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==Works==
[[Image:Horatius - Boek I Ode XIV - Cleveringaplaats 1, Leiden.JPG|thumb|''Odes'' 1.14 – [[Wall poems in Leiden|Wall poem in Leiden]] ]]

The dating of Horace's works isn't known precisely and scholars often debate the exact order in which they were first 'published'. There are persuasive arguments for the following chronology:<ref>R Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 17–21</ref>
* ''[[Satires (Horace)|Satires 1]]'' (c. 35–34 BC)
* ''[[Satires (Horace)|Satires 2]]'' (c. 30 BC)
* ''[[Epodes (Horace)|Epodes]]'' (30 BC)
* ''[[Odes (Horace)|Odes 1–3]]'' (c. 23 BC)<ref group="nb">According to a recent theory, the three books of ''Odes'' were issued separately, possibly in 26, 24 and 23 BC (see G. Hutchinson (2002), ''Classical Quarterly'' 52: 517–37)</ref>
* ''[[Epistles (Horace)|Epistles 1]]'' (c. 21 BC)
* ''[[Carmen Saeculare]]'' (17 BC)
* ''[[Epistles (Horace)|Epistles 2]]'' (c. 11 BC)<ref group="nb">19 BC is the usual estimate but c. 11 BC has good support too (see R. Nisbet, ''Horace: life and chronology'', 18–20</ref>
* ''[[Odes (Horace)|Odes 4]]'' (c. 11 BC)
* ''[[Ars Poetica (Horace)|Ars Poetica]]'' (c. 10–8 BC)<ref group="nb">The date however is subject to much controversy with 22–18 BC another option (see for example R. Syme, ''The Augustan Aristocracy'', 379–81</ref>

===Historical context===
Horace composed in traditional [[Meter (poetry)|metres]] borrowed from [[Archaic Greece]], employing [[hexameter]]s in his ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'', and [[iamb (poetry)|iambs]] in his ''Epodes'', all of which were relatively easy to adapt into [[Prosody (Latin)|Latin forms]]. His ''Odes'' featured more complex measures, including [[Alcaic verse|alcaics]] and [[Sapphic stanza|sapphics]], which were sometimes a difficult fit for Latin structure and [[syntax]]. Despite these traditional metres, he presented himself as a partisan in the development of a new and sophisticated style. He was influenced in particular by [[Hellenistic poetry|Hellenistic]] aesthetics of brevity, elegance and polish, as modelled in the work of [[Callimachus]].<ref>S. Harrison, ''Style and poetic texture'', 262</ref>
{{Quotation|As soon as Horace, stirred by his own genius and encouraged by the example of Virgil, Varius, and perhaps some other poets of the same generation, had determined to make his fame as a poet, being by temperament a fighter, he wanted to fight against all kinds of prejudice, amateurish slovenliness, philistinism, reactionary tendencies, in short to fight for the new and noble type of poetry which he and his friends were endeavouring to bring about.|[[Eduard Fraenkel]]<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 124–25</ref>}}

In modern literary theory, a distinction is often made between immediate personal experience (''Urerlebnis'') and experience mediated by cultural vectors such as literature, philosophy and the visual arts (''Bildungserlebnis'').<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gundolf|first1=Friedrich|title=Goethe|date=1916|publisher=Bondi|location=Berlin, Germany}}</ref> The distinction has little relevance for Horace{{citation needed|date=August 2014}} however since his personal and literary experiences are implicated in each other. ''Satires'' 1.5, for example, recounts in detail a real trip Horace made with Virgil and some of his other literary friends, and which parallels a Satire by [[Gaius Lucilius|Lucilius]], his predecessor.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 106–07</ref> Unlike much Hellenistic-inspired literature, however, his poetry was not composed for a small coterie of admirers and fellow poets, nor does it rely on abstruse allusions for many of its effects. Though elitist in its literary standards, it was written for a wide audience, as a public form of art.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 74</ref> Ambivalence also characterizes his literary persona, since his presentation of himself as part of a small community of philosophically aware people, seeking true peace of mind while shunning vices like greed, was well adapted to Augustus's plans to reform public morality, corrupted by greed—his personal plea for moderation was part of the emperor's grand message to the nation.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 95–96</ref>

