Menes - Wikipedia Menes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Founder of Manetho's 1st dynasty and unifier of Egypt For other uses, see Menes (disambiguation). Menes Africanus: Mênês Eusebius: Mênês The cartouche of Menes on the Abydos King List Pharaoh Reign c. 3200–3000 BC[1] (First Dynasty) Successor Hor-Aha Royal titulary Nomen Menes[2][3][4] Mnj He who endures[5] Horus name Narmer nˁr-mr Fierce catfish of Horus Menes (fl. c. 3200–3000 BC;[6] /ˈmiːniːz/; Ancient Egyptian: mnj, probably pronounced */maˈnij/;[7] Ancient Greek: Μήνης[5]) was a pharaoh of the Early Dynastic Period of ancient Egypt credited by classical tradition with having united Upper and Lower Egypt and as the founder of the First Dynasty.[8] The identity of Menes is the subject of ongoing debate, although mainstream Egyptological consensus identifies Menes with the Naqada III ruler Narmer[2][3][4][9] (most likely) or First Dynasty pharaoh Hor-Aha.[10] Both pharaohs are credited with the unification of Egypt to different degrees by various authorities. Contents 1 Name and identity 1.1 Narmer and Menes 2 Dates 3 History 3.1 Capital 3.2 Cultural influence 3.3 Crocodile episode 3.4 Death 4 In popular culture 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Name and identity[edit] Menes in hieroglyphs The Egyptian form, mnj, is taken from the Turin and Abydos King Lists, which are dated to the Nineteenth Dynasty, whose pronunciation has been reconstructed as */maˈnij/. By the early New Kingdom, changes in the Egyptian language meant his name was already pronounced */maˈneʔ/.[11] The name mnj means "He who endures", which, I.E.S. Edwards (1971) suggests, may have been coined as "a mere descriptive epithet denoting a semi-legendary hero [...] whose name had been lost".[5] Rather than a particular person, the name may conceal collectively the Naqada III rulers: Ka, Scorpion II and Narmer.[5] The commonly-used name Menes derives from Manetho, an Egyptian historian and priest who lived during the pre-Coptic period of the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Manetho noted the name in Greek as Μήνης (transliterated: Mênês).[5][12] An alternative Greek form, Μιν (transliterated: Min), was cited by the fifth-century-BC historian Herodotus,[13] but is a variant no longer accepted; it appears to have been the result of contamination from the name of the god Min.[14] Narmer and Menes[edit] Two Horus names of Hor-Aha (left) and a name of Menes (right) in hieroglyphs. Main article: Narmer Ivory tablet of Menes The ivory label mentioning Hor-Aha along with the mn sign. Reconstructed tablet. The almost complete absence of any mention of Menes in the archaeological record[5] and the comparative wealth of evidence of Narmer, a protodynastic figure credited by posterity and in the archaeological record with a firm claim[3] to the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, has given rise to a theory identifying Menes with Narmer. The chief archaeological reference to Menes is an ivory label from Nagada which shows the royal Horus-name Aha (the pharaoh Hor-Aha) next to a building, within which is the royal nebty-name mn,[15] generally taken to be Menes.[5][a] From this, various theories on the nature of the building (a funerary booth or a shrine), the meaning of the word mn (a name or the verb endures) and the relationship between Hor-Aha and Menes (as one person or as successive pharaohs) have arisen.[2] The Turin and Abydos king lists, generally accepted to be correct,[2] list the nesu-bit-names of the pharaohs, not their Horus-names,[3] and are vital to the potential reconciliation of the various records: the nesu-bit-names of the king lists, the Horus-names of the archaeological record and the number of pharaohs in Dynasty I according to Manetho and other historical sources.[3] Flinders Petrie first attempted this task,[3] associating Iti with Djer as the third pharaoh of Dynasty I, Teti (Turin) (or another Iti (Abydos)) with Hor-Aha as second pharaoh, and Menes (a nebty-name) with Narmer (a Horus-name) as first pharaoh of Dynasty I.