Christina Rossetti - Wikipedia Christina Rossetti From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search English poet Christina Rossetti Born Christina Georgina Rossetti (1830-12-05)5 December 1830 London, England Died 29 December 1894(1894-12-29) (aged 64) London, England Occupation Poet Language English Nationality British Literary movement Pre-Raphaelite Parents Gabriele Rossetti Frances Polidori Relatives Dante Gabriel Rossetti (brother) Maria Francesca Rossetti (sister) William Michael Rossetti (brother) Gaetano Polidori (maternal grandfather) John William Polidori (maternal uncle) Christina Georgina Rossetti (5 December 1830 – 29 December 1894) was an English poet who wrote romantic, devotional, and children's poems. "Goblin Market" and "Remember" remain famous. She also wrote the words of two Christmas carols well known in the UK: "In the Bleak Midwinter", later set by Gustav Holst and by Harold Darke, and "Love Came Down at Christmas", also set by Darke and by other composers. She was a sister of the artist and poet Dante Gabriel Rossetti and features in several of his paintings. Contents 1 Early life and education 2 Career 3 Later life 4 Recognition 5 Ancestry 6 Publications 6.1 Poetry collections 6.2 Fiction 6.3 Non-fiction 7 References 7.1 Citations 7.2 Sources 8 External links Early life and education[edit] Christina Rossetti was born in Charlotte Street (now Hallam Street), London, to Gabriele Rossetti, a poet and a political exile from Vasto, Abruzzo, since 1824 and Frances Polidori, the sister of Lord Byron's friend and physician, John William Polidori.[1] She had two brothers and a sister: Dante Gabriel became an influential artist and poet, and William Michael and Maria both became writers.[1] Christina, the youngest, was a lively child. She dictated her first story to her mother before she had learned to write.[2][3] Rossetti was educated at home by her mother and father, who had her study religious works, classics, fairy tales and novels. Rossetti delighted in the works of Keats, Scott, Ann Radcliffe and Matthew Lewis.[4] The influence of the work of Dante Alighieri, Petrarch and other Italian writers filled the home and deeply impacted Rossetti's later writing. Their home was open to visiting Italian scholars, artists and revolutionaries.[3] The family homes in Bloomsbury at 38 and later 50 Charlotte Street were within easy reach of Madam Tussauds, London Zoo and the newly opened Regent's Park, which she visited regularly; in contrast to her parents, Rossetti was very much a London child, and, it seems, a happy one.[3][4] Christina Rossetti, by her brother Dante Gabriel Rossetti In the 1840s, her family faced severe financial difficulties due to the deterioration of her father's physical and mental health. In 1843, he was diagnosed with persistent bronchitis, possibly tuberculosis, and faced losing his sight. He gave up his teaching post at King's College and though he lived another 11 years, he suffered from depression and was never physically well again. Rossetti's mother began teaching to keep the family out of poverty and Maria became a live-in governess, a prospect that Christina Rossetti dreaded. At this time her brother William was working for the Excise Office and Gabriel was at art school, leaving Christina's life at home to become one of increasing isolation.[5] When she was 14, Rossetti suffered a nervous breakdown and left school. Bouts of depression and related illness followed. During this period she, her mother and her sister became absorbed in the Anglo-Catholic movement that developed in the Church of England. Religious devotion came to play a major role in Rossetti's life. In her late teens, Rossetti became engaged to the painter James Collinson, the first of three suitors. He was, like her brothers Dante and William, one of the founding members of the avant-garde artistic group, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (founded 1848).[6] The engagement was broken in 1850 when he reverted to Catholicism. In 1853, when the Rossetti family was in continuing financial difficulties, Christina helped her mother keep a school in Fromefield, Frome, but it was not a success. (A plaque commemorates the house.)