), Andrea Pisano, and Francesco Talenti, who introduced the upper Gothic windows, is a noble accessory to the Cathedral of Florence. A charming illustration of one of these windows is given in the "Seven Lamps of Architecture," by John Ruskin. In 1283 Arnolfo introduced some Prato marble pilasters at the angles of" San Giovanni," the octagonal Florentine Baptistery, an ancient building where many of the great citizens of the Republic received their baptism, and it was here that Dante was baptised in May, 1265. The last of the tre-cento masters was Andrea Pisano (1270-1345), who made the first bronze gate of " San Giovanni," or the Baptistery of Florence. This gate has 28 quatre-foil panels in relief, and bears the inscription "ANDREAS UGOLINI NINI ME FECIT, A.D. MCCCXXX." The true Renascence or quattro-cento period is remarkable for the vitality of the arts, and the naturalism and versatility of its crafts- men. Brunelleschi (1377-1446), is the first architect (page 64), and Lorenzo Ghiberti (1381-1465) the ornamentist and sculptor, whose chief works are the two bronze gates for the Florentine Baptistery. The first gate (1403-24), has 28 quatre-foil panels similar to the MONUMENT TO ILARIA DI CARRETTO, BY JACOPO DELLA QUERCIA. 56 RENASCENCE ORNAMENT. Plate 22. r OIM-IAMEr-lT .n MAK.OLC . .SCHOOL r U>MBAR.OI VE/IICC I5OO MAWir BVICLIMTHE C«UrC» Of Dt'MlfVACOL), VETiICC IMO B> flC *NDHI5SON5,TULLICViD AMTOMlO and the individuality of his medals of the contemporary princes of Italy, are exceedingly fine. Among other remarkable medallists, were Sperandio of Verona (1423-90), Caradossa of Milan (1480- !545), Vincentine of Vicenza (1468-1546), Benvenuto Cellini of Florence (1500-71), Lione Leoni (1498-1560), Pompeoni Leoni (15 30-161 o), and Pastorino of Siena (1510-91). Other names of this period were Desiderio da Settignano (1428- 64), his masterpiece being the tomb of Carlo Marzuppini, in the Church of Santa Croce, Florence; Mino da Fiesole (1430-84, see frontispiece); Andrea Verrocchio (1435-88), the author of the fine equestrian statue of Bartolommeo Colleone at Venice (see Bronzes); Matteo Civitali (1435-1501); and the Rossellini, a remarkable family of five brothers, of which the most famous was Antonio Rossellini (1427-79), who executed a charming tomb to Cardinal Jacopo di Portogallo, in the Church of the Nunziata, Florence. The cinque-cento period was the culmination of the Renascence, when architecture, sculpture, painting, and the decorative arts, were under the magnificent patronage of the popes and princes of Italy. Palaces, churches, and public buildings were completed (see Renas- cence Architecture, pages 64-67), and embellished with beautiful sculptures and decorations; hung with the most sumptuous fabrics of the Venetian, Florentine, and Genoese looms; decorated with altar paintings and mural decorations by the most renowned of painters; and enriched with the magnificent productions of the gold and silversmiths' art, and the loveliest of intarsia, or inlaid woodwork. The Sistine chapel, built for Sfxtus IV., in 1473, by Baccio Pintelli, is decorated with fresco paintings on the walls by the great cinque-cento masters, Luca Signorelli (1441-1524), Sandro Botticelli (1447-1515), Cos- imo Rosselli (1439-1506), Perugino, the master of Raphael (1446-1524), Domenico Ghirlandajo (1449-98), and Michel Angelo (1475-1564), who painted "The Last Judgment," on the end wall, and the famous ceiling, with incidents from the Old Testa- ment, and with the prophets Joel, Ezekiel, Jeremiah, Jonah, Daniel, Isaiah, and Zechariah, and the sibyls Erithraea, Perscia, Lybica, Cumaea, and Delphica. These are splendid examples of decorative painting, where unity and dignity of conception, powerful draughtsmanship, and marvellous execution are shown in a remarkable degree. The New Sacristy of San Lorenzo, Florence, designed and executed by Michel Angelo, having the magnificent tombs of Lorenzo and THECUn/CAH SIBYL BY MICHEL AHGELO a 60 Roman gardens—were utilised by Raphael in the decoration of the pilasters, piers, and walls of the Loggie. The designs were painted with a fine range of colour upon white ground, and enclosed within borders of modelled stucco ornaments. In the panels upon the ceil- ing, Raphael painted a series of fifty-two in- cidents of the Bible. These are spoken of as "Raphael's Bible." Raphael was assisted in this work by many con- temporary