Horace generally followed the examples of poets established as classics in different genres, such as [[Archilochus]] in the ''Epodes'', Lucilius in the ''Satires'' and [[Alcaeus of Mytilene|Alcaeus]] in the ''Odes'', later broadening his scope for the sake of variation and because his models weren't actually suited to the realities confronting him. Archilochus and Alcaeus were aristocratic Greeks whose poetry had a social and religious function that was immediately intelligible to their audiences but which became a mere artifice or literary motif when transposed to Rome. However, the artifice of the ''Odes'' is also integral to their success, since they could now accommodate a wide range of emotional effects, and the blend of Greek and Roman elements adds a sense of detachment and universality.<ref>J. Griffin, ''Gods and Religion'', 182</ref> Horace proudly claimed to introduce into Latin the spirit and iambic poetry of Archilochus but (unlike Archilochus) without persecuting anyone (''Epistles'' 1.19.23–25). It was no idle boast. His ''Epodes'' were modelled on the verses of the Greek poet, as 'blame poetry', yet he avoided targeting real [[scapegoat]]s. Whereas Archilochus presented himself as a serious and vigorous opponent of wrong-doers, Horace aimed for comic effects and adopted the persona of a weak and ineffectual critic of his times (as symbolized for example in his surrender to the witch Canidia in the final epode).<ref>S. Harrison, ''Lyric and Iambic'', 192</ref> He also claimed to be the first to introduce into Latin the lyrical methods of Alcaeus (''Epistles'' 1.19.32–33) and he actually was the first Latin poet to make consistent use of Alcaic meters and themes: love, politics and the [[symposium]]. He imitated other Greek lyric poets as well, employing a 'motto' technique, beginning each ode with some reference to a Greek original and then diverging from it.<ref>S. Harrison, ''Lyric and Iambic'', 194–96</ref>

The satirical poet Lucilius was a senator's son who could castigate his peers with impunity. Horace was a mere freedman's son who had to tread carefully.<ref name="E. Fraenkel, Horace, 32, 80">E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', 32, 80</ref> Lucilius was a rugged patriot and a significant voice in Roman self-awareness, endearing himself to his countrymen by his blunt frankness and explicit politics. His work expressed genuine freedom or [[libertas]]. His style included  'metrical vandalism'  and looseness of structure. Horace instead adopted an oblique and ironic style of satire, ridiculing stock characters and anonymous targets. His libertas was the private freedom of a philosophical outlook, not a political or social privilege.<ref>L. Morgan, ''Satire'', 177–78</ref> His ''Satires'' are relatively easy-going in their use of meter (relative to the tight lyric meters of the ''Odes'')<ref>S. Harrison, ''Style and poetic texture'', 271</ref> but formal and highly controlled relative to the poems of Lucilius, whom Horace mocked for his sloppy standards (''Satires'' 1.10.56–61)<ref group="nb">"[Lucilius]...resembles a man whose only concern is to force / something into the framework of six feet, and who gaily produces / two hundred lines before dinner and another two hundred after."{{spaced ndash}}''Satire'' 1.10.59–61 (translated by [[Niall Rudd]], ''The Satires of Horace and Persius'', Penguin Classics 1973, p. 69)</ref>

The ''Epistles'' may be considered among Horace's most innovative works. There was nothing like it in Greek or Roman literature. Occasionally  poems had had some resemblance to letters, including an elegiac poem from [[Solon]] to [[Mimnermus]] and some lyrical poems from [[Pindar]] to [[Hieron of Syracuse]]. Lucilius had composed a satire in the form of a letter, and some epistolary poems were composed by [[Catullus]] and [[Propertius]]. But nobody before Horace had ever composed an entire collection of verse letters,<ref>R. Ferri, ''The Epistles'', pp. 121–22</ref> let alone letters with a focus on philosophical problems. The sophisticated and flexible style that he had developed in his ''Satires'' was adapted to the more serious needs of this new genre.<ref>E. Fraenkel, ''Horace'', p. 309</ref> Such refinement of style was not unusual for Horace. His craftsmanship as a wordsmith is apparent even in his earliest attempts at this or that kind of poetry, but his handling of each genre tended to improve over time as he adapted it to his own needs.<ref name="E. Fraenkel, Horace, 32, 80"/> Thus for example it is generally agreed that his second book of ''Satires'', where human folly is revealed through dialogue between characters, is superior to the first, where he propounds his ethics in monologues. Nevertheless, the first book includes some of his most popular poems.<ref>V. Kiernan, ''Horace: Poetics and Politics'', 28</ref>