[7] In 1854 the pair returned to London, where Christina's father died.[8] Later she became involved with the linguist Charles Cayley, but declined to marry him, also for religious reasons.[6] The third offer came from the painter John Brett, whom she likewise refused.[3] Rossetti sat for several of Dante Gabriel Rossetti's most famous paintings. In 1848, she was the model for the Virgin Mary in his first completed oil painting, The Girlhood of Mary Virgin, and the first work to be inscribed with the initials "PRB", later revealed to signify the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.[9] The following year she modelled for his depiction of the Annunciation, Ecce Ancilla Domini. A line from her poem "Who shall deliver me?" inspired the famous painting by Fernand Khnopff called I lock my door upon myself. In 1849 she became seriously ill again, suffering from depression and sometime around 1857 had a major religious crisis.[3] Career[edit] Illustration for the cover of Christina Rossetti's Goblin Market and Other Poems (1862), by her brother Dante Gabriel Rossetti Rossetti began writing down and dating her poems from 1842, most of which imitated her favoured poets. In 1847 she began experimenting with verse forms such as sonnets, hymns and ballads, while drawing narratives from the Bible, folk tales and the lives of saints. Her early pieces often feature meditations on death and loss, in the Romantic tradition.[4] She published her first two poems ("Death's Chill Between", "Heart's Chill Between") in the Athenaeum in 1848, when she was 18.[10][11] Under the pseudonym "Ellen Alleyne" she contributed to the literary magazine, The Germ, published by the Pre-Raphaelites from January to April 1850 and edited by her brother William.[1] This marked the beginning of her public career.[12] Rossetti's more critical reflections on the artistic movement begun by her brother find expression in her 1856 poem "In the Artist's Studio". Here she reflects on seeing multiple paintings of the same model. For Rossetti, the artist's idealised vision of the model's character begins to overwhelm his work, until "every canvas means/the one same meaning."[13] Dinah Roe, in her introduction to the Penguin Classics collection of Pre-Raphaelite poetry, argues that this critique of her brother and similar male artists is not so much about "the objectification of women" as about "the male artist's self-worship".[14] Rossetti's most famous collection, Goblin Market and Other Poems, appeared in 1862, when she was 31. It received widespread critical praise, establishing her as the foremost female poet of the time. Hopkins, Swinburne and Tennyson lauded her,[12] and with the death of Elizabeth Barrett Browning in 1861 she was hailed as her natural successor.[12] The title poem is one of Rossetti's best known. Although it is ostensibly about two sisters' misadventures with goblins, critics have interpreted the piece in a variety of ways, seeing it as an allegory about temptation and salvation, a commentary on Victorian gender roles and female agency, and a work about erotic desire and social redemption. Rossetti was a volunteer worker from 1859 to 1870 at the St Mary Magdalene house of charity in Highgate, a refuge for former prostitutes, and it is suggested that Goblin Market may have been inspired by the "fallen women" she came to know.[15] There are parallels with Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner in both poems' religious themes of temptation, sin and redemption by vicarious suffering.[16] Swinburne in 1883 dedicated A Century of Roundels to Rossetti, as she adopted his roundel form in a number of poems, for instance in Wife to Husband.[17] She was ambivalent about women's suffrage, but many scholars have found feminist themes in her poetry.[18] She opposed slavery (in the American South), cruelty to animals (in the prevalent practice of animal experimentation), and the exploitation of girls in under-age prostitution.[19] Rossetti maintained a large circle of friends and correspondents, and continued to write and publish for the rest of her life, focusing mainly on devotional writing and children's poetry. In 1892, she wrote The Face of the Deep, a book of devotional prose, and oversaw production of a new and enlarged edition of Sing-Song in 1893.