Semerkhet - Wikipedia Semerkhet From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Semerkhet Semempses, Mempses Alabaster vase of Semerkhet, the inscription reads King Iry-Nebty visits the house-of-the-pleased-king, oil jars for it, National Archaeological Museum (France) Pharaoh Reign 8½ years, ca. 2920 BC (First Dynasty) Predecessor Anedjib Successor Qa'a Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nisut-Bity-Nebty-Iry nsw.t-bty-nb.ty-iry King of Upper and Lower Egypt, he of the two ladies, he who belongs to them Alternative: He whom the two ladies guard[1] Horus name Hor-Semerkhet Ḥr-smr.ẖt Companion of the divine community Alternative: Companion of the gods[1] Abydos King List Iry?/Semsu? iry?/smsw? Turin King List Semsem smsm The elder of Horus Father Anedjib ? Den ? Mother Betrest Burial Tomb U, Umm el-Qa'ab Semerkhet is the Horus name of an early Egyptian king who ruled during the First Dynasty. This ruler became known through a tragic legend handed down by the historian Manetho, who reported that a calamity of some sort occurred during Semerkhet's reign. The archaeological records seem to support the view that Semerkhet had a difficult time as king and some early archaeologists questioned the legitimacy of Semerkhet's succession to the Egyptian throne. Contents 1 Length of reign 2 Name sources 3 Identity 4 Reign 5 Tomb 6 References 7 External links Length of reign[edit] Manetho named Semerkhet Semêmpsés and credited him with a reign of 18 years,[2] whilst the Royal Canon of Turin credited him with an implausibly long reign of 72 years.[3] Egyptologists and historians now consider both statements as exaggerations and credit Semerkhet with a reign of 8½ years. This evaluation is based on the Cairo Stone inscription, where the complete reign of Semerkhet has been recorded. Additionally, they point to the archaeological records, which strengthen the view that Semerkhet had a relatively short reign.[4] Name sources[edit] Semsu, cartouche name of Semerkhet in the Abydos king list Semerkhet is well attested in archaeological records. His name appears in inscriptions on vessels made of schist, alabaster, breccia, and marble. His name is also preserved on ivory tags and earthen jar seals. Objects bearing Semerkhet's name and titles come from Abydos and Sakkara.[4][5] Semerkhet's serekh name is commonly translated as "companion of the divine community" or "thoughtful friend". The latter translation is questioned by many scholars, since the hieroglyph khet (Gardiner-sign F32) normally was the symbol for "body" or "divine community".[4][5][6] Pottery sherd inscribed with Semerkhet's serekh name, originally from his tomb, now in the Petrie Museum, UC 36756 Semerkhet's birth name is more problematic. Any artefact showing his birth name curiously lacks any artistic detail of the used hieroglyphic sign: a walking man with waving cloak or skirt, a nemes head dress, and a long, plain stick in his hands. The reading and meaning of this special sign is disputed, since it doesn't appear in this form before association with king Semerkhet. Indeed, the hieroglyph of the cloaked man is extremely rare. It appears only twice in relief inscriptions depicting ceremonial processions of priests and standard bearers.[4][5] Egyptologists such as Toby Wilkinson, Bernhard Grdseloff, and Jochem Kahl read Iry-Netjer, meaning "divine guardian". During the Old Kingdom period, this word is written with uniliteral signs of a netjer flag (Gardiner-sign R8) and a human eye (Gardiner-sign D4) nearby the ideogram of the man. Some contemporary ivory tags show the Nebty name written with the single eye symbol only. Thus, the scholars also read Semerkhet's throne name as Iry (meaning "guardian") and the Nebty name as Iry-Nebty (meaning "guardian of the Two Ladies"). This reconstruction is strengthened by the observation that Semerkhet was the first king using the Nebty title in its ultimate form. For unknown reason Semerkhet did not use the Nebuy title of his predecessor. It seems that he felt connected with the 'Two Ladies', a title referring to the goddesses Nekhbet and Wadjet, the patron deities of the Ancient Egyptians who were worshiped by all after the unification of its two parts, Lower Egypt, and Upper Egypt. The Nebty title in turn was thought to function as an addition to the Nisut-Bity title.[5][6][7] His prenomen is Nisut-Bity-Nebty-Iry, nsw.t-bty-nb.ty-irymeaning, King of Upper and Lower Egypt, he of the two ladies, and he who belongs to them or He whom the two ladies guard.