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	Aristotle

	
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		Classical Greek philosopher and polymath, founder of the Peripatetic School

For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation).







	Aristotle

	Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze bust of Aristotle by Lysippos, c. 330 BC, with modern alabaster mantle

	Born	384 BC[A]
Stagira, Chalcidian League

	Died	322 BC (aged 61–62)
Euboea, Macedonian Empire

	Spouse(s)	Pythias
	
	Era	Ancient Greek philosophy
	Region	Western philosophy
	School	
	Peripatetic school
	Aristotelianism
	Classical republicanism




	Notable students	Alexander the Great, Theophrastus
	Main interests
	
	Biology
	Zoology
	Psychology[1][2]
	Physics
	Metaphysics
	Logic
	Ethics
	Rhetoric
	Aesthetics
	Music
	Poetry
	Economics
	Politics
	Government




	Notable ideas
	
	Aristotelian philosophy
	Syllogism
	Theory of the soul
	Virtue ethics




	
Influences

	
	Plato
	Socrates
	Heraclitus
	Parmenides
	Empedocles
	Phaleas
	Hippodamus
	Hippias









	
Influenced

	Virtually all subsequent Western philosophy, especially Aristotelianism  e. g. Averroes, Aquinas. Also pre-Enlightenment science (see List of writers influenced by Aristotle)







	



Aristotle (/ærɪsˈtɒtəl/;[3] Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης Aristotélēs, pronounced [aristotélɛːs]; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Lyceum, the Peripatetic school of philosophy, and the Aristotelian tradition. His writings cover many subjects including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theatre, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics, and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. It was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual lexicon, as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.

Little is known about his life. Aristotle was born in the city of Stagira in Northern Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven (c. 347 BC).[4] Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC.[5] He established a library in the Lyceum which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication.[6]

Aristotle's views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in his biology, such as on the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were disbelieved until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and John Buridan. Aristotle's influence on logic also continued well into the 19th century.

He influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400) during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher" and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher". His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics.


Contents


	1 Life
	2 Speculative philosophy
	2.1 Logic
	2.1.1 Organon



	2.2 Metaphysics
	2.2.1 Substance
	2.2.1.1 Immanent realism
	2.2.1.2 Potentiality and actuality






	2.3 Epistemology



	3 Natural philosophy
	3.1 Physics
	3.1.1 Five elements
	3.1.2 Motion
	3.1.3 Four causes
	3.1.4 Optics
	3.1.5 Chance and spontaneity



	3.2 Astronomy
	3.3 Geology/Natural Sciences
	3.4 Biology
	3.4.1 Empirical research
	3.4.2 Scientific style
	3.4.3 Classification of living things



	3.5 Psychology
	3.5.1 Soul
	3.5.2 Memory
	3.5.3 Dreams






	4 Practical philosophy
	4.1 Just war theory
	4.2 Ethics
	4.3 Politics
	4.4 Economics
	4.5 Rhetoric and poetics
	4.6 Views on women



	5 Influence
	5.1 On his successor, Theophrastus
	5.2 On later Greek philosophers
	5.3 On Hellenistic science
	5.4 On Byzantine scholars
	5.5 On the medieval Islamic world
	5.6 On medieval Europe
	5.7 On Early Modern scientists
	5.8 On 19th-century thinkers
	5.9 Modern rejection and rehabilitation



	6 Surviving works
	6.1 Corpus Aristotelicum
	6.2 Loss and preservation



	7 Legacy
	7.1 Depictions
	7.2 Eponyms



	8 See also
	9 References
	9.1 Notes
	9.2 Citations
	9.3 Sources



	10 Further reading
	11 External links





Life

  
School of Aristotle in Mieza, Macedonia, Greece



In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.[B]

Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose" in Ancient Greek,[7] was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice, about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki.[8][9] His father Nicomachus was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian.[10] Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy.[11]

At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy.[12] He probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, "to experience is to learn" [παθείν μαθεĩν].[13] Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus, although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died.[14] Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander.[15][5]


  
Portrait bust of Aristotle; an Imperial Roman (1st or 2nd century AD) copy of a lost bronze sculpture made by Lysippos



Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander.[16] Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants".[16] By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. If the Suda – an uncritical compilation from the Middle Ages – is accurate, he may also have had an erômenos, Palaephatus of Abydus.[17]

This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works.[5] He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, On the Soul and Poetics. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance, and theatre."[4]

Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death.[18] Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety,[19] prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, on Euboea, at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy"[20][21][22] – a reference to Athens's trial and execution of Socrates. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.[23]


Speculative philosophy

Logic

Main article: Term logic

Further information: Non-Aristotelian logic

With the Prior Analytics, Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic,[24] and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic.[25] Kant stated in the Critique of Pure Reason that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.[26]


Organon

Main article: Organon

One of Aristotle's types of syllogism[C]
	In words	In terms[D]	In equations[E]

	    All men are mortal.

    All Greeks are men.

∴ All Greeks are mortal.	M a P

S a M

S a P	



What is today called Aristotelian logic with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument),[27] Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the Organon around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers.[29] The books are:


	Categories
	On Interpretation
	Prior Analytics
	Posterior Analytics
	Topics
	On Sophistical Refutations


  
Plato (left) and Aristotle in Raphael's 1509 fresco, The School of Athens. Aristotle holds his Nicomachean Ethics and gestures to the earth, representing his view in immanent realism, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, indicating his Theory of Forms, and holds his Timaeus.[30][31]



The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in On Interpretation, to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics)[32][33] and dialectics (in the Topics and Sophistical Refutations). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu: the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The Rhetoric is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the Topics.[34]


Metaphysics

Main article: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name Metaphysics.[35] Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (theoretikē) philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his Metaphysics (1026a16):


 if there were no other independent things besides the composite natural ones, the study of nature would be the primary kind of knowledge; but if there is some motionless independent thing, the knowledge of this precedes it and is first philosophy, and it is universal in just this way, because it is first. And it belongs to this sort of philosophy to study being as being, both what it is and what belongs to it just by virtue of being.[36]


Substance

Further information: Hylomorphism

Aristotle examines the concepts of substance (ousia) and essence (to ti ên einai, "the what it was to be") in his Metaphysics (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called hylomorphism. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers, etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house, while the form of the substance is the actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.[37][35]


Immanent realism

Main article: Aristotle's theory of universals

  
Plato's forms exist as universals, like the ideal form of an apple. For Aristotle, both matter and form belong to the individual thing (hylomorphism).



Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle's ontology places the universal (katholou) in particulars (kath' hekaston), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle, "form" is still what phenomena are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance.[35]

Plato argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When one looks at an apple, for example, one sees an apple, and one can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, one can place an apple next to a book, so that one can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the world of forms, a place where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.[35][38]


Potentiality and actuality

Further information: Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)

With regard to the change (kinesis) and its causes now, as he defines in his Physics and On Generation and Corruption 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from:


	growth and diminution, which is change in quantity;
	locomotion, which is change in space; and
	alteration, which is change in quality.


  
Aristotle argued that a capability like playing the flute could be acquired – the potential made actual – by learning.



The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (dynamis) and actuality (entelecheia) in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing or being acted upon if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (dynamei) a plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (poiein) or 'be acted upon' (paschein), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (telos) is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to the previous example, it can be said that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do.[35]



 For that for the sake of which (to hou heneka) a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see.[39]


In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same.[35][40]


Epistemology

Aristotle's immanent realism means his epistemology is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these.[34] Aristotle uses induction from examples alongside deduction, whereas Plato relies on deduction from a priori principles.[34]


Natural philosophy

Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences.[41] In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". However, his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (Metaphysics 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics.[41]


Physics

  
The four classical elements (fire, air, water, earth) of Empedocles and Aristotle illustrated with a burning log. The log releases all four elements as it is destroyed.



Main article: Aristotelian physics

Five elements

Main article: Classical element

In his On Generation and Corruption, Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by Empedocles, Earth, Water, Air, and Fire, to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly Aether, the divine substance of the heavenly spheres, stars and planets.[42]


Aristotle's elements[42]
	Element	Hot/Cold	Wet/Dry	Motion	Modern state
of matter

	Earth	Cold	Dry	Down	Solid

	Water	Cold	Wet	Down	Liquid

	Air	Hot	Wet	Up	Gas

	Fire	Hot	Dry	Up	Plasma

	Aether	(divine
substance)	—	Circular
(in heavens)	—



Motion

Further information: History of classical mechanics

Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: "violent" or "unnatural motion", such as that of a thrown stone, in the Physics (254b10), and "natural motion", such as of a falling object, in On the Heavens (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also: in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest,[43][F] since Aristotle does not address friction.[44] With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster.[45][G] This would imply the equation[45]


		
  
    
      
        F
        =
        m
        v
      
    
    {\displaystyle F=mv}
  
,




incorrect in modern physics.[45]

Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens,[H] while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places.[46][44][I]


  
Aristotle's laws of motion. In Physics he states that objects fall at a speed proportional to their weight and inversely proportional to the density of the fluid they are immersed in.[44] This is a correct approximation for objects in Earth's gravitational field moving in air or water.[46]



In the Physics (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density,[J] ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling:[46][44]


		
  
    
      
        v
        =
        c
        
          
            W
            ρ
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle v=c{\frac {W}{\rho }}}
  





Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible.[46][44] Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the "extreme view"[44] that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative,[47] but other authors reject this.[44]

Archimedes corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they displace enough water; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not as Aristotle thought its elementary composition.[46]

Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the Early Modern period. John Philoponus (in the Middle Ages) and Galileo are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect.[41] A contrary opinion is given by Carlo Rovelli, who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the Earth's gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not[46]), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium.[45][K]

Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval theory of impetus.[46]


Four causes

Main article: Four causes

  
Aristotle argued by analogy with woodwork that a thing takes its form from four causes: in the case of a table, the wood used (material cause), its design (formal cause), the tools and techniques used (efficient cause), and its decorative or practical purpose (final cause).[48]



Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term aitia is traditionally translated as "cause", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as "explanation", but the traditional rendering will be employed here.[49][50]


	Material cause describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood. It is not about action. It does not mean that one domino knocks over another domino.[49]
	The formal cause is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells one what a thing is, that a thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea in the mind of the sculptor that brings the sculpture into being. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create a drawing.[49]
	The efficient cause is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, non-living or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. In the case of two dominoes, when the first is knocked over it causes the second also to fall over.[49] In the case of animals, this agency is a combination of how it develops from the egg, and how its body functions.[51]
	The final cause (telos) is its purpose, the reason why a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition.[49] In the case of living things, it implies adaptation to a particular way of life.[51]


Optics

Further information: History of optics

Aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in Problems, book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image.[52]


Chance and spontaneity

Further information: Accident (philosophy)

According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things, "from what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices.[53][54]


Astronomy

Further information: History of astronomy

In astronomy, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out correctly that if "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them."[55]


Geology/Natural Sciences

Further information: History of geology

  
Aristotle noted that the ground level of the Aeolian islands changed before a volcanic eruption.



