Mandarin Chinese - Wikipedia Mandarin Chinese From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the entire group of Mandarin Chinese language varieties. For Standard Mandarin, the official variety, see Standard Chinese. For the administrative language of China during the Ming and Qing dynasties, see Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca). Major branch of Chinese spoken across most of northern and southwestern China Mandarin 官话; 官話; Guānhuà Guānhuà (Mandarin) written in Chinese characters (simplified Chinese on the left, traditional Chinese on the right) Region Most of Northern and Southwestern China (see also Standard Chinese) Native speakers 920 million (2017)[1] L2 speakers: 200 million (no date)[1] Language family Sino-Tibetan Sinitic Mandarin Early forms Old Chinese Middle Chinese Old Mandarin Standard forms Standard Chinese (Putonghua, Guoyu) Dialects Northeastern Beijing Ji–Lu Jiao–Liao Lower Yangtze Central Plains Lan–Yin Southwestern Jin (sometimes a separate group) Huizhou (disputed) Writing system Chinese characters (Simplified, Traditional) Latin (Pinyin) Zhuyin Arabic (Xiao'erjing) Cyrillic (Dungan) Mainland Chinese Braille Taiwanese Braille Two-Cell Chinese Braille Signed forms Wenfa Shouyu[2] Language codes ISO 639-3 cmn Glottolog mand1415[3] Linguasphere 79-AAA-b Mandarin area in mainland China and Taiwan, with Jin (sometimes treated as a separate group) in light green This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. Mandarin Chinese Simplified Chinese 官话 Traditional Chinese 官話 Literal meaning Officials' speech Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Guānhuà Wade–Giles Kuan1-hua4 Northern Chinese Simplified Chinese 北方话 Traditional Chinese 北方話 Literal meaning Northern speech Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Běifānghuà Wade–Giles Pei3-fang1-hua4 Play media A speaker from Tanghe (Central Plains Mandarin) Mandarin (/ˈmændərɪn/ (listen); simplified Chinese: 官话; traditional Chinese: 官話; pinyin: Guānhuà; lit. 'speech of officials') is a group of Sinitic (Chinese) languages spoken across most of northern and southwestern China. The group includes the Beijing dialect, the basis of the phonology of Standard Chinese. Because Mandarin originated in North China and most Mandarin languages and dialects are found in the north, the group is sometimes referred to as Northern Chinese (北方话, běifānghuà, 'northern speech'). Many varieties of Mandarin, such as those of the Southwest (including Sichuanese) and the Lower Yangtze (including the old capital Nanjing), are not mutually intelligible or are only partially intelligible with the standard language. Nevertheless, Mandarin is often placed first in lists of languages by number of native speakers (with nearly a billion). Mandarin is by far the largest of the seven or ten Chinese dialect groups, spoken by 70 percent of all Chinese speakers over a large geographical area, stretching from Yunnan in the southwest to Xinjiang in the northwest and Heilongjiang in the northeast. This is generally attributed to the greater ease of travel and communication in the North China Plain compared to the more mountainous south, combined with the relatively recent spread of Mandarin to frontier areas. Most Mandarin varieties have four tones. The final stops of Middle Chinese have disappeared in most of these varieties, but some have merged them as a final glottal stop. Many Mandarin varieties, including the Beijing dialect, retain retroflex initial consonants, which have been lost in southern varieties of Chinese. The capital has been within the Mandarin area for most of the last millennium, making these dialects very influential. Some form of Mandarin has served as a national lingua franca since the 14th century. In the early 20th century, a standard form based on the Beijing dialect, with elements from other Mandarin dialects, was adopted as the national language. Standard Chinese is the official language of the People's Republic of China[4] and Taiwan (Republic of China)[5] and one of the four official languages of Singapore. In several rebel group-controlled, multiethnic regions of Myanmar, Mandarin is either an official language (such as in Wa State[6]) or the lingua franca (such as in Shan State Special region 4[7]). It is used as one of the working languages of the United Nations.[8] It is also one of the most frequently used varieties of Chinese among Chinese diaspora communities internationally and the most commonly taught Chinese variety. Contents 1 Name 2 History 2.1 Old Mandarin 2.2 Vernacular literature 2.3 Koiné of the Late Empire 2.4 Standard Chinese 3 Geographic distribution 3.1 Subgrouping 4 Phonology 4.1 Initials 4.2 Finals 4.3 Tones 5 Vocabulary 6 Grammar 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Further reading 10.1 Historical Western language texts 11 External links Name[edit] The English word "mandarin" (from Portuguese mandarim, from Malay menteri, from Sanskrit mantrī, mantrin, meaning 'minister or counsellor') originally meant an official of the Ming and Qing empires.[9][10][a] Since their native varieties were often mutually unintelligible, these officials communicated using a Koiné language based on various northern varieties. When Jesuit missionaries learned this standard language in the 16th century, they called it "Mandarin", from its Chinese name Guānhuà (官话/官話) or 'language of the officials'.[12] In everyday English, "Mandarin" refers to Standard Chinese, which is often called simply "Chinese". Standard Chinese is based on the particular Mandarin dialect spoken in Beijing, with some lexical and syntactic influence from other Mandarin dialects. It is the official spoken language of the People's Republic of China (PRC), the de facto official language of the Republic of China (ROC, Taiwan) and one of the four official languages of Singapore. It also functions as the language of instruction in Mainland China and in Taiwan. It is one of the six official languages of the United Nations, under the name "Chinese". Chinese speakers refer to the modern standard language as Pǔtōnghuà (普通话/普通話, literally 'common speech') in Mainland China, Guóyǔ (国语/國語, literally 'national language') in Taiwan or Huáyǔ (华语/華語, literally 'Hua (Chinese) language') in southeast Asia, but not as Guānhuà.[13] Linguists use the term "Mandarin" to refer to the diverse group of dialects spoken in northern and southwestern China, which Chinese linguists call Guānhuà. The alternative term Běifānghuà (北方话/北方話) or "Northern dialects", is used less and less among Chinese linguists. By extension, the term "Old Mandarin" or "Early Mandarin" is used by linguists to refer to the northern dialects recorded in materials from the Yuan dynasty. Native speakers who are not academic linguists may not recognize that the variants they speak are classified in linguistics as members of "Mandarin" (or so-called "Northern dialects") in a broader sense. Within Chinese social or cultural discourse, there is not a common "Mandarin" identity based on language; rather, there are strong regional identities centred on individual dialects because of the wide geographical distribution and cultural diversity of their speakers. Speakers of forms of Mandarin other than the standard typically refer to the variety they speak by a geographic name—for example Sichuan dialect, Hebei dialect or Northeastern dialect, all being regarded as distinct from the standard language. History[edit] The hundreds of modern local varieties of Chinese developed from regional variants of Old Chinese and Middle Chinese. Traditionally, seven major groups of dialects have been recognized. Aside from Mandarin, the other six are Wu, Gan and Xiang in central China and Min, Hakka and Yue on the southeast coast.[14] The Language Atlas of China (1987) distinguishes three further groups: Jin (split from Mandarin), Huizhou in the Huizhou region of Anhui and Zhejiang and Pinghua in Guangxi and Yunnan.[15][16] Old Mandarin[edit] Main article: Old Mandarin A page of the Menggu Ziyun, covering the syllables tsim to lim After the fall of the Northern Song (959–1126) and during the reign of the Jin (1115–1234) and Yuan (Mongol) dynasties in northern China, a common speech developed based on the dialects of the North China Plain around the capital, a language referred to as Old Mandarin. New genres of vernacular literature were based on this language, including verse, drama and story forms, such as the qu and sanqu poetry.