[1] Scribes and priests of the Ramesside era were also confused, because the archaic ideogram that was used during Semerkhet's lifetime was very similar to the sign of an old man with a walking stick (Gardiner sign A19). This had been read as Semsu or Sem and means "the eldest". It was used as a title identifying someone as the head of the house. Due to this uncertainty, it seems that the compiler of the Abydos king list simply tried to imitate the original figure, whilst the author of the Royal Canon of Turin seems to have been convinced about reading it as the Gardiner-sign A19 and he wrote Semsem with uniliteral signs. The Royal Table of Sakkara omits Semerkhet's throne name. The reason for that is unknown, but all kings from Narmer up to king Den also are missing their throne names.[5][6][7] Identity[edit] See also: First Dynasty of Egypt family tree Nebty name of Semerkhet from Djoser's pyramid complex at Saqqara[8] Virtually nothing is known about Semerkhet's family. His parents are unknown, but it is thought that one of his predecessors, king Den, might have been his father. Possibly, Semerkhet was born to queen Betrest. On the Cairo Stone she is described as his mother, but definite evidence for that view has not yet been found. It would be expected that Semerkhet had sons and daughters, but their names have not been preserved in the historical record. A candidate as a possible member of his family line is his immediate successor, king Qa'a.[9] Reign[edit] Ivory label of Semerkhet Ivory label of Semerkhet, on display in the British Museum. The right section, introduced by the 'year'-sign Renpet (a bald palm stem), reports -from top to bottom- a feast of the Sokar-bark, a visitation to the temple of the ancestor-deity, Wer-Wadyt, and the travelling in a royal boat. The left part of the label shows the throne name Iry-Nebty of Semerkhet with a blessing wish below. On the upper left corner is described the content of the jar, to which the label was once adjusted. Also the name of the high official Henuka is preserved, who was obviously responsible for the delivery of the mentioned jar. An old theory, supported by Egyptologists and historians such as Jean-Philippe Lauer, Walter Bryan Emery, Wolfgang Helck, and Michael Rice once held that Semerkhet was a usurper and not the rightful heir to the throne. Their assumption was based on the observation that a number of stone vessels with Semerkhet's name on them, originally were inscribed with king Adjib's name. Semerkhet simply erased Adjib's name and replaced it with his own. Furthermore, they point out that no high official and priest associated with Semerkhet was found at Sakkara. All other kings, such as Den and Adjib, are attested in local mastabas.[4][10][11] Today this theory has little support. Egyptologists such as Toby Wilkinson, I. E. S. Edwards, and Winifred Needler deny the 'usurping theory', because Semerkhet's name is mentioned on stone vessel inscriptions along with those of Den, Adjib, and Qa'a. The objects were found in the underground galleries beneath the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara. The inscriptions show that king Qa'a, immediate successor of Semerkhet and sponsor of the vessels, accepted Semerkhet as a rightful ancestor and heir to the throne. Furthermore, the Egyptologists point out that nearly every king of First Dynasty had the habit of taking special vessels (so-called 'anniversary vessels') from their predecessor's tomb and then replacing their predecessor's name with their own. Semerkhet not only confiscated Adjib's vessels, in his tomb several artefacts from the necropolis of queen Meritneith and king Den also were found. The lack of any high official's tomb at Saqqara might be explained by the rather short reign of Semerkhet. It seems that the only known official of Semerkhet, Henu-Ka, had survived his king: His name appears on ivory tags from Semerkhet's and Qaa's tomb.[5][9] Seal impressions from Semerkhet's burial site show the new royal domain, Hor wep-khet, (meaning "Horus, the judge of the divine community") and the new private household Hut-Ipty (meaning "house of the harem"), which was headed by Semerkhet's wives. Two ivory tags show the yearly 'Escort of Horus', a feast connected to the regular tax collections. Other tags report the cult celebration for the deity of the ancestors, Wer-Wadyt ("the Great White"). And further tags show the celebration of a first (and only) Sokar feast.