artists and pupils; Giovanni da Udine, Giulio Romano, Francesco Penni, Per- ino del Vaga, and Pri- maticcio (1490-1580,) who completed the work after Raphael's death. These artists carried the traditions and methods to other parts of Italy. Giulio Romano execu- ted some fine Mural paintings at the Villa Madama, Rome; and for Federigo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, he enriched with beautiful paintings and arabesques the Palazzo Ducale, and the Palazzo del Te. These arabesques were upon richly-coloured or parti-coloured grounds (see plates 86-9, " Grammar of Ornament," by Owen Jones). Perino del Vaga carried the art to Genoa, where at the Palazzo Andrea Doria he executed many admirable examples of coloured arabesques (see plates 43-9, " Palast-Architakur, Genua "). These painted arabesques show a great inventiveness and skilful combination of parts, but they are not to be compared with the refined and beautiful modelling, and harmonious composition of the contemporary carved reliefs by Andrea Sansovino (1460-1528), Jacopo Sansovino (1486-1570), Agostino Busti, Pietro Lombard o (1500), and his sons, Tullio and Antonio. These delicate reliefs have the traditional Roman acanthus, but treated with a refined feeling for modelling, and beauty and symmetry of line and mass. In many examples, vases, masks, shields, and similar accessories are found in profusion (plate 19). The composition of the cinque- cento ornament is usually symmetrical, the details being varied and interesting in the best examples; and whilst lacking the vigour and ARABESQUE DECOtWlOM- VATICAM- 62 THE TRIUMPH OF JULIUS GE5AK , FMEZC BYAHDRlA Ft li|pi is*". m* u symbolism of the Lombardic and Byzantine styles, it excelled them in its absolute adaptation to architectural conditions, with perfection of design and craftsmanship. Magnificent examples of decoration by Pinturicchio are in the Sala Piccolomini, Siena, and by Perugino in the Sala del Cambio, Perugia, where some of the earliest painted arabesques are upon a dark ground. Andrea Mantegna (1431-1517) executed nine paintings or cartoons in tempera upon linen, representing the triumphs of Julius Caesar, which are a portion of a frieze 9 ft. high and 80 ft. long, painted for Lodovico Gonzaga's Palace of S. Sebastian, at Mantua. They were purchased by Charles I., and are now at Hampton Court. An illustration of this frieze, from an engraving upon copper in the British Museum, is given here. It was also engraved on wood by Andrea Andreani in 1599. To Mantegna is also ascribed the illustrations to the "Hypnero- tomachia, or Dream of Poliphilus," printed in 1499, at Venice, by Aldus Manutius. Good reproductions of many of these early illustrated books are given in the "Italian Book Illustrations," by A. W. Pollard, No. 12 of the Portfolio, December 1894; and in "The Decorative Illustration of Books," by Walter Crane. • The study of classical architecture was stimulated by the publica- tion at Rome, in 1486, of the treatise by Vitruvius, an architect of the time of Augustus; an edition was also published at Florence in 1496, and at Venice in 1511. In 1570, Fra Giocondo, at Venice, published "The Five Books of Architecture," by Andrea Palladio (1518-80). Another treatise upon architecture, by Serlio (1500-52), was also published at Venice in 1537 and 1540. Beautiful types of the Renascence decorative art were the Venetian well-heads, situated as they were in most of the public squares of Venice, and in many of the court-yards of her princely palaces. Designed with details of the most varied and beautiful character by such artists as Andrea Sansovino, Pietro Lombardo, and his sons Tullio and Antonio, the Venetian well-head became a type of beauty, diversified in its treatment, but never losing its character- istics or its usefulness. Venetian well-heads display a great variety of form and decoration, and are a tribute to the vivacity and artistic feeling of the Venetian Republic. 