[17] The rhyming conventions of the new verse were codified in a rime dictionary called the Zhongyuan Yinyun (1324). A radical departure from the rime table tradition that had evolved over the previous centuries, this dictionary contains a wealth of information on the phonology of Old Mandarin. Further sources are the 'Phags-pa script based on the Tibetan alphabet, which was used to write several of the languages of the Mongol empire, including Chinese and the Menggu Ziyun, a rime dictionary based on 'Phags-pa. The rime books differ in some details, but overall show many of the features characteristic of modern Mandarin dialects, such as the reduction and disappearance of final plosives and the reorganization of the Middle Chinese tones.[18] In Middle Chinese, initial stops and affricates showed a three-way contrast between tenuis, voiceless aspirated and voiced consonants. There were four tones, with the fourth or "entering tone", a checked tone comprising syllables ending in plosives (-p, -t or -k). Syllables with voiced initials tended to be pronounced with a lower pitch and by the late Tang dynasty, each of the tones had split into two registers conditioned by the initials. When voicing was lost in all languages except the Wu subfamily, this distinction became phonemic and the system of initials and tones was rearranged differently in each of the major groups.[19] The Zhongyuan Yinyun shows the typical Mandarin four-tone system resulting from a split of the "even" tone and loss of the entering tone, with its syllables distributed across the other tones (though their different origin is marked in the dictionary). Similarly, voiced plosives and affricates have become voiceless aspirates in the "even" tone and voiceless non-aspirates in others, another distinctive Mandarin development. However, the language still retained a final -m, which has merged with -n in modern dialects and initial voiced fricatives. It also retained the distinction between velars and alveolar sibilants in palatal environments, which later merged in most Mandarin dialects to yield a palatal series (rendered j-, q- and x- in pinyin).[20] The flourishing vernacular literature of the period also shows distinctively Mandarin vocabulary and syntax, though some, such as the third-person pronoun tā (他), can be traced back to the Tang dynasty.[21] Vernacular literature[edit] Until the early 20th century, formal writing and even much poetry and fiction was done in Literary Chinese, which was modeled on the classics of the Warring States period and the Han dynasty. Over time, the various spoken varieties diverged greatly from Literary Chinese, which was learned and composed as a special language. Preserved from the sound changes that affected the various spoken varieties, its economy of expression was greatly valued. For example, 翼 (yì, "wing") is unambiguous in written Chinese, but has over 75 homophones in Standard Chinese. The literary language was less appropriate for recording materials that were meant to be reproduced in oral presentations, materials such as plays and grist for the professional story-teller's mill. From at least the Yuan dynasty, plays that recounted the subversive tales of China's Robin Hoods to the Ming dynasty novels such as Water Margin, on down to the Qing dynasty novel Dream of the Red Chamber and beyond, there developed a literature in written vernacular Chinese (白话/白話, báihuà). In many cases, this written language reflected Mandarin varieties and since pronunciation differences were not conveyed in this written form, this tradition had a unifying force across all the Mandarin-speaking regions and beyond.[22] Hu Shih, a pivotal figure of the first half of the twentieth century, wrote an influential and perceptive study of this literary tradition, entitled Báihuà Wénxuéshǐ ("A History of Vernacular Literature"). Koiné of the Late Empire[edit] Main article: Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca) Zhongguo Guanhua (中國官話), or Medii Regni Communis Loquela ("Middle Kingdom's Common Speech"), used on the frontispiece of an early Chinese grammar published by Étienne Fourmont (with Arcadio Huang) in 1742[23] The Chinese have different languages in different provinces, to such an extent that they cannot understand each other.... [They] also have another language which is like a universal and common language; this is the official language of the mandarins and of the court; it is among them like Latin among ourselves.... Two of our fathers [Michele Ruggieri and Matteo Ricci] have been learning this mandarin language... — Alessandro Valignano, Historia del principio y progresso de la Compañía de Jesús en las Indias Orientales, I:28 (1542–1564)[24] Until the mid-20th century, most Chinese people living in many parts of South China spoke only their local variety. As a practical measure, officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on Mandarin varieties, known as Guānhuà. Knowledge of this language was thus essential for an official career, but it was never formally defined.[13] Officials varied widely in their pronunciation; in 1728, the Yongzheng Emperor, unable to understand the accents of officials from Guangdong and Fujian, issued a decree requiring the governors of those provinces to provide for the teaching of proper pronunciation. Although the resulting Academies for Correct Pronunciation (正音書院; Zhèngyīn Shūyuàn) were short-lived, the decree did spawn a number of textbooks that give some insight into the ideal pronunciation. Common features included: loss of the Middle Chinese voiced initials except for v- merger of -m finals with -n the characteristic Mandarin four-tone system in open syllables, but retaining a final glottal stop in "entering tone" syllables retention of the distinction between palatalized velars and dental affricates, the source of the spellings "Peking" and "Tientsin" for modern "Beijing" and "Tianjin".[25] As the last two of these features indicate, this language was a koiné based on dialects spoken in the Nanjing area, though not identical to any single dialect.[26] This form remained prestigious long after the capital moved to Beijing in 1421, though the speech of the new capital emerged as a rival standard. As late as 1815, Robert Morrison based the first English–Chinese dictionary on this koiné as the standard of the time, though he conceded that the Beijing dialect was gaining in influence.[27] By the middle of the 19th century, the Beijing dialect had become dominant and was essential for any business with the imperial court.[28] Standard Chinese[edit] Main article: Standard Chinese In the early years of the Republic of China, intellectuals of the New Culture Movement, such as Hu Shih and Chen Duxiu, successfully campaigned for the replacement of Literary Chinese as the written standard by written vernacular Chinese, which was based on northern dialects. A parallel priority was the definition of a standard national language (simplified Chinese: 国语; traditional Chinese: 國語; pinyin: Guóyǔ; Wade–Giles: Kuo²-yü³). After much dispute between proponents of northern and southern dialects and an abortive attempt at an artificial pronunciation, the National Language Unification Commission finally settled on the Beijing dialect in 1932. The People's Republic, founded in 1949, retained this standard, calling it pǔtōnghuà (simplified Chinese: 普通话; traditional Chinese: 普通話; lit. 'common speech').[29] Some 54% of speakers of Mandarin varieties could understand the standard language in the early 1950s, rising to 91% in 1984. Nationally, the proportion understanding the standard rose from 41% to 90% over the same period.[30] The national language is now used in education, the media and formal occasions in both Mainland China and Taiwan but not in Hong Kong and Macau. This standard can now be spoken intelligibly by most younger people in Mainland China and Taiwan with various regional accents. In Hong Kong and Macau, because of their colonial and linguistic history, the sole language of education, the media, formal speech and everyday life remains the local Cantonese. Mandarin is now common and taught in many schools[31] but still has yet to gain traction with the local population. In Mandarin-speaking areas such as Sichuan and Chongqing, the local dialect is the native tongue of most of the population.