[5][12][13] While the Cairo Stone reports the whole of Semerkhet's reign, unfortunately, the surface of the stone slab is badly worn and most of the events are now illegible. The following chart follows the reconstructions by Toby A. H. Wilkinson, John D. Degreef, and Hermann Alexander Schlögl: Cairo Stone, main fragment: Year of coronation: Appearance of the king of Lower- and Upper Egypt; unifying the two realms; circumambulation of the White Wall of Memphis first year: Escort of Horus; destruction of Egypt second year: Appearance of the king; creation of a statue for Seshat and Sed third year: Escort of... (rest is missing) fourth year: Appearance of the king of Upper Egypt; creation of... (rest is missing) fifth year: Escort of... (rest is missing) sixth year: Appearance of the king of Upper Egypt... (rest is missing) seventh year: Escort of... (rest is missing) eighth year: Appearance of the king of Lower- and Upper Egypt... (rest is missing) year of death: The ...th month and ...th day. (damaged) [7][13][14] Egyptologists and historians pay special attention to the entrance "Destruction of Egypt" in the second window of Semerkhet's year records. The inscription gives no further information about that event, but it has a resemblance to the Manetho's report. The Eusebian version says: "His son, Semémpsês, who reigned for 18 years; in his reign a very great calamity befell Egypt." The Armenian version sounds similar: "Mempsis, 18 years. Under him many portents happened and a great pestilence occurred." None of the documents from after Semerkhet's reign provide any details about this "calamity".[2][7][13] Tomb[edit] Map of Semerkhet's tomb in the Umm el-Qa'ab[15] Semerkhet's burial site was excavated in 1899 by archaeologist and Egyptologist Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie at Abydos and is known as "Tomb U". While excavating, Petrie found no stairways as he did at the necropolis of Den and Adjib. He found a ramp, four metres wide and leading straight into the main chamber. The ramp starts approximately ten metres east outside the tomb and has a base slope of 12°. Inside the tomb the ramp shows irregular graduations. Petrie was also confused by the small number of clay seals. Only 17 seals were found. For archaeologists and Egyptologists, the complete arrangement of the burial site suggests that the builders were pressed for time. When Petrie freed the ramp from sand, he found that the complete ramp was thickly covered in aromatic oil, which still gave off a scent. Beside the ramp several wooden and hand-made baskets and earthen jars were found. These were dated to the Ramesside era. Scholars now think that Semerkhet's tomb was re-opened and restored when Ramesside priests and kings saw the tomb of king Djer as the ritual burial of Osiris's head. The findings inside the main chamber included precious objects such as inlays and fragments of furniture (especially pedestals), copper-made armatures, and jewelry made of ebony, amethyst, and turquoise. Some vessels originating from the Levant also were found. They once contained Bescha oil, which was of great value to the Egyptians. Outside the tomb, close to the entrance, a damaged tomb stela made of black granite displaying Semerkhet's serekh name was excavated.[5][11][16][17][18] The burial chamber measures 29.2 × 20.8 metres and is of simple construction. Petrie found that the king's mastaba once covered the whole of the subsidiary tombs. Now the royal burial formed a unit with the 67 subsidiary tombs. Egyptologists such as Walter Bryan Emery and Toby Wilkinson see this architectural development as proof that the royal family and household were killed willingly when their royal family head had died. Wilkinson goes further and thinks that Semerkhet, as the godlike king, tried to demonstrate his power over the death and life of his servants and family members even in their afterlife. The tradition of burying the family and court of the king when he died was abandoned at the time of king Qaa, one of the last rulers of the First Dynasty. The tombs of Second Dynasty founder, Hotepsekhemwy, onward have no subsidiary tombs.