===Themes===
Horace developed a number of inter-related themes throughout his poetic career, including politics, love, philosophy and ethics, his own social role, as well as poetry itself. His ''Epodes'' and ''Satires'' are forms of 'blame poetry' and both have a natural affinity with the moralising and diatribes of [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynicism]]. This often takes the form of allusions to the work and philosophy of [[Bion of Borysthenes]] <ref group="nb">There is one reference to Bion by name in ''Epistles'' 2.2.60, and the clearest allusion to him is in ''Satire'' 1.6, which parallels Bion fragments 1, 2, 16 ''Kindstrand''</ref> but it is as much a literary game as a philosophical alignment. By the time he composed his ''Epistles'', he was a critic of [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynicism]] along with all impractical and "high-falutin" philosophy in general.<ref group="nb">''Epistles'' 1.17 and 1.18.6–8 are critical of the extreme views of [[Diogenes]] and also of social adaptations of Cynic precepts, and yet ''Epistle'' 1.2 could be either Cynic or Stoic in its orientation (J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', p. 177</ref><ref>J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', pp. 165–69, 177</ref> The ''Satires'' also include a strong element of [[Epicureanism]], with frequent allusions to the Epicurean poet [[Lucretius]].<ref group="nb">''Satires'' 1.1.25–26, 74–75, 1.2.111–12, 1.3.76–77, 97–114, 1.5.44, 101–03, 1.6.128–31, 2.2.14–20, 25, 2.6.93–97</ref> So for example the Epicurean sentiment ''[[carpe diem]]'' is the inspiration behind Horace's repeated punning on his own name (''Horatius ~ hora'') in ''Satires'' 2.6.<ref>K. J. Reckford, ''Some studies in Horace's odes on love''</ref> The ''Satires'' also feature some [[Stoicism|Stoic]], [[Peripatetic school|Peripatetic]] and [[Platonic Dialogues|Platonic]] (''Dialogues'') elements. In short, the ''Satires'' present a medley of philosophical programs, dished up in no particular order—a style of argument typical of the [[Satires (Horace)|genre]].<ref>J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', p. 168</ref> The ''Odes'' display a wide range of topics. Over time, he becomes more confident about his political voice.<ref>Santirocco "Unity and Design", Lowrie "Horace's Narrative Odes"</ref> Although he is often thought of as an overly intellectual lover, he is ingenious in representing passion.<ref>Ancona, "Time and the Erotic"</ref> The "Odes" weave various philosophical strands together, with allusions and statements of doctrine present in about a third of the ''Odes'' Books 1–3, ranging from the flippant (1.22, 3.28) to the solemn (2.10, 3.2, 3.3). [[Epicureanism]] is the dominant influence, characterizing about twice as many of these odes as Stoicism. A group of odes combines these two influences in tense relationships, such as ''Odes'' 1.7, praising Stoic virility and devotion to public duty while also advocating private pleasures among friends. While generally favouring the Epicurean lifestyle, the lyric poet is as eclectic as the satiric poet, and in ''Odes'' 2.10 even proposes Aristotle's [[golden mean (philosophy)|golden mean]] as a remedy for Rome's political troubles.<ref>J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', pp. 171–73</ref> Many of Horace's poems also contain much reflection on genre, the lyric tradition, and the function of poetry.<ref>Davis "Polyhymnia" and Lowrie "Horace's Narrative Odes"</ref> ''Odes'' 4, thought to be composed at the emperor's request, takes the themes of the first three books of "Odes" to a new level. This book shows greater poetic confidence after the public performance of his "Carmen saeculare" or "Century hymn" at a public festival orchestrated by Augustus. In it, Horace addresses the emperor Augustus directly with more confidence and proclaims his power to grant poetic immortality to those he praises. It is the least philosophical collection of his verses, excepting the twelfth ode, addressed to the dead Virgil as if he were living. In that ode, the epic poet and the lyric poet are aligned with [[Stoicism]] and [[Epicureanism]] respectively, in a mood of bitter-sweet pathos.<ref>J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', p. 179</ref> The first poem of the ''Epistles'' sets the philosophical tone for the rest of the collection: "So now I put aside both verses and all those other games: What is true and what befits is my care, this my question, this my whole concern." His poetic renunciation of poetry in favour of philosophy is intended to be ambiguous. Ambiguity is the hallmark of the ''Epistles''. It is uncertain if those being addressed by the self-mocking poet-philosopher are being honoured or criticized. Though he emerges as an [[Epicureanism|Epicurean]], it is on the understanding that philosophical preferences, like political and social choices, are a matter of personal taste. Thus he depicts the ups and downs of the philosophical life more realistically than do most philosophers.<ref>J. Moles, ''Philosophy and ethics'', pp. 174–80</ref>

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