Aristotle was one of the first people to record any geological observations. He stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime.[56][57]
The geologist Charles Lyell noted that Aristotle described such change, including "lakes that had dried up" and "deserts that had become watered by rivers", giving as examples the growth of the Nile delta since the time of Homer, and "the upheaving of one of the Aeolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption."'[58]
Aristotle also made many observations about the hydrologic cycle and meteorology (including his major writings "Meteorologica"). For example, he made some of the earliest observations about desalination: he observed early – and correctly – that when seawater is heated, freshwater evaporates and that the oceans are then replenished by the cycle of rainfall and river runoff (“I have proved by experiment that salt water evaporated forms fresh and the vapor does not when it condenses condense into sea water again” [59]


Biology

Main article: Aristotle's biology

  
Among many pioneering zoological observations, Aristotle described the reproductive hectocotyl arm of the octopus (bottom left).



Empirical research

Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically,[60] and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of Lesbos and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos.[61][62] His data in History of Animals, Generation of Animals, Movement of Animals, and Parts of Animals are assembled from his own observations,[63] statements given by people with specialized knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas.[64] His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on botany have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived.[65]

Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the catfish, electric ray, and frogfish in detail, as well as cephalopods such as the octopus and paper nautilus. His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century.[66] He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of ruminants,[67] and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark.[68]

He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function, so, among birds, the heron, which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish, has a long neck and long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas ducks that swim have short legs and webbed feet.[69] Darwin, too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of evolution.[70] Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or hybridizations could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results.[71] To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a common ancestor, or that one kind can change into another, or that kinds can become extinct.[72]


Scientific style

  
Aristotle inferred growth laws from his observations on animals, including that brood size decreases with body mass, whereas gestation period increases. He was correct in these predictions, at least for mammals: data are shown for mouse and elephant.



Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense.[73] He used the ancient Greek term pepeiramenoi to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection.[74] In Generation of Animals, he finds a fertilized hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside.[75][76]

Instead, he practiced a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these.[77][78] This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific.[77]


From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. Lifespan increases with gestation period, and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice.[79]


Classification of living things

Further information: Scala naturae

  
Aristotle recorded that the embryo of a dogfish was attached by a cord to a kind of placenta (the yolk sac), like a higher animal; this formed an exception to the linear scale from highest to lowest.[80]



Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of animals,[81][82] arranging these in the History of Animals in a graded scale of perfection, a scala naturae, with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave live birth to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. Animals came above plants, and these in turn were above minerals.[83] see also:[84] He grouped what the modern zoologist would call vertebrates as the hotter "animals with blood", and below them the colder invertebrates as "animals without blood". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing (mammals), and the egg-laying (birds, reptiles, fish). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and shelled) and the hard-shelled molluscs (bivalves and gastropods). He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a placenta like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle, is convergent evolution.[85] He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this teleological view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design.[86]


Aristotle's Scala naturae (highest to lowest)
	Group	Examples
(given by Aristotle)	Blood	Legs	Souls
(Rational,
Sensitive,
Vegetative)	Qualities
(Hot–Cold,
Wet–Dry)

	Man	Man	with blood	2 legs	R, S, V	Hot, Wet

	Live-bearing tetrapods	Cat, hare	with blood	4 legs	S, V	Hot, Wet

	Cetaceans	Dolphin, whale	with blood	none	S, V	Hot, Wet

	Birds	Bee-eater, nightjar	with blood	2 legs	S, V	Hot, Wet, except Dry eggs

	Egg-laying tetrapods	Chameleon, crocodile	with blood	4 legs	S, V	Cold, Wet except scales, eggs

	Snakes	Water snake, Ottoman viper	with blood	none	S, V	Cold, Wet except scales, eggs

	Egg-laying fishes	Sea bass, parrotfish	with blood	none	S, V	Cold, Wet, including eggs

	(Among the egg-laying fishes):
placental selachians	Shark, skate	with blood	none	S, V	Cold, Wet, but placenta like tetrapods

	Crustaceans	Shrimp, crab	without	many legs	S, V	Cold, Wet except shell

	Cephalopods	Squid, octopus	without	tentacles	S, V	Cold, Wet

	Hard-shelled animals	Cockle, trumpet snail	without	none	S, V	Cold, Dry (mineral shell)

	Larva-bearing insects	Ant, cicada	without	6 legs	S, V	Cold, Dry

	Spontaneously-generating	Sponges, worms	without	none	S, V	Cold, Wet or Dry, from earth

	Plants	Fig	without	none	V	Cold, Dry

	Minerals	Iron	without	none	none	Cold, Dry



Psychology

Soul

Further information: On the Soul

  
Aristotle proposed a three-part structure for souls of plants, animals, and humans, making humans unique in having all three types of soul.



Aristotle's psychology, given in his treatise On the Soul (peri psychēs), posits three kinds of soul ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the nous (intellect) and logos (reason).[87]

For Aristotle, the soul is the form of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement).[15] In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain.[88] Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon.[89]


Memory

According to Aristotle in On the Soul, memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past.[90] In other words, a memory is a mental picture (phantasm) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when stimuli such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian 'common sense', and thinking.[91][92]

Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in past experiences, both for previous experience and present experience.[93]

Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself.[94] Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed.[95] Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression.[96] Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed.[97]


  
Senses, perception, memory, dreams, action in Aristotle's psychology. Impressions are stored in the sensorium (the heart), linked by his laws of association (similarity, contrast, and contiguity).



Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and contiguity, described in his laws of association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled.[98][99]


Dreams

Further information: Dream § Classical history

Aristotle describes sleep in On Sleep and Wakefulness.[100] Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses[101] or of digestion,[100] so it is vital to the body.[101] While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they cannot have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep,[101] albeit differently,[100] unless they are weary.[101]

Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner.[101] Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then looks away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression.[100] When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored.[101] However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences.[100] So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience.[102] During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person.[100] This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature.[100] In De Anima iii 3, Aristotle ascribes the ability to create, to store, and to recall images in the absence of perception to the faculty of imagination, phantasia.[15]

One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences.[103] Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences.[102]


Practical philosophy

Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, economics, and rhetoric.[41]


Virtues and their accompanying vices[4]
	Too little	Virtuous mean	Too much

	Humbleness	High-mindedness	Vainglory

	Lack of purpose	Right ambition	Over-ambition

	Spiritlessness	Good temper	Irascibility

	Rudeness	Civility	Obsequiousness

	Cowardice	Courage	Rashness

	Insensibility	Self-control	Intemperance

	Sarcasm	Sincerity	Boastfulness

	Boorishness	Wit	Buffoonery

	Shamelessness	Modesty	Shyness

	Callousness	Just resentment	Spitefulness

	Pettiness	Generosity	Vulgarity

	Meanness	Liberality	Wastefulness



Just war theory

Aristotelian just war theory is not well regarded in the present day, especially his view that warfare was justified to enslave "natural slaves". In Aristotelian philosophy, the abolition of what he considers "natural slavery" would undermine civic freedom. The pursuit of freedom is inseparable from pursuing mastery over "those who deserve to be slaves". According to The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle's Politics the targets of this aggressive warfare were non-Greeks, noting Aristotle's view that "our poets say 'it is proper for Greeks to rule non-Greeks' ".[104]

Aristotle generally has a favourable opinion of war, extolling it as a chance for virtue and writing that "the leisure that accompanies peace" tends to make people "arrogant". War to "avoid becoming enslaved to others" is justified as self-defence. He writes that war "compels people to be just and temperate", however, in order to be just "war must be chosen for the sake of peace" (with the exception of wars of aggression discussed above).[104]


Ethics

Main article: Aristotelian ethics

Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the Nicomachean Ethics.[105]

Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (ergon) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the psuchē (soul) in accordance with reason (logos). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency[4]) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, eudaimonia, generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (ēthikē aretē), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence.[106]

Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (phronesis) and their intellect (nous) can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.[107]


Politics

Main article: Politics (Aristotle)

In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled Politics. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part".[108] He famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and argued that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality.[109] Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.[110]


  
Aristotle's classifications of political constitutions



The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (polis) which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (koinōnia). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with social contract theory, according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."[L]

In Protrepticus, the character 'Aristotle' states:[111]



 For we all agree that the most excellent man should rule, i.e., the supreme by nature, and that the law rules and alone is authoritative; but the law is a kind of intelligence, i.e. a discourse based on intelligence. And again, what standard do we have, what criterion of good things, that is more precise than the intelligent man? For all that this man will choose, if the choice is based on his knowledge, are good things and their contraries are bad. And since everybody chooses most of all what conforms to their own proper dispositions (a just man choosing to live justly, a man with bravery to live bravely, likewise a self-controlled man to live with self-control), it is clear that the intelligent man will choose most of all to be intelligent; for this is the function of that capacity. Hence it's evident that, according to the most authoritative judgment, intelligence is supreme among goods.[111]