[clarification needed] The era of mass education in Standard Chinese has not erased these regional differences, and people may be either diglossic or speak the standard language with a notable accent. From an official point of view, the mainland Chinese and the Taiwanese governments maintain their own forms of the standard under different names. Technically, both Pǔtōnghuà and Guóyǔ base their phonology on the Beijing accent, though Pǔtōnghuà also takes some elements from other sources. Comparison of dictionaries produced in the two areas will show that there are few substantial differences. However, both versions of "school-standard" Chinese are often quite different from the Mandarin varieties that are spoken in accordance with regional habits, and neither is wholly identical to the Beijing dialect. Pǔtōnghuà and Guóyǔ also have some differences from the Beijing dialect in vocabulary, grammar, and pragmatics. The written forms of Standard Chinese are also essentially equivalent, although simplified characters are used in mainland China, Singapore and Malaysia, while people in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan generally use traditional characters. Geographic distribution[edit] Distribution of the eight subgroups of Mandarin plus Jin Chinese, which many linguists include as part of Mandarin, according to the Language Atlas of China (1987)[32] Most Han Chinese living in northern and southwestern China are native speakers of a dialect of Mandarin. The North China Plain provided few barriers to migration, leading to relative linguistic homogeneity over a wide area in northern China. In contrast, the mountains and rivers of southern China have spawned the other six major groups of Chinese varieties, with great internal diversity, particularly in Fujian.[33][34] However, the varieties of Mandarin cover a huge area containing nearly a billion people. As a result, there are pronounced regional variations in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar,[35] and many Mandarin varieties are not mutually intelligible.[b] Most of northeastern China, except for Liaoning, did not receive significant settlements by Han Chinese until the 18th century,[41] and as a result the Northeastern Mandarin dialects spoken there differ little from the Beijing dialect.[42] The Manchu people of the area now speak these dialects exclusively; their native language is only maintained in northwestern Xinjiang, where Xibe, a modern dialect, is spoken.[43] The frontier areas of Northwest China were colonized by speakers of Mandarin dialects at the same time, and the dialects in those areas similarly closely resemble their relatives in the core Mandarin area.[42] The Southwest was settled early, but the population fell dramatically for obscure reasons in the 13th century, and did not recover until the 17th century.[42] The dialects in this area are now relatively uniform.[44] However, long-established cities even very close to Beijing, such as Tianjin, Baoding, Shenyang, and Dalian, have markedly different dialects. Unlike their compatriots on the southeast coast, few Mandarin speakers engaged in overseas emigration until the late 20th century, but there are now significant communities of them in cities across the world.[44] Subgrouping[edit] See also: List of varieties of Chinese The classification of Chinese dialects evolved during the 20th century, and many points remain unsettled. Early classifications tended to follow provincial boundaries or major geographical features.[45] In 1936, Wang Li produced the first classification based on phonetic criteria, principally the evolution of Middle Chinese voiced initials. His Mandarin group included dialects of northern and southwestern China, as well as those of Hunan and northern Jiangxi.[46] Li Fang-Kuei's classification of 1937 distinguished the latter two groups as Xiang and Gan, while splitting the remaining Mandarin dialects between Northern, Lower Yangtze and Southwestern Mandarin groups.[47] The widely accepted seven-group classification of Yuan Jiahua in 1960 kept Xiang and Gan separate, with Mandarin divided into Northern, Northwestern, Southwestern and Jiang–Huai (Lower Yangtze) subgroups.[48][49] Of Yuan's four Mandarin subgroups, the Northwestern dialects are the most diverse, particularly in the province of Shanxi.[44] The linguist Li Rong proposed that the northwestern dialects of Shanxi and neighbouring areas that retain a final glottal stop in the Middle Chinese entering tone (plosive-final) category should constitute a separate top-level group called Jin.[50] He used this classification in the Language Atlas of China (1987).[15] Many other linguists continue to include these dialects in the Mandarin group, pointing out that the Lower Yangtze dialects also retain the glottal stop.[51][52] The southern boundary of the Mandarin area, with the central Wu, Gan and Xiang groups, is weakly defined due to centuries of diffusion of northern features. Many border varieties have a mixture of features that make them difficult to classify. The boundary between Southwestern Mandarin and Xiang is particularly weak,[53] and in many early classifications the two were not separated.[54] Zhou Zhenhe and You Rujie include the New Xiang dialects within Southwestern Mandarin, treating only the more conservative Old Xiang dialects as a separate group.[55] The Huizhou dialects have features of both Mandarin and Wu, and have been assigned to one or other of these groups or treated as separate by various authors. Li Rong and the Language Atlas of China treated it as a separate top-level group, but this remains controversial.[56][57] The Language Atlas of China calls the remainder of Mandarin a "supergroup", divided into eight dialect groups distinguished by their treatment of the Middle Chinese entering tone (see Tones below):[58][c] Northeastern Mandarin (98 million), spoken in Manchuria except the Liaodong Peninsula.[60] This dialect is closely related to Standard Chinese, with little variation in lexicon and very few tonal differences. Beijing Mandarin (27 million), spoken in Beijing and environs such as Chengde and northern Hebei, as well as some areas of recent large-scale immigration, such as northern Xinjiang.[61] The Beijing dialect forms the basis of Standard Chinese. This classification is controversial, as a number of researchers view Beijing and Northeastern Mandarin as a single dialect group.[62] Jilu Mandarin (89 million), spoken in Hebei ("Ji") and Shandong ("Lu") provinces except the Shandong Peninsula, including Tianjin dialect.[63] Tones and vocabulary are markedly different. In general, there is substantial intelligibility with Beijing Mandarin. Jiaoliao Mandarin (35 million), spoken in Shandong (Jiaodong) and Liaodong Peninsulas.[64] Very noticeable tonal changes, different in "flavour" from Ji–Lu Mandarin, but with more variance. There is moderate intelligibility with Beijing. Central Plains Mandarin (186 million), spoken in Henan province, the central parts of Shaanxi in the Yellow River valley, eastern Gansu and southern Xinjiang.[65] There are significant phonological differences, with partial intelligibility with Beijing. The Dungan language spoken in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan belongs to this group. Dungan speakers such as the poet Iasyr Shivaza have reported being understood by speakers of the Beijing dialect, but not vice versa.[66] Lanyin Mandarin (17 million), spoken in central and western Gansu province (with capital Lanzhou) and Ningxia autonomous region (with capital Yinchuan), as well as northern Xinjiang.[67] Lower Yangtze Mandarin (or Jiang–Huai, 86 million), spoken in the parts of Jiangsu and Anhui on the north bank of the Yangtze, as well as some areas on the south bank, such as Nanjing in Jiangsu, Jiujiang in Jiangxi, etc.[68] There are significant phonological and lexical changes to varying degrees, and intelligibility with Beijing is limited. Lower Yangtze Mandarin has been significantly influenced by Wu Chinese. Southwestern Mandarin (260 million), spoken in the provinces of Hubei, Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, and the Mandarin-speaking areas of Hunan, Guangxi and southern Shaanxi.[69] There are sharp phonological, lexical, and tonal changes, and intelligibility with Beijing is limited to varying degrees.[38][39] The Atlas also includes several unclassified Mandarin dialects spoken in scattered pockets across southeastern China, such as Nanping in Fujian and Dongfang on Hainan.[70] Another Mandarin variety of uncertain classification is apparently Gyami, recorded in the 19th century in the Tibetan foothills, who the Chinese apparently did not recognize as Chinese.[71] Phonology[edit] See also: Standard Chinese phonology This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) A syllable consists maximally of an initial consonant, a medial glide, a vowel, a coda, and tone. In the traditional analysis, the medial, vowel and coda are combined as a final.[72] Not all combinations occur. For example, Standard Chinese (based on the Beijing dialect) has about 1,200 distinct syllables.