[2][3] Lloyd (1994) finds this succession "extremely probable",[3] and Cervelló-Autuori (2003) categorically states that "Menes is Narmer and the First Dynasty begins with him".[4] However, Seidlmayer (2004) states that it is "a fairly safe inference" that Menes was Hor-Aha.[10] Dates[edit] Egyptologists, archaeologists, and scholars from the 19th century have proposed different dates for the era of Menes, or the date of the first dynasty:[16][b] John Gardner Wilkinson (1835) – 2320 BC Jean-François Champollion (Publish posthumously in 1840) – 5867 BC August Böckh (1845) – 5702 BC Christian Charles Josias Bunsen (1848) – 3623 BC Reginald Stuart Poole (1851) – 2717 BC Karl Richard Lepsius (1856) – 3892 BC Heinrich Karl Brugsch (1859) – 4455 BC Franz Joseph Lauth (1869) – 4157 BC Auguste Mariette (1871) – 5004 BC James Strong (1878) – 2515 BC Flinders Petrie (1887) – 4777 BC Modern consensus dates the era of Menes or the start of the first dynasty between c. 3200–3030 BC; some academic literature uses c. 3000 BC.[17] History[edit] Ebony plaque of Menes in his tomb of Abydos By 500 BC, mythical and exaggerated claims had made Menes a culture hero, and most of what is known of him comes from a much later time.[18] Ancient tradition ascribed to Menes the honour of having united Upper and Lower Egypt into a single kingdom[19] and becoming the first pharaoh of the First Dynasty.[20] However, his name does not appear on extant pieces of the Royal Annals (Cairo Stone and Palermo Stone), which is a now-fragmentary king's list that was carved onto a stela during the Fifth Dynasty. He typically appears in later sources as the first human ruler of Egypt, directly inheriting the throne from the god Horus.[21] He also appears in other, much later, king's lists, always as the first human pharaoh of Egypt. Menes also appears in demotic novels of the Hellenistic period, demonstrating that, even that late, he was regarded as an important figure.[22] Menes was seen as a founding figure for much of the history of ancient Egypt, similar to Romulus in ancient Rome.[23] Manetho records that Menes "led the army across the frontier and won great glory".[12][20] Capital[edit] Manetho associates the city of Thinis with the Early Dynastic Period and, in particular, Menes, a "Thinite" or native of Thinis.[12][20] Herodotus contradicts Manetho in stating that Menes founded the city of Memphis as his capital[24] after diverting the course of the Nile through the construction of a levee.[25] Manetho ascribes the building of Memphis to Menes' son, Athothis,[20] and calls no pharaohs earlier than Third Dynasty "Memphite".[26] Herodotus and Manetho's stories of the foundation of Memphis are probably later inventions: in 2012 a relief mentioning the visit to Memphis by Iry-Hor—a predynastic ruler of Upper Egypt reigning before Narmer—was discovered in the Sinai Peninsula, indicating that the city was already in existence in the early 32nd century BC.[27] Cultural influence[edit] Labels from the tomb of Menes Diodorus Siculus stated that Menes had introduced the worship of the gods and the practice of sacrifice[28] as well as a more elegant and luxurious style of living.[28] For this latter invention, Menes' memory was dishonoured by the Twenty-fourth Dynasty pharaoh Tefnakht and Plutarch mentions a pillar at Thebes on which was inscribed an imprecation against Menes as the introducer of luxury.[28] In Pliny's[clarification needed] account, Menes was credited with being the inventor of writing in Egypt. Crocodile episode[edit] Diodorus Siculus recorded a story of Menes related by the priests of the crocodile god Sobek at Crocodilopolis, in which the pharaoh Menes, attacked by his own dogs while out hunting,[29] fled across Lake Moeris on the back of a crocodile and, in thanks, founded the city of Crocodilopolis.[29][30][31] George Stanley Faber (1816), taking the word campsa to mean either crocodile or ark and preferring the latter, identifies Menes with Noah and the entire story as a flood myth.