As Plato’s disciple Aristotle was rather skeptical concerning democracy and, following Plato's vague ideas, he developed a coherent theory of integrating various forms of power into a so-called mixed state:



 It is … constitutional to take … from oligarchy that offices are to be elected, and from democracy that this is not to be on a property-qualification. This then is the mode of the mixture; and the mark of a good mixture of democracy and oligarchy is when it is possible to speak of the same constitution as a democracy and as an oligarchy. 
— Aristotle. Politics, Book 4, 1294b.10–18


To illustrate this approach, Aristotle proposed a first-of-its-kind mathematical model of voting, albeit textually described, where the democratic principle of "one voter–one vote" is combined with the oligarchic "merit-weighted voting"; for relevant quotes and their translation into mathematical formulas see.[112]


Economics

Main article: Politics (Aristotle)

Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought, especially to thought in the Middle Ages.[113] In Politics, Aristotle addresses the city, property, and trade. His response to criticisms of private property, in Lionel Robbins's view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall utility of social arrangements.[113] Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from human nature. In Politics, Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of money.[113] Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or silver.[114]

Aristotle's discussions on retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a profit. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use.[114]

Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable".[114] He goes on to state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it".[114]


Rhetoric and poetics

Main articles: Rhetoric (Aristotle) and Poetics (Aristotle)

  
The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods (1784) by Bénigne Gagneraux. In his Poetics, Aristotle uses the tragedy Oedipus Tyrannus by Sophocles as an example of how the perfect tragedy should be structured, with a generally good protagonist who starts the play prosperous, but loses everything through some hamartia (fault).[115]



Aristotle's Rhetoric proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: ethos (an appeal to the speaker's character), pathos (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and logos (an appeal to logical reasoning).[116] He also categorizes rhetoric into three genres: epideictic (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), forensic (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and deliberative (speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue).[117] Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical proofs: enthymeme (proof by syllogism) and paradeigma (proof by example).[118]

Aristotle writes in his Poetics that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of mimesis ("imitation"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.[119][120] He applies the term mimesis both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention[119] and contends that the audience's realisation of the mimesis is vital to understanding the work itself.[119] Aristotle states that mimesis is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals[119][121] and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature".[119] Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what Stephen Halliwell calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes."[119] For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.[122]

While it is believed that Aristotle's Poetics originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry.[123] The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes Poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic.[124] Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop.[125]


Views on women

Main article: Aristotle's views on women

Further information: Aristotle's biology § Inheritance

Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, proponents of feminist metaphysics have accused Aristotle of misogyny[126] and sexism.[127] However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his Rhetoric that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.[M]


Influence

Further information: List of writers influenced by Aristotle

More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived.[129][130] He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did".[131] Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of formal logic,[132] pioneered the study of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method.[133][134][135] Taneli Kukkonen, writing in The Classical Tradition, observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind."[135] Jonathan Barnes wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought".[136]


On his successor, Theophrastus

Main articles: Theophrastus and Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)

  
Frontispiece to a 1644 version of Theophrastus's Historia Plantarum, originally written around 300 BC



Aristotle's pupil and successor, Theophrastus, wrote the History of Plants, a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as carpel from carpos, fruit, and pericarp, from pericarpion, seed chamber.[137]
Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned.[138][139]


On later Greek philosophers

Further information: Peripatetic school

The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's notable students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"[140]


On Hellenistic science

Further information: Ancient Greek medicine

After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly.[141] It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found.

The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not.[142] Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."[143]


On Byzantine scholars

See also: Commentaries on Aristotle and Byzantine Aristotelianism

Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and Stephen of Alexandria in the early seventh century.[144] John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought.[145] Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the theory of impetus to explain his observations.[146]

After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena.[147]


On the medieval Islamic world

Further information: Logic in Islamic philosophy and Transmission of the Greek Classics

  
Islamic portrayal of Aristotle, c. 1220



Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early Islamic theology. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle,[148] as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. Averroes, Avicenna and Alpharabius, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy,[149] and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers.[150] Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher".[148] The title "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy.[151]


On medieval Europe




  
Woodcut of Aristotle ridden by Phyllis by Hans Baldung, 1515[152]



Further information: Aristotelianism and Syllogism § Medieval

With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the Organon made by Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona,[153] and from the original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke. After the Scholastic Thomas Aquinas wrote his Summa Theologica, working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher",[154] the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the Renaissance.[155] These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, Peter Abelard, and John Buridan worked on Aristotelian logic.[156]

The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by having



 
at his beddes heed

Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed,

Of aristotle and his philosophie,[157]





A cautionary medieval tale held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to avoid the king's seductive mistress, Phyllis, but was himself captivated by her, and allowed her to ride him. Phyllis had secretly told Alexander what to expect, and he witnessed Phyllis proving that a woman's charms could overcome even the greatest philosopher's male intellect. Artists such as Hans Baldung produced a series of illustrations of the popular theme.[158][152]

The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in The Divine Comedy:



	Dante
L'Inferno, Canto IV. 131–135	Translation
Hell

	
vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno

seder tra filosofica famiglia.

Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno:

quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone

che 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno;



	
I saw the Master there of those who know,

Amid the philosophic family,

By all admired, and by all reverenced;

There Plato too I saw, and Socrates,

Who stood beside him closer than the rest.







On Early Modern scientists

  
William Harvey's De Motu Cordis, 1628, showed that the blood circulated, contrary to classical era thinking.



In the Early Modern period, scientists such as William Harvey in England and Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like Galen, establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood, establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought.[159] Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight.[160]


On 19th-century thinkers

The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle.[161] Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural slaves"), and the natural superiority (virtue, arete) of others. It was Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition.[162]

The English mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, over, and beyond" it with his system of algebraic logic in his 1854 book The Laws of Thought. This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check validity, and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two.[163]


Modern rejection and rehabilitation

  
"That most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander".[135] Illustration by Charles Laplante [fr], 1866



During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticized. The philosopher Bertrand Russell
argued that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell called Aristotle's ethics "repulsive", and labelled his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.[5]

The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by "proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character" on limited evidence from their senses.[164] In 1985, the biologist Peter Medawar could still state in "pure seventeenth century"[165] tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility".[165][166]

By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that "In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition."[135] Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans.[167] Kukkonen observed, too, that "that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander" remained current, as in the 2004 film Alexander, while the "firm rules" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the Poetics in Hollywood.[135]

Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology,[168] while Niko Tinbergen's four questions, based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse animal behaviour; they examine function, phylogeny, mechanism, and ontogeny.[169][170]


Surviving works

Corpus Aristotelicum

Main article: Corpus Aristotelicum

  
First page of a 1566 edition of the Nicomachean Ethics in Greek and Latin



The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.[171]


Loss and preservation

Further information: Recovery of Aristotle

Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era.[N] His writings are divisible into two groups: the "exoteric", intended for the public, and the "esoteric", for use within the Lyceum school.[173][O][174] Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication.[175][173] Cicero's description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes.[P] A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones now possessed came to be found.[177] The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.[178][179]


Legacy

Depictions

	Paintings


Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder,[180] Justus van Gent, Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Jusepe de Ribera,[181] Rembrandt,[182] and Francesco Hayez over the centuries. Among the best-known depictions is Raphael's fresco The School of Athens, in the Vatican's Apostolic Palace, where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural vanishing point, reflecting their importance.[183] Rembrandt's Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic Jonathan Jones writes, "this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time."[184][185]


	
			


			
Nuremberg Chronicle anachronistically shows Aristotle in a medieval scholar's clothing. Ink and watercolour on paper, 1493


			

		

	
			


			
Aristotle by Justus van Gent. Oil on panel, c. 1476


			

		

	
			


			
Phyllis and Aristotle by Lucas Cranach the Elder. Oil on panel, 1530


			

		

	
			


			
Aristotle by Paolo Veronese, Biblioteka Marciana. Oil on canvas, 1560s


			

		

	
			


			
Aristotle and Campaspe,[Q] Alessandro Turchi (attrib.) Oil on canvas, 1713


			

		

	
			


			
Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera. Oil on canvas, 1637


			

		

	
			


			
Aristotle with a Bust of Homer by Rembrandt. Oil on canvas, 1653


			

		

	
			


			
Aristotle by Johann Jakob Dorner the Elder. Oil on canvas, by 1813


			

		

	
			


			
Aristotle by Francesco Hayez. Oil on canvas, 1811


			

		



	Sculptures


	
			


			
Roman copy of 1st or 2nd century from original bronze by Lysippos. Louvre Museum


			

		

	
			


			
Roman copy of 117-138 AD of Greek original. Palermo Regional Archeology Museum


			

		

	
			


			
Relief of Aristotle and Plato by Luca della Robbia, Florence Cathedral, 1437-1439


			

		

	
			


			
Stone statue in niche, Gladstone's Library, Hawarden, Wales, 1899


			

		

	
			


			
Bronze statue, University of Freiburg, Germany, 1915


			

		



Eponyms

The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book Meteorology, the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it Antarctica.[186] Aristoteles is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name.[187]


See also

	Aristotelian Society
	Conimbricenses
	Perfectionism


References

Notes


	^ That these dates (the first half of the Olympiad year 384/383 BC, and in 322 shortly before the death of Demosthenes) are correct was shown by August Boeckh (Kleine Schriften VI 195); for further discussion, see Felix Jacoby on FGrHist 244 F 38. Ingemar Düring, Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition, Göteborg, 1957,p. 253

	^ See Shields 2012, pp. 3–16; Düring 1957 covers ancient biographies of Aristotle.