[73] Phonological features that are generally shared by the Mandarin dialects include: the palatalization of velar consonants and alveolar sibilants when they occur before palatal glides; one syllable contains maximum four phonemes (maximum three vowels and no consonant cluster) the disappearance of final stop consonants and /-m/ (although in many Lower Yangtze Mandarin and Jin Chinese dialects, an echo of the final stops is preserved as a glottal stop); the presence of retroflex consonants (although these are absent in many Southwestern and Northeastern Mandarin dialects); the historical devoicing of stops and sibilants (also common to most non-Mandarin varieties). Initials[edit] The maximal inventory of initials of a Mandarin dialect is as follows, with bracketed pinyin spellings given for those present in the standard language:[74] Labial Apical Retroflex Palatal Velar Stops /p/ ⟨b⟩ /t/ ⟨d⟩ /k/ ⟨g⟩ /pʰ/ ⟨p⟩ /tʰ/ ⟨t⟩ /kʰ/ ⟨k⟩ Nasals /m/ ⟨m⟩ /n/ ⟨n⟩ /ŋ/     Affricates /t͡s/ ⟨z⟩ /ʈ͡ʂ/ ⟨zh⟩ /t͡ɕ/ ⟨j⟩ /t͡sʰ/ ⟨c⟩ /ʈ͡ʂʰ/ ⟨ch⟩ /t͡ɕʰ/ ⟨q⟩ Fricatives /f/ ⟨f⟩ /s/ ⟨s⟩ /ʂ/ ⟨sh⟩ /ɕ/ ⟨x⟩ /x/ ⟨h⟩ Sonorants /w/ ⟨w⟩ /l/ ⟨l⟩ /ɻ ~ ʐ/ ⟨r⟩ /j/ ⟨y⟩ Most Mandarin-speaking areas distinguish between the retroflex initials /ʈʂ ʈʂʰ ʂ/ from the apical sibilants /ts tsʰ s/, though they often have a different distribution than in the standard language. In most dialects of the southeast and southwest the retroflex initials have merged with the alveolar sibilants, so that zhi becomes zi, chi becomes ci, and shi becomes si.[75] The alveolo-palatal sibilants /tɕ tɕʰ ɕ/ are the result of merger between the historical palatalized velars /kj kʰj xj/ and palatalized alveolar sibilants /tsj tsʰj sj/.[75] In about 20% of dialects, the alveolar sibilants did not palatalize, remaining separate from the alveolo-palatal initials. (The unique pronunciation used in Peking opera falls into this category.) On the other side, in some dialects of eastern Shandong, the velar initials did not undergo palatalization. Many southwestern Mandarin dialects mix /f/ and /xw/, substituting one for the other in some or all cases.[76] For example, fei /fei/ "to fly" and hui /xwei/ "grey" may be merged in these areas. In some dialects, initial /l/ and /n/ are not distinguished. In Southwestern Mandarin, these sounds usually merge to /n/; in Lower Yangtze Mandarin, they usually merge to /l/.[76] People in many Mandarin-speaking areas may use different initial sounds where Beijing uses initial r- /ɻ/. Common variants include /j/, /l/, /n/ and /w/.[75] Some dialects have initial /ŋ/ corresponding to the zero initial of the standard language.[75] This initial is the result of a merger of the Middle Chinese zero initial with /ŋ/ and /ʔ/. Many dialects of Northwestern and Central Plains Mandarin have /pf pfʰ f v/ where Beijing has /tʂw tʂʰw ʂw ɻw/.[75] Examples include /pfu/ "pig" for standard zhū 豬 /tʂu/, /fei/ "water" for standard shuǐ 水 /ʂwei/, /vã/ "soft" for standard ruǎn 軟 /ɻwan/. Finals[edit] Most Mandarin dialects have three medial glides, /j/, /w/ and /ɥ/ (spelled i, u and ü in pinyin), though their incidence varies. The medial /w/, is lost after apical initials in several areas.[75] Thus Southwestern Mandarin has /tei/ "correct" where the standard language has dui /twei/. Southwestern Mandarin also has /kai kʰai xai/ in some words where the standard has jie qie xie /tɕjɛ tɕʰjɛ ɕjɛ/. This is a stereotypical feature of southwestern Mandarin, since it is so easily noticeable. E.g. hai "shoe" for standard xie, gai "street" for standard jie. Mandarin dialects typically have relatively few vowels. Syllabic fricatives, as in standard zi and zhi, are common in Mandarin dialects, though they also occur elsewhere.[77] The Middle Chinese off-glides /j/ and /w/ are generally preserved in Mandarin dialects, yielding several diphthongs and triphthongs in contrast to the larger sets of monophthongs common in other dialect groups (and some widely scattered Mandarin dialects).[77] The Middle Chinese coda /m/ was still present in Old Mandarin, but has merged with /n/ in the modern dialects.[75] In some areas (especially the southwest) final /ŋ/ has also merged with /n/. This is especially prevalent in the rhyme pairs -en/-eng /ən əŋ/ and -in/-ing /in iŋ/. As a result, jīn "gold" and jīng "capital" merge in those dialects. The Middle Chinese final stops have undergone a variety of developments in different Mandarin dialects (see Tones below). In Lower Yangtze dialects and some north-western dialects they have merged as a final glottal stop. In other dialects they have been lost, with varying effects on the vowel.[75] As a result, Beijing Mandarin and Northeastern Mandarin underwent more vowel mergers than many other varieties of Mandarin. For example: Character Meaning Standard (Beijing) Beijing, Harbin Colloquial Jinan (Ji–Lu) Xi'an (Central Plains) Chengdu (Southwestern) Yangzhou (Lower Yangtze) Middle Chinese Reconstructed Pinyin IPA 课 lesson kè kʰɤ kʰɤ kʰə kʰwo kʰo kʰo kʰɑ 客 guest tɕʰie[d] kʰei kʰei kʰe kʰəʔ kʰɰak 果 fruit guǒ kwo kwo kwə kwo ko ko kwɑ 国 country guó kwe kwe kɔʔ kwək R-coloring, a characteristic feature of Mandarin, works quite differently in the southwest. Whereas Beijing dialect generally removes only a final /j/ or /n/ when adding the rhotic final -r /ɻ/, in the southwest the -r replaces nearly the entire rhyme. Tones[edit] The four main tones of Standard Mandarin, pronounced with the syllable ma. In general, no two Mandarin-speaking areas have exactly the same set of tone values, but most Mandarin-speaking areas have very similar tone distribution. For example, the dialects of Jinan, Chengdu, Xi'an and so on all have four tones that correspond quite well to the Beijing dialect tones of [˥] (55), [˧˥] (35), [˨˩˦] (214), and [˥˩] (51). The exception to this rule lies in the distribution of syllables formerly ending in a stop consonant, which are treated differently in different dialects of Mandarin.[78] Middle Chinese stops and affricates had a three-way distinction between tenuis, voiceless aspirate and voiced (or breathy voiced) consonants. In Mandarin dialects the voicing is generally lost, yielding voiceless aspirates in syllables with a Middle Chinese level tone and non-aspirates in other syllables.[44] Of the four tones of Middle Chinese, the level, rising and departing tones have also developed into four modern tones in a uniform way across Mandarin dialects; the Middle Chinese level tone has split into two registers, conditioned on voicing of the Middle Chinese initial, while rising tone syllables with voiced obstruent initials have shifted to the departing tone.[79] The following examples from the standard language illustrate the regular development common to Mandarin dialects (recall that pinyin d denotes a non-aspirate /t/, while t denotes an aspirate /tʰ/): Reflexes of Middle Chinese initials and tones in modern Mandarin Middle Chinese tone "level tone" (píng 平) "rising tone" (shǎng 上) "departing tone" (qù 去) Example 丹 灘 蘭 彈 亶 坦 懶 但 旦 炭 爛 彈 Middle Chinese tan tʰan lan dan tan tʰan lan dan tan tʰan lan dan Standard Chinese dān tān lán tán dǎn tǎn lǎn dàn dàn tàn làn dàn Modern Mandarin tone 1 (yīn píng) 2 (yáng píng) 3 (shǎng) 4 (qù) In traditional Chinese phonology, syllables that ended in a stop in Middle Chinese (i.e. /p/, /t/ or /k/) were considered to belong to a special category known as the "entering tone". These final stops have disappeared in most Mandarin dialects, with the syllables distributed over the other four modern tones in different ways in the various Mandarin subgroups. In the Beijing dialect that underlies the standard language, syllables beginning with original voiceless consonants were redistributed across the four tones in a completely random pattern.[80] For example, the three characters 积脊迹, all tsjek in Middle Chinese (William H. Baxter's transcription), are now pronounced jī, jǐ and jì respectively. Older dictionaries such as Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary mark characters whose pronunciation formerly ended with a stop with a superscript 5; however, this tone number is more commonly used for syllables that always have a neutral tone (see below). In Lower Yangtze dialects, a minority of Southwestern dialects (e.g. Minjiang) and Jin Chinese (sometimes considered non-Mandarin), former final stops were not deleted entirely, but were reduced to a glottal stop /ʔ/.