[32] Gaston Maspero (1910), while acknowledging the possibility that traditions relating to other kings may have become mixed up with this story, dismisses the suggestions of some commentators[33] that the story should be transferred to the Twelfth Dynasty pharaoh Amenemhat III and sees no reason to doubt that Diodorus did not correctly record a tradition of Menes.[29] Later, Edwards (1974) states that "the legend, which is obviously filled with anachronisms, is patently devoid of historical value".[30] Death[edit] According to Manetho, Menes reigned for 62 years and was killed by a hippopotamus.[12][20] In popular culture[edit] Alexander Dow (1735/6–79), a Scottish orientalist and playwright, wrote the tragedy Sethona, set in ancient Egypt. The lead part of Menes is described in the dramatis personæ as "next male-heir to the crown" now worn by Seraphis, and was played by Samuel Reddish in a 1774 production by David Garrick at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane.[34] See also[edit] First Dynasty of Egypt family tree Mannus, ancestral figure in Germanic mythology Minos, king of Crete, son of Zeus and Europa Manu (Hinduism), Progenitor of humanity Nu'u, Hawaiian mythological character who built an ark and escaped a Great Flood Nüwa, goddess in Chinese mythology best known for creating mankind Min (god) Hor-Aha Notes[edit] ^ Originally, the full royal title of a pharaoh was Horus name x nebty name y Golden-Horus name z nesu-bit name a Son-of-Ra name b. For brevity's sake, only one element might be used, but the choice varied between circumstances and period. Starting with Dynasty V, the nesu-bit name was the one regularly used in all official documents. In Dynasty I, the Horus-name was used for a living pharaoh, the nebty-name for the dead.[3] ^ Other dates typical of the era are found cited in Capart, Jean, Primitive Art in Egypt, pp. 17–18. References[edit] ^ Kitchen, KA (1991). "The Chronology of Ancient Egypt". World Archaeology. 23 (2): 201–8. doi:10.1080/00438243.1991.9980172. ^ a b c d e Edwards 1971, p. 13. ^ a b c d e f g h i Lloyd 1994, p. 7. ^ a b c Cervelló-Autuori 2003, p. 174. ^ a b c d e f g Edwards 1971, p. 11. ^ Kitchen, KA (1991). "The Chronology of Ancient Egypt". World Archaeology. 23 (2): 201–8. doi:10.1080/00438243.1991.9980172. ^ Loprieno, Antonio (1995). Ancient Egyptian: A linguistic introduction. Cambridge University press. ISBN 0-521-44384-9. ^ Beck et al. 1999. ^ Heagy 2014. ^ a b Seidlmayer 2010. ^ Loprieno 1995, p. 38. ^ a b c d Manetho, Fr. 6, 7a, 7b. Text and translation in Manetho, translated by W.G. Waddell (Cambridge: Harvard University, 1940), pp.26-35 ^ Herodotus: 2.4.1, 2.99.1ff. ^ Lloyd 1994, p. 6. ^ Gardiner 1961, p. 405. ^ Budge, EA Wallis (1885), The Dwellers on the Nile: Chapters on the Life, Literature, History and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 54, Many dates have been fixed by scholars for the reign of this king: Champollion-Figeac thought about BC 5867, Bunsen 3623, Lepsius 3892, Brugsch 4455, and Wilkinson 2320. ^ Kitchen, KA (1991). "The Chronology of Ancient Egypt". World Archaeology. 23 (2): 201–8. doi:10.1080/00438243.1991.9980172. ^ Frank Northen Magill; Alison Aves (1998). Dictionary of World Biography. Taylor & Francis. pp. 726–. ISBN 978-1-57958-040-7. ^ Maspero 1903, p. 331. ^ a b c d e Verbrugghe & Wickersham 2001, p. 131. ^ Shaw & Nicholson 1995, p. 218. ^ Ryholt 2009. ^ Manley 1997, p. 22. ^ Herodotus: 2.99.4. ^ Herodotus: 2.109 ^ Verbrugghe & Wickersham 2001, p. 133. ^ P. Tallet, D. Laisnay: Iry-Hor et Narmer au Sud-Sinaï (Ouadi 'Ameyra), un complément à la chronologie des expéditios minière égyptiene, in: BIFAO 112 (2012), 381-395, available online ^ a b c Elder 1849, p. 1040. ^ a b c Maspero 1910, p. 235. ^ a b Edwards 1974, p. 22. sfn error: no target: CITEREFEdwards1974 (help) ^ Diodorus: 45 ^ Faber 1816, p. 195. ^ Elder 1849, p. 1040, ‘in defiance of chronology’. ^ Dow 1774. Bibliography[edit] Beck, Roger B; Black, Linda; Krieger, Larry S; Naylor, Phillip C; Shabaka, Dahia Ibo (1999), World history: Patterns of interaction, Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell, ISBN 0-395-87274-X Cervelló-Autuori, Josep (2003), "Narmer, Menes and the seals from Abydos", Egyptology at the dawn of the twenty-first century: proceedings of the Eighth International Congress of Egyptologists, 2, Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, ISBN 978-977-424-714-9. Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica, 1 Dow, Alexander (1774), Sethona: a tragedy, as it is performed at the Theatre Royal in Drury Lane, London: T. Becket, hdl:2027/uc2.ark:/13960/t2z31pr8f Edwards, IES (1971), "The early dynastic period in Egypt", The Cambridge Ancient History, 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Elder, Edward (1849), "Menes", in Smith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology, 2, Boston: Charles C. Little & James Brown. Faber, George Stanley (1816), "The origin of pagan idolatry: ascertained from historical testimony and circumstantial evidence", 3, London: F&C Rivingtons, 2. Gardiner, Alan (1961), Egypt of the Pharaohs, Oxford: Oxford University Press. of Halicarnassus, Herodotus, The Histories. Heagy, Thomas C. (2014), "Who was Menes?", Archeo-Nil, 24: 59–92. Available online "[1]".. Lloyd, Alan B. (1994) [1975], Herodotus: Book II, Leiden: EJ Brill, ISBN 90-04-04179-6. Maspero, Gaston (1903), Sayce, Archibald Henry (ed.), History of Egypt, Chaldea, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, 9, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 9780766135017. ——— (1910) [1894], Sayce, Archibald Henry (ed.), The dawn of civilization: Egypt and Chaldæa, translated by McClure, M L, London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, ISBN 978-0-7661-7774-1. Manley, Bill (1997), The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Egypt, London: Penguin, ISBN 0-14-051331-0. Rachewiltz, Boris de (1969), "Pagan and magic elements in Ezra Pound's works", in Hesse, Eva (ed.), New approaches to Ezra Pound, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Ryholt, Kim (2009), "Egyptian historical literature from the Greco-Roman period", in Fitzenreiter, Martin (ed.), Das Ereignis, Geschichtsschreibung zwischen Vorfall und Befund, London: Golden House. Schulz, Regine; Seidel, Matthias (2004), Egypt: The World of the Pharaohs, HF Ullmann, ISBN 978-3-8331-6000-4. Shaw, Ian; Nicholson, Paul (1995), The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, Harry N Abrams, ISBN 0-8109-9096-2. Seidlmayer, Stephan (2010) [2004], "The Rise of the State to the Second Dynasty", Egypt: The World of the Pharaohs, ISBN 978-3-8331-6000-4. Verbrugghe, Gerald Paul; Wickersham, John Moore (2001) [1996], Berossos and Manetho, introduced and translated: Native Traditions in Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, ISBN 978-0-472-08687-0. Waddell, Laurence A (1930), Egyptian civilization: Its Sumerian origin, London, ISBN 978-0-7661-4273-2. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Menes. Menes, Ancient Egypt. "The Contendings of Horus and Seth", Egypt, IL: Reshafim, archived from the original on 2010-09-24, retrieved 2007-07-22. "Menes", Ancient Egyptian Civilization (image), Aldokkan. "Menes" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e First Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Pharaohs Menes/Narmer Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Regents Neithhotep Merneith Queen consorts Benerib Herneith Penebui Nakhtneith (Khenthap) Semat Serethor Seshemetka Betrest Officials Amka Hemaka Sabef Meriiti Other people Ahaneith Artefacts and monuments Narmer macehead Narmer palette Tomb of Anedjib Den seal impressions Abydos boats MacGregor plaque Mastabas S3503 and S3504 Capital Thinis Authority control ISNI: 0000 0000 8223 1785 LCCN: n92057284 VIAF: 41035011 WorldCat Identities: viaf-41035011 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Menes&oldid=1001618431" Categories: 31st-century BC Pharaohs 32nd-century BC Pharaohs Deaths due to hippopotamus attacks Egyptian mythology Hunting accident deaths People whose existence is disputed Pharaohs of the First Dynasty of Egypt Accidental deaths in Egypt Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Wikipedia articles needing clarification from March 2017 Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search 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