	^ This type of syllogism, with all three terms in 'a', is known by the traditional (medieval) mnemonic Barbara.[27]

	^ M is the Middle (here, Men), S is the Subject (Greeks), P is the Predicate (mortal).[27]

	^ The first equation can be read as 'It is not true that there exists an x such that x is a man and that x is not mortal.'[28]

	^ Rhett Allain notes that Newton's First Law is "essentially a direct reply to Aristotle, that the natural state is not to change motion.[43]

	^ Leonard Susskind comments that Aristotle had clearly never gone ice skating or he would have seen that it takes force to stop an object.[45]

	^ For heavenly bodies like the Sun, Moon, and stars, the observed motions are "to a very good approximation" circular around the Earth's centre, (for example, the apparent rotation of the sky because of the rotation of the Earth, and the rotation of the moon around the Earth) as Aristotle stated.[46]

	^ Drabkin quotes numerous passages from Physics and On the Heavens (De Caelo) which state Aristotle's laws of motion.[44]

	^ Drabkin agrees that density is treated quantitatively in this passage, but without a sharp definition of density as weight per unit volume.[44]

	^ Philoponus and Galileo correctly objected that for the transient phase (still increasing in speed) with heavy objects falling a short distance, the law does not apply: Galileo used balls on a short incline to show this. Rovelli notes that "Two heavy balls with the same shape and different weight do fall at different speeds from an aeroplane, confirming Aristotle's theory, not Galileo's."[46]

	^ For a different reading of social and economic processes in the Nicomachean Ethics and Politics see Polanyi, Karl (1957) "Aristotle Discovers the Economy" in Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi ed. G. Dalton, Boston 1971, 78–115.

	^ "Where, as among the Lacedaemonians, the state of women is bad, almost half of human life is spoilt."[128]

	^ "When the Roman dictator Sulla invaded Athens in 86 BC, he brought back to Rome a fantastic prize – Aristotle's library. Books then were papyrus rolls, from 10 to 20 feet long, and since Aristotle's death in 322 BC, worms and damp had done their worst. The rolls needed repairing, and the texts clarifying and copying on to new papyrus (imported from Egypt – Moses' bulrushes). The man in Rome who put Aristotle's library in order was a Greek scholar, Tyrannio."[172]

	^ Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics 1102a26–27. Aristotle himself never uses the term "esoteric" or "acroamatic". For other passages where Aristotle speaks of exōterikoi logoi, see W.D. Ross, Aristotle's Metaphysics (1953), vol. 2 pp= 408–10. Ross defends an interpretation according to which the phrase, at least in Aristotle's own works, usually refers generally to "discussions not peculiar to the Peripatetic school", rather than to specific works of Aristotle's own.

	^ "veniet flumen orationis aureum fundens Aristoteles", (Google translation: "Aristotle will come pouring forth a golden stream of eloquence").[176]

	^ Compare the medieval tale of Phyllis and Alexander above.




Citations


	^ Kantor 1963, p. 116.

	^ On the Soul.

	^ Collins English Dictionary.

	^ a b c d Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.).

	^ a b c d Russell 1972.

	^ Barnes 1995, p. 9.

	^ Campbell.

	^ McLeisch 1999, p. 5.

	^ Aristoteles-Park in Stagira.

	^ Hall 2018, p. 14.

	^ Anagnostopoulos 2013, p. 4.

	^ Blits 1999, pp. 58–63.

	^ Evans 2006.

	^ Aristotle 1984, pp. Introduction.

	^ a b c Shields 2016.

	^ a b Green 1991, pp. 58–59.

	^ Smith 2007, p. 88.

	^ Green 1991, p. 460.

	^ Filonik 2013, pp. 72–73.

	^ Jones 1980, p. 216.

	^ Gigon 2017, p. 41.

	^ Düring 1957, p. T44a-e.

	^ Haase 1992, p. 3862.

	^ Degnan 1994, pp. 81–89.

	^ Corcoran 2009, pp. 1–20.

	^ Kant 1787, pp. Preface.

	^ a b c Lagerlund 2016.

	^ Predicate Logic.

	^ Pickover 2009, p. 52.

	^ School of Athens.

	^ Stewart 2019.

	^ Prior Analytics, pp. 24b18–20.

	^ Bobzien 2015.

	^ a b c Smith 2017.

	^ a b c d e f Cohen 2000.

	^ Aristotle 1999, p. 111.

	^ Metaphysics, p. VIII 1043a 10–30.

	^ Lloyd 1968, pp. 43–47.

	^ Metaphysics, p. IX 1050a 5–10.

	^ Metaphysics, p. VIII 1045a–b.

	^ a b c d Wildberg 2016.

	^ a b Lloyd 1968, pp. 133–39, 166–69.

	^ a b Allain 2016.

	^ a b c d e f g h i Drabkin 1938, pp. 60–84.

	^ a b c d e Susskind 2011.

	^ a b c d e f g h i Rovelli 2015, pp. 23–40.

	^ Carteron 1923, pp. 1–32 and passim.

	^ Leroi 2015, pp. 88–90.

	^ a b c d e Lloyd 1996, pp. 96–100, 106–07.

	^ Hankinson 1998, p. 159.

	^ a b Leroi 2015, pp. 91–92, 369–73.

	^ Lahanas.

	^ Physics, p. 2.6.

	^ Miller 1973, pp. 204–13.

	^ Meteorology, p. 1. 8.

	^ Moore 1956, p. 13.

	^ Meteorology, p. Book 1, Part 14.

	^ Lyell 1832, p. 17.

	^ Aristotle, (Translator: H.D.P. Lee) (1952). Meteorologica, Chapter II (Loeb Classical Library ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 156. Retrieved 22 January 2021.

	^ Leroi 2015, p. 7.

	^ Leroi 2015, p. 14.

	^ Thompson 1910, p. Prefatory Note.

	^ 
"Darwin's Ghosts, By Rebecca Stott". independent.co.uk. 2 June 2012. Retrieved 19 June 2012.

	^ Leroi 2015, pp. 196, 248.

	^ Day 2013, pp. 5805–16.

	^ Leroi 2015, pp. 66–74, 137.

	^ Leroi 2015, pp. 118–19.

	^ Leroi 2015, p. 73.

	^ Leroi 2015, pp. 135–36.

	^ Leroi 2015, p. 206.

	^ Sedley 2007, p. 189.

	^ Leroi 2015, p. 273.

	^ Taylor 1922, p. 42.

	^ Leroi 2015, pp. 361–65.

	^ Leroi 2011.

	^ Leroi 2015, pp. 197–200.

	^ a b Leroi 2015, pp. 365–68.

	^ Taylor 1922, p. 49.

	^ Leroi 2015, p. 408.

	^ Leroi 2015, pp. 72–74.

	^ Bergstrom & Dugatkin 2012, p. 35.

	^ Rhodes 1974, p. 7.

	^ Mayr 1982, pp. 201–02.

	^ Lovejoy 1976.

	^ Leroi 2015, pp. 111–19.

	^ Mason 1979, pp. 43–44.

	^ Leroi 2015, pp. 156–63.

	^ Mason 1979, p. 45.

	^ Guthrie 2010, p. 348.

	^ Bloch 2007, p. 12.

	^ Bloch 2007, p. 61.

	^ Carruthers 2007, p. 16.

	^ Bloch 2007, p. 25.

	^ Warren 1921, p. 30.

	^ Warren 1921, p. 25.

	^ Carruthers 2007, p. 19.

	^ Warren 1921, p. 296.

	^ Warren 1921, p. 259.

	^ Sorabji 2006, p. 54.

	^ a b c d e f g Holowchak 1996, pp. 405–23.

	^ a b c d e f Shute 1941, pp. 115–18.

	^ a b Modrak 2009, pp. 169–81.

	^ Webb 1990, pp. 174–84.

	^ a b Deslauriers & Destrée 2013, pp. 157-162.

	^ Kraut 2001.

	^ Nicomachean Ethics Book I. See for example chapter 7.

	^ Nicomachean Ethics, p. Book VI.

	^ Politics, pp. 1253a19–24.

	^ Aristotle 2009, pp. 320–21.

	^ Ebenstein & Ebenstein 2002, p. 59.

	^ a b Hutchinson & Johnson 2015, p. 22.

	^ Tangian 2020, pp. 35-38.

	^ a b c Robbins 2000, pp. 20–24.

	^ a b c d Aristotle 1948, pp. 16–28.

	^ Kaufmann 1968, pp. 56–60.

	^ Garver 1994, pp. 109–10.

	^ Rorty 1996, pp. 3–7.

	^ Grimaldi 1998, p. 71.

	^ a b c d e f Halliwell 2002, pp. 152–59.

	^ Poetics, p. I 1447a.

	^ Poetics, p. IV.

	^ Poetics, p. III.

	^ Poetics, p. VI.

	^ Poetics, p. XXVI.

	^ Aesop 1998, pp. Introduction, xi–xii.

	^ Freeland 1998.

	^ Morsink 1979, pp. 83–112.

	^ Rhetoric, p. Book I, Chapter 5.

	^ Leroi 2015, p. 8.

	^ Aristotle's Influence 2018.

	^ Magee 2010, p. 34.

	^ Guthrie 1990, p. 156.

	^ Aristotle (Greek philosopher).

	^ Durant 2006, p. 92.

	^ a b c d e Kukkonen 2010, pp. 70–77.

	^ Barnes 1982, p. 86.

	^ Hooker 1831, p. 219.

	^ Mayr 1982, pp. 90–91.

	^ Mason 1979, p. 46.

	^ Plutarch 1919, p. Part 1, 7:7.

	^ Annas 2001, p. 252.

	^ Mason 1979, p. 56.

	^ Mayr 1985, pp. 90–94.

	^ Sorabji 1990, pp. 20, 28, 35–36.

	^ Sorabji 1990, pp. 233–74.

	^ Lindberg 1992, p. 162.

	^ Sorabji 1990, pp. 20–21, 28–29, 393–406, 407–08.

	^ a b Kennedy-Day 1998.

	^ Staley 1989.

	^ Averroes 1953, p. III, 2, 43.

	^ Nasr 1996, pp. 59–60.

	^ a b Phyllis and Aristotle.