63 THE STROZZI PALACE, FLORENCE. The Renascence in Italy was distinguished by the many magni- ficent ecclesiastical and secular buildings erected during the 15th and 16th centuries in the chief cities in Italy. Florence was the first to show activity, and with Brunelleschi (1377-1446), the history of Renascence architecture commences. The great dome of the Cathedral (1420-34), the Pazzi Chapel (with a fine frieze of cherubs' heads by Donatello and Settigiano) at S. Croce (1420), and the Church of S. Lorenzo (1425), were his first works, and were followed by S. Spirito(1433) and the Pitti Palace. The severe dignity of the bold rusticated stone work, which was usually varied in each story, the circular-headed windows, and cornices of great depth and projection, became the type of the early palaces of Florence and Siena. The first Renascence palace was the Riccardi, built for Cosimo de Medici, in 1430, by Michelozzi: and it was followed by the Pitti (1435) and the Quaratesi (1442), by Brunelleschi; the Rucellai (1451), by Leon Battista Alberti (1404-72), where pilasters with their entablature were used for the first time in a Renascence facade; the Strozzi (1489), by M. da Majano and Cronaca; the Gondi (1490), by G. da Sangallo; the Guadagni (1490), with sgraffito decorations in grey and white plaster; and the Nicolini, by Bramante (1444- 1514); the Pandolfini (1520), by Raphael; and the Bartolini (1520), by Baccio d'Agnolo. The plan of these palaces was usually a rect- angle, having an internal cortile, with open arcades on the ground floor, the next floor having windows, while the upper story was frequently open. 64 THE FARNESE PALACE, ROME. In Rome the palaces were characterized by largeness of scale, the frequent use of the pilaster or attached super-imposed columns, and square-headed windows, with triangular or segmental pediments. The plan is rectangular, with a cortile of one or more stories of open arcades of semi-circular arches, springing direct from the capital, as in the Cancelleria Palace. The chief palaces are the Cancelleria (1495) and the Giraud (1 503), by Bramante (1444-1514); the Farnesina (1511), the Massimi (1529), and the Villa Ossoli (1525), by Baldassare Peruzzi (1481- 1536); the Palma and the Farnese (1517), by Antonio Sangallo (1476-1546); the Villa Madama (1516), by Raffaello and Giulio Romano; the Borghese (1590), by Martino Lunghi; the Laterano (1586), by Fontana; and the Barberini (1626), by Maderna, Borro- mini, and Bernini. The chief ecclesiastical building is S. Peter's (plan, plate 53,) com- menced in 1450 by Albert! and Rossellino for Pope Nicolas V.; then carried on by Bramante and San Gallo (1503), Raphael and Peruzzi (1514-20), Antonio da San Gallo (1534), Michel Angelo (1546), Vignola (1556), Giacomo della Porta (1590), and Carlo Maderna (1608). In 1627 S. Peter's was dedicated by Urban VIII., and in 1667 the colonnade in the piazza was erected by Bernini. 65 E ENGLISH RENASCENCE. Plate 2 5, DESJGtt FOR. A TIME-METRE. BY HOLBE1M.I544 CAHOPY TO STALLS 5* CROSS .WIHCHESTER 1528 WOODCABV1nO. A5TOH HALL PORTIOM OF CEILInO AT A3TOM HALL BIRMINGHAM. PODTIOn OF HENRY VII TOMB BYTOBR1GIAn WE5TMIM5 ABBEY RAMEL FROM THE CHICHE5TER TOMB. PILTOM CHURCH,DEVOfl 1566 ribs frequently had a repeating pattern impressed while the plaster was soft. Occasionally a double frieze was used, the lower having delicate arabesques and strap-work, while the upper one had boldly- marked cartouches and arabesques. One of the most important examples of early Renascence plaster is the frieze in the presence chamber, Hardwicke Hall. It is decorated with classical subjects, such as Diana and her nymphs, surrounded with forest trees and foliage. This frieze is 11 ft. in height, modelled in low relief, delicately coloured, and is probably the work of Charles Williams. With Inigo Jones (1573-1652) the purely Italian Renascence pre- vailed. He was known from 1604-30 as the designer for the elaborate scenery for the brilliant masques by Ben Jonson that were performed by the nobles and court of that period. In 1622 Inigo Jones completed the Banqueting House, Whitehall, the only portion of his great design which was carried out. He also designed the Water Gate, York House, executed by his favourite carver, Nicholas Stone, the earlier part of Greenwich Hospital, and the great room at Wilton, with its fine mantelpiece and panelling. Nicholas Stone was an expert and prolific carver. An extract from his pocket-book is interesting, and throws some light on the cost of sculpture:—"1620. I made a monument, to be set up at Westminster, of Mr. Francis Holies, the youngest son of the earl of Clare, for which the sayd earl payed for it Sol. My lord of Clare also agreed with me for a monument for his brother, Sir George Holies, the which I made and sett up in the chappell at Westminster