[80] (This includes the dialect of Nanjing on which the Postal Romanization was based; it transcribes the glottal stop as a trailing h.) This development is shared with Wu Chinese and is thought to represent the pronunciation of Old Mandarin. In line with traditional Chinese phonology, dialects such as Lower Yangtze and Minjiang are thus said to have five tones instead of four. However, modern linguistics considers these syllables as having no phonemic tone at all. Reflexes of the Middle Chinese entering tone in Mandarin dialects[81] subgroup Middle Chinese initial voiceless voiced sonorant voiced obstruent Beijing 1,3,4 4 2 Northeastern Jiao–Liao 3 Ji–Lu 1 Central Plains 1 Lan–Yin 4 Southwestern 2 Lower Yangtze marked with final glottal stop (rù) Although the system of tones is common across Mandarin dialects, their realization as tone contours varies widely:[82] Phonetic realization of Mandarin tones in principal dialects Tone name 1 (yīn píng) 2 (yáng píng) 3 (shǎng) 4 (qù) marked with glottal stop (rù) Beijing Beijing ˥ (55) ˧˥ (35) ˨˩˦ (214) ˥˩ (51) Northeastern Harbin ˦ (44) ˨˦ (24) ˨˩˧ (213) ˥˨ (52) Jiao–Liao Yantai ˧˩ (31) (˥ (55)) ˨˩˦ (214) ˥ (55) Ji–Lu Tianjin ˨˩ (21) ˧˥ (35) ˩˩˧ (113) ˥˧ (53) Shijiazhuang ˨˧ (23) ˥˧ (53) ˥ (55) ˧˩ (31) Central Plains Zhengzhou ˨˦ (24) ˦˨ (42) ˥˧ (53) ˧˩˨ (312) Luoyang ˧˦ (34) ˦˨ (42) ˥˦ (54) ˧˩ (31) Xi'an ˨˩ (21) ˨˦ (24) ˥˧ (53) ˦ (44) Tianshui ˩˧ (13) ˥˧ (53) ˨˦ (24) Lan–Yin Lanzhou ˧˩ (31) ˥˧ (53) ˧ (33) ˨˦ (24) Yinchuan ˦ (44) ˥˧ (53) ˩˧ (13) Southwestern Chengdu ˦ (44) ˨˩ (21) ˥˧ (53) ˨˩˧ (213) Xichang ˧ (33) ˥˨ (52) ˦˥ (45) ˨˩˧ (213) ˧˩ʔ (31) Kunming ˦ (44) ˧˩ (31) ˥˧ (53) ˨˩˨ (212) Wuhan ˥ (55) ˨˩˧ (213) ˦˨ (42) ˧˥ (35) Liuzhou ˦ (44) ˧˩ (31) ˥˧ (53) ˨˦ (24) Lower Yangtze Yangzhou ˧˩ (31) ˧˥ (35) ˦˨ (42) ˥ (55) ˥ʔ (5) Nantong ˨˩ (21) ˧˥ (35) ˥ (55) ˦˨ (42), ˨˩˧ (213)* ˦ʔ (4), ˥ʔ (5)* * Dialects in and around the Nantong area typically have many more than 4 tones, due to influence from the neighbouring Wu dialects. Mandarin dialects frequently employ neutral tones in the second syllables of words, creating syllables whose tone contour is so short and light that it is difficult or impossible to discriminate. These atonal syllables also occur in non-Mandarin dialects, but in many southern dialects the tones of all syllables are made clear.[80] Vocabulary[edit] There are more polysyllabic words in Mandarin than in all other major varieties of Chinese except Shanghainese[citation needed]. This is partly because Mandarin has undergone many more sound changes than have southern varieties of Chinese, and has needed to deal with many more homophones. New words have been formed by adding affixes such as lao- (老), -zi (子), -(e)r (儿/兒), and -tou (头/頭), or by compounding, e.g. by combining two words of similar meaning as in cōngmáng (匆忙), made from elements meaning "hurried" and "busy". A distinctive feature of southwestern Mandarin is its frequent use of noun reduplication, which is hardly used in Beijing. In Sichuan, one hears bāobāo (包包) "handbag" where Beijing uses bāo'r (包儿). There are also a small number of words that have been polysyllabic since Old Chinese, such as húdié (蝴蝶) "butterfly". The singular pronouns in Mandarin are wǒ (我) "I", nǐ (你 or 妳) "you", nín (您) "you (formal)", and tā (他, 她 or 它/牠) "he/she/it", with -men (们/們) added for the plural. Further, there is a distinction between the plural first-person pronoun zánmen (咱们/咱們), which is inclusive of the listener, and wǒmen (我们/我們), which may be exclusive of the listener. Dialects of Mandarin agree with each other quite consistently on these pronouns. While the first and second person singular pronouns are cognate with forms in other varieties of Chinese, the rest of the pronominal system is a Mandarin innovation (e.g., Shanghainese has non 侬/儂 "you" and yi 伊 "he/she").[83] Because of contact with Mongolian and Manchurian peoples, Mandarin (especially the Northeastern varieties) has some loanwords from these languages not present in other varieties of Chinese, such as hútòng (胡同) "alley". Southern Chinese varieties have borrowed from Tai,[84] Austroasiatic,[85] and Austronesian languages. There are also many Chinese words which come from foreign languages such as gāo'ěrfū (高尔夫) from golf; bǐjīní (比基尼) from bikini; hànbǎo bāo (汉堡包) from hamburger. In general, the greatest variation occurs in slang, in kinship terms, in names for common crops and domesticated animals, for common verbs and adjectives, and other such everyday terms. The least variation occurs in "formal" vocabulary—terms dealing with science, law, or government. Grammar[edit] See also: Chinese grammar Chinese varieties of all periods have traditionally been considered prime examples of analytic languages, relying on word order and particles instead of inflection or affixes to provide grammatical information such as person, number, tense, mood, or case. Although modern varieties, including the Mandarin dialects, use a small number of particles in a similar fashion to suffixes, they are still strongly analytic.[86] The basic word order of subject–verb–object is common across Chinese dialects, but there are variations in the order of the two objects of ditransitive sentences. In northern dialects the indirect object precedes the direct object (as in English), for example in the Standard Chinese sentence: 我 给 你 一本 书 。 wǒ gěi nǐ yìběn shū. I give you a (one) book. In southern dialects, as well as many southwestern and Lower Yangtze dialects, the objects occur in the reverse order.[87][88] Most varieties of Chinese use post-verbal particles to indicate aspect, but the particles used vary. Most Mandarin dialects use the particle -le (了) to indicate the perfective aspect and -zhe (着/著) for the progressive aspect. Other Chinese varieties tend to use different particles, e.g. Cantonese zo2 咗 and gan2 紧/緊 respectively. The experiential aspect particle -guo (过/過) is used more widely, except in Southern Min.[89] The subordinative particle de (的) is characteristic of Mandarin dialects.[90] Some southern dialects, and a few Lower Yangtze dialects, preserve an older pattern of subordination without a marking particle, while in others a classifier fulfils the role of the Mandarin particle.[91] Especially in conversational Chinese, sentence-final particles alter the inherent meaning of a sentence. Like much vocabulary, particles can vary a great deal with regards to the locale. For example, the particle ma (嘛), which is used in most northern dialects to denote obviousness or contention, is replaced by yo (哟) in southern usage. Some characters in Mandarin can be combined with others to indicate a particular meaning just like prefix and suffix in English. For example, the suffix -er which means the person who is doing the action, e.g. teacher, person who teaches. In Mandarin the character 師 functions the same thing, it is combined with 教, which means teach, to form the word teacher. List of several common Chinese prefixes and suffixes: Affix Pronunciation Meaning Example Meaning of Example -們[们] men plural, same as -s, -es 學生們 [学生们]、朋友們 [朋友们] students, friends 可- kě same as -able 可信、可笑、可靠 trusty, laughable, reliable 重- chóng same as re-(again) 重做、重建、重新 redo, rebuild, renew 第- dì same as -th, -st, -nd 第二、第一 second, first 老- lǎo old, or show respect to a certain type of person 老頭[老头]、老闆[老板]、老師[老师] old man; boss, teacher -化 huà same as -ize, -en 公式化、制度化、強化 officialize, systemize, strengthen -家 jiā same as -er or expert 作家、科學家[科学家]、藝術家[艺术家] writer, scientist, artist -性 xìng same as -ness,_ -ability 可靠性、實用性[实用性]、可理解性 reliability, usability, understandability -鬼 guǐ usually used in a disparaging way similar to –aholic 煙鬼、酒鬼、胆小鬼 smoker, alcoholic, coward -匠 jiàng a technician in a certain field 花匠、油漆匠、木匠 gardener, painter, carpenter -迷 mí an enthusiast 戲迷[戏迷]、球迷、歌迷 theater fan, sports fan, groupie of a musician -師 [师] shī suffix for occupations 教師[教师]、厨師[厨师]、律師[律师] teacher, cook/chef, lawyer See also[edit] China portal Language portal Chinese dictionary Transcription into Chinese characters Written Chinese Languages of China List of varieties of Chinese Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects List of languages by number of native speakers Notes[edit] ^ A folk etymology deriving the name from Mǎn dà rén (满大人; 滿大人; 'Manchu big man') is without foundation.[11] ^ For example: In the early 1950s, only 54% of people in the Mandarin-speaking area could understand Standard Chinese, which was based on the Beijing dialect.[36] "Hence we see that even Mandarin includes within it an unspecified number of languages, very few of which have ever been reduced to writing, that are mutually unintelligible."[37] "the common term assigned by linguists to this group of languages implies a certain homogeneity which is more likely to be related to the sociopolitical context than to linguistic reality, since most of those varieties are not mutually intelligible."[38] "A speaker of only standard Mandarin might take a week or two to comprehend even simple Kunminghua with ease—and then only if willing to learn it."