	^ Hasse 2014.

	^ Aquinas 2013.

	^ Kuhn 2018.

	^ Lagerlund.

	^ Allen & Fisher 2011, p. 17.

	^ Aristotle Phyllis.

	^ Aird 2011, pp. 118–29.

	^ Machamer 2017.

	^ Durant 2006, p. 86.

	^ Sikka 1997, p. 265.

	^ Boole 2003.

	^ Dijksterhuis 1969, p. 72.

	^ a b Leroi 2015, p. 353.

	^ Medawar & Medawar 1984, p. 28.

	^ Knight 2007, pp. passim.

	^ Leroi 2015.

	^ MacDougall-Shackleton 2011, pp. 2076–85.

	^ Hladký & Havlíček 2013.

	^ Aristotelis Opera.

	^ When libraries were 2001.

	^ a b Barnes 1995, p. 12.

	^ House 1956, p. 35.

	^ Irwin & Fine 1996, pp. xi–xii.

	^ Cicero 1874.

	^ Barnes & Griffin 1999, pp. 1–69.

	^ Anagnostopoulos 2013, p. 16.

	^ Barnes 1995, pp. 10–15.

	^ Lucas Cranach the Elder.

	^ Lee & Robinson 2005.

	^ Aristotle with Bust 2002.

	^ Phelan 2002.

	^ Held 1969.

	^ Jones 2002.

	^ Aristotle Mountains.

	^ Aristoteles.




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Irwin, Terence; Fine, Gail, eds. (1996). Aristotle: Introductory Readings. Hackett Pub. ISBN 978-0-87220-339-6.
	
Jones, Jonathan (27 July 2002). "Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, Rembrandt (1653)". The Guardian. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
	
Jones, W. T. (1980). The Classical Mind: A History of Western Philosophy. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 978-0-15-538312-8.
	
Kant, Immanuel (1787). Critique of Pure Reason (Second ed.). OCLC 2323615.
	
Kantor, J. R. (1963). The Scientific Evolution of Psychology, Volume I. Principia Press. ISBN 978-0-911188-25-7.
	
Kaufmann, Walter Arnold (1968). Tragedy and Philosophy. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02005-1.
	
Kennedy-Day, Kiki (1998). "Aristotelianism in Islamic philosophy". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor and Francis. doi:10.4324/9780415249126-H002-1. ISBN 978-0-415-25069-6.
	
Knight, Kelvin (2007). Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics & Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre. Polity Press. ISBN 978-0-7456-1977-4.
	
Kraut, Richard (1 May 2001). "Aristotle's Ethics". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 19 March 2018.
	
Kuhn, Heinrich (2018). "Aristotelianism in the Renaissance".  In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
	
Kukkonen, Taneli (2010).  Grafton, Anthony;  et al. (eds.). The classical tradition. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0.
	
Lagerlund, Henrik (2016). "Medieval Theories of the Syllogism".  In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
	
Lagerlund, Henrik. "Medieval Theories of the Syllogism".  In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
	
Lahanas, Michael. "Optics and ancient Greeks". Mlahanas.de. Archived from the original on 11 April 2009. Retrieved 26 April 2009.
	
Lee, Ellen Wardwell; Robinson, Anne (2005). Indianapolis Museum of Art: Highlights of the Collection. Indianapolis Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-936260-77-8.
	
Leroi, Armand Marie (2015). The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-4088-3622-4.
	
Leroi, Armand Marie (Presenter) (3 May 2011). "Aristotle's Lagoon: Embryo Inside a Chicken's Egg". BBC. Retrieved 17 November 2016.
	
Lindberg, David (1992). The Beginnings of Western Science. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7.
	
Lloyd, G. E. R. (1968). The critic of Plato. Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of His Thought. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-09456-6.
	
Lloyd, G. E. R. (1996). Causes and correlations. Adversaries and Authorities: Investigations into ancient Greek and Chinese science. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-55695-8.
	
Lovejoy, Arthur O. (31 January 1976). The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-36153-9.
	
"Lucas Cranach the Elder| Phyllis and Aristotle". Sotheby's. 2008. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
	
Lyell, Charles (1832). Principles of Geology. J. Murray, 1832. OCLC 609586345.
	
MacDougall-Shackleton, Scott A. (27 July 2011). "The levels of analysis revisited". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 366 (1574): 2076–85. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0363. PMC 3130367. PMID 21690126.
	
Machamer, Peter (2017). "Galileo Galilei".  In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
	
Magee, Bryan (2010). The Story of Philosophy. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 978-0-241-24126-4.
	
Mason, Stephen F. (1979). A History of the Sciences. Collier Books. ISBN 978-0-02-093400-4. OCLC 924760574.
	
Mayr, Ernst (1982). The Growth of Biological Thought. Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-36446-2.
	
Mayr, Ernst (1985). The Growth of Biological Thought. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-36446-2.
	
McLeisch, Kenneth Cole (1999). Aristotle: The Great Philosophers. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-92392-7.
	
Medawar, Peter B.; Medawar, J. S. (1984). Aristotle to Zoos: a philosophical dictionary of biology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-283043-2.
	
Miller, Willard M. (1973). "Aristotle on Necessity, Chance, and Spontaneity". New Scholasticism. 47 (2): 204–13. doi:10.5840/newscholas197347237.
	
Modrak, Deborah (2009). "Dreams and Method in Aristotle". Skepsis: A Journal for Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Research. 20: 169–81.
	
Moore, Ruth (1956). The Earth We Live On. Alfred A. Knopf. OCLC 1024467091.
	
Morsink, Johannes (Spring 1979). "Was Aristotle's Biology Sexist?". Journal of the History of Biology. 12 (1): 83–112. doi:10.1007/bf00128136. JSTOR 4330727. PMID 11615776. S2CID 6090923.
	
Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1996). The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia. Curzon Press. ISBN 978-0-7007-0314-2.
	
Phelan, Joseph (September 2002). "The Philosopher as Hero: Raphael's The School of Athens". ArtCyclopedia. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
	
"Phyllis and Aristotle". 1 February 2019 – via Musee du Louvre.
	
Pickover, Clifford A. (2009). The Math Book: From Pythagoras to the 57th Dimension, 250 Milestones in the History of Mathematics. Sterling. ISBN 978-1-4027-5796-9.
	
"Plutarch – Life of Alexander (Part 1 of 7)". penelope.uchicago.edu. Loeb Classical Library. 1919. Retrieved 31 January 2019.
	
"Predicate Logic" (PDF). University of Texas. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 March 2018. Retrieved 29 March 2018.
	
Rhodes, Frank Harold Trevor (1974). Evolution. Golden Press. ISBN 978-0-307-64360-5.
	
Robbins, Lionel (2000).  Medema, Steven G.; Samuels, Warren J. (eds.). A History of Economic Thought: The LSE Lectures. Princeton University Press.
	
Rorty, Amélie Oksenberg (1996). "Structuring Rhetoric".  In Rorty, Amélie Oksenberg (ed.). Essays on Aristotle's Rhetoric. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20227-6.
	
Rovelli, Carlo (2015). "Aristotle's Physics: A Physicist's Look". Journal of the American Philosophical Association. 1 (1): 23–40. arXiv:1312.4057. doi:10.1017/apa.2014.11. S2CID 44193681.
	
Russell, Bertrand (1972). A history of western philosophy. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-31400-2.
	
Sedley, David (2007). Creationism and Its Critics in Antiquity. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25364-3.
	
Shields, Christopher (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Aristotle. OUP USA. ISBN 978-0-19-518748-9.
	
Shields, Christopher (2016). "Aristotle's Psychology".  In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 ed.).
	
Shute, Clarence (1941). The Psychology of Aristotle: An Analysis of the Living Being. Columbia University Press. OCLC 936606202.
	
Sikka, Sonya (1997). Forms of Transcendence: Heidegger and Medieval Mystical Theology. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-3345-4.
	
Smith, Robin (2017). "Aristotle's Logic".  In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
	
Smith, William George (2007) [1869]. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. J. Walton. Retrieved 30 January 2019 – via Internet Archive.
	
Sorabji, R. (2006). Aristotle on Memory (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 54. And this is exactly why we hunt for the successor, starting in our thoughts from the present or from something else, and from something similar, or opposite, or neighbouring. By this means recollection occurs...
	
Sorabji, Richard (1990). Aristotle Transformed. Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-7156-2254-4.
	
Staley, Kevin (1989). "Al-Kindi on Creation: Aristotle's Challenge to Islam". Journal of the History of Ideas. 50 (3): 355–370. doi:10.2307/2709566. JSTOR 2709566.
	
Susskind, Leonard (3 October 2011). "Classical Mechanics, Lectures 2, 3". The Theoretical Minimum. Retrieved 11 May 2018.
	
Taylor, Henry Osborn (1922). "Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology". Greek Biology and Medicine. Archived from the original on 27 March 2006. Retrieved 3 January 2017.
	
"The School of Athens by Raphael". Visual Arts Cork. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
	
Stewart, Jessica (2019). "The Story Behind Raphael's Masterpiece 'The School of Athens'". My Modern Met. Retrieved 29 March 2019. Plato's gesture toward the sky is thought to indicate his Theory of Forms. ... Conversely, Aristotle's hand is a visual representation of his belief that knowledge comes from experience. Empiricism, as it is known, theorizes that humans must have concrete evidence to support their ideas
	
Tangian, Andranik (2020). Analytical theory of democracy. Vols. 1 and 2. Studies in Choice and Welfare. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-39691-6. ISBN 978-3-030-39690-9.
	
Thompson, D'Arcy (1910).  Ross, W. D.; Smith, J. A. (eds.). Historia animalium. The works of Aristotle translated into English. Clarendon Press. OCLC 39273217.
	
Warren, Howard C. (1921). A History of the Association of Psychology. OCLC 21010604.
	
Webb, Wilse (1990). Dreamtime and dreamwork: Decoding the language of the night. Jeremy P. Tarcher. ISBN 978-0-87477-594-5.
	
"When libraries were on a roll". The Telegraph. 19 May 2001. Retrieved 29 June 2017.
	
Wildberg (2016). "John Philoponus".  In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
	
Zalta, Edward N., ed. (2018). "Aristotle's Influence". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2018 ed.).




Further reading

The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection.




	Ackrill, J. L. (1997). Essays on Plato and Aristotle, Oxford University Press.
	
Ackrill, J.L. (1981). Aristotle the Philosopher. Oxford University Press.
	
Adler, Mortimer J. (1978). Aristotle for Everybody. Macmillan.
	
Ammonius (1991).  Cohen, S. Marc; Matthews, Gareth B (eds.). On Aristotle's Categories. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-2688-9.
	
Aristotle (1908–1952). The Works of Aristotle Translated into English Under the Editorship of W.D. Ross, 12 vols. Clarendon Press. These translations are available in several places online; see External links.
	Bakalis, Nikolaos. (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing, 
ISBN 978-1412048439.
	
Bocheński, I. M. (1951). Ancient Formal Logic. North-Holland.
	Bolotin, David (1998). An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing. Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works.
	Burnyeat, Myles F. et al. (1979). Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy.
	
Cantor, Norman F.; Klein, Peter L., eds. (1969). Ancient Thought: Plato and Aristotle. Monuments of Western Thought. 1. Blaisdell.
	
Chappell, V. (1973). "Aristotle's Conception of Matter". Journal of Philosophy. 70 (19): 679–96. doi:10.2307/2025076. JSTOR 2025076.
	Code, Alan (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76.
	
Cohen, S. Marc; Reeve, C. D. C. (21 November 2020). "Aristotle's Metaphysics". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2020 ed.).
	
Ferguson, John (1972). Aristotle. Twayne Publishers.
	De Groot, Jean (2014). Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th century BC, Parmenides Publishing, 
ISBN 978-1930972834.
	Frede, Michael (1987). Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
	
Fuller, B.A.G. (1923). Aristotle. History of Greek Philosophy. 3. Cape.
	Gendlin, Eugene T. (2012). Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima Archived 27 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. The Focusing Institute.
	Gill, Mary Louise (1989). Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity. Princeton University Press.
	
Guthrie, W.K.C. (1981). A History of Greek Philosophy. 6. Cambridge University Press.
	
Halper, Edward C. (2009). One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha – Delta. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1930972216.
	
Halper, Edward C. (2005). One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1930972056.
	
Irwin, Terence H. (1988). Aristotle's First Principles (PDF). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0198242905.
	
Jaeger, Werner (1948).  Robinson, Richard (ed.). Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Development (2nd ed.). Clarendon Press.
	Jori, Alberto (2003). Aristotele, Bruno Mondadori (Prize 2003 of the "International Academy of the History of Science"), 
ISBN 978-8842497370.
	
Kiernan, Thomas P., ed. (1962). Aristotle Dictionary. Philosophical Library.
	Knight, Kelvin (2007). Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre, Polity Press.
	Lewis, Frank A. (1991). Substance and Predication in Aristotle. Cambridge University Press.
	Lord, Carnes (1984). Introduction to The Politics, by Aristotle. Chicago University Press.
	Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
	Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.) (2012) Reading Aristotle: Physics VII. 3: What is Alteration? Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference, Parmenides Publishing. 
ISBN 978-1930972735.
	
McKeon, Richard (1973). Introduction to Aristotle (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press.
	
Owen, G. E. L. (1965c). "The Platonism of Aristotle". Proceedings of the British Academy. 50: 125–50. [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R.R.K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). Articles on Aristotle Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.]
	
Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2002). Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511498282. ISBN 9780511498282.
	
Plato (1979).  Allen, Harold Joseph; Wilbur, James B (eds.). The Worlds of Plato and Aristotle. Prometheus Books.
	Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics. Hackett.
	
Rose, Lynn E. (1968). Aristotle's Syllogistic. Charles C Thomas.
	
Ross, Sir David (1995). Aristotle (6th ed.). Routledge.
	Scaltsas, T. (1994). Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics. Cornell University Press.
	Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's Politics", in The City and Man, Rand McNally.
	
Swanson, Judith (1992). The Public and the Private in Aristotle's Political Philosophy. Cornell University Press.
	
Veatch, Henry B. (1974). Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation. Indiana University Press.
	
Woods, M. J. (1991b). "Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics". Aristotle and the Later Tradition. Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy. Suppl. pp. 41–56.




External links

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		Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article:
 Ἀριστοτέλης 



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Turner, William (1907). "Aristotle" . Catholic Encyclopedia. 1.
	 
Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "The Peripatetics: Aristotle" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 1:5. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.


	Collections of works


	At Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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	(in English and Greek) Perseus Project at Tufts University
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	(in Greek and French) P. Remacle
	The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of Aristotle's Works in Greek (PDF · DJVU)


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	Sequence hypothesis
	Spontaneous generation




	History	
	Classical
antiquity	
	Aristotle
	Aristotle's biology
	On Generation and Corruption
	History of Animals


	Theophrastus
	Historia Plantarum


	Dioscorides
	De materia medica


	Galen




	Renaissance,
early modern	
	Conrad Gessner
	Historia animalium


	Andreas Vesalius
	De humani corporis fabrica


	William Harvey
	De Motu Cordis


	Frederik Ruysch
	Jan Swammerdam
	Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
	Regnier de Graaf
	Marcello Malpighi
	Robert Hooke
	Micrographia


	Francesco Redi




	Evolution	
	19th
century	
	Linnaeus
	Systema Naturae


	Buffon
	Histoire Naturelle


	Lamarck
	Philosophie Zoologique


	Humboldt
	Charles Lyell
	Principles of Geology


	Charles Darwin
	On the Origin of Species
	The Descent of Man


	Gregor Mendel
	Alfred Russel Wallace
	Henry Walter Bates




	Modern
synthesis	
	William Bateson
	Theodosius Dobzhansky
	Genetics and the Origin of Species


	R. A. Fisher
	E. B. Ford
	J. B. S. Haldane
	Ernst Mayr
	Thomas Hunt Morgan
	George Gaylord Simpson
	Hugo de Vries
	Sewall Wright




	Recent	
	Stephen Jay Gould
	W. D. Hamilton
	Lynn Margulis
	Aleksandr Oparin
	George C. Williams
	Carl Woese







	Microbiology	
	Ferdinand Cohn
	Alexander Fleming
	Felix d'Herelle
	Robert Koch
	Louis Pasteur
	Martinus Beijerinck
	Lazzaro Spallanzani
	Sergei Winogradsky




	Develop. biol.,
evo-devo	
	Karl Ernst von Baer
	Gavin de Beer
	Sean B. Carroll
	Scott F. Gilbert
	Walter Gehring
	Ernst Haeckel
	François Jacob
	Edward B. Lewis
	Jacques Monod
	Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard
	Eric Wieschaus
	E. B. Wilson




	Genetics,
molecular
biology	
	Experiments	
	Griffith's (1928)
	Luria–Delbrück (1943)
	Avery–MacLeod–McCarty (1944)
	Miller–Urey (1952)
	Hershey–Chase (1952)
	Meselson–Stahl (1958)
	Crick, Brenner et al. (1961)
	Nirenberg–Matthaei (1961)
	Nirenberg–Leder (1964)




	People	
	Barbara McClintock
	George Beadle
	Seymour Benzer
	Rosalind Franklin
	Photo 51


	James D. Watson and Francis Crick
	"Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids"


	Linus Pauling
	"Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease"


	Fred Sanger
	Max Perutz
	John Kendrew
	Sydney Brenner
	Joshua Lederberg
	Walter Gilbert
	Kary Mullis
	Emmanuelle Charpentier
	Jennifer Doudna







	Ecology	
	Rachel Carson
	Frederic Clements
	Charles Elton
	Henry Gleason
	Arthur Tansley
	Eugenius Warming




	Ethology	
	Niko Tinbergen
	Karl von Frisch
	Konrad Lorenz
	Frans de Waal
	Jane Goodall
	Ivan Pavlov







	Related	
	History of science
	Philosophy of biology
	Teleology


	Ethnobotany
	Eugenics
	History of the creation-evolution controversy
	Human Genome Project
	Humboldtian science
	Natural history
	Natural philosophy
	Natural theology
	Relationship between religion and science
	Timeline of biology and organic chemistry




	
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Philosophy of science

	
	Concepts	
	Analysis
	Analytic–synthetic distinction
	A priori and a posteriori
	Causality
	Commensurability
	Consilience
	Construct
	Creative synthesis
	Demarcation problem
	Empirical evidence
	Explanatory power
	Fact
	Falsifiability
	Feminist method
	Functional contextualism


	Ignoramus et ignorabimus
	Inductive reasoning
	Intertheoretic reduction
	Inquiry
	Nature
	Objectivity
	Observation
	Paradigm
	Problem of induction
	Scientific law
	Scientific method
	Scientific revolution
	Scientific theory
	Testability
	Theory choice
	Theory-ladenness
	Underdetermination
	Unity of science




	Metatheory
of science	
	Coherentism
	Confirmation holism
	Constructive empiricism
	Constructive realism
	Constructivist epistemology
	Contextualism
	Conventionalism
	Deductive-nomological model
	Hypothetico-deductive model
	Inductionism
	Epistemological anarchism
	Evolutionism
	Fallibilism
	Foundationalism
	Instrumentalism
	Pragmatism
	Model-dependent realism
	Naturalism
	Physicalism
	Positivism / Reductionism / Determinism
	Rationalism / Empiricism
	Received view / Semantic view of theories
	Scientific realism / Anti-realism
	Scientific essentialism
	Scientific formalism
	Scientific skepticism
	Scientism
	Structuralism
	Uniformitarianism
	Vitalism




	Philosophy of	
	Physics
	thermal and statistical
	Motion


	Chemistry
	Biology
	Geography
	Social science
	Technology
	Engineering
	Artificial intelligence
	Computer science


	Information
	Mind
	Psychiatry
	Psychology
	Perception
	Space and time




	Related topics	
	Alchemy
	Criticism of science
	Descriptive science
	Epistemology
	Faith and rationality
	Hard and soft science
	History and philosophy of science
	History of science
	History of evolutionary thought
	Logic
	Metaphysics
	Normative science
	Pseudoscience
	Relationship between religion and science
	Rhetoric of science
	Science studies
	Sociology of scientific knowledge
	Sociology of scientific ignorance







	
	Philosophers of science by era

	
	Ancient	
	Plato
	Aristotle
	Stoicism
	Epicureans




	Medieval	
	Averroes
	Avicenna
	Roger Bacon
	William of Ockham
	Hugh of Saint Victor
	Dominicus Gundissalinus
	Robert Kilwardby




	Early modern	
	Francis Bacon
	Thomas Hobbes
	René Descartes
	Galileo Galilei
	Pierre Gassendi
	Isaac Newton
	David Hume




	Late modern	
	Immanuel Kant
	Friedrich Schelling
	William Whewell
	Auguste Comte
	John Stuart Mill
	Herbert Spencer
	Wilhelm Wundt
	Charles Sanders Peirce
	Wilhelm Windelband
	Henri Poincaré
	Pierre Duhem
	Rudolf Steiner
	Karl Pearson




	Contemporary	
	Alfred North Whitehead
	Bertrand Russell
	Albert Einstein
	Otto Neurath
	C. D. Broad
	Michael Polanyi
	Hans Reichenbach
	Rudolf Carnap
	Karl Popper
	Carl Gustav Hempel
	W. V. O. Quine
	Thomas Kuhn
	Imre Lakatos
	Paul Feyerabend
	Jürgen Habermas
	Ian Hacking
	Bas van Fraassen
	Larry Laudan
	Daniel Dennett










	
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Philosophy of language

	Index of language articles

	Philosophers	
	Plato (Cratylus)
	Gorgias
	Confucius
	Xunzi
	Aristotle
	Stoics
	Pyrrhonists
	Scholasticism
	Ibn Rushd
	Ibn Khaldun
	Thomas Hobbes
	Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
	Johann Herder
	Ludwig Noiré
	Wilhelm von Humboldt
	Fritz Mauthner
	Paul Ricœur
	Ferdinand de Saussure
	Gottlob Frege
	Franz Boas
	Paul Tillich
	Edward Sapir
	Leonard Bloomfield
	Zhuangzi
	Henri Bergson
	Lev Vygotsky
	Ludwig Wittgenstein
	Philosophical Investigations
	Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus


	Bertrand Russell
	Rudolf Carnap
	Jacques Derrida
	Of Grammatology
	Limited Inc


	Benjamin Lee Whorf
	Gustav Bergmann
	J. L. Austin
	Noam Chomsky
	Hans-Georg Gadamer
	Saul Kripke
	A. J. Ayer
	G. E. M. Anscombe
	Jaakko Hintikka
	Michael Dummett
	Donald Davidson
	Roger Gibson
	Paul Grice
	Gilbert Ryle
	P. F. Strawson
	Willard Van Orman Quine
	Hilary Putnam
	David Lewis
	John Searle
	Joxe Azurmendi
	Scott Soames
	Stephen Yablo
	John Hawthorne
	Stephen Neale
	Paul Watzlawick




	Theories	
	Causal theory of reference
	Contrast theory of meaning
	Contrastivism
	Conventionalism
	Cratylism
	Deconstruction
	Descriptivism
	Direct reference theory
	Dramatism
	Dynamic semantics
	Expressivism
	Linguistic determinism
	Mediated reference theory
	Nominalism
	Non-cognitivism
	Phallogocentrism
	Relevance theory
	Semantic externalism
	Semantic holism
	Structuralism
	Supposition theory
	Symbiosism
	Theological noncognitivism
	Theory of descriptions (Definite description)
	Unilalianism
	Verification theory




	Concepts	
	Ambiguity
	Cant
	Linguistic relativity
	Language
	Truth-bearer
	Proposition
	Use–mention distinction
	Concept
	Categories
	Set
	Class
	Family resemblance
	Intension
	Logical form
	Metalanguage
	Mental representation
	Presupposition
	Principle of compositionality
	Property
	Sign
	Sense and reference
	Speech act
	Symbol
	Sentence
	Statement
	more...




	Related articles	
	Analytic philosophy
	Philosophy of information
	Philosophical logic
	Linguistics
	Pragmatics
	Rhetoric
	Semantics
	Formal semantics
	Semiotics




	
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Jurisprudence

	Legal theory	
	Critical legal studies
	Comparative law
	Economic analysis
	Legal norms
	International legal theory
	Legal history
	Philosophy of law
	Sociology of law




	Philosophers	
	Alexy
	Allan
	Aquinas
	Aristotle
	Austin
	Beccaria
	Bentham
	Betti
	Bickel
	Blackstone
	Bobbio
	Bork
	Brożek
	Cardozo
	Castanheira Neves
	Chafee
	Coleman
	Del Vecchio
	Durkheim
	Dworkin
	Ehrlich
	Feinberg
	Fineman
	Finnis
	Frank
	Fuller
	Gardner
	George
	Green
	Grisez
	Grotius
	Gurvitch
	Habermas
	Han
	Hart
	Hegel
	Hobbes
	Hohfeld
	Hägerström
	Jellinek
	Jhering
	Kant
	Kelsen
	Köchler
	Kramer
	Llewellyn
	Lombardía
	Luhmann
	Lundstedt
	Lyons
	MacCormick
	Marx
	Nussbaum
	Olivecrona
	Pashukanis
	Perelman
	Petrażycki
	Pontes de Miranda
	Posner
	Pound
	Puchta
	Pufendorf
	Radbruch
	Rawls
	Raz
	Reale
	Reinach
	Renner
	Ross
	Rumi
	Savigny
	Scaevola
	Schauer
	Schmitt
	Shang
	Simmonds
	Somló
	Suárez
	Tribe
	Unger
	Voegelin
	Waldron
	Walzer
	Weber
	Wronkowska
	Ziembiński
	Znamierowski




	Theories	
	Analytical jurisprudence
	Deontological ethics
	Fundamental theory of canon law
	Interpretivism
	Legalism
	Legal moralism
	Legal positivism
	Legal realism
	Libertarian theories of law
	Natural law
	Paternalism
	Utilitarianism
	Virtue jurisprudence




	Concepts	
	Dharma
	Fa
	Judicial interpretation
	Justice
	Legal system
	Li
	Rational-legal authority
	Usul al-Fiqh




	Related articles	
	Law
	Political philosophy
	Index




	
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Social and political philosophy

	Ancient
philosophers	
	Aristotle
	Chanakya
	Cicero
	Confucius
	Han Fei
	Lactantius
	Laozi
	Mencius
	Mozi
	Origen
	Plato
	Polybius
	Shang
	Socrates
	Sun Tzu
	Tertullian
	Thucydides
	Valluvar
	Xenophon
	Xunzi




	Medieval
philosophers	
	Alpharabius
	Augustine
	Averroes
	Baldus
	Bartolus
	Bruni
	Dante
	Gelasius
	al-Ghazali
	Giles
	Hostiensis
	Ibn Khaldun
	John of Paris
	John of Salisbury
	Latini
	Maimonides
	Marsilius
	Nizam al-Mulk
	Photios
	Thomas Aquinas
	Wang
	William of Ockham




	Early modern
philosophers	
	Beza
	Bodin
	Bossuet
	Botero
	Buchanan
	Calvin
	Cumberland
	Duplessis-Mornay
	Erasmus
	Filmer
	Grotius
	Guicciardini
	Harrington
	Hayashi
	Hobbes
	Hotman
	Huang
	Leibniz
	Locke
	Luther
	Machiavelli
	Malebranche
	Mariana
	Milton
	Montaigne
	More
	Müntzer
	Naudé
	Pufendorf
	Rohan
	Sansovino
	Sidney
	Spinoza
	Suárez




	18th–19th-century
philosophers	
	Bakunin
	Bentham
	Bonald
	Bosanquet
	Burke
	Comte
	Constant
	Emerson
	Engels
	Fichte
	Fourier
	Franklin
	Godwin
	Hamann
	Hegel
	Herder
	Hume
	Jefferson
	Justi
	Kant
	political philosophy


	Kierkegaard
	Le Bon
	Le Play
	Madison
	Maistre
	Marx
	Mazzini
	Mill
	Montesquieu
	Möser
	Nietzsche
	Novalis
	Paine
	Renan
	Rousseau
	Royce
	Sade
	Schiller
	Smith
	Spencer
	Stirner
	Taine
	Thoreau
	Tocqueville
	Vico
	Vivekananda
	Voltaire




	20th–21st-century
philosophers	
	Adorno
	Ambedkar
	Arendt
	Aurobindo
	Aron
	Azurmendi
	Badiou
	Baudrillard
	Bauman
	Benoist
	Berlin
	Bernstein
	Butler
	Camus
	Chomsky
	De Beauvoir
	Debord
	Du Bois
	Durkheim
	Dworkin
	Foucault
	Gandhi
	Gauthier
	Gehlen
	Gentile
	Gramsci
	Habermas
	Hayek
	Heidegger
	Irigaray
	Kautsky
	Kirk
	Kropotkin
	Laclau
	Lenin
	Luxemburg
	Mao
	Mansfield
	Marcuse
	Maritain
	Michels
	Mises
	Mou
	Mouffe
	Negri
	Niebuhr
	Nozick
	Nursî
	Oakeshott
	Ortega
	Pareto
	Pettit
	Plamenatz
	Polanyi
	Popper
	Qutb
	Radhakrishnan
	Rand
	Rawls
	Rothbard
	Russell
	Santayana
	Sartre
	Scanlon
	Schmitt
	Searle
	Shariati
	Simmel
	Simonović
	Skinner
	Sombart
	Sorel
	Spann
	Spirito
	Strauss
	Sun
	Taylor
	Walzer
	Weber
	Žižek




	Social theories	
	Anarchism
	Authoritarianism
	Collectivism
	Communism
	Communitarianism
	Conflict theories
	Confucianism
	Consensus theory
	Conservatism
	Contractualism
	Cosmopolitanism
	Culturalism
	Fascism
	Feminist political theory
	Gandhism
	Individualism
	Islam
	Islamism
	Legalism
	Liberalism
	Libertarianism
	Mohism
	National liberalism
	Republicanism
	Social constructionism
	Social constructivism
	Social Darwinism
	Social determinism
	Socialism
	Utilitarianism




	Concepts	
	Civil disobedience
	Democracy
	Four occupations
	Justice
	Law
	Mandate of Heaven
	Peace
	Property
	Revolution
	Rights
	Social contract
	Society
	War
	more...