[20] Later life[edit] Song When I am dead, my dearest,   Sing no sad songs for me; Plant thou no roses at my head,   Nor shady cypress tree: Be the green grass above me   With showers and dewdrops wet: And if thou wilt, remember,   And if thou wilt, forget. I shall not see the shadows,   I shall not feel the rain; I shall not hear the nightingale   Sing on as if in pain: And dreaming through the twilight   That doth not rise nor set, Haply I may remember,   And haply may forget. 1862[21] In the later decades of her life, Rossetti suffered from Graves' disease, diagnosed in 1872, suffering a near-fatal attack in the early 1870s.[1][3] In 1893, she developed breast cancer and though the tumour was removed, there was a recurrence in September 1894.[22] She died in Bloomsbury on 29 December 1894 and was buried in Highgate Cemetery.[20][23] The place where she died, in Torrington Square, is marked with a stone tablet.[24] Recognition[edit] Christina Rossetti Feast 27 April[25][26] Although Rossetti's popularity in her lifetime did not approach that of the contemporaneous Elizabeth Barrett Browning, her standing remained strong after her death. Her popularity faded in the early 20th century in the wake of Modernism, although scholars began to explore Freudian themes in her work, such as religious and sexual repression, reaching for personal, biographical interpretations of her poetry.[3] In the 1970s academics began to study her work again, looking beyond the lyrical Romantic sweetness to her mastery of prosody and versification. Feminists held her as symbol of constrained female genius, placed as a leader of 19th-century poets.[1][3] Her writings strongly influenced the work of such writers as Ford Madox Ford, Virginia Woolf, Gerard Manley Hopkins, Elizabeth Jennings, and Philip Larkin. The critic Basil de Selincourt stated that she was "all but our greatest woman poet... incomparably our greatest craftswoman... probably in the first twelve of the masters of English verse."[3][27] The year stood at its equinox, And bluff the North was blowing. A bleat of lambs came from the flocks, Green hardy things were growing. I met a maid with shining locks, Where milky kine were lowing. She wore a kerchief on her neck, Her bare arm showed its dimple. Her apron spread without a speck, Her air was frank and simple. From "The Milking-Maid" poem by Christina Georgina Rossetti[28] Rossetti's Christmas poem "In the Bleak Midwinter" became widely known in the English-speaking world after her death, when it was set as a Christmas carol, first by Gustav Holst and later by Harold Darke.[29] Her poem "Love Came Down at Christmas" (1885) has also been widely arranged as a carol.[30] Rossetti is honoured with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Anglican Church on 27 April.[25][26][31] Up-Hill is an allegorical poem.She compares humanlife with a painful journey. In 1918, John Ireland set eight of her poems from Sing-Song: A Nursery Rhyme Book to music in his song cycle Mother and Child. The title of J. K. Rowling's novel The Cuckoo's Calling is based on a line in Rossetti's poem A Dirge.[32] The poem "Song" was an inspiration for Bear McCreary to write his musical composition When I Am Dead, published in 2015.[33] Two of Rossetti's poems, "Where Sunless Rivers Weep" and "Weeping Willow" were set to music by Barbara Arens in her All Beautiful & Splendid Things: 12 + 1 Piano Songs on Poems by Women (2017, Editions Musica Ferrum). In 2000, as one of the many Millennium projects across the country, a poetry stone was placed in what used to be the grounds of North Hill House in Frome. On one side is an excerpt from her poem, "What Good Shall My Life Do Me": "Love lights the sun: love through the dark/Lights the moon's evanescent arc:/Same Love lights up the glow-worms spark." She wrote of her brief stay in Frome, which had "an abundance of green slopes and gentle declivities: no boldness or grandeur but plenty of peaceful beauty."[34] In 2011, Rossetti was the subject of Radio 4's programme In Our Time.[35][36] Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Christina Rossetti 8. Giuseppe Rossetti 4. Nicola Rossetti 9. Teresa Bosco[37] 2. Gabriele Rossetti 80. Donato Pietro di Cola 40. Giacinto Pietrocola 81. Nella di Santo Buono[38] 20. Domenico Pietrocola 41. Lucrezia De Rosa[38] 10. Pietro Pietrocola 5. Maria Francesca Pietrocola 11. Domenica Miscione[38] 1. Christina Rossetti 12. Agostino Ansano Polidori 6. Gaetano Polidori 13. Teresa Cosci[39] 3. Frances Polidori 14. John Pierce 7. Anna Maria Pierce 15. Mary Pierce The Rossetti Family by Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson) Publications[edit] Poetry collections[edit] Verses. London: Private, 1847.[40] Goblin Market and Other Poems. London: Macmillan, 1862[40] 1876 Author's revised edition The Prince's Progress and Other Poems. London: Macmillan, 1866[40] Goblin Market, The Prince's Progress, and Other Poems. London: Macmillan, 1879 Sing-Song: A Nursery Rhyme Book (1872, 1893)[41] A Pageant and Other Poems (1881) Verses. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1893[40] New Poems. London: Macmillan, 1896[40] The Rossetti Birthday Book. London: Private, 1896[40] The Poetical Works of Christina Georgina Rossetti. Edited by William Michael Rossetti. London: Macmillan, 1904 The Complete Poems of Christina Rossetti. Edited by Rebecca W. Crump. A complete and comprehensive collection, with publication annotation, in three volumes. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1979–1985 Fiction[edit] Commonplace and Other Stories. London: Ellis, 1870[40] Speaking Likenesses. London: Macmillan, 1874.[40] Non-fiction[edit] Called to Be Saints. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1881 "Dante, an English Classic". Churchman's Shilling Magazine and Family Treasury 2 (1867): 200–205 "Dante: The Poet Illustrated out of the Poem". The Century (February 1884): 566–573. The Face of the Deep. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1893 Seek and Find: A Double Series of Short Studies of the Benedicite. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1879 Time Flies: A Reading Diary. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1885 References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b c d e Profile at Poets.org ^ "Author Profile: Christina Rossetti," Literary Worlds, BYU.edu, Web, 19 May 2011. ^ a b c d e f g h i Lindsay Duguid: "Rossetti, Christina Georgina (1830–1894)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford: OUP, 2009. Retrieved 15 October 2018. ^ a b c Packer, Lona Mosk (1963) Christina Rossetti University of California Press, pp. 13–17. ^ Packer, Lona Mosk (1963) Christina Rossetti University of California Press, p. 20. ^ a b Packer, Lona Mosk (1963) Christina Rossetti University of California Press, p. 29. ^ "Plaques". 16 June 2016. Retrieved 2 June 2019. ^ "Christina Rossetti | English poet". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2 June 2019. ^ Tate Gallery ^ "Christina Rossetti (1830–1894)," eNotes.com, Web, 19 May 2011. ^ Jan Marsh, Christina Rossetti and the Pre–Raphaelite Brotherhood Archived 30 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine ^ a b c The Cambridge Companion to English Poets (2011), Claude Rawson, Cambridge University Press, pp. 424–429. ^ Roe, Dinah (2010). The Pre-Raphaelites: From Rossetti to Ruskin. Penguin Classics. p. 182. ^ Roe, Dinah (2010). The Pre-Raphaelites: From Rossetti to Ruskin. Penguin Classics. p. xxvii. ^ Lona Mosk Packer, (1963), Christina Rossetti, University of California Press, p. 155. ^ Constance W. Hassett, (2005), Christina Rossetti: the patience of style, University of Virginia Press, p. 15. ^ Christina Rossetti, The Complete Poems, Penguin Books, London, 2001 ISBN 9780140423662. ^ Pieter Liebregts and Wim Tigges, eds. (1996) Beauty and the Beast: Christina Rossetti. Rodopi Press, p. 43. ^ Hoxie Neale Fairchild (1939), Religious Trends in English Poetry, Vol. 4, Columbia University Press. ^ a b Antony H. Harrison (2004), The Letters of Christina Rossetti Volume 4, 1887–1894, University of Virginia Press, ISBN 0-8139-2295-X. ^ The Norton Anthology of Poetry (revised shorter edition), ISBN 0-393-09251-8. ^ "Christina Rossetti (1830–1894) – Find A Grave..." www.findagrave.com. Retrieved 26 December 2017. ^ Wilson, Scott. Resting Places: The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons, 