[39] "without prior exposure, speakers of different Mandarin dialects often have considerable difficulty understanding each other's local vernacular even if they come from the same province, provided that two or more distinct groups of Mandarin are spoken therein. In some cases, mutual intelligibility is not guaranteed even if the Mandarin dialects concerned belong to the same group and are spoken within the same province. As reported by a native speaker of the Zhenjiang dialect (a Jianghuai (Lower Yangtze) Mandarin dialect spoken in the Jiangsu province), it is impossible for her to understand the Nantong dialect (another Jianghuai Mandarin dialect spoken around 140 kilometers away in the same province)."[40] ^ Speaker numbers are rounded to the nearest million from figures in the revised edition of the Language Atlas of China.[59] ^ The development is purely due to the preservation of an early glide which later became /j/ and triggered patalization, and does not indicate the absence of a vowel merger. References[edit] ^ a b Mandarin at Ethnologue (22nd ed., 2019) ^ 台灣手語簡介 (Taiwan) (2009) ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Mandarin Chinese". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. ^ "Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37)". Chinese Government. 31 October 2000. Retrieved 28 March 2017. For purposes of this Law, the standard spoken and written Chinese language means Putonghua (a common speech with pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect) and the standardized Chinese characters. ^ "ROC Vital Information". Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of China (Taiwan). 31 December 2014. Retrieved 28 March 2017. ^ General Background of the Wa. Quote: "The official languages (designated by the current UWSP administration) are Mandarin and Wa." ^ Aung Thein Kha; Gerin, Roseanne (17 September 2019). "In Myanmar's Remote Mongla Region, Mandarin Supplants The Burmese Language". Radio Free Asia. Retrieved 31 May 2020. ^ 《人民日报》评论员文章：说普通话 用规范字. www.gov.cn (in Chinese). Retrieved 2017-07-26. ^ China in the Sixteenth Century: The Journals of Mathew Ricci. ^ "mandarin", Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. 1 (6th ed.). Oxford University Press. 2007. ISBN 978-0-19-920687-2. ^ Razfar & Rumenapp (2013), p. 293. ^ Coblin (2000), p. 537. ^ a b Norman (1988), p. 136. ^ Norman (1988), p. 181. ^ a b Wurm et al. (1987). ^ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 55–56. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 48–49. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 49–51. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 34–36, 52–54. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 49–50. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 111–132. ^ Ramsey (1987), p. 10. ^ Fourmont, Etienne (1742). Linguae Sinarum Mandarinicae hieroglyphicae grammatica duplex, latinè, & cum characteribus Sinensium. ^ Coblin (2000), p. 539. ^ Kaske (2008), pp. 48–52. ^ Coblin (2003), p. 353. ^ Morrison, Robert (1815). A dictionary of the Chinese language: in three parts, Volume 1. P.P. Thoms. p. x. OCLC 680482801. ^ Coblin (2000), pp. 540–541. ^ Ramsey (1987), pp. 3–15. ^ Chen (1999), pp. 27–28. ^ Zhang & Yang (2004). ^ Wurm et al. (1987), Map A2. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 183–190. ^ Ramsey (1987), p. 22. ^ Szeto, Ansaldo & Matthews (2018). ^ Chen (1999), p. 27. ^ Mair (1991), p. 18. ^ a b Escure (1997), p. 144. ^ a b Blum (2001), p. 27. ^ Szeto, Ansaldo & Matthews (2018), pp. 241–242. ^ Richards (2003), pp. 138–139. ^ a b c Ramsey (1987), p. 21. ^ Ramsey (1987), pp. 215–216. ^ a b c d Norman (1988), p. 191. ^ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 36–41. ^ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 41–42. ^ Kurpaska (2010), p. 49. ^ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 53–54. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 181, 191. ^ Yan (2006), p. 61. ^ Ting (1991), p. 190. ^ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 55–56, 74–75. ^ Norman (1988), p. 190. ^ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 41–46. ^ Kurpaska (2010), p. 55. ^ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 75–76. ^ Yan (2006), pp. 222–223. ^ Kurpaska (2010), p. 75. ^ Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (2012), p. 3. ^ Wurm et al. (1987), Map B1. ^ Wurm et al. (1987), Maps B2, B5. ^ 张世方 (2010). 北京官话语音研究. 北京语言大学出版社. p. 45. ISBN 9787561927755. ^ Wurm et al. (1987), Map B2. ^ Wurm et al. (1987), Maps B1, B3. ^ Wurm et al. (1987), Maps B3, B4, B5. ^ Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer (1977–78), p. 351. ^ Wurm et al. (1987), Maps B4, B5. ^ Wurm et al. (1987), Map B3. ^ Wurm et al. (1987), Maps B4, B6. ^ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 67–68. ^ Mair (1990), pp. 5–6. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 138–139. ^ Ramsey (1987), p. 41. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 139–141, 192–193. ^ a b c d e f g h Norman (1988), p. 193. ^ a b Norman (1988), p. 192. ^ a b Norman (1988), p. 194. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 194–196. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 194–195. ^ a b c Norman (1988), p. 195. ^ Li Rong's 1985 article on Mandarin classification, quoted in Yan (2006), p. 61 and Kurpaska (2010), p. 89. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 195–196. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 182, 195–196. ^ Ramsey (1987), pp. 36–38. ^ Norman, Jerry; Mei, Tsu-lin (1976). "The Austroasiatics in ancient South China: some lexical evidence". Monumenta Serica. 32: 274–301. doi:10.1080/02549948.1976.11731121. ^ Norman (1988), p. 10. ^ Norman (1988), p. 162. ^ Yue (2003), pp. 105–106. ^ Yue (2003), pp. 90–93. ^ Norman (1988), p. 196. ^ Yue (2003), pp. 113–115. Works cited Blum, Susan Debra (2001), Portraits of "primitives": Ordering human kinds in the Chinese nation, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 978-0-7425-0092-1. Chen, Ping (1999), Modern Chinese: History and sociolinguistics, New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-64572-0. Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (2012), Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtú jí (dì 2 bǎn): Hànyǔ fāngyán juǎn 中国语言地图集(第2版):汉语方言卷 [Language Atlas of China (2nd edition): Chinese dialect volume], Beijing: The Commercial Press, ISBN 978-7-100-07054-6. Coblin, W. South (2000), "A brief history of Mandarin", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 120 (4): 537–552, doi:10.2307/606615, JSTOR 606615. ——— (2003), "Robert Morrison and the Phonology of Mid-Qīng Mandarin", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, 13 (3): 339–355, doi:10.1017/S1356186303003134. Escure, Geneviève (1997), Creole and dialect continua: standard acquisition processes in Belize and China (PRC), John Benjamins, ISBN 978-90-272-5240-1. Kaske, Elisabeth (2008), The politics of language in Chinese education, 1895–1919, BRILL, ISBN 978-90-04-16367-6. Kurpaska, Maria (2010), Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects", Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-021914-2. Mair, Victor H. (1990), "Who were the Gyámi?" (PDF), Sino-Platonic Papers, 18 (b): 1–8. ——— (1991), "What Is a Chinese "Dialect/Topolect"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms" (PDF), Sino-Platonic Papers, 29: 1–31, archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-05-10, retrieved 2013-11-16. Norman, Jerry (1988), Chinese, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29653-3. Ramsey, S. Robert (1987), The Languages of China, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-01468-5. Razfar, Aria; Rumenapp, Joseph C. (2013), Applying Linguistics in the Classroom: A Sociocultural Approach, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-136-21205-5. Richards, John F. (2003), The unending frontier: an environmental history of the early modern world, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-23075-0. Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer, Svetlana (1977–78), "Soviet Dungan nationalism: a few comments on their origin and language", Monumenta Serica, 33: 349–362, doi:10.1080/02549948.1977.11745054, JSTOR 40726247. Szeto, Pui Yiu; Ansaldo, Umberto; Matthews, Stephen (2018), "Typological variation across Mandarin dialects: An areal perspective with a quantitative approach", Linguistic Typology, 22 (2): 233–275, doi:10.1515/lingty-2018-0009. Ting, Pang-Hsin (1991), "Some theoretical issues in the study of Mandarin dialects", in Wang, William S-Y. (ed.), Language and Dialects of China, Journal of Chinese Linguistics Monograph Series, 3, pp. 185–234, JSTOR 23827039. Wurm, Stephen Adolphe; Li, Rong; Baumann, Theo; Lee, Mei W. (1987), Language Atlas of China, Longman, ISBN 978-962-359-085-3. Yan, Margaret Mian (2006), Introduction to Chinese Dialectology, LINCOM Europa, ISBN 978-3-89586-629-6. Yue, Anne O. (2003), "Chinese dialects: grammar", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.), The Sino-Tibetan languages, Routledge, pp. 84–125, ISBN 978-0-7007-1129-1. Zhang, Bennan; Yang, Robin R. (2004), "Putonghua education and language policy in postcolonial Hong Kong", in Zhou, Minglang (ed.), Language policy in the People's Republic of China: theory and practice since 1949, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 143–161, ISBN 978-1-4020-8038-8. Further reading[edit] Baxter, William H. (2006), "Mandarin dialect phylogeny", Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale, 35 (1): 71–114, doi:10.3406/clao.2006.1748. Dwyer, Arienne M. (1995), "From the Northwest China Sprachbund: Xúnhuà Chinese dialect data", Yuen Ren Society Treasury of Chinese Dialect Data, 1: 143–182, hdl:1808/7090. Novotná, Zdenka (1967), "Contributions to the Study of Loan-Words and Hybrid Words in Modern Chinese", Archiv Orientální, 35: 613–649. Shen Zhongwei (沈钟伟) (2011), "The origin of Mandarin", Journal of Chinese Linguistics, 39 (2): 1–31, JSTOR 23754434. Chen Zhangtai (陈章太); Li Xingjian (李行健) (1996). 