[11][16][18] Calcite dish, from Royal Tomb "U" , Semerkhet, at Abydos, Egypt, First Dynasty, The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Pottery shard bearing Semerkhet's serekh, on display at the Musée du Louvre Clay jar incised with Semerkhet's serekh, Musée du Louvre Fragment of a vessel of white marble bearing the serekh of Semerkhet, at the left of the serekh a per bja, meaning "brazen house" or "house of ore", is mentioned, Egyptian Museum, Cairo Tomb stela of Semerkh References[edit] ^ a b c Nicolas Grimal, Ian Shaw (translator): A History of Ancient Egypt, 1992, Oxford: Blackwell publishing, ISBN 978-0-63-119396-8, p. 54 ^ a b William Gillian Waddell: Manetho (The Loeb Classical Library, Volume 350). Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.) 2004 (Reprint), ISBN 0-674-99385-3, page 33–37. ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The royal Canon of Turin. Griffith Institute of Oxford, Oxford (UK) 1997, ISBN 0-900416-48-3; page 15 & Table I. ^ a b c d e Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit. (Ägyptologische Abhandlungen, Volume 45), Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4, page 124, 160 - 162 & 212 - 214. ^ a b c d e f g h Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, page 78, 79 & 275. ^ a b c Jochem Kahl, Markus Bretschneider, Barbara Kneissler: Frühägyptisches Wörterbuch, Band 1. Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2002, ISBN 3-447-04594-9, Seite 46. ^ a b c d Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt: the Palermo Stone and its Associated Fragments. Kegan Paul International, London 2000, ISBN 0-7103-0667-9, page 76. ^ Pierre Lacau, J.-Ph. Lauer: La Pyramide a Degrees. Band 4: Inscriptions gravées sur les vases. Fasc. 1: Planches. Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale, Kairo 1959, Abb. 37. ^ a b Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards: Early History of the Middle East (The Cambridge Ancient History; Vol. 1, Pt. 2). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2006, ISBN 0-521-07791-5, page 27–31. ^ Michael Rice: Egypt's Making: the Origins of Ancient Egypt, 5000-2000 BC. Taylor & Francis, London/New York 1990, ISBN 0-415-05092-8, page 127. ^ a b c Walter Bryan Emery: Ägypten, Geschichte und Kultur der Frühzeit, 3200-2800 v. Chr. Fourier, Wiesbaden 1964, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, page 15–17 & 94–95. ^ Eva-Maria Engel: The Domain of Semerkhet. In: Stan Hendrickx: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams: Proceedings of the International Conference „Origin of the State, Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt“, Krakow, 28th August - 1st September 2002. Peeters, Leuven 2004, ISBN 90-429-1469-6, page 705–710. ^ a b c Hermann A. Schlögl: Das alte Ägypten. Beck, München 2008, ISBN 3-406-48005-5, page 71–72. ^ Ian Shaw & Paul T. Nicholson: The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. Harry N. Abrams, New York 2003, ISBN 0-8109-9096-2, page 202. ^ Dieter Arnold: Lexikon der ägyptischen Baukunst, Patmos Verlag, 2000, S. 11 ^ a b Ian Shaw: The Oxford history of ancient Egypt. University Press, Oxford (UK) 2003, ISBN 0-19-280458-8, page 69. ^ G. Dreyer, A. Effland, U. Effland, E.M. Engel, H. Hartmann, R. Hartung, Lacher, Müller, Pokorny: Excavations in the Tomb of Semerkhet. In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Institut Kairo, vol. 62. von Zabern, Mainz 2006, page 95-97. ^ a b Günter Dreyer: Zur Rekonstruktion der Oberbauten der Königsgräber der 1. Dynastie in Abydos (Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Kairo 47). von Zabern, Mainz 1991, page 56. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Semerkhet. Francesco Raffaele: Semerkhet - nisut-bity Iry Preceded by Anedjib Pharaoh of Egypt Succeeded by Qa'a v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e First Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Pharaohs Menes/Narmer Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Regents Neithhotep Merneith Queen consorts Benerib Herneith Penebui Nakhtneith (Khenthap) Semat Serethor Seshemetka Betrest Officials Amka Hemaka Sabef Meriiti Other people Ahaneith Artefacts and monuments Narmer macehead Narmer palette Tomb of Anedjib Den seal impressions Abydos boats MacGregor plaque Mastabas S3503 and S3504 Capital Thinis Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Semerkhet&oldid=999244675" Categories: 30th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the First Dynasty of Egypt 30th century BC in Egypt 30th-century BC rulers Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from November 2013 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Commons category link from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Ripoarisch Русский 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