	Related articles	
	Jurisprudence
	Philosophy and economics
	Philosophy of education
	Philosophy of history
	Philosophy of love
	Philosophy of sex
	Philosophy of social science
	Political ethics
	Social epistemology




	
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Ancient Greece

	
	Timeline




	
		History
	Geography




	
	Periods	
	Cycladic civilization
	Minoan civilization
	Mycenaean civilization
	Greek Dark Ages
	Archaic period
	Classical Greece
	Hellenistic Greece
	Roman Greece




	Geography	
	Aegean Sea
	Aeolis
	Crete
	Cyrenaica
	Cyprus
	Doris
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	Ionian Sea
	Macedonia
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	Ancient Greek colonies










	
		City states
	Politics
	Military




	
	City states	
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	Kingdoms	
	Epirus (ancient state)
	Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
	Ptolemaic Kingdom
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	Indo-Greek Kingdom




	Politics	
	
	Boule
	Koinon
	Proxeny
	Tagus
	Tyrant
	Amphictyonic League




	Athenian	
	Agora
	Areopagus
	Ecclesia
	Graphe paranomon
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	Spartan	
	Apella
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	Gerousia




	Macedon	
	Synedrion
	Koinon







	Military	
	Wars
	Athenian military
	Scythian archers


	Antigonid Macedonian army
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	Hippeis
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	Toxotai
	Xiphos
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	People

	
	List of ancient Greeks

	Rulers	
	Kings of Argos
	Archons of Athens
	Kings of Athens
	Kings of Commagene
	Diadochi
	Kings of Macedonia
	Kings of Paionia
	Attalid kings of Pergamon
	Kings of Pontus
	Kings of Sparta
	Tyrants of Syracuse




	Philosophers	
	Anaxagoras
	Anaximander
	Anaximenes
	Antisthenes
	Aristotle
	Democritus
	Diogenes of Sinope
	Empedocles
	Epicurus
	Gorgias
	Heraclitus
	Hypatia
	Leucippus
	Parmenides
	Plato
	Protagoras
	Pythagoras
	Socrates
	Thales
	Zeno




	Authors	
	Aeschylus
	Aesop
	Alcaeus
	Archilochus
	Aristophanes
	Bacchylides
	Euripides
	Herodotus
	Hesiod
	Hipponax
	Homer
	Ibycus
	Lucian
	Menander
	Mimnermus
	Panyassis
	Philocles
	Pindar
	Plutarch
	Polybius
	Sappho
	Simonides
	Sophocles
	Stesichorus
	Theognis
	Thucydides
	Timocreon
	Tyrtaeus
	Xenophon




	Others	
	Agesilaus II
	Agis II
	Alcibiades
	Alexander the Great
	Aratus
	Archimedes
	Aspasia
	Demosthenes
	Epaminondas
	Euclid
	Hipparchus
	Hippocrates
	Leonidas
	Lycurgus
	Lysander
	Milo of Croton
	Miltiades
	Pausanias
	Pericles
	Philip of Macedon
	Philopoemen
	Praxiteles
	Ptolemy
	Pyrrhus
	Solon
	Themistocles




	Groups	
	Philosophers
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	Tyrants




	By culture	
	Ancient Greek tribes
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	Ancient Macedonians










	
		Society
	Culture




	
	Society	
	Agriculture
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	Cuisine
	Economy
	Education
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	Slavery
	Warfare
	Wedding customs
	Wine




	Arts and science	
	Architecture
	Greek Revival architecture


	Astronomy
	Literature
	Mathematics
	Medicine
	Music
	Musical system


	Pottery
	Sculpture
	Technology
	Theatre
	Greco-Buddhist art




	Religion	
	
	Funeral and burial practices
	Mythology
	mythological figures


	Temple
	Twelve Olympians
	Underworld
	Greco-Buddhism
	Greco-Buddhist monasticism




	Sacred places	
	Eleusis
	Delphi
	Delos
	Dion
	Dodona
	Mount Olympus
	Olympia







	Structures	
	
	Athenian Treasury
	Lion Gate
	Long Walls
	Philippeion
	Theatre of Dionysus
	Tunnel of Eupalinos




	Temples	
	Aphaea
	Artemis
	Athena Nike
	Erechtheion
	Hephaestus
	Hera, Olympia
	Parthenon
	Samothrace
	Zeus, Olympia







	Language	
	Proto-Greek
	Mycenaean
	Homeric
	Dialects
	Aeolic
	Arcadocypriot
	Attic
	Doric
	Epirote
	Ionic
	Locrian
	Macedonian
	Pamphylian


	Koine




	Writing	
	Linear A
	Linear B
	Cypriot syllabary
	Greek alphabet
	Greek numerals
	Attic numerals










	
		Greek colonisation




	
	South Italy	
	Alision
	Brentesion
	Caulonia
	Chone
	Croton
	Cumae
	Elea
	Heraclea Lucania
	Hipponion
	Hydrus
	Krimisa
	Laüs
	Locri
	Medma
	Metapontion
	Neápolis
	Pandosia (Lucania)
	Poseidonia
	Pixous
	Rhegion
	Scylletium
	Siris
	Sybaris
	Sybaris on the Traeis
	Taras
	Terina
	Thurii



	

	Sicily	
	Akragas
	Akrai
	Akrillai
	Apollonia
	Calacte
	Casmenae
	Catana
	Gela
	Helorus
	Henna
	Heraclea Minoa
	Himera
	Hybla Gereatis
	Hybla Heraea
	Kamarina
	Leontinoi
	Megara Hyblaea
	Messana
	Naxos
	Segesta
	Selinous
	Syracuse
	Tauromenion
	Thermae
	Tyndaris




	Aeolian Islands	
	Didyme
	Euonymos
	Ereikousa
	Hycesia
	Lipara/Meligounis
	Phoenicusa
	Strongyle
	Therassía




	Sardinia	
	Olbia




	Cyrenaica	
	Balagrae
	Barca
	Berenice
	Cyrene (Apollonia)
	Ptolemais




	Iberian Peninsula	
	Akra Leuke
	Alonis
	Emporion
	Helike
	Hemeroscopion
	Kalathousa
	Kypsela
	Mainake
	Menestheus's Limin
	Illicitanus Limin/Portus Illicitanus
	Rhode
	Salauris
	Zacynthos




	Illyria	
	Aspalathos
	Apollonia
	Epidamnos
	Epidauros
	Issa
	Melaina Korkyra
	Nymphaion
	Orikon
	Pharos
	Tragurion
	Thronion




	Black Sea north coast	
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Aristotelianism

	Overview	
	Aristotle
	Lyceum
	Peripatetic school
	Physics
	Biology
	Ethics
	Logic
	Theology (unmoved mover)



	

	Ideas and interests	
	Active intellect
	Antiperistasis
	Arete
	Category of being
	Catharsis
	Classical unities
	Correspondence theory of truth
	Essence–accident
	Eudaimonia
	Four causes
	Future contingents
	Genus–differentia
	Hexis
	Hylomorphism
	Intromission theory of vision
	Ignoratio elenchi
	Lexis
	Magnanimity
	Mimesis
	Minima naturalia
	Moderate realism
	Aristotle's theory of universals (substantial form)


	Mythos
	Philosophy of nature (sublunary sphere)
	Philia
	Plenism
	Rational animal
	Phronesis
	Potentiality and actuality
	Sensus communis
	Substance theory (hypokeimenon, ousia)
	Syllogism
	Telos
	Temporal finitism
	To ti en einai/to ti esti
	Use value/exchange value
	Virtue ethics




	Corpus Aristotelicum	
	Physics
	Organon
	Nicomachean Ethics
	Politics
	Metaphysics
	On the Soul
	Rhetoric
	Poetics




	Followers	
	Alexander the Great



	Lyceum	
	Aristoxenus
	Clearchus of Soli
	Dicaearchus
	Eudemus of Rhodes
	Theophrastus
	Strato of Lampsacus
	Lyco of Troas
	Aristo of Ceos
	Critolaus
	Diodorus of Tyre
	Erymneus
	Andronicus of Rhodes







	Islamic Golden Age	
	Al-Kindi
	Al-Farabi
	Avicenna
	Averroes







	Jewish	
	Maimonides







	Scholastics	
	Peter Lombard
	Albertus Magnus
	Thomas Aquinas
	Duns Scotus
	Peter of Spain
	Jacopo Zabarella
	Pietro Pomponazzi
	Cesar Cremonini







	Modern	
	Newman
	Trendelenburg
	Brentano
	Adler
	Foot
	MacIntyre
	Smith
	Hursthouse
	Nussbaum








	Related topics	
	Platonism
	Commentaries on Aristotle
	Recovery of Aristotle
	Scholasticism
	Thomism


	Conimbricenses
	Pseudo-Aristotle
	Views on women
	Aristotle's wheel paradox
	Aristotle's razor
	Metabasis paradox




	Related categories	
►  Aristotle







	 Philosophy portal




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	TDVİA: aristo
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	 WorldCat Identities: viaf-268271999














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