普通话基础方言基本词汇集 [Mandarin basic dialects basic words collection] (in Chinese). 语文出版社 [Languages Press]. pp. 1–5. Historical Western language texts[edit] Balfour, Frederic Henry (1883), Idiomatic Dialogues in the Peking Colloquial for the Use of Student, Shanghai: Offices of the North-China Herald. Grainger, Adam (1900), Western Mandarin: or the spoken language of western China, with syllabic and English indexes, Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press. MacGillivray, Donald (1905), A Mandarin-Romanized dictionary of Chinese, Shanghai: Presbyterian Mission Press. Mateer, Calvin Wilson (1906), A course of Mandarin lessons, based on idiom (revised 2nd ed.), Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press. Meigs, F.E. (1904), The Standard System of Mandarin Romanization: Introduction, Sound Table an Syllabary, Shanghai: Educational Association of China. Meigs, F.E. (1905), The Standard System of Mandarin Romanization: Radical Index, Shanghai: Educational Association of China. Stent, George Carter; Hemeling, Karl (1905), A Dictionary from English to Colloquial Mandarin Chinese, Shanghai: Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs. Whymant, A. Neville J. (1922), Colloquial Chinese (northern) (2nd ed.), London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mandarin Chinese. Tones in Mandarin Dialects : Comprehensive tone comparison charts for 523 Mandarin dialects. (Compiled by James Campbell) – Internet Archive mirror v t e Sino-Tibetan languages Sinitic Chinese Middle Chinese Mandarin Northeastern Harbin Shenyang Taz Beijing Beijing Taiwanese Mandarin Singaporean Mandarin Malaysian Mandarin Philippine Mandarin Sichuanese Mandarin Ji–Lu Tianjin Jinan Jiao–Liao Dalian Qingdao Weihai Central Plains Gangou Guanzhong Luoyang Xuzhou Dungan Dongping Lan–Yin Southwestern Sichuanese Minjiang Kunming Wuhan Wuming Lower Yangtze Nanjing Xinjiang Nanping Jin Jin Zhangjiakou–Hohhot Wu Taihu Shanghainese Suzhou Wuxi Changzhou Hangzhou Shaoxing Ningbo Jinxiang Jiangyin Shadi Taizhou Wu Taizhou Tiantai Oujiang Wenzhou Wuzhou Jinhua Chu–Qu Quzhou Jiangshan Qingtian Xuanzhou Huizhou Huizhou Gan Chang–Du Yi–Liu Ying–Yi Da–Tong Xiang (Hunanese) Changyi Changsha Loushao Shuangfeng Xiangxiang Ji–Xu Yong–Quan Qiyang Hakka Meixian Wuhua Huizhou Tingzhou Changting Taiwanese Hakka Sixian Hailu Raoping Yue (Cantonese) Yuehai Cantonese Xiguan Jiujiang Shiqi Weitou Dapeng Gao–Yang Siyi Taishan Goulou Wu–Hua Yong–Xun Luo–Guang Qin–Lian Pinghua Pinghua unclassified Badong Yao Danzhou Junjiahua Mai Shaozhou Tuhua Shehua Waxiang Xiangnan Tuhua Yeheni Min Eastern Fuzhou Fuqing Fu'an Manjiang Southern Hokkien Quanzhou Zhangzhou Amoy Taiwanese Hokkien Philippine Hokkien Medan Hokkien Penang Hokkien Singaporean Hokkien Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien Zhenan Longyan Chaoshan Teochew Shantou Haifeng Zhongshan Nanlang Sanxiang Other Northern Jian'ou Jianyang Central Pu–Xian Shao–Jiang Leizhou Zhanjiang Hainan Greater Bai Bai Caijia Longjia Luren Karenic Northern Pa'O Central Kayah Kayah (Karenni) Kayan Padaung (Kayan) Geko Lahta Kayaw Kayaw Western Bwe Bwe Geba Southern S'gaw S'gaw Pwo Northern Pwo (Phlong) Western Pwo Eastern Pwo (Phlou) Phrae Kuki-Chin-Naga Kuki-Chin Southern Naga (Northwestern) Aimol Anal Chiru Chothe Kharam Koireng Kom Lamkang Monsang Moyon Purum Tarao Ranglong Sorbung Northern Thadou Tedim Paite Gangte Simte Sizang Vaiphei Zo Ngawn Ralte Central Mizo Hmar Biate Hrangkhol Sakachep Hakha Falam Bawm Tawr Pangkhu Saihriem Darlong Maraic Mara Lautu Zyphe Senthang Zotung Khomic Khumi Mro-Khimi Rengmitca Southern Shö Thaiphum Daai Mün Nga La Welaung Kaang Laitu Ekai Rungtu Songlai Sumtu Naga Ao (Central Naga) Chungli Ao Mongsen Ao Long Phuri Para Sangtam Yimchungrü Lotha Makury Angami–Pochuri Angami Chokri Kheza Sopvoma Poula Pochuri Ntenyi Rengma Sümi Tangkhulic Tangkhul Somra Akyaung Ari Kachai Huishu Champhung Tusom Koki Maring Zemeic (Western Naga) Zeme Liangmai Rongmei Mzieme Inpui Khoirao Maram Meitei Meitei Karbic Karbi Amri Mruic Mru Hkongso Sal (Brahmaputran) Boro–Garo Boroic Bodo Dimasa Kokborok Tiwa Barman Kachari Garo Garo Megam Kochic Koch Rabha Atong Ruga Deori Deori Moran Konyak (Northern Naga) Konyak Konyak Chang Wancho Phom Khiamniungan Leinong Makyam Ponyo Tangsa–Nocte Tangsa Nocte Tutsa Jingpho–Luish Jingpho Jingpho (Kachin) Singpho Luish (Asakian) Sak Kadu Ganan Chairel Sengmai Andro Greater Siangic Tani Eastern Bori Siang (Adi) Mising (Plains Miri) Bokar Western Apatani Damu Tangam Bangni-Tagin Na Nishi Hill Miri (Sarak) Yano Gallong Digaro (Northern Mishmi) Idu Digaro (Taraon) Siangic Koro Milang Himalayish Greater Magaric Magaric Magar Kham Chepangic Chepang Bhujel Raji–Raute Raji Raute Rawat Dura Dura Tandrange Newaric Newar Newar Baram–Thangmi Baram Thangmi Kiranti Limbu Limbu Western Thulung Wambule Jerung Khaling Dumi Koi Bahing Sunwar Vayu Tilung Central Kulung Nachhiring Sampang Saam Bantawa Puma Chamling Dungmali Eastern Yakkha Belhare Athpare Chintang Chulung Yamphu Lohorung Mewahang Dhimalish Dhimal Toto Lhokpu Lepcha Lepcha Nungish Derung Anung Rawang Bodic (Tibeto-Kanauri) West Himalayish (Kanauric) Western Kinnauric Kinnauri Chitkuli Kinnauri Sunam Lahaulic Pattani Tinani Eastern Central Bunan Rongpo Sunam Zhang-Zhung Almora Rangas Darmiya Byangsi Dhuleli Chaudangsi Bodish Tibetic Central Tibetan Central Tibetan (Ü-Tsang) Standard Tibetan Mugom Amdo Amdo Tibetan Gserpa Khalong Kham (Eastern) Khams Tibetan Tseku Baima Choni Zhongu Dongwang Drugchu Zitsadegu Southern Sikkimese Dzongkha (Bhutanese) Laya Lunana Groma Brokkat Brokpa Chochangachakha Lakha Naapa Western Ladakhi–Balti (Western Archaic) Ladakhi Zangskari Changthang Purgi Balti Lahuli–Spiti (Western Innovative) Lahuli (Stod Bhoti) Spiti Bhoti Nyamkat Bhoti Kinnauri Tukpa Sherpa-Jirel Sherpa Jirel Kyirong–Kagate Kyirong Kagate Tsum Yolmo Nubri Gyalsumdo Tshangla-East Bodish Tshangla Tshangla East Bodish Takpa Dzala Nyen Chali Bumthang Kheng Kurtöp Nupbi ʼOle Basum Basum Tamangic TGTM Tamang Gurung Thakali Manang Chantyal Ghale Ghale Kutang Kaike Kaike Tujia Tujia Na-Qiangic Naic Namuyi Namuyi Shixing Shixing Naish Naxi Na Laze Ersuic Ersu Lizu Tosu Qiangic Qiang Northern Qiang Southern Qiang Gyalrongic Gyalrong Situ Japhug Tshobdun Zbu Horpa Horpa Khroskyabs Khroskyabs Chamdo Lamo Larong Drag-yab Choyo Choyo Muya Muya Pumi Pumi Zhaba Zhaba Tangut Tangut Lolo-Burmese Mondzish Thou-Kathu Kathu Nuclear Mondzish Maang Manga Mango Mantsi Mondzi Maza Muangphe Mauphu Motang Mongphu Loloish (Yi) (Ngwi) Southern Loloish (Southern Ngwi) (Hanoish) Hanoid Akha Akha Chepya Muteun Muda Hani Hani Nuomei Nuobi Lami Luomian Angluo Guohe Guozuo Gehuo Yiche Qidi Kabie Haoni Honi Woni Baihong Bukong Budu Suobi Duoni Duota Asuo Amu Bisoid Bisu Laomian Laopin Pyen Phunoi Sinsali Cantan Cốông Sangkong Tsukong Laopan Laoseng Phongku Phongset Phunyot Cauho Bantang Khongsat Habei Siloid Sila Khir Cosao Paza Phana’ Wanyä Akeu Gokhy Bi-Ka Piyo Enu Kaduo Mpi Mpi Jino Jino Central Loloish (Central Ngwi) Lawoish Lawu Awu Lewu Lahoish Lahu Kucong Nusoish Nusu Zauzou Lisoish Laloid Lalo (Western Yi) Yangliu Eka Mangdi Xuzhang Alu Taloid Talu Lavu Lang'e Tagu Popei Naruo Kua-nsi Kuamasi Laizisi Zibusi Sonaga Gomotage Lisu Toloza Lipo Lolopo (Central Yi) Mili Hlersu Micha Lamu Limi Kazhuoish Katso Samu Sanie Sadu Meuma Nisoish Northern Loloish (Northern Ngwi) (Nisoid) Nosoid Nuosu (Northern Yi) Nyisu (Yellow Yi) Nasoid Nasu (Eastern Yi) Chesu Luoji Gepo Ku Aluo Southeastern Loloish (Southeastern Ngwi) (Axi-Puoid) Nisu Nisu (Southern Yi) Lope Sani–Azha Sani (Southeastern Yi) Axi Azhe Azha Alingpo Samei Highland Phula Khlula Muji Muzi Laghuu Moji Phowa Phukha Thopho Zokhuo Riverine Phula Phola Phupa others Pholo Ache Long Xiqi Ati Adu Burmish Northern