3rd ed.: 2 (Kindle Locations 40725-40726). McFarland & Company, Inc., publishers. Kindle Edition. ^ "Christina Rossetti: London Remembers". londonremembers.com. Retrieved 22 November 2013. ^ a b Exciting Holiness: Collects and Readings for the Festivals and Lesser Festivals of the Calendars of the Church of England, the Church of Ireland, the Scottish Episcopal Church and the Church in Wales. (2003) Brother Tristam, Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd, p. 172 ISBN 9781853114793 ^ a b ChurchofEngland.org, Holy Days calendar ^ TLS, 4 December 1930. ^ A Gallery of English and American Women Famous in Song (1875), J.M. Stoddart & Company, p. 205. ^ BBC article Bleak Midwinter named best carol Thursday, 27 November 2008 ^ Hymns and Carols of Christmas ^ "The Baptismal Ecclesiology of Holy Women, Holy Men: Developments in the Theology of Sainthood in the Episcopal Church" (2012) Dan Joslyn-Siemiatkoski p. 33. ^ Retrieved 9 June 2019. ^ Retrieved 9 June 2019. ^ "Poetry on the Millennium Green". Discover Frome. 29 September 2016. Retrieved 14 August 2019. ^ BBC Radio 4, In our Time, 1 December 2011, Christina Rossetti ^ Retrieved 20 July 2018. ^ "Rossetti family tree". Retrieved 29 June 2018. ^ a b c "Pietrocola family of Vasto". Retrieved 28 June 2018. ^ Manfredi, Marco. "Polidori, Gaetano" (in Italian). Treccani. Retrieved 28 June 2018. ^ a b c d e f g h "Christina Rossetti Bibliography – UK First Edition Books," Bookseller World, Web, 19 May 2011. ^ Sing-Song online edition Sources[edit] Kathleen Jones, Christina Rossetti: Learning Not To Be First David Clifford and Laurence Roussillon, Outsiders Looking In: The Rossettis Then and Now. London: Anthem, 2004 Antony Harrison, Christina Rossetti in Context. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1988 Kathleen Jones, Learning Not to be First: A Biography of Christina Rossetti. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991 Jan Marsh, Introduction, Christina Rossetti, Poems and Prose. London: Everyman, 1994. xvii–xxxiii Jan Marsh, Christina Rossetti: A Writer's Life. New York: Viking, 1994 Maura Ives, Christina Rossetti: A Descriptive Bibliography. New Castle, D.E.: Oak Knoll, 2011 External links[edit] Christina Rossettiat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Christina Rossetti on the British Library's "Discovering Literature" website Poems and poetry at the Poetry Foundation Profile at Poets.org "Christina Rossetti", In our time, BBC Radio 4 (audio, 45 minutes) Rossetti Family Correspondence at the University of Kansas Libraries Online books, and library resources in your library and in other libraries about Christina Rossetti Online books, and library resources in your library and in other libraries by Christina Rossetti Works by Christina Rossetti at Project Gutenberg Open Library Works by or about Christina Rossetti at Internet Archive Works by Christina Rossetti at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Free scores by Christina Rossetti in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki) Christina Rossetti in Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1997) Christina Rossetti Collection. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. v t e Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (paintings) William Holman Hunt John Everett Millais Dante Gabriel Rossetti James Collinson William Michael Rossetti Frederic George Stephens Thomas Woolner Associated artists and figures Lawrence Alma-Tadema George Price Boyce John Brett Ford Madox Brown Lucy Madox Brown Richard Burchett Edward Burne-Jones Georgiana Burne-Jones James Campbell John Collier Charles Allston Collins Frank Cadogan Cowper Evelyn De Morgan Walter Deverell Henry Treffry Dunn William Dyce Henry Holiday Arthur Hughes Edward Robert Hughes Frederic Leighton Robert Braithwaite Martineau Louisa Beresford, Marchioness of Waterford William Morris Alexander Munro Joseph Noel Paton Valentine Cameron Prinsep Christina Rossetti John Ruskin Emma Sandys Frederick Sandys Thomas Seddon Elizabeth Siddal James Smetham Rebecca Solomon Simeon Solomon John Roddam Spencer Stanhope Marie Spartali Stillman John Melhuish Strudwick Algernon Charles Swinburne Henry Wallis John William Waterhouse William Lindsay Windus Some well-known works (period and post-period) Ophelia Christ in the House of His Parents A Converted British Family Sheltering a Christian Missionary from the Persecution of the Druids Ecce Ancilla Domini Mariana The Light of the World Our English Coasts ('Strayed Sheep') The Scapegoat Paolo and Francesca da Rimini The Last of England Work The Awakening Conscience The Hireling Shepherd April Love Found Autumn Leaves Bocca Baciata Oxford Union murals Lady Lilith Roman Widow Mary Magdalene The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple Morgan le Fay Beata Beatrix The Shadow of Death Proserpine A Vision of Fiammetta Pygmalion and the Image series The Beloved Flaming June Cymon and Iphigenia King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid The Day Dream The Golden Stairs Dante and Beatrice Love's Messenger The Magic Circle The Legend of Briar Rose The Lady of Shalott (Waterhouse) The Roses of Heliogabalus Lilith Eos Hope Hylas and the Nymphs Lady Godiva The Love Potion The Lady of Shalott (Hunt) I Am Half-Sick of Shadows, Said the Lady of Shalott Models Elizabeth Siddal Fanny Cornforth Effie Gray Sophy Gray Annie Miller Jane Morris Marie Spartali Stillman Alexa Wilding Maria Zambaco Dorothy Dene Fanny Eaton Ruth Herbert Related The Germ Hogarth Club Morris & Co. Rossetti and His Circle (1922 book) Dante's Inferno (1967 film) The Love School (1975 series) Desperate Romantics (2009 series) Effie Gray (2014 film) v t e Dante Gabriel Rossetti Paintings List of paintings The Girlhood of Mary Virgin Ecce Ancilla Domini Paolo and Francesca da Rimini Bocca Baciata Oxford Union murals Venus Verticordia The Beloved Monna Vanna Monna Rosa Pia de' Tolomei Joan of Arc Kissing the Sword of Deliverance Beata Beatrix Dante's Dream Water Willow Veronica Veronese Roman Widow Lady Lilith La Ghirlandata Proserpine A Sea–Spell The Blessed Damozel A Vision of Fiammetta The Day Dream Mnemosyne Found Drawings Ligeia Siren (1873) Family Elizabeth Siddal (wife) Frances Polidori (mother) Gabriele Rossetti (father) Maria Francesca Rossetti (sister) William Michael Rossetti (brother) Christina Rossetti (sister) Gaetano Polidori (grandfather) Related Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood The Germ Hogarth Club Morris & Co. Tristram and Isoude stained glass panels Great Bookcase Rossetti and His Circle (1922 book) Dante's Inferno (1967 film) The Love School (1975 miniseries) Desperate Romantics (2009 miniseries) Poetry portal Speculative fiction portal Biography portal England portal London portal Authority control BIBSYS: 90113206 BNE: XX967913 BNF: cb12054523g (data) CANTIC: a11109646 CiNii: DA01756738 GND: 118749897 ISNI: 0000 0001 1059 7312 LCCN: n79032213 LNB: 000130375 MBA: 51b77482-6a96-4c3e-850d-6bbd54283716 NDL: 00454739 NKC: jn20010316158 NLA: 36580539 NLG: 259404 NLI: 001789524 NLK: KAC201330742 NTA: 068328850 RERO: 02-A003761986 SELIBR: 211685 SNAC: w6m0460d SUDOC: 027426041 Trove: 381763 VcBA: 495/117547 VIAF: 44318353 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79032213 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christina_Rossetti&oldid=995892716" Categories: 1830 births 1894 deaths Anglo-Catholic poets Anglican saints Burials at Highgate Cemetery Christian hymnwriters English Anglo-Catholics English hymnwriters English people of Italian descent English women poets English fantasy writers People from the London Borough of Camden Polidori-Rossetti family Sonneteers Women of the Victorian era Victorian poets Victorian women writers 19th-century English women writers 19th-century British writers 19th-century British musicians Anglo-Catholic writers British women hymnwriters British people of Italian descent 19th-century women musicians Rossetti family Writers from London Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Italian-language sources (it) EngvarB from October 2013 Use dmy dates from December 2019 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية Asturianu تۆرکجه Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kotava Latina မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 December 2020, at 13:04 (UTC). 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