where Sir Francis Vere lyeth buried, for the which I was payed from the hands of the sayd earl of Clare 100/." The ornament of Inigo Jones is excellent in proportion, and Italian in type. The decoration of the panels and friezes consisted of boldly- designed festoons, masks, and shields. The plaster ceilings have large rectangular, circular, or oval panels, with moulded ribs enriched with arabesques, fruit, or flowers in high relief. The work of Wren, which followed, is on similar lines, the propor- tions being good, but the details are less refined in type, being largely under the influence of Grinling Gibbons and his school. Their wonderful technique and lack of restraint in the hands of less able men degenerated into the mannerisms and looseness of style which marked the later 17th and early 18th centuries. The era of church building began with Sir Christopher Wren (1632-1723) in 1666, after the great fire of London, in which old S. Paul's, ninety-three parish churches and chapels, the Exchange, the Guildhall, and fifty of the City Companies' halls were destroyed. S. Mary-le-Bow (1680), S. Bride's (1680), S. Clement Dane (1684), and S. Stephen's, Walbrook, illustrate some of the typical features of the fifty-one parochial churches that he designed, and his master- piece, S. Paul's (1675-1710), is a noble example of English Renas- cence (plan, plate 53). Wren also built portions of Hampton Court 75 ENGLISH RENASCENCE. Plate 26. ORDERS BY GODFREY 5YKE5. 76 and Greenwich Hospital. Hawksmoor (1661-1736), a pupil of Wren, built Christ Church, S. George's-in-the-East (1723), Spitalfields Church (1729), and S. George's, Bloomsbury (1730). Castle Howard (1714)and Blenheim Palace are by Vanbrugh (1666-1726); S. Philip, Birmingham (1710), by Archer; Burlington House (1717) by Camp- bell, who also brought out his great work on English architecture, "Vitruvius Britannicus," Vol. I., 1715, Vol. II., 1717, Vol. Ill., 1725, while Vols. IV. and V. were issued by Woolfe and Gandon in 1767. This book gives introductory descriptions, with plans, elevations, and sections of the chief English buildings erected between 1600-1750. The Horse Guards (1742), Holkham (1734), and Devonshire House (1734) were designed by Kent. S. Mary-le-Strand (1717), S. Martin's (1721), the Senate House, Cambridge (1730), and the Radcliffe Library (1747) were by Gibbs (1682-1754). With Chambers (1726-96) the later Renascence begins, and Somerset House (1776) is a typical example of this period, accurate in proportion, with refined details and excellent workmanship and materials. Chambers also published his " Treatise of Civil Architec- ture" in 1759, and "A Treatise on the Decorative Part of Civil Architecture" in 1791. Other architects of this period were George Dance, who built the Mansion House (1756), and Robert and James Adam, who designed and built the Adelphi (1768) and many streets and mansions in London, Bath, Edinburgh, and Dublin. Robert Adam also designed many accessories, such as console tables and candelabra, and on the ceilings, pilasters, and panels were classical stucco enrichments (plate 26). Pergolese, Bartolozzi, and Angelica Kaufmann contri- buted designs and paintings for the brothers Adam. Of modern Renascence, the Wellington Monument, in S. Paul's Cathedral, by Alfred Stevens (1818-75), is distinguished by its strong personality and architectonic treatment of composition, and the beauty and singular grace of its details. 77 MAHOMETAN ORNAMENT. Plate 2 7. f^ELIEr OW1AMC.MT FRQAA THE WEKALA. CAIRO AR.ABIAM CAPITAL fNow THE COUKJ THE Lions CEILIMG DECOIVUIOM.FR.O/V\ 6 WALL DECOB-ATIOrl F8.OfA THE 3PAIM /AOR.E3QUE . (OWEnjQnES PERSIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 28. ERSIAN ORNAMENT. The early art of Persia was similar to that of Assyria and Babylon, having the same forms, mate- rials, and traditions. With the accession of the Sassanides, A.D. 223, came the introduction of the elliptical dome, so typical of eastern architecture. This dome rested on pendentives, which occupied the angles of the square base. These pendentives and the elliptical dome are dis- tinctive features in Mahometan architecture. The industrial arts of Persia were largely influenced by the tradi- tional arts of Assyria and Chaldea. This tradition was carried on with rare skill and selective power by the Persians, culminating in the splendid period of Shah Abbas, A.D. 1586-1625. The vitality, beauty, and interest of detail, combined with perfect decorative adaptation to material, are characteristic of the textiles, pottery, metal work, and illuminated manuscripts of the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries. The Mahometan conquest of Persia, A.D. 632-637, by Abu Bekr, the successor of Mohammed, largely influenced the development of the arts of the Persians, who adopted the customs and habits of contemporary races, yet preserved all the characteristics of their art; and there is no doubt that the art of the Arabs was founded upon the traditional arts of Persia. Persian decoration is characterised by a fine feeling for form and colour, and for the singularly frank renderings of natural plants, such PLATE. 16 th 'CENTURA 3.KM- 81 as the pink, hyacinth, tulip, rose, iris, and the pine and date. These are used with perfect sincerity and frankness, and are essentially decorative in treatment, combining harmony of composition of mass, beauty of form, and purity of colour. It was doubtless owing to these qualities, together with the perfect adaptation of ornament to material, that the Persian style so largely influenced contemporary work, and especially the European textile fabrics of the 16th and 17th centuries. The illustrations given are of some familiar types of Persian adaptations of natural flowers, doubtless chosen for their significance, beauty of growth and form, and appropriateness of decorative treatment. Purely Arabian forms, as given in plate 28, are frequently associated with the Persian floral treatment, showing the influence of the artists of Damascus. Many fine examples of lustred wall tiles, dating from the 10th and 1 1th centuries, are in the South Kensington Museum, of which the blue, brown, and turquoise colouring is of a splendid quality. They often have Arabic inscrip- tions interspersed with the floral enrichments. Examples of wall tiles of the 8th century have been found in the ruins of Rhages. These lustred tiles are a remarkable instance of tradition or heredi- tary proclivity. This art, beginning with the enamelled bricks of Babylon, and the later frieze of Susa (page 17) with its brilliant enamel and fine colour, was continued by the Persians, and, passing to the Arabs, the tradition was carried to Cairo, Spain, and Majorca; thence into Italy, where enamelled lustre ware was made, differing from the original Persian in its frequent absence of utility, which was fundamental to the art of the Persians. Mahometan ornament has five broad divisions, viz., Arabian, Sicilian, Moresque, Indian, and Persian ; and they are all characterised by strongly-marked compartments or fields, which are filled with finer and more delicate enrichments. These compartments are most pro- nounced in the Moresque, with its complex geometric interlacing and entire absence of natural forms (figs. 4, 6, 7, and 8, plate 27). The Arabian style is somewhat similar, but less formal. The Indian has a conventional rendering of plants, and the introduction of the lion, tiger, and the elephant (fig. 2, plate 30); while in the Persian work there is a still less formal constructive arrangement, with floral forms clearly defined in line and mass, and the introduction of the human figure with the horse, the lion, the tiger, and birds. Note the illustration in Textiles, which is taken from a fine carpet in the South Kensington Museum. In this carpet, animal forms, chosen with rare selective power and judgment, are combined with the typical floral enrichment of Persia, with the wealth of colour, admirable detail of spacing and mass, beauty of incident and vigour, and appropriateness of treatment. These are features that distinguish the industrial designs of Persia; and it is doubtless due to the interest and vitality of their ornament that we owe the remarkable influence of Persian art upon the contemporary and latter craftsmanship of Europe. 82 PERSIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 29. INDIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 30. COLUMM FROfA TTCMPLE Of VI5HA PMHTED COTTOn DOCK COLLF.CTIC)M. SILK DKOCADE WITH PInE SHAPED FLOWERS DcriAfvxs . 3 COTTOn PfMHT WITH FLOWERS I THt FOK.M OF A LEAF . 3 . t\ . /A LSS.V^'^ixS^^tiSN^ <" /"?Iri->5?riw./.FCCi:« 3CAKF WITH THE P OF P1ME3 5IJARj.rT OI^OUrtD 5K. / 84 CHINESE ORNAMENT. Plate 3 1. WOVEM SILK CHIME5E laV ftOCM-OLUECTlori MAr-