High Northern Achang Lashi Chashan Zaiwa Hpon Hpon Mid Northern Lhao Vo (Maru) Pela Southern Intha-Danu Intha-Danu Nuclear Southern Burmese Arakanese Tavoyan Gong Gong Pai-lang Pai-lang Unclassified Hrusish Hruso Miji Kho-Bwa Puroik Puroik Bugun Bugun (Khowa) Western Sherdukpen Sartang Chug Lish Miju–Meyor Miju Zakhring (Meyor) Gonduk Gongduk Other proposed groupings Tibeto-Burman Central Tibeto-Burman Rung Burmo-Qiangic (Eastern Tibeto-Burman) Mahakiranti Proto-languages Proto-Tibeto-Burman Proto-Loloish Proto-Karenic Proto-Min Italics indicates extinct languages v t e Chinese language Major subdivisions Mandarin Northeastern Harbin Shenyang Taz Beijing Beijing Ji–Lu Tianjin Jinan Jiao–Liao Dalian Qingdao Weihai Central Plains Gangou Guanzhong Luoyang Xuzhou Dungan Lan–Yin Southwestern Sichuanese Minjiang Kunming Wuhan Wuming Lower Yangtze Nanjing Xinjiang Nanping Wu Taihu Shanghainese Suzhou Wuxi Changzhou Hangzhou Shaoxing Ningbo Jinxiang Jiangyin Shadi Taizhou Wu Taizhou Tiantai Oujiang Wenzhou Wuzhou Jinhua Chu–Qu Quzhou Jiangshan Qingtian Xuanzhou Gan Chang–Du Yi–Liu Ying–Yi Da–Tong Xiang Changyi Changsha Loushao Shuangfeng Xiangxiang Ji–Xu Yong–Quan Qiyang Min Eastern Fuzhou Fuqing Fu'an Manjiang Southern Hokkien Quanzhou Zhangzhou Amoy Taiwanese Philippine Hokkien Medan Hokkien Penang Hokkien Singaporean Hokkien Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien Burmese Hokkien Zhenan Longyan Chaoshan Teochew Shantou Haifeng Zhongshan Nanlang Sanxiang Other Northern Jian'ou Jianyang Central Pu–Xian Shao–Jiang Leizhou Zhanjiang Hainan Hakka Meixian Wuhua Huizhou Tingzhou Changting Taiwanese Hakka Sixian Hailu Raoping Yue Yuehai Cantonese Xiguan Jiujiang Shiqi Weitou Dapeng Gao–Yang Siyi Taishan Goulou Wu–Hua Yong–Xun Luo–Guang Qin–Lian Proposed Huizhou Jin Hohhot Pinghua Unclassified Badong Yao Danzhou Junjiahua Mai Shaozhou Tuhua Shehua Waxiang Xiangnan Tuhua Yeheni Standardised forms Standard Chinese (Mandarin) Sichuanese Taiwanese Philippine Malaysian Singaporean Cantonese Taiwanese Hokkien Phonology Historical Old Old National Cantonese Mandarin Literary and colloquial readings Grammar Chinese grammar Chinese numerals Chinese classifier Chinese honorifics Chinese Idiom Set phrase Chengyu (Chinese Four Character Idiom) Xiehouyu Input method Pinyin input method Bopomofo Cangjie input method Four-Corner method Boshiamy method Wubi method History Old Chinese Eastern Han Middle Chinese Old Mandarin Middle Mandarin Proto-Min Ba–Shu Gan Literary forms Official Classical Adoption in Vietnam Vernacular Other varieties Written Cantonese Written Dungan Written Hokkien Written Sichuanese Scripts Standard Simplified Traditional Chinese punctuation Stroke order Styles Oracle bone Bronze Seal Clerical Semi-cursive Cursive Braille Cantonese Braille Mainland Chinese Braille Taiwanese Braille Two-cell Chinese Braille Phonetic Cyrillization Dungan Cyrillic Romanization Gwoyeu Romatzyh Hanyu Pinyin MPS II Postal Tongyong Pinyin Wade–Giles Yale Bopomofo Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols Taiwanese kana Taiwanese Hangul Xiao'erjing Nüshu List of varieties of Chinese v t e Languages of China Official Standard Mandarin Regional ARs / SARs CantoneseHK/MC EnglishHK MongolianNM PortugueseMC TibetanXZ UyghurXJ ZhuangGX Prefecture Hmong Kam Bouyei Tujia Korean Qiang Yi Kyrgyz Kazakh Tai Nüa Tai Lü Zaiwa Lisu Bai Hani Zhuang Counties/Banners numerous Indigenous Sino-Tibetan languages Lolo- Burmese Mondzish Kathu Maang Manga Mango Maza Mondzi Muangphe Burmish Achang Xiandao Pela Lashi Chashan Lhao Vo Zaiwa Loloish Hanoish Akeu Akha Amu Angluo Asuo Baihong Bisu Budu Bukong Cosao Duoni Duota Enu Habei Hani Honi Jino Kabie Kaduo Lami Laomian Laopin Mpi Muda Nuobi Nuomei Phana’ Piyo Qidi Sadu Sangkong Suobi Tsukong Woni Yiche Lisoish Eka Hlersu Kua-nsi Kuamasi Laizisi Lalo Lamu Lavu Lawu Limi Lipo Lisu Lolopo Mangdi Micha Mili Sonaga Toloza Xuzhang Yangliu Zibusi Nisoish Alingpo Alugu Aluo Axi Azha Azhe Bokha Gepo Khlula Lope Moji Muji Muzi Nasu Nisu Nuosu Phala Phola Phowa Phukha Phuma Phupa Phupha Phuza Samei Sani Thopho Zokhuo Other Gokhy Katso Kucong Lahu Naruo Namuyi Naxi Nusu Samu Sanie Zauzou Qiangic Baima Choyo Ersu Guiqiong Horpa Japhug Khroskyabs Laze Lizu Na Muya Namuyi Naxi Pumi Northern Qiang Southern Qiang Shixing Situ Tshobdun Zbu Zhaba Tibetic Amdo Baima Basum Central Tibetan Choni Dao Dongwang Drugchu Groma Gserpa Khalong Khams Kyirong Ladakhi Tseku Zhongu Zitsadegu Other Bai Caijia Derung Jingpho Longjia Nung Tujia Waxianghua Other languages Austroasiatic Bit Blang Bolyu Bugan Bumang Hu Kuan Mang Man Met Muak Sa-aak Palaung Riang U Va Wa Hmong-Mien Hmongic A-Hmao Bu-Nao Gejia Guiyang Hm Nai Hmong Hmu Huishui Kiong Nai Luobohe Mashan Pa-Hng Pa Na Pingtang Qo Xiong Raojia She Small Flowery Xixiu Younuo Mienic Biao Min Dzao Min Iu Mien Kim Mun Mongolic Bonan Buryat Daur Eastern Yugur Kangjia Khamnigan Monguor Oirat Ordos Santa Torgut Kra-Dai Zhuang Bouyei Dai Min Ningming Nong Tai Dam Tai Dón Tai Hongjin Tai Lü Tai Nüa Tai Ya Yang Yei Other Ai-Cham Biao Buyang Cao Miao Chadong Cun Gelao Hlai Jiamao Kam Lakkja Mak Maonan Mulam Naxi Yao Ong Be Paha Qabiao Sui Then Tungusic Evenki Manchu Nanai Oroqen Xibe Turkic Äynu Fuyu Kyrgyz Ili Turki Lop Salar Western Yugur Other Sarikoli (Indo-European) Tsat (Austronesian) Formosan languages (Austronesian) Minority Kazakh Korean Kyrgyz Russian Tatar Tuvan Uzbek Vietnamese (Kinh) Wakhi Varieties of Chinese Mandarin Southwestern Dongbei Jiang Huai Gan Hakka Hui Jin Min varieties Ping Wu Wenzhounese Xiang Yue Cantonese Creole/Mixed E Hezhou Lingling Macanese Maojia Qoqmončaq Sanqiao Tangwang Wutun Extinct Ba-Shu Jie Khitan Ruan-ruan Saka Tangut Tocharian Tuoba Tuyuhun Xianbei Zhang-Zhung Sign Chinese Sign Hong Kong SignHK/MC Tibetan SignXZ GX = Guangxi HK = Hong Kong MC = Macau NM = Inner Mongolia XJ = Xinjiang XZ = Tibet v t e Languages of Macau Official Portuguese · Cantonese Other Macanese Patois · English · Mandarin Chinese v t e Languages of Singapore Official languages English Malay Mandarin Tamil Creole languages Baba Malay Chitty Malay Kristang Singlish Singdarin Other languages East Asian Cantonese Hakka Japanese Hokkien Korean Teochew South Asian Hindi Nepali Punjabi Sinhala Telugu Austronesian Banjarese Buginese Javanese Baweanese Minangkabau Orang Seletar Other Arabic Armenian Thai Sign languages Singaporean Sign Language v t e Languages of Taiwan Austronesian Formosan Atayalic Atayal Seediq Truku Rukaic Rukai Northern Babuza Favorlang Hoanya Arikun Lloa Pazeh Kaxabu Kulon Saisiyat Taokas Thao East Amis Kavalan Ketagalan Basay Luilang Makatao Qauqaut Sakizaya Siraya Taivoan Southern Bunun Paiwan Puyuma Tsouic Kanakanabu Saaroa Tsou Malayo-Polynesian Batanic Yami Sino-Tibetan Sinitic Mandarin Taiwanese Mandarin Junhua Min Southern Taiwanese Hokkien Teochew dialect Eastern Fuzhounese Matsu dialect Pu-Xian Putian dialect (Wuqiu dialect) Hakka Taiwanese Hakka Sixian Hailu Dabu Raoping Zhao'an Auxiliary Taiwanese Sign Language Taiwanese Braille Other languages English Cantonese Wu Shanghainese Filipino Japanese Korean Malay Malaysian Indonesian Thai Vietnamese Yilan Creole Japanese Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mandarin_Chinese&oldid=986019693" Categories: Mandarin Chinese Chinese languages in Singapore Languages of China Languages of Taiwan Languages of Hong Kong Languages of Macau Languages of Singapore Languages of Malaysia Subject–verb–object languages Vertical vowel systems Hidden categories: Articles containing simplified Chinese-language text Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text Language articles citing Ethnologue 22 CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh) CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Chinese-language text Articles with hAudio microformats Pages including recorded pronunciations Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2012 Articles needing additional references from July 2011 All articles needing additional references Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2011 CS1: abbreviated year range Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikibooks Languages Acèh Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Bikol Central Български Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Gaelg Galego 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kiswahili Kurdî Ladino Latina Latviešu Ligure Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Nederlands नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Papiamentu Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Vahcuengh Tiếng Việt Walon 文言 Winaray 吴语 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 29 October 2020, at 09:29 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement